A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu 9004099050

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BRILL’S JAPANESE STUDIES LIBRARY EDITED BY

K.W. RADTKE

VOLUME 4

A RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU BY

ALEXANDER VOVIN

AU

E.J. BRILL LEIDEN • NEW YORK • KOLN 1993

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources.

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ISSN 0925-6512 ISBN 90 04 09905 0

© Copyright 1993 by E.J. Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in

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PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

For my mother Svetlana

CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................... xi Abbreviations ......................................................................... xii

INTRODUCTION

1 .0. Preliminary remarks ..................................................... 1 2 .0. Sources on Ainu dialects ............................................ 3 2.1. Data on modem dialects ............................................... 4 2.2. Data on “Old Ainu” ........................................................ 5 2.2.1. Japanese sources on “Old Ainu” .............................. 5 2.2.2. Western sources on “Old Ainu” ............................... 5

PARTONE

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY 1 .0 Basis of reconstruction and phonetic notations ...........9 2 .0. Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu consonantism .......... 10 2.1. Labials ........................................................................... 10 2.1.1. Voiceless stop *p ..................................................... 10 2.1.2. Nasal *m ................................................................... 11 2.2. Dentals .......................................................................... 12 2.2.1. Voiceless stop *t ..................................................... 12 2.2.2. Voiced stop *d .......................................................... 16 2.2.3. Nasal *n .................................................................... 19 2.2.4. Voiceless fricative *s ................................................19 2.2.5. Flap *r ...................................................................... 20 2.3. Palatals ......................................................................... 22 2.3.1. Glide *y ............................................................... '....22 2.4. Velars ............................................................................ 24 2.4.1. Voiceless stop *k ..................................................... 24 2.4.2. Voiced stop *g ......................................................... 25 2.5. Laryngeals ................................................................... 29 2.5.1. Voiceless fricative *h ............................................... 29

viii

CONTENTS

2.5.2. Voiced (?) fricative *H ............................................. 30 2.6. Pharyngeals .................................................................. 31 2.6.1. Glottal stop *-q- ....................................................... 31 2.7. Consonant clusters ...................................................... 32 2.7.1. Consonant cluster *hd ............................................. 32 2.7.2. Consonant cluster *pr- ............................................. 34 2.7.3. Consonant cluster *hr- ............................................. 36 2.7.4. Consonant cluster *tr- .............................................. 36 2.7.5. Consonant cluster *-nr- ........................................... 37 2.7.6. Consonant cluster *-m- ........................................... 38 2.7.7. Consonant cluster *-rt- ............................................. 39 2.7.8. Consonant cluster *ty .............................................. 39 2.7.9. Consonant cluster *-tk- ........................................... 40 2.7.10. Consonant cluster *-hk- ........................................ 40 2.7.11. Consonant cluster *-pn- ........................................ 41 2.7.12. Consonant cluster *-ns- ........................................ 41 3 .0. Reconstruction of Pro to-Ainu vocalism ................... 42 3.1. Long vowels ................................................................. 42 3.2. Vowel harmony ? ........................................................ 43 3.3. Back vowels ................................................................. 51 3.3.1. Short vowels ............................................................. 51 3.3.I.I. PA *A...................................................................... 51 3.3.1.2. PA *e........................................................................ 52 3.3.1.3. PA *i ........................................................................53 3.3.I.4. PA *O ..................................................................... 53 3.3.1.5. PA *o ...................................................................... 54 3.3.1.6. PA *u ...................................................................... 55 3.3.2. Long vowels ............................................................. 55 3.3.2.1, PA *AA ..................................................................55 3.3.2.2. PA *00 ..................................................................56 3.3.2.3. PA *uu ................................................................... 56 3.4. Front vowels ................................................................. 57 3.4.1. Short vowels ............................................................. 57 3.4.1.1. PA *a ...................................................................... 57 3.4.1.2. PA *E........................................................................ 58 3.4.I.3. PA *e ...................................................................... 58 3.4.I.4. PA *i ........................................................................59 3.4.I.5. PA *6 ...................................................................... 59 3.4.1.6. PA *U ...................................................................... 60 3.4.2. Long vowels.............................................................. 60 3.4.2.1. PA *aa ..................................................................... 61 3.42.2. PA *EE ................................................................... 61 3.42.3. PA *u ...................................................................... 62

CONltNTS

ix

3.5. Vowel assimilation ....................................................... 62 3.6. Diphthong problem ..................................................... 63 4 .0. Prosodic system .......................................................... 65 4.1. Pitch accent in one-mora words ................................. 68 4.1.1. One-mora tonic class ................................................ 68 4.1.2. One-mora atonic class .............................................. 69 4.2. Pitch accent in two-mora words ................................. 69 4.2.1. Two-mora tonic words .............................................70 4.2.1.1. Two-mora oxytonic class .................................... 70 4.2.1.2. Two-mora high prototonic class .......................... 70 4.2.1.3. Two-mora low prototonic class ..........................71 4.2.2. Two-mora atonic class ........................................... 72 4.3. Pitch accent in three-mora words ............................... 72 4.3.1. Three-mora tonic words ........................................ 73 4.3.1.1. Three-mora oxytonic class ................................. 73 4.3.1.2. Three-mora high prototonic class ........................ 73 4.3.1.3. Three-mora middle prototonic class .................... 74 4.3.1.4. Three-mora low prototonic class ........................ 74 4.3.1.5. Three-mora mesotonic class.................................75 4.3.2. Three-mora atonic class ........................................... 75 4.4. Unclear cases ............................................................... 75

PART TWO

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

*a *A *d *E *g *h

*i., *k *m *n *o *0 *s

..77 ..82 ..82 ..84 ..86 ..91 ..94 ..94 ..98 108 112 119 119 123 129 134

INTRODUCTION 1.0 Preliminary remarks

The Ainu language, almost extinct nowadays, is located on Hokkaido, the northernmost island of the Japanese Archipelago. Several thousands of Ainu still live there, but there are no more than ten or twenty native speakers of this language among them. Only half a century ago there was also an Ainu population in the southern part of Sakhalin, but as a result of the so called “population exchange” between USSR and Japan after World War n, almost all the Sakhalin Ainu were forcibly moved by Soviet authorities from Sakhalin to Hokkaido. Those few Ainu who managed to stay in their homeland had to hide their Ainu origin, at least before officials. The last Ainu-speaking couple on Sakhalin died in 1975, three years before the first (and the last) Soviet linguistic expedition with the purpose to study Ainu lan­ guage arrived there.1 Until the end of the nineteenth century, Ainu also lived on the numerous islands of Kuril archipelago (Russ. Kurily, KurU'skiie ostrova; Jap. Chishima) and in the southern part of Kamchatka.2 About a millennium ago Ainu were also represented in the northernmost part of Honshu, the main Japanese island. Thus, in the past the Ainu inhabited rather a vast territory in the Far East The Ainu language, as well as Ainu themselves, is probably the greatest mystery in the historical linguistics and ethnology of the northern part of the Far East As far as the language is con­ cerned, it is not genetically related to any of the neighboring lan­ guages in the Far East or Siberia and it is still defined as an iso­ lated language. Nevertheless, several attempts were made to 1 Personal communication from Prof. V.M. Alpatov (Institute of Oriental

Studies, Moscow), who was the organizer of that expedition. 2 It is not absolutely clear, whether by the end of the 19th century Ainu were permanent inhabitants of the southern part of Kamchatka or they were just visiting it from time totime from the nearest Kuril islands. But in the 18th century there definitely was an Ainu population in southern Kamchatka.

X

CONTENTS

*t ............................................................................................. 142 *u............................................................................................... 151 ♦ii ............................................................................................. 153 *y ............................................................................................. 153 PARTin

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

1 .0. Is it possible to solve this problem ? ....................... 155 1.1. Phonological features of Proto-Ainu ...................... 156 1.2. Morphosyntactic features of Proto-Ainu ................ 156 1.3. Lexical features of Proto-Ainu ................................. 157 1.4. Where to look for the origins of the Ainu language? 158 2 .0. Nivkh-Ainu parallels ................................................ 158 2.1. Ainu-Nivkh parallels in grammar .............................160 2.2. Ainu-Nivkh parallels in vocabulary.......................... 160 3 .0. The Relationship of Ainu to the Languages of South-East Asia .................................................... 162 3.1. Proto-Ainu and Proto-Austronesian ........................ 163 3.2. Proto-Ainu and Proto-Austroasiatic ........................ 163 Phonetic correspondences between PA and AA ........ 164 3.3. Proto-Ainu and Proto-Miao-Yao............................ 173

Conclusion .............................................................................175 Bibliography ..........................................................................176 Supplement .............................................................................179 Index to Proto-Ainu Vocabulary ........................................211

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book has grown from an article which I wrote in the winter of 1988-1989 in St. Petersburg (formerly Leningrad) and crys­ tallized as a monograph in the summer and fall of 1990 in Ann Arbor. I am largely indebted to the Dean's Office of the College of Literature, Arts & Science of The University of Michigan for the Faculty Research Support Fund and to the Office of VicePresident for Research for the Publication Subvention Fund. Without them this book would never be prepared and published. Among many people with whom this work was discussed as a whole or partially I want to express special gratitude to Robert Austerlitz, who read two draft versions from as early as summer of 1989 and made many helpful comments and suggestions. I am also very grateful to Gerard Diffloth, Thomas E. Toon, Irina T. Zograf, Georgii A. Zograf, Sergei E. lakhontov, Peter E. Hook, William H. Baxter, David Solnit, J. Ross P. King, John B. Whitman, and S. Robert Ramsey who helped me through their suggestions and advice at the various stages of my work. I started my research in Russia and finished it in the USA. This situation gave me the unique possibility to work with two absolutely different types of sources, both necessary for the work of this kind. On the one hand, there were old Russian and Japanese manuscripts on the Ainu language in the Archives of the USSR Academy of Sciences and Institute of Oriental Studies, Leningrad Branch, and on the other hand, there was the excellent collection of modern research publications in the Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library at The University of Michigan. I also benefited from the publications by such scholars as Hattori Shiro, Robert Austerlitz, Murayama Shichiro, Gdrard Diffloth, Shibatani Masayoshi, Chiri Mashiho, Murasaki Kydko, and others. In conclusion I also want to express my gratitude to my student Patricia M. Welch who was not only careful English language editor but also gave me some helpful suggestions.

ABBREVIATIONS A B BA dial. DO HKD HO HT J KD KK KLAP KT KV MJ MO N NA NAM NES

0 OJ PA PAA PAN PJ PM PMK PMY PT PVM PW RA Russ. SA

Asahigawa Bihoro Dictionary of J. Batchelor dialect Dictionary of M. Dobrotvorskii Hokkaido dialects Horobetsu Dictionary of Hattori Shiro Modem Japanese Kuril materials of M. Dybovski Kuril materials of S. Krasheninnikov J. Klaproth's materials Kuril materials of Torii Ryuzo Kuril materials of I. Voznesenskii Middle Japanese "Moshiogusa" Nayoro Nairo Amur dialect of the Nivkh language Eastern Sakhalin dialect of the Nivkh language Obihiro Old Japanese Proto-Ainu Proto-Austroasiatic Proto-Austronesian Proto-Japanese Proto-Monic Proto-Mon-Khmer Proto-Miao-Yao Proto-Tai Proto-Viet-Muong Proto-Wa Raichiska Russian Sani

ABBREVIATIONS

SAKH SO Y

Sakhalin dialects Soya Yakumo

xiii

2

INTRODUCTION

clarify its genetic relationship. John Batchelor tried to connect Ainu with Japanese on the one hand and Aryan (i.e. IndoEuropean) languages on the other (Batchelor 1938,11-16,2327). Lev Sternberg tied Ainu with Austronesian languages, but mostly on the basis of ethnographical and anthropological data, with the exception of two good etymologies — Ainu ku “I” / PAN * aku “I“; Ainu ape “fire” I PA *apojl*xapoj “fire” (Sternberg 1933, 231), which represent all the linguistic evidence in his article. James Patrie also mentions the “Paleosibeiian hypothesis” of Ainu origin: “The most commonly - accepted hypothesis concerning the affiliation of the Ainu language ties it with Gilyak and Yukagir, languages of neighbouring tribes, into the broad family of Paleosibeiian” (Patrie 1982, 6). First of all, while Gilyak (Nivkh) is, in fact, a neighbouring language, I highly doubt that Yukagir, located on the Kolyma river and in the adjacent tundra region, may be called a neighbouring language of Ainu. Second, to the best of my knowledge, there are no works which contain any systematic comparison of Ainu with Gilyak, except R. Austerlitz's articles (Austerlitz 1976), (Austerlitz (forthcoming)). But these articles do not contain any comparison in the sense of a genetic relationship, not to mention any Ainu-Yukagir comparison. J. Patrie himself presented a hypothesis which claims that Ainu belongs to the “Altaic” language family (Patrie 1982). J. Patrie's work was excellently criticized by John Street (Street 1983). Though little can be added to this criticism, I would like to say a few words about this hypotheses, since in one of the latest works about the Ainu language, Patrie's study is classified as the only serious attempt at external Ainu comparison (Shibatani 1990, 7). L J. Pattie compares contemporary Ainu forms, without any at< ieniptlD reconstruct Proto-Amu. Moreover, he does not even inriicate to what dialect(s) cited forms belong, except in the several cases he cites some form as belonging to the Karafuto (Sakhalin) dialect There are, however, several Sakhalin dialects. 2. The semantics of J. Patrie's comparisons is extremely weak. It is doubtful that the following parallels can convince anybody: Ainu cuk “autumn” « Korean cuk- “to die” (Patrie 1982,8283), or Ainu parlcar “mouth” = OJ FoFo “cheek”, Korean pol “cheek” (Patrie 1982,73). 3. Even worse than J. Patrie's semantics, is his knowledge of Japanese historical grammar. Otherwise he would not compare Amu ram “heart”, “soul” with OJ -ram- presumptive marker

SOURCES ON AINU DIALECTS

3

(Patrie 1982,104), which goes back to *(a)r=am=, that is the form of the probability mood of the verb ar= “to be”. The present work is an expanded and largely corrected version of an earlier reconstruction of the Proto-Amu phonology written in Russian and submitted to the collection of articles “Ainskaia problema” (“The Ainu problem”), being prepared in the Leningrad Section of the Institute of Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, and scheduled to be pub­ lished sometime in 1991 or 1992. The outline of the first version of this reconstruction is published in a short article, also in Russian (Vovin 1989, 18-20). The aim of this work is to provide a reconstruction of Proto-Ainu phonology and vocabulary based on the data of modem dialects and on some old sources on the Ainu language, mostly of Russian and Japanese origin. To the best of my knowledge, no attempt has ever been made to reconstruct the Proto-Ainu phonological system as a whole. There is one short article by Hattori Shiro which concerns mostly reconstruction of the Proto-Ainu accent (Hattori 1967) and an attempt to reconstruct vowel harmony for Ainu by Chiri Mashiho (Chiri 1974/1952). At first glance Ainu dialects may seem too close, and the phonetic correspondences between them too trivial to produce any kind of reconstruction, but in many cases this is far from being true. Thus, Proto-Ainu is quite different from any of the Modem Ainu dialects and so I definitely contest that such a reconstruction of Proto-Ainu must precede any comparison of Ainu with other languages.

2.0. Sources on Ainu dialects During the last thirty years great progress has been made in the investigation of the Ainu language, especially in the field of di­ alectology and in the publishing of some old sources on Ainu. Data on different Ainu dialects are available now that were un­ known to scholars in the beginning of twentieth century, who mostly used the dictionaries of Mikhail Dobrotvorskii (D) (Dobrotvorskii 1875) and J. Batchelor (BA) (Batchelor 1889/1938). The Japanese scholars, Kindaichi Kyosuke, Murayama Shichiro and Asai Tom, published or republished different manuscripts, xylographs and rare old books containing information on the Ainu language of the eighteenth and nine­ teenth centuries. Henceforth, I will call all these materials “Old Ainu” in general.

4

INTRODUCTION

2.1. Data on modern dialects

As for the modern dialects, the main source for my reconstruction was the Ainu language dialect dictionary published by Hattori Shiro (Hattori 1964). This excellent dictionary comprises data on the eight Hokkaido (HKD) dialects: Yakumo (Y), Horobetsu (HO), Saru (SA), Obihiro (O), Bihoro (B), Asahigawa (A), Nayoro (N), and Soya(SO); on one Sakhalin (SAKH) dialect: Raitiska(RA); and on records of the dialect of Kuril island Shumshu made by Japanese scholar Torii Ryuzo in 1899 at the Kuril island Shikotan (KT). I also used M. Swadesh's 200 word list for 19 Ainu dialects, published by Hattori Shiro (Hattori 1960,313-335). Since this list is limited, I mostly used the data of the northernmost SAKH dialect — Nairo (NA) which seems to be crucial for the reconstruction of one Proto-Ainu phoneme. The article by Asai Toru contains data on one more HKD dialect — Chitose (Asai 1974, 67-85), also found within M.Swadesh's 200 word list. Chitose contains no specific reflexes important for reconstruction, so I have not used this data. The Ainu-English dictionary by J. Batchelor (Batchelor 1938/1889) is the largest dictionary of the Ainu language, but it can be used only as an additional source, because it does not indicate the dialect(s) to which a word be­ longs, except for occasional references to the SAKH dialect group. The same is true of M. Dobrotvorskii's “Ainu-Russian dictionary” (Dobrotvorskii 1875). This dictionary is highly eclectic — it contains not only words from SAKH dialects collected by M. Dobrotvorskii personally, but also entries from other sources, such as the Japanese-Ainu dictionary “Moshiogusa” (1793 A.D.). However, it often does not indicate the source of a word nor gives any reference to the SAKH dialect from which the word is elicited. Bronislaw Pilsudskii's “Materials for the study of the Ainu language and folklore” (Pilsudskii 1912) also are used as an additional source in this study.

SOURCES ON AINU DIALECTS

5

22. Data on “Old Ainu” There are two groups of “Old Ainu” materials, those of Japanese origin and those of Western (mostly Russian) origin. The Japanese materials mostly contain data on the HKD and some­ times the SAKH dialects, while the Western materials deal almost exclusively with dialects of the Kuril islands.

22.1. Japanese sources on “Old Ainu” I used four Japanese xylographic and manuscript dictionaries — “Moshiogusa” (MO) (“Seaweeds”, 1793 A.D.), “Ezo go sen” (“Collection of Ezo words”, 1855 A.D.), “Ezo hin'i yakugen” (“Translations of Ezo things”, 1855 A.D.), “Ezo ki” (“Notes on Ezo”, 1869 A.D.) republished by Kindaichi Kyosuke in the se­ ries “Ainugo shiryo sSsho” (“Materials on the Ainu language”) (Kindaichi 1972a, 1972b, 1972c, 1972d). The most useful source among them was certainly the oldest one — “Moshiogusa”, which contains some features not to be found in later sources. Nevertheless, none of these sources shows any extraordinary points which are crucial for reconstruction, so I used them only as additional sources. Ainu words in these dictionaries are written by means of Japanese katakana (“Ezogo sen” also contains katakana and hiragana versions), while Japanese is recorded in handwritten characters with hentaigana. I render katakana transcriptions in Latin capital letters, e.g.: HIDA.

222. Western sources on “Old Ainu" There are three major sources on Kuril Ainu — a short glossary by Stepan P. Krasheninnikov (Krasheninnikov 1738), a glossary by Benedykt Dybovskii (collected by B. Dybovskii in 1879-1883, first published by Ignacy Radlinski in 1912), and a glossary by an unknown author preserved in the I. Voznesenskii collection in the Archives of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Leningrad. The first of them was primarily published in “Opisaniie zemli Kamchatki” (“Description of the land

6

INTRODUCTION

Kamchatka”) by S. P. Krasheninnikov in 1755-1756, and then republished together with another version of the same glossary (preserved in the Archives of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Leningrad — “Vocabularium Latino-Curilice”) by Murayama Shichirb (Murayama 1971). The first version is a Russian-Ainu glossary, and the second, a Latin-Ainu one. B. Dybovskii's glossary is Ainu-Polish-Latin (Radlinski 1912), but it was re­ published by Murayama Shichirb as an Ainu-Japanese vocabu­ lary (Murayama 1971). Both S. P. Krasheninnikov and B. Dybovskii materials are considered to be the records of the speech of Shumshu island informants (Murayama 1971, 77), but the difference between them is too great to consider them the records of the same dialect As for the third glossary, I found it in H’ia Gavrilovich Voznesenskii's collection in the Archivess of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Il’ia G. Voznesenskii was an explorer of Russian America and Kamchatka, who travelled extensively in California, Alaska and Kamchatka. As far as I know, it is unclear whether he himself ever visited the Kuril Islands. Though by origin from a lower-class family, he educated himself to a high level and was able to conduct independent research and collect considerable materials in different spheres of knowledge in the regions he visited. The handwriting in the glossary seems to differ from the handwriting in other manuscripts for which Voznesenskii's authorship is certain. There are too many mistakes in the spelling of Russian words, and numerous words and expressions from non­ standard South Russian dialects. These facts raise doubts about his authorship of this glossary. I surmise that the glossary was probably compiled by one of the Russian Cossack3 officers doing military service on the Kuril Islands. In any event, the glossary has neither the name of the author nor the date of compilation. Its title is “Kurirskiie slova i proch.” (“Kuril words and oth[er]”). It is the richest source for the Kuril Ainu language. It contains more than 1500 words and expressions. What is even more important is that it is older than B. Dybovskii vocabulary by at least forty years, since it is preserved in I. G. Voznesenskii collection and thus cannot have been compiled later than 1843, the last year of I. G. Voznesenskii’s trip to the Far East and Russian America. I regret that I was not able to finish a manuscript copy I had begun to make in Leningrad (I 3 Pre-revolutionary Russian light cavalry, formed from the population of

South Russia and Ukraine regions.

SOURCES ON AINU DIALECTS

7

copied about 1000 words). What is even worse, after my escape to the USA in the spring of 1990, only a portion of my cards containing words copied from this glossary arrived intact through the mail. The rest (more than 300 words) is lost. These three glossaries preserve some interesting features which are important for Proto-Ainu reconstruction; thus they are used in this work as the main sources. As for additional Western sources on Ainu, I used Philipp J. Strahlenberg (Strahlenberg 1730) and Julius Klaproth (Klaproth 1823) (KLAP) materials. Kuril materials are abbreviated in this text as follows: KT: Torii Ryuzo's materials, KK: S. Krasheninnikov's materials, KD: M. Dybovskii's materials and KV: I.G. Voznesenskii's materials.

PARTI

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY 1 .0 Basis of reconstruction and phonetic notations

The reconstruction of Proto-Ainu is based on the common Ainu vocabulary of more than 700 lexical items (see Part II of the pre­ sent work). I consider a word to belong to the common Ainu vo­ cabulary if it is represented in at least three dialects or in two di­ alects provided they were not in contact For HKD, SAKH dialects and Torii Ryuzo materials I pre­ served the transcription used in Hattori Shiro's Ainu dialect dic­ tionary (Hattori 1964) with only one exception: the acute accent mark Hattori Shiro used to denote a syllable with a high pitch has been changed to the capital letter 'H'. Similarly, a syllable with a low pitch is denoted with a capital letter 'L'. The pitch contour of a word is written after each word ( e.g.: takne HL “short”). As for KK, KD and KV, I transliterated the Cyrillic script into the Latin in the following way but with some simplifications (I transliterate both pre-1918 Russian 'i' and 'H1 as T, and both 'e' and a “iat'” as 'e'; I also omit the letter ’’B' at the end of words):

a =a

6 =b

B=V

r=g

r =G

4 =d> i, H = i M =m c =s =c H =y

e=ie i=i H =n T =t w = ch b = '

e = io H “j 0=0 y = u in = sh 3 =e

X = zh K =k n=p $=f nj « shch K) = iu

3 =z 21 = 1 p =r X = kh li = " si = ia

My reconstruction of Proto-Ainu is rendered in the same tran­ scription as the HKD and SAKH dialects, but with several addi­ tional signs: [d] denotes voiced dental stop, [g] — voiced velar stop, [E] denotes a vowel more open than the corresponding [e],

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINUPHONCXjOGY

10

and [O] denotes a vowel more open than [o]. [A], [i] and [e] represent non-front vowels corresponding to front vowels [a], [i] and [E]; [d] and [ii] denote front rounded vowels. [H] and [h] represent laryngeal fricatives of two different types. Initial glottal stop is not transcribed, because it is automatic. Medially, glottal stop is rendered by [q] in the samples in words from modem Ainu examples and in the reconstructions. 2 .0. Reconstruction ofProto-Ainu consonantism

I reconstruct the following system of consonants for Proto-Ainu (PA): Pt d m n s

k g

(q) h (H)

y

2.1. Labials 2.1.1. Voiceless stop *p

between diatos PA YHO SA OBAN SO RA

KT

*p p

p/-b- p/-b- p/-b- p/-b-

p

PPPPPP p,-h

KK

KD

KV

In the RA dialect final [-p] as well as the other stops shifted to [-h]. In intervocalic position or in the position before a nasal [-p-] can be pronounced as [-b-]. This pronunciation is sometimes reflected as [-b-] in older sources. PA *paa HL “year”, “age” > Y pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; HO pa H “year”, “age”; SA pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; O pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; B pa “year”, “age”; A pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; N pa H “year”, “age”; SO pa H “year”; RA paa “year”, “age”; KD pa; KV mata-pa, sak-pa “year”. PA *pa L “head” > Y pake(=he) LH/LL(H); HO pake(^he) LH/LH(L), pake HL; O pake(=he) LH/LHL; B pake\ A

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

11

pake(=he) HL/LH(L); N pake HL; SO pake LH; KK paop; KD pa; KV pa “head”. PA *pEt “river” > Y pet H; HO pet H; SA pet H; 0 pet H; B pet, A pet H; N pet H; SO pet H; RApe^ “river”. PA ^apE ( Y kapiw LH; HO kapiw LH; 0 kapiw LH; B kapew; A kapiw LH; SO kapiw LH; BA kapiu “seagull”. PA *tOOpEn HLL “sweet” > Y topen HL; HO topen HL; SA topen HL; O topen HL; B topen; A topen HL; N topen HL; SO topen HL; RA o=toopen “sweet”. PA *sEp “to be broad” > Y sep H; HO sep H; SA sep H; O sep H; B sep; A sep H; N sep H; SO o=sep H; RA o^seh, KT seebe “broad”. PA ^trAp L “feather” > Y rap(=u) H/L(H); HO rap(^u) H/L(H); SA rap(=u) H/L(H); O rap(=u) H/L(H); B rap; A rap H; N rap H; SO rap H; RA rah(=puhu); NA tap; KT teku rap; KD unkas=rap “feather”. PA *EtOp LL “hair” > Y etop(=i) LH/LL(H); H otop(=i) LH/LH(L); SA otop(=i) LH/LH(L); O otop(=i) LH/LH(L); B otop(=i); A otop LH; N otop LH; SO otop(=ihi) LH/LH(LL) “hair on the head”; KD iuk otop “reindeer's fur”, otap “fur”.

2.1.2. Nasal *m

This protophoneme is reflected in all dialects as [m]; only KD occasionally has reflex [-mm-] in medial position. PA *maa “to roast” > Y ma H; HO ma H; SA ma H; 0 ma H; B ma; A ma H; N ma H; SO ma H; RA maa; KT ma “to roast”, “to broil”; KD an=ma=n “prepared” (about a dish); KV k=i-ma-wa “I roast [it]” (division into morphemes was done by me), i^ma-sru “to roast [it]” (KV gives the forms with the object pre­ fix i-). PA *mata LL “winter” > Y mata LH, matapa LLH; HO mata, mata=qita LHLL; SA mata LH, mata=pa LHL; 0 mata LH; B mata; A mata LH; N mata LH; SO mata LH; RA mata=yta “winter”; KT mata, matam (matam < mata-am < mata^an “[It] 4 The word peh 'river' is used in RA only in folklore, the usual word for river in this dialect is nay.

12

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

is winter”); KD matan (< mata-an “[It] is winter”); KV mata “winter”. PA *mOyO LH “few”, “little” > Y moyo LH; SA moyo LH; O moyo LH; B moyo; N moyo LH; SO moyo LH; RA moyo “few”, “little”; KK mojogo “little”. PA ^mun “grass” > Y mun H; HO mun H; SA mun H; O mun H; B mun; A mun H; N mun H; SO mun H; RA mun; KT mun; KK mun; KD mun “grass”. PA *Oman LH “to go” (sing.) > Y oman LH; HO oman LH; O oman LH; B oman; A oman LH; N oman LH; SO oman LH; KT oman, omane; KD oman “to go”; KV oman-ien “they go”, ityk=oman “do not go” (imper.). PA *Am=a LH “to put (it)” > Y ama LH; HO ama LH; O ama LH; B ama; A ama LH; N ama LH; SO ama LH; RA ama; KD amma “to put (it)”. PA *kumi LL “mold” > Y kumi(=hi) LH/LL(H); HO kumi LH; SA kumi LH; B kumi; A kumi LH; N kumi LH “mold”. PA *suma LH “stone” > Y suma LH; HO suma LH; SA suma LH; 0 suma LH; B suma; A suma LH; N suma LH; SO suma LH; RA suma; KT shuma “stone”. PA ^kam L “meat” > Y kam(=i) H/L(H); HO kam(=i) H/L(H); SA kam(=i) H/L(H); 0 kam(=i) H/L(H); B kam; A kam H; N kam H; SO kam(=ihi) H/H(LL); RA kam(=ihi); KK kam; KD kam; KV kam “meat”. PA *kEm L “blood” > Y kem(=i) H/L(H); HO kernel) H/L(H); SA kem(=i) H/L(H); 0 kem(=i) H/L(H); B kern; A kern H; N kern H; SO kem(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA kem(=ihi); KT kern; KD kiem; KV kiem “blood”. PA *gum L “sound”, “noise” > Y hum(=i) H/L(H); HO hum(=i) H/L(H); SA hum(=i) H/L(H); 0 hum(=i) H/L(H); B hum(=i); A hum(=i) H/L(H); N hum H; SO hum(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA hum(-ihi); KT hum “sound”, “noise”.

2 2. Dentals

22.1. Voiceless stop *t PA *t

Y HO SA 0 B t t t t t c c c c c

A N SO t t t cc c

RA t,-h c

KT t c

KK t c

KD KV t t c c/_[i]

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

13

I excluded from the PA phonological system modem Ainu [c] because modem Ainu [t] and [c] are in complementary distribution: we have [t] only before [a], [o], [u] and [e], while [c] occurs mainly before [i]. The affricate [c] occurs before other vowels only in a few words which I discuss below: 1) [c] before [e] occurs only in one common Ainu word - cep “fish”. However, comparison of different dialect data allows us to reconstruct protoform *tiqEp LL or *tigEp LL in which ci < *ti: Y ciqep(=i) LH/LL(H); HO ciqep LH, cep H; SA cep H; O cep H; B cep; A cep H; N cep H; SO cep H; RA ceh(-pihi); KT chep; KK sijchip; KD cep, chep “fish”. 2) [c] occurs before [a] in initial position in two common Ainu words: cari LH “to scatter” and casi HL “fence” “fortress”, and in medial position seven times: icaniw LLH “trout”, kucan LH “female bear”, cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”, “to hit (the mark)”, aca (Y LH, other - HL) “uncle”, HKD aca LH /RA aaca “father” and anca “birthmark”, “mole”, kotca “front”, “before”. The word cari “to scatter” (especially seed) (Y cari LH; HO cari LH; SA cari LH; 0 cari LH; B cari; K cari LH; N cari LH; SO cari (accent?); RA i-cariqipirasa) is probably of relatively re­ cent origin, since the scattering of seed definitely cannot be a typical PA cultural procedure, because that culture was non-agricultural. I suppose that this verb goes back to two verbs: o=ciw=e “to throw”, “to drop” and a^rela-ri “to put (plur.)”. Thus, cari < [o]=ciw=[e]=ar=i < *ti[u]ari. The term for “fence”/“fortress” casi is far more interesting. It is generally believed to be a loanword from OJ sasi “fortress” which itself is a borrowing from Ancient Korean (though the Ancient Korean word is unknown, we still have Middle Korean cas “fortress”). Ainu casi is even cited as proof of the point of view that OJ [s] before vowels [a], [u], [o] was in reality a kind of affricate [c] (Whitman 1985,25). At first glance this explana­ tion seems plausible, and [c] in casi can be explained in terms of the phonetics of loanwords, especially if Ainu already had the shift *ti > ci when this word entered the language. Nevertheless, I have one objection of philological nature. OJ sasi or casi is used only in the Nihonshoki (“Annals of Japan”, 720 A.D.) and only in reference to Silla fortresses. There was another native OJ word denoting fortress: kiy (though modem Japanese siro “fortress” already existed in OJ as sir& it did not have the meaning “fortress” at that time). Why would the Ainu borrow a word used only in reference to Silla fortresses and probably never used in spoken language, leaving aside the more

14

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONCX-OGY

widespread Japanese term? I highly doubt that the Nihonshoki was a daily reference book for the Ainu. I assume that the explanation of the initial [c] in the word casi may be quite easy if again we just compare the data from different Ainu dialects: Y casi HL “fortress”; HO casi HL “fence”; SA casi HL “fence”, “fortress”; B casi; A casi (accent?); N casi (accent?); SO casi (accent?); RA cise=caqasi (cise “house”) “fence” (mostly winter fence, dismantled before summer). First of all, the meaning “fortress” is represented only in the southern HKD dialects, while in the dialects from central Hokkaido up to the Sakhalin we find only the meaning “fence”. If the Ainu had borrowed the word and the object this word denotes from OJ, it is hard to believe they dismantled their fortresses prior to summer. I suppose that the original meaning is preserved in the northern dialects, while southern dialects developed the new meaning “fortress” in addition to the old one “fence”, since the cruel wars their ancestors had with the Japanese perhaps necessitated that fences really turn into fortresses. Second, the RA form cise-caqasi is quite peculiar. We have here the correspondence of RA -aqa- to HKD =a=. It is clear that RA form is older, because the shift =aqa= > =a= is quite natural, but the shift from =a= to =aqa- is not. Since the sequence of two similar vowels separated by the glottal stop is extremely unusual for Ainu language, I assume that =aqa= in RA is due to the regressive vowel assimilation (which is quite common in all Ainu dialects except Y) and goes back to the sequence =Vqa=, where V may be any vowel except [a]. Since we have examples like cokay “w” < ciqokay, it is reasonable to suppose that this this vowel is [i]. Thus, I reconstruct PA *tiqasi “fence”. The resemblance of the later form casi of this word to OJ sasUcasi is a matter of a sheer coincidence. There is no similar information for cotca “to shoot (from the bow)”, “to hit (the mark)”, icaniw “trout”, kucan “female bear”, acalaaca “father”, aca “uncle” and anca “birth-mark”, “mole”, kotca “front”, “before”. Since PA had a number of consonant clusters, I suspect that [c] in these words resulted from PA *ty (see 2.7). 3) [c] occurs before [o] in only one common Ainu word - cotca HL “to shoot (from tiie bow)”, “to hit (the mark)”: Y cotca HL; SA cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”, to hit (the mark)”; HO cotca HL; B cotca; A cotca HL; N cotca HL “to hit (the mark)”; SO cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”; RA cohca “to shoot (from the bow)”, to hit (the mark)”. Since this word is the only

RECONSCIRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

15

one with [c] before [o], I also suppose that [c] results from the cluster *ty. 4) [c] occurs before [u] in two common Ainu words: Y cup H; HO cup H; SA cup H; O cup H; B cup; A cup H; N cup H; SO cup H; RA cuh; KT chiup, chup; KK chuppu; KD chup, cup; KV chuppu “the sun”, “the moon”. On the basis of KT chiup, I reconstruct here PA *tiqu(=)p, which may go back to earlier *tigup. The other word is cuk “fall”: Y cuk H; HO cuk H; SA cuk H; O cuk H; B cuk; N cuk H; A cuk H; SO cuk H; RA cukiita; KT chukam (< chuk=an “[It] is fall”); KD chukan “fall”. There is no straight evidence for reconstructing PA *tiquk I *tiguk LL as in the case of cup, so I reconstruct initial *ty< PA *tyuk L“fall”. According to the Swadesh 200-word list (Hattori 1960), there is regularly palatalisation [t] > [c] before [u] in the Samani di­ alect, e.g. tup “two” > cup, etu “nose” > ecu. This is certainly an innovation, because the Samani dialect does not differentiate [t] and [c] before [u]. There are no examples with [c] in final position. Thus, the ex­ treme rarity of [c] in the positions where it is not in complemen­ tary distribution with [t] and the serious limitations in the occur­ rence of this phoneme in medial and final position (there are few examples in medial position and none in word final position) al­ low me to consider this modem Ainu phoneme as a result of a later development and exclude it from PA phonological system. PA *tak=nE HL “short” > Y takne HL; HO takne HL; SA takne HL; 0 takne HL; B takne; A takne HL; N takne HL; SO o-takne LHL; RA o=tahkon; KT takine, takne “short”; KV tak=nep “short” (feminine form of adjective in Russian). PA *tE(=)k L “hand”, “arm” > Y tek(=e) H/L(H); HO tek(=e) H/L(H) “hand”, tem H “both hands”; SA tek(=e) H/L(H) “hand”, tem H “arm” (in compounds); O tek(-e) H/L(H); B tek(=e); A tek(^e) H/L(H); N tek(=e) H/L(H); SO tek(=e) H/L(H); RA teh(=kihi); KT teke; KK tek; KD tek “hand”, “arm”. PA *tOO “day” > Y to H; HO to H; SA to H; 0 to H; B to; A to H; N to H; SO to H; RA too; KK to; KV to “day”. PA *tip L “canoe” > Y cip(=i) H/L(H); HO cip H; O cip H; B cip; A cip H; N cip H; SO cip H; RA cis(=pihi), KT chip; KK chip “canoe”, KD chip “boat”; KV cip “canoe”. PA *gita LH “dog” > Y seta LH; HO seta LH; SA seta LH; 0 seta LH; B sita; A seta LH; N seta LH; SO seta LH; RA seta; KT

16

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

shita, shitai, sheta; KK stapu (< seta^po (Murayama 1971,107) or sita-po); KD sta (< sita); MO HIDA, HETA “dog”. PA ^mata LL “winter” > Y mata LH, matapa LLH; HO mata LH, mataqita LHLL; SA mata LH, matapa LHL; O mata LH; B mata\ A mata LH; N mata LH; SO mata LH; RA matayta; YTmata, matam;KD matan (< mata-an “[It] is winter”), KV mata “winter”. PA *atuy LL “sea” > Y atuy LH; HO atuy LH; SA atuy LH; O atuy LH; B atuy, A atuy LH; N atuy LH; SO atuy LH; RA atuy; KT atuika; KK atujkd; KD atujka; KV atuj=ga “sea”. PA *mat L “woman”, “wife” > Y mat(=ci) H/L(H) “woman”; HO mat(-ci) H/L(H); SA mat(=ci) H/L(H) “woman”, “wife”; O mat(-ci) H/L(H); B mat(-ci); kmat(=ci) “wife”; N mat(-ci) H/L(H) “woman”, “wife”; SO mat(=ci) H/L(H); RA mah(^cihi) “wife”; KT mat; KV mat “woman”, kmadzhi “wife” (ku^maci “my woman”). PA *pEt “river” > Y pet H; HO pet H; SA pet H; O pet H; B per, A pet H; N pet H; SO pet H; RA peh; KT pe't, p^t, pet, pe; KK pier, KD piet “river”. PA *nit L “handle” > Y nit(=u) H/L(H); HO nit H; SA nit H; O nit H, B./uT; A nit H; N nit H; SO nit H; RA nis(=cihi) “handle”; IKDnit “knife”.

2.2.2. Voiced stop *d PA Y *d- r-

HO SA O B r- r- r- r-

A

N SO

r- r- r-

RA NA KT KK KD KV r- t- r- r- r- r-

The reconstruction of this phoneme is based on the special reflex in Nairo (NA) dialect. The data on this dialect are extremely scarce - they are limited by the Swadesh 200-word list published in Hattori Shiro's article (Hattori 1960, 313-335); the same list isuepublished in Asai Toru's article (Asai 1974, 67-85). There are also some short notes on that dialect in Russian (Novikova and Savelieva 1953, 130-133), but they do not exceed the 200 word list with reference to initial [t-] or [r-]. Nairo was the northernmost SAKH dialect and its speakers were located near the estuary of Poronai river. Ainu words with initial [r-] in other dialects correspond to Nairo words with both initial [r-] and [t-]. When Common Ainu [r-] corresponds to NA [r-], I reconstruct PA *r-, but when Common Ainu [r-] corresponds to NA [t-], I reconstruct PA *d-. This last correspondence is not represented

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

17

in medial or final positions. This is natural, since in final position only implosive stops are possible in Ainu. Thus, an earlier convergence *-d x^-t-t probably took place. The lack of differentiation in medial position also seems reasonable, since the shift *-d- > -r- is a typical North East Asia lenition. Russian materials on Nairo dialect also support this point of view: NA [t] corresponding to Common Ainu [r-] becomes [-r-] if it appears in medial position following the addition of some prefixes, e.g.: apa chiraykip tav=ki father seal die=caus. Father killed a seal an=rav=ke I=die=caus. I kill (Novikova and Savelieva 1953,130-131). There is one case where reconstruction of medial *-d- seems highly probable — the causative marker which has the shape =te after consonant stems (except r-final stems which have just =e) and -re after vowel stems, e.g.: e “to eat”, e-re “to cause smbd. to eat”; kar “to make”, kar-e “to cause smbd. to make”; ahup “to enter”, ahup=te “to cause smbd. to enter”. This fact may lead us to the hypothesis that PA *-CdV- > -CtV-, *-rdV> -rv- and PA *-VdV- > -VrV-. The problem with the reconstruction of PA *d- is that within the Swadesh 200-word list there are only eighteen Ainu words having initial [r-].Also, among these eighteen words, four words constitute two pairs derived from the same roots. A third pair also seems to be based on the same root. There is also a strange word containing initial [r-] in all HKD dialects and initial [t-] in all SAKH dialects (HKD retar ISAKH tetar “white”), and two words where NA [t-] corresponds to PA consonant cluster *tr~. So we are left with thirteen words maximum. Among them nine correspond to NA [t-] and four to NA [r-]. The statistics is obviously assymmetric, especially taking into consideration that third suspicious pair is among the last four words. Such a situation contributes to doubts about the reliability of the reconstruction of the PA *d-. Until more NA data is published this point in my reconstruction cannot be definitely proven. But if my supposition is correct, we will be able to find even more PA words with *d- , now hidden under r-, since decisive NA data are lacking. Taking all this into consideration, I, nev­ ertheless, prefer to propose the possibility for PA *dreconstruction for the following words:

18

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

PA *dus L “skin”, “fur” > Y rus(=i) H/L(H); HO rus H; SA rus(=i) H/L(H); O rus(=i) H/L(H) “fur”; B rus(=i) “fur”, “skin”; A rus H; N rus H; SO rus H; RA rus(-ihi) “fur”; NA tus “fur”, “skin”; KT rushi; KD rus “skin”. PA ^dEkut LL “neck” > Y rekut(=ci) LH/ LL(H); HO rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); SA rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); B rekut(=ci); A rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); N rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); SO rekut(=cihi) LH/LH(LL); RA rekuh(=cihi); NA tekuh “neck”. PA *day H “to die” (*day=kE HL “to kill” = “to die” + caus.) > Y ray H; HO ray H; SA ray H; 0 ray H; B ray; A ray H; N ray H; SO ray H; RA ray, NA tay; KT rai “to die”; KK rai “to kill” (lit “to make die”). PA *dEE HL “name” > Y re(=he) H/H(L); HO re(=he) H/H(L); SA re(-he) H/H(L); O re(=he) H/H(L); B re; A rehe HL; N re H; SO re(=he) H/H(L); RA ree; NA tee; KV rie “name”. PA *dEEra HLL “wind” > Y rera HL; HO rera HL; SA rera HL; O rera HL; B rera; A rera HL; N rera HL; SO rera HL; RA reera; NA teera; KT re'ra, reara; KK kieierd (initial [k-] is probably a mistake); KD rer, KV riera “wind”. PA ^du-p L “ice” > HO rup (in compounds; accent ?); N rup H; SO rup H; RA ruh(=pihi); NA tup “ice” (all other HKD dialects and KT have the word konru HL and KV has konro for “ice”, which probably contains the same root For the reconstruction of the accent consider rup-us LH “to freeze”). PA *daarak HLL “smooth”5 > Y rarak HL; HO rarak HL; SA rarak HL; A rarak HL; N rarak HL; SO rarak HL; RA raarahf-k); NA taarak; KD rarak “smooth”. PA *dE= “three” > Y re^p H; HO re^p H; SA re^p H; O re^p H; B re=p; A re=p H; N re=p H; SO re=p H; RA re-h, reh-pis; “NA te=p=pis; KT ree=bichi, re-bichi; KK rie-p “three”; KD re-nich “three persons”. In one case, morphonological variation allows me to recon­ struct final *-d: PA ^ad “to assemble” > Y u=qek=ar=i L-L-H-L, u=qek=ar=pa L-L-H-L; HO u=wek=ar=i L-H-L-L, u-wek=ar=pa L-H-L-L; SA u-wek=ar=pa L-H-L-L; O u=qek-ar-pa L-H-L-L; B u=qek=ar=pa; A u=wek=ar-i L-H-L-L; N u=wek=ar=i L-H-LL; SO u=wek-ar=pa L-H-L-L; RA w=eek=ar=i; KT at, w=ek=ar=i “to assemble”.

5 Cf. Nivx (Gilyak) laqlaq 'id'. The Nivx word is probably a borrowing from one of SAKH Ainu r- dialects.

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

22.3.

19

Nasal *n

The PA *n is reflected as [n] in all Ainu dialects, with the excep­ tion of KV where a reflex [-rm-] sometimes occurs medially: PA ^nAn L “face” > Y nan(=u) H/L(H); HO nan(=u) H/L(H); SA nan(-u) H/L(H); O nan(=u) H/L(H); B nan(=u); A nanu LH; N nanu LH; SO nan(-ul-uhu) H/L(H/HL); RA nan(-uhu) “face”. PA *nii “tree” > Y ni H; HO ni H; SA ni H; O ni H; B ni; A ni H; N ni H; SO ni H; RA nii, KT ni-, KK ni; KD ni; KV nij “tree”. PA *nis H “sky”, “cloud” > Y nis H; HO nis H; SA nis H; O nis H; B nis; A nis H; N nis H; SO nis-koton HLL; RA nis=kuru “sky”, “cloud”; KT nishu “cloud”, nis=aru kando “sky”; KK niss; KD nis-ar, KV nies^or “sky”. PA *kina LH “grass” > Y kina LH; HO kina LH; SA kina LH; O kina LH; B kina; A kina LH; N kina LH; SO hu=kina L=LH; RA kina “grass”; KT kina-pet “dew” (lit. “grass=water”); KD kina=pet “dew”; KV kina=sut “bushes” (sut “bundle” ?). PA *pOqina “stone” > BA poina “stones of a larger size”; KT poina; KK poina; KD pojna; KV pojn, pojnnoj “stone”. PA *sinE=p LH “one” > Y sine-p LH; HO sine=p LH; SA sine=p LH; 0 sine-p LH; B sine-p; A sine=p LH; N sine-p LH; SO sine=p LH; RA sine-h; KT shine-; KK sinie=; KD sini= “one”. PA *mun “grass” > Y mun H; HO mun H; SA mun H; O mun H; B mun; A mun H; N mun H; SO mun H; RA mun; KT mun; KK mun; KD mun “grass”. PA *Oman LH “to go” > Y oman LH; HO oman LH; O oman LH; B oman; A oman LH; N oman LH; SO oman LH; RA oman; KT oman, omane; KD oman “to go”; KV oman-ien “[they] go”; ityk=oman “do not go” (imper.). PA *an “to be”, “to live” (sing.) > Y an H; HO an H; SA an H; 0 an H; B an; k an H; N an H; SO an H; RA an; KT an “to be”, “to live”(sing.); KV an=ua “is”, “there is”.

22.4.

Voiceless fricative *s

PA *s is reflected as [s] in all Ainu dialects: PA *sAr L “tail” > Y sar(=a) H/L(H); HO sar(=a) H/L(H); SA

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

20

sar(=a) H/L(H); O sar(=a) H/L(H); B sar(=a); A sar(-aha) H/L(HL); N sar H; SO sar(-=aha) H/L(HL); RA sarakuhf-pihi) “tail”. PA ^sEp “to be broad” > Y sep H; HO sep H; SA sep H; O sep H; B sep; A sep H; N sep H; SO sep H; RA o-seh; KT seebe “to be broad”. PA *sik L “eye” > Y sik(=i) H/L(H); HO sik(^i) H/L(H); SA sik(=i) H/L(H); O sik(=i) H/L(H); B sik(=i); A sik(=i) H/L(H); N sik(=i) H/L(H); SO sik(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA sis(=kihi); KT shik; KK sik; KD sik; KV sik, arsik “eye”. PA *kisAr LL “ear” > Y kisar(=a) LH/LL(H); HO kisar(=a) LH/LL(H); SA kisar(=a) LH/LH(L); 0 kisar LH/LH(L); B kisarf-a); A kisar LH; N kisar LH; SO kisar LH; RA kisara; KK ksar “ear”; KD ksarvasiki “temple” (< kisar^vasiki “place, where tar joins” (Murayama 1971,103)). PA ^kaasi-qu HHL-L “to help” > Y kasiw HL; HO kasuy LH; SA kasuy LH; O kasuy LH; A kasuy LH; i-kasuy LHL; N u=kasuy LHL; SO i=kasuy=ke LHLL; RA kaasiw, i-kaasw “to help”. PA *usa= LH “different” > Y usa= LH; HO usa= LH; SA usa= LH; A usa^ LH; N usa= LH; RA usa= “different”. PA *mOs L “a fly” > Y mos H; HO mos H; SA mos H; 0 mos H; B mos; A mos H; N mos H; SO mossi LH; RA toomus(-ihi); KD mos; KV mos “a fly”. PA ^pis H “seashore” > Y pis H; HO pis H, pis=ke HL; SA pis H, pis^ke HL; O e-pis-un LHL; B pis, pis-ke; A pis H; N pis H; RA siri=pis=sam “seashore”. PA *as “to stand” (sing.) > Y as H; HO as H; SA as H; O as H; B as; N as H; SO etaras LHL; RA etaras; KT ashee, ash “to stand”; KD assy “to put”, “to stand” (trans.). :223.FJap*r

PA Y *r r

HO SA O B A N

r

rrrrr

SO

RA

r

r,-rV

NA KT KK KD KV r r r r r

As was already mentioned (2.2.2), I reconstruct PA *r- on the basis of the correspondence of NA [r-] to [r-] in the other Ainu dialects: PA *rAm L “soul”, “heart”, “mind” > Y pen-ram(=u) HL/HLL “breast”; HO ram(=u) H/L(H); SA ram(-u) H/L(H); B ram(=u); A ramu LH; N ram H; SO ramuhu LHL; RA ram(=uhu); NA

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

21

ranka; KT iramkarubaru “soul”, “heart”, “mind”; KK ramutur “breast”. PA *ram=or(o) “guts” (Ochiho ramoro; Tarantomari ramoro; Maoka ramoro, NA ramoro (all are SAKH dialects) “guts”, BA ramoro "suet”, “kidneys”) is probably also derived from the PA *ram. PA *ra H “down” (J sita^no kata) > Y ra(=ta) H/H(L); HO ra H; SA ra H; O rata HL; A e-ras LH; SO rawa HL; RA raw, rawta “down”; NA ran “to come down (about the rain)”; KT raatane, ratanne “down”, ra, ran “to come/go down”. PA *rak “to smell” > HO hura=rak=kar HLLL “to smell”; SA rak H “to stink”; Hiratori hura-rap-kar HLLL; Niikappu hura=rak=kar HLLL; RA rah; NA rak; BA rak “to smell”. In one case initial *r- may be reconstructed on the basis of the internal evidence: PA *rAm=rAm H-L “scales” > Y ramram(=u) HL/HL(L); HO ramram HL; SA ramram(-i) HL/HL(L); O ramram HL; B ranram; A ramram( = i) HL/HL(L); N ramram HL; SO ramram(-uhu) HL/HL(LL); RA ramram(=uhu) “scales”. This word obviously represents a reduplication. If the initial r- < *d-, then we should have in modem Ainu something like *rantam (see 2.2.2. about PA *-d- after a consonant). For the other examples PA *r- is reconstructed provisionally since decisive Nairo data are lacking. There is a correspondence of final -r in all Ainu dialects to -rV in RA. In tapes of SA dialect I myself heard a vowel after final -r and following -r- in consonant clusters, e.g.: kor [koro] “to have”, nukar [nukara] “to see”, unarpe [unaraBe] “aunt”. Nevertheless, I view this phenomenon as an innovation accord­ ing to the following facts: 1) In the majority of cases in RA and in all cases in SA, the vowelV” in -V'rV” is identical with V’. 2) Hattori Shiro proposed to view RA -V’rV” forms in compari­ son to the corresponding HKD -V’r as innovations if V’=V”, and as archaisms if VW”. Thus, he reconstructs PA *rar (SA rar, RA rara) “to dive” but PA *raru (SA rar, RA raru) “eyebrow” (Hattori 1967, 210). Nevertheless, if we compare RA raru with data from the other dialects (see below), this RA -u turns out to be a obsolete marker of a possessive form. Thus, since -u does not belong to the root of the word, it must be an innovation.

22

RECONSTRUCTIONOFPROTO-AINUPHONOLOGY

3) As the first consonant in a consonant cluster -r- is easily as­ similated to the following consonant This assimilation would be unlikely if there was a phonological vowel after -r-. PA *Mr L “eyebrow” > Y rarf^u) H/L(H); HO rar(=u) H/L(H); SA rar(-u) H/L(H); O rannuma HLL (< rar-numa “eyebrow hair”); B rannuma; A rar(=u) H/L(H); N rar H; SO rar(=uhu) H/L(HL); RA raru(-hu); KT raru “eyebrow”; KD rar “eyebrows”; KV vi=rar “eyebrow”. PA rakkO HL “sea-otter” > Y rakko HL; SA rakko HL; RA rahko; KT rakko; KK rakku, KD raku “sea-otter”. PA *gura HH “smell” > Y hura HL; HO hura HL; SA hura HL; O hura HL; B hura; A hura HL; N hura HL; SO hura(-ha) LH(L); RA hura; KT hura, fura; KD ur “smell”; KV gurat-va “[it] stinks”. PA ^kEEra HLL “taste” > Y kera(=ha) HL/HL(L); HO kera HL; SA keraf=ha) HL/HL(L); O kera HL; B kera; A kera HL; N kera HL; SO kera HL; RA keera; KT kera “taste”. PA ^turEp LH “sweet potato” > SA turep LH; A turep LH; N turep LH; SO turep LH; KT turep “sweet potato”. PA *prAA- LL “mouth” > Y par(=o) H/L(H); HO par(=o) H/L(H); SA par(=o) H/L(H); 0 car(=o) H/L(H); B caro; A paroho LHL; N caro LH; SO caro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA caru; KT charu; KK char; KD car; KV char “mouth”; cf. also Y pappus H-L; HO pa=pus(=i) H-L/H-L(L),pa=toy(=e) H-L/HL(L); SA pa=toy(=e) H-L/H-L(L); O ca=pus(=i) H-L/H-L(L); B campus; A ca=pus LH; N ca=pus H-L, pappus H-L, pa-toy HL; SO ca-pus=ke(=he) L-H-L/L-H-L(L); RA caapus(=ihi), caatoy(-ehe); KT chaatoi “lip”. PA *ker L “foot-wear” > Y ker(=i) H/L(H); HO ker(=i) H/L(H); SA ker(=i) H/L(H); O ker(=i) H/L(H); B ker(=i); A ker H; N ker H; SO kiro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA kiro; KK far, KD kier “foot-wear”. PA *rir “wave” > Y rir H; HO rir H; SA rir H; N rir H; KD rir “wave”.

23. Palatals

23.1. Glide *y PA Y HO SA 0 B A N SO RA KT KD KV *y y y y y y y y y,-y-/-0- y y y,-y-/-0- y-/0-,-y-

REOONSCTRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

23

Common Ainu [y] occurs only before the vowels [a], [u], [o] and [e]. In initial position before [e], Common Ainu [y] occurs only in one word — ye “to say”, “to tell”. Thus, it may be interpreted in this word as an object prefix i=: PA *i=EE "to say it”. Medially, common Ainu [y] before [e], occurs only in verbs before suffix =e < *=i (e.g., paye “to go” (plur.)), representing a special case due to the lowering of PA *i > e following [y] and [w] (see 3.2). Thus, PA *y may be reconstructed initially only before back vowels and medially before back vowels and [i]. Such distribution allows me to assume that PA *y before front vowels in most cases > 0 (cf. analogical development in Japanese). Common Ainu y= in transitive verbs is not a reflex of PA *y, but is an object prefix i- fused with the stem of a verb, e.g.: yupu LH “to tie” < PA *i=up=u LLH “to tie it”; yoni LH “to draw” < PA *i=on=i LLH “to draw it”; yaka HL “to show” < PA * i=Ak(=)A LHL “to show it”. Common Ainu final -y in some cases is due to the elision of intervocalic consonant in the combination VCi and thus goes back to [i] (see the reconstruction of PA vocalism, 3.6.). PA *yaa “net” > Y ya H; HO ya H; SA ya H; 0 ya H; B ya; A ya H; N ya H; SO ya H; RA yaa; KT ya; KD fa; KV iau=got “net”. PA *ya H “dry land”, “the shore” > Y ya=qoro HLL “shore”, ya=ta HL “on the land”; HO ya H; SA ya H; 0 ya H; B ya “dry land”, “the shore”; A ya-ta HL “riverbank”, e-yas LH “to the bank”; SO ya H; RA ya-qun=siri “dry land”, “the shore”. PA *yuk “reindeer” > Y yuk H; HO yuk, SA yuk H; O yuk H; B yuk', A yuk H; N yuk H; SO yuk H; RA yuh(=pihi)\ KT yuk, KD ink “reindeer”. PA *yup H “elder brother” > Y yup(=i/=o) H/H(L); HO yupi HL; SA yup(=i) H/L(H); O yup(=i) H/L(H); B yupo; A yup H, yuppo HL; N yup H; SO yup(-ihi) H/L(HL); RA yuhpo(=ho) “elder brother”; KK kjupi “big brother” (< ku-yupi “my elder brother”), KD ubu 6; KV obu “brother”. PA *mOyO LH “few” > Y moyo LH; SA moyo LH; O moyo LH; B moyo\ N moyo LH; SO moyo LH; RA moyo “few”; KK mojogo “little”.

$ Murayama Shichiro supposes here the development hupu >

[Murayama

1971, 102]. On the basis of KK form, I suppose that development yupu > upu is more probable.

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RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

PA *kaya LH “sail” > Y kaya LH; SA kaya LH; 0 kaya LH; B kaya; N kaya LH; SO kaya LH; RA kaya; KT kaya; KD kaia “sail”; KV kaine “mast” (cf. BA kayani “mast” (lit “sail-tree”). PA *siyuk HL “male bear” > Y siyuk HL; HO siyuk HL; SA siyuk HL; O siyuk HL; B siyuk; A siyuk HL; N siwk “male bear”. PA *day H “to die” (^day^kE HL “to kill” = “to die” + cans.) > Y ray H; HO ray H; SA ray H; O ray H; B ray; A ray H; N ray H; SO ray H; RA ray; NA tay; KT rai “to die”; KK rai “to kill” (lit. “to make die”). PA *koy L “urine” > Y kuy(-e) H/L(H) “urine”; HO o-kuy-ma LHH “urine”, “to urinate”; SA kuy-wakka HLL “urine”; O o^kuy^ma LHL; A o=koy=ma LHL”to urinate”; N kuy-wakka HLL “urine”; SO o=koy-ma LHL “urine”, “to urinate”; RA on=kuy; KD kuj; KV kuj “urine”. PA *atuy LL “sea” > Y atuy LH; HO atuy LH; SA atuy LH; 0 atuy LH; B atuy LH; A atuy LH; N atuy LH; SO atuy LH; RA atuy; KT atui^ka; KK atuj=kd; KD atujka; KV atuj=ga “sea”.

2.4. Velars 2.4.1. Voiceless stop *k The PA *k is reflected in all Ainu dialects as [k], only in RA -k like the other final stops shifts to -h. This -h under the influence of preceding [i] may in turn shift to -s. PA *kamuy LH “god” (< OJ kamiy or PJ *kamu=i “god”) > Y kamuy LH; HO kamuy LH; SA kamuy LH; O kamuy LH; B ka­ muy; A kamuy LH; N kamuy LH; SO kamuy LH; RA kamuy; KT kamui; KK kamuj; KD kamuj; KV kamuj “god”. PA *kEm L “blood” > Y kernel) H/L(H); HO kem(=i) H/L(H); SA kem(=i) H/L(H); O kem(^i) H/L(H); B kern; A kern H; N kern; SO kem(^ehe) H/L(HL); RA kem(=ihi); KT kern; KD kiem;KN kiem “blood”. PA *kuu LH “bow” > Y ku(=we) H/L(H); HO ku H; SA ku(=hu) H/H(L), ku(=we) H/L(H); B ku; A ku H; N ku H; SO ku H; RA kuu; KT ku; KK ku “bow”; KD ku "muzzle of a gun”; KV chani=ku “bow”. PA *pa[a]=qikar HLL “spring” > Y paykar HL; HO paykar HL; SA paykar HL; O paykar HL; B paykar; A paylair HL; N paykar HL; SO paykar HL; RA paylaira; KT paikaranu; KD pajkaran; KV paj-gar “spring” (related to *paa HL “year”?).

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM:

25

PA * dEkut LL “neck” > Y rekut(=ci) LH/LL(H); HO rekut(=ci) LH/LLH; SA rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); B rekut(=ci)\ A rekut(=ci) LH/LL(H); N rekut(^ci) LH/LL(H); SO rekut(=cihi) LH/LL(H); RA rekuh(=cihi), NA tekuh “neck”. PA *makiri LLH “knife” > Y makiri LLH “big knife”; HO makiri LHL; SA makiri LHL; O makiri LHL “small knife”; B makiri; k makiri LHL; N makiri LHL; SO makiri LHL “knife”; RA pon=makiri “small knife” (pon “small”). PA *sik L “eye” > Y sik(=i) H/L(H); HO sik(=i) H/L(H); SA sik(=i) H/L(H); 0 sik(=i) H/L(H); B sik(=i); A sik(=i) H/L(H); N sik(=i) H/L(H); SO sik(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA sis(=kihi)\ KT shiki', KK sib, KD sit, KV sik, ar=sik “eye”. PA *ma=k H “inside” > Y mak(=ta) H/H(L); HO mak H; SA mak H, mak(-ta) H/H(L); A mak-ta HL; N mak H; SO mak(=ta) H/H(L); RA mah “inside”. PA *pOk L “vulva” > Y pok(=i) H/L(H); HO pok(=i) H/L(H); SA pok(=i) H/L(H); 0 pok(=i) H/L(H); A pokihi LHL; N pok H “vulva”. 2.4.2.

Voiced stop *g

PA Y HO SA 0 B A N SO RA KT KK KD *g h- h- h- h- h-/0- h- h- h- h-/k- h-/k- 0-/-h- 0-/hsssss sss s s s s KV

k-/g-/kh-/0s/____ [i] PA *g is reconstructed on the basis of the reflex k- in KV which is seldom met in RA and KT, and the reflex h- in O and N (also mostly in B and A), which distinguishes PA *g from the PA *h(2.5.1). The reflexes k- and h- of this protophoneme may make reconstruction of PA *kh- more preferable, but the fact we have PA *d parallel to PA *6 breaks the symmetry of the protosystem. This is why I prefer to reconstruct here PA *g. It is not impossible, however, that our PA *t is really while *d is *t. If so, then PA *k may be *k, but *g = *kh, which would imply opposite direction of development among dentals and velars. Nevertheless, since my task so far is to reconstruct PA phonology, that is oppositions in the system, and not the real phonetics of PA speech, PA *t, *d, *k and *g should, for the

26

RECONSTRUCnONOFPROTO-AINUPHONOLOGY

time being, be viewed just as notations for phonological oppositions that existed in PA, but not necessarily as the actual phonemes. In KT, BA, and Sakhalin materials of B. Pilsudski (Pilsudski 1912) and also in some old sources cited by M. Dobrotvorskii (Dobrotvorskii 1875) we may meet initial/- instead of initial hbefore the vowel [u], e.g. KT huralfura “smell”, BA hure/fure “red”, and so on. This /- in the place of h- may be the result of the secondary development as well as an archaic feature indicat­ ing that ancient/->/:-, but was preserved before [u] (cf. the de­ velopment of OJ F- in Modem Japanese: Fa-, Fo-, Fe- > ha-, ho-, he-; Fi- > hi- > gi-; Fu > Fu). Thus, in order to decide whetherf>h or h>f we need some additional information. . . As I already mentioned,/- replaces h- only before [u]. The oniy exception to this rule is represented by Ph. J. Strahlenberg's materials (Strahlenberg 1730/1975) where freplaces h- before vowels other than [u] in two words: faibo ‘‘mother” (Ainu habo) and fotzu “twenty” (Ainu hot). This fact should prove the shift />h. However, it is well known that Strahlenberg himself has never visited South Kamchatka or Kuril islands. Moreover, the orthography of Ainu words in his materials raises suspicion that he used some Japanese materials or sources based on Japanese materials on the Ainu language. Thus, for example, Ph. J. Strahlenberg renders Ainu [t] as [tz], that is [c] - tzuppu “two”, fotzu “twenty” (cf. Common Ainu tup “two”, hot “twenty”) and Ainu -p as [-ppu] - xineppu “one”, tzuppu “two”, leppu “three” (cf. Common Ainu sinep “one”, tup “two”, rep “three”). This orthography indicates • clearly the Japanese rendering of the Ainu language through kana: TUTUFU [cuppu], HOTU [hocu], RETUFU [reppu], since in Modem Japanese [t] > [c] I_ [u] and because Japanese lacks closed syllables. Thus, the transcription of [h] as [f] before [a] and [o] in Strahlenberg's materials is due to the Japanese protograph, perfectly natural because in Japanese tran­ scriptions of the Ainu language, Ainu [h] was rendered by the syllabic signs of the HA-line. Historically the HA-line began with [F-], but by the eighteenth century [F-] > [h-] /__ [a], [o], [e], [i]. Thus, Strahlenberg's materials cannot be evidence for the shift f>h. I believe that in deciding whether f>h or h>f, the crucial role is played by the early Japanese loanwords in Ainu language. If Ainu h PA *pasuy LL > Y pasuy(-e) LH/LL(H); HO pasuy LH; SA pasuy LH; O pasuy LH; B pasuy; A pasuy LH; N pasuy LH; SO pasuy LH “chopsticks”; KT pashui; KK pasuj; KD pasiu; KV pashui “spoon”. MJ Fisaku “ladle” > PA *pisaku LLH ‘rdipper” > Y pisaku LLH; HO pisakko LHL; SA pisakku LHL; O pisaku LHL; B pisaku; N pisaku LHL”dipper”. OJ Fukurwo “bag” > PA *pukuru LLH “bag” > Y pukuru LLH; HO pukuru LHL; SA pukuru LHL; 0 pukuru LHL; B pukuru; N pukuru LHL; RA pukuru “bag”. Thus, h- does not go back to f-. On the contrary,/- before [u] instead of h- is an innovation. PA *g occurs initially before the vowels [a], [u], [o] and [e]. There are no examples of PA *g- before vowel [i]. I suppose that PA *gi > *hi > si [gi] (cf. the analogical development hi > Qi in some Japanese dialects and several Manchu-Tungus languages). Some old Japanese sources on Ainu sometimes preserve old h- before [i], e.g. MO HIDA [hiDa] “dog”, cf. Modem Ainu sita/seta “dog”. Reflexes of PA *g in medial position are not clear. In some cases medial *-g- is preserved as [-h-]: PA *Ogaqu LLH “soup”, “broth” > Y ohaw(=e) LH/LL(H); HO ohaw LH; SA ohaw(=e) LH/LH(L); B owaw; A ohaw LH; N ohaw LH; RA ohaw “soup”, “broth”. PA *agu= LH “to enter” > Y ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu=p LH (plur.); HO ahu^n LH (sing.), ahu=p LH (plur.); SA ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu-p LH (plur.); 0 ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu^p LH (plur.); B aqun; A ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu=p LH (plur.); N ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu=p LH (plur.); SO ahu=n LH; RA ahu=n, ahu—hl=o): KT aune “to enter”. PA *OgOO LHL “to be deep” > Y o=qoho L-LH; HO o=qoho L-HL; SA o=qoho L-HL; O oqo L-H; B oqo; A oho LH; N oho LH; SO oho LH; RA ohoo; KT oo “to be deep”. 7 I would like to note that the most archaic Japanese form *pasui may be reconstructed only on the basis on the Japanese loanword in Ainu, because OJ iy < *Q_i, *ui and OJ yi < *i after [s] already merged into [i] in the oldest written records of the beginning of the VUI c. PJ *ui > OJ iy is regularity reflected in Ainu as -uy, e.g. OJ kamiy < PJ *kamui > PA *kamui > Common Ainu kamuy "god". This word is a Japanese loanword in Ainu and not vice versa, because Ainu borowed the Japanese word in the form of nominative (active?) case in ^i; the base of this word kamu^ is preserved in OJ in certain compounds like kamu=na=dukiy "month without gods".

