Public Relations In The Networked Publics 9783631803998, 9783631811153, 9783631811160, 9783631811177

Citation preview

Public Relations In The Networked Publics

Bayram Oğuz AYDIN / Salih GÜRBÜZ / Özlem DUĞAN (eds.)

Public Relations In The Networked Publics

Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available online at http://dnb.d-nb.de. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress. Printed by CPI books GmbH, Leck

ISBN 978-3-631-80399-8 (Print) E-ISBN 978-3-631-81115-3 (E-PDF) E-ISBN 978-3-631-81116-0 (EPUB) E-ISBN 978-3-631-81117-7 (MOBI) DOI 10.3726/b16513

© Peter Lang GmbH Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Berlin 2019 All rights reserved.

Peter Lang – Berlin ∙ Bern ∙ Bruxelles ∙ New York ∙ Oxford ∙ Warszawa ∙ Wien All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. This publication has been peer reviewed. www.peterlang.com

Table of Contents List of Contributors .................................................................................................  7 Scientific Advisory Committee .............................................................................  9 Introduction ...........................................................................................................  11 Ercan Aktan Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations: The Example of Turkish Green Crescent Society ...........................................................................  17 Duygu Aydın, Mehmet Safa Çam Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization ........................................................  33 B. Oğuz Aydın, Ceren Yegen A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday ............................  59 Yasin Bulduklu Unexpected Events in Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations ........  79 Özlem Duğan Examining E-Complaints against Airline Companies in Terms of Public Relations ......................................................................................................  107 Mustafa Güngör The Use of New Media for Digital Public Relations: The Case of Konya Universities ..............................................................................................................  133 Salih Gürbüz The Use of Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation: The Sample of Tat Gida Farmer Stories ..........................................  153 Aydın Karabulut Independent and Nonverbal Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age ...........................................................................................................  187

6

Table of Contents

Deniz Özer Organizations’ use of Social Media from the Perspective of Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations ............................  211 Şakire Özkan, Birgül Taşdelen How Twitter Was Used during the 2018 Presidential Election by the Candidates in Turkey Image Creation in the Context of Dramaturgy Theory ......................................................................................................................  237 Ahmet Tarhan Social Media Presence of Banks in Terms of Public Relations: The Example of Ziraat Bank, Iş Bank, and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank .........  257 List of Figures ..........................................................................................................  275 List of Tables ...........................................................................................................  277 Authors ....................................................................................................................  281

List of Contributors Ercan Aktan Assoc. Prof. Dr., Aksaray University, Faculty of Communication, [email protected]

Salih Gürbüz Asst. Prof. Dr., Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Konya, Turkey, [email protected]

B. Oğuz Aydın Assoc. Prof. Dr., Gaziantep University, Faculty of Communication, Gaziantep, Turkey, boguzaydin@ gantep.edu.tr

Aydın Karabulut Asst. Prof. Dr., Gaziantep University, Faculty of Communication, Gaziantep, Turkey, a.karabulut@ windowslive.com

Duygu Aydın Assoc. Prof. Dr., Selcuk University, Faculty of Communication, [email protected]

Deniz Özer Asst. Prof. Dr., Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Communication, Samsun-Türkiye, [email protected]

Yasin Bulduklu Assoc. Prof. Dr., Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Department of Media And Communication Mehmet Safa Çam Asst. Prof. Dr., Lecturer, Aksaray University, Social Sciences Vocational School, [email protected] Özlem Duğan Assist.Prof. Dr., Uşak University, Faculty of Communication, Uşak, Turkey, [email protected] Mustafa Güngör Lecturer, Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Konya, Turkey, mgungor@erbakan. edu.tr

Şakire Özkan Master Student, Gümüşhane University, Faculty of Communication, Gümüşhane Turkey, [email protected] Ahmet Tarhan Assoc. Prof. Dr., Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Konya, Turkey, [email protected] Birgül Taşdelen Asst. Prof. Dr., Gümüşhane University, Faculty of Communication, Gümüşhane, Turkey, [email protected] Ceren Yegen Assoc. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Faculty of Communication, Mersin, Turkey, [email protected]

