Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period [Course Book ed.] 9781400863884

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Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period

JAMES Ε. HOCH

Semitic Words in Egyptian Texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period

Copyright © 1994 by Princeton University Press I5Ublished by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, Chichester, West Sussex All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hoch, James E., 1954— Semitic words in Egyptian texts of the New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period / James E. Hoch. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-691-03761-2 1. Egyptian language—Foreign words and phrases—Semitic. I. Title. PJ1355.S4H63 1994 493'.1—dc20 94-9976 CIP

This book has been composed in Times Roman, with additional characters provided by the author. MacHIEROGLYPHICS and LaserARABIC, both from Linguist's Software of Edmonds, WA, were also used. All other fonts were created by the author The publisher would like to acknowledge the author of this volume for providing the camera-ready copy from which this book was printed Princeton University Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council on Library Resources Printed in the United States of America 1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

To the memory of my father Paul A. Hoch

Our memory of him will be a blessing

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

ix

List of tables

xi

Abbreviations and Sigla Introduction PART I: The Semitic Words PART II: Analyses and Conclusions

xiii 3 15 397

1. Phonology

399

2. Morphology

438

3. Domain of Use

460

4. The Genres of Texts

474

5. The Source Languages

479

6. The Development of Group Writing

487

Appendix: Catalogue of Signs

505

Bibliography

513

Word Indexes

533

Name Indexes

563

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IT IS A PLEASURE to recognize and thank all of those who directly and indirectly contributed so much to this book, which derives from my doctoral dissertation. Professor Donald B. Redford not only suggested the topic to me (when I was yet an undergraduate student), but he also saw it through every stage of its development. I have incorporated many improvements that he suggested, and have pursued a number of interesting questions that he raised in the course of our discussions. I valued his advice and criticisms, and was at all times encouraged by his enthusiasm for my work. I would also like to thank all of my teachers, but especially Professors Shlomo Morag, Ernest Clarke, Brian Peckham, and Ronald Leprohon. Particularly to be thanked are Professors John Wevers and Antonio Loprieno for their careful reading of my work and their helpful suggestions and correc­ tions. To Professor Hans Quecke I would like to express my thanks for his corrections and comments, especially regarding matters of Coptic etymology and phonology. I regret that I did not present the final results of my study to the late Professor Ronald J. Williams, who first introduced me to Egyptian and served as my model as a scholar. The research for this book was conducted with support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. I would like to thank the Council for their past funding and for their continued interest in my research. For assistance in dealing with the technical problems with such a complicated work as this, a word of appreciation is extended to my editor Elizabeth Powers and the designer Jan Lilly. Troy Sagrillo kindly permitted me to use his hieroglyphic font for the section openings in Part I, but it was not possible to use it throughout as hoped. To my parents I owe the deepest gratitude for their encouragement and support over the many years. My original fascination with languages and the ancient Near East springs from their many and varied interests. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. David N.R. Grant, who gave me the emo-

LIST OF TABLES

1. Semitic Phonemes and their Egyptian Graphemic Correlates

431

2. Semitic Reflexes of Proto-Semitic Sibilants

434

3. Egyptian Signs and their Semitic Phonemic Correlates

435

4. Distribution of Semitic Words by Narrower Categories

472

5. Distribution of Semitic Words by Broader Categories

473

6. IncidenceofSemiticWordsbyGenre

478

7. Middle and Late Egyptian Syllabic Writing Systems

500

8. MiddleKingdomGroupWritingiStatuettes

503

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

I. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS

AEO AjO Agypt.lnschr. Berlin AHw Aistleitner

AJSL Amarna Amenemope Amenophis III List An.

ANET ASAE Astarte B.