28

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

PA ^Ogak LH “to be shallow” > Y o^ohak L-LH; HO a=ahak L-HL; SA ohak LH; O ohak LH; A ohak LH; N ohak LH; RA ohah(=k); KT (?) hagiri, hakku “to be shallow”. PA *Oga LH “to be empty” > Y oha LH; HO oha LH; SA oha LH; O oha LH; B oha; A oha LH; N oha LH; SO oha LH; RA oha-=ris=ne “to be empty”. I suppose that in most cases PA *-g- > -0-. Two probable cases of the PA *-g- are reflected in KK as [-kh-]: PA *agi LL “arrow” > Y ay(=e) H/L(H); HO ay(=e) H/L(H); SA ay(=e) H/L(H); O ay H; B ay; A ay H; N ay H; SO ay H; RA ay; KT ai; KK akhi “arrow”. PA *agu LL “tongue” > Y aw(=e) H/L(H); N awehe LHH; SO aw(=ehe) H/LHH; RA aw(=ehe); KT aukh; KK akhu; KD av; BA au “tongue”. Next I consider that the reconstruction of medial PA *-g- is also possible: PA *ihdagu “sulphur” > BA iwau “sulphur”; KV iva=uv “inflammable sulphur”; KLAP iguakh “sulphur”. Neither PA *g nor PA *d occurs in final position, though in one case there is internal evidence which allows me to reconstruct it in this position: PA *ug "to take”, “to receive” (sing.) > Y uk H; HO uk H; SA uk H; O uk H; B uk; A uk H; N uk H; SO uk H; RA uh(=k) “to take”, “to receive”(sing.); compare with: PA *ug=ina H-LL “to take”, “to receive” (plur.) > Y uyna HL; HO uyna HL; SA uyna HL; A uyna HL; N uyna HL; RA uyna “to take”, “to receive” (plur.). Examples of PA *g-: PA *gaqu LL “voice” > Y haw(=e) H/L(H); HO haw(=e) H/L(H); SA haw(=e) H/L(H); 0 haw(=e) H/L(H); B haw(=e), aw(e) ; A haw(=e) H/L(H); N haw(=e) H/L(H); SO haw(=ehe) (accent?); RA haw(-ehe); KT hau; KD av, KV kau “voice”. PA *gEEsE HLL “to breathe” > Y hese HL; HO hese HL; SA hese HL; O hese HL; B hese; A hese HL; N hese HL; SO hese HL; RA heese “to breathe”; KV kiejsi “[he] sighed”, giejsi “[he] sighs”. PA *gaa(=)pO HH(-)L “mother” (*-pO may be a suffix, cf. Y aca^po, SO aca “father”) > Y hapo HL; HO hapo HL; SA hapo HL; O hapo HL; B hapo; A hapo HL; N hapo HL; SO hapo LH “mother”; KT habo “elder sister”; KK aapu; KD aapu, apu “mother”. PA *gAnku HL “navel” > Y hanku(=hu) HL/HL(L); HO hanku HL; SA hanku HL; O hanka-pu HLL; B hanka-puy; A hanko

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

29

HL; N hanku HL; SO hanka HL; RA hanka, hanku; KT kanko “navel”. PA *gita LH “dog” > Y seta LH; HO seta LH; SA seta LH; O sita LH; B sita; A seta LH; N seta LH; SO seta; RA seta; KT shita, shitai, sheta, seta; KK stapu; KD sta; MO HIDA, HEDA “dog”.

2.5.

Laryngeals

25.1. Voiceless fricative *h PA Y HO SA O B A N SO RA KT KK KD KV *h- h- h- h- 0- 0-/h- 0-/h- 0- h- h-/0- h- ? 0-/h- kh-/

KV gPA *h- occurs only initially before all vowels except [i]. The re­ flex of PA *h- before [i] must be the same as reflex of PA *g, with the exception of die dialects which have [0] as a reflex of the PA *h-. Thus, PA *g, *h> s I_____ [i]. The reflex of PA */i- as 0- is regular for two dialects — O and N. In A, reflexes 0- and h- occur with the same frequency. In B the reflex 0- is more typical, but h- also occurs, while in RA, h- is more typical, but 0- occurs sometimes. It is interesting that in many examples PA *h- occurs not in the roots, but in the prefixes *hE=l*hO-, which indicates some direction of movement PA *hO=pun=i L-L-H “to fly”, “to get up” (sing.) > Y hopuni LLH; HO hopuni LHL; SA hopuni LHL “to fly”, “to get up”; 0 opuni LHL; B opuni “to get up”; A opuni LHL; N opuni LHL; SO hopuni LHL “to fly”, “to get up”; RA hopuni “to part”; KT hobuni “to get up”; KD opuni “to get up from the bed”; KV goboni “get up” (imper.), khobone-wa “[she] flew”. PA *h.O=ra-k L-H “to fall” (from hO- + ra “down”, “under” + =k) > Y horak LH; HO horak LH; SA horak LH; 0 orak LH; A orak LH; N orak LH; SO horak LH; RA horah “to fall”. PA *hOku LL “husband” > Y hoku(=hu) LH/LL(H); HO hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); SA hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); 0 oku(=hu) LH/LH(L); B oku(=hu); A hoku LH; N oku LH; SO hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); RA hoku(=hu) “husband”.

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RECONSTRUCnONOFI^OTO-AJMJPHONOLOGY

PA ^hErOki LLH “herring” > Y heroki LLH; HO heroki LHL; SA heroki LHL; 0 eroki LHL; B eroki; A eroki LHL; N eroki LHL; SO heroki LHL; RA herohki; KT heroki “herring”. PA *haram LH “lizard” > Y haram LH; HO haram LH; SA haram LH; B haram; A aram LH; N omarrap LHL(?< aram=ap); SO homarurap LHLL (? < horamurap) “lizard”. 252. Voiced (?) fricative *H PA Y HO SA 0 B A N SO RA KT KK KD KV *H- 0- 0- 0- 0- h- 0- 0- 0- 0- 0- 0? ?

PA *H, PA *h and PA *g occur only before vowels [a], [o], [e], [u]. Before [i] reflexes of PA *H must be the same as reflexes of PA *g and PA *h. I have certain doubts about the existence of this phoneme in PA. It may be that it is a regular prothetic sound in B, taking into consideration that I have only five reliable examples of this phoneme in the Common Ainu vocabulary, and one of them probably a Japanese loanword. PA *Hupsi HL “lacquer” > Y ussi HL; HO ussi HL; SA ussi HL; O usi HL; B hupsi; A ussi HL; N ussi HL; SO ussi HL; RA usi “lacquer”. If this is loanword from Japanese urusi “lacquer”, then h- in B is prothetical. In this case, the correspondence between J -rus- and PA *-ps- is unclear, causing me to propose the possibility of another source for this word. PA *Ham L “claw” > Y am(=i) H/L(H); HO am(=i) H/L(H); SA am(=i) HZL(H); O am(=i) H/L(H); B ham; A am(=ihi) H/L(HL); N am H; SO am(-ihi) H/L(HL); RA am(=ihi) “claw”. It is inter­ esting that in the word *am L “fingernail” there is no h- in B. PA ^Haspa HL “deaf’ > Y aspa HL; HO aspa HL; SA aspa HL; Oispo HL; B haspa; N aspa HL; SO aspa HL “deaf*. PA *Huurar HLL “fog” > Y urar HL; SA urar HL; O urar HL; B hurar; A urar HL; N urar HL; SO urar HL; RA uurara; KT urarube “fog”; KK uurar “clouds”. PA^HEsE HL “to consent to”, “to comply with” > HO ko-qese L-HL; SA ese HL; O ese HL; B hese; A ese HL “to consent to”, “to comply with”. There are also cases of the prothetic h- in some dialects, e.g.: Y omunpe LHL; HO omunpe LHL; SA omonpe LHL; O omunpe LHL; B omonpe; A homonpe LHL; N omonpe LHL;

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

SO omonpe LHL; RA oponpe “[women's] skirt pantaloons”.

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“pants” < J o = monpe

2.6. Pharyngeals 2.6.1. Glottal stop *-^-

A glottal stop is automatic in the beginning of a word in all HKD and RA dialects if the word begins with a vowel. We do not have this evidence for the other dialects. Since it is automatic, I excluded *q- from the reconstructed consonant phonemes. In the medial position [-q-] is preserved sporadically in some dialects when it separates two vowels. The loss of [-q-] leads to the ori­ gin of a diphthong if the second vowel is [u] or [i]. It may also lead to the loss of one of the vowels. It is not clear whether *-qwas an actual phoneme in PA. PA *tiqu(=)p “the sun”, “the moon” > Y cup H; HO cup H; SA cup H; 0 cup H; B cup; A cup H; N cup H; SO cup H; RA cuh; KT chup, chiup; KK chuppu; KD cup, chup; KV chuppu “the sun”, “the moon”. PA *tiqEp LL “fish” > Y ciqep(=i) LH/LL(H), cep H; HO ciqep LH, cep H; SA cep H; O cep H; B cep; A cep H; N cep H; SO cep H; RA ceh(=pihi); KT chep; KK sijchip; KD cep, chep “fish”. PA *iqEE LHL “pus” > Y ye(=he) H/H(L); HO ye H; SA ye H; O iqe LH; B iye; A iqe LH; N iqe(-he) LH/LH(L); SO ye H; RA yee “pus”. PA *tiqu LL “tide” > Y ciw H; SA ciw(=e) H/L(H); B cuy; RA ciw “the tide”; KV tiu “waves”; BA chiu “current of a stream or river”, “wave”, “current in the sea”. PA ^rEqu- LL “to bend (it)” > Y rew-e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); HO rew-e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); SA rew=e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); O rew-e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); B rew-e; A rew-e L-H (sing.), rew-pa HL (plur.); N rew-e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); SO rew-e L-H (sing.), rew=pa}$-L (plur.); RA rew=e (sing.), rew-pa (plur.); KD rievi “to bend (it)”; KV trieuvie “bend”; BA reye “to bend (it)”.

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RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

2.7. Consonant clusters Besides the system of consonants described above I reconstruct for PA twelve consonant clusters. I have not included in this number the PA consonant clusters which have remained intact in all Ainu dialects. Two clusters, *hd and *ty, occur in both initial and medial positions, three clusters, *hr-, *pr- and *tr-, occur only initially and all the other occur only medially. In many cases, medial clusters in Modern Ainu occur at the morpheme boundary. In medial clusters, the first consonant often undergoes assimilation to the second consonant (PA *-tk> -kk-, *-hk- > -kk-, *-pn- > -tn-, *-rn- > -nn-, ^-rt- > -tt-, *rty- > -tc-), but there are also some cases of dissimilation of the first consonant (PA *-nr- > -yr, *-ns- > -ys-). In some cases the original form is still preserved in some dialects and from this point of view, Y is the most archaic dialect — this assimilation seldom occurs in it allowing us to reconstruct the original form on the basis of Y form. However, sometimes other dialects have the original non-assimilated form while Y does not. In other cases, when none of the Ainu dialects preserve the original form of the cluster, we have to rely on the fact that in the Ainu language the rules of the internal sandhi are the same as the rules of external sandhi and reconstruct protoform on this basis.

2.7.1. Consonant cluster *hd Y HO SA 0 B A N SO RA KT KK KD *hd- ww wwwwww w w u-/w-,-Gv

PA

KV v

KLAP -gu-

Without the oldest materials, KK and KLAP, the reconstruction of this cluster would be impossible. Common Ainu [w] seems to be a perfect phoneme at first glance, and since we have PA *t and *d, *k and *g, but lack the voiced counterpart *b to PA *p, [w] may seem a good candidate to fill this gap. However, reconstruction of [w] as causes serious problems even if one ignores KK and KLAP data. First of all, [w] is extremely rare in Common Ainu. It occurs initially in five words, one of which is

RECONSCTRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

33

doubtful, and in medial position in three words, in one case sec­ ond part of a compound in the list of five words mentioned above. Second, the distribution of [w] is quite peculiar — it oc­ curs mostly before [a], once before [e] and once before [o] (this last case is the doubtful one). Final -w in transcriptions of Modem Ainu dialects represents not a consonant, but an offglide in falling diphthongs. On the basis of KK -G- and KLAP -gu-, it would seem rea­ sonable to reconstruct a cluster like hw- or gw-. The existence of such a cluster seems quite unnatural in a system which lacks [w] itself. Thus, we have to look for some sound which existed in PA and could produce the [w] sound in the process of develop­ ment. Let me begin with the following example: PA *hdan= H “ten” > Y wan^pe HL; HO wan^pe HL; SA wan-pe HL; 0 wan-pe HL; A wan=pe HL; N wan=pe HL; SO wan-pe (accent?); RA wan-pe; KT wam=be; KK =uam, -van; KD vam “ten”; KLAP ihguoen “six” (cf. Common Ainu i-wan “six” (lit. “four=ten”). This word has quite a strange morphonology — in the numerals tu-pe=san “eight” (lit. “two=thing=ten”) and sine=pe-san “nine” (lit “one=thing=ten”) [w] is replaced by [s]. Thus, I suspect that it was a kind of dental sound which shifted to [w] after [h]. It probably was not [s] itself since it is vqiceless, so the two other possible candidates are PA *d and *r. The first seems more plausible, since it could undergo spirantisation *d > *^, and the shift *d > w is rather probable. The first consonant *h of this PA cluster *hd- can be easily reconstructed on the basis of KK and KLAP data. PA *hdEn “to be bad” > Y wen H; HO wen H; SA wen H; O wen H; B wen; A wen H; N wen H; SO wen H; RA wen; KT wen “to be bad”; KK siruGen “rain” (lit “weather [is] bad); KD vyn-kamuj “devil”(lit. “bad god”), vyn “bad”; KV vyn=kamuj “devil”. PA *hdak-ka HL “water” > Y wakka HL; HO wakka HL; SA wakka HL; O wakka HL; B wakka; A wakka HL; N wakka HL; SO wakka HL; RA wahka; KT wakka "water”. PA *hdatara LLH “stone”,’’cliff’ > Y watara LLH “stone”; KD vatar “cliff’; BA watara “rock”, “cliff’. PA *hdOO “span of the thumb and first finger” > Y wo H; SA wo H; 0 wo H; 0 wo H; B mowo; A wo H; N wo H; RA woo; BA wowo, wo “span of the thumb and first finger”. This exam­ ple has the strange reflex m- in B. Perhaps it should be excluded from this list

RECONSTRUCTION OF ffiOTO-AINU PHONCXJDGY

34

PA *ihdagu "sulphur” > BA iwau “sulphur”; KV iva=uv “inflammable sulphur”; KLAP iguakh “sulphur”. PA ^kuhda LH “cane”, “walking stick” > Y kuwa LH; HO kuwa(-ha) LH/LH(L); SA kuwa(=ha) LH/LH(L); O kuwa LH; B kuwa; A kuwa LH; N kuwa LH; SO kuwa LH; RA kuwa “cane”, “walking stick”; BA kuwa “cudgel”, “club”, “walking stick” PA *ii=hdan= “six” (lit. “four-ten”) > Y i=wan=pe L-H-L; HO i=wan=pe L-H-L; SA i=wan-pe L-H-L; O i=wan=pe L-H-L; B i=wan=pe; A i=wan=pe L-H-L; N i=wan-pe L-H-L; SO i-wan=pe L-H-L; RA i=wan=pe; KT i=wam=pe; KK ivdn “six”; KD jevampij “six”, ivanini “six persons”; BA iwan=be “six”.

2.7.2. Consonant cluster ^prPA Y HO SA O B A N SO RA KT KK KD KV *pr- p- p- p- c- c- p-/c- c-/p- c- c- ch- ch- c-

chThere are six examples with this cluster. Reflex c- in A occurs only in one of them. In the same way, reflex p- in N occurs only in one word. I suppose that these words in A and N are loan­ words from the other dialects and that we can consider that A is p- dialect and N is a c- dialect. The correspondence p-/c- is a strange one, and can only be a result of a cluster contraction. Since there is no *c in PA, this cluster cannot be *pc. We already know that [c] is a product of the palatalisation of [t] in Ainu. Since the palatalisation of labials can lead to the appearance of dentals and palatals, while the palatalisation of dentals will not cause the appearance of labials, I assume that the reflex c- is a result of palatalisation of p-, and the reflex p- is a result of the simplification of pC- cluster. What was the consonant C in the cluster pC- which could cause palatalisation pC- > c-? Among the five words there is one example which, I think, sheds some light on the nature of this consonant: PA ^prO-k L “under”, “beneath”, “below” (J sitd) > Y corpok(=i) HL(L); HO pok(=i) H/L(H), corpok HL; SA pok(^i) H/L(H), corpok HL; O corpok HL; B corpok; A pok H, corpok HL; N corpok HL; SO corpoke HLL; RA coropoldhi; BA chok, pok “under”, “beneath”, “below”. The word corpok HL probably is an innovation, because, with the exception of Y, it

RECONSCTRUCnONOFPROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

35

duplicates the word pok which occurs only in the p- dialects. I think that corpok might develop by analogy with sirpok “back”, “reverse side” (in SO there is no word sirpok, corpok means “reverse side”, “back” in this dialect as well). BA gives not only pok, but also chok, and taking into consideration that we have no word cok in modem dialects, it is natural to assume that the word corpok replaced cok in those dialects which in nineteenth century had the word cok. We have PA ^ra H “down” (2.2.5), one of the few words where we can reconstruct PA *r- and be certain it does not go back to PA *d-. Comparing this word with *pCOk “under”, “beneath”, “below”, I assume that C-r. It is not quite natural for the flap [r] to cause palatalisation, though it is not impossible, either. I think that there is another possibility. There is no phonological distinction in Ainu between [r] and [1], so some of the speakers freely vary between two sounds, as do a number of Japanese speakers. Thus, it is possible that in this combination [r] sounded like [1] and the development like pl- > py- > c- looks more plausible than pr- > py- > c-. PA *prAA= LL “mouth” > Y par(=o) H/L(H); HO par(=o) H/L(H); SA par(=o) H/L(H); O car(=o) H/L(H); B caro; A paroho LHL; N caro LH; SO caro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA caru; KT charu, charo; KK char, KD car, KV char “mouth”; cf. also Y pappus H-L; HO pa^pus(-i) H-L/H-L(L),pa=toy(=^ H-L/HL(L); SA pa=toy(=e) H-L/H-L(L); 0 ca^pus(=i) H-L/H-L(L); B ca=pus; A ca=pus LH; N ca=pus H-L, pappus H-L, pa=toy HL; SO ca=pus=ke(=he) L-H-L/L-H-L(L); RA caapus(=ihi), caatoy(=ehe); KT chaatoi “lip”. PA ^praak HH “to teach”, “to inform”, “to tell” > Y pak-as=no HLL; HO e=pak=as=nu LHLL; SA e=pak=as=nu LHLL; 0 cak-o^ko HLL; A e-pak^as=nu; N cak-as-nu HLL; SO e-cak=as-nu; RA caak-as=no “to teach”, “to inform”, “to tell”. PA *pran “light”, “thin”, “insipid (colour, taste)” > Y pan H; HO pan H; SA pan H; O can H; B can; A pe=can LH “light”, “thin”, “insipid”; SO can H “sweet”; RA can “light”, “thin”, “insipid”. PA *praa HH “edge” > Y pa-rur=ke HLL; HO pa-rur^ke HI J.; O ca H; B ca; A pa-rur=ke (accent?); N pa^rur^ke (accent?); SO ca=ke HL; RA caa^ruru “edge”. PA *pras “to run” > B cas; RA cas; KT chashi, chase; KD chasi “to run”; KV chash “run”; BA chash, pash “to run”. The word papuslcapus “lip” is probably derived from the word par!car “mouth”.

36

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

2.7.3. Consonant cluster *hrPA Y HO SA O B A N SO RA KT KK KD KV *hr- h- h- h- h- h- h- h- h- y- y-/h- y- y- y-/0-

At first glance, a reconstruction of PA *hy- seems plausible. However, since PA *hi > si, we should expect that PA *hy > 5. The reflexes of this cluster seem to suggest the reconstruction of the cluster *hl~. Since there is no */ in PA, I prefer to reconstruct it as ^hr-. Though we have the reflex [h] in O, B, A and N, I also prefer the reconstruction *hr- and not *gr-, because the development *gr- > *gy- would probably lead to something like palatalisation *gy > *U > c, but not to the split of the consonant constituents of the cluster in different dialects. This cluster occurs only in two examples: PA *hrA= L “leaf’ > Y ham(=u) HO ham(=u) H/L(H); SA ham(-u) H/L(H); O ham(=u) H/L(H); B ham; A ni-ham HL; N ni-ham HL; SO ham H, ni-ham HL; RA yam(-uhu); KT yam; KK ni=iep; KD ni=iam “leaf’, KV ni=iam, iam “leaf of tree”; BA ham “leaf’ (sing.), hap “leaves” (plur.). PA *hrup H “[white] fir”, “coniferous tree” > Y hup(=i) H/H(L); HO hup H; SA hup H; 0 hup H; B hup “white fir”; A hup H “pine”; N hup H; RA ya=yuh( -pihi) “white fir”; KT hup “silver fir”, “white fir”; KV up “fir”.

2.7.4. Consonant cluster *tr*tr-

Y HO SA r- r- r-

KD r-

KV tr-/r-

PA

0

B

A

N SO RA NA

r- r- r- r- r- r-

t-

D KT KK tr-Zr- r- tr-/r-

The reflexes of this cluster are not stable. According to the opin­ ion of M. Dobrotvorskii, [tr] is a variant of the pronunciation of [r] in Sakhalin Ainu (Dobrotvorskii 1875, 60-61). The same opinion was shared by B. Pilsudski (Pilsudski 1912, 8-9). It is not clear whether it is a variant within one dialect, or whether [tr] and [r] are variants in different dialects. In my opinion, one fact probably indicates that [tr] and [r] belong to the different dialects

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

37

— the majority of the words in M. Dobrotvorskii's dictionary have only initial [r-], never [tr-], and only few are written with both [tr-] and [r-]. Those few words which are written with both [tr-] and [r-] also have parallels with [tr-] in two other Kuril di­ alects — KK and KV, though again their reflexes in KK and KV are not consistent: a word may have [tr-] in KK and [r-] in KV and vice versa. Additionally, die variation [tr]/[r] is present within KV proper. What is important is the fact that the words that never have [tr-] variant in D do not have [tr-] in KK or KV. Thus I reconstruct PA *tr- in all cases when a word has [tr-]/[r-] variants in D and is written with [tr-] in at least one Kuril dialect KK or KV. There are no transcriptions with tr- in KT and KD. PA *tr- occurs only in the initial position. PA *truu “road” > Y ru H; HO ru H; SA ru H; O ru H; B ru; A ru H; N ru H; SO ru H; RA ruu; NA tuu; D tru, ru; KT toiru, toiruu; KK ru; KD ru ; KV tojru, tru “road.”; BA ru “road”, “way”, “path”. PA *trAp L “feather” > Y rap(=u) H/L(H) “feather”, “wing”; HO rap(=u) H/L(H); SA rap(=u) H/L(H); O rap(=u) H/L(H); B rap; A rap H; N rap H “feather”; SO rap H “feather”, “wing”; RA rah(=puhu); NA tap; D trap, rap; KT teku rap; KD unkas-rap ; KV trap “feather”; BA rap, rapu “feathers”, “wings”. PA *trEk L “beard” > Y rek(=i) H/L(H); HO rek(=i) H/L(H); SA rek(=i) H/L(H); 0 rek(=i) H/L(H); B rek(=i); A rek(=ihi) H/H(LL); N rek(=e) H/L(H); SO rek(=ehe) H/L(HL); RA reh(=kihi); D triek, riek; KT reki; KK triek:, KD reki; KV riek “beard”; BA rek “whiskers”. PA *trii “to be high” > Y ri H; HO ri H; SA ri H; O ri H; B ri; A ri H; N ri H; SO o=ri L-H; RA o=rii; D tri, ri; KT ri; KK triiva; KD ribi “to be high”; KV trichingi “higher”; BA ri “to be high”.

2.75. Consonant cluster *-nrThere are several sandhi rules in the Ainu language concerning combinations of consonants. The rules of external sandhi in Ainu are isomorphous to the internal rules, provided there is no juncture between two words. I reconstruct PA cluster *-nraccording to the sandhi rule [-n] > [-y] I__ [r-]. It occurs inside the morpheme and at the morpheme boundaries, but only in the medial position.

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RECONSTRUCnONOFPRO^

PA *mOn(=)rE H(-)L “to be late [at night]”, “to come late”, “to be slow” > Y moyre HL; HO moyre HL; SA moyre HL; 0 moyre HL; B moyre; A moyre HL; N moyre HL “to be late [at night]”, “to come late”, “to be slow”; SO moyre HL “to be slow”; RA moyre “to be late [at night]”; BA moire “slow”. PA *Onra HL “to forget (it)” > Y oyra HL; HO oyra HL; SA oyra HL; O oyra HL; B oyra; A oyra HL; N oyra HL; SO oyra HL; RA oyra “to forget (it)”; KV ojra “forget”; BA oira (sing.), oira^pa (plur.) “to forget”. PA *tOn(=)rE H(-)L “to get wet” > Y toy^re H-L; A toy^re HL; RA toy-re “to get wet”. 2.7.6. Consonant cluster *-rn-

I reconstruct PA cluster *-rn- according to the sandhi rule [-r] > [-n] /____ [n-]. It occurs inside the morpheme and at the mor­ pheme boundaries, but only in the medial position. PA *amurnin LHL “[fore]arm” > Y amunnin(=i) LHL/LHL(L) “forearm”; HO amunnin(=i) LHL/LHL(L) “forearm”; SA amunnin(=i) LHL/LHL(L) “arm”; 0 amunnin(=i) LHL/LHL(L) “forearm”; BA amunin “the lower part of the arm”, “the fore­ arm”. PA ^nOrnO HL “flower” > Y nonno HL; HO nonno HL; SA nonno HL; BA nonno, nonnu “flower”. PA *tar=nE H-L “to be long” > Y tan=ne H-L; HO tan=ne H-L; SA tan-ne H-L; O tan=ne H-L; B tan-ne; A tan-ne H-L; N tan-ne H-L; SO o~tan=ne L-H-L; RA o=tan=ne; KT tan-ne, tan '-ne; KD tanin; KV tan=ni, tan-ni=p; BA tanne “to be long”. PA *Or=nE H-L “to be old (of age)” > Y onne HL “to be old”, onne-kur HLL”old person”; HO onne HL, onne-p HL; SA onne HL, onne-p HL; O onne HL, onne-qutar HLLL; B onne, onne-p ; A onne HL, onne aynu utar HL HL LH; N onne HL “to be old”, onne-p HL “old person”; SO onne-kur HLL; RA onne-qutah(-rihi) “old person(s)”; KD oni=p “sea bear”, “fir seal” (lit “old thing”, probably because it has a gray colour); BA onne “old”, “sea bear”, “fir seal”. PA *piir-nE HL-L “male” > Y pin-ne H-L; HO pinene H-L; SA pin=ne H-L; O pin=ne H-L; B pin=ne; A pin=ne H-L; N pin-ne H-L; SO pin=ne H-L; RA piine=h(=pihi); KTpin-ne “male”; KD piniu “he-dog”; KV pinnes-okoigip “ox”, pinniu “he-dog”; BA pinne “male”.

RECONSCIRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

39

2.7.7. Consonant cluster *-rt-

This cluster occurs only in medial position. I reconstruct it ac­ cording to the sandhi rule [~r] > [-t] /____ [t-]. It occurs inside the morpheme and at the morpheme boundaries, but only in the medial position. PA ^sirtOk (*girtOkl*hirtOk ?) HL “elbow” > Y sittok(=i) HL/HL(L); HO sittok(=i) HL/HL(L); SA sittok(=i) HL/HL(L); O sittokew HLL; B sittokkew(-e); A sittoki HLL; N sittok(-i) HL/HL(L); SO sitokkew(=ehe); RA sistoh(=kihi); BA shittok “elbow”. PA *ar(=)tE (*ar=dE ?) H-L “to hang (it)” > HO atte HL; SA atte HL; O atte HL; B atte; A atte HL; N atte HL; SO atte HL; RA ahte; KD aty “to hang (it)”; BA atte “to hang up”, “to suspend”. PA ^gurti HL “old woman”, “grandmother” > Y hutci HL; HO huci HL; SA huci HL; O huci HL; B huci; A huci HL; N huci HL; SO huci HL “old woman”; BA huchi, huji “grandmother”, “old woman”, “female ancestors”.

2.7.8. Consonant cluster *ty This cluster occurs in both initial and medial positions and is re­ constructed when we have common Ainu [c] before the vowels [a], [u] and [o], and at the same time we lack any evidence which would allow reconstruction of PA *tiqV, where V = [a], [u] or [o]. It seems that PA *ty never occurs at the morpheme boundaries. PA ^~tya[qu] “birthmark”, “mole” > SA an=ca H-L (an “to be bom”); RA a=ca, an-ca, an=caw(=ehe) “birthmark”, “mole” (> MJ aza “id.”). PA *tyuk L “fall” > Y cuk H; HO cuk H; SA cuk H “fall”, cuk^ita L-HL “in the fall”; 0 cuk H; B cuk; A cuk H; N cuk H; SO cuk H; RA cuk=iita; KT chuk=am; KD chuk-an; BA chuk, chuk=an “fall”. PA *tyOrtya “to shoot (from the bow)”, “to hit (the mark)” > Y cotca HL; SA cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”, to hit (the mark)”; HO cotca HL; B cotca; A cotca HL; N cotca HL “to hit (the mark)”; SO cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”; RA cohca “to shoot (from the bow)”, to hit (the mark)”; BA chotca (sing.), chotca=pa (plur.) “to shoot and hit”, “to sting”.

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RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

PA *kutyan LH “female bear” > Y kucan LH; HO kucan LH; SA kucan LH; 0 kucan LH; B kucan:, A kucan LH; N kucan LH; RA kucan “female bear”; BA kuchan “she-bear”. PA *aatya LLH “father” > Y acapo LLH; SO aca(=ha) LH/LH(L); RA aaca(=ha) “father”; BA acha “uncle”, “father”, “an old man”. 2.7.9. Consonant cluster *-tk-

This cluster occurs only in medial position. It is usually pre­ served in all Ainu dialects, but in one word it shifted to -kk- in O, B and KV. It may occur inside the morpheme and at the mor­ pheme boundaries. PA *gOt=kE H-L “to lie down” > Y hotke HL; HO hotke HL; SA hotke HL; O hokke HL; B hokke’, A hotke HL; N hotke HL; SO hotke HL; RA hohke “to lie down”; KV khokkie “I lie down”; BA hotke, hokke “to lie down”, “to go to bed”. PA *gOtku HL “to stoop” > Y hotku HL; HO hotku HL; SA hotku HL; O hotku HL “to bend completely”; A hotkuku HLL; N hotku HL “to stoop”; BA hotku “to stoop down”. PA *Ot=kE H-L “to poke (it)” > Y ot^ke H-L; HO ot^ke H-L; SA ot-ke H-L; O ot-ke H-L; B ot-ke\ A ot-ke H-L; N ot-ke H-L “to poke (it)”; KD ot=ki “to strike”; BA otke “to prick”, “to pierce”.

2.7.10. Consonant cluster *-hkPA Y HO SA O B A N SO RA KD *-hk- -kk- -kk- -kk- -kk- -sk- -kk- -kk- -kk- -sk- -sk-

KV

-sk-

This cluster occurs in medial position in one example: PA *ihka HL “to steal” > Y ikka HL; HO ikka HL; SA ikka HL; O ikka HL; B iska; A ikka HL; N ikka HL; SO ikka HL; RA iska; KD iska “to steal”; KV iska-ruj, iska^sta, iska^gur “thief’; BA iska, ikka, e=ikka “to steal”. The reconstruction *-sk- would seem plausible, but cluster -sk­ itself is preserved in all Ainu dialects, e.g.:

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU CONSONANTISM

41

PA *askE HL “hand” > HO aske HL “hand” (in compounds), aske-pet HLL “finger”; SA aske=pet HLL; 0 aske-pet HLL; B aske-pet', A aske=pet HLL; N aske-pet HLL; SO aske-pet HLL; KT ashikibit; KD askipit “finger”; BA ashke “hand”. PA *nOs=ki H-L “middle”, “center” > Y nos^ki H-L; HO nos=ki(=ke) H-L/H-L(L); SA nos=ki(=ke) H-L/H-L(L); O nos-ki(=ke) H-L/H-L(L); B nos=ki(=ke); A nos=ki H-L; N nos-ki H-L; SO nos=ki(-kehe) H-L/H-L(LL); RA nos-ki=ke, nos=ke=ke “middle”, “center”; KD pa=noski “middle of the year”; BA noshki, noshike “middle”. I reconstruct ^-hk- because in RA [h] > [s] / [i][C] or (#], e.g.: RA sis “eye” < *sih (cf. HKD sik “id.”).

2.7.11. Consonant cluster *-pnPA *-pn-

Y HO SA -tn- -tn- -tn-

0 B A N SO -tn- -pn- -pn- -pn- -tn-

RA -hn-

This cluster occurs at the morpheme boundary in only one ex­ ample: PA ^gop-nE H-L “to be narrow” > Y hut=ne H-L; HO hut=ne H-L; SA hut-ne H-L; 0 hut=ne H-L; B hup-ne’, A hup-ne H-L; N hup-ne H-L; SO o=hot=ne L-H-L; RA o=hoh=ne “to be nar­ row”; BA hutne “narrow”. 2.7.12. Consonant cluster *-ns-

This cluster occurs in medial position in two examples. I recon­ struct it according to the sandhi rule [-n] > [-y] /[s-]: PA *kOn=sum H-L “foam”, “bubble” > Y koysum(=i) HL/HL(L); HO koysum HL; SA koysum(=i) HL/HL(L); 0 koysum HL; B koysum:, A koysum HL; N koysum HL; SO koysum HL; RA koysum(=ihi) “foam”, “bubble”; BA koi=shum, shum “foam”; koshum “froth”. PA ^tunsir HL “grave*’ > Y tusir(=i) HL/HL(L); HO tu(y)sir HL; SA tusir HL; O tusir HL; A tusir HL; N tusir HL “grave”.

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RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

3.0. Reconstruction ofProto-Ainu vocalism

I reconstruct for Proto-Ainu the following system of vowels: i (u) CO u e (6) o E (e) O a A The following vowels also may be long: ii, uu, EE, 00, aa, AA. Because the notations of vowels in the sources on Kuril di­ alects are not always reliable, reconstruction of the PA vocalism is based almost exclusively on the data from HKD and SAKH dialects. I reconstruct here only the vocalism of the first syllable — as far as I can judge from preliminary observations, the vocalism in the second syllable does not differ considerably from the vocalism of the first syllable. I put in the parentheses the PA vowels which are reconstructed only in verbal stems. 3.1. Long vowels Hattori Shiro proposed that PA had vowel length and no pitch accent on the basis of the fact that SAKH dialects have vowel length and no phonological pitch accent, while HKD dialects have pitch accent and do not have vowel length (Hattori 1967). I believe that PA had vowel length as well as pitch accent, since there is no complete complementary distribution between these two phenomena in SAKH and HKD. I will discuss this problem at full length in the section dedicated to the reconstruction of PA prosody. For the time being I will just accept Hattori Shiro's point of view that RA (as well as other SAKH dialects) preserved PA long vowels. Nevertheless, it is necessary to note that RA preserved them only in open syllables. In closed sylla­ bles, RA does not differentiate long and short vowels. There are also long vowels in Kuril materials, but they do not always coincide with the RA long vowels (see 4.0). However, when RA data are lacking I reconstruct a long vowel if it is represented in at least two Kuril “dialects”.

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU VOCALISM

43

32. Vowel harmony ?

Another interesting hypothesis about the PA vowel system can be seen in the work of Chiri Mashiho who proposed that PA had had vowel harmony (Chiri 1974/1952) of die following type: 1. a,u 2. o 3. i,e Chiri's hypothesis is based on the presumption that the quality of the vowel in the possessive form of a noun, or in the transitive verb form produced from the intransitive stem, is determined by die vowel of the stem. However, the situation in Ainu resembles the classic type of vowel harmony, as in Turkic, only slighdy, since there are too many exceptions. That is why some linguists are quite sceptical about vowel harmony in PA (Shibatani 1990,15-16). Only a limited number of Ainu nouns have the possessive form. The same is true about the derivation of the transitive form from the intransitive one just by suffixing a vowel to the latter. Let us reanalyze Chiri's examples. For nouns, Chin gives the following statistics concerning the vowel of the stem and next vowel in the possessive ending (Chiri 1974/1952,220): -i -u vowel in the ending -a -e -0 vowel in the stem -a8 12 3 1 17 -i0 1 22 1 0 -u0 7 28 3 0 -e0 14 0 7 8 -o0 4 19 7 0 What attracted my attention here is that the stems containing any vowel but -a-, have in their possessive form vowel -i in the majority of cases. This situation does not remind one of vowel harmony at all. Let us first consider Chiri’s examples when there is any vowel but -a- in the stem, and vowels other than -i in the possessive ending, provided this situation is seen more than two times (i.e., at least comparable with high numbers in the line with -i as a possessive ending). All other cases may be treated as exceptions. Thus, we are left with the following combinations: 1) u-e; 2) e-u\ 3) e-e*, 4) o-o-, 5) u-w, 6) o-e.

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RECONSCIKUCITONOFPROTO-AINUPHONOLOGY

1) u-e. Chiri gives following examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 218-219): 1. ruy “whetstone” - ruy=e “his whetstone”; 2. muy “bundle” - muy=e “his bundle”; 3. suy “hole” - suy=e “his hole”; 4.puy“hole” - puy=e “his hole”; 5. nwy “flame” - nuy=e “his flame”; 6. tuy “middle” - tuy=e “his middle”; 7. kuy “urine” - kuy=e “his urine”. First of all, the last example is not correct, since this word in some dialects has vowel -o-, but not I reconstruct here PA *koy L “urine”(see below, under the reconstruction of PA *o). The third and fourth examples are obviously the same word; the correspondence p : s is unique and some dialects have only word suy, others both suy and puy (Hattori 1964, 274). Thus, we are left only with five examples. Even without reducing the number of examples, it is easy to note that all of them end in -y. Since the phonetic sequence *yi does not exist in Modem Ainu dialects, I can easily explain these forms result from the lowering *i > e, due to phonological condition [i] > [e] /[y]. Thus, we have to exclude the cases with -u- as a stem vowel and -e as an ending vowel and add them to cases with u-L 2) e-u. According to the chart above, there should be seven examples, but in the text of the article Chiri Mashiho gives only one example, which he even points out as unique (Chiri 1974/1952, 218): kep “forehead” - kep=u “his forehead”. Again, this word has the form kip(=utur) in most Ainu dialects. 3) e-e. Chiri gives eight examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 212,219): l.&e “oil” - ke=elke-he “his oil”; 2. “cold” - me=elme=he “his cold”; 3. ye “pus” - ye=he “his pus”; 4. re “name” - re-elre=he “his name”; 5. pe “liquid” - pe=elpe=he “his liquid”; 6. kew “corpse” - kew^e “his corpse”; 7. te£“hand” - tek=e “his hand”; 8. kes “end” - kes-e “his end”. The first five examples have the stems ending in an open syl­ lable. In this case the vowel in the possessive ending automati­ cally repeats the vowel of the stem, with the exception of the case when stem has -i-: pi “seed” - pi=ye “his seed”. In this case we have the rule of *i lowering to [e] after [y], already described in 1). Thus, the automatic repetition of the vowel of the stem has

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU VOCALISM

45

nothing to do with vowel harmony and all words ending in open syllables will be excluded. To the sixth example, we also can apply the rule of *i > e lowering, because there is no phonetic sequence *wi in modem Ainu, and add this example to the cases with e-i. So we are left only with two valid examples which may be viewed as exceptions. 4) o-o. Chiri gives seven examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 212213,219). Five of them end in open syllables and only three are valid: 1. tom “middle” - tom^o “his middle”; 2. kok “son-in-law” - kok-o “his son-in-law”; 3. or “inside part” - or-o “his inside part”. 5) u-u. Chiri gives three examples, all of which are valid (Chiri 1974/1952,218): 1. turn “middle” - tum=u “his middle”; 2. kus “reason” - kus-u “his reason”; 3. tur “dirt” - tur-u “his dirt”. It is easy to note that tom in 4) and turn in 5) are variants of the same word. So we have to exclude it either from 4) or 5). 6) o-e. Chiri gives four examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 219): 1. moy “bay” - moy-e “his bay”; 2. soy “outside part” - soy-e “his outside part”; 3. toy “earth” - toy-e “his earth”; 4. koy “wave” - koy-e “his wave”. All this examples are the result of the lowering *f > e described in 1) and must be added to the cases with o-i. Now let us consider the case with -a- as a stem vowel. In this case according to Chiri we have l)a-a (8 examples); 2) a-e (3 ex­ amples); 3) a-i (12 examples); 4) a-u (17 examples). 1) a-a. Six examples are the words ending in open syllables and only two are valid (Chiri 1974/1952,212-213): 1. sam “side” - sam=a “his side”; 2. sar “tail” - sar^a “his tail”. These should be viewed as exceptions. 2) a-e. Chiri gives following three examples (Chiri 1974/1952,218): 1. haw “voice” - haw=e “his voice”; 2. aw “tongue” - aw=e “his tongue”; 3. maw “wind” - maw-e “his wind”. These examples are also subject to *i > e lowering, since there is no *wi in Modem Ainu. We can add these examples to the cases with a-i. Thus we are left with 15 examples of a-i and 17

46

RBCONSCIRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

examples of a-u. The distinction between these two sets seems to be a real one, valid for PA reconstruction. Let us have a look at the sequences a-o-, i-u; i-e, for each of them Chiri gives only one example: 1) a-o. Chiri gives: par “mouth” - par-o “his mouth” (Chiri 1974/1952, 219). In some dialects (RA, KT), though, we find the form caru which consists from the stem car + obsolete ending of the possessive form -u. Thus, =o as a possessive form is probably a result of recent development. I prefer to add this example to the cases with a-u. 2) i-u. Chiri gives: mim “meat” - mim-u “his meat” (Chiri 1974/1952, 218). The example seems to be valid, but =u also may be explained by the influence of the labial [m]. Since this is the only example, the explanation seems to be plausible. 3) i-e. Chiri gives: ciw “wave” - ciw-e “his wave” (Chiri 1974/1952, 218). This is another case of *i > e lowering after [w], and I add this example to the cases with i-i. Thus, Chiri's statistical chart may reorganised in the following way: -i vowel in the ending -a -0 -u -e vowel in the stem 2 -a0 0 15 18 -i1 0 0 23 0 3/2 -u0 35 0 0 -e2 0 15 0 0 -00 0 23 0 2/3 From this new chart one can see that -i is almost the only pos­ sible vowel in the possessive form ending when the vowel of the stem is any vowel other than -a-. In the case of -a- in the stem, there are two possible vowels in the ending: -u and -i. This situation implies that PA differentiated between two types of [a] — front vowel [a] and back vowel [A]. Words containing PA *a take =i as a form of the possessive ending, while words contain­ ing PA *A take =u. As for the two words with possessive ending =a, I suppose that this -a is a result of recent development and I reconstruct for the stems of these words PA *A. Because we have some unclear examples with u-u and o-o in addition to u-i and o-i, we may try to reconstruct the same dis­ tinction for the vowels [u] and [o]. However, this distinction contradicts one of the language universals — if we have front [ii] and back [u], as well as front [d] and back [o], then back [u] and [o] must occur in the language more frequently than do

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU VOCALISM

47

corresponding front [u] and [5]. In our case we see quite the opposite situation — proposed PA *w and PA *5 will be more frequent than PA *« and PA *o. So, the distinction in the vowels in possessive form is valid only for reconstruction of PA *a and PA *A (see examples below). Since only a limited number of nouns have possessive form, I use notation [a] in the cases when the quality of this vowel is unclear. However, the validity of my proposal for the reconstruction of PA *a and PA *A must be verified by the existence of the same distribution in the verb stems, otherwise the existence of the special PA phoneme preserved only in nouns may seem to some extent doubtful and/or unrealistic. Now let us observe the situation in verbs. Chiri gives the fol­ lowing statistics concerning the vowels in the stem and in the transitive ending (Chiri 1974/1952,210): -i -u -0 vowel in the ending -a -e vowel in the stem -a14 9 9 0 8 -i10 3 3 0 0 -u7 0 1 5 6 9 -e0 9 0 0 4 12 -00 3 0 The situation here seems less clear than in previous chart, so let us again reanalyze Chiri's examples. As in the previous chart, I will consider an example to be valid if it occurs more than two times. 1) a-a. According to the chart there should be nine examples, but Chiri provides only eight (Chiri 1974/1952,207): 1. mak-a “to open”; 2. cak=a “to open”; 3. par=a “to open”; 4. mas-a “to open”; 5. has-a “to open”; 6. yas-a “to tear”; 7: nas-a “to tear”; 8. tas-a “to make smth. intercross”. Examples one and two are the same word with the unique corre­ spondence of m/c. The same is true about the examples 3.-5. and 6.-7. It is not unprobable that examples 1.-5. represent the same word, because -k- and -5- in these words may be the suffixes (especially taking into consideration the same meaning of all these words). Thus, we are left with 3 examples.

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RECONSCIKUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

2) a-i and 3) a-u. These seem to be the real distinctions, I will refer to them later. 4) a-e. Chiri gives the following eight examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 207): l.ray-e “to kill”; 2. hay=e “unnecessary”, “unattainable”; 3. nay=e “to make a mark”; 4. kay=e “to break”; 5. tay=e “to pull”; 6. say-e “to roll”; 7. taw=e “to pull steadily”; 8. caw-e “to untie”. According to the other sources examples 2.-8. lack their in­ transitive counterparts (and Chiri himself does not cite them), only 1. ray=e “to kill” is an obvious derivation from ray “to die”. Thus, it may be that -e in the examples 2.-8. is not a transitive suffix. This seems especially probable in the case of example 2., where the causative meaning is quite dubious. Nevertheless, there is not enough evidence that these examples do not contain transitive suffix and since all of them can be explained as a result of the *i > e lowering after [y] and [w], I add them to the cases with a-i. 5) i-i. Chiri gives ten examples and all of them are valid (Chiri 1974/1952, 208-209). 6) i-u. Chiri gives three examples (Chiri 1974/1952,207): 1. pir-u “to wipe”; 2. sir=u “to rub”; 3. kir-u “to turn”. Again, there is no evidence that -u is a marker of a derived transitive verb. There are no intransitive verbs *kir “to turn” and *sir “to rub oneself’. As for the first example, there are forms piriba and piruba “to wipe” in BA, but according to this dictio­ nary, there is no difference in meaning among them, though BA transcription piri- certainly reflects the form pir. 7) i-e. Chiri gives three examples (Chiri 1974/1952,207): 1. niw=e “to tijiten”; 2. ciw=e “to make stick”; 3. piw-e “to make run”. All the examples are subject to the *i > e lowering after [w], so I can add them to the cases with i-i. Though there is the verb ciw “to stick”, there are no intransitive counterparts *niw and *piw to the examples 1. and 2.

RECONSTRUCTION OFPROTO-AINU VOCALISM

49

8) u-i. All five examples are valid (Chiri 1974/1952, 209). 9) u-u. All seven examples are valid (Chiri 1974/1952, 208). 10) u-e. Chiri gives six examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 207208): 1. nuy-e “to carve”; 2. huy-e “to fix one's eyes on”; 3. suy=e “to shake”, “to wave”; 4. tuy=e “to cut”; 5. ruy-e “to shake”, “to swing”; 6. muy=e “to tie in a bundle”. All these examples are the result of the *i > e lowering after [y], so I add these examples to the cases with u-i. There are no intransitive counterparts *huy, *suy, *ruy. Verbs nuy and tuy according to BA, have the same meaning as nuye and tuye. Muy itself is just a noun “bundle”. 11) e-u. All nine examples are valid (Chiri 1974/1952,208). 12) e-e. Chiri gives nine examples (Chiri 1974/1952, 207208): 1. tey=e “to crush”, “to smash”; 2. rew=e “to bend”; 3. hew-e “to bend”; 4. kew-e “to drive away”, “to rout”; 5. new-e “to delight”, “to enjoy smbd.”; 6. ker-e “to touch”; 7. tem-e “to measure”; 8. per=e “to break”, “to crush”; 9. nen=e “to turn”, “to face”. Only the last four examples are valid. The first five examples are the result of the lowering *i > e after [y] and [w] and should replace the mark 'O' which Chiri has in his chart for the cases with e-i. Concerning the last four examples with e-e, I think that they are due to the assimilation of the ending vowel to the stem vowel (remember also there are two unexplained cases with =e in possessive form of the nouns with -e- in their stems. They probably result from the same process). Again, among these examples there are cases when there are no intransitive counterparts without =e. According to BA, there are forms pereba and peruba “to break”, the last of them is probably just a BA's transcription of perpa. BA also shows causative forms re-re (obviously from rew-) and hewge/hewgere (from hew=). Other verbs do not have intransitive counterparts without =e. 13) o-i. All four examples are valid (Chiri 1974/1952,209). 14) o-e. Chiri gives three examples (Chiri 1974/1952,207):

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RECONSCTRUCnONOFPROTO-AINUPHONOLOGY

1. noy-e “to twist”, “to twine”; 2. moy^e “to move”; 3. poy-e “to mix”. All these examples are due to the *i > e lowering after [y] and I add them to the cases with o-i. The verbs noy=e and poy-e do not have counterparts ^noy and *poy. As for moy, BA gives moymoy with the same meaning “to move”. 15) o-o. All twelve examples are valid (Chiri 1974/1952, 207). Thus, I can rearrange previous Chiri's chart in the following way: -e vowel in the ending -a -i -0 -u vowel in the stem -a3 17 14 0 0 -i0 13 3 0 0 -u1 11 7 0 0 -e0 9 9 0 0 -o0 7 12 0 0 What is surprising in the chart, it is that we have the distinction with the endings =i or =u not only for stems with vowel -a-, but also for the stems with any other vowel. Stems with vowel -o- have a distinction between o-o and o-i instead of a distinction between o-u and o-i. I think this is an innovation that is probably due to the phonetic nature of [o] in Ainu. The phoneme [o] is very often pronounced as an unrounded vowel, rather close to [a], thus prohibiting the following [u] in the ending, and rear­ ranging *o-u to o-o. I also suppose, as in the case with nouns, that sequence a-a is due to the assimilation *a-u > a-a, so the cases with a-a may be added to the cases with a-u making the statistical correspondence between PA *a and PA *A in verbal stems more realistic. If we apply the same method to the distinctions in the vowels following verb stems that we applied to the distinctions in the vowels of possessive endings of nouns, we also should have to reconstruct die distinctions between front and back vowels (more exactly between front and non-front vowels) in the verb stems. From the point of view of the same language universal we previously applied to the noun stems, statistical distinctions between i-i and i-u, on the one hand, and o-i and o-o, on the other, seem to be all right and we can recon­ struct PA *i I PA *i" and PA *5 / PA *o, respectively. The situation is statistically worse with distinctions between u-i and

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU VOCALISM

51

u-u, on the one hand, and e-i and e-u, on the other. However, from the point of view of typology, I do not know a language that has [d], and at the same time does not not have [ii]. The statistics within last two pairs is not so bad as in the case of nouns, so I prefer to reconstruct PA *w / PA *w and PA *E / PA *e respectively. Nevertheless, one puzzle remains unsolved: why is the distinction fully preserved in verbs and only partially in nouns? I do not yet know the answer to this question. Thus, PA *i, *o, and may be reconstructed only with a certain amount of doubt. Another problem is that we can reconstruct these front/back vowel distinctions only in the stems which are closed syllables as well as we can reconstruct vowel length only in open syllables. Thus, there is no vowel harmony in Ainu. Vowels -u and -i in possessive and transitive endings differentiate only front/back PA vowels in stems without any referrence to the difference in the vowel height or roundness/unroundness. It is enough to use the technics of internal reconstruction in or­ der to reconstruct PA back or front vowels, but we still need comparative data from different dialects in order to reconstruct the distinctions between mid-high/mid-low and short/long vowels.

3.3. Back vowels

3.3.1. Short vowels 33.1.1. PA *A

PA *A is reconstructed either in nouns which have possessive form in =u (or -a) or in verbs which have the so called “transitive” form also in -u (or =a): PA ^trAp L “feather” > Y rap(=u) H/L(H); HO rap(=u) H/L(H); SA rap(=u) H/L(H); O rap(=u) H/L(H); B rap; ArapH;N rap H; SO rap H; RA rah(=puhu); NA tap “feather”; KT teku rap “bird's feather”; KD unkas rap; KV trap “feather”. PA *sAr L “tail” > Y sar(=a) H/LH; HO sar(=a) H/L(H); SA sar(=a) H/L(H); 0 sar(=a) H/L(H); B sar(=a); A sar(=aha) H/L(H); N sar H; SO sar(=aha) H/L(HL); RA sarakuh(=pihi) “tail”. PA *rAr L “eyebrow” > Y rar(=u) H/L(H); HO rar(=u) H/L(H); SA rar(-u) H/L(H); O rannuma HLL (< rar-numa “eyebrow

52

RECONSCTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

hair”); B rannuma; A rar(-u) H/L(H); N rar H; SO rar(=uhu) H/L(HL); RA raru(=hu); KT raru “eyebrow”; KD rar “eyebrows”; KV vi-rar “eyebrow”. PA *sAn=u H-L “to put it out”. Hattori gives another transitive form for san “to go out” — san=ke HL (Hattori 1964, 244). Thus, the reconstruction *sAn=u relies exclusively on Chiri's data (Chiri 1974/1952) and it is not clear whether this form is possible in many dialects or if it is unique. PA *i=Ak=u L-L-H “to crash”, “to smash” > Y yak=u LH; HO yak-u LH, yak=pa HL; SAyak^u LH (sing.), yak=yak=u HLL (sing.), yak^pa HL (plur.), yak-yak-pa (plur.); Ayakpa HL; N yaku LH, yakpa HL “to crash”, “to tear”.

33.1.2. PA *e

PA *e is reconstructed in nine verb stems which have [e] in the stem and [u] as a transitive ending. Examples: PA *pet-u L-H “to cut”, “to split” > SA pet=u LH (sing.), pet-pa HL (plur.); A pet^u LH (sing.), pet=pa HL (plur.) “to cut”, “to split”. PA ^pek-u “to bum (it)”. The word is not attested either in Hattori's dictionary (Hattori 1964) or in Batchelor's dictionary (Batchelor 1938). PA *ket=u “to rub”, “to scrape”. The word is not attested in (Hattori 1964) but BA has it (Batchelor 1938,247). PA *rek=u “to make smth. or smbd. sound”. Hattori gives only rek H “to sound” (Hattori 1964,183). PA *res=u L-H “to bring up”, “to raise” > Y res=u LH; HO resu LH, res-pa HL; SA res-u LH (sing.), res=pa HL (plur.); O res=u LH; B res-ka; A res-u LH, res-ka HL; N res-ka HL; SO res-ka HL; RA res-u, res-ke “to raise”, “to bring up”. PA * mes-u L-H “to separate”, “to peel” > Y mes=u LH “to separate”, “to peel”; HO mes=u LH “to separate”; SA mes=u LH “to peel”; N mes=u LH, mes=pa HL “to separate”; RA mes-u “to peel”. PA ^mes-u L-H “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck” > Y mes-u L-H (sing.), mes=pa H-L (plur.); N mes=u L-H (sing.), mes=pa HL (plur.) “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck”.

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53

3.3.13. PA *f

Proto-Ainu *z is reconstructed in five verb stems in cases when -i- is followed by transitive form -u\ PA *pir=u L-H “to wipe” > Y pir-u LH, pirupir=u LLHL, pir-pa HL; HO pir^u LH, pir-pa LH; SA pir^u LH (sing.), pir-pa HL (plur.); 0 pir-u LH (sing.), pir-pa HL (plur.); B pir-pa; A pir=pa HL; N pir-pa HL; SO pir-pa HL; RA pir=u (sing.), piripa (plur.) “to wipe”. PA *sir=u L-H “to rub” > Y sirusiru LLHL; HO siru LH; SA sir-u, sirsiru HLL; O sirusir-u LHLL; B sir=u, sirusir=u; A sirusir-u LHLL; N sirusir-u LHLL; SO sirusir-u LHLL; RA sirusiru “to rub”. PA *kir=u L-H “to turn (it)” > Y kir^u LH; SA kir^u LH; A kir-u LH; N kir=u LH “to turn (it)”. PA *nin=u L-H “to sew” > Y nin=u L-H; SA nin=u L-H; 0 nin=u L-H; B nin=u; A nin-u L-H; N nin=u L-H; RA nin=u, nin=pa=nin=pa “to sew”. PA *sin(=)a L(-)H “to bind (it)”, “to tie (it) up” > Y sina LH; HO sina LH; SA sina LH; O sina LH; B sina; A sina LH; N sina LH; SO sina LH “to bind (it)”, “to tie (it) up”; RA sina “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to”; BA shina “to lace up”, “to tie up”, “to bind”.

33.1.4. PA *0 Proto-Ainu *0 is reconstructed when all Modem Ainu dialects have [o]: PA *hOku LL “husband” > Y hoku(=hu) LH/LL(H); HO hoku(-hu) LH/LH(L); SA hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); O oku(=hu) LH/LH(L); B oku(=hu); A hoku LH; N oku LH; SO hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); RA hoku(=hu) “husband”. PA *gaa(=)pO HH “mother” > Y hapo HL; HO hapo HL; SA hapo HL; O hapo HL; B hapo; A hapo HL; N hapo HL; SO hapo LH “mother”. PA *Om L “thigh” > Y om(=i) H/L(H); HO om(=i) H/L(H); SA om(=i) H/L(H); O om(=i) H/L(H); B om(=i); A om H; N om(=ihi) H/L(HL); SO om H; RA om(=ihi) ; KT omunya “thigh”.

RECONSCTRUCnONOFPROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

54

PA *mOm “to flow” > Y mom H; HO mom H; SA mom H; 0 mom H; B mom; A mom H; N mom H; SO mom H; RA mom “to flow”. PA ^tOp “bamboo” > Y top H; HO top H; SA top H; 0 top H; B top; A top H; N top H; SO top H; RA toh(=pihi) “bamboo”. PA *nOn L “saliva” > Y non(=i) H/L(H); HO non(=i) H/L(H); SA non(=i) H/L(H); 0 non(=i) H/L(H); B non(=i); A non H; N non H; SO non H; RA non(=ihi) “saliva”.

33.15. PA *o PA

*0

Y u

HO

SA

u/o

u/o

OB u/o u/o

A

N

u/o

u/o

SO RA

o

u/o

PA *o is reconstructed on the basis of the correspondence of Y [u] to SO [o]. In the other dialects reflexes are broken. These di­ alects may have both [u] and [o], but the ocuurence of [u] is more frequent PA *o is far more less frequent than PA *0. PA *opas LH “snow” > Y upas LH; HO upas LH; SA upas LH; 0 upas LH; O upas LH; B upas; A upas LH; N upas LH; SO opas LH; RA opas; KT ubasu, ubashi '“snow”. PA *opsOr HH “bosom” > Y upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); HO upsor(-o) HL/HL(L); SA upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); O upsor(-o) HL/HL(L); B ussor(=o); A ussor(-o) HL/HL(L); N ussor(=o) HL/HL(L); SO osor LH “bosom”. PA *koy L “urine” > Y kuy(=e) H/L(H) “urine”; HO o-kuy-ma LHL “urine”, “to urinate”; SA kuy^wakka HLL “urine”; O o=kuy=ma; A o=koy=ma “to urinate”; N kuy=wakka HLL “urine”; SO o=koy=ma “urine”, “to urinate”; RA on-kuy; KD kuj; KV kuj “urine”. PA *nom H “to suck”, “to seep” > Y numnum HL; SA nunnum HL; 0 nun H, nunnun HL; B num; A nunnun HL “to suck”; N nun “to seep”; SO nonnnon HL; RA nunnun “to suck”. PA *top(=)sE H(-)L “to spit” > Y tupse HL; HO e=topse LHL; SA e^topse LHL; B e-topse; A topse HL, e^topse LHL; N topse HL; SO topse HL; RA e-tohpase “to spit”. PA *gop-nE HL “narrow” > Y hut-ne HL; HO hut=ne HL; SA hut=ne HL; O hut-ne HL; B hup-ne; A hup=ne HL; N hup=ne HL; SO o=hot=ne LHL; RA o=hoh=ne “narrow”.

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU VOCALISM

55

33.1.6. PA *u

This PA phoneme is reflected as [u] in all Modem Ainu dialects: PA *us “to go out”, “to die out (of a fire)” > Y us H; HO us H; SA us H; 0 us H; B us; A us H; N us H; SO us H; RA us “to go out”, “to die out (of a fire)”. PA *ug “to take”, “to receive” (sing.) > Y uk H; HO uk H; SA uk H; 0 uk H; B uk; A uk H; N uk H; SO uk H; RA uh “to take”, “to receive” (sing.). PA ^uku LH “to blow” > Y uku LH; 0 uku LH; B uku; A uku LH; N uku LH; SO uku LH “to blow”. PA *su(=)su L(-)H “willow” > Y susu LH; HO susu LH; SA susu LH; O susu LH; B susu; A susu LH; N susu LH; SO susu LH; RA susu “willow”. PA nut L “waist-band”, “belt” > Y kut(=ci) H/L(H); HO kut(=ci) H/L(H); SA kut(=ci) H/L(H); O kut(=ci) H/L(H); B kut; A kut(=ci) H/L(H); N kut H; SO kut H; RA kuh(=cihi) “waist-band”, “belt”.

3.3.2.

Long vowels

PA long vowels are reconstructed on the basis of SAKH dialects which preserved the distinction between long and short vowels. When SAKH data are lacking, I reconstruct a PA long vowel if it is reflected in two Kuril dialects. Long vowels in SAKH can occur only in the open syllables. It seems that long vowels in KK may also occur in closed syllables, but KK data are too scarce to make a final decision. There are only three back vowels which have long counterparts — PA *AA*OO and *uu.

3.32.1. PA *AA So far I can reconstruct PA *AA only in one word on the basis of oblique internal evidence: PA *prAA= LL “mouth” > Y par(=o) H/L(H); HO par(=o) H/L(H); SA par(=o) H/L(H); O car(=o) H/L(H); B caro; A paroho LHL; N caro LH; SO caro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA caru; KT charu; KK char; KD car; KV char “mouth”; cf. also Y pappus H-L; HO pa=pus(=i) H-L/H-L(L), pa=toy(=e) H-L/H­

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56

L(L); SA pa-toy(-e) H-L/H-L(L); O ca-pus(=i) H-L/H-L(L); B campus; A ca-pus LH; N ca-pus H-L, pappus H-L, pa=toy HL; SO ca=pus=ke(=he) L-H-L/L-H-L(L); RA caa-pus(=ihi), caa=toy(-ehe); KT chaa-toi “lip”. This word does not have long vowel in RA, though RA caru has two open syllables. Nevertheless, [-u] in caru is an obsolete ending of the possessive form, and originally this word certainly must be *car. Since RA differentiates between long and short vowels only in the open syllables, the vowel length was probably lost before the addition of the possessive ending caused the first syllable to become open. The word papus/capus for “lip”, which is an obvious derivation from PA *prAA=, still has the long vowel in RA — caapus. 3322. PA WO PA Y *00 o

HO

o

SA

O

B

A

N

SO RA

oooooo

oo

PA *tOO “day” > Y to H; HO to H; SA to H; 0 to H; B to; A to H; N to H; SO to H; RA too “day”. PA ^tOOpEn HLL “sweet” > Y topen HL; HO topen HL; SA topen HL; O topen HL; B topen; A topen HL; N topen HL; SO topen HL; RA o=toopen “sweet”. PA *hdOO “span of the thumb and first finger” > Y wo H; SA wo H; 0 wo H; B mowo; A wo H; N wo H; RA woo “span of the thumb and first finger”. PA WO “to ride (it)” > Y o H; HO o H; SA o H; O o H; B o; A o H; SO o H; RA oo “to ride (it)”. PA *kO[O]=rE L(L]-H “to give”, “to hand (over)” > Y kore LH “to give”; HO kore HL “to give”, kore LH “to hand (over); SA kore LH; O kore LH; B kore; A kore HL; N kore LH; SO kore LH “to give”; RA konte “to give” (koro “to have”), koore “to hand (over)”. 3323. PA *uu PA

*uu

Y u

HO SA O B A N u uuuuu

SO RA

uuu

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57

PA ^kuu LH “bow” > Y ku(=we) H/L(H); HO ku H; SA ku(=hu) H/H(L); ku(=we) H/L(H); B ku; A ku H; N ku H; RA kuu “bow”. PA ^Huurar HLL “fog” > Y war HL; SA urar HL; O war HL; B hwar; A war HL; N war HL; SO war HL; RA uwara “fog”. PA *truu “road” > Y ru H; HO ru H; SA ru H; 0 ru H; B ru; A ru H; N ru H; SO ru H; RA ruu; NA tuu ; D tru, ru; KT toiru, toiruu; KK ru; KD ru ; KV tojru, tru “road”; BA ru “road”, “way”, “path”. PA *nuu “to hear”, “to listen” > Y nu H; HO nu H; SA nu H; 0 nu H; B nu; A nu H; N nu H; SO nu H; RA nuu “to hear”, “to listen”. PA *puu HL “storehouse” > Y pu(=hu) H/H(L); HO pu H; SA pu H; O pu H; B pu; A pu H; N pu H; SO pu H; RA puu(=wehe); KV pu “storehouse”. PA *tuu= “two” > Y tu=p=pis HL; HO tu=p H; SA tu=p H; 0 tu=p H; B tu=p; A tu=p H; N tu=p H; SO tu=p H; RA tu=h, tu=h=pis; KT doobechi, tubechi; KK tuup; KD tubich; KV tu^n^nie “two [together]”. 3.4. Front vowels

3.4.1. Short vowels 3.4.1.1. PA *a PA *a is reconstructed either in the nouns which have possesive form in -i, or in verbs which have the so-called “transitive” form also in -i. PA *kam L “meat” > Y kam(=i) H/L(H); HO kam(=i) H/L(H); SA kam(=i) H/L(H); O kam(=i) H/L(H); B kam; A kam H; N kam H; SO kam(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA kam(=ihi) “meat”. PA *mat L “woman”, “wife” > Y mat(=ci) H/L(H) “woman”; HO mat(=ci) H/L(H); SA mat(-ci) H/L(H) “woman”, “wife”; O mat(=ci) H/L(H); B mat(=ci); Amat(-ci) “wife”; Nmat(-ci) H/L(H) “woman”, “wife”; SO mat(=ci) H/L(H); RA mah(=cihi) “wife”. PA *Ham L “claw” > Y am(=i) H/L(H); HO am(=i) H/L(H); SA am(=i) H/L(H); O am(=i) H/L(H); B ham; A am(=ihi) H/L(H); N am H; SO am(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA am(=ihi) “claw”. PA ^day-i “to kill” (Chiri gives Modem Ainu raye). Hattori gives only ray-ke “to kill” (Hattori 1964,29).