Scientific Advisory Committee Prof. Dr. Ahmet Kalender, Faculty of Communication, Selçuk University Prof. Dr. Başak Solmaz, Faculty of Communication, Selçuk University Prof. Dr. Mustafa Akdağ, Faculty of Communication, Erciyes University Prof. Dr. Ömer Bakan, Faculty of Communication, Selçuk University Prof. Dr. M. Emre Köksalan, Faculty of Communication, Gaziantep University

Introduction Digital media has been a powerful driving force for the structural, relational, spatial and dimensional transformation of public. Therefore, the communication ways of the organizations with their public have been transformed and changed. As a result, organizations have started to use digital media tools as mean of communication in their relations with the public. Thus, organizations have also shaped this communication environment. In this changing environment, corporations can benefit from digital media with a wide variety of content in order to compete with each other. In terms of both public relations and advertising, organizations that use the opportunities of digital media might differentiate from others. This differentiation can provide advantages for organizations. However, there may be threats as well as opportunities of the digital media. In this regard, it is tried to investigate how organizations benefit from digital media based on the researches presented in this book. This book aims to understand how public relations and advertising activities are carried out by organizations with various organizational characteristics. This book consists of eleven chapters. Each chapter has been checked by the editors and evaluated by the scientific Advisory Board. If we consider a general evaluation of the chapters in the book: The study conducted by Ercan AKTAN titled “Social Media Interaction And Digital Public Relations: The Example of Turkish Green Crescent Society” is carried out in order to examine the social media public relations efforts of the Turkish Green Crescent Society, which is a non-profit, non-governmental organization for combating addiction. The purpose of this study is to determine the target audience interactions of Green Crescent’s public relations efforts through a descriptive approach. For this purpose, the researcher tried to analyze the social media posts about “Astronaut at Bus Stop” campaign carried out by Green Crescent in connection with “World Smoking Cessation Day on February 9th”. In this respect, the follower comments on “Astronaut at Bus Stop” public relations campaign via the official Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts of Turkish Green Crescent Society were analyzed in this study. Findings of the research conducted with descriptive analysis method were compiled and analyzed in accordance with predetermined categories of “Arousing curiosity”, “Supportive content” and “Critical content”.

12

Introduction

In the study conducted by Duygu Aydın and M. Safa Çam titled “Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization”, the importance of data storytelling was tried to be revealed. The competitive nature of modern marketing urges businesses to take vigorous actions within a data-based approach. In such a market environment, communicating emotionally with consumers has become insufficient. Instead, companies are seeking ways to turn real data and information into value through emotional links that would attract consumers. In this context, data storytelling offers businesses a storytelling model with substantial communicative value. In the digital age, brands give priority to share a visual story rather than providing raw statistical data to stakeholders in their communication efforts conducted both online and in traditional media. Thus, enterprises acting with a value-based approach have been in search of establishing emotional bonds in the light of causal data with their target groups. Companies working within this point of view have been in search of creating emotional relationships with their target groups through the causal data. This study discusses the concept of data storytelling as a practical and inspiring communication approach for the marketing discipline and exemplifies it with various efforts by our national brands. In this context, the study will likely be inspiring the profit-oriented businesses as well as public and non-governmental organizations to increase the communication value of data they already have. In the study conducted by B. Oğuz Aydin and Ceren Yegen, titled “A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday”, the role of media in consumption, capitalism and consumption processes was discussed. In the research part of the study, the Black Friday Network on Twitter, a popular social network today, was investigated through the social network analysis method. Thus, obtained through the data, it was aimed at developing a current perspective towards the new media-based/assisted capitalist consumption phenomenon. The study, conducted by Yasin Bulduklu titled “Unexpected Events in Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations”, aimed to reveal the importance of public digital communication which is vital in delivering healthcare in the potential negative circumstances. In this context, communication and especially public digital communication, which are likely to bring the institutions into a difficult situation, are the subject of this section. In this context, communication and especially public digital communication, which are vital in delivering health care in the potential negative circumstances, is the subject of this section. This section contains information about the digital management of communication in some undesirable and sudden occurrences that can lead institutions to an undesirable situation, information about the effective management of communication through digital platforms in the cases of crisis.