BAR BASOR BD BDB

Beziehungen

A.H. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Onomastica, 3 vols. (Oxford: 1947) Archiv fur Orientforschung Agyptische Inschriften aus den koniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Vol. II W. von Soden, Akkadisches Handworterbuch (Wiesbaden: 1959-81) J. Aistleitner, Worterbuch der Ugaritischen Sprache (Berlin: 1974) American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures N. de G. Davies, Rock Tombs of Amarna, 6 vols. (London: 1903-08) H.o. Lange, Das Weisheitsbuch des Amenemope (Copenhagen: 1925) E. Edel, Die Ortsnamenlisten aus dem Totentempel Amenophis' III (Bonn: 1966) Anastasi Papyri: P. An. I: Gardiner, EHT; P. An. II-VI: Gardiner, LEM, pp. 12-78; P. An. VIII-IX: Bakir, Epistolography, pIs. 28-35 J.B. Pritchard, ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton: 1969) Annales du Service des Antiquites de l' Egypte The Legend of Astarte: Gardiner,LES, pp. 76-81 The catalogue of words in M. Burchardt, Die Altkanaaniiischen Fremdworte und Eigennamen im Aegyptischen (Leipzig: 1909-10).1 J .H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, 5 vols. (Chicago: 1906) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Book of the Dead F. Brown, S.R. Driver, & C.A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon (Lafayette, Indiana: 1978 reprint of the 1906 edition) W. HeIck, Die Beziehungen Agyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. (Wiesbaden: 1962)

1This abbreviation is used only in the reference list found at the end of word entries. Elsewhere, Burchardt's work is referred to as "Burchardt" in order to avoid confusion.

XlV

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

BIFAO

Institut Fran^ais d'Archeologie Oreintale du Caire. Bulletin Blinding of Truth The Blinding of Truth by Falsehood: Gardiner, LEM, pp. 30-36 Brockelmann C. Brockelmann, Lexicon Syriacum. Editio secunda aucta et emendata (Halle: 1928) Bubastite Portal Reliefs and Inscriptions at Karnak, vol. 3 The Bubastite Portal (Chicago: 1954) Burchardt M. Burchardt, Die Altkanaanaischen Fremdworte und Eigennamen im Aegyptischen (Leipzig: 1909-10) CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago: 1956-) Caminos, LEM R.A. Caminos, Late-Egyptian Miscellanies (Oxford: 1954) CdE Chronique d'Egypte CGC Catalogue general des antiquites egyptiennes du musee du Caire (Cairo) Crum, Dictionary W.E. Crum, A Coptic Dictionary (Oxford: 1939) CT A. de Buck, The Egyptian Coffin Texts, 3 vols. (Chicago: 1935-47) Donner-Rollig H. Donner, and W. Rollig, Kanaanaische und aramaische Inschriften, 3 vols. (Wiesbaden: 1962-64) Doomed Prince P. Harris 500: Gardiner, LES, pp. 1-9 EA El Amarna Tablets: J.A. Knudtzon, Die El-AmarnaTafeln, 2 vols. (Leipzig: 1915) EHT A.H. Gardiner, Egyptian Hieratic Texts (Leipzig: 1911) Erman, NaG A. Erman, Neu-agyptische Grammatik (2nd ed.; Leipzig: 1933) ETL J. Simons, Handbook for the Study of Egyptian Topo­ graphical Lists Relating to WesternAsia (Leiden: 1973) Ex Oriente Lux Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap, "Ex Oriente Lux" Gardiner, LEM A.H. Gardiner, Late-Egyptian Miscellanies (Brussels: 1937) Gebel Barkal Gebel Barkal Stela of Thutmose III: G.A. Reisner & M.B. Reisner, ZAS 69 (1933), pp. 24-29, pis. 3-5 Gloss. Gol. Golenischeff "Onomasticon of Amenope": A.H. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Onomastica, 3 vols. (Oxford: 1947) GM Gottinger Miszellen Goyon, G. Goyon, Nouvelles Inscriptions rupestres du Wadi Hammamat Hammamat (Paris: 1957) Gordon C.H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook: Texts in Transliteration, Cuneiform Selections, Glossary, Grammar 3rd. ed. (Rome: 1965) H. W. Helck's catalogue of Semitic words in Beziehungen2 2This

abbreviation is used only in the reference list at the end of the word entries. Elsewhere this work is referred to as "Beziehungen."