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RECONSCTRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

PA ^ran-i “to take it down”. Hattori gives only ran-ke “to take it down” (Hattori 1964,241). In cases where is impossible to reconstruct either [a] or [A], I use the notation [a].

3.4.12. PA *E PA *E is reconstructed when all modem dialects have [e]: PA *Etu LL “nose” > Y etu(=hu) LH/LL(H); HO etu(=hu) LH/LH(L); SA etu(=hu) LH/LH(L); O etuf^hu) LH/LH(L); B etu', A etu(-hu) LH/LH(L); N etu LH; SO etu(-hu) (accent?); RA etu “nose”. PA *Eg “to come” (sing.) > Y ek H; HO ek H; SA ek H; O ek H; B ek', A ek H; N ek H; RA eh(-k); BA ek, eshi “to come”. PA ^kEm L “blood” > Y kem(=i) H/L(H); HO kem(=i) H/L(H); SA kem(=i) H/L(H); 0 kem(=i) H/L(H); B kem; A kem H; SO kem(=ehe) H/L(HL); RA kem(-ehe) “blood”. PA *pE H “liquid”, “[undrinkable] water” > Y pe(=he) H/H(L); HO pe(=he) H/H(L); SA pe(=he) H/H(L); O pe(^he) H/H(L); B pe', A pehe HL; N pe H; SO pe “liquid”, “water”. PA *dE=p “three” > Y re^p H; HO re^p H; SA re^p H; O re=p H; B re=p; A re=p H; N re-p H; SO re-p H; RA re=h, re=h=pis; NA te=p=pis “three”.

3.4.I.3. PA *e PA

Y *ee

HO SA 0

B A N eeeeee

SO RA

i

eA

PA *e is reconstructed on the basis of the correspondence of [i] in SO to [e] in other HKD dialects. There are only two examples with this phoneme in my materials, making this reconstruction somehow doubtful. If PA lacks *e, we are left with more elabo­ rate low-high distinctions between back vowels than among front vowels ([A], [0], [o], [u] versus [a], [E], [i]). This is un­ likely from the typological point of view. Thus, I prefer to preserve the reconstruction of PA *e. PA *kem L “needle” > Y kem(=i) H/L(H); HO kem H; SA kem H; O kem H; B kem', A kem H; N kem H; SO kirn H; RA kem(=ihi) “needle”.

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59

PA *ker L “foot-wear” > Y ker(=i) H/L(H); HO ker(=i) H/L(H); SA ker(=i) H/L(H); O ker(=i) H/L(H); B ker(=i); ker H; SO kiro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA kiro “foot-wear”.

3.4.1.4. PA *i The PA *i is reflected as [i] in all Modem Ainu dialects: PA *ihka HL “to steal” > Y ikka HL; HO ikka HL; SA ikka HL; 0 ikka HL; B iska; A ikka HL; N ikka HL; SO ikka HL; RA iska “to steal”; KV iska=ruj, iska-sta, iska-gur “thief’. PA *iqEE LHL “pus” > Y ye(=he) H/H(L); SA ye H; O iqe LH; B iye; A iqe LH; N iqe(=he) LH/LH(L); SO ye H; RA yee “pus”. PA *kina LH “grass” > Y kina LH; HO kina LH; SA kina LH; SA kina LH; O kina LH; B kina; A kina LH; N kina LH; SO hu=kina LLH; RA kina “grass”. PA *nis H “sky”, “cloud” > Y nis H; HO nis H; SA nis H; 0 nis H; B nis; A nis H; N nis H; SO nis-koton HLL; RA nis^kuru “sky”, “cloud”. PA ^tip L “canoe” > Y cip(^i) H/L(H); HO cip H; 0 cip H; B cip; A cip H; N cip H; SO cip H; RA cis(=pihi) “canoe”.

3.4.15. PA *d PA *□ is reconstructed in seven verb stems in cases when -o- of the stem is followed by transitive form =i. Examples: PA *noy=i L-H “to twist” > Y noy=e LH (one time), noy-pa HL (several times); HO noy^e LH; noy=pa HL; SA noy=e LH (sing.), noy=pa HL (plur.); O noy-e LH; B noy-e; A noy-e LH, noy-pa HL; N noy-e LH; SO u-qe-noy-pa LHHH; RA noy-e, noy=pa “to twisf’. PA *kdt= L “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to” > Y kot=e L-H; HO kot=e L-H; SA kot^e L-H; 0 tus^kot^e H-L-L; A kot=e L-H (sing.), kot-pa H-L (plur.); N tus-kot^e H-L-L; SO o=tus-kot-e L-H-L-L; RA o=tus=kot=e “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to”; BA kote “to tie up with anything”, “to tie on to”. PA *nom(-)i H(-)H “to hold a festival”, “to perform memorial duties” > Y i-nomi L-HL; HO nomi HL; SA i-nomi L-HL; O i-nomi L-HL; B i-nomi; A a-nomi L-HL; N i-nomi L-HL “to hold a festival”, “to perform memorial duties”; SO kamuy nomi

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RECONSCIRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

LH HL “to worship”; BA nomi “to worship”, “the ceremony of offering inau* or libations of wine (often both) to the gods.” PA *moy=i “to move” (Modem Ainu moy=e (Chiri 1974/1952, 207). There is no such form in Hattori Shiro's dictionary (Hattori 1964). PA *ror-i “to sink” (Modern Ainu ror=i (Chiri 1974/1952, 209). There is no such word in Hattori Shiro's dictionary (Hattori 1964)). 3.4.I.6 . PA *u PA *w is reconstructed in eleven verb stems with vowel -uwhich have “transitive” form in =i. Examples: PA *nuy=i L-H “to carve” > Y nuy=e LH; HO nuy=e LH; SA nuy=e LH; O nuy=e LH; B nuy=e; A nuy=e LH (sing.), nuy=pa HL (plur.); N nuw-e LH; SO i-nu=e LHH; RA nuye “to carve”. PA *riik=i L-H “to gulp down” > Y ruk=i LH; HO ruk=i LH; SA ruk=i LH; O ruk=-i LH; B ruk=i; A ruk-i LH; N ruk-i LH; SO ruk^i LH; RA ruk-i, ruh=pa “to gulp down”. PA *suy=i H-H “to shake”, “to wave” > Y suy=e=suy=e LLHH; HO suy-e LH, suy-e-suy-e LHHH; SA suy-e LH, suy-e=suy-e LHHH; O suy=e=suy=e LHHH; B suy=e=suy=e; A suy-e LH, suy=e-suy=e LHHH; N suy-e-suy=e LHHH; SO su[wj-e-su LHH; RA suy=e=suy=e “to shake”, “to wave”. PA *=pitily= LH “to push” > Y o=putuy=e L-LH-L; HO o=putuy=e L-HL-L; SA o=putuy=e L-HL-L; O o=putuy-e LHL-L; B o=putuy=e; A o=putuy=e L-HL-L; N o-pituy=e LHL-L; RA o=ka-pituy=pa; BA oputuye “to push”. PA *suy=i L-H “to swing” (intr.), “to sway” > Y si=suy=e L-LH; HO si-suy-e L-H-L; SA si=suy=e L-H-L; O si=suy=e L-HL; B si-suy=e; A si=suy=e L-H-L; N si=suy-e L-H-L; SO su=e su-e L-H L-H; RA si-suy=e “to swing” (intr.), “to sway”; BA eshishuye “to swing”. 3.4.2. Long vowels

There are three long front vowels in PA — *aa, *EE and *ii.

8 Ritual wooden wands.

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61

3.42.1. PA *aa PA *aa

Y a

HO SA 0

B

A

N

SO RA

KK

KD

aaaaaaaaaaaaa

PA *aa “to sit” (sing.) > Y a H; HO a H; S A a H; O a H; B a; A a H; N a H; SO a H; RA aa “to sit” (sing.). PA *paa HL “year”, “age” > Y pa H “year”, pa(-ha) H/H(L) “age”; HO pa H “year”, “age”; SA pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; Opa H “y^pa^ha) H/H(L) “age”; B pa "year”, “age” ; A pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; Npa H “year”, “age”; SO pa H “year”; RA paa "year”, “age”; KD pa; KV mata=pa, sak=pa “year”. PA *maa “to roast” > Y ma H; HO ma H; SA ma H; O ma H; B ma; A ma H; N ma H; SO ma H; RA maa “to roast”. PA *yaa “net” > Y ya H; HO ya H; SA ya H; O ya H; B ya; A ya H; N ya H; SO ya H; RA yaa “net”. PA ^daarak HLL “smooth” > Y rarak HL; HO rarak HL; SA rarak HL; A rarak HL; N rarak HL; SO rarak HL; RA raarah(=k); NA taarak “smooth”. PA *gaa(=)pO HH(-)L “mother” > Y hapo HL; HO hapo HL; SA hapo HL; O hapo HL; A hapo HL; N hapo HL; SO hapo LH; KK aapu; KD aapu, apu “mother”. 3.422. PA *EE PA *EE

Y e

HO e

SA e

O e

B e

A e

N e

SO e

RA ee

PA *dEE HL “name” > Y re(=he) H/H(L); HO re(=he) H/H(L); SA re(=he) H/H(L); 0 re(=he) H/H(L); B re; A rehe HL; N re H; SO re(=he) H/H(L); RA ree; NA tee; KV rie “name”. PA *kEEra HLL “taste” > Y kera(=ha) HL/HL(L); HO kera HL; SA kera(-ha) HL/HL(L); O kera HL; B kera; A kera HL; N kera HL; SO kera HL; RA keera “taste”. PA ^dEEra HLL “wind” > Y rera HL; HO rera HL; SA rera HL; O rera HL; B rera; A rera HL; N rera HL; SO rera HL; RA reera; NA teera “wind”.

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62

PA ^gEEsE HLL “to breathe” > Y hese HL; HO hese HL; SA hese HL; O hese HL; B hese; A hese HL; N hese HL; SO hese HL; RA heese “to breathe”. PA *sEE “to carry on the back” > Y se H; HO se H; SA se H; 0 se H; B se; A se H; N se H; RA see “to carry on the back”. 3.4.23. PA *n PA

Y

HO

SA

*ii

i

i

i

0 i

B

A

N

SO

RA

i

i

i

i

ii

PA *nii “tree” > Y ni H; HO ni H; SA ni H; O ni H; B ni; A ni H; N ni H; SO ni H; RA nii “tree”. PA *kii “to do” > Y ki H; HO ki H; SA ki H; O ki H; B ki; A ki H; N ki H; SO ki H; RA kii “to do”. PA *sii “feces”, “dung” > Y si H; HO si H; SA si H; 0 si H; B si; A si H; N si H; RA sii(=yehe) “feces”; KV si “shit” (Russ, “der'mo”, a vulgar word for “feces”). PA *pii HH “seed” > Y pi(^ye) H/L(H); HO pi(=ye) H/L(H); SA pi(=ye) H/L(H); O pi(=ye) H/L(H); B piyei A piyehe LHL; N pi(=yehe) H/L(HL); SO pi(=he) H/H(L), pi(=yehe) H/H(LL); RA pii “seed”. PA *tii LH “penis” > Y ci(=ye) H/L(H); HO ci(=ye) H/L(H); SA ci(=ye) H/L(H); 0 ci(=ye) H/L(H); B ci(=ye); A ciyehe LHL; N ciye LH; SO cikappo LHL; RA cii(-yehe) “penis”. 33. Vowel assimilation

There is a tendency in Ainu dialects for a vowel of a previous syllable to assimilate to the vowel of the next syllable. As a rule, the original vowel of the previous syllable is always preserved in Y. Examples: PA ^EtOp LL “hair” > Y etop(=i) LH/LL(H); HO otop(=i) LH/LH(H); SA otop(=i) LH/LH(H); 0 otop(=i) LH/LH(H); B otop(=i); A otop(=i) LH/LH(H); N otop(=i) LH/LH(H); SO otopf^i) LH/LH(H) “hair”. PA *nEtO LH “calm”, “lull” > Y neto LH; HO noto LH; SA noto LH; N noto LH “calm”, “lull”. PA ^nupEk LL “light” > Y nupek(=i) LH/LL(H); HO nupek(=i) LH/LH(H); SA nipek(=i) LH/LH(H); 0 nupek(=i) LH/LH(H);

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63

B nupek(=i); A nipek(=i) LH/LH(H); N nipek LH; SO nikep LH ( Y isepo LLH; HO isepo LHL; SA isepo LHL; O isopo LHL; B isopo; A isepo LHL; N isepo LHL; SO isepo LHL “hare”. PA *sikup LH “to grow” > Y sikup LH; HO sikup LH; SA sukup LH; O sikup LH; B sikup LH; A sukup LH; N sukup LH; SO sikup LH; RA sukup “to grow”. PA ^sipuya LLH “smoke” > Y sipuya LLH; HO supuya LHL; SA supuya LHL; 0 supuya LHL; B supuya; A supuya LHL; SO sipuya LHL “smoke”. 3.6 . Diphthong problem

In Modem Ainu dialects there are the phonetic combinations [ay], [aw], [uy], [iw], [oy]. These are usually treated as diphthongs (Refsing 1986, 69). From the historical point of view, I really do not believe that they are diphthongs, on the following basis: 1) Some of them go back to PA *VCV with the loss of the in­ tervocalic consonant, probably PA ^-g-: PA *agi LL “arrow” > Y ay(=e) H/L(H); HO ay(=e) H/L(H); SA ay(=e) H/L(H); O ay(=e) H/L(H); B ay; A ay H; N ay H; SO ay H; RA ay; KT ai; KK akhi “arrow”. PA *ihdagu “sulphur” > BA iwau [iwaw] “sulphur”; KV iva-uv [iwaw] “inflammable sulphur”; KLAP iguakh “sulphur”. PA *agu LL “tongue” > Y aw(=e) H/L(H); N awehe LHH; SO aw(=ehe) H/LHH; RA aw(=ehe); KT aukh; KK akhu “tongue”. 2) Since Ainu does not like hiatus, many of these combinations are the result of contractions like HO mataqita “winter”, but RA matayta “id” < ^mataita < ^mataqita. 3) In some cases it is possible to draw a morpheme boundary between the components of a diphthong. For example, I recon­ struct PA *pa[a]-qikar “spring” in spite of the fact that all dialects have paykar, because this word probably is connected with the PA *paa HL “year”. 4) Even in Modem Ainu, words with final [-w] or [-y] of the stem behave like the other stems ending in consonants — those which have possesive form or transitive form make this form with a vowel different from the vowel of the stem, that is *i or *u, and do not repeat automatically the vowel of the stem, what is typical for the stems ending in vowels.

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5) Because the rules of internal sandhi are the same as rules of external sandhi in Ainu, [y] before the consonants [s], [r] and [y] goes back to *n, that is: Vys < *Vns, Vyr < *Vnr, Vyy < *Vny. Thus, in all these cases [y] as a second component of diphthong is secondary. In cases when there is no evidence that [y] is secondary, I re­ construct consonant [y]. Since there is no [w] in PA, I prefer to reconstruct Vw< *Vqu, even if there is no evidence for the sec­ ondary nature of [-wj.

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4.0. Prosodic system

All HKD dialects but B have pitch accent. Ainu pitch accent is opposite to the pitch accent observed in Japanese or those Korean dialects which still preserve it (Kyensang, Hamkyeng). In Japanese or Korean, the focus of the accent is located on the high mora before the low mora. In Ainu the focus is located on the high mora after the low mora (Hattori 1961, 8). In other words, for Japanese and Korean, the drop of voice is relevant, while for Ainu it is rise of voice which is relevant for the location of the focus. SAKH dialects do not have phonologically distinct pitch accent (Hattori 1967, 216-217), (Pilsudski 1912, 10-11), (Murasaki 1979, 4). As for Kuril dialects, with the exception of KK, there are no data on pitch accent. This short glossary shows stress for words having more than one syllable. The analysis of these stress signs leads me to conclude that in most cases, they correspond to the accent focus in HKD dialects. Thus, I can suppose that among Kuril dialects, KK also had a pitch accent corresponding to the HKD pitch accent Hattori Shiro proposed that PA had distinction between long and short vowels but no pitch accent, that is SAKH dialects re­ flect PA almost completely, while pitch accent in HKD dialects is an innovation (Hattori 1967). Hattori’s conclusion is based on the comparison of only two dialects - SA from HKD and RA from SAKH and on the assumption that high pitch in SA mostly corresponds to long vowel in RA. However, there are strong limitations to the distribution of long vowels in RA — they can occur only in open syllables; and in the overwhelming majority of cases only in the first syllable of the word, while high pitch may characterise both open and closed syllables. In addition, high pitch in HKD may correspond not only to long vowels in RA, but also to a short ones in open syllables, e.g. HKD ya H, RA yaa “net”, but HKD ya H, RA ya=qunsiri “dry land”, “shore”. Similarly, long vowels in RA may correspond not only to a high pitch in HKD, but also to a low one, e.g.: Y tuki HL, RA tuuki “sake cup”, but Y tuci LH, RA tuuci “large wooden hammer”. Moreover, there are two accent systems within HKD proper — one represented by Y, and the other by all other HKD dialects having pitch accent The difference between them is that

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Y may have an initial long low plateau, that is more than one low-pitched mora in the beginning of the word, while all the other dialects permit only one low initial mora. Thus, “to conceal” “lightning” “to understand” e^sina LLH Y imeru LLH eram=(q)an LHL e-sina LHL imeru LHL SA eramu=qan LHL-H eram-qan e-siina RA imeru *esiina *eramu=qan PA *imeru (Hattori) *E=siina LLH *imeru LLH *eramu=(q)an LHLPA H (Vovin) Taking into consideration also that pitch accent probably ex­ isted in Kuril dialects, I suggest that pitch accent in HKD and vowel length in SAKH are unrelated phenomena. Thus, it is necessary to reconstruct for PA pitch accent as well as vowel length. It is also worth to note that KK, KD and KV also have long vowels, though their long vowels do not always correspond to RA long vowels, e.g. RA reera, KK keerd “wind”; RA uurara “fog”, KK uurdr “clouds”; RA kaani “metal”, KK kaani “iron”; but RA tuh, KK tdup “two”. It is possible to suppose that KK preserves long vowels also in closed syllables (cf. my last example), but the evidence is too limited. At the same time, KK does not have long vowels in one-syllable words, where RA does: RA ruu, KK ru “road”; RA nii, KK ni “tree”. Compare the last example with KV nij “tree”, there [ij] may stand for the long [ii]. Since KK probably had pitch accent, indicated by the stress signs, as well as the distinctions between long and short vowels, it is more evidence that PA also had both. Concerning Ainu pitch accent, an original point of view was suggested by Shibatani Masayoshi. He proposed the following rules for Ainu accent (Shibatani 1990,12): 1) If a word consist of a stem and an affix, the stem has the high pitch: nu=pa HL “hear (plural object); nu=reHL “hear-CAUS”; ku=nu LH “1st Person-hear”. 2) In other two and three syllable words, high pitch falls on the first syllable if it is either a diphthong or a closed syllable: aynu HL “person”; uynaUL^ash^ arpa HL “to go”;

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67

pirka HL “pretty”; okkay HL “boy”. 3) In all other words, high pitch occurs in the second syllable: hra LH “to flee”; cise LH “house”; netopa LHL “body”. His first and third rules are not true, because there are a con­ siderable number of counterexamples: 1) kem=i LH “blood=his”; kam=i LH “meat=his”; sik—i LH “eye=his”; haw=e LH “voice=his”; am=i LH “claw=his”; rar-u LH “eyebrow=his” — in all these cases high pitch is on the affix, though they should have the high pitch on the stem according to Shibatani's first rule. 3) rera HL “wind”; rarak HL “smooth”; hura HL “smell”; kera HL “taste”; siyuk HL “male bear”, hapo HL “mother” - all these words have the high pitch on the first syllable, though they should have the high pitch on the second according to Sibatani’s third rule. However, the second rule may be true — it seems that first closed syllable almost always has a high pitch and almost never has a low one. Exception: kakka LH “vulva”. The sources for reconstruction of PA pitch accent system are practically limited by Hattori Shiro's Ainu dialect dictionary (Hattori 1964), since it is die only source on Ainu language which marks the pitch accent. Stress signs in KK are really of very little help, because the glossary itself is too short. Hattori's dictionary is an excellent dictionary, but it is by no means a grammar. For the thorough reconstruction of pitch accent we need paradigms, especially for the reconstruction of the accent in verbs, and the dictionary does not give paradigms. Numerous publications of Ainu texts lack pitch accent marks and are worth­ less for our purposes. Even Kirsten Refsing's grammar of Ainu (Refsing 1986) and Hans Dettmer's grammar of Ainu (Dettmer 1989), the most comprehensive grammars of Ainu to date, also fail to indicate pitch accent All these facts make the reconstruc­ tion of the PA pitch accent system extremely limited and far from complete and accurate. For example, some of the two-mora oxy­ tonic words and three-mora oxytonic words reconstructed below, may, in fact be two-mora atonic and three-mora atonic words, respectively, since we have no examples of these words with suffixes or particles following. In addition, there is absolutely no evidence for the reconstruction of pitch accent of

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some words, especially one-mora words. In this case the PA reconstruction is given without indication of pitch contour. Hattori Shiro gives the following rules for the Ainu pitch ac­ cent (Hattori 1964, 35): 1) A syllable before a syllable with high pitch always has a low pitch; 2) A syllable after a syllable with high pitch usually has lower pitch. As far as I can judge from the samples of Ainu traditional po­ etry, HKD Ainu is a syllable-counting language, since in HKD dialects mora = syllable. Meanwhile, SAKH Ainu is a moracounting language, because SAKH has long vowels and syllables with long vowels contain two moras, thus I suppose that PA also was a mora-counting language. 4.1. Pitch accent in one-mora words

All one-syllable words in Modem HKD dialects are tonic — that is they all have high pitch. Some HKD one-syllable words correspond to the RA words with long vowels, thus going back to PA two-mora words. I will discuss this in the next paragraph. For those words which historically consist of one mora, it is possible to reconstruct two accent classes in PA — tonic and atonic, if they are nouns having possessive form or in some rare cases — nouns or verbs which are by chance attested in Hattori’s dictionary with some affixes, following or/and preceding the stems. Thus, tonic words preserve high pitch on the stem before the following suffix which has the low pitch, while atonic words have low pitch before the suffix which acquires high pitch: 1.1. tonic: in isolation H; with suffix H-L. 1.2. atonic: in isolation H; with suffix L-H. 4.1.1, One-mora tonic class PA *ra H “liver” > Y ra(=ha) H/H(L) “liver”; HO ra H “liver of fish”; SA ra H “fat in fish intestines”; O ra(-ha) H/H(L); A ra H; N ra H; SO ra(=ha) H/H(L); RA u=ra=ka “Ever”. PA ^day H “to die” ( *day=kE HL “to kill”) > Y ray H; HO ray H; SA ray H; SA ray H; O ray H; A ray H; N ray H; SO ray H; RA ray; NA toy.

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PA *nis H “sky”, “cloud” > Y nis H; HO nis H; SA nis H; O nis H; A nis H; N nis H; SO niskoton HLL “sky”. PA *pis H “seashore” > Y pis H; HO pis H, pis=ke HL; SA pis H,pis=ke HL; 0 e=pis=un LHL; A pis H; Npw H “seashore”. PA *ra H “down” > Y ra(=ta) H/H(L); HO ra H; SA ra H; 0 rata HL; A e=ras LH; SO rawa HL; RA raw, rawta “down”. 4.1.2. One-mora atonic class

PA *trAp L “feather” > Y rap(=u) H/L(H); HO rap(=u) H/L(H); SA rap(=u) H/L(H); O rap(=u) H/L(H); A rap H; SO rap H; RA rah(=puhu); NA tap; KV trap “feather”. PA *gum L “sound”, “noise” > Y hum(=i) H/L(H); HO hum(=i) H/L(H); SA hum(=i) H/L(H); O hum(=i) H/L(H); A hum(=i) H/L(H); N hum H; SO hum(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA hum(=ihi); KT hum “sound”, “noise”. PA *tE=k L “hand” > Y tek(=e) H/L(H); HO tek(=e) H/L(H) “hand”, te=m H “both hands”; SA tek(=e) H/L(H) “hand”, tern H “hand”(in compounds); O tek(=e) H/L(H); A tek(=e) H/L(H); N tek(=e) H/L(H); SO tek(=e) H/L(H); RA teh(=kihi) “hand”. PA *nit L “handle” > Y nit(=u) H/L(H); HO nit H; SA nit H; O nit H; A nit H; N nit H; SO nit H; RA nis(=cihi) “handle”. PA *nAn L “face” > Y nan(=u) H/L(H); HO nan(=u) H/L(H); SA nan(=u) H/L(H); O nan(=u) H/L(H); A nanu LH; N nanu LH; SO nan(-u!=uhu) H/L(H/HL); RA nan(=uhu) “face”.

42.

Pitch accent in two-mora words

The following accent classes are reconstructed for PA two-mora words: 2.1. Tonic: 2.1.1. oxy tonic LH 2.1.2. high prototonic HH 2.1.3. low prototonic HL 2.2. Atonic LL

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4.2.1. Two-mora tonic words

4.2.1.1. Two-mora oxytonic class

Two-mora words belonging to the PA oxytonic class LH still belong to this class in all Modem Ainu dialects which preserve pitch accent: PA *apE LH “fire” > Y ape LH; HO ape LH; SA ape LH; O ape LH; A ape LH; N ape LH; SO ape LH; RA ape “fire”. PA *mOyO LH “few” > Y moyo LH; SA moyo LH; O moyo LH; N moyo LH; SO moyo LH “few”. PA *kina LH “grass” > Y kina LH; HO kina LH; SA kina LH; O kina LH; A kina LH; N kina LH; SO kina LH; RA kina “grass”. PA ^turEp LH “sweet potato” > SA turep LH; A turep LH; N turep LH; SO turep LH “sweet potato”. PA *0man LH “to go” > Y oman LH; HO oman LH; O Oman LH; A oman LH; N oman LH; SO oman LH; RA oman “to go”. I assume that HKD one-syllable words with high pitch on the suffix, and low pitch on the stem corresponding to SAKH twomora words, also belong to this class: PA *tii LH “penis” > Y ci(^ye) H/L(H); HO ci(=ye) H/L(H); SA ci(=ye) H/L(H); O ci(=ye) H/L(H); A ciyehe LHL; N ciye LH; SO cikappo LHL; RA cii(=yehe) “penis”. PA *kuu LH “bow” > Y ku(=we) H/L(H); HO ku H; SA ku(=hu) H/H(L), ku(=we) H/L(H); A ku H; N ku H; SO ku H; RA kuu “bow”. As I have already mentioned, some words of this class may really belong to the atonic class — we simply do not have enough evidence. For example, the word atuy “sea” in all HKD dialects belongs to oxytonic class LH. But in KK it appears with a suffix -ka which bears a stress mark: atujkd. KK form probably gives evidence for atonic nature of this word and I reconstruct PA *atuy LL. 4.2.1.2. Two-mora high prototonic class

PA two-mora high prototonic class HH has fallen together with oxytonic class LH in SO and with low prototonic class HL in Y, SA and N. In the other dialects, words of this class can belong either to low prototonic or to oxytonic class.

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PA *gaa(=)pO HH(-)L “mother” > Y hapo HL; HO hapo HL; SA hapo HL; 0 hapo HL; A hapo HL; N hapo HL; SO hapo LH “mother”. PA *Erum HH “mouse” > Y erum HL; HO erum HL; SA ermu HL; O erumun LHL; A erum HL; N erum HL; SO erumun LHL “mouse”. PA *puri HH “custom” (< OJ Furi “custom”) > Y puri HL; HO puri LH; SA puri HL; O puri HL; A [aynu] puri LH; N sir-puri LHL; SO puri LH “custom”. PA *opsOr HH “bosom” > Y upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); HO upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); SA upsor HL/HL(L); O upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); A ussor(=o) HUHL(L); N ussor(=o) HL/HL(L); SO osor LH “bosom”. PA *gura HH “smell” > Y hura HL; HO hura HL; SA hura HL; 0 hura HL; A hura HL; N hura HL; SO hura LH; RA hura “smell”.

42.13. Two-mora low prototonic class PA two-mora low prototonic class HL is preserved in all Modem Ainu dialects that have pitch accent: PA ^ganku HL “navel” > Y hanku(=hu) HL/HL(L); HO hanku HL; SA hanku HL; 0 hanka-pu HLL; A hanko HL; N hanku HL; SOtahzHL“navel” PA *ihka HL “to steal” > H ikka HL; HO ikka HL; SA ikka HL; 0 ikka HL; B iska; A ikka HL; N ikka HL; SO ikka HL “to PA *tak=nE HL”short” > Y takne HL; HO takne HL; SA takne HL; 0 takne HL; A takne HL; N takne HL; SO o-takne LHL “short”. ?A*Haspa HL “deaf’ > Y aspa HL; HO aspa HL; SA aspa HL; 0 aspa HL; A aspa HL; N aspa HL; SO aspa HL “deaf’. PA *hdak=ka HL “water” > Y wakka HL; HO wakka HL; SA wakka HL; O wakka HL; A wakka HL; N wakka HL; SO wakka HL “water”. I assume that one-syllable words in HKD with high pitch on the stem and low pitch on following suffix corresponding to SAKH two=mora words, also belong to this class: PA *dEE HL “name” > Y re(=he) H/H(L); HO re(=he) H/H(L); SA ref-he) H/H(L); O ref^he) H/H(L); A rehe HL; N re H; SO ref=he) H/H(L); RA ree, NA tee; KV rie “name”.

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PA *pOO HL “son”, “child” > Y po(=ho) H/H(L) “child”; HO po(=ho) H/H(L); SA po(=ho) H/H(L) “son”; O po(=ho) H/H(L) “child”; Apoho HL “son”; Npo H; SO po(=ho) H/H(L) “son”, “child”; RA poo(=ho) “son”. PA *puu HL “storehouse” > Y pu(^hu) H/H(L); HO pu H; SA pu H; Qpu H; A pu H; Npu H; SOpu H; RA puu(-wehe)\ KV pu “storehouse”.

4.22. Two-mora atonic class

PA two-mora atonic class LL is reconstructed when the possesive form of the noun in Y has high pitch on the suffix vowel and low pitch on the vowels of the stem. In other HKD dialects this class has fallen together with the oxytonic class, since in these dialects high pitched syllable can be seen only in the first or the second mora in the word. PA *EtOp LL “hair” > Y etop(=i) LH/LL(H); HO otop(=i) LH/LH(L); SA otop(=i) LH/LH(L); O otop(=i) LH/LH(L); A otop LH; N otop LH; SO otop(=ihi) LH/LH(LL) “hair”. PA *tiqEp LL “fish” > Y ciqep(=i) LH/LL(H); HO ciqep LH; SA cep H; O cep H; A cep H; N cep H; SO cep H “fish". PA ^kisAr LL “ear” > Y kisar(=a) LH/LL(H); HO kisar(=a) LH/LH(L); SA kisar(=a) LH/LH(L); 0 kisar(=a) LH/LH(L); A kisar LH; N kisar LH; SO kisar LH “ear”. PA *dEkut LL “neck” > Y rekutf^ci) LH/LL(H); HO rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); SA rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); A rekut(^ci) LH/LH(L); N rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); SO rekut(=cihi) LH/LH(LL); RA rekuh(-cihi)\ NA tekuh “neck”. PA *nupEk LL “light” > Y nupek(=i) LH/LL(H); HO nupek(=i) LH/LH(L); SA nipEk(=i) LH/LH(L); 0 nupek(=i) LH/LH(L); A nipeki LHL; N nipek LH; SO nikep(=ihi) LH/LH(LL) “fight”.

43. Pitch accent in three-mora words I reconstruct for PA following three-mora accent classes: 3.1. Tonic: 3.1.1. oxytonic LLH 3.1.2. high prototonic HHH 3.1.3. middle prototonic HHL 3.1.4. low prototonic HLL 3.1.5. mesotonic LHL

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73

3.2. Atonic LLL There is not much evidence for the reconstruction of PA threemora accent classes, because three-syllable Common Ainu words are extremely rare in general and some of them may, in fact, be compounds consisting of two roots or root + suffix. I do not have more than one example for the high prototonic, middle prototonic and atonic classes, while there are a considerable number of examples for the both oxytonic and low prototonic classes. Except for the oxytonic class, all the words in other three-mora accent classes correspond to the two-syllable words in HKD dialects. 4.3.1. Three-mora tonic words 43.1 .1. Three-mora oxytonic class

Three-mora oxytonic class LLH is preserved only in Y. In all other HKD dialects this class has fallen together with the meso­ tonic LHL. PA ^makiri LLH “knife” > Y makiri LLH “big knife”; HO makiri LHL; SA makiri LHL; O makiri LHL “small knife”; A makiri LHL; N makiri LHL; SO makiri LHL “knife”; RA pon-makiri “small knife”. PA ^pisaku LLH “dipper” > Y pisaku LLH; HO pisakko LHL; SA pisakku, LHL; O pisaku LHL; N pisaku LHL “dipper”. PA ^hErOki LLH “herring” > Y heroki LLH; HO heroki LHL; SA heroki LHL; 0 eroki LHL; A eroki LHL; N eroki LHL; SO heroki LHL; RA herohki “herring”. PA *isEpO LLH “hare” > Y isepo LLH; HO isepo LHL; SA isepo LHL; O isopo LHL; A isepo LHL; N isepo LHL; SO isepo LHL “hare”. PA *sipuya LLH “smoke” > Y sipuya LLH; HO supuya LHL; SA supuya LHL; 0 supuya LHL; A supuya LHL; SO sipuya LHL “smoke”.

43.12. Three-mora high prototonic class

PA three-mora high prototonic class HHH, represented by one word, is reconstructed when RA three-mora word corresponds to HKD two-syllable word which belongs in Y, SA and N to the low prototonic class HL and in SO to the oxytonic class LH:

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PA *kaani HHH “metal” (< OJ kane HH “metal”) > Y kani HL; HO kani HL; SA kane HL; O kani LH; B kani; A kani HL; N kani HL; SO kani LH; RA kaani “metal”; KV kanie “iron”. The oxy tonic form in SO is very important, because it parallels the reflex of PA two-mora high prototonic class in it 43.13. Three-mora middle prototonic class PA three-mora middle prototonic class HHL, represented by one word, is reconstructed when RA three-mora word corresponds to HKD two-syllable word, which belongs in Y to prototonic class and in other dialects to oxytonic class: PA *kaasi=qu HHL-L “to help” > Y kasiw HL; HO kasuy LH; SA kasuy LH; O kasuy LH; A kasuy LH; i-kasuy L-HL; N u—kasuy L-HL; SO i=kasuyke L-HLL; RA kaasiw, i-kaasiw “to help”. Hattori's dictionary does not give the N and SO form in isola­ tion. Nevertheless, we can derive the accentuation of these forms. None of the Ainu dialects but Y permits a long low plateau in the beginning of the word. That is, all HKD dialects, with the exception of Y, have the focus on the first or the second syllable of the word. The addition of a prefix to N and SO forms causes the shift of the focus one syllable back to the beginning of the word from its original place. Two A forms, one with prefix and another without it, show us this process very well.

43.1.4. Three-mora low prototonic class

PA three-mora low prototonic class HLL is reconstructed when HKD low-prototonic word corresponds to SAKH three-mora word: PA ^tOOpEn HLL “sweet” > Y topen HL; HO topen HL; SA topen HL; O topen HL; B topen; A topen HL; N topen HL; SO topen HL; RA o=toopen “sweet”. PA ^dEEra HLL “wind” > Y rera HL; HO rera HL; SA rera HL; O rera HL; A rera HL; N rera HL; SO rera HL; RA reera; NA teera “wind”. PA ^daarak HLL “smooth” > Y rarak HL; HO rarak HL; SA rarak HL; A rarak HL; N rarak HL; SO rarak HL; RA raarah(-k); NA taarak “smooth”.

RECONSTRUCTION OF PROTO-AINU PROSODY

75

PA *kEErA HLL taste” > Y kera(=ha) HL/HL(L); HO kera HL; SA kera(=ha) HL/HL(L); O kera HL; A kera HL; N kera HL; SO kera HL; RA teera “taste”. PA ^gEEsE HLL “to breathe” > Y hese HL; HO hese HL; SA hese HL; O hese HL; A hese HL; N hese HL; SO hese HL; RA heese “to breathe”.

4315. Three-mora mesotonic class

PA three-mora mesotonic class LHL is reconstructed when HKD two-syllable word of oxytonic class LH goes back to a three-mora word: PA *kapiqu LHL “seagull” > Y kapiw LH; HO kapiw LH; 0 kapiw LH; A kapiw LH; SO kapiw LH “seagull”. PA *iqEE LHL “pus” > Y ye(=he) H/H(L); SA ye H; O iqe LH; B iye\ A iqe LH; N iqe(-he) LH/LH(L); SO ye H; RA yee “pus”. PA *gOqinu LHL “marten” > Y hoynu HL; HO hoqinu LHL; SA hoynu (?) HL; 0 hoynu HL “marten”; B oynuy “black marten”; A hoynu HL; N hoynu HL; RA hoynu “marten”. PA *OgOO LHL “to be deep” > Y o=qoho L-LH; HO o=qoho L-HL; SA o=qoho L-HL; 0 oqo L-H; B oqo‘, A oho LH; N oho LH; SO oho LH; RA ohoo\ KT oo “to be deep”. 432. Three-mora atonic class

Three-mora atonic class is reconstructed when HKD word of atonic class LL corresponds to RA three-mora word: PA *kaari=p LLL “wheel”, “ring”, “hoop” > Y karip(=i) LH/LL(H); SA karip LH; 0 karip LH; B karip-, N karip LH; RA kaaris(=pihi) “wheel”, “ring”, “hoop”.

4.4.

Unclear cases

There are some cases of irregular pitch correspondences within Ainu dialects, when I do not know what kind of pitch accent should be reconstructed for PA: 1) a word belongs to oxytonic class LH in Y, and to the low prototonic class HL in all other dialects (SA displays both pat­ terns — HL and LH):

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PA *atya "uncle” > Y aca LH; HO aca HL; SA aca HL, aca LH; O aca HL; A acapo HLL; N aca HL; RA acapo ; KD achipo “uncle”; BA acha “uncle”, “father”, “an old man”. 2) a word belongs to low prototonic class HL in SO and to the oxytonic class LH in all other dialects: PA *sunE “light”, “torch” > Y sune LH; SA sune LH; O sune LH; A sune LH; N sune LH; SO sune HL “light”, “lamp”. 3) O and A display oxytonic pattern LH, while all other dialects have low prototonic pattern HL: PA *turi “pole (for boats)” > Y turi HL; HO turi LH; SA turi HL; O turi LH; A turi LH; N turi HL; SO turi HL “pole (for boats)”. 4) Y, SA and O display oxytonic pattern LH and HO, A, N and SO have low prototonic pattern HL: PA *ya(=)ki “cicada” > Y yaki LH; HO yaki HL; SA yaki LH; O yaki LH; A ya'ki, ya'k'i HL; Nyaki HL; SO yaki HL “cicada”. I also fail to reconstruct the PA accent for one RA two-mora word corresponding to one-mora word in HKD which is lowpitched on the stem and high-pitched on the suffix in Y and high-pitched on the stem and low-pitched on the suffix in SO: PA *pii “seed” > Y pi(=ye) H/L(H); HO pi(=ye) H/L(H); SA pi(-ye) H/L(H); O pi(=ye) H/L(H); A piyehe LHL; N pi(-yehe) H/L(HL); SO pi(=he) H/H(L); pi(=yehe) H/H(LL); RA pii “seed”.

PARTH

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

Introduction The present vocabulary includes all lexical items that I reconstruct for PA. The vocabulary is arranged in the following order: a A d E (e) (e) g h (hd) (hr) H i (!) k m n o O (o) p (pr) r s t (tr) (ty) u ii y. I also provide an English index of the reconstructions. Proto-Ainu reconstruction is rendered in the same transcription as the HKD and SAKH dialects in Hattori Shiro’s dictionary (Hattori 1964], with several additional signs: [d] denotes voiced dental stop, [g] — voiced guttural stop, [E] renders the vowel more open than the corresponding [e], and [O] denotes the vowel more open than [o]. [A], [Y] and [e] represent non-front vowels corresponding to front vowels [a], [i] and [E]; [6] and [ii] denote front rounded vowels. [H] and [h] represent two different kinds of fricative laryngeals. Initial glottal stops are not transcribed, because they are automatic before a vowel. Internal glottal stops are rendered by [q] in the samples of modem Ainu as well as in reconstructions. If a word has a prefix it is given in the following dictionary under the prefix, but not the stem. If the morphological boundary is not clear, but is highly prob­ able, the sign of this boundary - is given in parentheses: (=).

*a *a=d[E]=hdan= “seven” (lit. “three-ten”) > Y ar=wan=pe L-H-L; HO ar=wan-pe L-H-L; SA ar-wan=pe LH-L; O ar=wan=pe L-H-L; B ar-wan=pe', A ar~wan=pe L-HL; N ar=wan-pe L-H-L; SO ar=wan=pe L-H-L; RA ara=wan=pe\ KT aru=wam=pe; KK arudn; KD arvam=pip BA aruwa, aruwan “seven”.

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RECONSCTRUCnON OF PROTO-AINU PHONOLOGY

PA ^atya “uncle” > Y aca LH; HO aca HL; SA aca HL, aca LH; O aca HL; A acapo HLL; N aca HL; RA acapo ; KD achipo “uncle”; BA acha “uncle”, “father”, “an old man”. 2) a word belongs to low prototonic class HL in SO and to the oxytonic class LH in all other dialects: PA *sunE “light”, “torch” > Y sune LH; SA sune LH; O sune LH; A sune LH; N sune LH; SO sune HL “light”, “lamp”. 3) O and A display oxytonic pattern LH, while all other dialects have low prototonic pattern HL: PA *turi “pole (for boats)” > Y turi HL; HO turi LH; SA turi HL; O turi LH; A turi LH; N turi HL; SO turi HL “pole (for boats)”. 4) Y, SA and O display oxytonic pattern LH and HO, A, N and SO have low prototonic pattern HL: PA *ya(=)ki “cicada” > Y yaki LH; HO yaki HL; SA yaki LH; O yaki LH; A ya 'ki, ya 'k'i HL; N yaki HL; SO yaki HL “cicada”. I also fail to reconstruct the PA accent for one RA two-mora word corresponding to one-mora word in HKD which is lowpitched on the stem and high-pitched on the suffix in Y and high-pitched on the stem and low-pitched on the suffix in SO: PA *pii “seed” > Y pi(=ye) H/L(H); HO pi(=ye) H/L(H); SA pi(=ye) H/L(H); O pi(-ye) H/L(H); A piyehe LHL; N pi(-yehe) H/L(HL); SO pi(=he) H/H(L); pi(=yehe) H/H(LL); RA pii “seed”.

PARTG

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

Introduction The present vocabulary includes all lexical items that I reconstruct for PA. The vocabulary is arranged in the following order: a A d E (e) (e) g h (hd) (hr) H i (!) k m n o 0 (o) p (pr) r s t (tr) (ty) u u y. I also provide an English index of the reconstructions. Proto-Ainu reconstruction is rendered in the same transcription as the HKD and SAKH dialects in Hattori Shiro's dictionary (Hattori 1964], with several additional signs: [d] denotes voiced dental stop, [g] — voiced guttural stop, [E] renders the vowel more open than the corresponding [e], and [O] denotes the vowel more open than [o]. [A], [i] and [e] represent non-front vowels corresponding to front vowels [a], [i] and [E]; [6] and [ii] denote front rounded vowels. [H] and [h] represent two different kinds of fricative laryngeals. Initial glottal stops are not transcribed, because they are automatic before a vowel. Internal glottal stops are rendered by [q] in the samples of modem Ainu as well as in reconstructions. If a word has a prefix it is given in the following dictionary under the prefix, but not the stem. If the morphological boundary is not clear, but is highly prob­ able, the sign of this boundary = is given in parentheses: (=).

*a

*a=d[E]=hdan= “seven” (lit. “three-ten”) > Y ar=wan=pe L-H-L; HO ar= wan=pe L-H-L; SA ar=wan=pe LH-L; O ar=wan=pe L-H-L; B ar=wan=pe; A ar=wan=pe L-HL; N ar-wan=pe L-H-L; SO ar=wan=pe L-H-L; RA ara-wan=pe; KT aru~wam=pe; KK arudn; KD arvam=pij\ BA aruwa, aruwan “seven”.

78

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

*a[t/C]-dus H-L “a kind of cloth” > Y attus( = i) HL/HL(L); HO attus HL; SA attus HL; O attus HL; B attus; A attus HL; N attus HL; SO attus HL; RA ahrus(=ihi) “a kind of cloth”; BA attush “a kind of cloth made from the inner bark of elm trees”. *aa “to sit” (sing.) > Y a H; HO a H; SA a H; O a H; B Y a=ne H-L; HO a=ne H-L; SA a=ne H-L; O a=ne H-L; B a=ne; A a=ne HL; N a-ne H-L; SO a=ne H-L; RA aa=ne; KT anetanepe “to be thin (and round)”; BA ane “thin”.

*aatya LLH “father” > Y acapo LLH; SO aca(-ha) LH/LH(L); RA aaca(=ha) “father”; BA acha “uncle”, “father”, “an old man”. ♦ad “to assemble” > Y u-qek=ar=i L-L-H-L, u=qek-ar-pa L-L-H-L; HO u=wek-ar-i L-H-L-L, u=wek=ar=pa L-H-L-L; SA u-wek-ar-pa L-H-L-L; O u~qek=ar=pa L-H-L-L; B u=qek-ar~pa; A u=wek=ar-i L-H-L-L; N u=wek=ar=i L-HL-L; SO u~wek=ar=pa L-H-L-L; RA w=eek-ar=i; KT at, w=ek=ar=i; BA u=wek=ar=i-re “to assemble”. ♦agi LL “arrow” > Y ay(=e) H/L(H); HO ay(=e) H/L(H); SA ay(=e) H/L(H); O ay H; B ay; A ay H; N ay H; SO ay H; RA ay; KT ai; KK akhi; BA ai “arrow”. ♦agu LL “tongue” > Y aw(-e) H/L(H); N awehe LHH; SO =ehe) H/LHH; RA aw(=ehe); KT aukh; KK akhu; KD av; BA au “tongue”. *agu= LH “to enter” > Y ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu=p LH (plur.); HO ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu=p LH (plur.); SA ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu-p LH (plur.); O ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu-p LH (plur.); B aqun; A ahu-n LH (sing.), ahu-p LH (plur.); N ahu=n LH (sing.), ahu-p LH (plur.); SO ahu=n LH; RA ahu=n, ahu=h(=p); KT aune; KV ityk=agun “do not enter” (sing.); BA ahu-n, ahu=p “to enter”. *ak L “younger brother” > Y ak(-i) H/L(H); HO ak(=i) H/L(H); SA ak(=i) H/L(H); O ak(=i) H/L(H); B ak(=i); A ak(=i) H/H(L); N ak H; SO ak(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA ahkapo(-ho); KT akibo; KK k=aki (k- ‘T\ “my”); KD akipu “younger brother**. ♦am L “fingernail” > Y am(-i) H/L(H); HO am(=i) H/L(H); SA am(-i) H/L(H); O am(=i) H/L(H); B am(=i); A am(-ihi) H/L(HL); N am H; SO am(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA am(=ihi) ; KT am; KD am; KV am, am-igir “fingernail**; BA am “finger or toe-nails”.

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

79

*ama LH “to take off’ > Y ama LH; HO ante HL; O use ama HL LH; B ama; A ama LH; N ama LH “to take off”. ♦amurnin LHL “fore]arm” > Y amunnin(-i) LHL/LHL(L) “forearm”; HO amunnin(-i) LHL/LHL(L) “forearm”; SA amunnin(=i) LHL/LHL(L) “arm”; 0 amunnin( = i) LHL/LHL(L) “forearm”; BA am un in “the lower part of the arm”, “the forearm”. *an=, *a= “I”. Ainu folklore texts use this pronoun instead of *ku=. BA an, a “I”. ♦an “to be born” > SA an H; A an H; KT uar-an “to be bom”. ♦an “to be”, “to exist”, “to dwell” (sing.) > Y an H; HO an H; SA an H; O an H; B an; A an H; N an H; SO an H; RA an “to be”, “to exist”, “to dwell” (sing.); KT an ; KD an=va “to be”, “to exist”; KV an=ua “is”, “there is”; BA an “to be”, “there is”. *an= L”to hold [in one’s arms]” > Y an-i L-H (sing.), an-pa H-L (plur.) “to hold [in one's arms]”, “to embrace someone”; HO an=i L-H (sing.), an=pa H-L (plur.) “to hold”; SA an-i L-H (sing.), an=pa H-L (plur.); 0 an=i L-H (sing.), an=pa H-L (plur.)”to hold [in one's arms]”, “to embrace someone”; B an-i; A an=i L-H (sing.), an=pa H-L (plur.); N an-pa H-L; SO an=i L-H (sing.); RA an-pa “to hold”; KD an-ig=i “to bring”; BA an=i “to hold or carry in the hands”. ♦an “night” > Y an=noski H-LL “midnight” (noski “middle”); HO an-noski H-LL; SA an=noski H-LL; O an=noski H-LL; B an=noski; A an-noski H-LL; N an-noski H-LL; SO an-cikar-noskeke H-LL-LLL; RA annoske, an=noski; KT ub-an=an=nochike “midnight”; BA an “night”, “black”, “dark”. ♦anun LH “stranger”, “outsider” > Y anun LH; HO anun LH; SA anun LH; B anun; A anun LH; N anun LH; SO anun^kur LHL; RA anun aynu “stranger”, “outsider”; KD anun[g]-kor=p “thing belonging to another person”; BA anun “another person”. ♦apa LL “doorway” > Y apa(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO apa LH; SA apa LH; O apa LH; B apa; A apa LH; N apa LH; SO apa LH; RA apa=cara “doorway”; KT abushita; KD aba; KV abusta “door”; BA apa “doorway”, “entrance”. ♦apE ( Y ape LH; HO ape LH; SA ape LH; O ape LH; B ape; A ape LH; N ape LH; SO ape LH; KT abe, ape, apoi; KK api; KD obi; KV abie; BA abe “fire”.

80

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

*apkas HL “to walk” > Y apkas HL; HO apkas HL; SA ap­ kas HL; O apkas HL; B apkas; A apkas HL; N apkas HL; SO apkas HL; RA ahkas; KT apkoshi “to walk”; KD apkasi “to enter”; BA apkash “to walk”. *aptO HL “rain” > HO apto HL; SA apto HL; N apto HL; RA ahto “rain”; KV apto “thunderstorm”; BA apto “rain”. *aqu HL “next”, “neighbour” > Y aw=ta HL “next [door to]”, ay^-un cise HL LH “the house next door”; HO aw=ta HL “next [door to]”; SA aw=ta HL “next [door to]”, aw=un cise HL LH “the house next door”; O aw=ta HL “next [door to]”; B aw~ta “next [door to]”, aw=un=cise “the house next door”; A aw^ta HL “next [door to]”, “the house next door”; N aw=ta HL “next [door to]”; SO awtan cise HL LH “the house next door”, aw-ta HL “next [door to]”; RA aw=ta HL “next [door to]”, aquru=qun cise “the house next door”. *ar(=)tE (*ar=dE ?) H-L “to hang (it)” > HO atte HL; SA atte HL; O atte HL; B atte; A atte HL; N atte HL; SO atte HL; RA ahte ; KD aty “to hang (it)”; BA atte “to hang up”, “to suspend”. *arka HL “painful”, “sore”, “hurting” > Y arka HL; HO arka HL; SA arka HL; O arka HL; B arka; A arka HL; N arka HL; SO arka HL; RA araka “painful”, “sore”, “hurting”; KD arki “illness”; KV arga^va “aches”, arga=gur “sick person”; BA araka “to ache”, “to be in pain”. *arki HL “to come” (plur.) > Y arki HL; HO arki HL; SA arki HL; O arki HL; B arki; A arki HL; N arki HL; SO arki HL; RA ariki; BA ariki “to come” (plur.). *as “to stand [up]” (sing.) > Y as H “to stand [up]”; HO as H “to stand”; SA as H “to stand [up]”; O as H; B as “to stand”; A as H; N as H; SO etaras LHL “to stand [up]”; RA etaras; KT ashee, ash ; KK k=an=i=Ga k=asi=una “I am standing”; KD asieni “to stand”; BA ash “to stand”, “to appear”, “to arise”. *as=i L-H “to close [it]” > Y as=i L-H “to close (it); HO as H “to become closed”; S A as H “to become closed”; O as=i LH “to close (it), as H “to become closed”; B as=i “to close (it), as “to become closed”;; SO as=i L-H “to close (it); RA as=i “to close (it); KT aba a'shi “close the door”; BA oshi “to close (it)” *asir LH “to be new” > Y asir LH; HO asir LH; SA asir LH; O asir LH; B asir, A asir LH; N asir LH; SO asir LH; RA asiri; KT ashiri “to be new”; KD asir=p ; BA ashiri “new”. *askay HL “to be skillful”, “to be able” > Y e=askay LHL; HO askay HL; SA askay HL; O askay HL; B askay; A

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

81

e-askay L-HL; N askay HL; SO e-askay L-HL; RA askay “to be skillful”, “to be able”; KV k-askaj “I learnt it”; BA ashkai “able”, “clever”, “adroit”, “capable”. *askE HL “hand” > HO aske HL “hand” (in compounds), aske-pet HLL “finger”; SA aske=pet HLL; O aske-pet HLL; B aske=pet; A aske=pet HLL; N aske=pet HLL; SO aske=pet HLL; KT ashikibit; KD askipit “finger”; BA ashke “hand”. *aski HL Z*asik LH “five” > Y asik-ne-p LH-L; HO asik-ne=p LH-L, aski=ne-p HL-L; SA asik LH, asik=ne=p LH-L; O asik=ne=p LH-L; B asik-ne-p; A asik=ne-p LH-L; N asik-ne=p LH-L; SO asi[k]=ne=p LH-L; RA as=ne=h; KT ash'ki=ne=p, ash'ki~me=p; KK asik; KD aski=ni=p; BA ashik=ne, ash=ne, ashik=ne=p “five” (possibly related to *askE HL “hand”). *asnap HL “paddle” > Y assap HL; SA assap HL; O asnap HL; B asnap; A asnap HL; N asnap “paddle”; BA ashnap, as­ nap, assap “oar”. *at “Ulmus laciniata” (“elm tree”) > Y at-ni H-L; HO at=ni H-L; SA at H, at-ni H-L; B at=ni; A at=ni H-L; N at-ni H-L; SO at ni H H; RA ahni “Ulmus laciniata”; BA at “elm tree”. *atu LH “to vomit” > Y atu LH, e=atu LLH; HO atu LH, e-atup LHL; SA atu LH, e=atu LHL; O atu LH, e=atu LHL; B atu , e-atu ; A atu LH, e=atup LHL; N atu LH, e=atu LHL; SO atu LH; BA atu “to vomit”. *atusa LLH “naked”, “bare” > Y atusa LLH; HO atusa LHL; SA atusa LHL; 0 B atusa; A atusa LHL; N atusa LHL; SO atusa LHL “naked”, “bare”; BA atusa “naked”. *atuy LL “sea” > Y atuy LH; HO atuy LH; SA atuy LH; O atuy LH; B atuy; A atuy LH; N atuy LH; SO atuy LH; RA atuy; KT atuika; KK atujkd; KD atujka; KV atuj=ga “sea”; BA atui “sea”, “ocean”. *atya (accent pattern is not clear) “uncle” > Y aca LH; HO aca HL; SA aca HL, aca LH; O aca HL; A acapo HLL; N aca HL; RA acapo ; KD achipo “uncle”; BA acha “uncle”, “father’’, “an old man”. *ay L ( < *agi LL if related to *agi “arrow”) “thorn” > Y ay(=e) H/L(H); HO ay(=e) H/L(H); SA ay(=e) H/L(H); A ni-ay H-L; N ay H; SO ay H; RA nii=ay “thorn”; BA ai “thorns of plants, generally of the smaller kind”. *aykap HL “to be unskillful”, “to be unable” > Y e-aykap L-HL; HO e=aykap L-HL; SA aykap HL; O aykap HL; B aykap; A e=aykap L-HL; N e-aykap L-HL; SO

82

PROTO-AINU VOCABULARY

e-aykap L-HL; RA aykah(=p) “to be unskillful”, “to be unable”; BA aikap “to be unable”, “awkward”, “unskillful”. ♦aynu HL (< * a(n)=inu ?) “person”, “man (in gen­ eral)” > Y aynu HL; HO aynu HL; SA aynu HL; O aynu HL; B aynu; A aynu HL; N aynu HL; SO aynu HL; RA aynu; KT aino “person”, “man (in general)”; KK aind; KD ajno, aino “person”; BA ainu “man”.

*A *Am=a ( < Am=u) * L-H “to put (it)” (sing). > Y ama LH; HO ama LH; 0 ama LH; B ama; A ama LH; N ama LH; SO ama LH; RA ama; KD amma “to put (it)”; BA ama “to put”, “to place”. *Am=dE “to put (it)” (plur.) > Y a=re H-L (accent pattern shows that first syllable might be a closed one); HO an-te am=te) * (< H-L; SA a-ri H-L; 0 a-re H-L “to put (it)” (plur.); BA are, ande “to put”, “to place”. *Am(=)Am L(-)H “rice” > Y am = am L-H; HO si=y=am=am L-H-L; SA si=y-amam L-H-L; 0 amam L-H; B am=am; A am=am L-H; N am-am L-H; SO am=am L-H; RA am=am(=uhu); KT am=am a “rice”; BA amam, amama “cereals, such as rice, millet, wheat, barley”. *Ap L “ice drift” > Y ap H; HO apu LH; N apu LH; SO apu LH; RA apu “ice drift”; BA apu, abu “sea ice”. *AsAm LL “bottom”, “depths” > Y asam LH, asam-a=ke LL-H-L; HO asam(=a) LH/LH(L); SA asam(=a) LH/LH(L); 0 asam(-a) LH/LH(L); B asam(-a); A asam(-a) LH/LH(L); N asam LH; SO asam LH; RA asam(=aha) “bottom”, “depths”; BA asam, asama “bottom”, “foundation”. ♦At L “string”, “cord” > Y at(=u) H/L(H); HO at H; SA at(=u) H/L(H); O atu LH; B at(=u); A atuhu LHL; N atu LH; SO num=at L-H; RA atuhu “string”, “cord”; BA “elm fibre”, “string” (cf. * at “elm tree”).

*d ♦daarak HLL “smooth” > Y rarak HL; HO rarak HL; SA rarak HL; A rarak HL; N rarak HL; SO rarak HL; RA raarah(=k); NA taarak; KD rarak “smooth”; BA rarak “slippery”, “smooth”.

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♦day H “to die” (*day=kE HL “to kill” (sing.) = “to die” + cans.) > Y ray H; HO ray H; SA ray H; O ray H; B ray; A ray H; N ray H; SO ray H; RA ray; NA toy; KT rai “to die”; KK rai “to loll”; BA rai “to die” (lit “to make die”). *dE= “three” > Y re=p H; HO re=p H; SA re=p H; O re=p H; B re-p; A re=p H; N re=p H; SO re-p H; RA re-h, reh=pis; NA te=p-pis; KT ree-bichi, re=bichi; KK rie=p "three”; KD re-nich “three persons”, ri=bich “three”; BA re “three”, re=p “three things”. *dEE HL “name” > Y re(=he) H/H(L); HO re(=he) H/H(L); SA re(=he) H/H(L); O re(=he) H/H(L); B re; A rehe HL; N re H; SO re(=he) H/H(L); RA ree; NA tee; KV rie; BA rei, reihei “name”. ♦dEEra HLL “wind” > Y rera HL; HO rera HL; SA rera HL; O rera HL; B rera; A rera HL; N rera HL; SO rera HL; RA reera; NA teera; KT re'ra, reara; KK kieierd (initial [k-] is probably a mistake); KD rer; KV riera; BA rera “wind”. *dE=kut L-L “neck” > Y rekut(=ci) LH/ LL(H); HO rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); SA rekut(-ci) LH/LH(L); B rekut(=ci); A rekut(=ci) LH/LH(L); N rekut(-ci) LH/LH(L); SO rekut(-cihi) LH/LH(LL); RA rekuh(=cihi); NA tekuh “neck”; KV pi=gut; BA rekuchi “throat”. *dE(=)tar L(-)H “white” > Y retar LH; HO retar LH; SA re­ tar LH; O retar LH; B retar; A retar LH; N retar LH; SO retar LH; RA tetara; NA tetara; KT retara “white”; KK rUtanoo “white”; KD reta=ceri “white bird”; KV rietar; BA retara, tetara “white”. *du=p L “ice” > Y kon-ru H-L; HO kon^ru H-L, rup (in compounds; accent is not indicated); SA kon=ru H-L; O kon=ru H-L; B kon-ru; A kon=ru H-L; N kon=ru H-L, rup H; SO rup H; RA ruh(-pihi); NA tup ; KT kon=ru “ice”; KD rup=us “to freeze”; KV kon=ro “ice”, rupus “frozen” (for the reconstruction of the accent consider rup=us LH “to freeze”). ♦dus L “skin”, “fur” > Y rus(=i) H/L(H); HO rus H; SA rus(=i) H/L(H); O rus(=i) H/L(H) “fur”; B rus(=i) “fur”, “skin”; A rus H; N rus H; SO rus H; RA rus(=ihi) “for”; NA tus “fur”, “skin”; KT rushi; KD rus “skin”; BA rush “the skins of animals”.

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*E

*E= L “you” (sing.) > Y e-an=i L-L-H; HO e=an=i L-H-L; SA e=an=i L-H-L; O e-an=i L-H-L; B e=an-i; A e-an=i L-HL; N e=an=i L-H-L; SO e=an=i L-H-L; RA e~an=i\ KT ane, aani, e "you” (sing.); KD ant; KK ie= (j^=asi-ana “you are standing’5; KV ie=; BA e=, e=ani “you”. *E=ak L-H “to shoot” > Y e^qak L-H; SA e=qak L-H; O e=qak L-H; B e=qak\ SO e-y-ak L-H; RA e=qah(-k) “to shoot”; BA eak “to shoot at”. *E=kan=hOk L-H-L “to go out to meet a person on his way” > Y e=kan=hok L-H-L; HO e-kan-ok L-H-L; SA e=kan~ok L-H-L; RA e-kan-uh(=k) “to go out to meet a per­ son on his way”; BA ekanok “to go to meet”. ♦E(=)qEn (*E(=)gEn ?) L(-)H “to be sharp-pointed” > Y eqen LH; HO eqen LH; SA eqen LH; O eqen LH; B eqen', A eqen LH; N eqen LH; SO etokoho eqen=ke LHLL LH-L; RA eqen-ke “to be sharp-pointed”; BA een “sharp”. *E=rusa L-LH “to lend”, “to loan” > Y e=rusa L-LH; HO e=rusa L-HL; SA e=rusa L-HL; O e=msa L-HL; B e=rusa, A e=i-rusa L-H-LL; N e=rusa L-HL; SO e-rusa kar (kar “to make”); RA e-rusa=kara “to lend”, “to loan”; BA erusa “to lend”. *E=si(=)kar(=)un L-L(-)H(-)L “to recall (it)”, “to re­ member (it)”, “to recollect (it)” > Y e=sikarun LLHL; HO e~sikarun LHLL; SA e-sikarun LHLL; O e=sikarun LHLL; B e-sikarun', A e=skarun HLL; N e-sikarun LHLL; SO e=a=e=ram-sikarun~ka L-H-L-L-LLL-L; RA e=sikarun “to recall (it)”, “to remember (it)”, “to recollect (it)”; BA eshikarun “to call to mind”, “to remember”, “to keep in mind”, “to feel anxious about”. *E=siina L-LLH “to conceal”, “to keep secret” > Y e=sina L-LH; HO e-sina L-HL; SA e-sina L-HL; O e=sina LHL; B e=sina; A e=sina L-HL; N e-sina L-HL; RA e=siina “to conceal”, “to keep secret”; BA eshina “to deny”, “to bind up”, “to keep secret”, “to hide (as one's fault)”. *E=sOO “to borrow” > Y e=so=se (accent ?); HO soho se HL H; SA e-so=quk L-H-L; O e-so-se L-H-L; B e=so=atte; A e=so-se L-H-L; N e=so=se L-H-L; SO soho kor HL H; RA e=soo=kooro, e-so-uh, so=ahte “to borrow”; BA shosei, shohosei, shosei=kara “to borrow”.