Introduction

13

In the study conducted by Özlem Duğan titled “Examining E-Complaints against Airline Companies in Terms of Public Relations”, particularly the complaints were investigated that were made on the “sikayetvar” website, a complaint platform. The study is comprised of strategic issue management, issue management concerning public relations and the implementation parts. In this study, the complaints about four airline companies were investigated. The names of the airline companies were not mentioned; instead, they were coded as company-1, company-2, company-3 and company-4. The data obtained from the mentioned website were analyzed through the content analysis method. The obtained analysis results were evaluated in the findings section. In the study conducted by Mustafa Güngör titled “The Use of New Media for Digital Public Relations: The Case of Konya Universities”, a content analysis of the social media accounts of the universities in Konya was carried out, and it was attempted to find out which social media tools are essentially preferred by the universities in the relations with their public. On the other hand, it was attempted to understand which social media platform is used more effectively by those following the social media accounts of the universities. Furthermore, within the scope of the study, it was examined under the title of which public relations models of Grunig and Hunt (1984) the social media accounts of universities fall and it was attempted to find out how much importance the universities attach to the two-way communication, the main purpose of public relations in communication. In the study conducted by Salih Gürbüz titled “The Use of Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation: The Sample of Tat Gıda Farmer Stories”, it was studied how storytelling in public relations literature can be practiced in digital environment. This study samples a work of eight videos named “Tat Farmer Stories” released on the corporate website of Tat Gıda corporation, which is prominent to be aiming primarily the female consumers but has a Turkey-wide recognition at the national level. The researcher conducted his study in three analysis steps. In the analysis of these digital stories, together with the research questions prepared by the researcher mentioned in the method section, five questions used in the narrative theory during persuasion activity and to analyze these persuasion activities are utilized to examine the use of the stories for public relations purposes. The answers to these questions were addressed through qualitative content analysis. In addition, assessments regarding the corporation’s reputation are done considering Davies and Chun’s 7-dimensional Corporate Character Scale, which is used for reputation measurement. According to the results of the study, digital storytelling can contribute to the reputations of corporations that permanently need to be kept alive.

14

Introduction

In the study conducted by Aydın Karabulut titled “Independent and Nonverbal Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age”, the researcher stated that all the great narratives have been shaken in the late modern age and, thanks to the techno-science, the world has been transformed into a new and fast cycle. The network phenomenon has changed the daily life according to its own rules by qualifying all the fields. The daily life has been divided into different fragments such as online and offline. The fragmentation has been primarily formed by the erosion of the values. While the erosion in values has been manifested in the daily life, especially cross-over encounters, loveless relationships and the use values of the people have become norm. This new life also marks a new ontology in which the indicators are extensively consumed, and the cyclical time is rapidly elapsed. In this study, the relation forms changed have been discussed from different perspectives specific to “fi” series. In the analysis of the series, Semiography and discourse analysis have been used. In the study conducted by Deniz Özer titled “Organizations’ Use of Social Media from the Perspective of Dialogical Communicatıon and MarketingOriented Public Relations”, the researcher aimed to reveal the extent of use of social media and its efficiency in dialogical communication, and marketingoriented public relations efforts emerged from the communication forms of organizations as a result of the technology-based change. Özer, in her study selected Facebook, Twitter and Instagram accounts of an organization as the sample of the study and aimed to examine areas concerning marketing-oriented public relations application fields through the principles and properties of dialogical communication by means of content analysis method, and a holistic result was aimed to be achieved. In this study, the public relations, marketing and advertising activities of the organizations in the digital media and their target audiences were discussed together with their continuing efforts to perform communication cycles on this platform; thus, results were obtained concerning the marketing-oriented public relations efforts. The conceptual framework of the study, which was conducted by Şakire Özkan and Birgül Taşdelen titled “How Twitter Was Used during the 2018 Presidential Election by the Candidates in Turkey Image Creation in the Context of Dramaturgy Theory”, is the concept of Gofmann’s dramaturgy. The purpose of the study in the 2018 presidential election process in Turkey is to measure how they create an image by self-presentation of the candidates on Twitter. For this purpose, the candidates’ tweets on Twitter during the selection process are examined and evaluated as a result of content analysis findings which are qualitative research techniques.