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

Hamm.

xv

J. Couyat & P. Montet, Les Inscriptions hieroglyphiques et hieratiques du Ouadi Hammamat, MIFAO vol. 34 (Cairo: 1912) Hier. Pap. Hieratisehe Papyri aus den koniglichen Museen zu Berlin, 5 vols. (Berlin, 1901-11) H.O. J. Cerny & A.H. Gardiner, Hieratic Ostraca, Vol. I (Oxford: 1957) HOP S. Allam, Hieratische Ostraka und Papyri aus der Ramessidenzeit, 2 vols. (Tubingen: 1973) Horus and Seth Gardiner, LEM, pp. 37-50 HPBM 4th Ser. I.E.S. Edwards, Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, Fourth Series, Oracular Amuletic Decrees of the late New Kingdom, 2 vols. (London: 1960) IEJ Israel Exploration Journal Inscr. hier. Char. Inscriptions in the Hieratic and Demotic Character from the Collections of the British Museum (London: 1868) Israel St. "Israel Stele" of Merenptah: KRI IV,pp. 12-19 JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Jastrow M.A. Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi and the Midrashic Literature (New York: 1903) JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies Joppa The Taking of Joppa (P. Harris 500 vs.): Gardiner, L E S , pp.82-85 JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian An­ tiquities Kawa M.F.L. Macadam, The Temples of Kawa (London: 1949) Kemi Kemi. Revue de philologie et d'archeologie egyptiennes et copies KoehlerL. Koehler & W. Baumgartner, eds. Lexicon in Veteris Baumgartner Testamenti Libros, 2nd ed. (Leiden: 1967) Kopt. HWb W. Westendorf, Koptisches Handworterbuch. Bearbeitet auf Grund des Koptischen Handworterbuchs von Wilhelm Spiegelberg (Heidelberg: 1965-77) KRI K.A. Kitchen, ed. Ramesside Inscriptions: Historical and Biographical, 7 vols. (Oxford: 1969-90) LA W. Helck & E. Otto, eds. Lexikon der Agyptologie (Wiesbaden: 1975-) Lane E.W. Lane, An Arabic English Lexicon (London: 1867) LD R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus Agypten und Nubien, 6 vols. (Berlin: 1849-58) LES A.H. Gardiner, Late-Egyptian Stories (Brussels: 1932)