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*E=tay= L-L “to pull” > Y e-tay=e L-L-H; HO e~tay=e LH-L; SA e-tay=e L-H-L; O e=tay~e L-H-L; B e=tay=e; A e=tay=e L-H-L (sing.), e=tay=pa (plur.); N e-tay-e L-H-L; SO e=ta[y]=e L-H-L; RA ya=qe=tay~e; KD etai “to pull”; BA etaye “to draw out”, “to abduce”, “to extract”, “to pull away from”, “to pull off’. *E(=)tin(=)kE LHL “tortoise” > Y ecinke LHL; HO ecinke LHL; SA ecinke LHL; B ecinke=matunki; A ecinke—w LHL; N ecinke=w LHL; BA echinge “tortoise”. *E=tun L-H “to borrow” > Y e-tun L-H; HO e-tun L-H; SA e=tun L-H; O e^tun L-H; B e=tun; A e=tun L-H; N e=tun L-H; SO e-tun L-H; BA etun “to borrow”. *EE “to eat (it)” > Y e H; HO e H; SA e H; O e H; B e; A e H; N e H; SO e H; RA ee; KT i^b^e “to eat (it)”; KD i=p_j£=riekar “food”; KV i=b=i “eat”; BA e “to eat”. *Eg “to come” (sing.) > Y ek H; HO ek H; SA ek H; O ek H; B ek; A ek H; N ek H; RA eh(=k) “to come”; KT eke “come”; KV egie “go”, iegien “goes”; BA ek, eshi ( < *egi) “to come”. *Ekasi (*Ekagi/*Ekahi ?) LLH “old man”, “grandfather” > Y ekasi LLH; HO ekasi LHL; SA ekasi LHL; O ekasi LHL; B ekasi; A ekas HL; N ekasi LHL; SO ekasi LHL; RA ekas(=ihi) “old man”; BA ekashi “an ancient”, “grandfather”, “ancestors”. ♦EmkO HL “half’ > Y emko HL; SA emko(=ho) HL/HL(L); O emko HL; B onko; A emko HL; N emko HL; SO enkokehe HLLL; RA enkokehe “half’; BA emko “half’, “part”. *Emus LL “sword” > Y emus(-ihi) LH/LL(HL); HO emus LH; SA emus LH; O emus LH; B emus; A emus LH; N emus LH; SO emus LH; RA emus(-ihi) ; BA emush, emushi “sword”. *Epa LH “to arrive”, “to reach” > Y sir-epa L-LH, epa LH; SA sir-epa L-HL; O sir=epa L-HL; B sir-epa; A sir=epa L-HL; N sir=epa L-HL; SO sir-epa L-HL; RA sir=epa “to ar­ rive”, “to reach”; BA epa “to reach to”, “to attain to”. *Epir[V] LL[L] “knife” > A epirikep LHLL “small knife used to cut herrings”, N epirkep LHL “knife used to cut her­ rings”; SO epirkep LHL “knife used by women to cut fish”; SAKH Siraura epiripeh “big knife”, KT eperaniki “small knife”; KK epird “small knife”; KD epera “big knife”; KV ebira “small knife”. *Epuy LH “sprout”, “bud”, “flower” > Y epuy LH; HO ni-qepuy H-LL; O ni epuy-ke H LH-L “sprout”, “bud”; B

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epuy-ke “flower”, ni=qepuy “sprout”, “bud”; A ni=qepuy HLL “sprout”, “bud”, epuy LH “flower”; N epuy LH “flower”; SO ni-qepuy L-HL 'sprout”, “bud”; RA epuy “flower”, “bud of flower”; BA epui “bud”, epui=ke, epui=ge “flower”. *ErEkus (* erekus ?) LLH “cod fish” > Y erekus LLH; HO erekus LHL; SA erekus LHL; O erekus LHL; B erokus; RA erekus(=ihi); KT erekush; KD ierikus; BA eregush, heregush “cod fish”. *Erum HH “mouse” > Y erum HL; HO erum HL; SA ermu HL; O erumun LHL; A erum HL; N erum HL; SO erumun LHL; KK iermil; KD ierumu; KV erumu “mouse”; BA erum, erem, eremu “rat”. *Esaman LLH “otter” > Y esaman LLH; HO esaman LHL; SA esaman LHL; O esaman LHL; B esaman; A esaman LHL; N esaman LHL; SO esaman LHL; BA esaman “otter”. *Esna HL “sneeze” > Y esna HL; HO esna HL; SA esna HL; O esna HL; B esna; A esna HL; N esna HL; SO esna HL; RA esna “sneeze”; KD jesna; BA eshna “to sneeze”. *Eti= LL “you” (plur.) > Y eci=qokay LL-HL; HO eci-qokay LH-LL; SA eci=qoka LL-LH; O eci=qokay LL-LH; B eci-qokay; RA eco-qoka, eci~qokay=ahcin; KT ech=oka ; KK ieinkiech=; KD iechokaj; KV iechogaj “you” (plur.); BA echi, echi=utara “ye”. *EtOp LL “hair” > Y etop(=i) LH/LL(H); H otop(=i) LH/LH(L); SA otop(=i) LH/LH(L); O otop(=i) LH/LH(L); B otop(=i); A otop LH; N otop LH; SO otop(-ihi) LH/LH(LL) “hair on the head”; KD iuk otop “reindeer fur”, otap “fur”; BA otop “hair of the head”. *Etu LL “nose” > Y etu(=hu) LH/LL(H); HO etu(=hu) LH/LH(L); SA etu(=hu) LH/LH(L); O etu(=hu) LHZLH(L); B etu; A etu(=hu) LH/LH(L); N etu LH; SO etu(-hu) (accent?); RA etu; KT etu; KK ietU; KD ietu; KV etu; BA etu “nose”.

*g *ga=ita “not enough”, “lacking” > HO hayta HL; SA hayta HL; O hayta HL; B hayta; A hayta HL; N hayta HL; SO hayta HL; RA hayta “not enough”, “lacking”; BA haita “to come short of \ “to decrease”, “to be insufficient”. *gaa(=)pO HH(-)L “mother” (*=pO may be a suffix, cf. Y aca=po , SO aca “father”) > Y hapo HL; HO hapo HL; SA hapo HL; O hapo HL; B hapo; A hapo HL; N hapo HL; SO

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hapo LH “mother”; KT habo “elder sister”; KK aapu; KD aapu, apu; BA habo “mother”. ♦gaatir HLL “to fall [down]” > HO hacir HL; SA hacir HL; O ha[tjcir HL; B hacir, A hatcir HL; N hacir HL; SO hacir HL; RA haaciri “to fall [down]”; KT haachinraan “to fall”; KD achiri “to throw down”, “to drop”; BA hachiri “to fall down”, “to tumble” (sing.), hachiripa “to fall down” (plur.). *gan=kE H-L “to be near” > Y han=ke H-L; HO han-ke H-L; SA han-ke H-L; O han-ke H-L; B han=ke; A han=ke HL; N han-ke H-L; SO han-ke H-L; RA e=han-ke “to be near”; BA hange, e=hange, hanken “near”. *gAnku HL Y haw(-e) H/L(H); HO haw(=e) H/L(H); SA haw(=e) H/L(H); O haw(=e) H/L(H); B haw(=e), aw(e) ; A haw(=e) H/L(H); N haw( = e) H/L(H); SO haw(=ehe) (accent?); RA haw(-ehe); KT hau; KD av; KV kau ; BA hau “voice”. *gar=ke H-L “left” > Y har=ke H-L; HO har=ki H-L; SA har-ki H-L; O har-ki H-L “left”; B har=ki=sam “left side”; A o-har=ki=sam=tek L-H-L-L-L; N har-ki H-L; SO hari-ki HLL; RA hari=ki; KT hari-ki=tek=i; KD arki; KV argi; BA hariki “left”. *=gayta HL “to make a mistake” > Y e=hayta L-HL, u=hayta L-HL; B u-ayta=re; A u=hayta L-HL; N u-hayta LHL; SO u- hayta L-HL; RA u=hayta=re; BA uhaitare “to make a mistake”. ♦gEEsE HLL “to breathe” > Y hese HL; HO hese HL; SA hese HL; O hese HL; B hese; A hese HL; N hese HL; SO hese HL; RA heese “to breathe” ; KV kiejsi “[he] sighed”, giejsi “[he] sighs”; BA hese “to breathe”. *gEm=an=ta (*hEmanta ?) L-H-L “what” > HO hemanta LHL; SA hemanta LHL; SO hemata LHL; RA hemata “what”; KV giemat “which”; BA hemanda “what”. *gEm=pa=ra “when” > Y henpara HLL; HO henpara HLL; SA henpara HLL; O (?) nenpara HLL; B (?) nenpara; A henpara HLL; N henpara HLL; SO (?) nenpara HLL; RA henpara “when”. *gEm=pak=pE “how many” > Y henpakpe HLL; HO hen­ pakpe HLL; SA henpakpe HLL; O (?) nenpakpe HLL; B (?)

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nenpakpe; A henpakpe HLL; N henpakpe HLL; SO (?) nenpakpe HLL; RA henpahpe ; BA hempak “how many”. *gik/*gek “to be bom” > Y hek=at=u LLH; HO hek=at-u LHL; B sik qo; A sik-o HL; N sik=o HL; SO sik=o HL; RA sik=ak(-k); BA hek=at~u, shik-o=re, shik=at “to be bom” (related to *gik(=)nu and *gik(=)up ?). *gik(=)nu (*sik(=)nu/*hik(=)nu ?) H-L “to be alive”, “to live” > Y siknu HL “to revive”; HO siknu waqan HL LH; SA siknu waqan HL LH; O siknu HL; B siknu; A siknu HL; N siknu HL; SO siknu HL; RA sisnu kusuqan “to be alive”; BA shiknu “to be alive”, “to live” (related to *gik and *gik(=)up ?). *gik(=)up (*sik(=)up/*hik(=)up ?) L-H “to grow up” > Y sikup LH; HO sikup LH “to grow up”; SA sukup LH “young”; O B sikup; A sukup LH; N sukup LH; SO sikup LH; RA sukuh(-k) “to grow up”; BA shukup “growing” (related to *gik and *gik(=)nu ?). *gita LH ( < *LL ? cf. accent in KK ) “dog” > Y seta LH; HO seta LH; SA seta LH; O seta LH; B sita; A seta LH; N seta LH; SO seta LH; RA seta; KT shita, shitai, sheta; KK stapU (< seta=po (Murayama 1971,107) or sita=po); KD sta (< sita); KV sta=mik=chi “dogs are barking”; BA seta; MO HIDA, HETA “dog”. *gOk “to buy” > Y hok H; HO hok H; SA hok H; O hok H; B hok; AhokH;N hok H; SO hok H; RA hoh(=k) ; KD yoki ( Y ni=hom(=i) HL/H-L(L) “knot”, top=hom H-L “joint of bamboo” (top “bamboo”); HO ni^hom H-L; SA ni=hom H-L; O ni=hom HL; A ni-hom H-L; N ni=hom H-L; SO ni horn H H “knot”, top hom H H “joint of bamboo”; RA hom=oqusi; BA horn, kom “knot”. *gOn L “belly”, “stomach” > Y hon(=i) H/L(H); HO hon(=i) H/L(H); SA hon(=i) H/L(H); O hon(=i) H/L(H); B honi/oni; N hon(=i) H/L(H); A honi HL; SO hon(-ihi) H/L(HL); RA hon(=ihi) “belly”, “stomach”; BA honi “the belly”, “the abdomen”. *gOOr=nE “to be loose” > Y honne HL; HO honne HL; SA honne HL; O honne HL; RA hoone “to be loose”. *gop=nE H-L “to be narrow” > Y hut= ne H-L; HO hut=ne H-L; SA hut-ne H-L; O hut-ne H-L; B hup=ne; A hup=ne HL; N hup=ne H-L; SO o=hot=ne L-H-L; RA o-hoh=ne “to be narrow”; BA hutne “narrow”.

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*gOqinu LHL “marten” > Y hoynu HL; HO hoqinu LHL; SA hoynu (?) HL; O hoynu HL “marten”; B oynuy “black marten”; A hoynu HL; N hoynu HL; RA hoynu “marten”; BA hoinu “marten”, “sable”. *gOr(x)ka H(-)L “to be inverted”, “to be upside down” > Y horka HL; HO e-horka L-HL; SA e=horka LHL; O e-horka L-HL; B e=horka; A e=horka L-HL; N e=horka L-HL; SO e-horka L-HL; RA horoka, e-horoka “to be inverted”, “to be upside down”; KD khorga, khorka “to the back”; BA horoka, e-horoka “backwards”, “turned backwards’* * *back** *gOr(=)kEqu H(=)LL “wolf’ > Y horkew HL; HO horkew HL; SA horkew HL; B horkew; A horkew HL; N horkew HL; RA horokew; KK orGiu; KD orkiu; KV gorgieu; BA horokeu “wolf. *gOr=sE H-L “to rot”, “to decay”, “rotten” > Y hor=se H-L; SA hor=se H-L; O hor=se H-L; B hos=se; A hos=se HL “to rot”, “to decay”, “rotten”; KD khorsi=va, orsi “sour”, “acid”; BA horose “stale”, “stinking”, “rotten*’. *gOs(=)ki= H(-)L “before”, “previous” > Y hoski- HL; HO hosk-an H-L; SA hoski- HL; O hoski-an HL-L; B hoski^an; A hoski=an HL-L; N hoski- HL; SO hoski=an HLL; RA hoski= ; KD oskoin “before”, “previous”; BA hoshiki, hoshike “last”, “former”, “previous”, “before”. *gOt “twenty” > Y hot H; HO hot H; SA hot H; O hot H; B hot; A tu=hot L-H; N hot H; SO tu-hot L-H; RA hoh=ne; KT howat; KD ot “twenty”; BA hot, hot=ne “twenty”, “score”. *gOt=kE H-L “to lie down” > Y hotke HL; HO hotke HL; SA hotke HL; O hokke HL; B hokke; A hotke HL; N hotke HL; SO hotke HL; RA hohke “to lie down”; KV khokkie “is lying down”; BA hotke, hokke “to lie down”, “to go to bed”. *gOtku HL “to stoop” > Y hotku HL; HO hotku HL; SA hotku HL; O hotku HL “to bend completely”; A hotkuku HLL; N hotku HL “to stoop”; BA hotku “to stoop down”. *gu H “to be living (of a plant)” > Y hu H; SA hu H; hu-ni=ne H-L-L; O hu H; B hu; A hu H; N hu H “to be living” (of a plant)”. May be *gu[u] HL (?), cf. *guu. RA data are lacking. *gum L “sound”, “noise” > Y hum( = i) H/L(H); HO hum(=i) H/L(H); SA hum(=i) H/L(H); O hum(=i) H/L(H); B hum(-i); A hum(=i) H/L(H); N hum H; SO hum(-ihi) H/L(HL); RA hum(=ihi); KT hum “sound”, “noise”; KD

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um=ki “to resound”, “to echo”; KV gumi-gutik “rumble”; BA hum, humi -“sound”. *gun(=)pE H(-)L “whale” > Y hunpe HL; SA hunpe HL; O hunpe HL; B hunpe; RA hunpe “whale”. *gun=pa “to chop (it)”, “to mince (it)” > Y hun=pa H-L; HO hun-pa H-L; SA hun-pa H-L; O hun=pa H-L; B hun=pa; A hun=pa=hun=pa H-L-L-L; N hun=pa H-L; SO hun-pa HL; RA hun=pa; KD umpa “to chop (it)”, “to mince (it)”; BA humba “to grate”, “to cut into very fine pieces”, “to cut up”. *gunAr= LL “to seek (it)”, “to look for” > Y hunara LLH; HO hunara LHL; SA hunara LHL; A hunara LHL; N hunara LHL; RA hunara “to seek (it)”, “to look for”; BA hunara (sing.), hunarapa (plur.) “to search for”, “to seek”. *gu[n]na HL “who” > SA hunna HL, KV gunat “who”. *gup L “to swell”, “swelling” > Y hup H “to swell”, hup(-i) H/L(H) “swelling”; HO hup H “to swell”, hup(=i) H/L(H) “swelling”; SA hup H “to swell”, hupo HL “swelling”; O hup H “to swell”; B hup “to swell”; A hup H “to swell”, “swelling”; N hup H “to swell”, “swelling”; SO hup H “to swell”; RA huh(-p) “to swell”, huhpe “big swelling”; BA hup “a swelling”, “a boil”, “an abcess”. *gur H “mountain”, “hill” > Y hur(=u) H/H(L); SA hur H “hill”; KV gur “mountain”; BA huru,furu “hill”. *gura HH “smell” > Y hura HL; HO hura HL; SA hura HL; O hura HL; B hura; A hura HL; N hura HL; SO hura(=ha) LH(L); RA hura; KT hura,fura; KD ur “smell”; KV gurat-va “[it] stinks”. ♦gurti HL “old woman”, “grandmother” > Y hutci HL; HO huci HL; SA huci HL; O huci HL; B huci; A huci HL; N huci HL; SO huci HL “old woman”; BA huchi, huji “grandmother”, “old woman”, “female ancestors”. *guskO HL (lo be old” > Y husko HL; HO husko HL; SA husko HL; O husko HL; B husko; A husko HL; N husko HL; SO husko HL; RA husko; KT hosuko, hushiko; BA fushko “to be old”. *guu “to be raw”, “to be fresh” > Y hu H; HO hu H; SA hu H; O hu H; B hu; A hu H; N hu H; SO hu H; RA huu “to be raw”, “to be fresh”; BA/u “raw”, “green”. •guurE HLL “red” > Y hure HL; HO hure HL; SA hure HL; O hure HL; B hure; A hure HL; N hure HL; SO hure HL; RA huure; KT hure, hu're; KK ura= titkiva “red”; KD ur^erum “red mouse”; KV guru=tkie; BA jure, hure “red”.

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*guy (? *huy) L “cheek of the fish” > Y huy H; HO Auyf=e) H/L(H); N huy H “cheek of the fish”.

*h ♦hapur LH “to be weak”, “to be soft” > Y hapur LH; HO hapur LH; SA hapur LH; O apur LH; B apur, A apur LH; N apur LH; RA hapuru “to be weak”, “to be soft”; KD apur “soft”; BA hapuru “soft”, “gentle”, “quiet”. *haram LH “lizard” > Y haram LH; HO haram LH; SA haram LH; B haram; A aram LH; N omarrap LHL(?< aram=ap); SO homarurap LHLL (? < horamurap); BA haram “lizard”. *hayOk=pE LH-L “armour” > Y hayokpe(=he) LHL/LHL(L); HO hayokpe LHL; SA hayokpe LHL; B ayoppe; A hayoppe LHL; N ayoppe LHL; SO hayoppe LHL “armour”; RA hayuhpe “upper and lower parts of the body”; KT haiyoku 'pe “armour”; BA hayok “to shield”, hayok-pe, hayok^ne “armour”. *hdak=ka HL “water” > Y wakka HL; HO wakka HL; SA wakka HL; O wakka HL; B wakka; A wakka HL; N wakka HL; SO wakka HL; RA wahka; KT wakka “water”; BA wakka, aka “water” (cf. sesek=ka “hot water”, “to boil water” derived from sesek “to be hot”). *hdan= H “ten” > Y wan-pe HL; HO wan=pe HL; SA wan-pe HL; O wan-pe HL; A wan-pe HL; N wan-pe HL; SO wan=pe (accent?); RA wan=pe; KT wam=be; KK =uam, =van; KD vam=pij "ten”; KLAP ihguoen “six” (cf. Common Ainu i=wan “six”, lit “four=ten”); BA wan, wa “ten”. *hdatara LLH “stone”,’’cliff’ > Y watara LLH “stone”; KD vatar “cliff*; BA watara “rock”, “cliff’. *hdEn “to be bad” > Y wen H; HO wen H; SA wen H; O wen H; B wen; A wen H; N wen H; SO wen H; RA wen; KT wen “to be bad”; KK siruGen “rain” (lit. “weather [is] bad); KD vyn=kamuj “devil”, vyn “bad”; KV vyn-kamuj “devil” (lit “bad god”); BA wen “bad”, “evil”, “poor”. ♦hdOO “span of the thumb and first finger” > Y wo H; SA wo H; O wo H; O wo H; B mowo; A wo H; N wo H; RA woo; BA wowo, wo “span of the thumb and first finger”. ♦hEkati LLH “child” > Y hekaci LLH; HO hekattar LHL; SA hekattar LHL; O ekaci LHL; B ekaci; A ekattar LHL; N

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ekattar LHL; SO hekaci LHL; RA hekaci “child”; BA heikachi, hekachi^\ “boy*’. *h[E/e]ma(=)ka (*g[E/e]ma(=)ka ?) LH(-)L “to end” > HO hemaka LHL “to end”; N hemaka LHL “to stop (it)”; RA hemaka “to end”; BA hemaka “to finish”. *hEmOy LH “trout” > Y hemoy LH; O emoy LH; B emoy, A emoy LH; N emoy LH; SO hemoy LH; RA hemoy “trout”; BA hemoi “salmon found in the sea before entering the rivers”. *hEpEr LH “bear cub” > Y heper LH; HO heper LH; SA heper LH; O eper LH; BA hepere “bear cub”. *hErOki LLH “herring” > Y heroki LLH; HO heroki LHL; SA heroki LHL; O eroki LHL; B eroki; A eroki LHL; N eroki LHL; SO heroki LHL; RA herohki; KT heroki; BA heroki, heruki, eroki “herring”. *hO “pubic area”(?) > Y ho=numa LLH “pubic h^f\numa “hair”); HO ho-numa(=ha) LHL; SA ho=numa LHL; O o-numa LHL; B o=numa; A o-numa LHL; N o=numa LHL; SO ho~numa(~ha) HLL; RA o=numa(-ha) “pubic hair”; BA ho “the anus”, “vagina”. *hO(=)rip= L(-)H/L(-)L (?) “to dance” > Y horip=pa LH-L; SA horip^pa LH-L; N orip-pa LH-L; SO horip-i LHL; RA horip=i “to dance”. *hO(=)rOp[=sE] LH[-L] “to sip (loudly)” > Y horop LH, horop=se LH-L; HO horop=se LH-L; SA horop-se=kar LH-L-L; O orop^se LH-L; B orop=se; A orop=se LH-L; N orop=se LH-L; SO horop-se LH-L; RA horoh^seqe-kara “to sip (loudly)”; BA horopse “to sip up”, “to drink”. *hO=kus L-H “to fall” > Y hokus LH; HO hokus LH; SA hokus LH; O okus LH; A okus LH; N okus LH; RA hokus “to fall”; BA hokus “to tumble over”, “to capsize”, “to collapse”. *hO=pun=i L-L-H (sing.), *hO=pun=pa L-H-L (plur.) “to fly”, “to get up” > Y hopuni LLH, hopunpa LHL; HO hopuni LHL; SA hopuni LHL, hopunpa LHL “to fly”, “to get up”; O opuni LHL, opunpa LHL; B opuni, opunpa “to get up”; A opuni LHL, opunpa LHL; N opuni LHL, opunpa LHL; SO hopuni LHL “to fly”, “to get up”; RA hopuni “to part”; KT hobuni “to get up”; KD opuni “to get up from the bed”; KV goboni “get up” (imper.), khobone-wa “[she] flew”; BA hopuni, hopumba “to fly”, “to get up”, “to arise”, “to set out on a journey”. *hO=ra=k L-H “to fall” (from hO= + ra “down”, “under” + =k) > Y horak LH; HO horak LH; SA horak LH; O orak LH;

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A orak LH; N orak LH; SO horak LH; RA horah “to fall”; BA horak “to tumble down (as a house)”, “to snap off (as dead wood)”. *hO=sip- (*hO=gip=/*hO=hip= ?) L-L “to come/go home” > Y hosipi LLH, hosippa LHL; HO hosipi LHL, hosippa LHL; SA hosipi LHL, hosippa LHL; O osipi LHL, osippa LHL; B osipi', A hosipi LHL, hosippa LHL; N osipi/hosipi;SO hosipi LHL; RA hosipi “to come/go home”; BA hoshipi (sing.), hosippa (plur.) “to return”. *hO=yup= L-L “to run” > Y hoyupu LLH, hoyuppa LHL; HO hoyupu LHL; SA hoyupu LHL, hoyuppa LHL; O oyupu LHL, oyuppa LHL; A hoyupu LHL/oyupu LHL; N oyupu LHL, oyuppa LHL; SO hoyupu LHL; BA hoyupu, hoyuppa “to run”. *hOku LL “husband” > Y hoku(=hu) LH/LL(H); HO hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); SA hoku(=hu) LH/LH(L); O oku(~hu) LH/LH(L); B oku(^hu); A hoku LH; N oku LH; SO hoku(-hu) LH/LH(L); RA hoku(=hu) ; KD khoku ; KV k-ok~ktio “[my] husband”; BA hoku “husband”. *hOma (*gOma ?) LH “spawn” > Y homa LH; HO homa LH; SA homa LH; SO homa LH; RA homa; KT homa; KK omd; KD oma; KV oma “spawn”; BA homa “hard spawn of herrings” (reflex in KV supports PA *h-, not *g-). *hOmar LH “to be vague”, “to be faint” > Y homar LH; HO homar LH; SA homar LH; O omar LH; A omar LH; N omar LH; RA homara “to be vague”, “to be faint”; BA homan=no “dimly”, “indistinctly”. *hOtuy= LL “to call”, “to shout” > Y hotuy=pa LH-L “to shout”, hotuy^e LL-H “to call”; HO hotuy-pa LH-L “to shout”, hotuy=e LH-L”to call”, “to shout”; SA hotuy=e LH-L, hotuy=pa LH-L “to shout”, hotuy=e-kar LH-L-L “to call”; O otuy=pa LH-L “to shout”, otu=pa=kar LH-L-L “to call”; B otuy=pa “to shout”, otuy=pa=kar “to call”; A otuy=pa LH-L “to call”, “to shout”; N otuy=pa LH-L”to call”, “to shout”; SO hotuy~pa LH-L”to call”, “to shout”; KT hotuy=e=ba “to call”; BA hotui, hotuye, hotuye=kara, hotuye=pa=kara (plur.) “to call”. *hrA= L “leaf* > Y ham(=u) H/L(H); HO ham(^u) H/L(H); SA ham(=u) H/L(H); O ham(=u) H/L(H); B ham; A ni-ham HL; N ni-ham HL; SO ham H, ni=ham HL; RA yam(=uhu); KT yam; KK ni-iep; KD ni=iam “leaf’, KV ni=iam; iam “leaf of tree”; BA ham “leaf* (sing.), hap “leaves” (plur.).

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*hrup H “white] fir”, “coniferous tree” > Y hup(=i) HZH(L); HO hup H; SA hup H; O hup H; B “white fir”; A hup H “pine”; N hup H; RA ya-yuh(-pihi) “white fir”; KT hup “silver fir”, “white fir”; KV up “fir”; BA hup “white fur”. *hur “bamboo grass” > Y hut=tat HL; HO hutat HL; SA hut-tat HL; O hut=tat HL; B ur=as; A ur^as LH; N ur-as LH; SO hur=as ham LH H; RA huru; BA huttat “bamboo grass”.

*Ham L “claw” > Y am(=i) H/L(H); HO am(=i) H/L(H); SA am(=i) H/L(H); O am(=i) H/L(H); B ham", A am(=ihi) H/L(HL); N am H; SO am(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA am(=ihi) ; KD am “claw”; BA am “claws of birds and animals”. *Haspa HL “deaf’ > Y aspa HL; HO aspa HL; SA aspa HL; O aspa HL; B haspa; N aspa HL; SO aspa HL; BA ashpa “deaf . * *HE(-)sE HL “to consent to”, “to comply with” > HO ko=qese L-HL; SA ese HL; O ese HL; B hese; A ese HL “to consent to”, “to comply with”. *HOn=tarO (* Hon=taro ?) H-LL “barrel” ( < J taru “barrel” ) > HO ontaro HLL; SA ontaro HLL; O ontaro HLL; B hontaro; A ontaro HLL; N ontaro HLL; SO ontaro HLL; RA ontoro “barrel * ’; BA ontaro “tub”, “bucket”. *Hupsi * ( upgi/ H uphi ?) HL “lacquer” ( ? < J urusi “lacquer”) > Y ussi HL; HO ussi HL; SA ussi HL; O usi HL; B hup si; A ussi HL; N ussi HL; SO ussi HL; RA usi “lacquer * ’. *Huurar HLL “fog” > Y urar HL; SA urar HL; O urar HL; B hurar; A urar HL; N urar HL; SO urar HL; RA uurara; KT urarube “fog”; KK uurar “clouds”; KD urar; BA urara “fog”.

*i=Ak(=)a “to show”, “to point to” > Y yaka HL; HO yaka HL; SA yaka HL; O yaka HL; B yaka; A yaka HL; N yaka HL; SO teke yaka HL HL “to show”, “to point to”; BA yaka “to point at”. *i=Ak=u L-L-H “to crash”, “to smash” > Y yak^u LH; HO yak-u LH, yak=pa HL; SA yak=u LH (sing.), yak-yak-u HLL (sing.), yak-pa HL (plur.), yak-yak-pa

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(plur.); A yakpa HL; N yaku LH, yakpa HL “to crash”, “to tear”. *i=As= L “to tear (it)”, “to split (it)” > Y yas=a L-H (sing.), yas=pa H-L (plur.); HO yas=a L-H (sing.), yas-pa H-L (plur.); SA yas-a L-H (sing.), yas=pa H-L (plur.); A yas=a L-H (sing.), yas=pa H-L (plur.); RA nas=a, nas-pa (?) (correspondence HKD [y-]/ SAKH [n-] is unique) “to tear (it)”, “to split (it)”; BA yasa (sing.), yaspa (plur.) “to tear”. *i=EE L-HL “to say (it)” > Y ye H; HO ye H; SA ye H; O ye H; B ye\ A y& H, iye LH; N ye H, iye LH; SO ye H; RA yee; KT ye “to say (it)”; BA ye “to tell”, “to say”. *i=kasma L-HL “to be in excess”, “to remain”, “to be left over” > Y i=kasma L-HL; HO i~kasma L-HL; SA i=kasma L-HL; O i-kasma L-HL; B i=kasma\ A ane-kasma LH-LL, i=kasma L-HL; N i=kasma L=HL; SO i-kasma LHL; RA i-kasma “to be in excess”, “to remain”, “to be left over”; KD ribich vamvikasma “thirteen (lit. “three-tenabove”?’: BA ikashima “to surpass”, “to exceed”, “above”, “over”. *i=kOn=i L-L-H “to fall [seriously] ill” > Y ikoni LLH; RA ikoni “to fall seriously di”; KD ikoni “to be ill”, pa=koni “headache”; BA ikon, ikoni “to be ill”, “to suffer pain”. *i=n[u]=kar H-(L)-L “to be seen” > Y inkar HL; HO inkar HL; SA inkar HL; O inkar HL; B inkar, A inkar HL; N inkar HL; RA inkara\ KT inkari “to be seen”; KK k=inkar~ua “I see”; KD inkari “to see”; KV k=ingari “I see”; BA ingara “to look at”, “to see”. *i=nuu L-LH ^o be heard” > Y inu LH; HO inu LH; SA inu LH; O inu LH; B inu; A inu LH; N inu LH; SO inu LH; RA inuu “to be heard”; BA inu to listen”, “to hear”. *i=On=i L-L-H “to draw (it) back”, “to withdraw” > Y yoni LH; HO yoni LH; SA yoni LH; SO yone LH; RA e-yoni “to draw (it) back”, “to withdraw”. *i=up= L-L “to tighten (it)” > Y yup-ke=no kut kor H-LL H H “to tighten a belt”; SA yup=u L-H; O yup=u L-H; B yup-u; A yup=ke=no yup-u H-L-L L-H; SO yup=u L-H; RA yup=u “to tighten (it)”; KD yupu “to pull”;9 KV iubu “tighten”; BA yupu “to do earnestly”, “to do with might”, “to pull”. 9 Murayama Shichiro ties this KD word with BA hopiwe "to pull by placing the foot against an object", proposing the phonetic development i-hopiwe > i=upu > yupu [Murayama 1971, 243].

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*ii=hdan= “six” (lit. “four-ten”) > Y i=wan=pe L-H-L; HO i-wan-pe L-H-L; SA i-wan-pe L-H-L; O i=wan=pe LH-L; B i=wan=pe; A i=wan=pe L-H-L; N i=wan=pe L-H-L; SO i=wan=pe L-H-L; RA i=wan=pe; KT i=wam=pe; KK ivdn “six”; KD jevampij “six”, ivanini “six persons”; BA iwan=be “six”. *ii=nE= HL-L “four” > Y ine=p HL; HO ine=p HL; SA ine-p HL; O ine=p HL; B ine=p; A ine=p HL; N ine=p HL; SO ine=p HL; RA iine=h; KT ine=p ; KK ini^p; KD inip; BA ine “four”. *ihdagu “sulphur” > BA iwau “sulphur”; KV iva = uv “inflammable sulphur”; KLAP iguakh. “sulphur”. *ihka HL “to steal” > Y ikka HL; HO ikka HL; SA ikka HL; O ikka HL; B iska; A ikka HL; N ikka HL; SO ikka HL; RA iska ; KD iska "to steal”; KV iska=ruj, iska=sta, iska=gur “thief”; BA iska, ikka, e=ikka “to steal”. *ik H “waist” > HO ik=kew(=e) HL/HL(L); SA ik=kew(=e) HL/HL(L); O ik=kew(=e) HL/HL(L); B ik=kew(=e); SO ik-kew HL “waist”; BA ik “the backbone”, “joint of the body”, “a division”, ikkeu, ikkewe “the spine”, “the backbone” (cf. *ik “joint [of bamboo]”, probably related). *ik “hundred” > Y sine=qik LH-L; O sine=qik LH-L; B ik ; BA ik “hundred”. *ik L “joint [of bamboo]” > HO ik(=i) H/L(H); SA ik H; O ik H; B top ik=ra; A top ikihi H LHL; RA toh=is=ri “joint [of bamboo]”. *ik=maqu=re H-LL-L “belch” > Y ikmawre HLL; HO ik­ mawre HLL; SA ikmawre HLL; O ikmawre HLL; B ikmawre; A ikmawre HLL; N ikmawre HLL “belch”; BA ikmaure “to belch”. *ikus(=)pE LH(-)L “pillar” > Y ikuspe LHL; HO ikuspe LHL; SA ikuspe LHL; O ikuspe LHL; B ikuspe', A ikuspe LHL; N ikuspe LHL; SO ikuspe LHL; RA ikuspe, KT ukushube “pillar”; BA ikushbe “column”, “pillar”. *ima(=)k L(-)L “tooth” > Y mimak(=i) LH/LL(H) (< *ni=imak); O imak(=i) LH/LH(L); B imak(=i); SO imak(=ihi) LH/LH(LL); RA imah(=kihi); KT imaku, imak ; KD imak; KV imak', BA imaki “tooth”. *imEru LLH “lightning” > Y imeru LLH; HO imeru LHL; SA imeru LHL; O imeru LHL; B imeru; A imeru LHL; N imeru LHL; SO imeru LHL; RA imeru ; KD imiri “lightning”; KV imiro “thunder storm”, imiru=gi “lightning”; BA imeru “lightning”.

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*imO(=)k LH “earthworm” > Y imok LH ; HO imok LH; SA imok LH “bait”; O imok LH “earthworm”; B imok “bait [for a fish]”, to~ymok “earthworm; A imok LH; N imok LH; SO to-ymok H-L “earthworm”; BA imok “trap bait”. *imOka LLH “present”, “gift” > Y imeka(-ha) LLH/LLH(L); A imoka LHL; N imoka LHL; SO imoka LHL; RA imoka ; BA imoka “present”, “gift”. *in[a]= L[L] “which” > Y ina-qan LL-H; HO inan LH; SA inan LH; O inki=qan HL-L; B inki-qan; N inke=qan HL-L; SO inki-qan HL-L; BA inan “which”. *inaqu “to perform inau ritual” > SA inaw LH; RA inaw-kara “to perform inau ritual”; KT inau:, BA inau “ritual wooden wands”. *inon(=)pE LH(-)L “frame of a fireplace” > Y inunpe LHL; HO inunpe LHL; SA inunpe LHL; O inunpe LHL; B iqunpe; A inunpe LHL; N inunpe LHL; SO inonpe LHL; RA inunpe “frame of a fireplace”; BA inumbe “wooden framework around a fireplace”. *ipOr (*ipOd ?) LL “color” > Y ipor(=o) LH/LL(H); SA ipor(-o) LH/LH(L); O ipor(=o) LH/LH(L); B ipot=tum(=u); N iporo LHL; SO iporo LHL; RA iporo “color”; BA iporo, ipot “countenance”, aspect”, “appearance”. *ir=nE H-L “many (of people)” > Y inne HL; SA inne HL; A inne HL; N inne HL “many (of people)”; BA inne “multitudes”, “many”, “numerous”. *irOr=nE (*irOt=nE ?) LH-L “to be thick (and flat)” > Y iron-ne LH-L; HO iron=ne LH-L; SA iron=ne LH-L; O iron=ne LH-L; B iron=ne; A iron-ne LH-L; N iron=ne LH-L; SO iron=ne LH-L; RA iron=ne “to be thick (and flat)”; KD irotyn “thick (of a color or plants)”; BA ironne “thick”. *iqEE LHL “pus” > Y ye(=he) H/H(L); HO ye H; SA ye H; O iqe LH; B iye; A iqe LH; N iqe(^he) LH/LH(L); SO ye H; RA yee ; BA ye, e “pus”. *is L “bird's tail” > Y is{^i) H/L(H); HO is H; SA o=is(=i) L-H/L-H-L; O is(=i) H/L(H); A o=is=i L-H-L; N o=is=i L-HL “bird's tail”; BA ish, ishi “tales of birds or fishes and some animals”. *isEpO LLH “hare” > Y isepo LLH; HO isepo LHL; SA isepo LHL; O isopo LHL; B isopo; A isepo LHL; N isepo LHL; SO isepo LHL; BA isepo “hare”. *ita LH “board” ( < J ita “board” ) > Y ita LH; HO ita LH; SA ita LH; O ita LH “board”; A ita LH “tray”; N ita LH; SO ita LH; KD ita; KV ita; BA ita “board”.

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*ita(=)k LL “language”, “word”, “to speak”, “to talk” > Y itak(=i) LH/LL(H) “language”, “word”, itak LH “to speak”, “to talk”; HO itak LH; SA itak LH; O itak LH; B itak; A itak LH; N itak LH; SO itak LH “language”, “word”, “to speak”, “to talk”; RA itah(-kihi) “language”, “word”, itah(=k) “to speak”, “to talk”; KK k=itok=rosi=va “to speak” (lit. “I speak” ?); KD itak “to speak”; KV itak “speak”; BA itak “to speak”, “to say”, “to tell”. *itanki LHL “wooden bowl” > Y itanki(=hi) LHL/LHL(L); HO itanki LHL; SA itanki LHL; O itanki LHL; B itanki; A itanki LHL; N itanki LHL; SO itanki LHL; KT itangi “wooden bowl”; BA itangi “cup”. *ityaniqu “trout” > Y icaniw LLH; HO icaniw LHL; SA icanuy LHL; O icaniw LHL; B icanuy; A icaniw LHL; N icaniw LHL “trout”.

*k *ka L “on”, “above” ( J ue ) > Y ka H, ka-si=ke L-L-H; HO ka(=si/=s[i]ke) H/L(H/HL); SA ka(=sil-s[i]ke) H/L(H/HL); O ka(=si(=s[i]ke) H/L(H/HL); B ka(=si/=s[i]ke); A ka~si=ke L-H-L; N ka H; SO kaske (accent ?); RA kaske, kasiike; KT ka^ta, ka=u “on”, “above”; BA ka “the top of anything”, “up”, “above”. *kaa HL “cord”, “thread”, “yarn” > Y ka(=ha) H/H(L) “cord”, “thread”, “yarn”; HO ka H “yarn”; SA ka(=ha) H/H(L); O ka H; B ka “cord”, “yam”; A ka H “yam”; N ka H “cord”, “yam”; RA kaa; KT oo-ka, o-ka; KD ka; KV o=ga; BA ka “thread”. *kaa “trap” > Y ka=mup L-H; HO ka H; A ka H; N ka H; SO ka-say H-L; RA kaa “trap”. *kaani HHH “metal” ( < OJ kane HH “metal”) > Y kani HL; HO kani HL; SA kane HL; O kani LH; B kani; A kani HL; N kani HL; SO kani LH; RA kaani “metal”; KK kaant; KD kani; KV kanie “iron”; BA kani “metal”, “iron”, “money”. *kaari=p LLL “wheel”, “ring”, “hoop” > Y karip(=i) LH/LL(H); SA karip LH; O karip LH; B karip; N karip LH; RA kaaris(=pihi) “wheel”, “ring”, “hoop” (cf. HKD si=kari, RA si=kaari-npa “to be round”); KV ugu=siekarinu “round”; BA karip “hoop”, “ring”. *kaasi=qu HHL-L “to help” > Y kasiw HL; HO kasuy LH; SA kasuy LH; O kasuy LH; A kasuy LH; i=kasuy LHL; N

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u=kasuy LHL; SO i=kasuy=ke LHLL; RA kaasiw, i=kaasiw “to help’*; BA kashiu, i=kashiu “to help”, “to assist”. *kakka LH “vulva” > B kakka; SO kakka LH “vulva”. ♦kam L “meat” > Y kam(=i) H/L(H); HO kam(=i) H/L(H); SA kam(=i) H/L(H); O kam(-i) H/L(H); B kam; A kam H; N kam H; SO kam(=ihi) H/H(LL); RA kam(=ihi); KK kam; KD kam; KV kam “meat”; BA kam “flesh”, “meat”. *kamuy LH “god” (< OJ kamiy or PJ *kamu=i “god”) > Y kamuy LH; HO kamuy LH; SA kamuy LH; 0 kamuy LH; B kamuy; A kamuy LH; N kamuy LH; SO kamuy LH; RA ka­ muy; KT kamui; KK kam^j; KD kamuj; KV kamuj “god”; BA kamui “god”, “bear”. ♦kankan HL “intestines”.> Y kankan HL: SA kankan HL; B kankan; KV kangan” “intestines”; BA kankan “large in­ testines**. ♦kantO HL “heaven”, “sky” > Y kanto HL “heaven”; HO kanto HL “sky”; SA kanto HL; 0 kanto HL; B kanto “heaven**; A kanto HL “sky”; N kanto HL*’sky”; SO kanto kotor HL HL “sky**; RA kanto “heaven**; KT nisaru kando “sky”, “heaven**; KV kanto “sky**; BA kantori-kamui “the god who makes it snow and rain”. ♦kAp L “skin”, “fir” ( ? < OJ kaFa or PJ *kapa ) > Y kap(=u) H/L(H); HO kap(-u) H/L(H); SA kap(=u) H/L(H); O kap(=u) H/L(H); B kap(=u);Nkap H; SO kap(=u) H/L(H); RA kah(=puhu) “skin”, “fir”; KD kap “skin”; BA kap “skin**, “outer covering of anything”. *kap=ar L-H “to be thin (and flat)” > Y kap=ar LH; HO kap=ar LH; SA kap=ar LH; O kap=ar LH; B kap=ar, A kap=ar LH; N kap=ar LH; SO kap=ar LH; RA kap=ara; KT kap'=kap'=ke “to be thin (and flat)’*; BA kapara “thin**, “flat”. *kapa(=)p LH “bat” > Y kapap LH; HO kapap LH; SA kapap LH; O kapap LH; B kapap; A kapap LH; N kapap LH; RA keputenka (?); BA kappa “bat**. ♦kapiqu LHL “seagull” > Y kapiw LH; HO kapiw LH; O kapiw LH; B kapew; A kapiw LH; SO kapiw LH; BA kapiu “seagull**. *kaqu=kaqu “sleet”, “hail” > Y kaw-kaw H-L; HO kaw-kaw H-L; SA kaw-kaw H-L; B kaw=kaw; A kaw=kaw H-L; N kaw=kaw H-L; SO kaw-kaw H-L “sleet”; KK kaukfg; KD kav=kav; KV kakau; BA kau=kau “hail”. *kar (< *kii=yar ?) “to make” > Y kar H; HO kar H; SA kar H; O kar H; B kar, A kar H; N kar H; SO kar H; RA kara; KT i=kar-an “to make”; KD kari “to do*’; KV gar “I will

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make”; BA kara “to do”, “to make”, “to act”, “to achieve”, “to build”, “to accomplish”, “to prepare”. *kar “to peel (it)” > Y kar H; HO kar H; SA kar H; O kar H; B kar, A kar H; N kar H; SO kar H; RA kara “to peel (it)”. *kar “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck” > HO kar H; SA kar H; O kar H; B kar, A kar H; N kar H; SO kar H; RA kara “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck”. *kar= L “to roll over”, “to turn around” > Y kar=kar-se H-L-L “to roll over”, si=kar-i L-L-H “to turn around”; HO si=kar=i L-L-H “to turn around”; SA kar=kar-se H-L-L “to roll over”, e=kar=i L-H-L “to turn around”; O kar-kar=se HL-L “to roll over”, si=kar=i L-H-L “to turn around”; B kar=kas-se “to roll over”, si-kan=natki “to turn around”; A kara=kas=se H-L-L-L “to roll over”, si=kar=i L-H-L “to turn around”; N si=kar=i L-H-L “to turn around”; SO si-kar=i LH-L “to turn around”; RA kara=kah=se “to roll over”; KV ugu=siekarinu “round”; BA kart “to go in a circle”. *karku HL “nephew” > Y karku(=hu) HL/HL(L); HO karku(=hu) HL/HL(L); SA karku(-hu) HL/HL(L); O karku HL; B karku ; A karku HL; N karku HL; SO karku(=hu) HL/HL(L); RA karaku(=hu) “nephew”; BA karaku “nephew”, “niece”. *karus LH “mushroom” > Y karus LH; HO karus LH; SA karus LH; O karus LH; B karus; A karus LH; N karus LH; SO karus LH; RA karus(=ihi) ; BA karush “mushroom”. *kasup LH “ladle” > Y kasup LH; HO kasup LH; SA kasup LH; O kasup LH; B kasup; A kasup LH; N kasup LH; SO ka­ sup LH; RA kasuh(=pihi) “ladle”; BA kashup “ladle”, “large spoon”. *kay L “to break (of a long thing)” (*kay=i L-H “to break a long thing”) > Y kay H; HO kay H; SA kay H; O kay H; B kay; A kay H; N kay H; SO kay H; RA kaytehf=k) “to break (of a long thing)”; KD poni=kaj “to break a bone”, kajtka “to break”; BA kaye “to break”. *kay “to carry piggyback” > Y kay H; HO kay H; SA kay H; O kay H; B kay; A kay H; N kay H; SO pak=kay H-L; RA pah=kay “to carry piggyback”; BA kai “to carry on the back”. *kaya LH “sail” > Y kaya LH; SA kaya LH; O kaya LH; B kaya; N kaya LH; SO kaya LH; RA kaya; KT kaya; KD kaia “sail”; KV kaine “mast” (cf. BA kaya=ni “mast” (lit. “sail­ tree”); BA kaya “sail”.

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*kEE “oil (as food)”, “fat” > N ke H; SO ke H; RA kee “oil (as food)”; KT chep=ke “fish’s oil”; KD tie; KV tie “fat”; BA ke “fat”, “grease”. *kEE[qu] HL[L] “to shave (it)”, “to whittle (it)”, “to plane (it)” > Y kew=re H-L; HO kew-re H-L; SA kew-re H-L; O kew=re H-L; B kew=re; A kew=re H-L; N kew-re HL; SO kew=re H-L; RA kee, kewre “to shave (it)”, “to whittle (it)”, “to plane (it)”; BA keure “to plane”, “to peel off*, “to shave off*, “to hew*’. *kEEra HLL “taste” > Y kera(=ha) HL/HL(L); HO kera HL; SA kera(=ha) HL/HL(L); O kera HL; B kera', A kera HL; N kera HL; SO kera HL; RA keera*, KT kera “taste”; BA kera “flavour”, “taste**. *kEm L “blood” > Y kem(=i) H/L(H); HO kem(=i) H/L(H); SA kem(=i) H/L(H); O kem(=i) H/L(H); B kern', A kern H; N kem H; SO kem(-ihi) H/L(HL); RA kem(=ihi); KT kem; KD kiem; KN tiem ; BA kem “blood”. *kEm “to lick” > Y kem H; HO kem H; SA kem H; O kem H; B kem; A kem H; N kem H; SO kem H; RA kem ; KD kem=kem; BA kem “to lick**; *kem L “needle” > Y kem(=i) H/L(H); HO kem H; SA kem H; O kem H; B kem', A kem H; N kem H; SO kim H; RA kem(—ihi); KD kiem; KV kiem, kiem-igir, BA kem “needle”. *kEma LL “foot”, “leg” > Y kema(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO kema(=ha) LH/LH(L); SA kema(=ha) LH/LH(L); N kema LH; SO kema kuciki LH LHL; RA kema(=ha); KT kema; KK kiem^; KD kiema; KV kiemo, kiema-gir “foot”, “leg”; BA kema “the legs”, “the feet**. *kEn (*ken ?) L “sprout”, “bud” > HO ken(=i) H/L(H); SA ken=i L-H; O ken-i L-H; B ken=i; N kem (?) “sprout”, “bud”. *kEqu (*kequ ?) “uncle”, “elder male relative” > HO kewsut HL; B kewsut(=u); A kewsutuhu HLLL; KT keukeu “uncle”; KV kieu=kieu “grandfather”; BA keushut “uncle”, “ancient”, “old”, “male ancestors”, “male relations”. *kEqu “bone” > Y kew; HO kew; O kew; B kew; A kew; N kew; SO kew; KT keu “bone” (in all this dialects this word oc­ curs only in compounds, since normally it was replaced by a loanword pone < OJ pone “bone”). *ker L “footwear” > Y ker(=i) H/L(H); HO ker(=i) H/L(H); SA ker(=i) H/L(H); O ker(=i) H/L(H); B ker(=i); A ker H; N ker H; SO kiro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA tiro; KK kir; KD kier

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“footwear”; BA keire “salmon or deerskin shoes”, “boots”, “shoes”. *kE=s L “end” > Y kes(=e) H/L(H); HO kes(=e) H/L(H); SA kes(-e) H/L(H); O kes H; B kes “end”; A itak kes=ekehe LH L-HLL “end of speech”; N kes (accent is not indicated); SO kes H; RA kes(-ehe) “end”; BA kesh, gesh “end”, “lower”(cf. PA *O=kE=dE “to end”). *kEs= “every” > Y kes-to H-L “every day”, kes=pa H-L “every year”; HO kes-to H-L “every day”, kes=pa H-L “every year”; SA kes-to H-L “every day”, kes=pa H-L “every year”; O kes=to=qan=kor H-L-L-L “every day”, kes=pa=qan=kor H-L-L-L “every year”; B kes=to=qan=kor “every day”, kes=pa=qan=kor “every year”; A kes=ta=qan=kor H-L-L-L “every day”, kes=pa-qan=kor H-L-L-L “every year”; N kes=to~qan~kor H-L-L-L “every day”, kes-pa=qan-kor HL-L-L “every year”; SO kes-to-qasinko H-L-LLL “every day”, kes=pa = qan = kor H-L-L-L “every year”; RA kes-to-qasinko “every day”, kes-pa-qasinko “every year”; KD kiesantyj (?) “eternal”; BA kes = to “daily”, kes=pa=ashinko “as each year came”. ♦kEsup (*kesup ?) LL “heel” > Y kesup(=i) LH/LL(H); HO kesup(=i) LH/LH(L); SA kesup(=i) LH/LH(L); O kesup(=i) LH/LH(L); B kesup(=i); A kesup(=i) LH/LH(L); N kesup LH; BA keshup “heel”. *kEta LH “star” > SO keta LH; RA keta; KT ketta; KK kietd; KD kieto ; KV kieta “star”. *ki “louse” > Y ki H “head louse”,; HO rayo-ki LH-L “pubic louse”; SA ki H; O ki H; B kz; A onne ki HL H; N onne-ki HL-L; SO ki H “head louse”; RA rayo-ki “dog louse”; BA ki “louse”. *ki “reed” > Y sup-ki HL; HO sar=ki HL; SA sup-ki HL, sar-ki HL; O sar=ki HL; B sar-ki; A sar=ki HL; N sar-ki HL; SO sar-ki HL; RA suh=ki ; BA shup-ki, sara=ki “reed”; BA ki “a general name for rushes and reeds” (cf. *sar “field of reeds”, BA shup “lower part of something high”, sara “a type of field”). *kii “to do” > Y ki H; HO ki H; SA ki H; O ki H; B ki; A ki H; N ki H; SO ki H; RA kii “to do”; BA ki “to do anything”, “to act”, “to accomplish”, “to achieve”. *kiiki LLH (< *kii=kii ?) “to scratch [it]” > Y kiki LH; HO kiki LH; SA kiki LH; O kiki LH; B kiki; A kiki LH; N kiki LH; SO kiki LH; RA kiiki; BA kiki “to scratch [it]”.

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*kik “to hit”, “to beat” > Y kik H; HO kik=kik H-L; SA kik H; O kik H; B kik; A kik=kik H-L; N kik H; SO kik H “to hit”, “to beat”; BA kik “to strike”, “to knock”, “to beat”, “to hit”. *kiki(=)r LH “worm”, “insect”, “bug” > Y kikir LH; HO kikir LH; SA kikir LH; O kikir LH; B kikir, A kikir LH; N kikir LH; SO kikir LH; RA kikiri “worm”, “insect”, “bug”; KD kigir masaspij “larva”; BA kikiri “insects and flies”. *kim “mountain” > Y kim H; SA kim H; O kim H; N kim H; BA kim “mountain”. *kina LH “[edible] grass” > Y kina LH; HO kina LH; SA kina LH; O kina LH; B kina’, A kina LH; N kina LH; SO hu-kina L-LH; RA kina “grass”; KT kina=pet “dew” (lit. “grass=water”); KD kina=pet “dew”; KV kina~sut “bushes” (sut “bundle” ?); BA kina “a general name for grasses and herbs of the larger kinds”. *kip=utur L-LH “forehead” > Y kiputur(=u) LLH/LLH(L); HO kiputur (~u) LHL/LHL(L); SA kiputuru LHLL; O kiputur(=u) LHL/LHL(L); B keputur; A kiputur LHL; N kiputur LHL “forehead”; KD kiptur “front”, “in front” (adj.); KV kibudur, BA keputuru “forehead”. *kir L “marrow” > Y kir(=i) H/L(H); HO kir H; SA kir(=i) H/L(H); O kir H; B kir, A kirihi LHL; N kir H; RA ci-kiri(=hi) ; BA kiri, kirawe “marrow”. *kira LH “to run away”, “to flee” > Y kira LH; HO kira LH; SA kira LH; O kira LH; B kira; A kiraqan LH-L; N kira LH; SO kira LH; RA kira ; KT kika(?) “to run away”, “to flee”; KD kira; BA kira “to run away”. ♦ki(=)raqu LLH “horn” > Y kiraw(=e) LH/LL(H); HO kiraw(-e) LH/LH(L); SA kiraw(=e) LH/LH(L); O kiraw LH; B kiraw(=e); A kiraw(-e) LH/LH(L); N kiraw LH; SO kiraw(=ehe) LH/LH(LL); RA kiraw; KD kirav; KV rau; BA kirau “horn”. *kiray LL “comb” > Y kiray (-e) LH/LL(H); HO kiray LH; SA kiray LH; O kiray LH; B kiray; A kiray LH; N kiray LH; SO kiray LH; RA kiray; KV kira], kiraj=gir, BA kirai “comb”. •kirOr (*kiror ?) LH (LL ?) “strength” > Y kiror LH; HO kiror(=o) LH/LH(L); SA kiror LH; B kiror; RA kiroro(=ho) “strength”; KD kiror-kasin “violent”, “strong”; BA kiroro “power”, “strength”, “ability”. *kirpu HL ‘‘fat”, “grease” > Y kirpu(=hu) HL/HL(L); HO kirpu HL; SA kirpu HL; O kirpo HL; B kirpo; A kirpo HL; N kirpo HL; SO kirpu HL; RA kirupu(-hu) “fat”, “grease”; KD

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kirpu “fat”; BA kiripu “fat”, “strips of meat cut up for sun dry­ ing”. *kisAr LL “ear” > Y kisar(-a) LH/LL(H); HO kisar(=a) LH/LL(H); SA kisar(=a) LH/LH(L); O kisar LH/LH(L); B kisarf=a); A kisar LH; N kisar LH; SO kisar LH; RA kisara; KKksar “ear”; KD ksarvasiki “temple” (< kisar-vasiki “place, where ear joins” (Murayama 1971,103)); BA kisara “ear”. *kisma HL “to seize”, “to catch” > Y kisma HL; SA kisma HL “to hold in one’s arms”, “to embrace someone”, “to seize”; O kisma HL; B kisma “to hold in one's arms”, “to embrace someone”; A kisma HL; N kisma HL; SO kisma “to hold in one's arms”, “to embrace someone”, “to seize”, “to catch”; RA kisma ; KD kisma “to seize”, “to catch”; BA kishima, kishma “to seize”, “to lay hold of’, “to take hold”, “to curb”. *kitay LH “roof’ > Y kitay LH; HO cise^kitay LH-LL; SA cise=kitay LH-LL; B cise^kitay', A cise kitay LH LH; N cise=kitay LH-LL; SO cise=kitay LH-LL; RA cise=kitay “roof’; BA kitai “top of anything”. ♦kitay LH “summit”, “peak” > Y nupuri kitay LLH LH; HO kitay(-ke) LH/LH(L); SA kitay(=ke) LH/LH(L); O kitay(-ke) LH/LH(L); B kitay(=ke)\ N nupuri kitay LHL LH; SO nupuri kitay LHL LH; RA nupuri=kitay(=ke!=he) “summit”, “peak”; BA kitai “top of anything”. *kir=u L-H “to turn (it) toward” > Y kir^u L-H; HO kir=u L-H; SA kir-u L-H; O kir=u L-H; B kir=u\ A kir-u LH; N kir-u L-H; SO kir=u L-H “to turn (it) toward”; RA kir=u “to turn over1; BA kiru “to turn over”, “to roll over”. *kO=kO L-L “son-in-law”, “elder sister's husband” > Y kokow(^e) LH/LL(H) “son-in-law”, sapo kokow HL LH “elder sister's husband”; HO kokow(=e) LH/LH(L); SA kokow(=e) LH/LH(L); O koko LH; B kok(=o)\ A koknekur HLL; N kok H “son-in-law”, “elder sister’s husband”; SO koko(-ho) LH/LH(L) “son-in-law”, kok(=o/ho) H/H(LL) “elder sister's husband”; RA koko(=ho) “son-in-law”, “elder sister’s husband”; KD kuku*, KK kogu; KV kogu “son-inlaw”; BA koko “son-in-law”, “brother-in-law”. *kO(=)s H “daughter-in-law”, “elder brother’s wife” > Y kos-mat(=ci) HL/HL(L) (mat “woman”) “daughter-inlaw”; HO kos=mat(=ci) HL/HL(L); SA kos=mat(=ci) HL/HL(L); O kos-mat(=ci) HL/HL(L); B kos-mat(=ci); A kos=mat(-ci/hi) HL/HL(L/L); N kos=mat HL; SO kos=mat(=cihi) HL/HL(LL); RA kos=mah(-cihi) “daughter­

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in-law”, “elder brother's wife”; KD kosmat “daughter-in-law”; BA koshmat “daughter-in-law”. *kO=r L “to have”, *kO[O]=C=dE L[L]-H “to give” (lit. “to make have”) > Y kor H, ko-re L-H; HO kor H, ko=re L-H; SA kor H, ko=re L-H; O kor H, ko-re L-H; B kor, ko-re; A kor H, ko=re L-H; N kor H, ko=re L-H; SO kor H, ko-re L-H; RA koro "to have”, kon=te “to give”, koore “to hand (over)”; KT ko—re “to give” (lit. “to make have”); KD kor “to have”; BA kon, ko, koro “to have”, “to possess”, ko-re, kon-de “to give”. *kOkka HL “knee” > Y kokka-sapa HLLL (sapa “head”); HO kokka = sapa HLLL; SA kokka-sapa HLLL; O kokka=pake HLLL (pake “head”); B kokka; A kokka sapa HL LH; N kokka HL; SO kokka-sapa HLLL; KT kokka; KD koko-bo ; KV koka=ba, koka-ba-gachi “knee”; BA kokka “the knees” *kOm (*kom ?) “oak” > SA kom-ni H-L; O kom=ni H-L; B kom=ni; A kom-ni H-L; N si—kom=ni H-L-L; SO kom ni H H; RA kon=to=ni “oak”. *kOmta (*komta ?) “elbow” > KT komuta, KD komta, KV komta “elbow”. *kOn=sum HL “foam”, “bubble” > Y koysum(-i) HL/HL(L); HO koysum HL; SA koysum(-i) HL/HL(L); O koysum HL; B koysum; A koysum HL; N koysum HL; SO koysum HL; RA koysum(-ihi) “foam”, “bubble”; BA koi=shum, shum “foam”; koshum “froth”. *kOnti HL “hat” > Y konci(-hi) HL/HL(L); HO konci HL; SA konci HL; O konci HL; B konci; A konci HL; N konci HL; SO konci HL; KD kondze; BA konchi "hat”. *kOs~nE H-L “to be light (not heavy)” > Y kos-ne HL; HO kos—ne H-L; SA kos=ne H-L; O kos=ne H-L; B kos—ne; A kos-ne H-L; N kos-ne H-L; SO kos—ne H-L; RA kos-ne ; KD kosnep “to be light (not heavy)”; BA koshne-re “to lighten”. *kO=sun=kE L-H-L “to deceive” > Y kosun-ke LH-L; HO kosun-ke LH-L; SA kosun-ke LH-L; O kosun=ke LH-L; B kosun=ke; A kosun-ke LH-L; N kosun-ke LH-L; SO i=kosun=ke L-HL-L; RA kosun—ke; KD kosunke “to de­ ceive”; BA koshunge “to lie to”. *kOt L “traces”, “marks” > Y kot(-ci) H/L(H); SA ru-koci H-LL; B ru-koci; RA kocihi “traces”, “marks”; BA kochi “a footprint”, “path”, “trail”.

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*kOt= “front”, “before” > Y kot=ca H-L, kot^pok H-L; HO kot~ca H-L, kot=pok H-L; SA kot=ca H-L, kot-pok H-L; O kot-ca H-L; B kot=ca; A kot=ca-ke H-L-L; N kot=ca=k HL; SO kot=ca=ke-he H-L-L-L; RA koh=saa=ke, koh=po=ke; KT kot'chaake “front”, “before”; BA kotcha “before”, “in front of \ “ahead”. *kOtan LL ‘‘village”, “country” > Y kotan(-u) LH/LL(H); HO kotan(=u) LH/LH(L); SA kotan(=u) LH/LH(L); O kotan(=u) LH/LH(L); B kotan; A kotan LH “village”, “country”; N kotan LH “village”; SO kotan LH; RA kotan(=uhu) “village”, “country”; KT kotan “village”; KD kotan “island”, “country”; KV kotan^uni “town”, “village”; BA kotan “village”, “place”, “city”, “town”. *kOy “wave” > Y koy H; HO koy H; O koy H; B koy; A koy H; N koy H; SO koy H; RA koy; KT koi; KV koj “wave”; BA koi “waves of the sea”. *koy L “urine” > Y kuy(=e) H/L(H) “urine”; HO o=kuy~ma LHH “urine”, “to urinate”; SA kuy^wakka HLL “urine”; O o-kuy=ma LHL; A o=koy=ma LHL “to urinate”; N kuy-wakka HLL “urine”; SO o=koy=ma LHL “urine”, “to urinate”; RA on=kuy ; KD kuj ; KV kuj “urine”; BA okuima “to urinate”. *kOy(=)ki H(-)L “to tease”, “to torment”, “to scold”, “to hunt” > Y koyki HL “to tease”, “to torment”, “to scold”; HO koyki HL “to tease”, “to torment”; SA koyki HL “to tease”, “to torment”, “to scold”; O koyki HL “to tease”, “to torment”; B koyki; A koyki HL; N koyki HL “to tease”, “to torment”, “to scold”; SO koyki HL “to tease”, “to torment”; RA koyki “to hit”, “to beat”, hawe-koyki “to scold”; KD kojki “to catch (of a fish)”; BA koiki “to scold”, “to catch (as a fish)”, “to fight”, “to kill”, “to hunt”. *kdt= L “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to” > Y kot=e LH; HO kot=e L-H; SA kot^e L-H; O tus=kot=e H-L-L; A kot-e L-H (sing.), kot=pa H-L (plur.); N tus=kot=e H-L-L; SO o-tus=kot=e L-H-L-L; RA o~tus=kot-e “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to”; BA kote “to tie up with anything”, “to tie on to”. *ku= L “I” > Y ku-qan-i L-L-H; HO ku=qan=i L-H-L; SA k=an=i H-L; O ku~qan~i L-H-L; B ku-qan=i; A ku=qan=i LH-L; N ku=qan=i L-H-L; RA ku=qan=i; KT k=an=i; KK k=ani-, k=; KD koni ( Y kuwa LH; HO kuwa(=ha) LH/LH(L); SA kuwa(=ha) LH/LH(L); O kuwa

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LH; B kuwa; A kuwa LH; N kuwa LH; SO kuwa LH; RA kuwa “cane”, “walking stick”; BA kuwa “cudgel”, “club”, “walking stick”. ♦kuma LH “[bamboo] pole” > Y kuma LH; HO kuma LH; SA kuma LH; O kuma LH; B kuma; A kuma LH; N kuma LH; SO kuma LH; KT kuma ; KD kumaki “[bamboo] pole”; BA kuma “a pole for drying clothes upon”. *kumi LL “mold” > Y kumi(=hi) LH/LL(H); HO kumi LH; SA kumi LH; B kumi; A kumi LH; N kumi LH; BA kumi “mold”. ♦kunki LH “nail” ( < J kugi “nail”) > Y kunki HL; HO kunki HL; SA kunki HL; O ku *i (accent ?) “nail”; RA kunki “wooden nail”; BA kungi “nail”. *kup H “shoulder” > Y ku-kew(^e) HL/HL(L) (=kew “bone”); O ku-kew(=e) HL/HL(L); B ku=kew(=e); A kukewe HLL; N ku=kew(=e) HL/HL(L); RA ta=kuh(=pihi); KT kup'keu “shoulder”; BA kukeu, kukewe “the shoulders, espe­ cially the forepart”, “the jaws”. *kupa LH “to bite” > Y kupa LH; HO kupa-pa LH-L; SA kupa-pa LH-L; O kupa-pa LH-L; B kupa=pa; A kupa=pa LH-L; N i=kupa-pa L-HL-L; SO kupa=pa LH-L; RA kupa-pa ; KD kupa “to bite”; KV kuba=ba “bite”; BA kuba (sing.), kuwaba (plur.) “to bite”, “to hold with teeth”; DO kuwaba “to bite”. ♦kur L “shadow” > Y kur(=i) H/L(H); HO kur(=i) H/L(H); SA kur(-i) H/L(H); O kur(=i) H/L(H); B kur(=i); A kur(-ihi) H!L(HL); N kur H; SO kur H; RA kurihi, kuruhu “shadow”; BA kuru, kuri “shadow”, “shade”, “cloud”. ♦kur “person”, “man (in general)” > SA kur (accent ?); A =kur (in compounds); N =kur (in compounds); KT kuru, guru “person”, “man (in general)”; KD yukor-kur “singing person”; BA kuru, guru, kur “person”. ♦kur= H “black” ( ? < OJ kurwo= “black” ) > Y kun-ne HL; HO kun=ne H-L, e=kur=ok L-H-L; SA kun=ne H-L, e-kur=ok L-H-L; O kun-ne H-L; B kun-ne; A kun=ne H-L; N kun = ne H-L; SO kun=ne H-L; RA kun = ne; KT ye-koro=ka, e=koro=ku “black”; BA kunne “black”, “dark”. ♦kurki HL “gills” > Y kurki(^hi) HL/HL(L); HO kurki HL; SA kurki HL; O kurki HL; B kurki; A cep=kurki H-LL; N cep=kurki H-LL; SO kurki(-hi) HL/HL(L); RA kuruki “gills”; BA kuruki “gills of fish”, “region of the tonsils”. ♦kus “to pass”, ( Y kus H; SA kus H; O kus H; B kus; A kus H; N kus H; RA kus “to pass”, “to go

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through”; BA kush “to pass over”, “to cross”, “to cross as a river”, “to traverse”. *kut L “waistband”, “belt” > Y kut(=ci) H/L(H); HO kut(=ci) H/L(H); SA kut(=ci) H/L(H); O kut(=ci) H/L(H); B kut; A kut(=ci) H/L(H); N kut H; SO kut H; RA kuh(=cihi); KD kut “waistband”, “belt”; KV kut “belt”; BA kuchi “girdle”. *kuta LH “to spill (it)” > HO kuta LH; SA e=kuta L-HL; B kuta; A kuta LH; N kuta LH; RA kuta “to spill (it)”; BA kuta “to spill”, “to throw away”, “to upset”. *kutyan LH “female bear” > Y kucan LH; HO kucan LH; SA kucan LH; O kucan LH; B kucan:, A kucan LH; N kucan LH; RA kucan “female bear”; BA kuchan “she-bear”. *kuu LH “bow” > Y ku( = we) H/L(H); HO ku H; SA ku(=hu) H/H(L), ku(=we) H/L(H); B ku; AkuH;N ku H; SO ku H; RA kuu; KT ku; KK ku “bow”; KD ku “muzzle of a gun”; KV chani-ku ; BA ku “bow”. *kuu “to drink (it)” > Y ku H; HO ku H; SA ku H; O ku H; B ku; A ku H; N ku H; SO ku H; RA kuu; KT ku ; KD ku “to drink (it)”; KV kun~ku “drink [it]”, i=gu “smoke”; BA ku “to drink”, “to smoke”. *kuy “to chew” > Y kuy H; HO kuy=kuy H-L; SA kuy=kuy H-L; O kuy H; B kuy-, A kuy. H; N kuy H; SO kuy H; RA kuy-kuy ; BA kui=kui, i^kui, i=kui=kui “to chew”. *kuy(=)tO=p HL “wild goose” > Y kuytop HL; SA kuytop HL; O kuytop HL; B kuytop; A kuytop HL; N kuytop HL; SO kuytok HL; RA kuytoh(=pihi); KD kujtun, kujtungiri “wild goose”; KV kujtup “goose”; BA kui (sing.), kuitu, kuito, kuitop (plur.) “wild goose”.