Introduction

15

The developments in newer communication technologies provided many opportunities to businesses in recent years; one of these opportunities is the use of social media applications. Today, like many organizations, banks use social media to communicate with their public. Ahmet Tarhan’s study titled “Social Media Presence of Banks in Terms of Public Relations: The Example of Ziraat Bank, İş Bank, and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank” focuses on Twitter utilization levels of a public, a private and a participation bank, using a sample of data obtained between January 1, 2019 and March 31, 2019. In this research study, which used the content analysis method, it was questioned how the banks used their Twitter accounts in informing their customers, developing responses to their demands, expectations, suggestions, questions and problems, and involving them in their decision-making processes. Through the analysis, it was aimed to determine whether the banks sufficiently benefited from the two-way communication ability that is provided by the Twitter. We would like to mention that the advisory board has made major contributions to the book with their meticulous reviews. Also, we would like to thank each of the authors for devoting their time and effort towards this book.

Ercan Aktan

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations: The Example of Turkish Green Crescent Society Introduction The integration of social media and online platforms into organizational communication strategies has been extensively discussed in recent years (Sebastião et al., 2017: 538). What underlies this discussion is the fact that social media is a medium that opens up new areas for information exchange and expression of ideas in many fields. When considered in the context of public relations, social media has not only brought about radical changes in the field of public opinion formation but has also become an important driving force to promote social change. Since the relationship between social media and social change is an important issue (Dong et al., 2017: 726), there are ways of thinking and researches that examine the role of social media in this change. In addition, the processes where social media and public relations should be considered together have diversified. Corporate public relations employees and other organizational staff should monitor the behaviors of the target audience that emerge on social media and carry out studies that take into account the effectiveness of social media campaigns (Sanderson et al., 2016: 32). Considering that social media plays a leading role in the changes that occur in many fields of application such as marketing, advertising, and propaganda methods, it becomes evident that studies related to this field should be implemented quickly. In its traditional times, public relations appeared to be a communication action responsible for unilaterally conveying messages produced by institutions to target audiences. This process had continued until the technological developments in the mass communication infrastructure emerged. It would be appropriate to say that every technological development in communication methods has been the locomotive of some changes in public relations. In other words, the differentiation of communication between institutions and target groups in terms of tools and techniques has led to a change in public relations understanding. New media tools constitute the last and most advanced dimension of this process. On the other hand, the development in the new media has revealed the social media

18

Ercan Aktan

tools, so that the target audience has become more involved in the public relations process than ever in history. The involvement of target groups in public relations and corporate communication efforts initiated by institutions may be both in favor of and against institutions. For instance, the positive atmosphere regarding the institution created in social media is important in terms of ensuring that public relations efforts reach large masses effectively with little time, little cost, and little manpower. On the other hand, it is possible that any negativity that arises against the institution, or that the institution does not want to create in the social media environments, may reach the masses with the same speed and effect. The features of social media, which is evaluated in terms of its positive and negative effects on public relations, is undoubtedly real in terms of what it produces bidirectionally. In other words, considering its contribution to public relations in achieving its objectives, social media seems to have very positive features. However, it also becomes possible with social media to make any negativity more visible than ever before. Considering what is specified above, it is understood that although there is a need for institutional studies in order to utilize the positive aspects of social media in terms of public relations, efforts that require expertise are required to avoid negative aspects. This study is carried out in order to examine the social media public relations efforts of the Turkish Green Crescent Society, which is a non-profit, nongovernmental organization for combating addiction. The purpose of this study is to determine the target audience interactions of Green Crescent’s public relations efforts through a descriptive approach. For this purpose, we tried to analyze the social media posts about “Astronaut at Bus Stop” campaign carried out by Green Crescent in connection with “World Smoking Cessation Day on February 9th”. In this respect, the follower comments on “Astronaut at Bus Stop” public relations campaign via the official Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts of Turkish Green Crescent Society were analyzed in this study. Findings of the research conducted with descriptive analysis method were compiled and analyzed in accordance with predetermined categories of “Arousing curiosity”, “Supportive content”, and “Critical content”.