xvi

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

Lesko, Dictionary L.H. Lesko, A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, 4 vols. (Berkeley: 1982-89) Letters to Dead A.H. Gardiner & K. Sethe, Egyptian Letters to the Dead (London: 1928) J. Cerny, Late Ramesside Letters (Brussels: 1939) LRL LXX Septuagint MAS Miinchner Agyptologische Studien Materialien W. Spiegelberg, Studien und Materialien zum Rechtswesen des Pharaonenreiches (Hannover: 1892) Maxims of Ani E. Suys, La sagesse d'Ani (Analecta Orientalia, 2) (Rome: 1935) MDAlK Mitteilungen des Deutschen archaologischen lnstituts Abteilung Kairo (Mainz) University of Chicago Oriental Institute, Ramses III Med. Habu InscriptionsatMedinetHabu (Chicago: 1930-) MlFAO Institut Franfais d'Archeologie Oreintale du Caire. Memoires Mitteilungen des lnstituts fiir Orientforsehung MIO J. Cerny, "The Will of Naunakhte and the Related Docu­ Naunakhte ments," JEA 31 (1945), pp. 29-53 and pis. 8-12 NAWG Naehrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen. Phil.-hist. Kl 0. Cairo J. Cerny. Ostraca hieratiques, CGC (Cairo: 1935) 0. DeM J. Cerny, Catalogue des Ostraea hieratiques nonlitteraires de Deir el-Medineh, 8 vols. (Cairo: 1935-70) 0. Edinb. 916 0. Edinburgh 916: W.R. Dawson & T.E. Peet, JEA 19 (1932), pp. 167-74, pis. 25-29 0. Lit DeM G. Posener & A. Gasse, Catalogue des ostraca hieratiques litteraires de Deir elMedineh, 3 vols. (Cairo 1934—) O. Michael. H. Goedicke & E. Wente, Ostraka Miehaelides (Wiesbaden: 1962) 0. Turin J. Lopez, ed., Ostraca Ieratici. Catalogo del Museo Egizio di Torino, 2nd Series, 3 vols. (Milan: 1978-84) OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung OMRO Oudheidkundige Mededelingen uit het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden te Leiden P. Abbott Tomb Robberies, pis. 1—4 P. Amherst Tomb Robberies, pi. 5 Anastasi Papyri: P. An. P. An. I: Gardiner, EHT\ H.-W. Fischer-Elfert, Die Satirische Streitschrift des Papyrus Anastasi I (Wiesbaden: 1986); P. An. II-VI: Gardiner, LEM, pp. 12-78; P. An. VIII-IX: Bakir, Epistolography, pis. 28-35. P. Berlin 10494 Cerny LRL, pp. 24 P. BM 10052 Tomb Robberies, pis. 25-35

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA P. BM 10053 P. BM 10054 P. BM 10056

xvii

Tomb Robberies, pis. 17-21 Tomb Robberies, pis. 6-8

P. BM 10068 P. BM 10383 P. BM 10403 P. BM 10416

GlanviIle, S.R.K. "Records of a Royal Dockyard of the Time of Thutmoses III: Papyrus British Museum 10056," ZAS 66 (1931), pp. 105-21 and p. 1* ff; 7-41; "Part II. Commentary," ZAS 68 (1932), pp. 7-41 Tomb Robberies, pis. 9-16 Tomb Robberies, pi. 22 Tomb Robberies, pis. 36-37 IJ. Ianssen, Late Ramesside Letters and Communications

P. BM 10418

IJ. Ianssen, Late Ramesside Letters and Communications

(HPBMVl) (HPBMNl)

P. Boulaq

Boulaq Papyri: P. Boulaq 6: Y. Koenig, Le Papyrus Boulaq 6 Tran­ scription, traduction et commentaire (Cairo: 1981); P. Boulaq 10: (CGC 58092) Allam, HOP, pi 91; P. Boulaq 12: W. Spiegelberg, "Varia," Rec. Trav. 15 (1893), pp. 142-43; P. Boulaq 13: BIFAO 83 (1983), p. 213 ff.; P. Boulaq 19: KRl VII102-3 P. Cairo V. Golenishchev, Papyrus Hieratiques (CGC, Vol. 83) (Cairo: 1927) P. Ch. Beatty I A.H. Gardiner, The Chester Beatty Papyri, No. 1 (The Libraiy of Chester A. Beatty) (London: 1931) P. Ch. Beatty III A.H. Gardiner, Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum, 2 (etc.) vols. (London: 1935) P. DeM I. Cerny, Papyrus hieratiques de Deir el-Medineh, 2 vols. (Cairo: 1978,1986) P. d'Orb. Tale of Two Brothers from the d'Orbiney Papyrus: Gardiner, LES, pp. 9-30 P. Ebers G. Ebers, Papyros Ebers, 2 vols. (Leipzig: 1875) P. Edwin Smith I.H. Breasted, The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, 2 vols. (Chicago: 1930) P. Geneva MAH A. Massart, "The Egyptian Geneva papyrus MAH 15274 15274," MDAlK 15 (1957), pp. 172-85 and pis. 24-38 P. Harris I W. Erichsen, Papyrus Harris I: Hieroglyphische Transkription (Brussels: 1933) P. Harris 500 Doomed Prince: Gardiner, LES, pp. 1-9; The Taking of Ioppa: Gardiner, LES, pp. 82-85 P. Iud. Lee Lee Iudicicial Papyrus: T. Deveria, "Le Papyrus Iudiciaire de Turin et Ies Papyrus Lee et Rollin," Journal Asiatique 10 (1867), pis. following p. 408 P. Jud. Turin T. Deveria, "Le Papyrus Judiciaire de Turin et Ies Papyrus Lee et Rollin," Journal Asiatique 10 (1867), pis. follow­ ing p. 408