*m *ma=k H “inside” > Y mak(=ta) H/H(L); HO mak H; SA mak H, mak(-ta) H/H(L); A mak=ta HL; N mak H; SO mak(=ta) H/H(L); RA mah “inside”; BA mak=ta “behind”, “away”. *maa “to roast” > Y ma H; HO ma H; SA ma H; O ma H; B ma; A ma H; N ma H; SO ma H; RA maa; KT ma “to roast”, “to broil”; KD an=ma=n “prepared” (about a dish); KV k=i=ma~wa “I roast [it]” (morpheme division is done by me), i=ma=sru “to roast [it]” (KV gives the forms with the object prefix i- ); BA ma “to roast”.

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*maa “to swim” > Y ma H; HO ma H; SA ma H; O ma H; B ma', A ma H; N ma H; SO wa (?) H; RA maa; KT ma ; BA ma “to swim”. *makiri LLH “knife” > Y makiri LLH “big knife”; HO makiri LHL; SA makiri LHL; O makiri LHL “small knife”; B makiri; A makiri LHL; N makiri LHL; SO makiri LHL “knife”; RA pon=makiri “small knife” (pon “small”); BA makiri “knife”. *maqu=s-Ok HL-L “yawn” > Y mawsok HL; HO mawsok HL; SA mawsok HL; O mawsok HL; B mawsok; A mawsup HL; N mawsok HL; SO mawsok HL; RA mawsoh(=kihi); KT eyako-maushike “yawn”; KV mausagien “I yawn”; BA maushok “to yawn”. *mat L “woman”, “wife” > Y mat(-ci) H/L(H) “woman”; HO mat(=ci) H/L(H); SA mat(=ci) H/L(H) “woman”, “wife”; O mat(=ci) H/L(H); B mat(=ci); A mat(-ci) “wife”; N mat(=ci) H/L(H) “woman”, “wife”; SO mat(=ci) H/L(H); RA mah(=cihi) “wife”; KT mat “woman”; KD mani ( Y mata LH, mata=pa LLH; HO mata, mata-qita LH-LL; SA mata LH, mata=pa LH-L; O mata LH; B mata; A mata LH; N mata LH; SO mata LH; RA mata=yta “winter”; KT mata, matam (matam < mata=am < mata-an “[It] is winter”); KD matan (< mata=an “[It] is winter”); KV mata; BA mata, mata-pa, mata=un~pa “winter”. *mE(=)k/*mi(=)k “to bark” > Y mik H; HO mik H; SA mik H; O mek H; B mek; A mek H; N mek H; SO mek H; RA meh(=k) ; KD meki “to bark”; KV mikk=va “barks”; BA mek, mifc “to bark** *mEE= “to be cold” > Y me-qan H-L; HO me-qan H-L; SA me-qan H-L; O me=qan H-L; B me=qan; A me-qan H-L; N me-qan H-L; SO me-qan H-L; RA mee-rayki; KT (?) i=ma=raykiri “to be cold”; KK i-mie=ranki; BA me-an “cold”. *mes= L “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck” > Y mes=u L-H (sing.), mes=pa H-L (plur.); N mes=u L-H (sing.), mes=pa H-L (plur.) “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck”. *mes= L “to peel (it)” > Y mes=u L-H (sing.), mes-pa H-L (plur.); SA mes-u L-H (sing.), mes=pa H-L (plur.); RA mes=u “to peel (it)”; BA mes-u (sing.), mes=pa (plur.) “to cut off’, “to break off’, “to take off’, “to break”.

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*mii “to put on clothes” > Y mi H; HO mi H; SA mi H; O B mi; A mi H; N mi H; SO mi H; RA mii; KT niri (?); KD mii “to put on clothes”; KV k=mi=a “I put on”, mi “put on”; BA mi “to clothe”, “to wear”. *miina HLL “to laugh” > Y mina HL; HO mina HL; SA mina HL; O mina HL; B mina ; A mina HL; N mina HL; SO mina HL; RA miina; KD mina; BA mina “to laugh”. *mim L “meat (of fish)” > Y mim(=i) H/L(H); HO mim H; SA mim H; O mim H; B mim; RA mim(-ihi) “meat (of fish)”; BA mim “fat”, “flesh of fish”. *mit “grandchild” > Y mit=po(=ho) HL/HL(L) (po “child”, “son”); HO mit=po(=ho) HL/HL(L); SA mit=po(=ho) HL/HL(L); O nit=po HL; B mit=po; A mippo HL; N mit=po HL “grandchild”; SO mit=po(=ho) HL/HL(L) “grandson”, mat=mit(=cihi) HL/HL(LL) “granddaughter”; RA mis(=cihi) ; KV ku=michi; BA mitpo “grandchild”. ♦miti HL “father” > HO mid HL; SA mid HL; O mid HL; B mid ; KT michi; KK michi; KD michi, mid; BA mi chi “father”. *mO L (?) “world”, “land”, “island”, “country” (?) > Y sir H, mosir LH; HO mosir LH; SA mosir LH; O mosir LH; B mosir; A mosir LH “world”, “land”, “island”, “country”; N mosir LH “island”, “country”; SO “country”, “land”; RA mosiri “world”, “island”; KT moshiri “island”; BA moshir’, moshiri “country”, “world”. *mO L “sleep” > Y mo-kor LH “to sleep” (kor “to have”); HO mo-kor LH; SA mo-kor LH; O mo=kor LH; B mo-kor A mo=kor LH; N mo-kor LH; SO mo=kor LH; RA mo=koro; KT mo=kooro “to sleep”; KK k=mo=kon=rosi=va “to sleep” (lit “I sleep”); KD mo=so “to wake up”, mu-kar=i “to sleep”; BA mokoro “to sleep”. *mO(=)yuk L(-)H “tanuki”, “raccoon dog” > Y moyuk LH; HO moyuk LH; SA moyuk (?) LH; B moyuk; A moyuk LH; N moyuk LH; SO moyuk LH “tanuki”, “raccoon dog”; BA moyuk “racoon-like dog”. *mOm “to flow” > Y mom H; HO mom H; SA mom H; O mom H; B mom; A mom H; N mom H; SO mom H; RA mom “to flow”; BA mom “to flow as a river”, “to float down a stream”, “to float”. *mOn (*mon ?) “hand” > HO mon H “hand” (in com­ pounds); RA mon=peh “finger” (cf. Y tek-pet HL “finger”, HO et al. aske=pet HLL “finger”, where tek and aske mean

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“hand”); KV mon=raj=gi “make”; BA mon “hand” (in com­ pounds). *mOn(=)rE H(-)L “to be late [at night]”, “to come late”, “to be slow” > Y moyre HL; HO moyre HL; SA moyre HL; O moyre HL; B moyre; A moyre HL; N moyre HL “to be late [at night]”, “to come late”, “to be slow”; SO moyre HL “to be slow”; RA moyre “to be late [at night]”; BA moire “slow”. *mOs L “a fly” > Y mos H; HO mos H; SA mos H; O mos H; B mos; A mos H; N mos H; SO mossi LH; RA toomus(=ihi); KD mos; KV mos; BA mosh “a fly”. *mOsma HL “other [than]”, “besides”, “[anything] else” > Y mosma HL; HO mosma HL; SA mosma HL; O e-mosma L-HL; B mosma; A mosma HL; N mosma HL; SO e=mosma-no L-HL-L “other [than]”, “besides”, “[anything] else”; BA moshima “another”, “othe?’, “besides”. *mOy (*moy ?) “eddy”, “whirlpool” > SA moy H; 0 moy H; A moy H; N moy H “eddy”, “whirlpool”. *mOy “inlet”, “bay” > Y moy H; HO moy H; B moy ; KV moj-nikorch; BA moi “inlet”, “bay” (also occurs as a part of place names on the island Iturup). *mOy= “to move”, ‘Ho be in motion” > Y si=moy=moy L-H-L, moy=moy-ke H-L-L; HO si=moy=ma L-H-L, moy = moy-ke H-L-L; SA moy = moy-ke H-L-L; O moy=moy-ke H-L-L; B moy=moy=ke; A moy-moy=ke H-LL; N si=moy = moy L-H-L, moy = moy=ke H-L-L; SO si=moy=ma L-H-L, moy=moy=ke H-L-L; RA si=moy=ma, moy-moy=ke “to move”, “to be in motion”; BA moi-moi “to move”, “to shake”. ♦mOyO LH “few”, “little” > Y moyo LH; SA moyo LH; O moyo LH; B moyo; N moyo LH; SO moyo LH; RA moyo “few”, “little”; KK mojogo “little”; BA moyo “few”. *m[r]Ak= H “to open [it]” > Y mak-a H-L “to open (it)”, mak=ke “to be open”; HO mak=a H-L “to open (it)”, mak-ke “to be open”; SA mak-a H-L “to open (it)”, mak=ke “to be open”; O mak=a H-L “to open (it)”, mak=ke “to be open”; B mak=a “to open (it)”; A mak=a H-L “to open (it)”, yay=mak=a H-LL “to be open”; N cak-ke H-L “to open (it)”, cak “to be open”; SO cak-ke H-L “to open (it)”, cak=wa=qan H-L-L “to be open”; RA cah-ke “to open (it)”, yay=cah-ke “to be open”; BA maka, chaka “to open” (die correspondence [m]/[c] partially resembles the correspondence [p]/[c], but the analogy

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is not complete. Additionally, since this is the only example, I reconstruct * m[r]~ but not * mr- ). *mukar LH “axe” > Y mukar LH; HO mukar LH; SA mukar LH; O mukar LH; B mukar "broad-axe”; A mukar LH; N mukar LH; SO mukar LH; RA mukara “broad-axe”, “axe”; KK ukar, KD mukar, BA mukara “axe”. *mukku HL “flute”, “pipe” > Y mukku=r HL; SA mukku HL; O mukku=r HL; B mukku-r ; A mukku^r HL; N mukku=r HL; RA muhku=n(=ihi) “flute”, “pipe”; BA mukku, mukku-ri “a kind of musical instrument made of wood and somewhat resembling a “Jew's harp”. *mun “[inedible] grass” > Y mun H; HO mun H; SA mun H; O mun H; B mun; A mun H; N mun H; SO mun H; RA mun; KT mun; KK mun; KD mun “grass”; BA mun “grass”, “weeds”. *mun “trash”, “rubbish” > Y mun H; HO mun H; SA mun H; B mun; A mun H; N mun H; SO mun H; RA mun(=ihi) “trash”, “rubbish”. *munin LH “to rot”, “to decay”, “rotten” > Y munin LH; HO munin LH; SA munin LH; O munin LH; B munin; A munin LH; N munin LH; SO munin LH; RA munin; KT mumin “to rot”, “to decay”, “rotten”; KV munin=uva, minin=uva “rotten”; BA munin “rotten”, “addled”. *muy “winnow” ( < PJ * mui > OJ miy > MJ mi) > Y muy H; SA muy H; O muy H; A muy H; N muy H; BA mui “winnow”.

*n *na(=)ni L(-)H “at once”, “immediately” > Y nani LH; HO nani LH; SA nani LH; O nani LH; B nani; RA nani “at once”, “immediately”; KV nasi-nino “suddenly”; BA nani “immediately”, “quickly”, “at once”, “then”, “without stop­ ping”. *nAn L “face” > Y nan(=u) H/L(H); HO nan(=u) H/L(H); SA nan(-u) H/L(H); O nan(=u) H/L(H); B nan(-u); A nanu LH; N nanu LH; SO nan(=ul=uhu) H/L(H/HL); RA nan(=uhu) , BA nan “face”. *naqa LH “still” > Y ina LH; HO naqa LH; SA na H; O naqa LH; B na; A na H; N na H; SO na H; RA naa “still”.

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*nata LH “hatchet” ( < J nata “hatchet” ) > Y nata LH; HO nata LH; SA nata LH; N nata LH; SO nata (accent ?) “hatchet”; BA nata “a kind of large pointless knife”. *nay “stream”, “river” > Y nay H; HO nay H; SA nay H; O nay H; B nay, A nay H; N nay H; SO nay H “stream”; RA nay “river”; BA nai “stream”, “river”, “brook”, “valley with or without water”. *nEE= LH “who”, “what” > Y ne-n H “who”, ne-p H “what”; HO ne=qen L-H, ne=n H “who”, ne=p H “what”; SA ne=n H “who”, ne=p H “what”; O ne=n H “who”, ne-p H “what”; B ne=n “who”, ne-p “what”; A ne-n H “who”, ne=p H “what”; N ne-n H “who”, ne-p H “what”; SO ne=n H “who”, ne^p H “what”; RA nee, naa-ta (?) “who”; KT neyanokoneyanbi “what”; BA nen, neni “who”; nep “what”, “something”, “anything”. *nEskO HL “walnut tree” > Y nesko HL; HO nesko HL; SA nesko HL; O nesko HL; B mesko; A nesko HL “walnut tree”; N nesko HL; BA neshko “walnut”. *nEtO LH “calm”, “lull” > Y neto LH; HO noto LH; SA no to LH; N noto LH “calm”, “lull”; BA neto “still, calm weather”. *nii “to sip” > Y ni H; HO ni H; SA ni H; O ni H; B ni; A ni H; N nun (?) H; SO ni H; RA nii “to sip”; BA ni “to drink (as medicine, tea, soup or hot water)”. *nii “tooth” > Y mimak(-i) LH/LL(H) (< *ni=imak); HO miwa£(=i)LH/LH(L), nimak(-i) LH/LH(L); A nimak LH; N ni­ mak LH ; BA nimaki “tooth”; Y nirus(=i) HL/HL(L); HO nirus HL; O nirus(-i) HL/HL(L); SO nirus(=ihi) HL/HL(LL); RA niirus(=ihi) ; KV si=nimak; BA nirush “the gums” (< ni=rus “skin of teeth”). *nii “tree” > Y ni H; HO ni H; SA ni H; O ni H; B ni; A ni H; N ni H; SO ni H; RA nii, KT ni; KK ni “wood”, ianturas=ni “tree”; KD ni “tree”, “wood”; KV nij “tree”; BA ni “general name for trees or wood”. *nii(=)num HL(-)L “[wal]nut” (lit. “tree's fruit” ?)> Y ninum HL; HO ninum HL; SA ninum HL; O ninum HL; B ninum; A ninum HL; N ninum HL “walnut”; SO ninum HL “walnut [tree]”, RA niinum, niinom “walnut”; BA ninum, ninumi “nuts”, “walnuts”. *niisu HLL “mortar”, “handmill” > Y nisu HL; HO nisu HL; SA nisu HL; O nisu HL; B nisu; A nisu HL; N nisu HL; SO nisu HL; RA niisu “mortar”, “handmill”; BA nishu “wooden mortar having a foot to it”.

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*nimara LLH “half’, “part (of something)” > Y mimara LLH “some”; SA nimara(=ha) LHL/LHL(L); O nimara LHL; B numara; A nimara LHL; N nimar LH “half’; RA nimara “some”; BA nimara “half’. *nin “to decrease”, “to diminish” > Y nin H; SA nin H; O nin H; B nin; A nin H; N nin H; SO nin H; RA ko=nin “to de­ crease”, “to diminish”; BA nin “to become less (as water in a river)”, “to abate”, “to melt”. *nin= L “to drag” > Y nin=i L-H, nin=pa H-L; HO nin=i LH, nin=pa H-L; SA nin=i L-H, nin=pa H-L; O nin=pa H-L; B nin=pa; A nin=pa H-L; N nin=pa H-L; SO nin=pa H-L; RA nin=pa “to drag”. *nis H “sky”, “cloud” > Y nis H; HO nis H; SA nis H; O nis H; B nis; A nis H; N nis H; SO nis=koton HLL; RA nis=kuru “sky”, “cloud”; KT nishu “cloud”, nis-aru kando “sky”; KK niss; KD nis-ar; KV nies-or “sky”; BA nish “clouds”, “heavens”, “air”, “sky”. *nis= L “to be strong”, “to be hard” > Y nis=te H-L; HO nis=te H-L “to be strong”, “to be hard”; SA nis=te H-L “to be hard”, nis-uwam-ne L-HL-L “to be strong”; O nis=te H-L “to be hard”, nis=uram=ne L-HL-L”to be strong”; B nis=te “to be hard”, nis=uram=ne “to be strong”; A nis-te H-L “to be hard”, nis=uram=ne L-HL-L”to be strong”; N nis=te H-L “to be hard”, nis~uwam=ne L-HL-L “to be strong”; SO nis-te HL “to be strong”, “to be hard”; RA nis-teh “to be hard”; nis-iwan=ne “to be strong”; KT nishi=te “to be hard”; KD nistin “hard”, nistip “strong”; BA nishte “hard”. *nis= L “to draw (water)”, “to ladle”, “to dip” > Y nis=e L-H; HO nis=e L-H; SA nis=e L-H; O nis=e L-H; B nis=e; A nis-e L-H; N nis-e L-H; SO nis-e L-H; RA nis-e (sing.), nis=pa (plur.) “to draw (water)”, “to ladle”, “to dip”; BA nise, nisei “to dip up”, “to ladle out”. *nisap LL “shin” > Y nisap(-i) LH/LL(H); HO nisap(-i) LH/LH(L); SA nisap(=i) LH/LH(L); B nisap=makka; A nisap=mekka LHLL; N nisap LH; RA nisah(=puhu) “shin”; BA nisap “the shin bone of human beings”. *nis(=)at L(-)H “dawn” > Y nisat LH; HO nisat=qotta LH­ LL; SA nisat LH; O nisat LH; B nisat “dawn”; A nisat=ta LHL “tomorrow” (lit. “at the dawn”); N nisat=peker LH-LL; SO nisat-peke LH-LL; RA sonno=nisah=ta “dawn”, nisah=ta “morning”; KT nisat=ta, nishat=ta “tomorrow”; KK nisi'dt “morning”, nasidat “early”; KD nisat “morning”, “tomorrow”;

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KV niesiata “tomorrow”; BA nish, nisat “day-break”, “early morning”. ♦nispa HL “rich man” > Y sino nispa HL HL; HO nispa HL; SA nispa HL; O nispa HL; B nispa; A e=nispa=ne=wa=qan LHLLLL; N nispa HL; SO poronno ikor nispa LHL LH HL”rich man”; KV nispani “rich”; BA nishpa “master”, “lord”, “sir”, “rich person”. ♦nit L “handle” > Y nit(=u) H/L(H); HO nit H; SA nit H; O nit H, B nit; A nit H; N nit H; SO nit H; RA nis(=cihi) “handle”; KD nit (?) “knife”; BA nichihi “handle of anything”. *nin=u L-H “to sew” > Y nin=u L-H; SA nin=u L-H; O nin=u L-H; B nin=u; A nin=u L-H; N nin=u L-H; RA nin=u, nin=pa=nin=pa “to sew”; BA ninu “to thread as beads or chestnuts”, “to string on a pole as fish”. ♦nOk L “testicles”, “egg” > Y nok(=i) H/L(H); HO nok(=i) H/L(H); SA nok(=i) H/L(H); O nok(=i) H/L(H); B nok(=i); A nok H;N nok(=i) H/L(H); SO nok(=i) H/L(H); RA noh(=kihi) “testicles”, “egg”; KD nok “testicles”; BA nok “an egg”, “the testicles”. ♦nOka LL “picture”, “drawing”, “form”, “shape” > Y noka(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO noka(=ha) LH/LH(L); SA noka(-ha) LH/LH(L); O noka(=ha) LH/LH(L) “picture”, “drawing”, “form”, “shape”; B noka “form”, “shape”; A noka LH; N noka LH; RA noka “picture”, “drawing”, “form”, “shape”; BA noka “image”, “map”, “picture”. ♦nOkO LH “saw” (< J noko-giri “saw” ) > Y noko LH; HO noko LH; SA noko LH; O noko LH; N noko LH; SO noko LH; BA noko “saw”. ♦nOn L “saliva” > Y non(=i) H/L(H); HO non(-i) H/L(H); SA non(=i) H/L(H); O non(=i) H/L(H); B non(=i); A non H; N non H; SO non H; RA non(=ihi) ; KD nono; BA non “saliva”. ♦nOna LH “sea urchin”, “sea chestnut” > Y nona LH; SO nona LH; RA nona; KD niko (mistake for nino “sea urchin”, “sea chestnut”. *nOOti(=)qu “star” > Y nociw LH; HO nociw LH; SA nociw LH; O nociw LH; A nociw LH; N nociw LH; RA noociw ; BA nochiu “star”. *nOqi=pE HLL “brain” > Y noype(=he) HL/HL(L); HO noype(=he) HL/HL(L); SA noype(=he) HL/HL(L); O noype(-he) HL/HL(L); B noype; A noype HL; N noype HL; SO noype(=he) HL/HL(L), HL/LH(L) “brain”, BA noiporo “forehead”, “brain”.

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♦nOrnO HL “flower” > Y nonno HL; HO nonno HL; SA nonno HL; BA nonno, nonnu “flower”. *nOrnO/*narna “mother” > SAKH (Shiraura, Ochiho, Niitoi, Tarantomari, Maoka, Chirai) nanna; KT nonno; KD nonno; KV nonno “mother”. *nOs=ki H-L “middle”, “center” > Y nos=ki H-L; HO nos=ki(=ke) H-L/H-L(L); SA nos=ki(=ke) H-L/H-L(L); O nos=ki(=ke) H-L/H-L(L); B nos=ki(-ke); A nos-ki H-L; N nos-ki H-L; SO nos~ki(=kehe) H-L/H-L(LL); RA nos=ki=ke, nos-ke=ke “middle”, “center”; KD pa=noski “middle of the year”; BA noshki, noshike “middle”. *nOs=pa H-L “to pursue”, “to chase” > Y nos=pa H-L; HO nos-pa H-L; SA nos=pa H-L; O nos-pa H-L; B nos=pa; A i-nos=pa L-H-L; N ohay-nos-pa LH-L-L; SO nos-pa HL; RA nos=pa “to pursue”, “to chase”; BA noshpa “to follow”, “to chase”, “to pursue”, “to run after”. *nOt H “chin”, “jaw” > Y notkir(=i) HL/HL(L) “chin”, notkew(=ehe) HL/HL(LL) “jaw”; HO notkir(=i) HL/HL(L) “chin”, “jaw”; SA notkir(=i) HL/HL(L) “chin”, notkew(=e) HL/HL(L) “jaw”; O notkir(^i) HL/HL(L) “chin”; B nokkir(^i) “chin”, nokkew(=e) “jaw”; A notkewe HLL “jaw”; N notkew HL “jaw”; SO notkew(=ehe) HL/HL(LL) “chin”, “jaw”; RA nohkiri(-hi), nohkew “jaw”, notapuru “jaw of the fish”; KT not-kyu "chin”; KD not=kam “cheek” (kam “meat”); KV not “cape”; BA not “mouth”, “jaws”. *nOtAk LH “cutting edge” > Y notak LH; HO notak LH; SA notak(=-u) LH/LH(L); O notak(-u) LH/LH(L); B notak; A notak LH; N notak(-u) LH/LH(L); SO notak( = uhu) LH/LH(LL); RA notah(-kuhu) “cutting edge”; BA notak “edge of any sharp tool”. *nOy= “temple” > Y noype(=he) HL/HL(L); HO noype(=he) HL/HL(L); SA noype(=he) HL/HL(L); O noype(=he) HL/HL(L); B noype; A noype HL; N noype HL; SO noype(-he) HL/HL(L) “brain”; KV nosop, nojap “temples”; BA noibe, noipe “brains”. *nom(=)i H(-)H “to hold a festival”, “to perform memorial duties” > Y i-nomi L-HL; HO nomi HL; SA i-nomi L-HL; O i=nomi L-HL; B i=nomi; A a-nomi L-HL; N i=nomi L-HL “to hold a festival”, “to perform memorial du­ ties”; SO kamuy nomi LH HL “to worship”; BA nomi “to worship”, “the ceremony of offering inau or libations of wine (often both) to the gods.”

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*ndy= L “to twist” > Y noy=e L-H (sing.), noy-pa H-L (plur.); HO noy-e L-H (sing.), noy=pa H-L (plur.); SA noy=e L-H (sing.), noy=pa H-L (plur.); O noy=e L-H (sing.); B noy=e; A noy-e L-H (sing.), noy=pa H-L (plur.); N noy-e L-H, tek=noy=pa H-L-L; SO u=qe-noy=pa L-H-L-L; RA noy=e (sing.), noy-pa (plur.); KD nojba “to twist”; KV noj=giva “crookedly”, “awry”; BA noye “to turn”, “to twist”, “to wind”, “to wring”, “to turn over”. *nu “to ask” > Y nu H; HO nu H; SA nu H; O nu H; B nu; A nu H; N nu H; SO i=nu “to ask”; BA nu “to inquire” (related to *nuu “to listen” ?) nu=kar L-H “to see”, “to look at” > Y nukar LH; HO nukar LH; SA nukar LH; O nukar LH; B nukar; A nukar LH; N nukar LH; SO nukar LH; RA nukara “to see”, “to look”; KV nugaro=va “you see”; BA nukara, nukat “to see”, “to look at”. *num L “fruit”, “berry”, “to bear fruit” > Y num H “fruit”, “berry”; SA num(=i) H/L(H) “fruit”; O num-qo H-L “to ripe” (p “to ripe”); B e=num-o “to bear fruit”; A num=qo H-L “to ripe”; N num-qo H-L “to ripe”; RA num=e=pirika “to ripe” (pirika “to be good”) (related to *num “grain”, “granule”, “ball” ?). *num L “grain”, “granule”, “ball” > Y num(-i) H/L(H); HO num(-i) H/L(H); SA num(=i) H/L(H); O num H; B num(=i); A num(-ihi) H/L(HL); N num H; RA num(=ihi) “grain”, “granule”; BA numi “drop”, “ball”, “berry”, “grain”, “seed”. *num= L “to squeeze” > Y nun=pa H-L; HO num=u L-H, nun-pa H-L; SA nun=pa H-L; O nun-pa H-L; B nun=pa; A nun=pa H-L; N nun^pa H-L; SO nun=pa H-L; RA nun-pa ; KD numu “to squeeze”; BA numba “to squeeze”, “to press [out]”, “to rub together”. *num=kE H-L “to choose (it)”, “to select (it)” > Y num-ke H-L; HO num-ke H-L; SA num-ke H-L; 0 num=ke H-L; B num=ke; A num-ke H-L; N num-ke H-L; SO num-ke H-L; RA nun=ke “to choose (it)”, “to select (it)”; BA numge “to choose”, “to appoint”. *numa LL “hair” > Y numa(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO numa(=ha) LH/LH(L); SA numa(-ha) LH/LH(L); 0 numa LH; B numa; A numa LH; N numa LH; SO numa LH; RA numa(=ha) “hair”; KD numa “shaggy hair”; BA numa “hair of any kind”. *nun=pE H-L “paste”, “glue” > Y nun-pe H-L; HO nun-pe H-L; SA nun=pe H-L; O nun=pe H-L; B nun=pe; A

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nun-pe H-L; N nun=pe H-L; SO nun~pe H-L; RA nun=pe “paste”, “glue”; BA numpe “gum”, “paste”, “glue”. *nup “field” > Y nup H; HO nup H; SA nup H; O nup H; B nup=ka; A nup H; N nup H; RA nuh(=pihi); KT nup "[uncultivated] field”; BA nup “plain”, “table-land”, “field”, “fen”. *nup(=)ki H(-)L “to get muddy” > Y nupki HL; HO nupki HL; SA nupki=ne HL-L; O nupki HL; B nupki; A nupki HL; N nupki HL; SO nupki HL; RA nuhki “to get muddy”; BA nupki “muddy”, “thick, as dirty water”. *nupEk LL “light” > Y nupek(=i) LH/LL(H); HO nupek(=i) LH/LH(H); SA nipek(=i) LH/LH(H); O nupek(=i) LH/LH(H); B nupek(=i); A nipek(=i) LH/LH(H); N nipek LH; SO nikep LH ( Y nupe(=he) HL/HL(L); HO nupe(=he) HL/HL(L); SA nupe( = he) HL/HL(L); O nupe(=he) HL/HL(L); B nupe; A nupe HL; N nupe HL; SO nupe HL; RA nuupe(=he); KT nubi'; KD nubi; BA nube “a tear” (’’eye's water”. The second part of the compound is pe “liquid”, “undrinkable water”). *nuu “to hear”, “to listen” > Y nu H; HO nu H; SA nu H; O nu H; B nu; A nu H; N nu H; SO nu H; RA nuu ; BA nu “to hear”, “to listen”. *nuuman HLL “yesterday” > Y numan HL; HO numan HL; SA numan HL; O numan HL; B numan; A numan HL; N nu­ man HL; SO numan HL; RA nuuman; KT numan “yesterday”; KK nuuman “yesterday”, o^nuumtin “evening”; KD numan “yesterday”; KV o-numan “evening”; BA numan “yesterday”. *nuy=kar H-L “to comb” > Y nuy=kar H-L; HO yay=nuy=kar H-L-L; SA nuy=kar H-L; O nuy=kar H-L; B nuy=kar; A nuy=kar H-L; N nuy=kar H-L; SO nuy=kar H-L; RA nuy=kara “to comb”; BA nuikara “to comb as a horse's mane”, “to currycomb”, “to groom”, “to brush”. *nuyna ( Y nuyna HL; HO nuyna HL; SA nuyna HL; O nuyna HL; N nuyna HL; SO nuyna HL; RA nuyna “to hide (it)”, “to conceal (it)”; BA nuina “to hide away”.

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*nuy= L “to carve (it)” > Y nuy=e LH; HO nuy-e LH; SA nuy-e LH; O nuy-e LH; B nuy=e; A nuy-e LH (sing.), nuy=pa HL (plur.); N nuw-e LH; SO i=nu=e LHH; RA nuy=e “to carve (it)”; BA nuye “to write”, “to tattoo”, “to carve”. *nuy= L “to sweep” > Y nuw=e L-H; HO mu(n)=nuy=e HL-L; SA nuw=e L-H; O nuy=e LH (sing.), nuy=pa (accent ?) (plur.); B nuy=e; N mun=nuw=e H-L-L “to sweep”; BA nuye-p “broom”, “brush”.

*o *opas LH “snow” > Y upas LH; HO upas LH; SA upas LH; O upas LH; O upas LH; B upas; A upas LH; N upas LH; SO opas LH; RA opas; KT ubasu, ubashi'; KK tipash; KD upas; BA upas, ubas “snow”. ♦opsOr HH “bosom” > Y upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); HO upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); SA upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); O upsor(=o) HL/HL(L); B ussor(=o); A ussor(-o) HL/HL(L); N ussor(=o) HL/HL(L); SO osor LH “bosom”; BA upshoro “bosom”, “the inside of anything”.

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*O(=)man=dE L-H-L “to present”, “to make a pre­ sent” > O oman=te LH-L; A oman=te LH-L; N oman-te LHL; SO oman=te LH-L; RA imokaha omante “to present”, “to make a present”; BA omande “to send”. *O=kE=dE L-L-H “to end” > Y o=ke=re L-L-H; HO o=ke=re L-H-L; SA o=ke=re L-H-L; O o=ke=re L-H-L; B o=ke=re; A o-ke-re L-H-L; N o=ke=re L-H-L; SO o-ke=re L-H-L “to end”; BA okere “to finish”, “to accomplish”. *O=kEqu= L-LH “to expel”, “to drive out”, “to throw out” > Y o-kew-e L-L-H (sing.), o=kew=pa (accent ?) (plur.); SA o-kew=e L-L-H (sing.), o=kew=pa L-H-L (plur.); O o=kew=e L-L-H; A o=kew=e L-L-H; RA kewe; KD okivi “to expell”, “to drive out”, “to throw out”; BA okeuba “to drive away”. *O=sur=a L-L-H “to throw away” > Y o=sur=a L-L-H; HO o=sur=a L-H-L; SA o=sur=a L-H-L (sing.), o=sur=pa LH-L (plur.); B o=sur=a; A o=sur=a L-H-L; N o-sur=a L-H-L;

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SO o=sur=a L-H-L “to throw away”; BA o-sur=a “to throw away” sur=a “to drop”, “to cast away”, “to let alone”. *Oga LH “to be empty” > Y oha LH; HO oha LH; SA oha LH; O oha LH; B oha; A oha LH; N oha LH; SO oha LH; RA oha=ris=ne “to be empty”; BA oha “empty”. *Ogak LH “to be shallow” > Y o=ohak L-LH; HO a=ahak L-HL; SA ohak LH; O ohak LH; A ohak LH; N ohak LH; RA ohah(=k); KT (?) hagiri, hakku “to be shallow”; BA ohak “shallow”. *Ogaqu LLH “soup”, “broth” > Y ohaw(=e) LH/LL(H); HO ohaw LH; SA ohaw(~e) LH/LH(L); B owaw; A ohaw LH; N ohaw LH; RA ohaw “soup”, “broath”; BA ohau “a fish or meat stew with vegetables intermixed”. *OgOO LHL “to be deep” > Y o^qoho L-LH; HO o=qoho L-HL; SA o~qoho L-HL; O oqo L-H; B oqo; A oho LH; N oho LH; SO oho LH; RA ohoo; KT oo “to be deep”; KV sir-okho-va; BA oho “deep”. *Ok H “nape”, “the back of the neck” > Y oksut(-u) HL/HL(L), okkew(=e) HL/HL(L); HO oksut(=u) HL/HL(L); SA okkew(=e) HUHL(L),oksut(=u) HL/HL(L); O ; B ossut(=u); A okkewe HLL; N okkew(=e) HL, oksut(=u) HL/HL(L); SO okkew(=ehe) HL/HL(LL); RA ohruru “nape”, “the back of the neck”; KV oksut “nape”; BA ok “neck”, “the nape of the neck”. *Okay LH “to be”, “to exist”, “to dwell” (plur.) > Y okay LH; HO okay LH; SA oka LH; B okay, A okay LH; N okay LH; SO okay LH; RA okay “to be”, “to exist”, “to dwell” (plur.); BA okai (sing. & plur.) “to be”, “to dwell”, “to be at a place”. *Okkay(O) HL(L) “man”, “male” > Y okkayo HLL; HO okkayo HLL; SA okkayo HLL; O okkay HL; B okkay; A okkayo HLL; N okkayo HLL; SO okkayo HLL; RA okkayo; KT okkai “man”, “male”; KK k^akaid “husband” (lit. “my=man”); KD okajbu-utari “[boat] men”; KV okaj “man”, “male”; BA okkai “male”. *Om L “thigh” > Y om(=i) H/L(H); HO om(=i) H/L(H); SA om(=i) H/L(H); O om(=i) H/L(H); B om(=i); AomtyN om(-ihi) H/L(HL); SO om H; RA om(=ihi) ; KT omunya “thigh”; KD om “upper part of the leg”, om=poni “thigh's bone”; KV om; BA om “thigh”. *0m=kE HL “to cough” > Y omke HL; HO omke HL; SA omke HL; O omke HL; B omke; A omke HL; N omke HL; SO

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onke HL; RA onke “to cough**; KD omki “cough”; KV k~omgi “I cough”; BA omke “a cold”, “asthma”. *Oma(=)p LH “to love”, “to like” > Y omap LH; HO omap LH; SA omap LH; B omap; A omap LH “to love”, “to like**; BA omap “to love**. *Oman LH “to go” (sing.) > Y oman LH; HO oman LH; 0 oman LH; B oman; A oman LH; N oman LH; SO oman LH; KT oman, omane; KD oman “to go”; KV oman=ien “they go”, ityk-oman “do not go” (imper.); BA oman (sing.) “to go**, “to advance”, “to proceed”. ♦OmonpE LHL “pants” (J o=monpe “[women's] skirt pan­ taloons”) > Y omunpe LHL; HO omunpe LHL; SA omonpe LHL; 0 omunpe LHL; B omonpe; A homonpe LHL; N omonpe LHL; SO omonpe LHL; RA oponpe “pants”; BA omompe, omunbe “trousers”. *Ona (*ona ?) LH “father” > Y HO ona (accent ?); SA ona(-ha) LH/LH(L); A ona(-ha) LH/LH(L); N ona LH; RA ona(=ha); BA ona “father”. *Onkami HLL “to worship” ( < NJ oNgarni “to worship” ) > Y onkami HLL; HO onkami HLL; Sa onkami HLL; O onkami HLL; B onkami; A onkami HLL; N onkami HLL; SO onkami HLL “to worship*’; BA ongami “to adore”. *Onra HL “to forget (it)” > Y oyra HL; HO oyra HL; SA oyra HL; O oyra HL; B oyra; A oyra HL; N oyra HL; SO oyra HL; RA oyra “to forget (it)”; KV ojra “forget”; BA oira (sing.), oira=pa (plur.) “to forget”. *00 “to ride (it)” > Y o H; HO o H; SA o H; 0 o H; B o; A o H; SO o H; RA oo “to ride (it)”; BA o “to ride”, “to sail in a boat”. *0p L “spear” > Y op(=i) H/L(H); HO op H; SA op H; 0 op H; B op; A op H; N op H; SO op H; RA oh(=pihi) “spear”; KD opu “stick”, “club”; BA op “spear”. *Opit(=)ta/*Opir=ta LH-L “all” > Y epitta LHL; HO opitta LHL; SA opitta LHL; O opitta LHL; B oputta; A opitta LHL; N opitta LHL; SO opitta LHL; BA ebitta, obitta “all”. *Or L “inside” ( J naka ) > Y or-o L-H; HO or(=o) H/L(H); SA or(=o) H/L(H); A or=o L-H; N or H “inside**; BA oro “to be in, at or by”, “to be contained in”, “inside of’. *0r=nE H-L “to be old (of age)” > Y onne HL “to be old”, onne-kur HLL”old person”; HO onne HL, onne-p HL; SA onne HL, onne-p HL; O onne HL, onne=qutar HLLL; B onne, onne-p ; A onne HL, onne aynu utar HL HL LH; N onne HL “to be old”, onne=p HL “old person”; SO onne-kur

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HLL; RA onne=qutah(=rihi) “old person(s)”; KD oni-p “sea bear”, “fir seal” (lit. “old thing”, probably because it has a gray colour); BA onne “old”, “sea tear”, “fir seal”. *Os=kE H-L “to knit”, “to weave” > Y os=ke H-L; HO os^ke H-L; SA os=ke H-L; O os=ke H-L; B os-ke “to knit”; A os-ke H-L; N os-ke H-L “to weave”; SO os-ke H-L; RA os=ke “to knit”; BA oshke “to net”, “to weave”. *Osma=k HL “back”, “behind” > Y osmak( = e) HL/HL(L); HO osmak(=e) HL/HL(L); SA osmak(=e) HL/HL(L); O osmak(=e) HL/HL(L); B osmak(=e); A osmake HLL; N osmak HL; RA osmake; KT osumakke “back”, “behind”; BA oshmak, oshmake “behind”. *OsOr LL “buttocks” > Y osor(=o) LH/LL(H); HO osor(-o) LH/LH(L); SA osor(-o) LH/LH(L); O osor(-o) LH/LH(L); B osor(=o); A osor kam; N osor LH; SO osor(-oho) “buttocks”; BA osoro “buttock”, “the lower end”. *Ot=kE H-L “to poke (it)” > Y ot=ke H-L; HO ot=ke H-L; SA ot-ke H-L; O ot=ke H-L; B ot-ke; A ot-ke H-L; N ot-ke H-L “to poke (it)”; KD ot-ki “to strike”; BA otke “to prick”, “to pierce”. *Ota LH “sand” > Y ota LH; HO ota LH; SA ota LH; O ota LH; B ota; A ota LH; N ota LH; SO ota LH; RA ota; KT ota ; KK otd; KD ota; KV ota-sakhma “sandy shallow in the estuary of a river”; BA ota “sand”. *Oya= LH “after”, “next” > Y oya-sim LH-L “the day after tomorrow”, oya=pa LL-H “next year”; HO oya=sim LHL, oya=pa LH-L “next year”; SA oya-sim LH-L “the day after tomorrow”, oya-pa LH-L “next year”; O oya=sim LH-L “the day after tomorrow”, i=qoya=pa L-HL-L “next year”; B oyasunke “the day after tomorrow”, oya-pa “next year”; A oya-sim LH-L “the day after tomorrow”, oya-pa LH-L “next year”; N oya-sim LH-L “the day after tomorrow”, oya-pa LH-L “next year”; SO isatta oya=sim LHL LHL “the day after tomorrow”, oya-pa LH-L “next year”; RA oya-too, oya=sinma “the day after tomorrow”; BA oya=pa “next year”, oyashim “the day after tomorrow”. *Oyaqu LHL “snake” > Y oyaw LH; RA oyaw ; BA oyau “snake”.

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*p ♦paa HL “steam”, “smoke” > Y pa(=ha) H/H(L); HO pa(=ha) H/H(L); SA pa(~ha) H/H(L); O pa^rir H-L (rir “wave”); B pa=rir; A pa=rir H-L “steam”; N pa-rir HL”steam”,pa H “smoke”; SO pa H “steam”, “smoke”; RA paa “smoke”; BA pa “steam”, “smoke”. ♦pa L “head” > V pake(-he) LH/LL(H); HO pake(=he) LH/LH(L), pake HL; O pake(-he) LH/LH(L); B pake; A pake(-he) HL/LH(L); N pake HL; SO pake LH; KK paop; KD pa; KV pa, BA pa “head”. *paa HL “year”, “age” > V pa H “year”, pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; HO pa H “year”, “age”; SA pa H “year”, pa(-ha) H/H(L) “age”; O pa H ily^\ pa(=ha) H/H(L) “age”; B pa “year”, “age”; Apa H “yva^pa^ha) H/H(L) “age”; Npa H “year”, “age”; SO pa H “year”; RA paa “year”, “age”; KD pa; KV mata=pa, sak=pa “year”; BA pa “season”, “age”, “year”.. ♦pa[a]=qikar HLL “spring” > Y paykar HL; HO paykar HL; SA paykar HL; O paykar HL; B paykar, A paykar HL; N paykar HL; SO paykar HL; RA paykara; KT paikaranu; KD pajkaran; KV paj-gar “spring”; BA paikara, paikaru “spring of the year” (related to *paa “year” ?). *paa “to find (it)” > Y pa H; HO pa H; SA pa H; O pa H; B pa; A pa H; N pa H; RA paa ; KD i=pa “to find (it)”; KV k-pa “I found (it)”; BA pa “find”. *paakari HLLL “to measure (it)”, “to weigh (it)” (< MJ Fakar-i LL-L “to measure”) > Y pakari HLL; SA pakari HLL; O pakari HLL “to measure (it)”, “to weigh (it)”; A pesno pakari HL HLL; N epesno pakari LHL HLL; SO pakari HLL “to measure (it)”, RA i^paakari “to weigh (it)”; BA pakari “to weigh”, “to measure”. *paar=aC=sE “to fly” > RA paarahse; NA paarase; Maoka paarase; Ochiho paarase; Shiraura paarahse “to fly” (the word is preserved only in SAKH dialects). *paasE HLL “to be heavy” > Y pase HL; HO pase HL; SA pase HL; O pase HL; B pase; A pase HL; N pase HL; SO pase HL; RA paase “to be heavy”; KD pajsip; BA pase “heavy”. *pAr= H “to fan” > V par = u=par=u L-L-H-L; HO par=u=par=u L-H-L-L; SApar=pa H-L; Opar=pa H-L; B par-pa; Apar^pa H-L; Npar-pa H-L; SO e=par=u (accent ?); RA e=wara (?) “to fan”.

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*para=ki LL-H “tick” > Y paraki LLH; HO paraki LHL; SA paraki LHL; B paraki; N paraki LHL; SO paraki LHL; RA paraki; BA paraki “tick”. *pAs L “charcoal”, “cinders” > Y pas H; HO pas H; SA pas=pas H-L; O pas H; B pas=pas; A ape pas(=uhu) LH H/L(HL); N pas H; SO us=pas H-L; RA pas ; BA paspas “charcoal”. *pas(=)kur H(-)L “crow” > Y paskur HL; HO paskur HL; SA paskur HL; O paskur HL; B paskur; A paskur HL; N paskur HL; SO paskur HL; RApaskun-cikah; KTpasukuru ; KK pdskur; KD paskur “crow”; KV paskur “raven” (lit. “charcoal person” ?). *pa[s]na LH “dust”, “dirt” > Y mana LH; SA pana LH; O toy =pana H-LL (toy “earth”, “ground”); B pana; A pana LH; SO pasna “dust”, “dirt”; BA pashna “dust”. *pasuy LL “chopsticks” (< PJ ^pasui > OJ Fasi) >Y pa suy(=e) LH/LL(H); HO pasuy LH; SA pasuy LH; O pasuy LH; B pasuy; A pasuy LH; N pasuy LH; SO pasuy LH “chopsticks”; KT pashui; KK pasuj; KD pasiu; KV pashuj “spoon”; BA pasui, pashui “chopsticks”, “tongs”. *patEk (*patek ?) LH “only” > Y patek LH; HO patek LH; SA patek LH; O patek LH; B patek; A patek LH; N patek LH; RA pateh; BA patek “only”. *pay=i L-H “to go” (plur.) > Y pay=e L-H; HO pay-e LH; SA pay=e L-H; O pay=e L-H; B pay=e; A pay=e L-H; N pay-e L-H; SO pay=e L-H; RA pay-e "to go” (plur.); KT pay=e=an “to go together”; BA paye (plur.) “to go”, “to advance”, “to proceed”. *pE H “sap”, “water” > Y pe(=he) H/H(L); HO pe(=he) H/H(L) “sap”; SA pe(=he) H/H(L) “sap”, “water”; O pe(=he) H/H(L); B pe; A pehe HL; N pe H; SO pe H “sap”; KT peh, pee, pe; KK pi; KD pie; KV pie “water”; BA pe “water, princi­ pally undrinkable water”, “thick water”. *pEqurE HLL “to be young” > Y pewre HL; SA pewre HL; O pewre HL; B pewre; A pewre HL; N pewre HL; RA pewre “to be young”; BA peure “young”. *pEkEr HL “to be bright”, “to be light” > Y peker HL; HO peker HL; SA peker HL; O peker HL; B peker; A peker HL; N peker HL; SO peker HL “to be bright”, “to be light”; KD piekiri; BA pekere “light”. *pEr= L “to break or split (it) in two or pieces” > Y per=e L-H (sing.), per-pa H-L (plur.); HO per-e L-H (sing.), per=pa H-L (plur.); SA per=pa H-L; Oper=e L-H (sing.),

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per=pa H-L (plur.); B per-e; A per=e L-H (sing.), per=pa HL (plur.); N per=e L-H (sing.), per=pa H-L (plur.); SO per=pa H-L “to break or split (it) in two or pieces”; KT peri=ke “to break or split in two or pieces”; KD pieri “to break”; BA pere “to break”, “to open”, perepa, peruba “to split”, “to break”, “to smash”, “to cleave”. *pEra LH “[rice] paddle” ( < EMJ Fera “spatula”, “[rice] paddle”, “scoop” ) > Y pera LH; HO pera LH; SApera LH; O pera LH; B pera; A pera LH; SO pera LH; RA pera “rice pad­ dle”; BA pera “shuttle”, “spoon”. *pEray LH “to fish with a line” (?) > Y peray LH; HO peray LH; SA peray LH; A peray LH; N peray LH; SO peray LH; RA peray “to fish with a line”; BA perai “to fish with rod and line”. *pEt “river” > Y pet H; HO pet H; SA pet H; O pet H; B pet, A pet H; N pet H; SO pet H; RA peh; KT pe't, p^t, pet, pe; KK piet, KD piet “river”; BA pet “river”, “water”. *=pEt “finger” > Y tek=pet( = ci) HL/HL(L); HO aske=pet(=ci) HLL/HLL(L); SA aske=pet(-ci) HLL/HLL(L); O aske=pet( = ci) HLL/HLL(L); B aske=pet(-ci); A aske=pet(-ci) HLL/HLL(L); N aske-pet(-ci) HLL/HLL(L); SO aske=pet(=ci) HLL/HLL(L); RA mon-peh; KT ashiki~bit ; KD aski-pit; KN onono=ski~biet “the little finger”; BA ashikipet, mompetchi “finger”. *pet=u L-H “to cut”, “to split” > SA pet=u LH (sing.), pet=pa HL (plur.); A pet=u LH (sing.), pet=pa HL (plur.) “to cut”, “to split”. *pii “seed” > Y pi(=ye) H/L(H); HO pi(=ye) H/L(H); SA pi(=ye) H/L(H); O pi(-ye) H/L(H); B piye; A piyehe LHL; N pi(=yehe) H/L(HL); SO pi(=he) H/H(L),pi(=yehe) H/H(LL); RA pii “seed”; BA pi “seed”, “kernel”, “pip”. *piir=nE HL-L “male” > Y pin-ne H-L; HO pin-ne H-L; SA pinene H-L; Opin=ne H-L; B pin-ne; A pin=ne H-L; N pin=ne H-L; SO pin-ne H-L; RA piine-h(=pihi); KTpin=ne “male”; KD piniu “he-dog”; KV pinnes=okoigip “ox”, pinniu “he-dog”; BA pinne “male”. *pir L “wound” > Y pir(=i) H/L(H); HO pir H; SA pir(-i) H/L(H); O pir H; B pir, A pir H; N pir H; SO pir H; RA piri; BA piri “wound”. *pir(=)ka H(-)L “to be good” > Y pirka HL; HO pirka HL; SA pirka HL; O pirka HL; B pirka; A pirka HL; N pirka HL; SO pirka HL; RA pirika; KT pirika ; KD pirkan “to be good”; KV pirgap nis'pafpirga-kur “kind [person]”; BA pirika “to be

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good”, “sufficient”, “adequate”, “well”, “safe”, “sure”, “admirable”. *pirAs(=)a LL(-)H “to spread (it) out” > Y pirasa LLH; HO pirasa LHL; SA pirasa LHL; O pirasa LHL; B pirasa; A pirasa LHL; N pirasa LHL; SO pirasa LHL; RA pirasa; KT ankirasu ( Y pis H; HO pis H, pis=ke HL; SA pis H, pis=ke HL; O e=pis=un LHL; B pis, pis^ke; A pis H; N pis H; RA siri=pis=sam; BA pish “seashore”. *pis=ki ( < *pis=kii ?) H-L “to count” > Y piski HL; HO piski HL; SA piski HL; O piski HL; B piske; A piski HL; Npiske HL; SO i-piske L-HL; RA i-piske; KT i-bishik's ; KD piski “to count”; BA pishki “number”, “to count”. *pisaku LLH “dipper” ( < MJ Fisaku “ladle”) > Y pisaku LLH; HO pisakko LHL; SA pisakku LHL; O pisaku LHL; B pisaku; N pisaku LHL”dipper”; BA pishako, pishakku “large water ladle”. *pisE LH “stomach” > B pise; SO pise(=he) LH/LH(L); RA pise(=he) “stomach”; KK psie “belly”; BA pise “the bladder”, “stomach”, “to become pregnant”. *pisi LH “to ask” > HO ko-pisi L-HL; SA pisi LH, ko^pisi L-HL; O pisi LH; RA ko-pisi, i-pisi; KT u=ki=bishi=bat “to ask”; BA pishi “to examine”, “to inquire”. *pita LH “to untie (it)” > Y pita LH; HO pita LH; SA pita LH; O pita LH; B pita=ta; A pita=ta LH-L; N pita LH; SO pita LH; RA pita; KD pitata “to untie (it)”; BA pita “to untie”, “to undo”. *=pitiiy= LH “to push” > Y o=putuy=e L-LH-L; HO o=putuy=e L-HL-L; SA o=putuy-e L-HL-L; O o-putuy=e LHL-L; B o=putuy=e; A o=putuy=e L-HL-L; N o=pituy=e LHL-L; RA o=ka-pituy-pa; BA oputuye “to push”. *pir= L “to wipe” > Y pir-u L-H (sing.), pir-pa H-L (plur.); HO pir=u L-H (sing.), pir=pa H-L (plur.); SApir=u L-H (sing.), pir-pa H-L (plur.); O pir=u L-H (sing.), pir=pa H-L (plur.); B pir=pa; A pir=pa H-L; N pir=pa H-L; SO pir-pa H-L; RA pir^u (sing.), piri=pa (plur.); BA piriba, piruba “to wipe”. *pOk L “vulva” > Y pok(-i) H/L(H); HO pok(=i) H/L(H); SA pok(-i) H/L(H); O pok(-i) H/L(H); A pokihi LHL; N pok H “vulva”.

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*pOn Y pon H; HO pon H; SA pon H; O pon H; B pon; A pon H; N pon H; SO pon H; RA pon ; KD pon “to be small”; BA pon “small”, “little”. *ponE LL “bone” (< PJ *pone LL “bone”) > Y pone(=he) LH/LL(H); HO pone(=he) LH/LH(L); SA pone(=he) LH/LH(L); O pone(=he) LH/LH(L); B pone; A pone LH; N pone LH; SO pone(-he) LH/LH(L); RA poni(=hi); KD poni; BA pone “bone”. *pOO HL “son”, “child” > Y po(=ho) H/H(L) “child”; HO po(=ho) H/H(L); SA po(=ho) H/H(L) “son”; O po(=ho) H/H(L) “child”; A poho HL “son”; N po H ; SO po(=ho) H/H(L) “son”, “child”; RA poo(=ho) “son”; KK k=pu=gu “son” (lit. “my son”); KD poo "son”; BA po, poho “child”, “son”, “the young of anything”. *pOp H “sweat” > Y poppe HL (=pe “liquid”); HO poppe HL; N pop H; RA pohpe(=he); KD pop-ienu “sweat”; KV k=pop=ienu=uva “I perspired”; BA poppe “perspiration”, “sweat”. *pOp “to boil”, “to grow hot” > Y pop H; HO pop H; SA pop H; A pop H; RA poh “to boil”, “to grow hot”; KD poptyj “to boil”; KV pop=va “[it] boiled”; BA pop “to boil”, “to bub­ ble up”. *pOqina “stone” > KT poina; KK poina; KD pojna; KV pojn, pojnnoj “stone”; BA poina “stones of a larger size”. *pOqOn LH “four” (?) > SA poqon emko LH HL; A pon emko H HL “quarter” (lit “four halfs”). *pOrO LH “to be big” > Y poro LH; HO poro LH; SA poro LH; O poro LH; B poro; A poro LH; N poro LH; SO poro LH; RA poro; KT poro, borop ; KK poroGo “to be big”; KD poron “huge”; KV poron, poro “big”; BA poro “large”, “big”, “great”. *pOru HL “cave” (< ? MJ Fora HH “cave”) > Y poru HL; HO poru HL; SA poru HL; O poru HL; B poru; A poru HL; N poru HL; SO poru HL; KT poora “cave”; BA poru “cave”, “pit”. *praa HH “edge” > Y pa-rur=ke HLL; HO pa-rur=ke HLL; O ca H; B ca; A pa=rur=ke (accent?); N pa=rur-ke (accent?); SO ca-ke HL; RA caa-ruru “edge”; BA paruruge “edges”. *praak HH “to teach”, “to inform” > Y pakasno HLL; HO epakasnu LHLL; SA epakasnu LHLL; O cakoko HLL; B ecakoko; A epakasnu LHLL; N cakasnu HLL, [e=]pakasnu [L-]HLL; SO ecakasnu LHLL; RA caakasno “to teach”, “to in­

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form”; KV i=chag~ago “teach”, ien-chag=oga “has teached [me]”; BA epakashnu, echakoko “to teach”. *pran “light”, “thin”, “insipid (colour, taste)” > Y pan H; HO pan H; SA pan H; O can H; B can; A pe=can LH “light”, “thin”, “insipid”; SO can H “sweet”; RA can “light”, “thin”, “insipid”; BA pan, chan “weak”, “flavourless”, “insipid”. *prAA= L “mouth” > Y par(=o) H/L(H); HO par(-o) H/L(H); SA par(=o) H/L(H); O car(=o) H/L(H); B caro; A paroho LHL; N caro LH; SO caro(=ho) LH/LH(L); RA caru; KT charu; KK char; KD car; KV char; BA paro, para, charo “mouth”; cf. also Y pa=pus H-L; HO pa=pus(~i) H-L/H-L(L), pa=toy(~e) H-L/H-L(L); SA pa-toy(=e) H-L/H-L(L); O ca=pus(=i) H-L/H-L(L); B ca-pus; A campus LH; N ca=pus H-L, pa=pus H-L, pa^toy H-L; SO ca=pus=ke(=he) L-HL/L-H-L(L); RA caapus(=ihi), caatoy(-ehe); KT chaatoi; KV chatoj, chatoj-gir” “lip”, rangi-chatoj “lower lip”, trigungi chatoj “upper lip”. *pras “to run” > B cas; RA cas; KT chashi, chase ; KD casi “to run”; KV chash “run”; KV pie=chcha “water runs”; BA chash, pash “to run”. *prO=k L “under”, “beneath”, “below” ( J sita ) > Y corpok(-i) HL(L); HO pok(=i) H/L(H), corpok HL; SA pok(=i) H/L(H), corpok HL; O corpok HL; B corpok; A pok H, corpok HL; N corpok HL; SO corpoke HLL; RA coropokihi; BA chok, pok “under”, “beneath”, “below”. *pukuru LLH “bag” ( < OJ pukurwo “bag” ) > Y pukuru LLH; HO pukuru LHL; SA pukuru LHL; O pukuru LHL; B pukuru; N pukuru LHL; RA pukuru “bag”; BA pukuru, pukuro “bag”, “gloves” ( PJ *pukurwo LLL probably suggests that in PA this word was also low atonic ^pukuru LLL. Since we lack a possessive form for this word, this may remain unproved). *punkar HL “vine” > Y punkar HL; HO punkar( = i) HL/HL(L); SA punkar(^i) HL/HL(L); O punkar HL; B punkar; A punkar HL; N punkar HL; SO punkar HL “vine”; BA pungara “vine of any kind”. *puri HH “custom” ( < OJ Furi “custom”) > Y puri HL; HO puri LH; SA puri HL; O puri HL; A [aynu] puri LH; N sir=puri LHL; SO puri LH “custom”; BA puri, buri “habit”, “custom”, “manners”.

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*puta LH “cover”, “lid” ( < OJ Futa “lid” ) > Y puta LH; HO SA puta(=ha) LH/LH(L); O puta LH; B puta-, A puta LH; SO puta LH; RA puta “cover”, “lid”; BA putu “lid”. *puu HL “storehouse” > Y pu(=hu) H/H(L); HO pu H; SA pu H; O pu H; B pu; A pu H; N pu H; SO pu H; RA puu(=wehe) “storehouse”; KD pu “store”; KV pu; BA pu, puhu, pui “storehouse”. *puy L “hole” > Y puy H; HO puy(=e) H/L(H); SA puy H; O puy H; B puy; RA puy “hole”; KD sum=puj “ice-hole”; KV iedw=buj “nostrils”; BA put “hole”. *puyar/*puqar LH “window” > Y puwar LH; HO puray LH; SA puyar LH; O puyar LH; B puwar; A puyar LH; N piyar LH; SO purar LH; RA puyara ; BA puyara, purai “window”.

*ra (*da ?) H “liver” > Y ra(=ha) H/H(L) “liver”; HO ra H “liver of fish”; SA ra H “fat in fish intestines”; O ra(=ha) H/H(L); A ra H; N ra H; SO ra(=ha) H/H(L); RA u=ra~ka(=ha) “liver” (NA teput “liver” is obviously a differ­ ent word, so the reconstruction of the initial consonant remains under question); BA ra “fish's liver”. *ra H “down” ( J sita=no kata ) > Y ra(~ta) H/H(L); HO ra H; SA ra H; O rata HL; A e-ras LH; SO rawa HL; RA raw, rawta “down”; NA ran “to come down (about the rain)”; KT raatane, ratanne “down”, ra, ran “to come/go down”; KD ravda “to be low”; BA ra “below”, “under” (related to *prO=k “under”). *ra= (*da= ?) “to get clear” > Y ra=k H; HO ra=k H; SA ra=t=ci H-L; O ra=k H; B ra=k; A ra=k=ka H-L; N rat H; SO rat H; RA ra=qosma “to get clear”; BA rak “to pass away (as clouds from the horizon)”. *raa(=)ra[a]y= (*daara[a]y=/*daa(=)da[a]y ?) HLL “to rub gently”, “to soothe” > Y raray=pa HL-L; HO raray-pa HL-L; SA raray=pa HL-L; A rara-pa HLL; N rar^pa H-L; SO raruy^pa HL-L; RA raaray=e, raaruy=pa “to rub gently”, “to soothe”; KD rarajpa “to stroke”, “to pat”, “to smoothe”; BA raraipa, raruiba “to stroke (as the head of a child when fondling it)”.