1 Social Media and Digital Communication Technological advances, which are developing, changing, innovating, and causing the communication environment to transivitize, have led ordinary users to become professional content producers, especially with the introduction of the internet as a communication medium. On the other hand, these new

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

19

communication professionals, who have a wide audience with the content they produce, can have significant influences on their followers with their phenomenal identities. The ongoing process has not only become thoroughly perceivable in political, social, cultural, and economic fields; but also has become acceptable as a reference point. In the last few decades; emerging digital technologies, social media, and the Internet in general have been praised for their democratization impact in society. Social media apparently allows everyone to participate in and contribute freely to online discussions. This situation is regarded as the initiator of new social and cultural transformations. These technologies also have the ability to improve learning and information sharing at a very low cost (Valentini, 2015: 172). Social media is defined as a set of messages where users proactively publish a status update in their digital profiles (Roshan et al., 2016: 351). Such rise of social media reflects people’s need for interpersonal interaction. Social networking sites have brought social activities into the online virtual world (Chen & Lin, 2019: 22) and provided a shareable structure that can be transferred to the general public. Today, new media increases the volume, speed, and daily flow of communication; connects people; gives voice to them; and encourages discussions on common interests (Badea, 2014: 71). This feature, which results from the fact that it has a participatory nature, transforms social media into a structure that is growing, expanding, and encouraging new participation. In terms of interpersonal communication and relations network, there is no doubt that digital technologies and social media contribute to a major change in people’s communication and relational practices between each other (Valentini, 2015: 172). In fact, most users are so accustomed to social media that their speech types, their ways of self-expression, community building, and other forms of online participation are now part of the only reality they know (Baccarella et al., 2018: 432). Many social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, LinkedIn, WhatsApp, Line, and WeChat are designed to facilitate communication between individuals and groups (Cheng et al., 2017: 25). Social media has changed the scope of the financial communication of businesses and created opportunities for unprecedented interactions (Blankespoor, 2018: 80). In other words, the digital interaction provided by social media is not only a new medium of interpersonal communication but also the new channel of communication between individuals and institutions. Attempts by almost all serious institutions to have social media accounts and their efforts to address the target audience through social platforms substantiate this reality.

20

Ercan Aktan

Thus, as the internet and the technology it brought about developed various media forms and applications over time, they changed the traditional human interactions of the past and created new bridges for communication. With the popularity of the Internet and mobile technologies, online social media has become a new area of brand marketing, sharing consumer experiences, and brand information with widespread confidence in brand preferences. Therefore, the development of social groups has become more efficient. Even among group members, who have never met each other, a good sense of community can be shaped (Chen & Lin, 2019: 22). Therefore, it appears that social media, which strives to become one of the indispensables of interpersonal communication, gains ground toward being inevitable for corporate communications.

2 Social Media and the Changing Public Relations Public relations, as an applied management and communication discipline, has been greatly influenced by information and communication technologies in recent years (Vercic et al., 2015: 142). Therefore, the use of social media is gradually becoming a vital part of organizational communication (Nduhura & Prieler, 2017: 709–710), and especially the public relations field of practice tends to be affected by the emergence of social media (Bashir & Aldaihani, 2017: 777). Public relations experts and practitioners agree that social media is changing the public relations industry and playing an increasingly important role in the business planning process (Allagui & Breslow, 2016: 20). However, it can be said that the emergence and increasing popularity of social media has changed public relations practices. Because social media offers countless opportunities for public relations practitioners to interact with large stakeholder groups (DiStaso et al., 2011: 325). Especially in the last decade, due to the online phenomenon known as Web 2.0 (Nisar et al., 2018: 189), social media has changed the way individuals, communities, and organizations create, share, and consume information differently from each other and from other businesses (Baccarella et al., 2018: 431). In line with this approach, marketers and professionals state that social media has changed business priorities (Allagui & Breslow, 2016: 20). Content creation is an important component of social media conversations, and social media conversations create interactions between audiences and organizations. In other words, social media consists of conversation environments based on various contents. Therefore, developing competitive environments require businesses to interact with their users and actively participate in order to “survive”. Posts