xviii

P. Kahun

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

F. LI. Griffith, Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob (London: 1898) P. Roller Gardiner, LEM, pp. 116-20 P. Lansing Gardiner, LEM, pp. 100-116 P. Leiden 1343 + A. Massart, The Leiden Magical Papyrus 1343 +1345 1345 (Leiden: 1954) P. Leiden 1348 vs. Gardiner, LEM, pp. 132-37 P. Leiden 1349 Bakir, Epistologrqaphy, pis. 17-18 P. Leiden I 350 J. Zandee, "De Hymnen aan Amon van Papyrus Leiden I 350," OMRO 28 (1947), pis. 1-30 P. Leiden I 350 vs J.J. Janssen, Two Ancient Egyptian Ship's Logs (Leiden: 1961) P. Leiden I 352 J. Cerny > "Restitution of, and penalty attaching to stolen property in Ramesside Times," JEA 23 (1937), pp. 186— 203 P. Leiden 1366K/?/II911 367 P. Leiden I 368 J J. Janssen, "Nine Letters from the time of Ramses II," OMRO 41 (1960), p. 39 P. Magic Harris H.O. Lange, "P. Magic Harris," Danske videnskabernes selskab Historisk-filosofiske meddelelser, vol. 14, pt. 2 (Copenhagen: 1927), pp. 1-99 P. Med. (Most of the medical papyri are published in H. Grapow, Die Medizinischen Texte in Hieroglyphischer Umschreibung Autographiert. Grundrifi der Medizin der Alten Agypter, Vol. V [Berlin: 1958]) P. Med. London W. Wreszinski, Der Londoner medizinische Papyrus und der Papyrus Hearst (Leipzig, 1912) P. Pushkin 127 R.A. Caminos, A Tale of Woe from a hieratic papyrus in the A.S. Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow (Oxford: 1977) P. Rainer 53 Gardiner, LEM, pp. 137-38 P. Sallier Sallier Papyri: P. Sallier I: Gardiner, LEM, pp. 79-88; P. Sallier II: Helck, W. Lehre des DwS Htjj, 2 parts (Wiesbaden: 1970) P. Sallier IV: Gardiner, LEM, pp. 88-99 P. Salt 124 J. Cerny, "Papyrus Salt 124 (British Museum 10053)," JEA 15 (1929), pp. 243-58. P. Turin 1882 A.H. Gardiner, "A Pharaonic Encomium," JEA 41 (1955), p. 30 and pis. 7-11 P. Turin 1887 JEA 27 (1941), pi. 8,12 P. Turin 2008 J.J. Janssen, Two Ancient Egyptian Ship's Logs (Leiden: 1961) P. Turin 2016 J.J. Janssen, Two Ancient Egyptian Ship's Logs (Leiden: 1961)

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

P. Turin (LEM) P. Turin, P + R P. Wilbour Picankhy

PM

PN PRU RA RAD RdE Rechn. Rec. Trav. SAK Shishak List Syria Thutmose III List

Tomb Robberies Totb. Nav. UF Urk.