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*raanu= (*daanu= ?) HLL “to love”, “to like” > Y i=ranup LHL; RA raanuhf-k) “to love”, “to like”; BA ranu “sexual love”, ranupa (plur.) “to love”. *rak “to smell” > HO hura-rak^kar HLLL “to smell”; SA rak H “to stink”; Hiratori hura-rap=kar HLLL; Niikappu hura=rak=kar HLLL; RA rah; NA rak, BA rak “to smell”. * rakkO (*dakkO ?) HL “sea otter” > Y rakko HL; SA rakko HL; RA rahko; KT rakko; KK rakku, KD raku “sea ot­ ter”; KV y=rak-ro, rak-igir “otter”; BA rakko “sea otter”. *rAm L “soul”, “heart”, “mind” > X pen = ram(=u) HL/HLL “breast”; HO ram(=u) H/L(H); SA ram(=u) H/L(H); B ram(=u); A ramu LH; N ram H; SO ramuhu LHL; RA ram(=uhu); NA ran=ka; KT iramkarubaru "soul”, “heart”, “mind”; KK ramutur “breast”; KD ramat “soul”, ram=ka “breast”; KV ram=ga “breast”; i=ram=garbari “invent”; BA ram “mind”, “heart”, “soul”, “feelings”. *ram “to be low” > Y ram H; HO ram H; SA ram H; O ram H; B ram; A ram H; N ram H; SO o=ram L-H; RA o=ram; KT ram ; KD rampyj “to be low”; BA ram “low”, “young” (related to *ra “down” ?). *rAm=rAm H-L “scales” > Y ramram(=u) HL/HL(L); HO ramram HL; SA ramram(=i) HL/HL(L); O ramram HL; B ranram; A ramram(=i) HL/HL(L); N ramram HL; SO ramram(-uhu) HL/HL(LL); RA ramram(=uhu) ; KD ramram “scales”; BA ramram “fish scales”, “snake's skin”. *ranma (*danma ?) HL “always”, “usually” > Y ranma-no HL-L “usually”; HO ranma HL; SA ranma HL; O ranma HL; N ranma HL “always”, “usually”; RA ranma “always”; BA ramma “always”, “again and again”, “once more”. *rAr L “eyebrow” > Y rar(=u) H/L(H); HO rar(=u) H/L(H); SA rar(=u) H/L(H); O rannuma HLL (< rar=numa “eyebrow hair”); B rannuma; A rar(=u) H/L(H); N rar H; SO rar(^uhu) H/L(HL); RA raru(=hu); KT raru “eyebrow”; KD rar “eyebrows”; KV vi=rar “eyebrow”, BA raru “eyebrows”. *rat (? *dat) L “phlegm” > Y rat(=ci) H/L(H); HO rat(=ci) H/L(H); SA ratkar HL; O ; B omke=rat, A rat H; N rat H; SO onke rat HLL; RA onkenrahf-tuhu); BA rat “phlegm”. *rayonti LLH “rainbow” > Y rayuci LLH; HO rayoci LHL; SA rayoci LHL; O rayoci LHL; B rawoci; A rayoci LHL; N rayoci LHL; SO raoci LHL; RA rayoci; KT rayunchi; KD raincy; BA raiochi “rainbow” (in this case reconstruction of

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initial *r- is supported by external comparison. See Part in, Comparative vocabulary). *rEk “to sing”, “to cry (of a bird)” > Y rek H; HO rek H; SA rek H; O rek H; B rek; N rek H; SO rek H “to sing”, “to cry (of a bird)”; BA rek “to give forth a sound”, “to creak as wheels”, “to rattle”, “to sing (as a bird)”. *rE=n (*dE=n ?) “to sink” > Y ren H; HO ren H; O ren H; B ren; A ren H; N ren H; SO ra=wo=ren L-H-L; RA ren ; BA ren, rere “to sink”. *rEp (*dEp ?) H “offshore” > Y rep H; HO rep(-ke) H/H(L); SA rep(=ke) H/H(L); O rep(^ke) H/H(L); B rep; A atuy e=rep-as LH L-H-L; N rep H “offshore”; RA reh-ta rep-un “to go offshore in order to catch fish”; BA rep “sea”. *rEqu= (*dEqu= ?) LL “to bend (it)” > Y rew-e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); HO rew=e L-H (sing.), rew=pa H-L (plur.); SA rew-e L-H (sing.), rew=pa H-L (plur.); O rew=e L-H (sing.), rew=pa H-L (plur.); B rew=e; A rew=e LH (sing.), rew=pa H-L (plur.); N rew-e L-H (sing.), rew=pa H-L (plur.); SO rew=e L-H (sing.), rew-pa H-L (plur.); RA rew=e (sing.), rew-pa (plur.); KD rievi “to bend (it)”; KV trieuvie “bend”; BA reye “to bend (it)”. *rEqus(=)i (*dEqu[g/h](=)i ?) HL(-)L “to stay (overnight)” > Y rewsi HL; HO rewsi HL; SA rewsi HL; O rewsi HL; B rewsi; A rewsi HL; N rewsi HL; SO rewsi HL; RA rewsi; KD rievsi “to stay (overnight)”; BA reushi “to stop or lodge at a place”, “to abide at a place”. *rEs= (*dEs= ?) L “to bring up”, “to rear” > Y res=u LH; HO res-u LH; SA res=u LH;, res-pa HL; O B res=ka; A res-ka HL; N res-ka HL; SO res=ka HL; RA res=ke, res-u; BA res-u, resh=pa, resuka; BA resu (sing.), reshpa (plur.) “to bring up”, “to rear”. *rEy= (*dEy= ?) LH “to creep”, “to crawl” > Y rey-e LH; SA rey-e LH; O rey-e LH; B rey-e; A rey-e LH; N rey-e LH; SO re-qe LH; RA rey=pa ; KD rey-e; BA rey=e “to creeps “to crawl”. *ri (*di ?) H “to skin”, “to strip” > Y ri H; HO ri H; SA i=n L-H, ri H; O i=ri L-H; N i—ri L-H; RA ri=ye “to skin”, “to strip”; BA iri “to skin”, “to pluck out (as feathers)”. *rik(=)an (*dik(=)an ?) LH “to be damp”, “to get damp” > Y rikan LH; HO rikan LH; SA rikan LH; 0 rikan LH; B rikan; A rikan LH; N rikan LH; SO rikan LH; RA rikan=us “to be damp”, “to get damp”; KT ri kan “wet place”; KD rikanka “to make leak”; KV k”-jaj=rigan=gi “I got wet”,

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rigan=uva “[he] got wet”, rikam=pie “wet*; BA rikande “to soak”, “to dampen”. *rika (*dika ?) LH “whalef's meat]” > SA rika LH “whale's meat”; KT rika ; KK rika; KD rik ; KV tygga “whale”. *rim=sE (*dim=sE ?) H-L “to dance” > Y rim-se H-L; HO rim=se H-L; SA rim=se H-L; O rim=se H-L; N rim=se HL; SO rim=se H-L; RA rim-se ; KD rimsi “to dance”, BA rimse, rimuse “to dance”, “to jump up”. *rir (*dir ?) Y rir H; HO rir H; SA rir H; N rir H; KD rir; BA riri “wave”. *ris= (*dis= ?) “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck” > Y ris-pa H-L; N ris-pa H-L; RA ris=e (sing.), ris-pa (plur.) “to pick”, “to nip”, “to pluck”; KD rysi “to make a path in the wood by pulling up roots and stubs”; BA risei (sing.), rishpa (plur.) “to pull up as weeds”, “to root up”. *=rit “root” > Y sin-rit(-ci) H-L/H-L(L) (< *sir-rit, sir “ground”); HO sin-rit(=ci) H-L/H-L(L); SA sin=rit(=ci) HL/H-L(L); O sin=rit(=ci) H-L/H-L(L); B sin=rit, A ni sin=ritH HL; N sin=rit H-L; SO sin=rit(=cihi) H-L/H-L(LL); RA sin=ris(=cihi); KT ni shin rit “root”; KV ryt “tendons”; BA shinrit “roots of plants”, “ancestors” (cf. kem=rit “blood ves­ sel”, lit. “blood root”). *rOk (*dOk ?) “to sit” (plur.) > Y rok H; HO rok H; SA rok H; O rok H; B rok; A rok H; N rok H; RA roh ; BA rok “to sit” (plur,). *rOr=nu (*dOr=no/*rOr=no/*dOr=nu ?) H-L “to kill” (plur.) > Y ronnu HL; HO ronnu HL; SA ronnu HL; O ronno HL; B ronno ; A ronnu HL; N ronnu HL; RA ronno ; KT rona, esu-ron nuk; BA ronnu “to kill” (plur.). *rOs=ki HL “to stand [up]” (plur.) > Y roski HL; HO roski HL “to stand”; SA roski HL “to stand [up]”; O roski HL; B roski; A roski HL “to stand”; BA roshki “to stand”, “to set up (as posts)*. *ru (*du ?) L “traces”, “marks” > Y ru(=we) H/L(H); HO ru(-ye) H/L(H); SA ruwe(=he) LH/LH(L); 0 ruye(=he) LH/LH(L); B ruwe; A ruwe LH; N ru H, ruwe LH; SO ru(-hu) H/L(H); RA ruwehe “traces”, “marks”; BA ruwe, ruyehe “footprint”, “line”. *rup L (*dup ?) “shoal” > Y ciqep-rup LH-L; HO cep-rup H-L; SA rup(-i) H/L(H); O rup(=i) H/L(H); B rup; A cep = rupihi H-LLL; N rup H; SO cep = rup H-L; RA cehruh(-pihi) “shoal”.

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*ruqE/*rugE (*duqE/*dugE ?) LH “to be thick (and round)” > Y ruwe LH; HO ruye LH; SA ruwe LH; O ruye LH; B ruwe; A ruwe LH; N ruwe LH; SO rue LH; RA ruwe; KT ruwepe “to be thick (and round)”; BA ruye “thick”. *rur (*dur ?) L “soup”, “broth” > Y rur(=i) H/L(H); SA rur(=i) H/L(H); A rur H; N rur H “soup”, “broth”; BA ruru “clear soup”, “gravy”. *rur (*dur ?) “the tide” > HO rur H “the tide”; SA rur H “sea water”; N rur H; SO rur H “the tide”; BA ruru “surface of the sea”, “sea”, “ocean”. *rur=nu (*dur=nu ?) H-L ‘Ho be salty” > Y run-nu H-L; HO run^nu H-L; SA run-nu H-L; O run=nu H-L; B ruri-qat; A run=nu H-L; N run=nu H-L, ruri=yupke LH-LL; SO run-nu H-L; RA run=nu ; KD runu “to be salty”; BA ruru “salt”. *rura (*dura ?) HL “to see off’ > HO rura HL; SA rura HL; O rura HL “to see off’; BA rura “to see one off on a jour­ ney”. *rus(=)ka (*dus(=)ka ?) H(-)L “to get angry” > Y ruska HL; HO ruska HL; SA ruska HL; O ruska HL; B ruska; A i=ruska L-HL; N ruska HL; SO i=ruska L-HL; RA i-ruska; KT irushika ; KD iruska “to get angry”; BA irushka “to become angry”. *ruu (*duu ?) “to melt” > Y ru H; HO ru H; SA ru H; O ru H; B ru; A ru H; N ru H; SO ru H; RA ruu ; KD irvu “to melt”; BA ru “to melt”, “to crumble”. *ruura (*duura ?) HLL “to carry” > Y rura HL; HO anpa-wa rura HL-L HL; SA rura HL; O rura HL; B rura; A rura HL; N rura HL; SO rura HL; RA ruura ; KD rura “to carry”; BA rura “to transport”, “to load, as a boat”. *ruy (*duy ?) “whetstone” > Y ruy H; HO ruy H; SA ruy H; O ruy H; B ruy; A ruy H; N ruy H; SO ruy H; RA ruy; KT rui “whetstone”; KD ruj-ki “to grind”; KV i=riuj=gi “grind [it]”; BA rui “whetstone”, “grindstone”. *ruy=ruy= (*duy=duy= ?) H “to rub gently”, “to soothe” > HO ruy=ruy=e H-L-L; SA ruy-ruy=e H-L-L; N ruy=ruy “to rub gently”, “to soothe”; BA rui=ruye “to shake hands”, ruye “to rub”, “to stroke the hands (as in salutation)”. *ruyka/*requka (*duyka/*dequka ?) HL/HLL “bridge” > Y ruyka(=ha) HL/HL(L); HO ruyka HL; SA ruyka HL; O riwka HL; B ruyka; A riwka HL; N riwka HL; SO rewka HL; RA riwka; BA ruika “bridge”.

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*ruk= (*duk= ?) L “to gulp down” > Y ruk=i L-H; HO ruk=i L-H; SA ruk-i L-H (sing.), ruk=pa H-L (plur.); O ruk=i L-H (sing.), ruk=pa H-L (plur.); B ruk-i; A ruk=i L-H; N ruk=i L-H; SO ruk-i L-H; RA ruk=i, ruh-pa “to gulp down”; BA ruki “to swallow”.

*5

*sa H “elder sister” > Y sa(=ha) H/H(L), sapo HL; HO sapo HL; sa H; SA sapo HL; sa(-ha) H/H(L); O sapo HL; B sapo; A sapo HL; N sa H; SO sapo(=ho); BA sa, saha, sapo “elder sister”. *sa H “head” > Y sapa(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO sapa(=ha) LH/LH(L); SA sapa(=ha) LH/LH(L); A sapa(=ha) HL/LH(L); N sapa LH; SO sa(~ha,-kehe) H/H(L)/H(LL); RA sapa(= ha); BA sa “head”. *sa= “to be non-existent” > Y i=sa-m L-H, sa=k H; HO i=sa-m L-H, sa-k H; SA i=sa=m L-H, sa=k H; O i-sa=m LH, sa=k H; B i=sa=m, sa=k; A i=sa-m L-H, sa=k H; N i=sa=m L-H, sa=k H; SO i=sa-m L-H, sa=k H; RA i=sa=m, e=,..=sa-h; KT i=sa=m “to be non-existent”; KD isampetkari “to perish”; KV i-sa=m-ua, i=sa-m=a “no”, “not”; BA isam, isham, isama “not to be”, “it is not”, “to be absent”, sak, sak=no “without”, “not having”; sam “not”. *sa= “to come/go out” ( J deru ) > Y sa-n H (sing.), sa-p H (plur.); HO sa=n H (sing.), sa=p H (plur.) “to come/go out”; SA sa=n=ke H-L (sing.), sa=p=te H-L (plur.) “to put it out”; O sa=n-ke H-L (sing.), sa-p=te H-L (plur.) “to put it out”; B sa=n=ke (sing.), sa-p-te (plur.) “to put it out”; A sa=n H (sing.), sa-p H (plur.) “to return home from the mountains”; N sa-n H (sing.), sa=p H (plur.); SO sa=n-ke H-L; RA sa=n; sa-h(=p) “to come/go out”; BA san (sing.), sap (plur.) “to descend”, “to go down”. *sak L “summer” > Y sak H; HO sak H “summer”, sak=ita L-HL”in summer”; SA sak H; O sak H; B sak; A sak H; N sak H; SO sak H; RA sak=iita, sah-noski, sah=kes; KT saku=noski, sak-noshike ; KD sakan; KV sagan; BA sak “summer”. *sak=i L-L “trout” > Y sakipe LLH; B sakipe; N sakcep HL; KV sagiby “trout”; BA sakbe, sakibe “dried fish”, “spring or summer salmon” (derivation from sak “summer”).

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*sAm L “side” > Y sam(=a) H/L(H); HO sam(=a) H/L(H); SA sam(=a) H/L(H); B sam(=a); A sam(=a) H/L(H); N sam H; SO sam H; RA san=ke; KT (?) aru-suane “side”; BA sam, sama, sama=ke, sama=ta “by the side of anything”, “near to”, “beside”. *san=pE H-L “heart” (only as anatomical organ) > Y sanpe(-he) HL/HL(L); HO sanpe(=he) HL/HL(L); SA sanpe(=he) HL/HL(L); O sanpe HL; B sanpe; A sanpe HL; N sanpe HL; SO sanpe(=he) HL/HL(L); RA sanpe(=he); KD sampij “heart”; BA sambe “the heart”, “the pulse”, “nerves”. *sAr L “tail” > Y sar(=a) H/L(H); HO sar(=a) H/L(H); SA sar(=a) H/L(H); O sar(~a) H/L(H); B sar(=a); A sar(=aha) H/L(HL); N sar H; SO sar(=aha) H/L(HL); RA sarakuh(=pihi) ; BA sar, saraha “tail”. *sar “field of reeds” > Y sar H; HO sar H; SA sar H; O sar H; B sar; A sar H; N sar H “field of reeds”; SO sar H “reed”; KT saruka “field of reeds”; KD sarga “swamp”; BA sara “plain covered with a kind of sedge”. *sara LH “to appear”, “to come out” > Y sara LH; HO sara LH; SA sara LH; O sara LH; B sara; N sara=wa ek “to appear”, “to come out”; BA sara “to be open”, “to spread out”. *sAs “sea-tangle”, “kelp” > N sas H; SO sas H; RA sas(=uhu); KT sasunu “sea-tangle”, “kelp”; KK ktu=sas “big sea-tangle”; KD sas ; KV sas “sea-tangle”, “kelp”; BA sashi “surface kelp”. *sat H “to dry”, “to be dry” > Y sat H; HO sat H; SA sat H; O sat H; B sat, A sat H; N sat H, sattek HL; SO sattek LH; RA sahteh(-k); KT saMe “to dry”, “to be dry”; KK satgua “to be dry”; KD satyk “to be dry”, i=sat=ki “to dry”; KV sat=ki “dry [it]”; BA sat “dry”, “dried”. *say L “flock” > X cikap=say(=e) LH-L/LH-L(L); HO cikap-say LH-L; SA say(=e) H/L(H); O say H; B say; A cikap=say(=ehe) LH-L/LH-L(LL); N say(=e) H/L(H); SO cikap=say LH-L; RA cikah=say “flock”; BA sai, saye “flight of birds”, “circle”, “coil”. *sE H “throat” > Y sewripo HLL; SA sewri HL; A sewri HL; N sewri HL; KT sekutu, serora ; BA seuri “throat”. *sEE “to carry on the back” > Y se H; HO se H; SA se H; O se H; B se; A se H; N se H; RA see ; BA se “to carry on back”. *sEEsEk HLL “to grow hot”, “to be hot” > Y sesek HL “to grow hot”, “to be hot”; HO sesek “to get a fever”; SA sesek HL; O sesek HL; B sesek; A sesek HL “to grow hot”,

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“to be hot”; N sesek HL “to grow hot”; SO sesek LH; RA seeseh(=k) “to grow hot”, “to be hot”; KT i=seseka “to be hot”; KD sesik “warm”, sesikva “hot”; KV i-siesika “[it] is hot”; BA sesek, seisek, shesek “hot”. *sEm “closet” > Y sem H; HO mo^sem H-L; SA sem H; O mo=sem H-L; B mosom; A mo-sem H-L; SO mo=sem H-L; RA mosem(=ihi) “closet”; BA sem, mosem, moshem “porch”, “antechamber”. *sEnpir HL “behind”, “shade” > Y senpir HL; SA senpir(=i) HL/HL(L); O senpir HL; B senpir; A senpirke HLL; N senpir(=ke) HL/HL(L); RA senpirike ; BA sempirike “behind”, “shade”. *sEp “to be broad” > Y sep H; HO sep H; SA sep H; O sep H; B sep; A sep H; N sep H; SO o=sep H; RA o=seh, KT seebe; BA sep “to be broad”. *sEt L “bed” > Y set(=ci) H/L(H); HO set H; SA set H; O set H; B set; A set H; N set H; SO set H; RA seh(=cihi) “bed”. *sEt L “nest” > Y set(-ci) H/L(H); HO set H; SA set H; O set H; B set; A set H; N set H; RA seh(-cihi) ; BA set “nest”. *sEtur LL “back” > Y setur(-u) LH/LL(H); HO setur(=i) LH/LH(L); SA setur(=u) LH/LH(L); O setur(=u) LH/LH(L); B setur(=u); A seturu LHL; N seturu(~hu) LHL/LHL(L); SO setur(=uhu) ; RA seturu(=hu, =ihi); BA seturu “back”. *sEy L “shell[fish]” > Y sey(=e) H/L(H); HO sey H; SA sey H; O sey H; B sey; SO se H; RA sey “shellfish”; BA sei “shells or shellfish of any kind”, “tree bark”. *si(=)yuk (*gi(=)yuk/*hi(=)yuk ?) H(-)L “male bear” > Y siyuk HL; HO siyuk HL; SA siyuk HL; O siyuk HL; B siyuk; A siyuk HL; N si wk H “male bear”; BA shiyuk, shiuk, shiyu “he-bear”. *si=nE= (*gi=nE=/*hi=nE= ?) LH “one” > Y sine=p LH; HO sine=p LH; SA sine-p LH; O sine=p LH; B sine-p; A sine=p LH; N sine-p LH; SO sine=p LH; RA sine=h; KT shin#, shinep ; KK sinidp; KD sinip; BA shine “one”. *si=nE=pE=hdan= “nine” (lit. “one-ten”) > Y sine=pe=san=pe L-L-H-L; HO sine=pe-san=pe L-H-L-L; SA sine=pe=san-pe L-H-L-L; O sine=pe-san=pe L-H-L-L; B sine=pe = san=pe; A sine=pe = san=pe L-H-L-L; N sine=pe=san-pe L-H-L-L; SO sine=pe=san=pe L-H-L-L; RA sine-pi=san=pe; KT shini=be-sam=pe “nine”; KK siniepfs “nine”, siniepisan “nineteen”; KD sinip sampij; BA shinepesambe “nine”.

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*sii (*gii ?) “dung”, “fecal matter” (cf. o=so=ma “to void feces”) > Y si H; HO si (in compounds); SA si H; O si H; B si; A si H; N si H; RA sii(=yehe) “dung”, “fecal matter”; KV si “shit” (Russ, der'mo); BA shi “the dung of animals”; shii, shi “excrement”. *sii (*gii/*hii ?) HL “right” > Y si = mon HL (mon “hand”); HO si-mon HL; SA si-mon HL; O si=mon HL “right”; B si=moy=sam “right side”; A si-mon=tek HL-L “right hand”; N si=moy=sam Hl-L; SO si=mon HL; RA sii=mon(=ihi); KT shi=tek; KD si; BA shimon “right”. *sii=n[e/i] (*gii=n[e/i]/*hii=n[e/i] ?) LL-H “to rest” > Y sini LH; HO sini LH; SA sini LH; O sini LH; B sini; A sini LH; N sini LH; RA siine; KT (?) ei=shi=ka, e=shi=ku; BA shini “to rest”. *sii-sAm (*gii=sam/*hii=sam ?) HLL “foreigner” (< sii “self’ + sAm “side” ?)10 > Y sisam HL; HO sisam HL; SA sisam HL; O sisam HL; B sisam; A sisam HL; N sisam HL; SO sisam HL; RA siisam(=uhu) “Japanese”; KD sisam “Russian”; KV sisam=kie “butter” or “oil” (lit.: “foreigner's fat”); BA shisam “Japanese”, “foreigner”. *sik (*gik/*hik ?) “to be fuir > Y sik H; HO sik H; SA sik H; O sik H; B sik; A sik-no H-L; N sik H; SO sik H “to be full”; RA e=sis “to become full”; KD sikva, tui=sik; BA shis, ashik, eshik “full”. *sik(*gik/*hik ?) L “eye” > X sik(=i) H/L(H); HO sik(=i) H/L(H); SA sik(=i) H/L(H); O sik(=i) H/L(H); B sik(=i); A sik(=i) H/L(H); N sik(=i) H/L(H); SO sik(=ihi) h/L(HL); RA sis(=kihi); KT shik; KK sik; KD sik; KV sik, arsik “eye”; BA shik “eyes'. *sik(=)kEqu H(-)LL “corner”, “edge”, “nook” > Y sikkew(=e) HL/HL(L); HO sikkew HL; SA sikkew(^e) HL/HL(L); O sikkew(=e) HL/HL(L); B sikkew(=e) ; A sikkew(=e) HL/HL(L); N sikkew HL; SO sikkew(=ehe) HL/HL(LL); RA siskew “corner”, “nook”; BA shikkeu “comer”. *sikay/*tikay LH “wooden nail” > Y sikay LH “bamboo nail”; HO sikay LH; O sikay LH; B cikay; SO sikay LH “wooden hail”; RA sikay “metal nail”; KV skaj “nail”; BA shikai “nail”, “peg”, “pin”.

10 This etymology was proposed by Chiri Mashiho [Chiri, 1975, II, 633], I

have certain doubts about it. Why should be a foreigner called "self-side[r]"?

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*sin=ki (*gin=ki/*hin=ki ?) H-L “to get tired” > Y sinki HL; HO sinki HL; SA sinki HL; O sinki HL; B sinki; A sinki HL; N sinki HL; SO sinki HL; RA sinka “to get tired”; BA shingi “to be tired”, “to feel tired”. *sinma/*siima “tomorrow” > RA sinma, siima “tomorrow”, HKD -sim in oya-sim “the day after tomorrow” (see *Oya=); BA shim, shima “tomorrow”, “next day”. *sinOt (*ginOt/*hinOt ?) LH “game”, “to play” > Y sinot LH; HO sinot LH; SA sinot LH; O sinot LH; B sinot; A sinot LH; N sinot LH; SO sinot LH “game”, “to play”; RA sinoh “the bear goes back and forth in the cage”; KV sinot “[he] plays”, sinot=aieva “to play”; BA shinot “amusement”, “to amuse oneself*. *si(=)ntOkO H(-)LL “container” > Y sintoko HLL “barrel”; SA sintoko HLL “rice serving bucket**; B sintoko; A sintoko HLL; N sintoko HLL; SO sintoko HLL “rice bin’*; RA sintoko “container**; KV sindugu “bucket”; BA shintoko “lacquer ware”. ♦si(=)pOp L(-)H (*gipOp/*hipOp ?) “box”, “case” > Y suwop LH; HO suyop LH; SA suwop LH; O supop LH; B sipop; A supop LH; N supop LH; SO suwop LH; RA sipoh(=pihi); KT shubop “box”, “case”; BA shipo, shuop, shiyop “box”. ♦sippO HL “salt” ( < OJ sipo “salt**) > Y sippo HL; HO sippo HL; SA sippo HL; O sippo HL; B sippo; A sippo HL; N sippo HL; SO sippo HL; RA sispo (< *sihpo < *sippo ); BA shippo “salt”. ♦sipuya (*gipuya/*hipuya ?) LLH “smoke” > Y sipuya LLH; HO supuya LHL; SA supuya LHL; O supuya LHL; B supuya; A ape supuya LH LHL; KD sibaj; KV subuia; BA shupuya, shupuyapa “smoke”. *siqu “to be bitter” > Y siw H; HO siw H; SA siw H;.O siw H; B suy; A siw H; N siw H; SO siw H; RA o=siw “to be bit­ ter’*; KT shiu “to be sweet**; KD siup; KV ichar-siuuga; BA shiu “bitter”. *siqunin (*giqunin/*hiqunin ?) HLL “blue”, “green” > Y siwnin HL; HO siwnin HL; SA siwnin HL; O siwnin HL; B siwnin; A siwnin HL; N siwnin HL; SO siwnin HL; RA siwnin “blue”, “green”; BA shiunin “yellow”, “green”. ♦sir (*gir/*hir ?) “weather” > Y sir H; HO sir H; SA sir H; A sir H; N sir H; SO sir H; RA siri “weather”; KD siri-yupki “storm-wind** (lit “the weather is fierce**), sir=niskur “weather is cloudy”; BA shiri “weather**.

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♦sir (*gir/*hir ?) “world”, “land”, “island”, “country” > Y sir H, mosir LH; HO mosir LH; SA mosir LH; O mosir LH; B mosir; A mosir LH “world”, “land”, “island”, “country”; N mosir LH “island”, “country”; SO “country”, “land”; RA mosiri “world”, “island”; KT moshiri “island”; BA shiri “earth”, “land”. ♦siraqu (*giraqu/*hiraqu ?) LHL “horsefly”, “gadfly” > Y siraw HL; HO siraw HL; SA siraw HL; RA siraw “horsefly”, “gadfly”; BA shirau “gadfly”. ♦sirar LH (*girar/*hirar ?) “rock” > Y sirar LH; HO sirar LH; SA sirar LH; O sirar LH; B sirar, A sirar LH; N sirar LH; SO sirar LH “rock”; RA sirara “rocky shore”; BA shirara “rocks in the sea”, “boulders”, “very large stones”. ♦sirma (*girma/*liirina ?) HL “dust”, “dirt” > HO sirma HL; RA sirima “dust”, “dirt”; BA shirima “sediment”. ♦sirnay (*girnay/*hirnay ?) HL “to change” > Y sinnay-no-qan HL-L-L; HO sinnay HL; SA sinnay=no=qan HL-L-L; O sinnay-no-qan HL-L-L; SO sinnay HL; RA sinnay “to change”; BA shinnai “to be different”. ♦sirtOk (*girtOk/*hirtOk ?) HL “elbow” > Y sittok(=i) HL/HL(L); HO sittokf^i) HL/HL(L); SA sittok(=i) HL/HL(L); O sittokew HLL; B sittokkew(=e); A sittoki HLL; N sittok(=i) HL/HL(L); SO sitokkew(=ehe); RA sistoh(-kihi); BA shittok “elbow”. *si(=)tay=ki L(-)H-L “to weave” > Y i=sitay~ki L-HL-L; HO i=sitay=ki L-HL-L; SA i=sitay=ki L-HL-L; O i=sitay-ki L-HL-L; B sitay=ki; N i=sitay=ke L-HL-L; RA i=sitay=ki; BA shitaigi “to weave”. ♦sitOma LLH (*gitOma/*hitOma ?) ‘io be afraid of’ > Y sitoma LLH; HO sitoma LHL; SA sitoma LHL; O sitoma LHL; B sitoma; A sitoma LHL; N sitoma LHL “to be afraid of’; BA shitoma “to fear”, “to be afraid of*. *sin(=)a (*gin(=)a/*hi'n(=)a ?) L(-)H “to bind (it)”, “to tie (it) up” > Y sina LH; HO sina LH; SA sina LH; O sina LH; B sina; A sina LH; N sina LH; SO sina LH “to bind (it)”, “to tie (it) up”; RA sina “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to”; KV i-sina=sina “bind”; BA shina “to lace up”, “to tie up”, “to bind”. *sir=u (*gir=u/*hir=u ?) H-H (?) “to rub” > Y sir=u=sir=u H-L-H-L; HO sir=u L-H; SA sir=u L-H; O sir=u=sir=u L-H-L-H; B sir=u; A sir=u=sir=u L-H-L-H; N sir=u=sir=u L-H-L-H; SO sir=u=sir-u L-H-L-H; RA

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sir=u=sir=u ; KD sirsiri, sirsiru “to rub”; BA siru, ishiru “to rub”, “to grind”, “to chafe”. *sO “waterfall” > Y so H; HO so H; SA so H; O so H; B so; A so H; N so H; RA e=so; KV so=ratki; BA so “waterfall”. *sOk(=)kar H(-)L “mat”, “rug” > Y sokkar HL; HO sokkar HL; B sokkar; N sokkar HL; SO sokkar HL; RA sohkara “mat”, “rug”. *sOn=nO H-L “indeed”, “really”, “truly” > Y son^no H-L; HO son=no H-L; SA son-no H-L; O son-no H-L; B son=no; A son=no H-L; N son=no H-L; SO son=no H-L; RA son-no “indeed”, “really”, “truly”; BA son “true”, son=no “truly”, “very much”, “accurately”, “actually”. *sOnkO HL “news”, “information” > Y sonko HL; HO sonko HL; SA sonko HL; O sonko HL; B sonko ; A sonko HL; N sonko HL; SO sonko HL “news”, “information”. *sOs= L “to tear (it)”, “to split (it)” > Y sos=o L-H (sing.), sos=pa H-L (plur.) “to skin”, to peel”; O sos-o L-H; B sos=o; A sos~o L-H; N sos=o L-H (sing.), sos=pa H-L (plur.); SO sos=pa H-L “to tear (it)”, “to split (it)”; RA sos=ke “to split”; KV sos=pa “tear!’; BA soshpa “to skin”, “to bark”, “to peel”, “to uncover”. *sOy “outside” ( J soto ) > Y soy(=ta) H/H(L); HO soy(=ke) H/H(L); SA soy(=ke) H/H(L); O soy(=ke) H/H(L); B soy=ta; A soy H; N soy H; SO soy H; RA soy “outside”; KD sojda “air”; KV soin “yard”; BA soi “outside”. *sOya LH “bee”, “wasp” > Y soya LH; HO soya LH; SA soya LH; O soya LH; A soya LH; N soya LH; SO ka=soya “bee”, “wasp”; BA soyai “wasp”, “bee”, “hornet”. *su(=)gE (*su(=)qE ?) L(-)H “to cook”, “to boil” > Y suwe LH; HO suye LH; SA suwe LH (sing.), supa HL (plur.); O suye LH (sing.), suypa HL (plur.); B suye; A suwe LH; N suwe LH, suke (?) LH; KD suaty “to cook”, “to boil”; KV suattie “cook”, suat=ajru “cooks”, nieba-suva “does [he] cook?”. *su(=)kE L(-)H “to cook”, “to prepare” > Y suke LH; HO suke LH; SA suke LH; O suke LH; B suke; A suke LH; N suke LH “to cook”, “to prepare”; SO suke LH; RA suke “to cook”, “to boil”; BA shuke “to boil”, “to cook by boiling”. *su(-)su L(-)H “willow” > Y susu LH; HO susu LH; SA susu LH; O susu LH; B susu; A susu LH; N susu LH; SO susu LH; RA susu; KT shushut shu 'shu “willow”; KK susu “purple willow”; KD susu; BA susu “willow”.

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♦sum L “oil (as food)” > Y sum(=i) H/L(H); HO sum H; SA sum(-i) H/L(H); O sum H; B sum; A sum H; N sum H; RA sum(=ihi) “oil (as food)”; BA shum “oil”, “fat”, “scum”. ♦sum “to droop”, “to wither” > Y sum H; HO sum H; SA sum=um=ke L-H-L; O sum=um=ke L-H-L; B sum=um=ke; A sum H; N sum~um=ke L-H-L; SO sum H; RA sum; KT shum “to droop”, “to wither”; BA shum “thin”, “withered”, “poor”. ♦suma LH “stone” > Y suma LH; HO suma LH; SA suma LH; 0 suma LH; B suma; A suma LH; N suma LH; SO suma LH; RA suma; KT shuma; BA shuma “stone”. ♦sumari LHL “fox” > SA sumari LHL; N sumari LHL; SO sumari LHL; RA sumari; BA shumari “fox”. *sun(=)kE HL “lie”, “to tell a lie” > Y sunke HL; HO sunke HL; SA sunke HL; 0 sunke HL; B sunke; A sunke HL; N sunke HL; SO sunke HL “lie”, “to tell a lie”; RA sunke “lie”, e=sunke “to tell a lie”; KT shunge “lie”; KD sungk-askaj “sly”; KV ie=sungie=va “(he) lies”; BA shunge “lie”, “fraud”, “deceit”. ♦sunE (accent is not clear) “light”, “torch” > Y sune LH; SA sune LH; 0 sune LH; B sune; A sune LH; N sune LH; SO sune HL “light”, “lamp”; BA shune “torch”. ♦sunku HL “silver fir” > Y sunku HL; HO sunku HL; SA sunku HL; O sunku HL; B sunku; A sunku HL; N sunku HL; SO sunku HL; RA sunku “silver fir”; BA shungu-ni “a kind of spruce”. ♦sura LH “to release”, “to let go” > Y o=sura L-LH “to leave (smbd.)”; O sura LH; A sura LH; N sura LH; SO sura LH; RA sura=ta “to release”, “to let go”; KD an=sura “keep away from”; BA sura “to let alone”, “to cast away”, “to drop”. ♦surku HL “poison” > Y surku HL; HO surku HL; SA surku HL; O surku HL; B surku ; A surku HL; N surku HL; SO surku HL; RA suruku; KT shuruku “poison”; BA surugu “poison”, “wolf-bane”, “aconite poison”, “poison of any kind”. ♦suu “pan” > Y su H; HO su H; SA su H; O su H; B su; A su H; N su H; SO su H; RA suu(-wehe); KT shu ; KV su “pan”; BA shu “saucepan”, “porridge pan”, “stew pot”. ♦suy L “hole” > Y suy H; HO swy(=e) H/L(H); SA suy H; O suy H; B suy; A suy H; N suy H; SO suy H; RA suy ; BA shui “hole”. *suy=i L-H “to swing” (intr.), “to sway” > Y si=suy=e L-L-H; HO si=suy = e L-H-L; SA si=suy=e L-H-L; O si=suy=e L-H-L; B si-suy-e; A si=suy=e L-H-L; N si-suy-e

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L-H-L; SO su-e su-e L-H L-H; RA si-suy=e “to swing” (jntr.), “to sway”; BA eshishuye “to swing”. *suy=i H-H “to shake”, “to wave” > Y suy-e-suy-e LLHH; HO suy~e LH, suy-e=suy=e LHHH; SA suy-e LH, suy-e-suy=e LHHH; 0 suy-e-suy=e LHHH; B suy=e=suy = e; A suy-e LH, suy=e-suy=e LHHH; N suy = e = suy = e LHHH; SO su[w] = e-su LHH; RA suy=e=suy=e “to shake”, “to wave”; BA shuye=shuye “to wave about”, “to shake up”.

*t *ta= L “now” > Y ta=ne L-H, ta=ke L-H; HO ta=ne L-H, ta=p H; SA ta-ne L-H, ta=p H; O ta=ne L-H, ta=ne-po L-HL; B ta-ne, ta-ne-po; A ta-ne L-H; N ta=ne L-H, ta=ne-po L-H-L, ta-p H; SO ta=ne L-H; RA ta^ni; KT ta-m; KD tanas “now”; KK tani “today”; BA tone “now”. *ta= L “this” > Y ta=qan L-H; HO tan H ( < *ta=qan ); SA ta-qan L-H; O ta=qan L-H; B tan', A tan H; N tan H; SO tan H; RA tan\ KT taan, teen, ten "this”; KD tientit ; KV tie-tanu-va, tandieda, to-anuva “here”; BA taka, ta, tan, tam “this”. *tAk L “lump”, “clod” > Y tak^u) H/L(H); HO tak H; SA tak H; O tak(=u) H/L(H); B tak; N tak H; SO tak H; RA tak=uhpe, wee-tah=ne “lump”, “clod”. *tak “to invite” > Y tak H; HO tak H; SA tak H; O tak H; RA tah(=k) “to invite”. *tak “to be short” > Y tak-ne H-L; HO tak=ne H-L; SA tane H-L; O tak-ne H-L; B o=tak=ne; A tak-ne H-L; N tak=ne HL; SO o=tak-ne L-H-L; RA o~tah=kon; KT tak-ine, tak-ne "short”; KV tak^niep “short” (feminine form of adjective in Russian); BA tak, takne “short”. *takar LH “dream” > HO takar LH; N takar LH “dream”; KD takar “to dream”; BA takara “dream”, “to sleep”. *tantO HL “today” ( < *ta “this” + an “to be” + tOO “day” ) > Y tanto HL; HO tanto HL; SA tanto HL; O tanto HL; B tanto; A tanto HL; N tanto HL; SO tanto HL; RA tanto; KT tanto; BA tanto “today” (cf. tanpa “this year” < *ta=an=pa, tancup “this month” < *ta=an=cup). *tap L “shoulder”, “upper arm” > Y tap H “shoulder”, “arm”; HO tap=sut(=u) HL/HL(L) “shoulder”; SA tap=sut(=u) HL/HL(L) “shoulder”; O tap=sut(=u) HL/HL(L) “arm”; B

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tap=sut “arm”; A tap=sut HL “upper arm”; N tap-sut HL “upper arm”; SO tapsut(-uhu) “upper arm”; RA tah=suh(=tuhu) “forearm”; KD tap=ko “shoulder”; KV tabira “shoulder-blade”; BA tapsutu “the shoulders”. *tar=nE H-L “to be long” > Y tan=ne H-L; HO tan=ne HL; SA tan-ne H-L; O tan-ne H-L; B tan-ne; A tan-ne H-L; N tan-ne H-L; SO o-tan-ne L-H-L; RA o-tan-ne; KT tan-ne, tan'-ne; KD tanin; KV tan^ni, tan=ni=p; BA tanne “to be long”. *tarap LH “dream” > Y tarap LH; HO tarap LH; SA wen-tarap HLL (wen “bad”); RA tarah(-pihi) “dream”. *tas[p]a=dE LL “to change (it)”, “to exchange (it)” > Y u=tasa=re L-LH-L, i=tasa=re L-LH-L, tasa^re LL-H; HO i-tasa-re L-HL-L; SA i-tasa=re L-HL-L, u=tasa=re L-HL-L; B u-tasa-re; A u=tasa=re L-HL-L; N u=tasa=re L-HL-L; SO i=tasa=re L-HL-L, u=tasa=re L-HL-L; RA i=taspa=re, u=taspa=re ; KD tasar; BA itasare “to change (it)”, “to ex­ change (it)”. *tasum LH “to fall ill”, “to get sick” > Y tasum LH; HO tasum LH; SA tasum LH; A tasum LH; RA tasum “to fall ill”, “to get sick”; BA tashum “sickness”. *tay=ki HL “flea” > Y tayki HL; HO tayki HL; SA tayki HL; O tayki HL; B tayki; A tayki HL; N tayki HL; SO tayki HL; RA tayki; BA taiki “flea”. *tE(=)k L “hand”, “arm” > Y tek(=e) H/L(H); HO tek(=e) H/L(H) “hand”, tern H “both arms”; SA tek(=e) H/L(H) “hand”, tem H “arm” (in compounds); O tek(-e) H/L(H); B tek(=e); A tek(=e) H/L(H); N tek(=e) H/L(H); SO tek(=e) H/L(H); RA teh(=kihi); KT teke; KK tiek; KD tiek; KV tiek-ietu “fist” (lit. “nose of an arm”); BA tek “hand”, “arm”. *tEErE HLL “to wait for” > HO tere HL; SA tere HL; A tere HL; N tere HL; SO tere HL; RA teere; KT esu=teri “to wait for”; KV ien=dierie “wait for me”; BA tere “to wait”. *tEm “fathom” > Y tem H; SA tem H; O tem H; B tem; A tem H; N tem H; RA tem; KT tem “fathom”; BA tem “one stretch of the arms”. *tEpa LL “loincloth” > Y tepa(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO tepa LH; SA tepa LH; O tepa LH; B tepa; A tepa LH; N tepa LH; SO tepa LH; RA tepa; BA tepa “loincloth”. *tEr=kE HL “to jump” > Y terke HL; HO terke HL; SA terke HL; O terke HL; B terke; A terke HL; N terke HL; SO terke HL; KT terik^; KD tierki "to jump”; BA tereke “to jump”, “to spring upon (as an animal upon its prey)”.

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*tEy=nE “to get wet” > Y tey-ne H-L; HO tey-ne H-L; SA tey=ne H-L; O tey-ne H-L; B tey=ne; A tey=ne H-L; N tey-ne H-L; SO tey=ne H-L “to get wet”; BA teine “wet”, “damp”. *ti= L “bird” > Y cikap(=i) LH/LL(H), cir H; HO cikap LH; SA cikap LH, cir H; O cikap LH; B cikap*, A cikap LH; N cikap LH; SO cikap LH; RA chikah( =puhu); KT chirr, KD cir, chir, BA chikap, chiri “bird”. *ti= L “we” > Y ci=qokay L-LH; HO ci=qokay L-HL; SA c^oka HL; O ci=qokay L-HL; B ci-qokay, A ci=qokay L-HL; N ci-qokay L-HL “we”; SO c=okay H-L “I”, c=okay utari HL LHL “we”; RA c-oqokay-ahcin; KD chokaj ; KV chogaj “we”; BA chokai “I”; chi, chiokai “we”. *tii HL “to wither” > Y ci H; HO ci H; SA ci H, ci-ni=ne H-L-L; O ci H; B ci; A ci H; N ci H; SO ci H; RA cii “to wither”. *tii LH “penis” > Y ci(=ye) H/L(H); HO ci(=ye) H/L(H); SA ci(=ye) H/L(H); O ci(=ye) H/L(H); B ci(=ye); A ciyehe LHL; N ciye LH; SO cikappo LHL; RA cii(=yehe) ; KD chi “penis”; BA chi “the privates”. *tii “ripe”, “to grow ripe” > Y ci H; HO ci H; SA ci H; O ci H; B ci; N ci H; SO ci H; RA cii “ripe”, “to grow ripe”; BA chi “ripe”. *tii “to be cooked”, “to be done”, “to be roasted” > Y ci H; HO ci H; SA ci H; O ci H; B ci; A ci H; N ci H; SO ci H; RA cii “to be cooked”, “to be done”, “to be roasted”; BA chi “cooked”. *tikir LH (*ti=kir ?) “foot”, “leg” > Y cikir(-i) LH/LH(L); HO cikir(=i) LH/LH(L); O cikir(=i) LH/LH(L); B cikir(=i); A cikir(-i) LH/LH(L); N om=cikir H-LL; SO kema ku=ciki LH LHL(?) “foot”, “leg”; BA chikiri “the legs”, “the feet”, kiri “the legs”, “the feet”. *tiku= LL “tree” > Y ciku=ni LL-H; HO ciku=ni LH-L; O ciku=ni LH-L “tree”; BA chikuni “wood and trees of any kind”. *tin H “waist” > Y cin=kew(=e) HL/HL(L) (=kew “bone”); A cin=kewe HLL; N cin-kewe HLL “waist”; BA chinkeu “the pelvis”. *tinita LLH “dream” > Y cinita(-ha) LLH/LLH(L); HO cinita LHL; O cinita LHL; B cinita; A cinita LHL; N cinita LHL “dream”; BA chinita “a dream”, “a nightmare”. *tinki HL “skirt”, “bottom” > Y cinki(-hi) HL/HL(L); HO cinki(-hi) HL/HL(L); SA cinki(=hi) HL/HL(L); O cinki(-hi)

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HL/HL(L); B cinki; A cinki HL; N cinki HL; SO cinki(-hi) HL/HL(L) “skirt”, “bottom”; BA chinki, chingi “edge or lappet of any part of garment”. *tip L “canoe” > Y cip(=i) H/L(H); HO cip H; O cip H; B cip; A cip H; N cip H; SO cip H; RA cis(=pihi), KT chip; KK chip “canoe”, KD chip “boat”; KV cip “canoe”; BA chip “boat”, “ship”. *tiqa=tiqa “fox” > KT chauchau, KD chaacha, KV chachoo “fox”. *tiqar= LL “to scatter” > Y car=i L-H; HO car=i L-H; SA car=i L-H (sing.), car=pa H-L (plur.); O car=i L-H; B car^i; A car-i L-H; N car-i L-H (sing.), car=pa H-L (plur.); SO car-i L-H; RA i=car=i=qipirasa kii “to scatter”; BA cari “to sprin­ kle”, “to scatter about”. *tiqasi (*tiqagi/*tiqahi ?) HLL “fence” > Y casi HL “fortress”, HO casi HL “fence”; SA casi HL “fence”, “fortress”; B casi; A casi HL; N casi HL ; SO casi HL ; RA cise-caqasi; KT chasa “fence”; BA chasi “fence”, “enclosure”, “fortress” “castle” *tiqEp LL “fish” > Y ciqep(-i) LH/LL(H), cep H; HO ciqep LH, cep H; SA cep H; O cep H; B cep; A cep H; N cep H; SO cep H; RA ceh(=pihi); KT chep; KK sijchip; KD cep, chep ; BA chep, chiep “fish”. *tiqu LL “tide” > Y ciw H; SA ciw(=e) H/L(H); B cuy; RA ciw “the tide”; KV tiu “waves”; BA chiu “current of a stream or river”, “wave”, “current in the sea”. *tiqu “to stab (it)”, “to pierce (it)” > Y a=ciw L-H “to throw a spear”; HO ciw H; O ciw H; B cuy, e=cuy; N ciw H; SO ciw H; RA e=ciw-kara ; KD cyvy “to stab (it)”, “to pierce (it)”; BA chiu “to pierce”. *tiqu(=)p “the sun”, “the moon”, “month” > Y cup H; HO cup H; SA cup H; O cup H; B cup; A cup H; N cup H; SO cup H; RA cuh “the sun”, “the moon”, “month”; KT chup, chiup; KK chuppu; KD cup, chup; KV chuppu “the sun”, “the moon”; BA chup “luminary”, “the sun”, “moon”, “month”. *tis “to cry”, “to weep” > Y cis H; HO cis H; SA cis H; O cis H; B cis; A cis H; N cis H; SO cis H; RA cis; KD cysy; “to cry”, “to weep”, KV chiz”=eva “howls”, BA chish “to cry”, “to weep”. *tisE LH “house” > Y cise LH; HO cise LH; SA cise LH; O cise LH; B cise; A cise LH; N cise LH; SO cise LH; RA cise; KT ch^, che ; KD ce “house”; BA chisei “house”, “hut”.

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*tO= L “that” > Y to=qan L-H; HO to=qan L-H; SA O to=qon L-H ( Y to H; HO to H; SA to H; O to H; B to; A to H; N to H; SO to H; RA too; KT to; KD to “lake”; BA to “lake”, “puddle of water”. ♦tOOpEn HLL “sweet” > Y topen HL; HO topen HL; SA topen HL; O topen HL; B topen; A topen HL; N topen HL; SO topen HL; RA o=toopen; BA topen “sweet”. ♦tOp “bamboo” > Y top H; HO top H; SA top H; O top H; B top; A top H; N top H; SO top H; RA toh(=pihi) “bamboo”; KV top “cane”; BA top “bamboo”. ♦tOpa LL “flock”, “herd” > Y topa(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO topa LH; SA topa(=ha) LH/LH(L); A cikap=topaha LH-LLL;

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RA topa “flock”, “herd”; BA topa “many”, “crowd”, “multitude”. *tOy “earth”, “soil”, “ground”, “land” > Y toy H “earth”, soil”; HO toy H “earth”, “soil”, toy=ka H-L “ground”, “land”; SA toy=toy H-L “earth”, soil”, toy=ka H-L “ground”, “land”; O toy H; B toy; A toy H; N toy H; SO toy H “earth”, “soil”, “ground”, “land”; RA toy “earth”, “soil”, toy-qitara “ground”, “land”; KT toi; KD toj; KV toj “earth”, “soil”; BA toi “garden”, “soil”, “land”, “clay”, “earth”. *top(=)sE H(-)L “to spit” > Y tupse HL; HO e=topse LHL; SA e=topse LHL; B e-topse; A topse HL, e=topse LHL; N topse HL; SO topse HL; RA e-tohpase “to spit”. *trAp L “feather” > Y rap(=u) H/L(H) “feather”, “wing”; HO rap(=u) H/L(H); SA rap(=u) H/L(H); O rap(=u) H/L(H); B rap; A rap H; N rap H “feather”; SO rap H “feather”, “wing”; RA rah(=puhu); NA tap; D trap, rap; KT teku rap; KD unkas^rap ; KV trap “feather”; BA rap, rapu “feathers”, “wings”. *trEk L “beard” > Y rek(=i) H/L(H); HO rek(=i) H/L(H); SA rek(=i) H/L(H); O rek(=i) H/L(H); B rek(-i); A rek(=ihi) H/H(LL); N rek(=e) H/L(H); SO rek(=ehe) H/L(HL); RA reh(-kihi); D triek, riek; KT reki; KK triek; KD reki; KV riek “beard”; BA rek “whiskers”. *tri[i]=k “up[per part]” (J ue=no kata) > Y rik H; SA rik H; O ritta HL; A e=rik=as L-H-L; SO rik-wa H-L; RA ris(=k) “up”; KV rikta “above”; BA rik “above”, “over”, “high” (related to *rii “to be high”). *trii “to be high” > Y ri H; HO ri H; SA ri H; O ri H; B ri; A ri H; N ri H; SO o=ri L-H; RA o^rii; D tri, ri; KT ri; KK triiva; KD ribi “to be high”; KV trichingi “higher”; BA ri “to be high”. *truu “road” > Y ru H; HO ru H; S A ru H; O ru H; B ru; A ru H; N ru H; SO ru H; RA ruu; NA tuu; D tru, ru; KT toiru, toiruu; KK ru; KD ru ; KV tojru, tru “road”; BA ru “road”, “way”, “path”. *tu “ridge (of a mountain)”, “summit” > Y tu H “summit”; HO si=tu H-L; SA si-tu H-L; A si=tu ikkewe HL HLL, tu ikkewe H HLL; N si=tu H-L, tu H “ridge (of a mountain)”; SO si=tu “a mountain between big rivers”; BA shitu “name given to mountains which protrude farther than others in the same range”. *tuu= “two” > Y tu-p-pis HL; HO tu=p H; SA tu=p H; O tu=p H; B tu-p; A tu=p H; N tu=p H; SO tu=p H; RA tu=h,

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tu~h=pis; KT doobechi, tubechi', KK tuup; KD tubich’, KV tu=n-nie “two [together]**; BA tu “two”. *tu=pE=hdan= “eight” (lit. “two-ten”) > Y tu=pe=san=pe L-L-H-L; HO tu-pe-san=pe L-H-L-L; SA tu-pe=san=pe L-H-L-L; O tu=pe=san-pe L-H-L-L; B tu=pe=san=pe; A tu=pe=san=pe L-H-L-L; N tu=pe=san-pe L-H-L-L; SO tu=pe-san-pe L-H-L-L; RA tu=pe=san=pe; KT do=bi=sam=pe; KK tubis; KD tupsampij; BA tupesambe “eight”. *tuk H “to bud”, “to put forth buds or shoots” > Y e-tuk L-H; HO keni tuk LH H; SA e=tuk L-H; O tuk H; B e = tuk; A e = tuk L-H; N kemi e-tuk LH LH; SO e=tok=e=tok=oho L-H-L-L-LL “to bud”, “to put forth buds or shoots’*; BA tuk, tok “to bud”, “to sprout out”. *=tuk= L “to come out”, “to grow” (probably related to *tuk H “to bud”) > Y he=tuk=u LL-H; HO he=tuk-u LH-L, he=tuk=pa L-H-L, tuk H; SA he=tuk=u LH-L, he=tuk=pa LH-L, yay-tuk=te H-L-L; O tuk H; B e-tuk L-H; A e=tuk L-H; N tuk H; RA tuh(-k) ; KD tuki “to come out”, “to grow”. *tukan LH “to shoot” > Y tukan LH; HO tukan LH; SA tukan LH; O tukan LH; B tukan; A tukan LH; N tukan LH; RA tukan “to shoot”; BA tukan “to shoot at”. *tukar LH “seal” > Y tukar LH; HO tukar LH; SA tokkari (?) LH; B tukkar; RA tukoro ; KD tukvar “seal”; BA tukara ‘‘harbour seal** *tum L “strength” > Y turn H; HO tum(=u) H/L(H); SA tum(=u) H/L(H); B turn; A turn H; N turn H; SO turn H “strength”; BA tumu “strength”, “power”. *tumAm LL “trunk (of the body)”, “waist” > Y tumam(=u) LH/LL(H); HO tumam(=a) LH/LH(L); SA tu~ mam(-a) LH/LH(L); B tumam(=a) “waist”; N tumam LH “trunk”, “waist”; RA tumam(=uhu); KT tumom “waist”; KD tumam “spine”, “backbone”, tumama “waist”; BA tumam, tuman “the waist”, “the body”, “the trunk of a tree”. *tumi LH “battle”, “war” > Y tumi LH; HO tumi LH; SA tumi LH; B tumi; A tumi LH; N tumi LH; RA tumi(=hi/=yehe) “battle”, “war”; BA tumi “war”, “quarrel”. *tunsir HL “grave” > Y tusir(-i) HL/HL(L); HO tu(y)sir HL; SA tusir HL; O tusir HL; A tusir HL; N tusir HL “grave”. *tuntu HL “pillar”, “stake” > Y tuntu HL; HO tuntu HL “pillar”, “stake**; SA tuntu HL “stake”; RA tuntu(-hu) “pillar”, “stake”; BA tuntu “pillars”, “column**.

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*tup “to move (to another place)” > Y tup H; HO tup H; SA tup H; O tup H; B cise-tuk=te; N tup H; SO tup H; RA tuh(=p) “to move (to another place)”; KD tupi “leave”, “go away from”; BA tup, tupi “to migrate”. *tur L “dirt” > Y tur(=i) H/L(H); HO tur(=i) H/L(H); SA tur(=i) H/L(H); O tur H; B tur, A tur(=ihi) LHL; N tur H; SO tur H; RA turu(=hul=ihi) “dirt”; KD tur; KV tur “dirt”; BA turu “filth”, “dirt”. *tur= “oak” > Y tun~ni H-L; HO tun=ni H-L; SA tun=ni H-L; RA tun=ni “oak”; BA tun=ni “a kind of oak”. *tura LH “to be accompanied by”, “to bring some­ body” > Y tura LH; HO tura LH; SA tura LH; O tura LH; B tura; A tura LH; N tura LH; SO tura LH; RA tura “to be accompanied by”, “to bring somebody”; KT esutorakan koman “to follow (after) someone going”; BA tura “to take with”, “with”, “in company with”. *turEp LH “sweet potato” > SA turep LH; A turep LH; N turep LH; SO turep LH; KT turep “sweet potato”; BA turep “a kind of lily”. *turi (accent pattern is not clear) “pole (for boats)” > Y turi HL; HO turi LH; SA turi HL; O turi LH; A turi LH; N turi HL; SO turi HL “pole (for boats)”; BA turi, turu “pole used to push boats along”. *tus L “rope” > Y tus H; HO tus H; SA tus(=i) H/L(H); O tus H; B tus; A tus H; N tus H; SO tus H; KT hai-tush ; KV aj-tus rope”; BA tush “rope”, “string”. *tusa LH “to recover”, “to get cured” > SA tusa LH; A tusa LH; N tusa LH “to recover”, “to get cured”; BA tusa “to recover from sickness”, “to heal up”. *tusa LL “sleeve” > Y tusa(=ha) LH/LL(H); HO tusa(=ha) LH/LH(L); SA tusa(=ha) LH/LH(L); O tusa(=ha) LH/LH(L); B tusa; A tusa LH; N tusa(=ha) LH/LH(L); SO tusa(=ha) LH/LH(L); RA tusa; BA tusa “sleeve”. *tusu LL “shaman”, “shamanism” > Y tusu=kur LL-H; HO tusu=menoko LH=LLL; SA tusu=kur LH-L; B tusu=kur; A tusu=kur LH-L; N tusu=kur LH-L; SO tusu qutar LH LH; RA tusu=kuru “shaman”; BA tusu “magic”, “shamanism”. *tuuki HLL “sake cup” (< OJ tukyi “sake cup” ) > Y tuki HL; HO tuki HL; SA tuki HL; O tuki HL; B tuki; A tuki HL; N tuki HL; SO tuki HL; RA tuuki; KT tuuki “sake cup”; BA tuki “cup”, “wine cup”. *tuunas HLL “to be early”, “to be quick” > Y tunas HL “to be early”; SA tunas HL “to be early”, “to be quick”; B

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tunas “to be early”, “to be quick”; A tunas=no HL-L “early”; tunas HL “to be quick”; N tunas HL “to be early”, “to be quick”; RA tuunas “to be early”, “to be quick”; KV tunasi “flexible”; BA tunash, tunashi “quick”, “abrupt”. *tuuti LLH “large wooden hammer” ( < MJ tuti “hammer” ) > Y tuci LH; HO tutci HL; SA tuci LH; O tuci LH; B tuci; SO tuci LH; RA tuuci “large wooden hammer”; BA tuchi “hammer”, “mallet”. ♦tuy L “belly”, “intestines” > Y tuy(=e) H/L(H) “belly”; HO tuy(-e) H/L(H); O tuy(-e) H/L(H); B tuy; A tuy H; N tuy H; SO tuy(=ehe); RA tuy “intestines”; KT tui; KD tuj; KV tuj “belly”; BA tui “the stomach”, “the intestines”. *tuyma HL “to be far” > Y tuyma HL; HO tuyma HL; SA tuyma HL; O tuyma HL; B tuyma; A tuyma HL; N tuyma HL; SO tuyma HL; RA tuyma; KT tuima; KV tujma “to be far”; BA tuima “far”, “distant”. *tiir= H “to lengthen”, “to extend” > Y tur=i=ri H-L-L; HO tur=i L-H; SA tur-i L-H (sing.), tur=pa H-L (plur.); O tur=i L-H; B tur=i; A tur=i L-H; N tur-i L-H; SO tur=i-ri LH-L; RA tur=i “to lengthen”, “to extend”; BA turi “to stretch or reach out”. ♦tuy L “to be cut” (*tuy=i L-H “to cut”) > Y tuy H; HO tuy H; SA tuy H; O tuy H; B tuy; A tuy H; N tuy H “to be cut”; SO tuy~e “to cut”; RA tuy “to be cut”; BA tui, tuye “to cut”. *=tya[qu] “birthmark”, “mole” > SA an=ca H-L (an “to be bom”); RA a=ca, an-ca, an=caw(=ehe) “birth-mark”, “mole” (> MJ aza “id.”), KV anchi “wart”. ♦tyuk L “fall” > Y cuk H; HO cuk H; SA cuk H “fall”, cuk~ita L-HL “in the fall”; O cuk H; B cuk; A cuk H; N cuk H; SO cuk H; RA cuk=iita; KT chuk=am; KD chuk=an ; BA chuk, chuk=an “fall”. *tyOrtya “to shoot (from the bow)”, “to hit (the mark)” > Y cotca HL; SA cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”, to hit (the mark)”; HO cotca HL; B cotca; A cotca HL; N cotca HL “to hit (the mark)”; SO cotca HL “to shoot (from the bow)”; RA cohca “to shoot (from the bow)”, to hit (the mark)”; BA chotca (sing.), chotca=pa (plur.) “to shoot and hit”, “to sting”.

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*U

*u=pak=dE L-H-L “to compare” > Y u=pak~te L-H-L; HO u=pak=te L-H-L; SA u-pak=te L-H-L; B u=ko~pak=te; A u=pak=te L-H-L; N u=pak=te L-H-L; SO u=pak-te L-H-L; RA u-pah-te “to compare”; BA upakte “to compare”, “to measure together”. *=[u]g L “place”, “spot” > Y -us-i L-H; HO =us=ke H-L; SA =us=ke H-L; O =hi; B =us=ke; N =us=i=ke L-H-L; RA =us=ii=ke “place”, “spot”. *ug “to take”, “to receive” (sing.) > Y uk H; HO uk H; SA uk H; O uk H; B uk; A uk H; N uk H; SO uk H; RA uh(=k) “to take”, “to receive” (sing.); KT uke “to take”; KV ugi “take”, ch-ug~uma “we will get”; BA uk (sing.) “to take”, “to aquire”, “to accept”. *ug=ina H-LL “to take”, “to receive” (plur.) > Y uyna HL; HO uyna HL; SA uyna HL; A uyna HL; N uyna HL; RA uyna “to take”, “to receive” (plur.); KD ulna “to collect”; BA uina (plur.) “to take”, “to pick up”. *uguy LH “to burn” > Y uhuy LH; HO uhuy LH; SA uhuy LH; O uhuy LH; A uhuy LH; N uhuy LH; SO uhuy LH; RA hukuy ; KD ujka “to bum”; KV gujga “[they] set fire”; BA uhui, uhuye, hokui “to bum”. *uku LH “to blow” > Y uku LH; O uku LH; B uku; A uku LH; N uku LH; SO uku LH; KD uku, ugu, uguu; KV ugu “blow”; BA uku “to blow”. *unar(=)pE LH(-)L “aunt” > Y unarpe LHL; HO unarpe LHL; SA unarpe LHL; O unarpe LHL; B unarpe ; A unarpe LHL; N unarpe LHL; SO unarpe LHL; RA unahpe(=he), unarape; KD unapi; BA unarabe, unarube “aunt”. *unti HL “fire” > SO unci HL; RA unci(=hi); BA unchi “fire”. *unu LH “mother” > HO unu (accent ?); SA unu(=hu) LH/LH(L); A unu(=hu) LH/LH(L); N unu LH; RA unu(=hu); (?) KV nonno; BA unu, unuhu “mother”. *upar LH “soot” > Y upar LH; HO upar LH; SA upar LH; O upar LH; B upar; A upar LH; N upar LH; SO upar LH; RA upara; KD upar, BA upara “soot”. *uqeeti (*ugeeti ?) “chilblains” > Y uweci LLH; HO uweci LHL; SA uweci LHL; O uweci LHL; B uweci; A uweci

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LHL; N uweci LHL; SO uweci LHL; RA weeci(=yehe) “chilblains”; BA uweci “frostbitten”, “to be frostbitten”. *ur L “fur coat” > Y ur(=i) H/L(H); HO ur H; SA ur(-i) H/L(H); O ur H; B ur; A ur H; N ur H “fur coat”; KD ur “clothes made from the skin of a young reindeer”; BA uru “skin”, “skin of the animals”, “hair of the body”. *uray LH “stake” > Y uray=ni LH-L (ni “tree”); SA uray-ni LH-L; O uray=ni LH-L; B uray=ni; A uray=ni LH-L; N uray-ni LH-L; SO uray-ni LH-L; KT urai; KD urajasyj “to make a stake-trap”; BA urai “stake-trap”. *urE LL “foot” > Y ure(=he) LH/LL(H); HO ure LH; SA ure(-he) LH/LH(L); O parawre LHL (< para=ure); B para=qure; A para-(q)ure LHLL; N ure LH; SO parawre LHL”foot”; BA ure “the feet”, “a foot”, “the legs”. *us “to go out”, “to die out (of a fire)” > Y us H; HO us H; SA us H; 0 us H; B us; A us H; N us H; SO us H; RA us “to go out”, “to die out (of a fire)”; KD usat “cinders”, uska “put out”, “extinguish”; KV us-ka “extinguish”; BA ush “to go out (as a light)”. *us “to put on (trousers or shoes)” > Y us H; HO us H; SA us H; O us H; B us; A us H; N us H; SO us H; RA us “to put on (trousers or shoes)”; BA ush “to wear as boots or a hat”, “to put on”. *us(=)i (*ug(=)i/*uh(=)i ?) L(-)H “to smear (it)”, “to daub (it)” > Y usi LH; HO usi LH; SA usi LH, e-usi L-HL; O usi LH; B usi; A usi LH; N usi LH; RA usi=qusi “to smear (it)”, “to daub (it)”; BA us hi (plur.) “to besmear”, “to rub into”. *usEy HL “hot water” > Y usey HL; HO usey HL; SA usey HL; O usey HL; A usew HL; N usey HL; BA usei “hot water”. *usis (*ugis/*uhis ?) LH “hoof’ > HO usis(-i) LH/LH(L); SA usis(~i) LH/LH(L); O usis LH; B usis; A usis LH; N usis LH “hoof’; BA ushishi “hoof of a horse or cow or deer”. *ussi=qu (*uCgi=qu/*uChi=qu ?) HLL “servant” > Y ussiw HL; HO ussiw HL; SA ussiw HL; B ussuy; A ussiw HL; N ussiw HL; SO ussiw HL “servant”; BA usshi=guru “servant”, “slave”. *ut L “rib” > Y ut(=ci) H/L(H); HO ut-pone(=he) HLL/HLL(L); SA ut=nit(=ci) HL/HL(L); O ut(=ci) H/L(H); B ut=pone; A ut(-cihi) H/L(HL); N ut=pone HLL; SO

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ut=pone(=he) HLL/HLL(L); RA uh(=cihi) ; KD ut; BA ut “rib”. *utap=kE LH-L “to patch (up)” > Y utap^ke LH-L; HO utap-ke LH-L; SA utap=ke LH-L; O utap=ke LH-L; B utap-ke; A utap=ke LH-L; N utap=ke LH-L; SO sutap^ke (?) LH-L; RA utah-ke “to patch (up)”; BA utapke “to mend”. *utur LL “between”, “interval”, “space” > Y utur(-u) LH/LL(H); HO utur(=ke) LH/LH(L); SA utur(=u) LH/LH(L); O utur(=u) LH/LH(L); B utur(=u); A utur LH; N utur LH; SO utur(=uhu) LH/LH(LL); RA uturuke; KT ukuturu “between”, “interval”, “space”; KV utur=as “together”; BA uturu “space”, “between”. *uu[y]na HLL “ash”, “ashes” > Y uyna HL; HO uyna HL; SA una HL; O una HL; B una; A una HL; N una HL; SO una HL; RA uuna ; KD una; BA uina, una “ash”, “ashes”.

*u

*=iir= L “to dig (it)” > Y o=qur=i L-L-H (sing.), o=ur=pa L-H-L (plur.); HO o=qur=i L-H-L; SA o=qur=i L-H-L (sing.), o-ur-pa L-H-L (plur.); O o-qur=i L-H-L; B o=qur=i; A o-qur~i L-H-L; N o-=qur-i L-H-L (sing.), o-ur-pa L-H-L (plur.); BA ouri “to dig (it)”.

*y *ya H “dry land”, “the shore” > Y ya=qoro HLL “shore”, ya-ta HL “on the land”; HO ya H; SA ya H; O ya H; B ya “dry land”, “the shore”; A ya-ta HL “riverbank”, e-yas LH “to the bank”; SO ya H; ^Kya-qun=siri “dry land”, “the shore”; BA ya “land”, “high rock”. *ya(=)ki (accent pattern is not clear) “cicada” > Y yaki LH; HO yaki HL; SA yaki LH; O yaki LH; B yaki; A ya 'ki, ya 'k'i HL; N yaki HL; SO yaki HL; BA yaki “cicada”. *yaa “net” > Y ya H; HO ya H; SA ya H; O ya H; B ya; A ya H; N ya H; SO ya H; RA yaa; KT ya; KD ia; KV iau-got; BA ya “net”. *yam “chestnut” > Y yam H; HO yam H; SA yam H; O yam H; N yam H; BA yam “chestnut”.

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*yar(=)pE H(-)L “diaper” > Y yarpe(=he) HL/HL(L); HO yarpe HL; SA yarpe(=he) HL/HL(L); N yarpe HL “diaper**; BA yarupe “infant clothing”, “clothes**. *yOmkor HL “hiccup” > Y yonkur HL; HO yonkor HL; SA yomkur HL; O yomkur HL; B yonkor; A yomkor HL; N yomkor HL; SO yonkor HL; RA yonkoro ; BA yonguru “hiccup”. ♦yOspE (*yospe/*yOspe/*yospE ?) HL “stomach” > HO yospe(=he) HL/HL(L); SA yospe(=he) HL/HL(L); O yospe(=he) HL/HL(L); B yospe; A yospe HL; N yospe HL”stomach”; BA yoshpe “the large intestines”. *yuk “reindeer” > Y yuk H; HO yuk; SA yuk H; O yuk H; B yuk; A yuk H; N yuk H; SO yuk H; RA yuh(~pihi); KT yuk; KD iuk “reindeer”; KV piraga yuk “wild goat**; BA yuk “deer”. *yuk(=)ki H(-)L “tick” > SA yukki HL; O yukki HL; A yukki HL; BA yukki “tick**. *yup H “elder brother” > Y yup(-H-o) H/H(L); HO yupi HL; SA yup(=i) H/L(H); O yup(=i) H/L(H); B yupo; A yup H, yuppo HL; N yup H; SO yup(=ihi) H/L(HL); RA yuhpo(=ho) “elder brother*’; KK k=jupi “big brother** (< ku=yupi “my elder brother*’), KD ubu;n KV obu “brother”; BA yupi, yupihi, yupo, yubi “elder brother”. *yuukar HLL “epic song” > Y yukar HL; SA yukar HL; A yukar HL; N yukar HL; SO yukar HL; RA yuukara “epic song”; KD yukar “song”; BA yukara “legend”, “tradition”, “poems”, “epic narration”.