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

21

consist of information sharing on topics that appeal to the areas of interest of the individuals who form the target audience, as well as content offers that encourage individuals. Posts in social media can take the form of visuals, textual, or audio content; and public relations experts can contribute to realizing interaction by providing more recent and different feeds that can enhance conversation environments and interaction (Valentini, 2015: 174). At the same time, it is becoming evident that new and social media reshape the practice of public relations (Allagui & Breslow, 2016: 21). In this respect, it is very important that public relations professionals keep the pulse of the target audience groups on social media for reasons such as knowing the social tendencies of the public and protecting the enterprise from possible crises. Besides, public relations experts have access to the findings through social media monitoring, such as how the target audiences react to events such as public relations campaigns, how they react to similar initiatives of other institutions, and which historical and relational factors may lead target audience members to undesired directions (Sanderson et al., 2016: 31). Social media also stands out with its characteristics that change how public relations executives and researchers understand and enlighten the public especially during organizational crises (Zhao et al., 2018: 549). In this context, there comes up the issue of positioning social media within the communication strategy. Many experts place the use of new media in the public relations practice mechanism. This communication, which is realized through social media, primarily aims to communicate information to target audiences in order to facilitate communication and mutual understanding between various institutions and various audience types (Badea, 2014: 71). Therefore, it should be stated that both social media and public relations exist for developing relations between target group members and businesses and encouraging interaction (Allagui & Breslow, 2016: 21). With the prevalence and dominance of social media, organizations are trying to involve social media in their communication efforts in order to appeal to their target audiences who make curious searches in today’s digital environments. Unlike one-way rational media communication (Nduhura & Prieler, 2017: 709); the interactive, personal, and social characteristics of social media communication allow organizations to engage the target audience in conversations, supportive behaviors, and meaningful relationships (Men & Tsai, 2015: 395). In spite of the one-way, sender-dominant structure of traditional media, social media seems to be a gain for bi-directional communications that are planned to continue between the institution and the target audience due to its interactive nature that is more prone to the nature of public relations. On the other hand,

22

Ercan Aktan

the expansionist structure of social media is efficient in terms of enabling it to address wider target audiences. Public relations are said to turn into digital public relations or public relations 2.0 in the age of social media. Digital public relations applications include corporate blogs, online press relations, search engine optimization, corporate web design, relationships with virtual communities, online image management, online crisis management, online problem management, online research, online campaign management, and so on (Aktan, 2017; Koçyiğit, 2017; Alikılıç, 2011). While the specified public relations practices are applied as traditional public relations methods, it can be said that as a result of the transformation of the communication structure to digital, it continues to exist as public relations efforts moved into the online environment.

3 Digital Target Audiences and Relationship Methods Social media, which is a global communication tool (Toledano & Avidar, 2016: 161), is seen as fast, cheap, and interactive channels to reach the target audiences (Valentini, 2015: 171). Therefore, social media contains very important tools for corporations. This is because they provide various communication platforms in the communication of public relations with the target audiences, and they can increase the online presence of corporations (Bashir & Aldaihani, 2017: 778). Therefore, many sectors try to benefit from social media. For such reasons, particular rules have been developed for the management of users and companies, and companies have developed appropriate marketing strategies for social media (Chen & Lin, 2019: 23). A remarkable approach to the role of social media in public relations belongs to Bordeianu, who states that online public relations can be defined as the meeting point of communication between an organization (companies, public institutions, etc.) and online readers (networks). In this sense, the internet is a support that is naturally integrated into the strategic communication planning of organizations (Badea, 2014: 71). In this respect, social media has profoundly changed relationships between organizations and their stakeholders due to its abilities to disseminate content, provide interaction, and encourage permanent relationships. Widespread access to the Internet through various personal devices has made a significant impact on the future of many organizations by enabling stakeholders to become key players in reputation management (Navarro et al., 2017: 700). Social media has changed the way businesses communicate with stakeholders and the way users influence other users’ decisions. This process is directed by the