VESO VT

xix

Turin papyri published in Gardiner, LEM, p. 121 ff W. PIeyte & F. Rossi, Papyrus de Turin (Wiesbaden: 1981, reprint of 1869-76 ed.) A.H. Gardiner, The Wilbour Papyrus, 4 vols. (London: 1941-52) N.-C. Grimal, La Stele triomphale de Pi{cankh)y au Musee du Caire JE 48862 et 47086-47089 (Etudes sur la propagande royale egyptienne) (Cairo: 1981) B. Porter, R.L.B. Moss, & E.W. Burney, Topographical Bibliography of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic Texts, Reliefs and Paintings, 7 vols. (Oxford: 1927-55; 2nd ed. 1960-) H. Ranke, Die Agyptische Personennamen, 3 vols. (Gliickstadt: 1935,1952,1977) J. Nougayrole, ed., Le Palais royal d' Ugarit (Paris: 1955-) Revue d'Assyriologie et d'Archeologie oriental A.H. Gardiner, Ramesside Administrative Documents (London: 1948) Revue d'ligyptologie W. Spiegelberg, Rechnungen aus der Zeit Setis I. (circa 1350 v. Chr.) mit anderen Rechnungen des Neuen Reiches (Strassburg: 1896) Recueil de travaux relatifs a la philologie et a Varcheologie egyptiennes et assyriennes (Paris: 1870-1923) Studien zur Altagyptischen Kultur The toponym list of Shoshonq: Reliefs and Inscriptions at Karnak, Vol. 3 {The Bubastite Portal) (Chicago: 1954), pi. 4 Syria, Revue d'art oriental et d'archeologie. Toponym lists of Thutmose ΠΙ: List 1: Urk. IV pp. 781-86; Simons, ETL, pp. 27-28, 111-13 List 2: Simons ETL, pp. 38-39,123-24 T.E. Peet, The Great Tomb-robberies of the Twentieth Egyptian Dynasty, 2 vols. (Oxford: 1930) E. Naville, Das Aegyptische Todtenbuch der XVIII. bis XX. Dynastie, 2 vols. (Berlin: 1886, 1971 reprint Graz, Austria) Ugarit-Forschungen K. Sethe, Urkunden zur Geschiehte und Altertumskunde Agyptens (Leipzig: 1904-35) Urk. IV K. Sethe,Urkunden der 18. Dynastie (Leipzig: 1905-09) W.F. Albright, The Vocalization of the Egyptian Syllabic Orthography (New Haven: 1934) Vetus Testamentum

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGLA

XX

Wb.

Wenamun

A. Erman & H. Grapow, eds. Worterbuch der Aegyptischen Sprache,5 vols. (+Belegstellen) (Leipzig, Berlin: 1926-53) The Misfortunes of Wenamun: Gardiner, LES, pp. 61-76

WZKM ZAS ZDMG ZDPV

Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes Zeitschrift fiir agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft Zeitschrift des deutschen Palastina-Vereins Π. MISCELLANEOUS ABBREVIATIONS

A A-stem Abs. Akk. Ar. B BA BH C Coll. Constr. D. D-stem

Eth. F

Achmlmic Aleph stem (Causative, etc.3) absolute Akkadian Arabic 3

Bohairie Biblical Aramaic Biblical Hebrew consonant (in syllable structure) collective Construct Dynasty Doubled middle stem (Picel (J32) is regularly used to represent the Semitic phoneme that occurs in Hebrew as samekh. There are times when it must, however, represent t, such as in the word: U ι Ξ= O !33 ^u=t=m=t "gold," which is related to Akkadian kutimmu "goldsmith," and Hebrew DnD, "gold." Other cases also indicate that s=> represents t or ta when it is not used as part of a syllable group, and this occurs primarily in the monumental script. The Appendix lists the signs and the respective values assigned to them based on the reconstructions. A basic problem in such a study is the method of transliterating group writing into the Roman alphabet. To be useful for quantitative analyses each group had to have only one transliteration. Thus in the initial stages, a group like at? (pw) was not transliterated variously as "ρά,ρί,ρύ," 3 4 depending on the value expected or required, but simply "pa" in all 30Namely the "level of certainty" tag at the end of each entry. This is explained in the section on "Format of Part I," below. 31VESO, pp. 12-15. 32It should be noted that although this grapheme is transcribed by Egyptologists with t, it was probably an affricate [ts] or [ts]. Similarly, Egyptian d was probably [dz] or [di]. These transcriptions thus in no way correspond to the conventions of Semitic and other systems in which t and d represent the inter-dentals β>] and [δ]. 33 Also written Ui °· Q 34As Albright, VESO, VIIB.