H Murayama Shichiro proposes the development hupu > upu [Murayama 1971, 102]. On the basis of KK form, I suggest that the development yupu > upu is more probable.

PART III

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

1 .0. Is it possible to solve this problem ? If we suppose that the creators of the Jomon culture were Ainuspeaking*2, then we should admit that the search for genetic ties of the Ainu language is extremely risky, because we must work on or close to die limit of the possibilities of comparative lin­ guistics. I am not a supporter of any kind of glottochronological game with languages, especially if it is not shown by other methods that the languages in question are related. Moreover, time which has elapsed since the beginning of the Jomon culture in Japan (between 6000 and 10000 B.C.) and the present day is long enough for the genetic origin of a language to be obscured by loanwords and internal changes such that it is nearly impossible to state definitely the genetic ties of the Ainu language, given the present stage of of our knowledge and our methodology. This is why I have no intention of giving any final answer to this question. I think it is possible to evaluate existing hypotheses and give some directions for future considerations on this subject. The reconstruction of Proto-Ainu shortens the time gap to some degree, bringing us closer to the dawn of the Ainu people. The Proto-Ainu reconstructed in this work is not the language that was spoken around 6000 B.C. A reconstruction of such depth is certainly impossible for PA, which is an isolated language, and would hardly be possible for any language or language family at all. The present reconstruction is based on the data of three dialect groups, HKD, SAKH and Kuril, and probably corresponds to the last centuries of the first millennium A.D., when Ainu began to move northward from northern Honshu under Japanese pressure. The reconstruction brings us approximately one thou­ sand years closer to the origins of Ainu. Maybe this shortening of the distance will allow us to find some traces of its origins. 12 This is impossible to prove or reject from the scholarly point of view, but seems quite possible.

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Before doing this, I will outline the most characteristic typological features of Proto-Ainu. This certainly cannot prove Ainu's relationship to any other language, but may be of some help in directing the search for its origins.

1.1. Phonologicalfeatures of Proto-Ainu The most striking feature of Proto-Ainu is the existence of initial consonant clusters. None of the neighbouring languages, with the exception of Late Middle Korean (LMK) and Nivkh (Gilyak), has or ever had them, and in these two they are obviously secondary. Generally speaking, these clusters are not typical of languages in the North-East Asia or in the Northern Part of the Far East Another interesting feature of Proto-Ainu is its rich vowel system. It has at least eight vowels, more probably twelve. The closest analogue in North Asia is probably Proto-Manchu-Tungus, which had seven or eight vowels. PJ, with its four vowel system, is no match for PA. The important difference within the PA vowel system is the difference between back [A] and front [a] which is observed nowhere else in the whole of North Asia. Furthermore, Proto-Ainu and all Modem Ainu dialects have initial [r-], a phenomenon which does not exist in any of the neighbouring protolanguages.13

12. Morphosyntactic features of Proto-Ainu I have not done a special morphosyntactic reconstruction of Proto-Ainu because it does not seem to be necessary. All dialects are quite close from the point of view of the basic grammar, which allows us to judge the main morphosyntactic features of Proto-Ainu from the viewpoint of any of the Modem dialects. Thus, I can probably say that Proto-Ainu was an incorporating language with SOV word-order. This fact places Proto-Ainu together with some of the “Paleosiberian” languages, such as Chukchee-Kamchadal or Nivkh. This is of little help from the linguistic point of view, since the “PaleoSiberian” lan­ guages do not genetically represent a linguistic unity. Far more 13 One can certainly claim that PA *r- may correspond to "Altaic" *1-, but I doubt that where will be any parallels at all since "Altaic" ♦!- is extremely rare phoneme.

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

157

interesting is the fact that Proto-Ainu intensively used prefixation, a feature we also see in Japanese, Korean, Nivkh and Chukchee-Kamchadal, though prefixation is more limited in these languages.

13. Lexical features of Proto-Ainu

As far as the vocabulary of Proto-Ainu is concerned it is signifi­ cant and striking that almost all of the basic lexical items are rep­ resented by two or more unrelated words. Let us consider several examples: 1) “water”: PA *hdak=ka and *pE. We can suggest that proper PA word for “water” is *hdak=ka, since it is represented in all HKD and SAKH dialects and also in KT. Besides that, *pE in HKD mostly means “undrinkable water” or “sap”. Since none of the Kuril dialects, with the exception of KT, has *hdak=ka, we also have to take into consideration *pE, but only to some extent, since the genetic lineage for the Ainu dialects should be the following (Murayama 1971,352): PROTO-AINU / \ PROTO- HKD-KURIL PROTO-SAKH / \ \ HKD DIALECTS KURIL DIALECTS SAKH DIALECTS 2) “stone”: PA *suma and *poqina. The situation is the same as with the word for “water”. *Poqina is mostly a Kuril word, and *suma is typical for HKD and SAKH. 3) “fire”: PA *apE LH and *unti LH. The first word is repre­ sented in HKD and Kuril dialects, while the second exists also in SO and is the only word for “fire” in all SAKH dialects. 4) “star”: PA *nOOti(=)qu and *kEta LH. The first word ex­ ists in all HKD dialects14 with the exception of SO, and in NA among SAKH dialects. SO, other SAKH dialects and all Kuril dialects have only *kEta. RA has both words. With this kind of distribution we have to admit that both words definitely belong to PA. 5) “hand”, “arm”: PA *tE(=)k L, *askE HL and *mOn. The last two words occur in modem dialects only in compounds, but their compounding shows that probably they were also used as independent words before. 14 B has the euphemism rikop "the high thing" for "star".

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ORIGINS CF THE AINU LANGUAGE

6) “river”: PA *pEt and *nay. The first word is represented in all groups (HKD, SAKH and Kuril), but it is not a common word in SAKH, which more used the second word. The second word exists in HKD with the meaning “stream”.

1.4. Where to lookfor the origins of the Ainu language?

Summarizing the above features, it is necessary to admit that PA phonetics suggests that Ainu probably is a language of the southern type, since such of its features as initial consonant clusters, initial [r-] and organization of vowel system resemble features found in the languages of South-East Asia. On the other hand, most of its morpho syntactic features, such as incorporation and SOV word-order are of northern type, though the intensive usage of prefixation again points in the southern direction. From the point of view of the vocabulary, Ainu definitely represents a kind of mixed language, with several unrelated strata inside it. Taking into consideration all these facts, we should probably look for the origins of the Ainu language in the southern direction, but before that we have to find the strata which are due to the neighbouring northern languages. One is definitely Japanese. All common Ainu loanwords from Japanese are listed in Part II. Another important stratum is Nivkh (Gilyak). There are a number of later loans in Ainu and Nivkh, such as Ainu inaw “inau” > Nivkh inau, nau “id.”, Nivkh haq “hat” > SAKH hakka “id.”, Ainu siisamlsisam “Japanese” > Nivkh sisam “id.”. But there are far more common words which can be seen only if we compare PA and Proto­ Nivkh (PN), and not the forms from the modem dialects. Thus, this stratum must probably be older than Japanese.

2.0. Nivkh-Ainu parallels The Nivkh language has a very complicated system of initial consonant alternations (Kreinovich 1937), (Panfilov 1968, 410), shown below:

p/v/b

p' / f

t/r/d

t‘ / r

c/z/^

c'/s

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ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

k/ y / g

k‘ / x

q/u / g q' / X However, the reconstruction of PN, especially of the PN con­ sonant system has achieved extraordinary results, as shown by the works in this sphere by R. Jakobson (Jakobson 1958) and R. Austerlitz (Austerlitz 1982), (Austerlitz 1986). The main points of this reconstruction can be summarized in the following way: 1) Uvular stops are in complementary distribution with velar stops (Austerlitz 1986, 31). 2) All initial and medial fricatives go back to the stops (Jakobson 1958, 272-274), (Austerlitz 1982, 81). 3) It is possible that palatal and dental consonants are also com­ plementary distributed (Austerlitz 1986, 31). The Ainu-Nivkh parallels given below are based on the following system of correspondences between PA and PN:

PA *p

PN *p

PA *-p

PN ‘-p‘

*m ♦t *d

*m *c

*t *-t *n

*t, *c ♦ -t‘

*n

*n

*s

♦c‘

*1

♦n, *q

*1

*y *g, *_k

*c

*k *k ♦k‘ Phonetic correspondences between PA and PN vowels are far more complicated, and it would be premature to establish such correspondences, since no one has yet reconstructed PN vocal­ ism. All the reconstructions of PN vowels given below are hypothetical and are based only on Amur Nivkh (NAM) and East Sakhalin Nivkh (NES) data from (Savel'ieva and Taksami 1970).

160

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

2.1. Ainu-Nivkh parallels in grammar PA *i=, *E=, sometimes *0= (verbal incorporated object pre­ fixes). Cf. PN *i=, *e= (verbal incorporated object prefixes). PA *u= (prefix of reciprocal voice). Cf. PN *u= (NAM v=, u~, o=; NES v=, u=, o-) (prefix of reciprocal voice). PA *=k=,*=kE= (suffix of the causative and/or transitive verbs). Cf. PN *=k=, *=ku= (suffix of the causative).

PA * = p (suffix of deverbal nouns). PN *=p' (suffix of deverbal nouns). PA *ta= “this”. Cf. PN *U2= “id.” (NAM NES tu=). PA *nEE= LL “who”, “what”. Cf. PN *nu= “what” (NES nud), *na=t “who” (NES nar). PA *=n (classifier for people). Cf. PN *-n (id.).

22. Ainu-Nivkh parallels in vocabulary

PA *agi LL “arrow”. Cf. PN *k‘i “cross-bow” (NAM, NES

k‘i). PA *asir LH “new”. Cf. PN *c‘ir “id.” (NAM cluz=^ NES

C‘ir= ). PA *daarak HLL “smooth”. Cf. PN *laklak “id.” (NAM laqlaq ). PA *du=p L “ice”. Cf. PN *Iu=t “id.” PA *gOn L “belly”. Cf. PN *k‘o=k “id.” (NAM, NES k^X). PA *hapur LH “to be weak”, “to be soft”. Cf. PN

*h9pVt=la= “to be weak”, “to be fragile” (NAM hdvtla= ). PA *i=up=u L-L-H “to tie (it)”. PN *i-up= “id.” (NAM jup)• PA *ima(=)k L(-)L “tooth”. Cf. PN *em=s “molar tooth”.

PA *maa “to swim”. Cf. PN *mV=t©= “to swim” (NES, NAM mr&= ). PA *nAn L “face”. Cf. PN *rjefi=k “face”. PA *naqa LH “still”. Cf. PN *na= “still”.

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

161

PA *nii “tooth”. Cf. PN *ge=ks “tooth” (this word may have another etymology, see 3.2). PA *nii “tree”. Cf. PN *ga=ks “bushes”. PA *nimara LLH “half’. Cf. PN *nilami “half’ (NAM ^nlami). PA *nOk L “testicles”, “egg”. Cf. PN *rjojk “testicles”, “egg”. PA *nu=kar L-H “to see”, “to look at”, *i=n[u]=kar H-(L)-

L “to be seen”. Cf. PN *i=nV=ta= “to see”, “to look at” (NAM i-n~dd=, n^re-).

PA *numa LL “hair”. Cf. PN *r)am=k “id.” (NAM ijarjg, NES Qamx). PA *nuu= “eye” (in *nuu=pE “tear”(lit. “eye-water”). Cf. PN *na=k “eye”.

PA *nuuman HLL “yesterday”. Cf. PN *nam=t “yesterday”

(NAM namr, NES namr}. PA *nuy=kar H-L “to comb”. Cf. PN *no= “to comb”. PA *patEk (*patek ?) LH “only”. Cf. PN *patk “only” (NAM park}. PA *rir “wave”. Cf. PN *Ia=t “wave” (NAM lar). PA *say L “flock” ( < *saCi ?). Cf. PN *c‘ok “flock”, “herd”, “group”. PA *tap L “shoulder”, “upper arm”. Cf. PN *tepV = s “shoulder blade” (NAM tdvsk, tdvs). PA *tEr=kE H-L “to jump”. Cf. PN *car=k= “to jump” (NAM carq=}.

PA *tiku= LL “tree”. Cf. PN *tik=t “tree” (NAM ti^r). PA *tiqu LL “tide”. Cf. PN *tui=p‘ “current” (NAM rujf}. PA *tOO “lake”. Cf. PN *tu “lake” (NAM tu). PA *top(=)sE H(-)L “to spit”. Cf. PN *e=tVp-ai= “to spit” (NAM ervai=, tvai- ). PA *ya H “dry land”, “the shore”. Cf. PN *co “the beach near the water, covered with sand and pebbles” (NAM co ). The parallels above demonstrate that Ainu and Nivkh share some common items in the sphere of basic vocabulary. But these

162

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

comparisons by no means can prove that Ainu is related to Nivkh. Since the Ainu and the Nivkh lived side by side during many centuries, the most probable explanation would be that these parallels are the result of contacts between the two lan­ guages. I suppose that most of the items listed above are Nivkh loanwords in Ainu (such as ^hapur “to be weak”, *nOk “testicles”, “egg”. *tiku= “tree” etc.) but there are also some probable Ainu loanwords in Nivkh (*c‘ir “new”, *k‘i “cross­ bow” etc.).

3.0. The Relationship of Ainu to the Languages of South-East Asia

As I mentioned above, the search for the origins of the Ainu lan­ guage in a southern direction seems to be far more promising than the search in a northern direction. This point of view is not based only on the fact that Proto-Ainu shares important typologi­ cal features which exist in the languages of the South-East Asia, and not exist in the languages of die North Asia, for typological features cannot be used as a proof for common genetic origin, but also on some important parallels in basic vocabulary which I provide below. Before I procede to these etymologies, I would like to mention briefly some cultural anthropological data, rele­ vant to the Ainu ethnogenesis. This work is purely lingustic; for more detailed description, the reader should refer to the “Gilyaki, orochi, gol'dy, negidal'cy i ainy” (Sternberg 1933). Besides the cult of the bear, which is definitely of Siberian origin, the Ainu also had the cult of the snake, which definitely preceded the former (Arutiunov 1965, 951). The cult of the snake is not seen in Siberia, but it is widespread in South-East Asia. The same is the case with the cult of the sword, which also has a definite Southern origin. Neighbouring Manchu-Tungus people and the Nivkh use die compound bow, while the Ainu used the simple bow that again is typical for South-East Asia. None of the Ainu neighbours used the loin-cloth as the only garment during the summer, and none of them used poison arrows. All these features exist only in the far more southern regions. The procedure of the search for the origins of the Ainu lan­ guage in the South-East Asia has certainly to be done in accor­ dance with the methodology of comparative linguistics. Cases of similarity cannot be relied upon, unless all the parallels are based

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

163

on a system of regular phonetic correspondences between PA and some other protolanguage. If we decide to search in that re­ gion, we should probably consider the following possibilities: 1) Is PA related to Proto-Austronesian (PAN) ? 2) Is PA related to Proto-Austroasiatic (PAA) ? 3) Is PA related to Proto-Miao-Yao (PMY) ? 4) Is PA related to Proto-Thai (PT) ? The last possibility probably should be excluded from the be­ ginning. I tried to make preliminary comparison of PA with PT reconstructions (Li 1977), but I did not see any significant re­ sults. Let us look at the other three possibilities.

3,1, Proto-Ainu and Proto-Austronesian As I mentioned in the introduction to this book, the first scholar who tried to connect Ainu and Austronesian was L. Sternberg (Sternberg 1933). Besides PA *ku ‘T’, PAN *aku “id.” and PA *apE “fire”, PAN *apuy “id.”, proposed by L.Stemberg, comparison of PA with PAN reconstructions (Dempwolf 1938), (Dahl 1977) brought some more probable parallels: PA *day H “to (fie”. Cf. PAN *tay “id.” (ma=tay, pa=tay). PA *dE= “three”. Cf. PAN *telu “id.”. PA *tuu= “two”. Cf. PAN *duva “id.”. PA *Etu LL “nose”. Cf. PAN ‘idling “id.”. It is very tempting to try to establish some phonetic correspon­ dences such as PA *d I PAN *t and PA */ / PAN *d, but I was unable to find any more parallels Thus, I prefer to consider these parallels as a mere coincidence and delay the problem of PA and PAN relationship to the future.

32. Proto-Ainu and Proto-Austroasiatic The comparison of PA with PAA is not so easy as the compari­ son with PT or PAN. It is simply due to the fact that there is no complete PAA reconstruction. We have only the reconstructions of separate language groups within PAA, including a reconstruc­ tion of Proto-Viet-Muong (PVM) (Thompson 1976), a recon­ struction of Proto-Mon-Khmer vocalism (Shorto 1976), a recon­ struction of Proto-Wa (Diffloth 1980), a reconstruction of ProtoMonic (Diffloth 1984), and some works which treat only some

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

164

aspects of general reconstruction (Diffloth 1989). R. Shafer's work (Shafer 1965) is not a reconstruction in the proper sense, but rather lists of words which illustrate one or another proto­ phoneme, though he does not provide the reconstructions them­ selves. Below I give phonetical correspondences between PA and PAA consonants. It is pointless to try to establish any kind of correspondences between the PA and PAA vowels, because in many cases the vowels in different PAA languages are very di­ vergent, providing not even the slightest clue to a reconstruction of PAA vowel system. It seems to me that the comparison of PA with PAA is the most likely way to solve the mystery of PA ori­ gins. The following attempt should not be considered as proof or any kind of final answer, which would be possible only after the PAA reconstruction is completed — probably not earlier than in hundred years. The PA is by no means definitely a PAA lan­ guage: it may be distantly related to PAA, but it also may not. I suppose that the existence of the certain parallels between PA and PAA is more indicative of genetic ties, than of borrowing, because the Ainu and Austroasiatic languages are not actual neighbours. The possibility of mere coincidence with the following amount of parallels should probably be excluded. But I would like to repeat again that this proposal is just a prelimi­ nary hypothesis that seems realistic to me. The provisional PAA reconstructions which I provide below are based mainly on the word-lists in (Shafer 1965). Phonetic correspondences between PA andAA PA *p *-p*p *m *-0

PAA *p *-w*b *m *-m

PMK *p'

PVM *p

*m *-m

*m *-m

*-m

*t *-t *-t *tr*tr*d

*t *~s *-t *sl*tr*d *?d *n

*t *-lh *-t *hl*tr-

*t, *t

*t

*hl-

*sl-

*hd *n

♦tf *n

*n

PW

PM

*t

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

*c

*c

*c

*e (?) *s *j *-y-

*s *s

*t

*_y_ *p

*k *g *VqV

*1 *k *g *v0

*1 *k *g

*-y*r *1

*-V0

*-Vq

*-Vq

*-n=C *hr*-0

*-o *hl*-h

*-o *hl *-h

*t *s *s *y_ *_y_ *P

165

*s

*c

*hl-

*sl-

*g

*hl*-h

PA *an=, *a= “I”. Khmer an “I”; Wa ‘we”, ?a ? “I (Zhou 1984, 50). PA *apa LL (< *apaa ? RA normally does not preserve long

vowel in the second syllable) “doorway”. Cf. PW *pug “window” (Diffloth 1980,128). PA *dE(=)tar L(-)H “white” (this comparison is valid only if dE= is a prefix). Cf. Bahnar tar “bright white”; Savara tar “to shine”, “brilliant”; “white”; Gadaba ta=tar “white”; Kharia tar“light” (Shafer 1965, 14). PAA *t3r “white” ?

PA *E= L “you” (sing.). Cf. Halang ai; Kaseng ai; Sr6 ^ai! (fem.); Stieng e/“thou” (Shafer 1965, 68). PA *Esna HL “sneeze”. Cf. PM *[c]n?as “to sneeze” (Diffloth 1984, 240). PA *gik/*gek “to be born”. Cf. PW *(geh) “to be bom” (Diffloth 1980, 160).

PA *gum L “sound”, “noise”. Cf. PM *gra9in “to growl (tiger, dog)”, “to congregate and make noise” (Diffloth 1984, 220). PA *guu “to be raw”, “to be fresh”. Cf. PM *[g]yuQ “to live”, “to be alive”, “to be raw” (Diffloth 1984,184).

166

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

PA *guurE HLL “red”. Cf. Bahnar gur “orange-red earth”, “ochre”; Srb gur “orange-red earth”, “ochre”; Savara gur-mah “tawny”, “yellow” (body color) (Shafer 1965, 16). PAA *gur ? PA *hdak=ka HL “water”. Cf. PVM *?dak (Thompson 1976, 1192); PM *(faak “water” (Diffloth 1984, 131); Alak dak; Uylo dak; Bahnar dak; Boloven tidk; Chrau dak; Chum da;

Halang dat; Kaseng dak; Khmer dik; Kontu da; Kuoi dak; Lav6 dak; Niahbn dak; Phnong dak; Por teak; Prou doak; Sedang ded;

Sr6 da/; Stieng dak; Sub da; Talaing dak; Mundari dak’; Kharia

da’k; Central Nicobar dak; Coastal Nicobar dak; Chowra Nicobar rak “water” (Shafer 1965, 8-11). PA *hdOO “span of the thumb and first finger”. Cf. PW *tn=da? “finger-span (from thumb to little finger)” (Diffloth 1980, 102). PA *hrA= L “leaf’. Cf. PVM *hla “leaf’ (Thompson 1976, 1177); PW *hla? “leaf’ (Diffloth 1980, 110); PM *slaa? “leaf’ (Diffloth 1984, 80); Alak a-la; Bahnar hla; Boloven hid; Chrau la; Churu laha; Halang Id; Kaseng Id; Kuoi sla; Lavb Id; Niahbn Id; Phnong laha; Por slaa; Stieng la; Sub hid; Talaing sla?; Tareng la; Khasi sla; Umpai hla; Bo Luang la; Mapa laha;

Lamet la; Sakai sela, sela, sela?, sela, sla; Semangse/a?,

hele?; Pangan half?, halik “leaf’ (Shafer 1965, 29). PAA *hla ?

PA *i=EE L-HL “to say (it)”. Cf. PW *(?ah) “to say” (Diffloth 1980, 159). PA *kAp L “skin”, “fir” (if it is not a loanword from OJ kapa). Cf. Stieng kuop, kup “skin”, “bark”; Talaing da-kuip, ga-kuip

“to cover”; Savara kub- “to be covered”; Sakai tse-kop “bark”; “skin”; tsi-kop “skin”; Jakun tsun-kop “skin” (Shafer 1965, 48-49). PAA *kop ? PA *kapa(=)p LH “bat”. PM *klwaa?, Proto-Mon *k0wa? “bat” (Diffloth 1984, 62).

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

167

PA *kar “to make”. Cf. Middle Mon ka “work”, “deed” (Shorto 1971, 34). PA *kE=s L “end”, *O=kE=dE L-L-H “to end”. Cf. PVM ♦kuay “end” (Thompson 1976, 1171), PA *ki(=)raqu L(-)LH “horn”. Cf. PW *nrrj “horn (anim.)” (Diffloth 1980, 131); PM *drag, Proto-Mon *kregg “horn” (Diffloth 1984, 99). PA *kO=r L “to have”. Cf. PVM *ko “to have” (Thompson 1976, 1175); PW *koy “to have” (Diffloth 1980, 157).

PA *kOt= “front”, “before”. Cf. PM *kntaa? “in front of’ (Diffloth 1984, 149). PA *kdt= L “to tie (it) to”, “to fasten (it) to”. Cf. Bahnar kot; Sedang kot; Sr6 kot; Stieng kot “to tie” (Shafer 1965,12). PAA *kdt ? PA *kupa LH “to bite”. Cf. PAA *kfi.p/*kpp “to bite” (Alak kap; Annam cam; Bahnar kap; Boloven kap; Chrau kap; Halang

kap; Kaseng kap; Lav6 kap; Niahbn kap; Sr6kap; Stieng kap;

Theng kap; Umpai kap; Bo Luang kap; Mapa kap; Central Nicobar kap (Shafer 1965, 8-10). PA *m[r]Ak= H “to open [it]”. Cf. PM *lmlaak “to open (one's eyes)”, “to be open (wound)” (Diffloth 1984,169).

PA *mO L “sleep”. Cf. Bahnar po “to dream”; Umpai ramo; Riang ramu'; Sr6 mpao; Stieng mbdi “dream”; (Shafer 1965,38;

68); Vietnamese mo' “to dream”. PAA *?mo ?

PA *nEE= LH “who”, “what”. Cf. Kui naa “what” (Prasert 1978, 180). PA *nii “tooth”. Cf. PM *gnis “canine tooth” (Diffloth 1984, 105).

PA *nOOti(=)qu “star”. Cf. Kui ntaar “star” (Prasert 1978, 180). PA *num L “fruit”, “berry”, “to bear fruit”. Cf. PW *(?)n*m “plant” (Diffloth 1980,145). PA *Ota LH “sand”. Cf. PM *p-m-twl, Proto-Mon *heti “sand” (Diffloth 1984,137).

168

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

PA *pa L “head”. Cf. Kui plaa “head”, “skull” (Prasert 1978, 9). PA *paar=aC=sE “to fly”. Cf. PVM*pal “to fly” (Thompson 1976, 1173); PW *p*r “to fly” (Diffloth 1980,

150); Bahnar par; Chrau (bar), Churupar, Sedangpd; Srepar, Stieng par, Sue pal; Talaing par, Santali apir; Mundari apir; Ho

apir; Kurku apir “to fly” (Shafer 1965, 8); Kui paar “to fly” (Prasert 1978, 8). PAA *par ? PA *pay=i L-H “to go” (plur.). Cf. Kui pa? “to go”, “to come” (Prasert 1978, 8). PA *pEr= L “to break or split (it) in two or pieces”. Cf. PVM *pe “break” (Thompson 1976, 1166).

PA *=pEt “Anger”. Cf. Bahnar pet “to pinch with the Angers”; Khmer tpiet “to hold by pinching”; Srd pet “to detach with the Angers”; Stieng piet “to get one's Angers caught between two strips of wood”; Savara ped- “to pinch”; Riang plot “to press” (Shafer 1965, 15). PAA *pet ? PA *pet=u L-H “to cut”, “to split”. Cf. PVM *p’at “to cut” (Thompson 1976, 1166; 1169); Bahnar pah “to split”, “to divide in two”; Savara pa “to split (as a bamboo)”, “to rend” (Shafer 1965,15); Kui patg “to slash”, “to cut down or off with a slash­ ing motion” (Prasert 1978, 4). PAA *pat ?

PA *pOk L “vulva”. Cf. Kuipe? “vagina” (Prasert 1978, 2). PA *pOqOn LH “four” (?). Cf. PVM *pon (Thompson 1976, 1173); Alak pon; Bahnar pubn; Boloven puan; Chrau pubn;

Churu puan; Halang puan; Kaseng pon; Khmer pon; Kontu

puan; Kuoi pon; Lavd pubn; Niahdn puon; Phnong puon; Por phoon; Por puon; Sedang puon; Sr6 puan; Stieng pubn; Su6 puon; Talaing pan; Umpai paun; Bo Luang pan; Mapa paun;

Lametpon; Papao paun; Central Nicobar foan; Coastal Nicobar foat; Interior Nicobar fuat; Teressa Nicobar foon; Chowra Nicobar foon; Car Nicobar fiian “four” (Shafer 1965, 8-10). PAA *puon ?

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

169

PA *pOrO LH “to be big”. Cf. Stieng bol “many”, “numerous”; Sre bol “several” (Shafer 1965, 63). PA *prAA= LL “mouth”. Cf. PM *paag “mouth” (Diffloth 1984, 98); Old Mon pari; Central Nicobar -fan; Teressa Nicobar

-fan; Chowra Nicobar -fan “mouth” (Shafer 1965, 10). PAA ♦par) ?

PA *praa HH “edge”. Cf. PM *g=n=rem “the edge”, “the rim” (Diffloth 1980, 220); ? Kui plaa “the cutting edge” (Prasert 1978, 8). PA *pras “to run”. Cf. Kui mpraap “to run” (Prasert 1978, 68). PA *ra H “down”, *prO=k L “under”, “beneath”, “below” (? Modem Ainu ror=i “to sink” (Chiri 1974/1952, 209) < PA *rbr=i). Cf. PW *knrim “under” (Diffloth 1980, 146); PM *kroom “under”, “the underpart” (Diffloth 1984, 219); Bahnar kram “to be submerged”, “to go to the bottom”; Sr6 kram “to sink (in water)”, “to go down”, “to immerse oneself’ (Shafer 1965, 13). PAA *k=ram ? PA *rAm L “soul”, “heart”, “mind”. Cf. PW *rmhom “heart”, “mind” (Diffloth 1980, 148); Muong lorn; Khmer

tlao'm; Bahnar klo'm “liver” (Sokolovskaia 1987, 24). Cf. (?)

also Muong tlam “heart” (Sokolovskaia 1987, 111), Wa rhom “heart” (Zhou 1984). PAA *k=lom ? PA *rayonti LLH “rainbow” (< *rayon=ti ? Cf. PA *unti “fire”). Cf. PW *pryog “rainbow” (Diffloth 1980, 133);

Umpai rayon; Mapa rayon “rainbow” (Shafer 1965, 54). PAA

*rayOg ? PA *rEk “to sing”, “to cry (of a bird)”. Cf. PW *rak “to moan”, “to cry (anim.)” (Diffloth 1980, 119). PA *ri H “to skin”, “to strip”. Cf. Bahnar plo; Stiengploh “to flay”, “to skin” (Shafer 1965, 65). PA *=rit “root”. Cf. PVM *relh “root” (Sokolovskaia 1987,

24); PW *res “root” (Diffloth 1980, 154); Bahnar ridh; Boloven re; Halang re; Khmer ris; Sedang re; Sr6 rias; Stieng

170

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

rieh; Sue re; Talaing ruih; Tareng rie; Riang

; Umpai rd; Bo

Luang rd; Mapa rd; Theng hria; Central Nicobar yiah “root” (Shafer 1965, 25-26). PAA *rifh ?

PA *ruyka/*requka HL/HLL “bridge”. Cf. PW *r(n)pik “bridge” (Diffloth 1980, 117). PA *sa= “to be non-existent”, “no”, “not”. Cf. Old Mon sak “not to have”, “to lack”, “not to happen”; ha (negative particle) (Shorto 1971, 354). PA *sEE “to carry on the back”. Cf. Chrau sah; Sr6 sah; Stieng sah “basket carried on the back” (Shafer 1965,66). PAA *sah ? PA *si(=)ntOkO H(-)LL “container”. Cf. PM *tgkoo? “bamboo container” (Diffloth 1984,119). Is this a metathesis in PA? PA *si(=)tay=ki L(-)H-L “to weave” (si= ia a frequent prefix in Ainu). Cf. PVM *tafi “to weave” (Thompson 1976, 1192); PM *taaji “to weave” (Diffloth 1984, 193); Alak tan; Annam dan; Bahnar tan; Boloven tan; Halang tan; Khmer pan tan; Lav6

tan; Niahon tan; Sr6 tan; Stieng tan; Talaing tan; Umpai tain; Bo Luang tain; Mapiia tain; Central Nicobar en-tain- “to weave” (Shafer 1965, 8-10). PAA *tain ?

PA *sik “to be full”. Cf. Riang s‘ak ©full”, “satisfied”; Lamet

sak ©full”, “satisfied” (Thompson 1965, 31). PAA *sak ? PA *siqu “to be bitter”. Cf. PW *suq “bitter” (Diffloth 1980, 133).

PA *sOn=nO H-L “indeed”, “really”, “truly”. Cf. Sr6 son; Stieng son “right”, “just”, “true” (Shafer 1965, 65). PAA *sog ? PA *sOya LH “bee”, “wasp”. Cf. PM *saay “bee” (Diffloth 1984, 76). PA *suma LH “stone”. Cf. PW *smo7 “stone” (Diffloth 1980, 106); PM *tmoo? “stone” (Diffloth 1984, 130); Alak tamo; Bahnar tomo; Boloven tamo; Chrau thmo; Halang md; Kaseng tamo; Khmer thmo; Kontu tamo; Kuoi tamau; Lav6 tamd;

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

171

Phnong tama; Por thmo-; Prou tama; Sedang hum; Stieng tomau; Sud tamao; Talaing tmo ?; Tareng tamo; Khasi mdw; Umpai samo; Bo Luang samo; Mapa samo “stone” (Shafer 1965, 2021). PAA *0oma or *6amu ?

PA *tO= L “that”. Cf. PM 147).

“that” (Diffloth 1984, 146-

PA *tay=ki HL “flea”. Cf. PVM *cay “head louse” (Thompson 1976,1178); PM *cay “parasite (human or animal,

head or body; general term) (Diffloth 1984, 75); Alak tsei;

Bahnar si; Boloven tsei; Chrau sih; Churu sai; Halang tsai;

Khmer tsei; Lav6 tsei; Niahon tse; Sr6 sai; Stieng sih; Talaing tsay; Central Nicobar sei; Santali se?; Theng st “louse”; Riang si? “head louse”; Angku si kwen “flea”; Khasi ksi “louse”

(Shafer 1965, 30-31). PAA *c3i or *cai ? PA *tE(=)k L “hand”, “arm” (=fc may be a dual suffix, cf. PA *sik “eye”). Cf. PMK *tii? “hand” (Shorto 1976, 1062); PVM *t'Sy “arm”, “hand” (Thompson 1976, 1164); PW *te?

“hand” (Diffloth 1980, 100); PM *tey “hand” (Diffloth 1984, 106); Alak ti; Uylo si; Bahnar ti; Boloven tei; Chrau ti; Churu ti; Halang ti; Kaseng ti; Khmer ti; Kuoi dey; Lav6 ti; Niahon ti; Phnong ti; Por ti; Prou ti; Srd toi; Stieng ti; Su6 ti; Talaing tey; Theng ti; Umpai te; Bo Luang tai; Mapa te; Khmus ti; Lamet U; Papao di; Central Nicobar -tai; Interior Nicobar -ti; Teressa Nicobar -ti; Car Nicobar -£f“hand” (Shafer 1965, 8-10). PA *tEErE HLL “to wait for”. Cf. PMK *trer “to wait”, “to abide” (the comparison may be true only if PMK *-r- is an infix) (Shorto 1976, 1058). PA *ti= L “bird”. Cf. PVM *cim “bird” (Thompson 1976, 1165); PW *sem “bird” (Diffloth 1980, 147); Alak tsim;

Bahnar sem; Boloven tsem; Chrau sem; Halang tsem; Kaseng

tsem; Kuoi tsem-tu; Lav6 tsem; Niahon tsem; Phnong sum;

Prou tsem; Sedang tsem; Sr£ sim; Stieng tsum; Su6 h'em;

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ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

Talaing kih-tsem; Mundic sim; Huei €siem; Xong siem; Umpai

saim; Bo Luang saim; Mapa saim; Lamet sim; Theng sim “bird” (Shafer 1965, 30-31). PAA *cim ? PA *ti= L “we”. Cf. PVM *toy “I” (Thompson 1976, 1176); Car Nicobar cin “I” (Das 1977, 25). PA *tii “to be cooked”, “to be done”, “to be roasted”, “to

ripen”. Cf. PMK *ciin? “to be cooked” (Shorto 1976, 1050); PW *sin “cooked”, “ripe” (Diffloth 1980, 142); Alak tsin;

Bahnar sin; Boloven tsen; Halang t$en; Kaseng tsin; Khmer tshih; Lav 6 tsen; Niahon tsin; Srd sin; Stieng sin; Su6 tsen;

Talaing tsin “to cook”; Tareng tsen; Mundari isin; Central Nicobar isian-hata “to ripen”; Sakai intsen, entsen, tset(n), bi­

ts et(n)f st sin, ma tsin; Pangan etsin “to cook”; Riang sin; Theng sin “ripened”, “cooked” (Shafer 1965, 29-31). PAA *ciin? ?

PA *tiqu(=)p “the sun”, “the moon”. Cf. PW *srje? “sun”, “day” (Diffloth 1980, 98); PM *tgay “sun” (Diffloth 1984, 139). PA *tOO “day” (< *tOqO ?). Cf. PM *t-r-gay “day-time”, “classifier for days” (Diffloth 1984, 139).

PA *tOO[C] HH “breasts (of woman)”. Cf. PMK *toh “breast”, “mamma” (Shorto 1976, 1061); PM *toh “breast” (Diffloth 1984,107); Alak toh; Bahnar toh; Boloven toh; Halahg toh; Kaseng toh; Khmer toh; Lavd toh; Niahon toh; Sedang toh;

Sre toh; Stieng toh; Talaing tohh; Umpai ta/; Mapa ta/; Central Nicobar toah; Coastal Nicobar toah; Interior Nicobar tda; Teressa Nicobar toh; Chowra Nicobar toh; Car Nicobar tah “earth” (Shafer 1965, 8-10). PAA *to[+]h ?

PA *tOy “earth”, “soil”, “ground”, “land”.

Cf. PW *kte?

“earth” (Diffloth 1980, 100); PM *tii? “soil”, “earth”, “ground” (Diffloth 1984, 130); Bahnar teh; Boloven phateh;

Chrau uteh; Khmer ti; Kontu thiak; Sr6 tiah; Stieng teh; Sue

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

173

kathe; Talaing tP; Theng pp'teh; Jarai kotheak; Umpai te; Bo

Luang tei; Mapa te; Khmus petti; Lamet kXe; Central Nicobar mattai; Coastal Nicobar pattai; Teressa Nicobar mattai “earth” (Shafer 1965, 8-10). PAA *taih ? PA *trAp L “feather”. Cf. Khmer slap “id.”, Kui slaapHhaap “wing” (Prasert 1978, 202). PA *trii “to be high”, *tri[i]=k “up[per part]”. Cf. PVM *hlifi “up”, “to go up”; (Thompson 1976, 1191); PMK ♦sluurj “to be high” (Shorto 1976, 1052); PW *hlor) “high” (Diffloth 1980, 132); PM *sloor) “to be high”, “to be tall” (Diffloth 1984, 182).

PA *truu “road”. Cf. PM *trew “way”, “road” (Diffloth 1984,

126); Alak ntuon; Bahnar iron; Boloven thruori; Halang tron; Lav 6 thruoh; Niahon thruon; Sedang troa; Stieng tron “road”

(Shafer 1965, 64). PAA *truoQ ? PA *tumAm LL “trunk (of the body)”, “waist”. Cf. Alak tom-; Boloven tarn; Chrau tom; Khmer tem; Lav6 tom; Niahon tarn; Phnong tom; Prou tom-; Por -thorn; Sr6 tom; Stieng tom; Talaing tarn; Amok tarn su “tree”, “trunk” (Shafer 1965,14). PA *unti HL “fire” (< *un = ti ? Cf. PA *rayonti “rainbow”). Cf. Alak uin; Bahnar un; Boloven hun; Chrau un,

uin; Churu ui; Halang hul; Kaseng uin; Kontu ui; Lave uin; Niahon uin; Phnong uh; Sedang un; Sue hu “fire” (Shafer

1965, 61). PAA *urt ? PA *yaa “net”. Cf. PMK *jaarj “to fish with a scoop-net” (Shorto 1976, 1047).

33 Proto-Ainu and Proto-Miao-Yao It is possible to find some “similarities” between PA and PMY

as well, e.g.: PA *ku= L “I”, Proto-Western Miao *ku(g) “id.” (Purnell 1970, 103), PA *day “to die”, Proto-Miao-Yao *dai^ “id.” (Purnell 1970, 54). Nevertheless, the position of

174

ORIGINS OF THE AINU LANGUAGE

PMY in East Asia is not yet clear (Purnell 1970, 195). Discussion of its relation to PAA, and “Austric” in general, so far is premature and should be postponed to the future (Diffloth 1990,1). We should treat the possible PA and PMY relationship in the same way.

CONCLUSION In this monograph I have made two attempts: first, to reconstruct the phonology and the vocabulary of Proto-Ainu on the basis of internal data, my main goal, and second, to try to use this recon­ struction to clarify the origins of the Ainu language. As far as the phonology of Proto-Ainu is concerned, I would like to outline the following features where Proto-Ainu is significantly different from the modem Ainu dialects. Proto-Ainu had the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops (*p, *t, *d, *k, *g) which disappeared in modem Ainu. Besides that, there were several initial consonant clusters in Proto-Ainu (*pr-t *tr~, *hr-, *ty- and ^hd-) which later under­ went different kinds of simplification. The vowel system of Proto-Ainu was also considerably richer: it consisted of twelve short and six long vowels. I also reconstruct pitch accent for Proto-Ainu. Finally, I provide a glossary containing more than seven hundred Proto-Ainu lexical items. I am absolutely sure that the search for the origins of the so called “isolated” languages must be successful, and that sooner or later we will know more about the prehistory of these languages. However, this search should not involve straight comparisons of the modem forms in different language families. The only way to clarify obscure prehistoric relations between languages is to compare reconstructions. Using my reconstruction, I can definitely say that Proto-Ainu is unrelated to any of the neighbouring languages. Even its ties with the Nivkh language, which are deeper than with any other language in the region, are probably due to the centuries of mutual contact, rather than common origin. I have ventured a hypothesis that Proto-Ainu may be related to Proto-Austroasiatic on the basis of some obvious parallels in the basic vocabulary which I provided in the last part of the mono­ graph. This hypothesis is not a final solution to the problem of die origins of Ainu language. I believe, however, that my recon­ struction makes a first significant step in this direction.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Arutiunov, S. A., “Ainy. (The Ainu)" Narody mira (The peoples of the world). Narody Vostochnoi Azii (The peoples of East Asia). (MoskvaLeningrad 1965) 942-954. Asai, T„ “Classification of Dialects: Cluster Analysis of Ainu Dialects" Hoppo bunka kenkyu 8 (1974) 45-136. Austerlitz, R., “L’appelation du renne en japonais, ainou et surtout en ghiliak" Tractata Altaica Denis Sinor Dedicata, ed. Walther Heissig et al.(Wiesbaden 1976) 45-49. ----- , “Gilyak Internal Reconstruction, I" Papers from the Second Conference on the Non-Slavic languages of the USSR, University of Chicago, April 28-29,1981 (Columbus, 1982) 80-84. ----- , “Areal Phonetic Typology in Time: North and East Asia" Language typology 1985. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 47 (1986) 30-36. ----- , “Nivkhsko-ainsko-orokskii simbioz na ostrove Sakhalin (NivkhAinu-Orok Symbiosis on the Island of Sakhalin)" “Ainskaia problema" (Leningrad, forthcoming). Batchelor, J., An Ainu-English-Japanese Dictionary, 4th ed. (Tokyo 1938). Chiri, M., “Ainugo ni okeru boin ch6wa (Vowel Harmony in the Ainu Language)" Chiri Mashiho chosakushu IV (Tokyo 1952; reprint, Tokyo 1974) 199-225. ----- , Bunrui ainugo ziten (Classified dictionary of the Ainu language). Chiri Mashiho chosakushU, bekkan I-II (Tokyo 1975-76). Dahl, O. C., Proto-Austronesian. Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies. Monograph Series #15 (Lund 1977). Das, A. R., A Study on the Nicobarese Language (Calcutta 1977). Dempwolff, O., Austronesisches Wortverzeichniss. Zeitschrift fur Eingeborenen Sprachen 19 (1938). Dettmer, H. A., Ainu-Grammatik. Teil 1: Texte und Hinweise (Wiesbaden 1989). Diffloth, G., The Wa Languages. Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area vol. 5/2 (1980). ----- , The Dvaravati Old Mon Language and Nyah Kur. Monic Language Studies 1 (Bangkok 1984). ----- , “Proto-Austroasiatic Creaky Voice". Mon-Khmer Studies 15 (1989) ----- , “What Happened to Austric?” Mon-Khmer Studies 16-17 (1990). Dobrotvorskii, M., Ainsko-russkii slovar’ (An Ainu-Russian Dictionary) (Kazan' 1875). Hattori, Shiro., 1960. “Ainugo shohogen no kiso goi keitogakuteki kenkyu (A Lexicostatistic Study on the Ainu Dialects)" Minzokugaku kenkyu vol. 24/4 (1960) 307-342.

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----- , “Akuscntoso, onsetsu kozo, koon onso (Prosodeme, Structure of a Syllable, Glottal Stop)" Onsei no kenkyu 9 (1961) 6-23. ----- , Ainugo hogen jiten (An Ainu Dialect Dictionary) (Tokyo 1964). ----- , Ainugo no on'in kozo to akusento (Phonological Structure and Accent of Ainu)" Onsei no kenkyu 13.(1967) 207-223. Jakobson, R., “Notes on Gilyak" The Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology. Academia Sinica vol. 29, part I (1958) 272-274. Kindaichi, K., (ed.), Moshiogusa ("Seaweeds") Ainugo shiryd sosho (Tokyo 1972a). ----- ,Ezo go sen ("Collection of Ezo words") Ainugo shiryd sosho (Tokyo 1972b). ----- , Ezo hin'i yakugen ("Translations of Ezo things") Ainugo shiryd sosho (Tokyo 1972c). ----- , Ezo ki ("Notes on Ezo") Ainugo shiryd sdsho (Tokyo 1972d). Klaproth, J., Asia Polyglotta (Paris 1823). Krasheninnikov, S. P., Opisanie zemli Kamchatki (A Description of the Land of Kamchatka) (St. Petersburg 1755-56). Kreinovich, Erukh im A. Phonetika nivkhskogo iazyka (The phonetics of the Nivkh language) (Leningrad 1932). Li, F. K., A Handbook of Comparative Thai. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication 15 (Honololu 1977). Murasaki, K„ Karafuto Ainugo. Bumpd hen (Sakhalin Ainu.Grammar) (Tokyo 1979). Murayama, S., Kita Chishima Ainugo (The Ainu language of Northern Kuriles) (Tokyo 1971). Novikova, K. A. and Savelieva, V. N„ “K voprosu o iazykakh korennykh narodnostei Sakhalina (On the Question of the Languages of the Aboriginal Peoples of Sakhalin)" lazyki i istoriia narodnostei Krainego Severa SSSR (Languages and History of the Peoples in the Extreme North of the USSR). Uchenye zapiski LGU 157. FakuTtet narodov Severa. Issue 2 (1953) 84-133. Panfilov, V. Z., “Nivkhskii iazyk (The Nivkh Language)*' lazyki narodov SSSR (The languages of the peoples of the USSR) vol. 5 (Leningrad 1968). Patrie, J., The Genetic Relationship of the Ainu Language. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication 17 (Honolulu 1982). Pilsudski, B., Materials for the Study of the Ainu Language and Folklore (Krakdw 1912). Prasert, S., Kui-Thai-English Dictionary (Bangkok 1978). Purnell, H. Jr. C., Toward a reconstruction of Proto-Miao-Yao (Ithaca, Cornell University Doctoral Dissertation,.Unpublished 1970). Radlihski, L, (ed.), Slownik narzecza Aindw, zamieszkujacych wyspe Szumszu w lancuch Kurylskim przy Kamczatce. Ze zbiordw prof. B. Dybowskiego (A Vocabulary of the Dialect of Ainu Living on the Island Shumshu in the Kuril Archipelago near Kamchatka. Collected by

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SUPPLEMENT Il’IA G. VOZNESENSKII’S GLOSSARY

I have rearranged I. G. Voznesenskii’s Russian-Ainu Glossary into Ainu-English. I have also transliterated his Cyrrilic script into Latin according to the rules of transliteration provided on page 9.1 am able to provide only a little more than six hundred entries from his manuscript which has a total of about 1500 words. This situation is due to circumstances already outlined in the introduction (see 2.2.2). I cannot present any photocopies of his manuscript, either. Before I left Russia, the archives were a part of the Ministry of Interior, and due to constant supervision and control, it was difficult to make even a hand-written copy of an entire document The glossary entries in the rearranged version are organised in following way. I provide first the Ainu word exactly as it is written in the glossary. Then I repeat it in round brackets chang­ ing Voznesenskii’s phonetic transcription to a phonological one and correcting the morpheme boundaries, as necessary. The English translation follows these corrections. Since many words in the vocabulary are not the stems, but represent complex mor­ phological and/or syntactical forms with numerous suffixes and prefixes, I also include a short commentary on morphology for each entry in order to facilitate the reading of the entries. In addi­ tion, I provide reference to the corresponding entry in the ProtoAinu Vocabulary (Part 2) or to other dialects, if I do not recon­ struct the corresponding PA word. At the very end I provide cross-references to other entries in this vocabulary.

A

aba (apa) “drop”. abasi (apa=si) “shut”, “close” (imper.). Cf. BA apa-shi “to close the door”. Probably related to PA *apa “doorway”. See also abusta, onono-abusta.

180

SUPPLEMENT

abava (apa=wa) “bums (intr.)”. abu=ugu=in” (apu-uku=in) “blows”. Cf. PA *uku “to blow”. See also iu=gu=in", ugu=kochari, abugu, ugu. abugu (ap=uku) “blow (impel.)”. Cf. PA *uku “to blow”. See also abu=ugu=in", iu=gu=in", ugu-kochari, ugu. abusta (apusta) “door”. Cf. PA *apa “doorway”. See also onono=abusta, abusi. adzhiani (acani) “patch”. agun=gi (akun=ki) “put”, “lay” (imper.). aj=ras” (ayras) “to live”. Cf. BA airu “to be”. Obviously from *an=rV, where *an= “to be” (PA *-nr- > *-yr-). aj=sni (ays=ni) “oak”. Cf. PA *nii “tree”. ajnu=omanan" (aynu oman=an) “walks” (more exactly: “a man is going”), aynu “man", oman “to go”, an is a copula. Cf. PA *0man “to go”, *aynu “man”, “person”. ajnu=sierg=ierichi (aynu serkerici) “people go”. Cf. PA *aynu “man”, “person”. ajtus" (ay=tus) “rope”. Cf. PA *tus “rope”. am" (am) “fingernail”. Cf. PA *am. See also amigir". am"=pachiegu (an=pa=ceku) “they will find”. Cf. PA *paa “to find (it)”. See also ch'pa, kpa, ch'pa=gum, son"=atpachi. aman" (aman) “dangling material (when one wears too large clothes)”. ambie (an=pe) “is” (more exactly “existing one”). =pe is a nominalizer. Cf. PA *an “to be”. See also anua. amigir*' (am=ikir) “fingernail”. Cf. PA *am. See also am". amina (amina) “why is he lying?”. an=cha (anca) “cut” (past). anaj=gigur" (anayki=kur) “everybody”, kur “person”. Cf. anajgin". anajgin" (anayki=n) “everything”. Cf. anaj=gigur". anan=diemat". (anan=de=mat) “bride”. Cf. PA *mat “woman”, “wife”. anan=tie=goku (anan=te=hoku) “bridegroom”. Cf. PA ^hOku “husband”. See also kok~ktio. anchi (anci) “wart”. Cf. PA *=tya[qu] “mole”, “birthmark”. anu=p" (anu=p) “must” (sing. & plur.). anua (an=wa) “is”.=w is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *an “to be”. See also ambie. aptieka (apteka) “I will crush”. apto (apto) “thunderstorm”. Cf. PA *aptO “rain”. arga=gur" (arka=kur) “ill [person]”. Cf. PA *arka “painful”, *kur “person”.

SUPPLEMENT

181

argava (arka=wa) “aches’*, arka “aches” + verbal marker =wa. argi (arid) “left”. Cf. PA *gar=ke “left”. arsik” (ar=sik) “eye”. Cf. PA *si(=)k. See also sik". atuj=ga (atuy=ka) “sea”. Cf. PA *atuy “sea”.

C, CH ch'pa (ci=pa) “we found”. ci~ is a 1st person plural subject prefix. Cf. PA *paa “to find (it)”. See also kpa, ch'pa=gum", anT^pachiegu, son"=atpachi. ch'pa=gum" (ci=pa=kum) “we will find”. ci= is a 1st person plural subject prefix. Cf. PA *paa “to find (it)”. See also ch’pa, kpa, am"=pachiegu, son"=atpachi. chacha (caca) “cut”, “slice” (imper.). See also ietiek=chacha, ok=cha, ok=chacha. chachoo (cacoo) “fox”. Cf. PA *tiqa-tiqa “fox”. champierar=pie (canperar=pe) “fresh water”. Cf. PA *pE “water”, “sap”. chani=ku (cani=ku) “bow”. Cf. PA *kuu “bow”. charkaj (carkay ?< cark=ay) “small shot”. =aj “arrow”? See also si=kaj. chas=vacha (cas=waca) “collar”. chash (cas) “run (imper.)”. Cf. PA *pras “to run”. See also chish. chatoj (chatoy) “lip”. Cf. PA *prAA = “mouth”. See also rangi-chatoj, trigungi chatoj, chatoj=gir". chatoj=gir" (catoy=kir) “lip”. Cf. PA *prAA= “mouth”. See also rangi=chatoj, trigungi chatoj, chatoj. chatyngi (catyn=ki) “order (imper.)”. chibo, chi=po (cipo) “mushrooms”. chip" (cip) “canoe”. Cf. PA *tip “canoe”. chish (cis): the same as chash. chiz"=ieva (cise=wa) “howls”. Cf. PA “to cry”, “to weep”. See also chiz"=sva. chiz"=sva (cis=wa) “howls”. =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *tis “to cry”, “to weep”. See also chiz”=ieva. chkirisgina (ckiri-kina) “carrot”. Cf. PA *kina “[edible] grass”. cho=gaj (c=okay) “we”. Cf. PA *ti= “we”, okay “to be” (plur.). chot=aj=niga (cot=ayn=ika?) “is [he/she] at home?”. -ayn= ?< aynu “man”, “person”.

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chu=ga (c=uk=a) “got (sing.?)”. c= < ci= is a 1st person plural subject prefix. Must be a plural form. Cf. PA *uk “to take”, “to receive”. chugu=ma (c=uk=uma) “we will get”. c= < ci- is a 1st person plural subject prefix. See also chukru, chu=ga, uguma. chukru (c=ukru) “we will get”, c- < ci= is a 1st person plural subject prefix. See also chugu=ma, uguma, chupojni (cupoyni) “harbor”. chusk=karbari (c=us=kar=pari) “we turned ourselves around”. c= < ci= is a 1st person plural subject prefix, ~us= is a prefix of reciprocal action. Cf. =kar= and PA ^kar “to turn around”. ciep=tava (cep=tawa) “big sack”.

E e=gie (ek=e) “go” (imper.). Cf. PA *Eg “to come” (sing.) (the difference in meaning may be due to Russian translation, cf. “come here” translates in Russian to idi siuda, lit. “go here”). See also iegien". e=maugiak" (e=mau=giak) “yawns”. Cf. PA *maqu~s=Ok “to yawn”. See also mausagien. e=mim=gi (e=mim-ki) “shave (imper.)”. Cf. emem=gi=ebira razor ♦ e=nani (en=ani) “cart me”, “drive me (imper.)”. en- is 1st per­ son object prefix. See also undura=ani. e=so=gora (e=so=kora) “do you believe?”. e= is 2nd person subject prefix. ebira (epira) “small knife”. Cf. PA *Epir[V] “knife”. egim" (ekim) “pull” (imper.). eia=gachu (eya=kacu) “hi”, “how are you”. eiekari=sin=tok" (eyekari=sintok) “barrel”. Cf.PA *si(=)ntOkO “container”. emem=gi=ebira (emem=ki=epira) “razor”, epira “knife”. Cf. e=mim=gi “shave”. en"=gkory (en=kore) “gave” (more exactly: “gave to me”). en= is a 1st person object prefix. Cf. PA *kO[O]=C=dE “to give”. See also en"=koa. en”=koa (en=koqa) “gave” (more exactly: “gave to me”). en= is a 1st person object prefix. Cf. PA *kO[O]=C=dE “to give”. See also en'=gkory.

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enga=ko=ko=askaj=noga (enka=ko=ko=askay=noka) ‘learn (imper.)”. eoradut”=an” (e=o=ratut=an) “ride” (imper. honorific, sing.). e= is a 2nd person singular subject prefix. =an is honorific suffix. Cf. PA *00 “to ride (it)”. See also koradut". eru=mu (erumu) “mouse”. Cf. PA *Erum “mouse”. esa=mata (esama=ta) “near”. =ta is a locative suffix. eta=i (e=ta=i) “pull out (imper.)”. e= is an object prefix. eta=ieso (eta=eso) “long ago”. etasova (eta=so=wa) “was it long ago?”. etik"=skirba (etik=skirpa) “do not turn around” (imper.). etu (etu) “nose”. Cf. PA *Etu “nose”. See also iedubuj. etutani (etu-tani) “mosquito” < etu “nose” + tani “long”. etygH=khavygan" (etyk=xaw=ykan) “be silent”, “keep si­ lence” (imper.). etyk- is a negation prefix, xaw “to speak” (cf. PA *gaqu “voice”). See also etygi=khaugi. etygi=khaugi (etyk=i=xaw=ki) “be silent”, “keep silence” (imper.). etyk= is a negation prefix, i= is a 3rd person object prefix, xaw “to speak” (cf. PA *gaqu “voice”), ki “to do”. See also etyg"=khavygan". etygi=ugu (etyki=uku) “do not blow” (sing.). Cf. PA *uku “to blow”. euk" (euk) “is it possible?”.

G gab=gaba (gap=kapa) “nail (imper)”. gaba (gapa) “beat out (imper.)”. gaiba (gaipa) “wipe (imper.)”. See also khagiba. gap=niemniep" (gap=nemnep) “cloudberry”. gar" (kar) “I will make”. Cf. PA *kar “to make”. See also konieva gar". garan” (garan) “star”. gau=gi (gaqu=ki) “cried”, “shouted”. Cf. PA *gaqu “voice”. See also gav=kutokva, gau=tujba, gauj=ruj, kau-igi. gau=gi=kani (gaqu=ki=kani) “bell”, gaqu “voice”, ki “to do”, kani “metal”. gau=giri (gau=kiri) “ring (imper.)”. Cf. PA *gaqu “voice”. See also gauj-ruj. gau=tujba (gaqu=tuypa) “cry” (noun). Cf. PA *gaqu “voice”. See also gau=gi, gav=kutokva, gauj=ruj, kau=igL

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gauj=ruj (gauy=ruy) “cries”. Cf. PA *gaqu “voice”. See also kau-igi. gav=kutokva (gaw=kutokwa) “cries”, “shouts”. Cf. PA *gaqu “voice”. See also gau-gi, gau=tujba, gauj=ruj, kau=igi. gemainu=kani (hemainuk=ani) “guilty”. gie=ni=so (ge=ni=so) “misfortune”. giein=baias=sa (hein=payas=sa) “were not”. giein=koman" (heink=oman) “they do not go”. Cf. PA *Oman “to go” (sing.). See also ityg"=oman". giein=kori=pakva (heink-oripak-wa) “I am not afraid”. See also itygi^oribak", giein=koribak" , ityg"=oribak=an", giein=oribakas". giein,’=koribak,, (hein=koripak) “I am not afraid”. See also itygi=oribak", giein oribakas", ityg"=oribak~anH, giein=kori=pakva, giein=oribakas" (hein=oripak=as) “we are not afraid”, -as is a marker of 1 st person plural for intransitive verbs. See also itygi-oribak”, giein- koribak", ityg"=oribak-an", giein=kori=pakva. giejsi (keysi) “he sighs”. Cf. PA ^gEEsE “to breathe”. giemat" (gemat) “which”. Cf. PA *gEm=an-ta “what”. giemat" (hemat) “why is he lying?”. giemaun=ki=gi (gemaun=ki=ki) “I am silent”, “I keep si­ lence”. giengun=giein" (genkun=keqin) “can”, “may”. gienn=argachi (gen=arkaci) “they will not be”. gienn=kiek=kusin" (gen=kek=kusin) “I will not be”, goboni (hoponi) “get up (imper.)”. Cf. PA *hO-pO=ni “to fly”, “to get up”. See also kobo=nieva. goma (xoma) “peas”. goniu (gonyu) “one single movement of rowing/paddling” (Russian “griebok”). See also goniu-gir”. goniu=gir" (konyu/honyu=kir) “one single movement of rowing/paddling" (Russian “griebok”). See also goniu, gorgieu (korkew) “wolf*. Cf. PA *gorkEqu “wolf*. guien=ta (guen=ta) “where” (direction). guj=ga (kuy=ka) “[they] set fire”. gumi=gutik" (kumi-kutik) “rumble”. Cf. PA *gum “sound”, “noise”. gunat" (gunat) “who”, “whom”. Cf. PA *gu[n]na “who”. gur" (hur) “mountain”. Cf. PA *gur “mountain”. gura=kutiek"=va (kura=kutek=wa) “stinks”. Cf. PA *gura “smell”. See also gurat-va.

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gurai (kuray) “wash (imper.)” See also iaj=gu=rai. gurat=va (kurat=wa) “stinks”. Cf. PA *gura “smell”. See also gura=kutiek" =va. guri=kani (guri kani) “red copper”, guri “red”, cf. PA *guurE “red”; kani “metal”, cf. PA *kaani “metal”. See also kara=kanie. guru=tkie (guru=tke) “red”. Cf. PA *guurE “red”.

I

i=iom=gi (i=jomki) “coughs”, [j] is prothetical. Cf. PA *Om=kE “to cough”. See also komgi, komgieva, i=om=gieva. i=kupa=bien" (i=kupa=pen) “bites” (Russian kusaetsia). i~ is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA ^kupa “to bite”. See also kupa-pa, i-kupa-bien'', kupa=bien”-nuva. i=miru=gi (imiru=ki) “lightning”. Cf. PA ^imEru “lightning”. i=om=gieva (i=omke=wa) “[they] cough”. Cf. PA *Om=kE “to cough”. See also komgieva, i=iom=gi, komgi. i=sie=sik" (i=sesik) “it is hot”. Cf.PA *sEEsEk “to be hot”. iaan=gur" (ya=an kur) “hairy Kuril inhabitants”, lit.: “shore people”, ya “shore”, an “to be”, kur “person”. See also iaun"-ajnu. iaj=gu=kubigir” (yay=ku=kupikir) “think (imper.)”. iaj-gu-rai (yay=kuray) “wash yourself (imper.)”. See also gurai. iajni=spa (yay=nispa) “comb out (imper.)”. yay= is a prefix “self=”. iajnie=sirga (yay=nesirka) “to walk” or “to have fun”. Russian translation “guliat”’ may be ambiguous. iajnugar=kanie (yay=nukar=kane) “mirror”. yay= “self’, nukar “to see”, kane “metal” (< Jap. kane “metal”). iam" (yam) “leaf of tree”. Cf. PA *hrA= “leaf’. iau=got" (yau-kot) “net”. Cf. PA *yaa “net”. iaugip (yauki=p) “boat=hook”. iaun"=ajnu (ya=un=aynu) “hairy Kuril inhabitants”, lit.: “shore ainu”. ya “shore”, =un is a suffix of locative-prolative; aynu “ainu”, “human being”. See also iaan=gur". ibi (i=p=i) “eat (imper.)”. i= is a 3rd person object prefix, =p= is a nominalizer. Cf. PA *EE “to eat”. See also kibieru sua. ibi=kani (ipi=kani) “fork”, ipi < ipe “to eat”, kani “metal”. See also ibinit. ibigi (ipiki) “pea”.

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ibigichi (ipiki=ci) “peas”. ibinit (ipi-nit) “fork”, ipi < ipe “to eat”, nit “handle”. See also ibi=kani. iboi (i-poi) “I dig”, i- is a 3rd person object prefix. See also poij, iboin”. iboin" (i=poi=n) “digs”, i- is a 3rd person object prefix. See also poij, iboi, ichaga=go (i=cak=ako) “teach” (imper.). i- is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA ^praak “to teach”. See also ien=chagoga. ichak=piga (icak=pika) “does he speak?”. Cf. PA ^itak “to speak”. See also itak", kitaga, tanguri-itak-piga. ichar=siuuga (icar siquka) “to be bitter”. Cf. PA *siqu “to be bitter”. iebarir=:gur" (eparir=kur) “sluggish person”, kur “person”. iecham=kir" ((y]ecam=kir) “knows”, “is acquainted with”, iecharamina (ec=e=ramina) “you (plur.) loved/liked”. The Russian translation is “Vyou/he/she loved/liked”, but I have corrected it on the basis of the fact that ec= < eci= is a 2nd per­ son plural subject prefix. =e= is 3rd person object prefix, ram “to love” < ram “soul”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”. See also kieramin", iechierami, kieraminna, iechiera=miena. iechiera=miena (ec=e=ramina) “you (plur.) loved/liked”. The Russian translation is “I/you/he/she loved/liked”, but I have corrected it on the basis of the fact that ec- < eci- is a 2nd per­ son plural subject prefix, -e- is 3rd person object prefix, ram “to love” < ram “soul”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”. See also kieramin", iecharamina, kieraminna, iechierami. iechierami (ec=e=rami) “you (plur.) love/like”. Russian trans­ lation is “I loved/liked”, but I corrected it on the basis of the fact that ec= < eci= is a 2nd person plural subject prefix. =e= is a 3rd person object prefix, ram “to love” < ram “soul”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”. See also kieramin", iecharamina, kieraminna, iechiera=miena. iechiesta=nierani ([y]ecestan=erani) “they look for”. See also iestan", iechiesta=nova, iechiestana, iechiestan=ieran", iechiestanan". iechiesta=nova ([y]ecestan=owa) “looks for”. See also ies­ tan", iechiesta=nierani, iechiestana, iechiestan=ieran", iechies­ tanan". iechiestan=ieran" ([y]ecestan=[y]eran) “we look for”. See also iestan", iechiesta-nierani, iechiestana, iechiesta-nova, iechiestanan".

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iechiestana ([y]ecestan-a) “I/you/he looked for”. See also ies­ tan", iechiesta=nierani, iechiesta=nova, iechiestan=ieran", iechiestanan". iechiestanan1' ([y]ecestanan) “they looked for”. See also ies­ tan", iechiesta=nierani, iechiestana, iechiestan=ieran", iechiesta=nova. iecho=gaj (ecokay) “to you” < ecokay “you”. iechogaj (ecokay) “you (plur.)”. < eci^oka “you”. iedubuj (etu=puy) “nostrils” (lit: “nose hole[s]”). Cf. PA *Etu “nose”. See also etu. iegiem" ([y]ekem) “draw”, “pull”, “shut” (imper.). iegien” (ek=en) “goes”. Cf. PA *Eg “to come” (sing.). See also e-gie. iegigun=gi (y=ekikun=ki) “lies” (v.). y= is an object prefix, ki “to do”. iegu=gur=iepie ([y]eku=kur=epe) “splinter”. iemoo=sva (emoos=wa) “howls”, iemaie=siechieva (emays=ece-wa) “[they] howl”. ien=chagoga (en=cak=oka) “has taught [me]”, en- is a 1st person object prefix. Cf. PA *praak “to teach”. See also ichaga=go. ien-dierie (en=tere). “wait (imper.)” (more exactly: “wait for me”). en= is a 1st person singular object prefix. Cf. PA ^tEErE “to wait fori*. ienepf1=korva ([y]enep=kor=wa) “there is no”, “there are no”. kor “to have”, =wa is a verbal marker. ienga ([y]enka) “why”. iengu (yenku) “give (imper.)”. See also iesko=ana. iengu=kuba=ba ([y]enku=kupa=pa) “bites” (Russian kusaet). Cf. PA *kupa “to bite”. See also kupa=pa, i=kupa=bien", kupa=bien”-nuva. ieni=ko=kugi (en=i=koku-ki) “[I/s/he?] stained”. =/= is a 3rd person object prefix. See also intur-kokir-ba, kigo=karba, khie-kokar”, kh'iaj=igo=karba. ienie=namkir” ([y]ene=namkir) “do you/he know[s]?”, “are you/is he acquainted?”. ieparie=rie=gur" ([y]epare=re=kur) “lazy person”, kur “person”. ieram=ieti ([y]eram=eti) “flax”. ierami=gar=bari (e=rami=kar=pari) “think (imper.)”. Cf. PA ^rAm “soul”, *kar “to make”. iesir"=bas" ([y]esirp=as) “we will reach (someplace)”. =as is a 1st person plural subject suffix of intransitive verbs.