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

23

use of blogs, social networks, and other social media sites that draw the attention of both users and businesses (Alikilic & Atabek, 2012: 57). In this case, online communication takes place in the context of virtual collaboration (Cheng et al., 2017: 26) and mediates the interaction between organizations and their target audience. Institutions communicate with the public by using social media; and through this communication, considerable target groups can be reached (Badea, 2014: 70). Individuals who are in search of self-expression and identification and who are social media users have become overly eager to send sharings to those they are in connection with through their networks at any time in their lives as if everything they do is very important and worth sending (Valentini, 2015: 172). As a result of these sharings, understanding and reacting to stakeholder expectations can be the key to generating trust and satisfaction, improving dialogue, and consequently ensuring corporate loyalty (Navarro et al. 2017: 702). Valuable information can spread quickly through social media platforms, enabling users to expand and maintain their social networks (Cheng et al., 2017: 25). Thus, the intensive use of social media in organizations has renewed the interest in stakeholder management. Digital platforms make it easier for organizations to identify their customers/users, analyze their needs and behaviors, generate value content and create emotional ties; thus strengthening business by increasing loyalty, satisfaction, and brand perception (Navarro et al., 2017: 702). In this context, social media enables organizations not only to be informed about the target groups that present themselves clearly on the digital platforms but also to actively present themselves to the audience they are trying to reach. Besides, this interaction is available to realize without any time and space limitation. Thus, uninterrupted communication is just a simple matter. This also means providing the communication infrastructure that public relations is trying to create, thus adding strength to corporate communications.

4 Method The data obtained from the study were analyzed by using descriptive analysis technique which is one of the qualitative research methods. The main reason why a qualitative method is preferred in the research is to obtain more satisfactory findings of the research topic and to interpret these findings in depth. In other words, the qualitative method, which enables the interpretation of the data in depth, constitutes the data collection tool of the research. In descriptive analysis technique, the data obtained are summarized and interpreted in accordance with the purpose of the research. In this technique,

24

Ercan Aktan

the findings are reported with frequent references to direct quotations in order to convey the truth as it is and in a striking manner. The main purpose of this technique is to present the findings in an arranged and interpreted form. In this study, the steps of creating a framework for descriptive analysis, processing data according to the thematic framework, defining findings, and interpreting the findings, which are inherent in the descriptive analysis technique (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2016: 239–240; Türkdoğan & Gökçe, 2015: 345– 346), were applied.

4.1 Sample Selection and Implementation In the study, the social media accounts of Turkish Green Crescent Society, which defines itself with the statement of “It is founded with the purpose of combating addictions damaging the physical and mental health of the society and the youth, as well as all bad habits harming the youth and the society such as gambling, internet and technology addiction, and raising generations faithful to national culture, in an atmosphere of moral and cultural development”, are identified. To this end, Turkey Green Crescent Society official Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts were examined to analyze the target audience interaction of the campaign launched on February 9, the world smoking cessation day, to draw attention to smoking addiction, which appeared on traditional mass communication tools through the news such as “On February 9 Smoking Cessation Day, Green Crescent’s astronaut was seen again in the streets of Istanbul. The astronaut who suddenly came next to the citizens who smoke at metrobus, subway and bus stops and ferries conducted an awareness campaign to draw special attention to this day. With the campaign initiated by Green Crescent, it was attempted to instill awareness that smokers poison not only themselves but also their surroundings by swiftly entering the country’s agenda.” (Web_1). The research covers the period between 5 February 2019 and 15 February 2019, the dates when the application was launched. In this context, the target audience interaction on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts of the Society were analyzed and discussed through the comments made for the posts.

4.2 Findings and Interpretation Posts on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram tools were evaluated under the categories of “Arousing curiosity”, “Supportive content”, and “Critical content”. Findings obtained from the research and the interpretations of the findings are given below.

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

25

Fig. 1:  The Image of Green Crescent Society’s World Smoking Cessation Day Astronaut Campaign. Source: https://twitter.com/1920yesilay.