INTRODUCTION

11

cases. When the reconstructions for all the words had been established, the most certain evidence was examined and the values required were then assigned. Not all values from the reconstructions were, however, assigned, as it is assumed that Egyptian scribes were not very meticu­ lous, and that inaccurate transcriptions were not uncommon.35 Helck's table36 probably contains too many sign groups that are assumed to represent syllables with all three vowels. Phonology The Egyptian transcriptions provide valuable information about the phonology of West Semitic languages, since Egyptian is able to repre­ sent some distinctions better than the Phoenician alphabet and Akkadian cuneiform, e.g. h / h and cIg .37 Phonological features of interest include the presence or absence of diphthongs, evidence of merging of sibilants, inter-dental spirants, and emphatics, and the presence or absence of assimilation with nun. These matters form the first part of Chapter 1, Part II. Although the portion of the study devoted to the discussion of Semitic phonology lies in the domain of Semitic studies, the results also have implications for Egyptian phonology, as well. These implications are dealt with in the second part of Chapter 1. Morphology Scholars have paid rather little attention to the morphology of Semitic words occurring in Egyptian. Some forms are easily analysed as G-stem participles and common noun formations. Verbal forms, on the other hand, are often less clear. The material is dealt with in Chapter 2. Identification of the Source Languages So far no one has attempted to identify comprehensively the specific languages from which the Egyptians were taking the Semitic words. As an a priori guess, the likeliest place of entry would seem to be Byblos, where an intensive Egyptian presence is well known for a very long period of time. Nevertheless, there were several other points of contact, and in all likelihood, Semitic words entered the language from various 35One could cite inconsistencies in the cuneiform materials, as well, e.g. the writings of the name "Arab": KURA-ri-bi, L"Ari-bi; KURA-ru-bu, LUA-ru-bu; KURA-ra-bi, LUA-ra-bi; LuA-ra-bu; and the gentilics KURAr-ba-a-a, LUAr-ba-a-a. ^Beziehungen, pp. 601-2. 37However, the Egyptian script is very poor for transcribing the "emphatics," Egyptian d being used to represent Semitic s, and *d, as well as ζ and *d.

12

INTRODUCTION

sources. Certain results proved impossible to obtain, and as will be proposed in Chapter 5, the Egyptian transcriptions probably tell us more about old Phoenician and Hebrew than current hypothetical reconstruc­ tions of these languages can tell us about the origin of the words here studied. The generally accepted reconstructions rest on a very bold as­ sumption—that the short Semitic alphabet contained a grapheme corre­ sponding to each phoneme. It will be suggested that the assumption that the bulk of Semitic words are from older dialects of Phoenician and Hebrew is more likely than the assumption upon which Phoenician is reconstructed. The conclusion to be drawn is that our current reconstruc­ tions should be reconsidered. Areas of Usage and Genres of Texts In order to ascertain which areas of life and spheres of human endeavour were most open to the introduction of Semitic vocabulary, the material was divided into two sets of categories. The first set is rather closely linked to the specific nature of the vocabulary and affords a finer view. The second set, more abstract, reveals a broader view of the areas of life in which these words were used. This material is dealt with in Chapter 3. The genres of Egyptian texts in which Semitic words were most likely to appear forms the subject of Chapter 4.

PRESENTATION & DISCUSSION OF THE EVIDENCE: THE FORMAT OF PART I Approximately 500 words are listed in Egyptian alphabetical order by the consonants only (i.e. the vowels are disregarded).38 The signs ^ (i39) and \\ (y) are disregarded, as are vocalic