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iesko=ana (yesko=ana) “did [he/she] give?**. See also iengu. iestan" ([y]estan) “look for” (imper.). See also iechiesta-nova, iechiesta=nierani, iechiestana, iechiestan=ieran" t iechiestanan". iesun=geva (e=sunki-wa) “lies” (v.). e- is an object prefix, =wa is a verbal marker, cf. PA ^sunkE “to lie”. ietiek=chacha (etek=caca) “do not cut”, “do not slice” (imper.). See also chacha, ok=cha, ok=chacha. ieu=gi (equ=ki) “slanting”, “skew”. igieva (ikewa) “houses”. igira=asva (ikira=as=wa) “relatively many”. igokarba (i-kokarpa) “to smear”. i= is a 3rd person object pre­ fix. See also kiekokarba, kiekokarb~in", kikorba. igu (i=ku) “smoke” (imper.). i= is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA *kuu “to drink (it)”. See also ksieri~igut kiguva, ksieran=iguva. iguj=ebira (ikuy=epira) “scissors”, epira “knife”. iia=nuwa (iy=an=[u]wa) “[they] are”. iia=tkar" (i=yat=kar) “braid (imper.)”. i- is a 3rd person object prefix, kar “to make”. iiar-gari (iyar=kari) “it is painful”. ima (ima) “heat”. ima=sru (i-ma=sru) “to roast [it]”, i- is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA *maa “to roast”. See also ki-mava. imak" (imak) “tooth”. Cf. PA *ima(=)k “tooth”. See also sinimak". imau=sagien" (i=mawsak=en) “yawns”, “yawning feeling” (Russ, zievaietsia). Cf. PA *maqu=s=Ok “yawn”. See also mau=sagien. imiro (imiro) “thunderstorm”. Cf. PA *imEru “lightning”. inchakh=rajba (incah=raypa) “to subtract”, “to deduct”. ineu=sargi (i=newsar-ki) “to have/make fun”. intur=kokir=ba (intur=kokir=pa) “I will stain”. See also khie=kokar", kigo^karba, ieni=ko=kugi, kh'iaj=igo=karba. inuia=nuia (i=nuya=nuya) “grinds”, i- is a 3rd person object prefix. See also nuia=nuia, ok"=nuia=nida. inun=gari (inun=kari) “nice”, “gentle”. iorojrie (iqoroyre) “it is a pity”. iotn=tagi (i=otta=ki) “gouge (imper.)”. i= is a 3rd person object prefix, =ki is probably the verb ki “to do”. See also iot=tagi. iot=tagi (i=otta=ki) “I gouge”. i~ is a 3rd person object prefix, =ki is probably the verb ki “to do”. See also iot"=tagi.

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iram=garbari (i=ram=kar=pari) “invent (imper.)”. i= is an ob­ ject prefix, ram “soul”, “spirit”, kar “to make”. iram=maia (iram-maya) “is curious”, “is funny” (Russian kur'iozno), iriuj=gi/irgoj=gi (iryuy=ki/irkoi=ki) “to turn”, “to carve out”. ki “to do”. The handwriting is not legible, so it is difficult to tell Russian iu from Russian go. ironan" (ironan) “s/he catches”. See also kironna. isa=mua (i=sam=wa) “there is nothing”. = wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *sa = “to be non-existent”. See also isa-mua=isa ma, isa=mua=isa ma (i=sam=wa i=sam=[w]a) “there is nothing”. Cf. PA *sa= “to be non-existent”. See also isa=mua, isi=na=sina (i-sina=sina) “bind” (imper.). i- is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA *sin(=)a “to bind”, “to tie (it) up”. isiesika (i=sesika) “is hot”. Cf. PA *sEEsEk “to be hot”. See also sier-sisik, isinapp" (isinap) “string”, “lace”. iska=kur" (iska=kur) “small thief’. Cf. PA *ihka “to steal”. See also iska=ruj, iska=sta. iska=ruj (iska=ruy) “thief’. Cf. PA *ihka “to steal”. See also iska-sta, iska=kur". iska=sta (iska=sta) “thief’. Cf. PA *ihka “to steal”. See also iska=ruj, iska-kur", isoj=busu (isoy=pusu) “complaint”. isu=bi=ragaj=giri (i-supi=rakay=kiri) “is smoky”. See also subuia, subu=iatva. ita (ita) “board” < J ita “board” > PA *ita “board”. See also , ity=gir”. ita, itachie (ita, itace) “house”. itak" (itak) “speak (imper.)”. Cf. PA *ita(=)k “to speak”. See also kitaga, itasa=sa (ita=sa=sa) “it is painful” < J ita=sa “pain” (ita=i “is painful”). ity=gir" (ity—kir) “board” < J ita “board” + =kir, See also ita, ityg"=agun (ityk=akun) “do not enter” (sing.). Cf. PA *agu= “to enter”. ityg"=oman" (ityk=oman) “do not go” (sing.). Cf. PA *Oman “to go” (sing.). See also giein~koman". ityg" =oribak"=an" (ityk=oripak=an) “do not be afraid” (plur.). See also itygi=oribak", giein=koribak", giein=oribakas”, giein=kori=pakva.

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itygi=oribakM (ityki=oripak) “do not be afraid” (sing.). See also giein=oribakas", giein=koribak", ityg”=oribak=an", giein=kori=pakva. iu-gu=in” (i=uku=in) “blows”. Cf. PA *uku “to blow”. See also abu=ugu=in", ugu-kochari, abugu, ugu. iubu (y=upu) “tighten” (imper.). y= < i- is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA *i=up= “to tighten (it)”. See also khop"=iubu iva=uvM (iwa=u) “inflammable sulphur”. Cf. PA *ihdagu “sulphur”.

K

kabar pien (kapar pen) “swamp water”. kabarbsoj (kaparpsoy) “puddle”. kachu (kacu) “midge”. See also kachu=igir". kachu^igir" (kacu=ikir) “midge”. See also kachu. kaga=igir" (kakai=kir) “chatterer”. See also kagagi. kagagi (kakaki) “chatterer”. See also kaga=igir". kainie (kaqi=ne) “mast”, ne < ni “tree”. kajnu=machi (k-aynu=mac=i) “granddaughter”. k= is a 1st person singular possessive prefix, aynu “man”, “person”, mat “woman” (mat=i > mac=i). kak=kum" (kak=kum) “scoop”, “laddie” kakau (kakaw) “hail”. Cf. PA *kaqu=kaqu “hail”. kam" (kam) “meat”. Cf. PA *kam “meat”. kama (kama) “girl”. kampa=esru (kanpa=esru) “to walk” or “to have fun”. Russian translation “guliat'” may be ambiguious. kampie (kanpe) “paper”. Y, HO, SA, A, N, SO kanpi, O kami, kanpi, RA kanpi “paper”. kamuj (kamuy) “god”. See PA ^kamuy “god”. kamuj=chir” (kamuy=cir) “fool”. See also kamuj=chiri=gir”. kamuj=chiri=gir” (kamuy=ciri=kir) “fool”. See also ka­ muj -chir”. kamuj=gum (kamuy=xum) “thunder”, kamuy “god”, hum “sound”. kamun"=kamuj (kamun kamuy) “bear”. kanapap" (kanapap) “hammer”. kanchiu (kanciqu) “stab”, “prick”, “thrust” (imper.). kandu=sut" (kantu=sut) “sky-line”, “horizon”. kangan" (kankan) “intestines”. Cf. PA ^kankan “intestines”.

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kani (k-an=i) “I” (Russian translation “to me”), kani < ku=an=i. kani=psus" (kani=psus) “yellow (fem.)”, kani “gold”, “metal” < OJ kane “gold”, “metal”, kanie (kane) “iron”, < OJ kane “gold”, “metal”. kanto (kanto) “sky”. See PA *kantO “heaven”, “sky”. kar” (kar) “correct” (imper.). kar=gar" (kar=kar) “correct” (imper.). kar=stok” (karstok) “necktie” < Russ, galstuk “necktie”. kara=kani (kara kani) “green copper”. Cf. PA *kaani “metal”. See also guri^kanie. kargar (karkar) “to subtract”, “to deduct”. kargawa (k=arka=wa) “I am ill”. k= is a 1st person singular object prefix, arka “ill”, “aches”, =wa verbal marker. kariedzhiva (kareciwa) “they fly” (v.). See also karieva. karieva (karewa) “s/he is flying” (v.). See also kariedzhiva. kash=kip (kas=kip) “small spade”. kaskaj (k=askay) “I learnt”, “we learnt”, k- is a 1st person sin­ gular subject prefix. katu=ma (katuma) “butterfly”. kau=igi (kaqu=iki) “cry”, “shout” (imper.). See also gau=gi, gau=tujba, gauj-ruj, kau-igi. kek"=siranM (k=eksir=an) “I will be”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix, =an is the copula “to be”. kh’iaj=igo=karba (k=yay=i=kokar=pa) “I stained myself’. k- is a 1st person singular subject prefix, =yay= “self*, =i= is a 3rd person object prefix. See also intur=kokir=ba, khie-kokar”, ieni=ko-kugi, kigo=karba. kha=va (xa=wa) “runs”. =wa is a verbal marker. khagiba (xakipa) “wipe (imper.)”. See also gaiba. khie=kokar” (xe=kokar) “she stained”. See also intur~kokir=ba, kigo=karba, ieni=ko=kugi, kh'iaj=igo=karba. khiein (xeyn) “there is nothing”. khiein” (xeqin) “I do not want”. khien-kin" (xen=kin) “I can”. khieni=ikoriman" (xeni=ikoriman) “s/he does not want”, khietobu (xetopu) “more”, “in addition”. khobo=nieva (hopone=wa) “she flew”. Cf. PA *hO=pun-i “to fly”, “to get up”. khok"=kie (xokke) “lie down” (imper.). Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down”. See also khokkie, khokkie ~nuv a, khokkas", khokkiein”, khokkie=niatnien", khokkie=mogurt‘.

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khokkas" (xokk=as) “lies down**. Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down”. See also khok”-kie, khokkie, khokkie=nuv a, khokkiein ", khokkie=niamien ", khokkie (xokke) “is lying down”. I corrected the Russian translation “I am lying down”, since there is no 1st person sin­ gular subject prefix in the Ainu word. Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down”. See also khok"=kie, khokkie=nuva, khokkas", khokkiein", khokkie=niamien", khokkie - mogur". khokkie=mogur" (xokke=mokur) “go to bed”, xokke “to lie down**, mokur “to sleep”. Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down**, *mO “sleep”. See also khok"-kie, khokkie, khokkie-nuva, khokkas", khokkiein", khokkie=niamien" . khokkie=niamien” (xokke=niamen) “is lying down’*. Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down”. See also khok"~kie, khokkie, khokkas", khokkie^nuva, khokkiein", khokkie=mogur". khokkie=nuva (xokke=nuwa) “lie down** (imper.). Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down”. See also khok"=kie, khokkie, khokkas", khokkiein", khokkie-niamien", khokkie=mogur”. khokkiein*1 (xokke=in) “is lying down”. Cf. PA *gOt=kE “to lie down”. See also khok"-kie, khokkie, khokkas", khokkie^nuva, khokkie=niamien", khokkie-mogur". khop”=iubu (xop=i=upu) “tighten the knot”. Cf. PA *i=up= “to tighten (it)”. See also iubu. khop"=kar (xop=kar) “tighten the knot** (imper.). Cf. PA *kar “to make”. khum (xum) “where**. ki=mava (k=i=ma=wa) “I roast [it]”, k- is a 1st person singular subject prefix, =i= is a 3rd person object prefix, =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *maa “to roast”. See also ima=sru. k " iaj = rigangi (k=yay=rikan=ki) “I soaked (lit. I=myself=damp=do)*’. k= is a 1st person singular subject pre­ fix, =yay= “self*, ki “to do*’. Cf. PA *rik(=)an “to get damp”. See also riga nu-uva. kibieru sua (k=i=p^e=rusu=wa) “I want to eat”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix, =:= is an 3rd person object pre­ fix, ~p~ is a nominalizer, =rusu= < =rusuy is a marker of op­ tative mood, =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *EE “to eat". See also ibi. kibudur" (kiputur) “forhead”. Cf. PA ^kip-utur “forhead”. kichi (kici) “trough”. kie (ke) “fat”, “grease**. Cf. PA *kEE “fat”. kie=so=gora (ke=so-kora) “I believe”. ke= < ku- is 1st per­ son singular subject prefix.

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kiejsi (keysi) “he sighed”. Cf. PA *gEEsE “to breathe”. kiekokar=bin” (k=e=kokarp=in) “I am smearing” (I corrected original Russian translation “smears”). k= is a first person sin­ gular subject prefix, e= is a 3rd person object prefix. See also igokarba, kiekokarba, kikorba. kiekokarba (k=e=kokarpa) “I smear” (I corrected original Russian translation “smear” (imper.)). k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix, e- is a 3rd person object prefix. See also igokarba, kiekokarb^in”, kikorba. kiem" (kem) “blood”. Cf. PA *kEm “blood”. kiem" (kem) “needle”. Cf. PA *kem “needle”. See also kiemigir\ kiema=gir" (kema=kir) “foot”, “leg”. Cf. PA ^kEma “foot”, “leg”. See also kiemo. kiemi=ikok”-kari (kemi=ikok=kari) “hungry”. kiemigir" (kem=ikir) “needle”. Cf. PA *kem “needle”. See also kiem". kiemo (kemo) “foot”, “leg”. Cf. PA ^kEma “foot”, “leg”. See also kiema=gir". kier" (ker) “is there?”. kieramin" (k=e=ramin) “I love/like”. k= is a 1st person subject prefix, =e= is a 3rd person object prefix, ram “to love” < ram “soul”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”. See also iechieramin, iecharamina, kieraminna, iechiera=miena. kieraminna (k=e=raminna) “I loved/liked ”. k~ is a 1st person subject prefix, -e= is a 3rd person object prefix, ram “to love” < ram “soul”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”. See also iechieramin, iecharamina, kieramin", iechiera-miena. kieri=kieri (keri-keri) “scrape (imper.)”. kieska=runuva (k=eskarunu-wa) “[I] recollected”, “I remem­ bered”. k- is probably a subject prefix, -wa is a verbal marker. kieta (keta) “star”. Cf. PA *kEta “star”. See also kietasoj. kietasoj (keta=soy) “star”. Cf. PA *kEta “star”. See also kieta. kieu=kieu (kew-kew) “grandfather”. Cf. PA *kEqu “elder male relative”. kieugo=gosi=kur" (keuko=kosi=kur) “pigeon-toed”, kur “person”. kigo=karba (k=i=kokar-pa) “I stained”, k- is a 1st person subject prefix, =/= is a 3rd person object prefix. See also intur=kokir=ba, khie-kokar", ieni=ko=kugi, kh'iaj~igo=karba. kiguva (k=i=ku=wa) “[I] smoked”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix, i= is a 3rd person object prefix, = wa is a verbal

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marker. Cf. PA *kuu “to drink (it)”. See also igu, ksieri=igu, ksieran=iguva. kikorba (k=i=korpa) “I smear [it]”. k= is a 1st person singular object prefix, i= is a 3rd person object prefix. See also kiekokarba, kiekokarb=in", igokarba. kin=gari (k=inkari) “I see”, inkar “to see (it)”, k- is 1st person singular subject prefix. kina=sut" (kina=sut) “bushes”. Cf. PA *kina “[edible] grass”. kiraj (kiray) “comb”. Cf. PA * kiray “comb”. See also kiraj=gir". kiraj=gir" (kiray=kir) “comb”. Cf. PA *kiray “comb”. See also kiraj. kirona (kirona) “got”, “received”. kironna (k-ironna) “I catch”, k- is a 1st person singular subject prefix. See also ironan". kitaga (k=itak=a) “I speak”, k- is a 1st person singular subject prefix. Cf. PA *itak “to speak”. See also itak". kiving" (kiwen) “[they] blame”. See also okivingu. kmadzhi (k=mac=i) “wife”, more exactly “my wife”. k= -i is a 1st person possessive circumfix. Cf. PA *mat “woman”. kmia (k=mi=a) “[I] put on”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. Cf. PA *mii “to put on clothes”. See also kmigum”, mi. kmigum” (k=mi=kum) “[I] put on”, k- is a 1st person singular subject prefix. Cf. PA *mii “to put on clothes”. See also kmia, mi. kneu=saruva (k=newsaru=wa) “[I] have fun”. kobo=nieva (hopone=wa) “got up”. Cf. PA *hO=pO=ni “to fly”, “to get up”. See also goboni. kodzhieva (k=ociwe) “I threw”. Cf. PA *tiqu “to stab (it)”. See also odzhivy, odzhiu=ba. kogu (koku) “son-in-law”. Cf. PA *kO=kO “son-in-law”. koj (koy) “surf”, “wave”. Cf. HKD koy H, RA koy, KT koi “wave”. koj=rava (k=oyra=wa) “I forgot”, k- is a 1st person singular subject prefix, -wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA ^Onra “to for­ get”. See also oj=ra. kojra (koyra) “I forgot”. Cf. PA *Onra “to forget”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. See also kojra=gun. kojra=gun" (k=oyra=kun) “I will forget”. Cf. PA *Onra “to forget”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. See also ko­ jra.

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kok=ktio (k=ok=co) “[my] husband”. k= is 1st person posses­ sive prefix. Cf. PA *hOku “husband”. koka=bagachi (koka=pa=kaci) “knee”, pa “head”. Cf. PA *kokka “knee”. See also koka=ba. kokaba (koka=pa) “knee”. Cf. PA ^kokka “knee”, pa “head”. See also koka^bagachi. kokg=kumpie (ko=kg=kumpe) “[I] bought”. Cf. PA *gOk “to buy”. See also kokg-pie, kokg=pie (ko=kg=pe) “[I] bought”. Cf. PA *gOk “to buy”. See also kokg=kumpie. komgi (k=omki) “I cough”. Cf. PA ^Om-kE “to cough”. See also komgieva, i-iom=gi, i=om=gieva. komgieva (k=omke-wa) “cough” (noun). However, the mor­ phological form of the word here suggests the correction “I cough”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix, =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *Om=kE “to cough”. See also komgi, i=iom=gi, i=om=gieva. komta (komta) “elbow”. Cf. PA ^kOmta “elbow”. kon=natangar" (kon=natan=kar) “pay (imper.)”. kar “to make”. kon=ro (kon=ro) “ice”. Cf. PA *du=p “ice”. kon=rusiva (kon=rusi=wa < kor=rus[u]y=wa) “it is neces­ sary”. kor “to have”, rusuy is an optative marker, =wa is a verbal marker. I suggest the correction in the translation: “[I] want to have it”. konaba (konapa) “hit (imper,). kong=kanie (kon=kane) “gold”, kane < OJ kane “gold”, “metal”. See also kanie, kani. konie=ktie (kone=kte) “let’s” or “you (pl.) give (imper.)”. Russian translation “davajtie” is ambiguous. konieva gar” (k=one-wa kar) “I will make myself*, k- is a first person singular subject prefix, -wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *kar “to make**. See also gar”. kor=vatieva (k=orwatie=wa) “I know”. k- is a 1st person sin­ gular subject prefix, =wa is a verbal marker. See also oro=vatie. koradut" (k=o=ratut) “I ride”. k= is a 1st person singular sub­ ject prefix. Cf. PA *00 “to ride (it)”. See iso eoraduf'=an”. korbie (kor=pe) “the thing [I] have”, kor “to have**, cf. PA *kO=r “to have”; pe “thing**. I corrected the original Russian translation moia “my”, “mine**. korgi=pakhva (k=orkipax=wa) “I am afraid**. k= is 1st person singular subject prefix, -wa is a verbal marker.

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kosnieva (kos=ne=wa) “is easy” or “is light” (Russian legko has both meanings), ne is copula, =wa is a verbal marker. kota=nuni (kotan^uni) “village”. Cf. PA ^kOtan “village”. kotan=gie=sta=giendi=iga (kotan=kes=ta kendi=ika) “is [s/he] at home?”. See also kotankies “houses”. =ta is a locative suffix. kotan-giesa (kotan=kesa) “houses”. Cf. PA *kOtan “village”. kotan=gur”=katasu (kotan=kur=katasu) “inhabitant”. Cf. PA *kOtan “village”, *kur “person”. kotan ”=uni, kota=nuni (kotan=uni) “town”, “city”. Cf. PA ^kOtan “village”. kotankies'* (kotan=kes) “houses”. Cf. PA * kOtan “village”. kotari (k=otari) “I pour”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. See also ota^ri. kpa (k=pa) “I found”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. Cf. PA *paa “to find (it)”. See also ch'pa, ch'pa=gum", am”=pachiegu, son”-atpachi. kpo=pienu=uva (k=pop=en=uwa) “I perspired”. k= is 1st person singular subject prefix, =[u]wa ia a verbal marker. Cf. PA *pOp^ “sweat”. kpomachi (k=po=mat=i) “daughter” (more precisely: “my daughter”), k- =i is 1st person singular possessive circumfix, po is a contraction of pon “small” or po “child”, mat “woman”. ksa=ruwa (k=sar=uwa) “I am hungry”. k= is a 1st person sin­ gular subject prefix, =[u]wa is a verbal marker. See also saras". ksi=nota (k=sinot=a) “I played”. k= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. Cf. PA *sinOt “to play”. See also sinof'-aieru, sinot", sinot=erichi. ksieran=iguva (kseran i=ku=wa) “smoked” (sing.). i= is a 3rd person object prefix, =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *kuu “to drink (it)”. See also igu, ksieri=igu, kiguva, ksieri-kugann”. ksieri=igu (kseri i=ku) “smoke” (imper.). i= is a 3rd person object prefix. Cf. PA *kuu “to drink (it)”. See also igu, kiguva, ksieran-iguva, ksieri=kugann”. ksieri = kugann" (kseri=kukan) “smokes”. See also ksieri=igu, ksieran=iguva. ksin=chak” (k=sincak) “I corrected”. k= is a first person singular subject prefix. ksirgor'*=rara (k-sikorar) “I crushed”. See also sirgor-rarba, sirgorari.

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ktag=a=gina (k=takakin=a) “I prayed”, k- is a 1st person sin­ gular subject prefix. See also ktaga=ginin", taga~ginan", taga=gina. ktaga=ginin" (k=takakin=in) “I am praying”. k= is a 1st per­ son singular subject prefix. See also ktag = a = gina, taga=ginan", taga=gina. ktu=sas" (ktu=sas) “cabbage”. Cf. PA “sea-tangle”, “kelp”. kuan” (kuqan) “goose with black legs”. kuba=ba (kupa=pa) “bite” (imper.). Cf. PA *kupa “to bite”. See also iengu=kuba-bar i-kupa-bien", kupa=bien”=nuva. kugu=man” (k=uk=uman) “I will get”, k- is a 1st person sin­ gular subject prefix. Cf. PA *ug “to take”. kuj (kuy) “heavy shower”, “heavy rain”. kuj (kuy) “urine”. Cf. PA *koy “urine”. kuj=guj (kuy=kuy) “Easter cake” (of Russian Orthodox). Russian translation is kulichiek" < kulich “Easter cake” + dimunitive suffix =iek). kuj=tup” (kuytup) “goose”. Cf. PA *kuy(-)tO=p “wild goose”. See also kutpup”-saj. kumi (kumi) “boy”. kumi=chi (ku=mici) “grandson”. ku= is a 1st person singular possessive prefix. kun=ku (ku=n=ku) “drink (imper.)”. Cf. PA *kuu “to drink”. kunison” (kunison) “friend”. kupa=bien”=nuva (kupa=pen=nu=wa) “bites”. =w is a ver­ bal marker. Cf. PA *kupa “to bite”. See also iengu-kuba=ba, i-kupa=bien", kuba^ba. kur=va (kur=wa) “sharp”. kuskabara (kus=kapar[a?]) “spit”. The last letter is crossed out by a pencil. kus = ?< J kusi “spit”. Cf. =kabar and chus=karbari kuskaiari (ku=skayari) “I caulk”. ku= is a 1st person singular subject prefix. See also skaiari. kuskaie=ieva (kuskae=ewa) “stabs”, “pricks”. kut” (kut) “belt”. Cf. PA *kut “waistband”, “belt”. kutpup"=saj (kutpup=say) “goose”. Cf. PA *kuy(-)tO=p “wild goose”. See also kuj-tup". kutum" (kutum) “voice”.

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M maganta (makanta) “how”. maj=kutiek" (may=kutek) “rings”. See also majnu. majnu (maynu) “rings”. See also maj-kutiek”. mannie=skojgip" (man=ne=skoykip) “cow”. man=ne < mat “woman”, “female” + copula ne. mariek" (marek) “hook”. maskin'* =lataj=poro (maskin=ratay=poro) “is expensive”. poro “big”. mat" (mat) “woman”. Cf. PA *mat “woman”. mata (mata) “winter”. Cf. PA ^mata “winter”. mata=pa (mata=pa) “year”. Cf. PA ^mata “winter”, *paa “year”. mau-sagien” (mawsak=en) “I yawn”. Cf. PA *maqu~s=Ok “yawn”. See also imau=sagien. mi (mi) “put on” (imper.). Cf. PA *mii “to put on clothes”. See also kmigum", kmia. mietki (metki) “grandmother”. Cf. A makta huci “grandmother”, SO makta huci “great-grandmother”. mik=kva (mik=wa) “barks”. =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *mE(=)/*mi(=)k “to bark”. See also sta-mik-chi. min"=angarisi (min=ankarisi) “they do not want”. mini=nuva (minin=uwa) “rotten (masc.)”. Cf. PA * munin “rotten”. See also munin", muni=nuva. moj=nadar" (moy=natar) “slightly”, “lightly”. moj=nikorch" (moy=nikorc) “bay”. Cf. PA *mOy “bay”. mom=nu (mom=nu) “rumble, sound is reflected from some­ thing”. mon-rajgi (mon=rayki) “do”, “make (imper.)”. Cf. PA *mOn “hand”. mos” (mos) “fly” (n.). Cf. PA *mOs “fly”. See also mos'=igir". mos'=igir" (mos=ikir) “fly” (n.). Cf. PA *mOs “fly”. See also mos". munixnuva (munin=uwa) “rotten (fem.)”. Cf. PA *munin “rotten”. See also munin", mini=nuva. munin" (munin) “is rotten”. Cf. PA *munin “rotten”. See also muni=nuva, mini-nuva.

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N n'an=gi (nyan=ki) “will I live until?”, n’ar=gich’ki (nyar=kiciki) “lived until”. nagu=hau=gan" (naku=nau=kan) “recently”, najgita (naykita) “together”. nakaj=gi (nakay=ki) “is [he/she] alive?”. nasi-nino (nasini=no) “suddenly”. =no is a usual marker of adverbs. The preceding part of the word may be a loanword from Japanese: na-si “[there] is no” + particle ni, lit. “without being”. nata (nata) “sharp”. See also nato-kor". nato=kor” (nato=kor) “sharp”. See also nata. nie+[b?]iga (ne-[b?]ika) “are [they]?”, [b] is crossed out by a pencil, probably by some later reader. ne= is a copula, the rest of the expression is not clear to me. nieba=suva (ne=p a=su=wa) “does [he] boil?”, ne “what”, =p “thing”, a- object prefix?, su “boil”, =wa verbal marker. niebiegor” (ne pe kor) “is there?” (lit.: “what thing is there”). ne “what”, pe “thing”, kor “to have”. niebik" anua (nepik an-wa) “every month”. niesiata (nesata) “tomorrow”. Cf. PA *nis(=)at “dawn”. niesor (nes=qor) “sky”. See PA *nis “sky”, “cloud”. nij (nii) “piece of wood”. Cf. PA *nii “tree”. nij (nii) “tree”. Cf. PA *nii “tree”. nikar" (nikar) “ladder”. nis"=:pani (nispa=ni) “wealthy”, nispa “wealthy person”, “gentleman”, ni < ? copula ne. niso=racheva (niso=racewa) “sky-line”, “horizon”. Cf. PA *nis “sky”, “cloud”. See also nisut", kandu-sut”. nisut" (nisut) “sky-line”, “horizon”. Cf. PA *nis “sky”, “cloud”. See also nisut", kandu=sut". nnun-gari (nnun=kar=i) “poor”. noj=giva (noy=ki=wa) “crookedly”, “awry”, ki “to do”, =wa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *ndy= “to twist”. nojap" (nojap) “temples”. Cf. PA *nOy= “temple”. See also nosop". non=no (nonno) “mother”. Cf. PA *nOrnO/*narna “mother”. nosop" (nosop) “temples”. See also nojap". not" (not) “cape”. Cf. PA *nOt “chin”, “jaws”. nron=na (nron=na) “did [he/she] get?”.

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nsiuritari (nsuritari) “is disappointing”, “is annoying”. nu=garova (nukar=owa) “you see”, nukar “to see”. nuia=nuia (nuya=nuya) “grind” (imper.). See also inuia=nuia, ok"=nuia=nuia. numa=uskur" (numa=us=kur) “hairy”. Cf. PA *numa “hair”, *kur “person”. numbie=etoj (numpe=etoy) “paste”, “glue”. Cf. PA *nun=pE “paste”, “glue”.

O

o ba os" =atat” (o pa=os=atat) “smoked dried fish” (Russian kopchenaia yukold). o=chi=vy (o=ciwe) “throw (imper.)”. oa=sas" (oas-as) “we will reach (some place)”. =as is a 1st person plural subject suffix of intransitive verbs. obu (opu) “brother”. Cf. PA *yup “elder brother”. obursi (opursi) “swamp”. obusi (opusi) “hole”. och'kobori (ocikopori) “trifle”, “somewhat”, “a bit”. odzhiu=ba (ociw=pa) “throws”. Cf. PA *tiqu “to stab (it)”. See also kodzhieva, odzhivy. odzhivy (ociwe) “throw” (imper.). Cf. PA *tiqu “to stab (it)”. See also kodzhieva, odzhiu-ba. oga (o=ka) “thread”. Cf. PA *kaa “cord”, “thread”, “yam”. ogiru (okiru) “turn inside out (imper.)”. ogoio (okoyo) “you cannot/may not”, “s/he cannot/may not”, “it is impossible”. ogok"=iechugi (okok^ecuki) “call (imper.)”. oia=ktagar (oya=kta=kar) “take away (imper.)”. oiu (oyu) “trousers”. oj=ra (oyra) “forget (imper.)”. Cf. PA *Onra “to forget”. See also koj=rava. ok=cha (ok=ca) “I will cut”, “I will slice”. See also chacha, ietiek=chacha, ok-chacha. ok=chacha (ok=caca) “cut”, “sliced” (past). See also ok=cha, ietiek=chacha, chacha. ok=koboni (ok=koboni < ok=hoboni) “did [he] get up?” Cf. PA ^hO-pO-ni “to fly”, “to get up”. See also goboni, kobo=nieva. ok”=nuia=nuia (ok=nuya=nuya) “s/he ground”. See also inuia=nuia, nuia-nuia.

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ok=numa (ok=numa) Russian translation “vyzhom”. It is prob­ ably a word from some Russian dialect. I guess that the Ainu word means “hair on the neck”. Cf. PA *Ok “nape”, “neck” and *numa “hair”. ok"=porova (ok=poro=wa) “enough”, poro “big”, =wa is a verbal marker. See also okta. okaj (okay) “man”, “male”. Cf. PA *Okkay(O) “man”, “male”, okhta (ohta) “is ready (fem.)”. okie=ra=am" (o=kiera=an?) “[he] scraped out”. okivingu (o=kiwenu) “[they] blame”. See also kiving". oksut" (oksut) “nape”. Cf. PA *Ok “nape”, “the back of the neck”. okta (okta) “enough”. See also ok"=porova. om” (om) “thigh”. Cf. PA *Om. See also om”=igir". om"=igir" (om=ikir) “thigh”. Cf. PA *Om. See also om". oma (oma) “spawn”. Cf. PA *hOma “spawn”. oma=nien" (oman=en) “they go”. Cf. PA ^Oman “to go” (plur.). on=doudoni (on=towtoni) “naked”. ona=kichi (ona=kici) “lighter” or “easier” (Russian legche has two meanings). onono (onono) “few”, “little” (adv.), “small”. onono=abusta (onono apusta) “small doors”. See also abusta. onono=eiekari=sintok" (onono=eyekari=sintok) “small bar­ rel”. See eiekari=sintok”. onono=skibiet" (onono==[a]ske=pet) “the little finger”, “the tittle toe”. Cf. PA ^askE “hand”. onuman" (o=numan) “evening”. Cf. PA *nuuman “yesterday”. ori=rich’ (ori=rici) “cross”. oro-vatie (orowate) “knows”. See also kor-vatieva. osira=gaj=gas”=slu (osiro=kay=kas=sru) “lies”, “lolls”. See also osiri=gaiga. osira = gajga (osira=kayka) “lies”, “lolls”. See also osiri-gai-gas”-slu. osor=guma (osorkuma) “loaches”. ot" (ot) “grave”. ota=ri, otari (otari) “pour” (imper.). See also kotari. ota=sakhma (ota=sahma) “sandy shallow in the estuary of a river” (Russian dialect, lajda peschanaia). Cf. PA *Ota “sand”. See also pisakhma.

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P pa (pa) “head". Cf. PA *pa “head”. pag=kanie (pa[k/g]=kane) “lung”. paga (paka) probably “plait”, “braid” < pa “head” + ka “cord”, “yam”. Russian translation kosa has three different meanings: 1) “plait”, “braid”; 2) “scythe”; 3) “spit”. paj=gar" (paykar) “spring”. Cf. PA *paqikar “spring”. paksipni/paksitni (It is unclear whether the manuscript has Russian p or t) (paksip=ni/paksit=ni) “Pinus pumila”. = ni “tree”. pannopie (panno=pe) “lipoma”, -pe “thing”. pashuj (pasuy) “spoon”. Cf. PA *pasuy “chopsticks”. paskur" (paskur) “raven”. Cf. PA ^paskur “crow”. p askur=pushka (paskur=pujka) “onion”, paskur “crow”, pushka “cannon” (?) < Russian pushka “cannon”. pi=gut" (pi=kut) “throat”. Cf. PA *dE-kut “neck”. pie (pe) “water” Cf.PA *pE “sap”, “water”. pie=chcha (pe=ca) “water runs”. Cf. PA *pE “water”. pie=noe (pe=noe) “squeeze out (imper.)”. CF. PA *pE “water” and *noy= “to twist”. piechar'* (pecar) “bank (of a river)”. Cf. Y petto LH, HO petpa HL, B petca, O petca HL, A pettuysama HLLL, N petsam, RA naycaa “bank”. < pet “river” + ca “edge”. piem=bien" (pem=pen) “ashes”. ?< Russ, piepiel “ashes”. pinnies" =okojgip" (pinne=sokoykip) “ox”, pinne “male”. Cf. KT sukodena “ox”. pinniu (pinnyu) “he-dog”. Cf. PA ^plir-nE “male”. piraga=iuk" (piraka=yuk) “wild goat”. Cf. PA *yuk “reindeer”. pirga=kur" (pirka=kur) “kind [person]”. Cf. PA *pir(=)ka “to be good”, *kur “person”. See also pirgap” nispa. pirgap" nis'pa (pirka=p nispa) “kind [person]”. Cf. PA *pir( = )ka “to be good”, *nispa “rich man”. =p is a nominalizer. See also pirga-kur”. pisakhma (pi=sahma) “stony shallow in the estuary of a river” (Russian dial, lajda kamenistaia). See also ota=sakhma. po-bien" (pop=en) “boils”. Cf. PA *pOp “to boil”. See also pobie=en", pop=va. pobie=en" (pop=en) “I boil”. Cf. PA *pOp “to boil”. See also po=bien", pop=va.

SUPPLEMENT

203

poij (poqii) “dig” (imper.). See also iboi, iboin". pojn" (poyn) “stone”. Cf. PA *pOqina “stone”. See also pojnnoj. pojnnoj (poynnoy) “stone”. Cf. PA *pOqina “stone”. See also pojn”. pop=va (pop-wa) “has boiled” (intrans.). Cf. PA *pOp “to boil”, “to grow hot”, -wa is a verbal marker. See also po=bien”, pobie=en”. pori=skibiet" (por=iskipet) “thumb”. por[o] “big”, iskipet < askepet “finger”. poro (poro) “big”. See also poron”. poron" (poro=n) “great”, “big”. Cf.PA *pOrO “big”. See also poro. pu (pu) “storage”. Cf. PA *puu “storehouse”.

R ragur" (rakur) “beads”. rai=sas" (ray=sas) “cat?” (sic.— A.V.). rak=igir" (rak=ikir) “beaver”. See also y=rak~ko. ram=urum=bie (ram=urum=pe) “stomach”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”, “heart”. See also ram=ga. ramga (ramka) “breast”, “chest”. Cf. PA *rAm “soul”. ramgu=katara (ramku=katara) “stupid”. ramgur’,=kotor,, (ramkur=kotor) “wild”. ramosma=sirimbie=nieva (ram=osma=sirin=pe=ne=wa) “anything is possible”. rangi=chatoj (ranki=catoy) “lower lip”. Cf. PA *prAA = “mouth”, *ra “down”. See also trigungi chatoj, chatoj, chatoj=gir”. rar=ba (rar=pa) “press (imper.)”. See also sirgor=rari. rat=kien” (rat-ke=n) “[it] is hanging down”. rati=nogurM (racino-kur) “flexible (masc.)”. kur “person”. ratkie=piet (ratke=pet) “waterfall”, ratke “to fall”, pet “river”. rie (re) “name”. Cf. PA ^dEE “name”. riek" (rek) “beard”. Cf. PA *rEk “beard”. riera (rera) “wind”. Cf. PA ^dEEra “wind”. riera mogu=rowa (rera moku=ro-wa) “wind is strong”. riera moj=rowa (rera moy-ro-wa) “wind is mild”. rieta=toj (reta=toj) “paste”, “glue”. rieta=tuj (reta-tuy) “clay” < retar tuy “white ground”.

204

SUPPLEMENT

rietar" (retar) “white”. Cf. HKD retar LH, RA tetara, KT retara “white”. riga nu=uva (rikan=uwa) “[he?] soaked”, -uwa is a verbal marker. Cf. PA *rik(=)an “to get damp”. See also k"iaj=rigangi. rigan"=ichaguri (rikan=icakuri) “is wet”. Cf. PA *rik(=)an “to be/get damp”. See also rikam-pe, rikam=pe (rikan=pe) “wet”. =pe is a nominalizer. Cf. PA *rik(=)an “to be/get damp”. See also rigan”=ichaguri. rikta (rik=ta) “higher”. Cf. PA *tri[i]=k “upper part”, *trii “to be high”. See also trichingi. rsugi (rsuki) “arc”, nirsugi (ni=rsuki) “by the arc”, “with the arc”. rubus" (rup=us) “[it] froze”. Cf. PA *du-p “ice”, *us “to put on”. nij=aratu (ruy=aratu) “whetstone”. Cf. PA *ruy “whetstone”. ruruch' (ruruci) “frog”. rutu (rutu) “hair”. rutum=ujrup (rutum-uyrup) “inhabitant of Kuril islands” (male). rutum=umat" (rutum=uyrup) “inhabitant of Kuril islands” (female). ryt" (rit) “tendons”. Cf. PA *=n7“root”.

S sagan" (sak=an) “summer”. Cf. PA *sak “summer”. sagi (saki) “vodka” < J sake “sake”. sagiby (sakipy) “trout”. Cf. PA *saki “trout”. sak=pa (sak=pa) “year”. Cf. PA *sak “summer”, *paa “year”. san" (san) “bed”. saras" (sar=as) “hunger”. See also ksa=ruwa. sas" (sas) “sea-tangle”, “kelp”. Cf. PA “sea-tangle”, “kelp”. sat=ki (sat=ki) “dry (imper.)”. sat “dry”, ki “to do”. sattygi=e=gien" (satteki=e=ken) “[they] go on foot”. shuk=giruj (suk-kiruy) “go to bed”. shukh=shuba (sux=supa) “flea”. si (si) “shit”. Russian translation “der'mo” is a vulgar word. Cf. PA “dung”, “fecal matter”. si=kaj (sik=ay?) “pellet”. See also charkaj. si=kap (sikap) “eyelids”. < sik=kap: sik “eye”, kap “lid”.

SUPPLEMENT

205

sibuj (sipuy) “back part”. siemmau (semmaw) “heat”. sier=sisik (ser=sisik) “hot”. Cf. PA *sir “weather”, ^sEEsek “to be hot”. See also isiesika. siesika=usit” (sesika usit) “hot charcoal”. Cf. PA *sEEsEk “to be hot” sik" (sik) “eye”. Cf. PA *si(=)k. See also arsik”. sik=nuva (sik=nu=wa) “is alive”. =wa is a verbal marker. sikap” (sikap) “eyelids” < sik “eye” + kap “lid”. siknu=kani (siknu=kani) “magnet”, siknu “alive”, kani “metal”. sin=:dugu (sintuku) “bucket”. Cf. PA ^sintOkO “container”. sinchiekva (sincek=wa) “is ready (masc.)”. =wa is a verbal marker. sinimak" (si=nimak) “tooth”. Cf. PA *nii, *ima(=)k “tooth”. See also imak”. sinot" (sinot) “plays”, “play” (imper.). Cf. PA sinOt “to play”. See also sinot”=aieru, ksi=nota, sinot=erichi. sinot" =aieru (sinot=ayeru) “to play”. Cf. PA *sinOt “to play”. See also sinot”, ksi=nota, sinot=erichi. sinot=erichi (sinot=erici) “they play”. Cf. PA *sinOt “to play”. See also sinot”-aieru, sinot", ksi-nota. sir'iam (sir=yam) “frost”, “freezing weather”. Cf. PA *sir “weather”. sir=ak=va (sir=ak=wa) “is shallow”. sir=gir=abie (sir=kira=pe) “poor”. sir=kieurukietkie (sir=kewruketke) “rumble of guns”. See also sir=kieurutu. sir=kieurutu (sir=kewrutu) “rumble of guns”. See also sir=kieurukietkie. sira=bain" (sira-pain) “drips”. siragari (sirakari) “touched”. siran=otani (siran=otani) “time”. sirar=imak" (sirar=imak) “pearls”, imak “tooth”? sirgi=man (sirki=man) “waves”. sirginu=chuppu (sirkinu=cuppu) “the moon”. Cf. PA *tiqu(=)p “the sun”, “the moon”. sirgor=rarba (sirkorar=pa) “crush” (imper.). See also sirgorari, ksirgor”-rara. sirgor=rari (sirkor=rar=i) “press once [and then release] (imper.)”. See also rar-ba. sirgorari (sirkorari) “to crush”. See also sirgor=rarba, ksirgor”~rara.

206

SUPPLEMENT

siribigir" (siri=pikir) “dawn is coming”. Cf. PA *sir “weather”, *pEkEr “to be bright”. siro=kanie (siro=kane) “yellow (masc.)”. < OJ sirwo-kane “silver” (lit: “white metal”). sirokh=ova (sir=oho=wa) “is deep”. Cf. PA *OgOO “to be deep”. ~wa is a verbal marker, sir “earth”? sirsi=muj (sir=simuj) “earthquake”. Cf. PA *sir “land”, siruvien" (siru=wen) “rain” < sir “weather” + wen “bad”. sisam”=kie (sisam=ke) “butter” or “oil” (Russian translation maslo has both meanings). Cf. PA *sii=sAm “foreigner”, *£££“oil”, “fat”. skaiari (skayari) “caulked” (sing.). See also kuskaiari. skaj (skay) “nail”. Cf. PA *sikay “wooden nail”. See also skaptar”. skaptar" (skaptar) “nail”. Cf. PA *sikay “wooden nail”. See also skaj. skarbari (ska=rpari) “den” < iska=rpari. See also iska-ruj, iska=sta, iska^kur” “thief’. so (so) “place”. soin" (soqin) “yard”. son"=atpachi (sonqat=pa=chi) “will they find?”. Cf. PA *paa “to find (it)”. See also ch'pa, kpa, ch*pa=gum, am"-pachiegu. soratki (so=ratki) “waterfall”. Cf. PA *sO “waterfall”, ratki < ratke “to fall”. sos"=pa (sos=pa) “tear off’, “strip off (imper.)”. Cf. PA *sOs= “to tear (it)”. sperbani (sperpa=ni) “firewood”. Cf. PA *nii “tree”. sta=mik=chi (sta=mik=ci) “dogs are barking”. Cf. PA *mE(=)/*mi(=)k “to bark”. See also mik=kva. stie=sieni (ste=seni) “trap for fish”. sto=koj (sto=koy) “hillock”. See also stog=koj. stog=koj (stok=koy) “hummock”, “tussock”. See also sto-koj. su (su) “pan”. Cf. PA *suu “pan”. suat"=ajru (suat=ayru) “boils”. See also suattie. suattie (suatte) “boil (imper.)”. See also suat”-ajru. subu=iatva (supuya=t=wa) “is smoky”. Cf. PA * sipuya “smoke”. See also subuia, isu=bi=ragaj-giri. subuia (supuya) “smoke”. Cf. PA *sipuya “smoke”. See also subu^iatva, isu-bi=ragaj=giri sunta (sunta) “muzzle of a fish”.

SUPPLEMENT

207

T ta=vanuva (taw-an=uwa) “here it is”. See also tau. tabira (tapira) “shoulder blade”. Cf. PA *tap “shoulder”, “upper arm”. tabudur" (taputur) “porch”. taby giga=tyk" (tape kikatek) “was [he]?” tady gi=isa (tate kiqisa) “were”. tady=giga (tatekika) “was”. taga=gina (takakin-a) “pray” (imper.). See also ktag=a=gina, taga=ginan", ktaga=ginin". taga^ginan" (takakin=an) “you are praying”. See also Sag=a=gina, ktaga-ginin”, taga=gina. tak=niechiep" (takne=cep) “are short”. Cf. PA *tak “to be short”. See also tak=niep". tak=niep" (takne=p) “short” (feminine form of adjective in Russian). Cf. PA *tak “to be short”. See also tak-niechiep". takh"=kiejsi (tah-keysi) “he sighed”. Cf. PA *gEEsE “to breathe”. tama (tama) “pearl beads” < J tama “precious stone”. tambie=kar (tan=pe kar) “do”, “make”(imper.), more exactly “make this thing”. Cf. PA *kar “to make”, *ta= “this”. tamusma (tamusma) “if”. tan=dieda (tan=te-ta) “here”, tan < ta-an “this”, =ta locative marker. tan=ni (tan=ni) “birch”, Cf. PA *nii “tree”. tan=nip" (tanni=p) “long (of time)”. Cf. PA *tar=nE “to be long”. tan=nip" (tanni=p) “long”. =p is a nominalizer. Cf. PA *tar=nE “to be long”. See also tanni. tangur"=kieramien" (tan kurk=eramen) “lover” (lit.: “this person I love”), tan < ta=an “this”, kur “person”, k=eramen “I love”. See also kieramin", kieraminna. tanguri=itak=piga (tan kuri itak pika) “does he (more exactly “this person”) speak?”, tan < ta=an “this”, kuri “person”, itak “to speak”. Cf. PA ^itak “to speak”. See also itak”, kitaga, ichak=piga. tanni (tanni) “along”. tanni (tanni) “long”. Cf. PA *tar=nE “to be long”. See also tan=nip". tapar" (tapar) “sack”.

208

SUPPLEMENT

tarap" (tarap) “green”. tarup" (U=rup) “ice-floe”. Cf. PA *du-p “ice”. taskor" (taskor) “hoar-frost”. tatasi (tatasi) “stick in (imper.)”. tau (taw) “here it is”. See iso ta-vanuva. tie=tanu=va (te=t[a]=an=uwa) “is it here?”. tiegur" (tek=ur) “palm of the hand”. Cf. PA *tE(=)k “hand”. tiejuna (teyuna) “green”. tiek=ietu (tek=etu) “fist”, tek “hand”, etu “nose”. tieska (teska) “the shallow in the estuary of a river” (Russian dial, lajda). tiu (tiw) “waves”. Cf. PA *tiqu “tide”. tkoar" (tkoqar) “seal”. to (to) “day”. Cf. PA *tOO “day”. to=anuva (to=an=uwa) “it is here”. Should be “it is there” (to^ “that”, ta= “this”). tobie (to=pe) “milk” < to “breasts” + pe “water”. Cf. PA *tOO[C] “breasts”, *pE “sap”, “water”. toj (toy) “earth”, “soil”, “ground”, “land”. Cf. PA *tOy “earth”, “soil”, “ground”, “land”. toj=ru (toy=ru) “road”. Cf. KT toiru, toiruu “road”. See also tru. tok"=tok" (tok=tok) “louse”. toni=ibi (toni=ipe) “breakfast”. Cf. PA *EE “eat”. top" (top) “cane”. Cf. PA *tOp “bamboo”. tosir" (tosir) “pull (imper.)”. tram gor=gitar" (tram kor kitar) “stupid”. trichingi (tricinki) “higher”. Cf. PA *tri[i]=k “upper part”, *trii “to be high”. See also rikta. trie=uvie (trequwe) “bend (imper.)”. Cf. PA *rEqu= “to bend (it)”. See also trie^vie. trie=vie (trewe) “bend” (imper.). Cf. PA *rEqu= “to bend (it)”. See also trie-uvie. trigungi chatoj (tri-k=un-ki catoy) “upper lip”, tri^k “upper part”, =un is a locative suffix. Cf. PA *prAA = “mouth”, *tri[i]=k “upper part”. See also rangi-chatoj, chatoj, chatoj=gir". tru (tru) “hair”. tru (tru) “road”. Cf. PA *truu “road”. See also toj-ru. tuiar" (tuy=ar) “breast”, “chest”. Cf. PA *tuy “belly”. See also tuj. tuj (tuy) “belly”. Cf. PA *tui “belly”, “intestines”.

SUPPLEMENT

209

tujma (tuyma) “is far”. Cf. PA *tuyma “to be far”. See also tumaj-dyga, tumaj-iga. tukoj (tukoy) “friend”. tumaj=dyga (tumay=teka) “is far”. Cf. PA ^tuyma “to be far”. See also tujma, tumaj=iga. tumaj=iga (tumay=ika) “is it far?”. Cf. PA *tuyma “to be far” See also tumaj=dyga, tujma. toman" (tuman) “many”, “much”. An obvious loanword from Manchu-Tungus tuman - tumen “10,000”, “100,000”, “many”, “much”. tunasi (tunasi) “flexible (fem.)”. tunie=ruj (tune=ruy) “lazy”. tunnie (tu=n=ne) “two together”, “together”. tu= “two”, =n= is a classifier for human beings, ne is a copula. tunnupie (tunnu=pe) “salty water”. tur" (tur) “dirt”. Cf. PA *tur “dirt”. turi (turi) “stretch out (imper.)”. tygga (tykka) “whale”. Cf. PA *rika!*dika “whale[’s meat]”. tygi=chieva (tyki=cewa) “stings”.

U uch'=kam" (uci=kam) “calves (of the leg)”. Cf. PA *kam “meat”. ugi (uk=i) “take (imper.)”. Cf. PA *ug “to take”. ugika (ukika) “extinguish (imper.)”. < us=ki=ka ? Cf. PA *us “to extinguish”. See also us=ka. ugu (uku) “blow (imper.)”. Cf. PA *uku “to blow”. See also abu=ugu=in", abugu, iu=gu-in”, ugu=kochari. ugu=kar=gari (uku=kar=kari) “wrap (imper.)”. ugu^kochari (uku=kocari) “blow (imper.)”. Cf. PA *uku “to blow”. See also abu=ugu=in", iu=gu=in", abugu, ugu, ugu=siekarinu (uku=se=kari=nu) “round”. Cf. PA *kaari=p “wheel”, *kar= “to roll over”, “to turn around”. uguma (ukuma) “get (imper.)”. See also chukru, chugu=ma. umsa (umsa) “is ready (masc.)” undura=ani (un=tura=ani) “carts us”, “drives us”. un~ 1st person plural object prefix, tura “to bring”. See also e=nani. up" (up) “fir”. Cf. PA *hrup “[white] fir”. urari (urari) “thick”, “dense”. us=bigir" (us=pikir) “to lead”.

210

SUPPLEMENT

us=ka (us=ka) “extinguish [a fire] (imper.)”. Cf. PA *us “to die out (of a fire)”. See also ugika. utar=kurgur” (utar=kurkur) “I hope”, “we hope”. uturas” (uturas) “together”.

V

vi=rar" (we=rar?) “eyebrow”. Cf. PA *rAr “eyebrow”. voka=sro (woka=sro) “lies”, “lolls”. vyn=kamuj (wen=kamuy) “devil”, wen “bad” + kamuy “god”. vyn=kur (wen=kur) “evil person”. Cf. PA *wEn “bad”, *kur “person”.

Y

y=rak-ko (y=rakko) “beaver”, “otter”. Cf. PA *rakkO “sea ot­ ter”. See also rak=igir".

INDEX

able 80 above 98 accompanied by 149 afraid of 139 after 122 age 123 alive 88 all 121 always 130 angry 133 appear 135 arm 143 armour 91 arrive 85 arrow 78 ash 153 ashes 153 ask 117, 126 assemble 78 at once 112 aunt 151 axe 112 back 122, 136 back of the neck 120 bad 91 bag 128 ball 117 bamboo 146 bamboo grass 94 bare 81 bark 109 barrel 94 bat 99 battle 148 bay 111 be 79, 120 be cooked 144 be cut 150 be done 144 be heard 95 be in excess 95 be in motion 111 be left over 95 be roasted 144

be seen 95 bear cub 92 bear fruit 117 beard 147 beat 103 bed 136 bee 140 before 89, 106 behind 122, 136 belch 96 belly 88, 150 below 128 belt 108 bend (it) 131 beneath 128 berry 117 besides 111 between 153 big 127 bind (it) 139 bird 144 bird’s tail 97 birthmark 150 bite 107 bitter 138 black 107 blood 101 blow 151 blue 138 board 98 boil 127, 140 bone 101, 127 bom 79, 88 borrow 84, 85 bosom 119 bottle 146 bottom 82, 144 bow 108 box 138 brain 115 break (of a long thing) 100 break or split (it) in two or pieces 124 breasts (of woman) 146 breathe 87

212

bridge 133 bright 124 bring somebody 149 bring up 131 broad 136 broth 120, 133 bubble 105 bud 85, 101, 148 bug 103 bum 151 buttocks 122 buy 88 call 93 calm 113 cane 107 canoe 145 carry 133 carry on the back 135 carry piggyback 100 carve (it) 119 case 138 catch 104 cave 127 center 116 change 139 change (it) 143 charcoal 124 chase 116 cheek of the fish 91 chestnut 153 chew 108 chilblains 151 child 91, 127 chin 116 choose (it) 117 chop (it) 90 chopsticks 124 cicada 153 cinders 124 claw 94 clear 129 cliff 91 clod 142 close [it] 80 closet 136 cloud 114 cod fish 86 cold 109 color 97 comb 103, 118 come 80, 85

INDEX come late 111 come out 135, 148 come/go home 93 come/go out 134 compare 151 comply with 94 conceal 84 conceal (it) 118 coniferous tree 94 consent to 94 container 138 cook 140 cord 82, 98 corner 137 cough 120 count 126 country 106, 110, 139 cover 129 crawl 131 creep 131 crow 124 cry 145 cry (of a bird) 131 cured 149 custom 128 cut 125, 150 cutting edge 116 damp 131 dance 92, 132 daub (it) 152 daughter-in-law 104 dawn 114 day 146 deaf 94 decay 89, 112 deceive 105 decrease 114 deep 120 depths 82 diaper 154 die 83 die out 152 dig (it) 153 diminish 114 dip 114 dipper 126 dirt 124, 139, 149 do 102 dog 88 doorway 79 down 129

INDEX drag 114 draw (it) back 95 draw (water) 114 drawing 115 dream 142, 143, 144 drink (it) 108 drive out 119 droop 141 dry 135 dry land 153 dung 137 dust 124, 139 dwell 79, 120 ear 104 early 149 earth 147 earthworm 97 eat (it) 85 eddy 111 edge 127, 137 egg 115 eight 148 elbow 105, 139 elder brother 154 elder brother's wife 104 elder male relative 101 elder sister 134 elder sister's husband 104 elm tree 81 else 111 empty 120 end 92, 102, 119 enter 78 epic song 154 every 102 exchange (it) 143 exis 120 exist 79 expel 119 extend 150 eye 118, 137 eyebrow 130 face 112 faint 93 fall 92, 150 fall [down] 87 fall [seriously] ill 95 fall ill 143 fan 123 far 150 fasten (it) to 106

fat 101, 104 father 78, 110, 121 fathom 143 feather 147 fecal matter 137 female bear 108 fence 145 few 111 field 118 field of reeds 135 find (it) 123 finger 125 fingernail 78 fir 99 fire 79, 151 fish 145 fish with a line 125 five 81 flea 143 flee 103 flock 135, 146 flow 110 flower 85, 116 flute 112 fly 92, 111, 123 foam 105 fog 94 foot 101, 144, 152 footwear 102 forehead 103 [fore]arm 79 foreigner 137 forget (it) 121 form 115 four 96, 127 fox 141, 145 frame of a fireplace 97 fresh 90 front 106 fruit 117 full 137 fur 83 fiir coat 152 gadfly 139 game 138 get up 92 gift 97 gills 107 give 105 glue 117 go 121, 124

213

214

INDEX

go out 152

go out to meet a person on his way 84 go through 108 god 99 good 125 grain 117 grandchild 110 grandfather 85 grandmother 90 granule 117 grass 103, 112 grave 148 grease 104 green 138 ground 147 grow 148 grow hot 127 grow up 88 gulp down 134 hail 99 hair 86, 117 half 85, 114 hand 81, 110, 143 handle 115 handmill 113 hang (it) 80 hard 114 hare 97 hat 105 hatchet 113 have 105 head 123, 134 hear 118 heart 130, 135 heaven 99 heavy 123 heel 102 help 99 herd 146 herring 92 hiccup 154 hide (it) 118 high 147 hill 90 hit 103 hit (the mark) 150 hold [in one's arms] 79 hold a festival 116 hole 129, 141 hoof 152 hoop 98

born 103 horsefly 139 hot 135 hot water 152 house 145 how many 87 hundred 96 hunt 106 hurting 80 husband 93 I 79, 106 ice 83 ice drift 82 immediately 112 indeed 140 inform 127 information 140 inlet 111 insect 103 inside 108, 121 insipid (colour, taste) 128 interval 153 intestines 99, 150 inverted 89 invite 142 island 110, 139 jaw 116 joint [of bamboo] 88, 96 jug 146 jump 143 keep secret 84 kelp 135 kill 132 kind of cloth 78 knee 105 knife 85, 109 knit 122 knot 88 lacking 86 lacquer 94 ladle 100, 114 lake 146 land 110, 139, 147 language 98 late [at night] 111 laugh 110 leaf 93 left 87 leg 101, 144 lend 84 lengthen 150

INDEX

let go 141 lick 101 lid 129 lie 141 lie down 89 light 118, 124, 128, 141 light (not heavy) 105 lightning 96 like 121, 130 listen 118 little 111 live 88 liver 129 living (of a plant) 89 lizard 91 loan 84 loincloth 143 long 143 look at 117 look for 90 loose 88 louse 102 love 121, 130 low 130 lull 113 lump 142 make 100 make a mistake 87 male 120, 125 male bear 136 man 120 man (in general) 82, 107 many (of people) 97 marks 106, 132 marrow 103 marten 89 mat 140 measure (it) 123 meat 99 meat (of fish) 110 melt 133 metal 98 middle 116 mince (it) 90 mind 130 mold 107 mole 150 month 145 moon 145 mortar 113 mother 86, 116, 151

mountain 90, 103, 118 mouse 86 mouth 128 move 111 move (to another place) 149 muddy 118 mushroom 100 nail 107 naked 81 name 83 nape 120 narrow 88 navel 87 near 87 neck 83 needle 101 neighbour 80 nephew 100 nest 136 net 153 new 80 news 140 next 80, 122 night 79 nine 136 nip 100, 109, 132 noise 89 non-existent 134 nook 137 nose 86 not enough 86 now 142 nut 113 oak 105, 149 offshore 131 oil (as food) 101, 141 old 90 old (of age) 121 old man 85 old woman 90 on 98 one 136 only 124 open [it] 111 other 111 otter 86 outside 140 outsider 79 paddle 81, 125 painful 80 pan 141

215

216 pants 121 part (of something) 114 pass 108 paste 117 patch (up) 153 peak 104 peel (it) 100, 109 penis 144 perform inau ritual 97 perform memorial duties 116 person 82, 107 phlegm 130 pick 100, 109, 132 picture 115 pierce (it) 145 pillar 96, 148 pipe 112 place 151 plane (it) 101 play 138 pluck 100, 109, 132 point to 94 poison 141 poke (it) 122 pole 107 pole (for boats) 149 prepare 140 present 97, 119 previous 89 processed leather 146 pubic area 92 pull 85 pursue 116 pus 97 push 126 put (it) 82 put forth buds or shoots 148 put on (trousers or shoes) 152 put on clothes 110 quick 149 raccoon dog 110 rain 80 rainbow 130 raw 90 reach 85 remember (it) 84 really 140 rear 131 recall (it) 84 receive 151 recollect (it) 84

INDEX recover 149 red 90 reed 102 reindeer 154 release 141 remain 95 rest 137 rib 152 rice 82 rich man 115 ride (it) 121 ridge (of a mountain) 147 right 137 ring 98 ripe 144 river 113, 125 road 147 roast 108 rock 139 roll over 100 roof 104 root 132 rope 149 rot 89, 112 rotten 89, 112 rub 139 rub gently 129, 133 rubbish 112 rug 140 run 93, 128 run away 103 sail 101 sake cup 149 saliva 115 salt 138 salty 133 sand 122 sap 124 saw 115 say (it) 95 scales 130 scatter 145 scold 106 scratch [it] 103 sea 81 sea chestnut 115 sea otter 130 sea urchin 115 sea-tangle 135 seagull 99 seal 148

INDEX

seashore 126 see 117 see off 133 seed 125 seek (it) 90 seize 104 select (it) 117 servant 152 seven 77 sew 115 shade 136 shadow 107 shake 142 shallow 120 shaman 149 shamanism 149 shape 115 sharp-pointed 84 shave (it) 101 shell [fish] 136 shin 114 shoal 132 shoot 84, 148 shoot (from the bow) 150 shore 153 short 142 shoulder 107, 142 shout 93 show 94 sick 143 side 135 silver fir 141 sing 131 sink 131 sip 113 sip (loudly) 92 sit 78, 132 six 96 skillful 80 skin 83, 99, 131 skirt 144 sky 99, 114 sleep 110 sleet 99 sleeve 149 slow 111 small 127 smear (it) 152 smell 90, 130 smoke 123, 138 smooth 82

217

snake 122, 146 sneeze 86 snow 119 soft 91 soil 147 son 127 son-in-law 104 soot 151 soothe 129, 133 sore 80 soul 130 sound 89 soup 120, 133 space 153 span of the thumb and first finger 91 spawn 93 speak 98 spear 121 spill (it) 108 spit 147 split 125 split (it) 95, 140 spot 151 spread (it) out 126 spring 123 sprout 85, 101 squeeze 117 stab (it) 145 stake 148, 152 stand [up] 80, 132 star 102, 115 stay (overnight) 131 steal 96 steam 123 still 112 stomach 88, 126, 154 stone 91, 127, 141 stoop 89 storehouse 129 stranger 79 stream 113 strength 103, 148 string 82 strip 131 strong 114 sulphur 96 summer 134 summit 104, 147 sun 145 sway 141 sweat 127

218 sweep 119 sweet 146 sweet potato 146, 149 swell 90 swelling 90 swim 109 swing 141 sword 85 tail 135 take 151 take off 79 talk 98 tanuki 110 taro 146 taste 101 teach 127 tear (it) 95, 140 tease 106 tell a lie 141 temple 116 ten 91 testicles 115 that 146 thick (and flat) 97 thick (and round) 133 thigh 120 thin 128 thin (and flat) 99 thin (and round) 78 this 142 thorn 81 thread 98 three 83 throat 135 throw away 119 throw out 119 tick 124, 154 tide 133, 145 tie (it) to 106 tie (it) up 139 tighten (it) 95 tired 138 today 142 tomorrow 138 tongue 78 tooth 96, 113 torch 141 torment 106 tortoise 85 traces 106, 132 trap 98

INDEX

trash 112 tree 113, 144 trout 92, 98, 134 truly 140 trunk (of the body) 148 turn (it) toward 104 turn around 100 twenty 89 twist 117 two 147 Ulmus laciniata 81 unable 81 uncle 81, 101 under 128 unskillful 81 untie (it) 126 up[per part] 147 upper arm 142 upside down 89 urine 106 usually 130 vague 93 village 106 vine 128 voice 87 vomit 81 vulva 99, 126 wa 148 waist 96, 144, 148 waistband 108 wait for 143 walk 80 walking stick 107 walnut tree 113 wasp 140 water 91, 124 waterfall 140 wave 106, 132, 142 we 144 weak 91 weather 138 weave 122, 139 weep 145 weigh (it) 123 wet 144, 146 whale 90 whale['s meat] 132 what 87, 113 wheel 98 when 87 whetstone 133

INDEX which 97 whirlpool 111 white 83 whittle (it) 101 who 90, 113 wife 109 wild goose 108 willow 140 wind 83 window 129 winnow 112 winter 109 wipe 126 withdraw 95 wither 141, 144 wolf 89

woman 109 wooden bowl 98 wooden hammer 150 wooden nail 137 word 98 world 110, 139 worm 103 worship 121 wound 125 yam 98 yawn 109 year 123 yesterday 118 you 84, 86 young 124 younger brother 78

219

BRILL’S JAPANESE STUDIES LIBRARY ISSN 0925-6512

H.E. Plutschow, Chaos and Cosmos. Ritual in Early and Medieval Japanese Literature. 1990. ISBN 90 04 08628 5 2. Th.F. Leims, Die Entstehung des Kabuki. Transkulturation Europa-Japan im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. 1990. ISBN 90 04 08988 8 3. Chr. Seeley, A History of Writing in Japan. 1991. ISBN 90 04 09081 9 4. A. Vovin, A Reconstruction of Proto-Ainu. 1993. ISBN 90 04 09905 0 1.