4.2.1  Findings on Attention-Drawing and Curiosity-Arousing One of the important elements in public relations is to focus the distracted attention of the target audience on the desired spot. It is not always possible for the target audience which is exposed to numerous messages during the daily rush to notice the messages from a particular enterprise among these messages. Therefore, it should be tried to ensure that the messages sent should be quite attention-grabbing and that the messages sent from the enterprise are respected. To this end, the Green Crescent Society launched the “Astronaut at Bus Stop” event on February 9 World Smoking Cessation Day to draw attention to cigarette addiction and passive smoking. With the event, the news such as “As part of the event organized by Green Crescent, attention was drawn to the damages of the cigarette and passive smoking by a person in astronaut costume walking around among people on the ferry and the ferry port. A stand was set up in front of Kadıköy-Eminönü Ferry Port as part of the event organized by Green Crescent on the occasion of World Smoking Cessation Day with the support of the City Lines. Citizens were informed about the damages of smoking to human health and brochures were distributed” (Web_3) appeared on mainstream press organs, and it was aimed to make the launched public relations campaign noticeable.

26

Ercan Aktan

The “Astronaut at Bus Stop” post shared on Green Crescent’s Facebook a­ ccount on 5 February 2019, in order to draw attention to the campaign, aroused a sense of curiosity on its followers by its nature and led to the followers’ likes and comments. In the comments made with curiosity, the participants express opinions based on their own perceptions and expectations. Some of the comments on Facebook are as follows: “Hope he is not unemployed 😄”; “Smokefree airspace”; “I am waiting bro”; “Whoever is worried about is fate cannot be a hero 😎”; “Life is hard even if you are an astrounaut, my friend:D It’s the pic of desperation”; “I think it might be a reaction video against smoking:D or against mankind”; “Everyone was awaiting with curiosity what this is all about now we are waiting with extra curiosity for what Green Crescent will do”. The comments prove to be supporting the efforts of Green Crescent aimed at focusing the attention of the target audience on the issue. Similarly, when the comments of participants are examined through Twitter posts, content that can be considered funny draws attention from time to time. Posts like “A little astronaut who seeks some clear airspace”; “What wouldn’t life do to us if it made havoc of an astronaut”; “sure we won’t say oh turks are going into space it’s probably an anti-smoking spot”; “Does that astronaut! work for minimum wage?” show that the followers shared their views on the purpose of the astronaut at the bus stop and that they were involved in the public relations campaign of Green Crescent by producing content for it. Instagram medium also includes user estimates about Green Crescent’s astronaut. These estimates and comments are remarkable in terms of involving the target audience of Green Crescent in the campaign, thus ensuring the achievement of the objectives with the participation of the target audience.

4.2.2  Findings with Supportive Content Green Crescent’s Facebook post titled “Why is the astronaut at bus stop? Wait for February 9 to learn the answer to this question!” received 171 likes, 27 comments; and it was shared by the followers for a total of 70 times. When the comments received were examined, it was understood that the followers were concerned about the negative aspects of cigarette addiction and passive smoking that Green Crescent tries to draw attention to. In one of these comments, a follower describes his/her discomfort of passive smoking saying “There is no other way to escape from cigarette smoke”; while another follower emphasizes the discomfort he/she experiences due to passive drinking with the phrases “There is no need to wait until February 9th. This is the only thing to be done against beasts smoking at the stops”. Moreover, comments such as “Simple, I put on the mask, the cities are filthy, just to spite the nonchalance of smokers I will soon put the

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

27

no-smoking sign on it.”; “Put this guy on the ferry of Eminönü-Adalar and if he is not poisoned by the smokers there, we will board as well.”; “If we do not preserve the green and go on with the nuclear and thermal power plants and fossil fuels, we will live in this way some year in the future-themed 😉”; “We can’t breathe because of cigarette smoke and we even feel like we’re in space. It’s like we’re the only nonsmokers. Please let this astronaut come to the parks and the hospital exits.” provide guidance to followers to describe their discomfort with passive smoking. Similarly, when Twitter posts are reviewed, posts and comments in the same direction draw attention. Among the examined posts, comments such as “Smokefree airspace. We can not already breathe oxygen even in the open air. life became thoroughly uninhabitable because of factories, vehicles and on top it, smokers. prices may rise even higher so that only those who can afford it shall but it.”; “I think it’s a great method.. as non-smokers soon we’ll all have to go out like that..”; “Excellent work I appreciated as a citizen who has even come to hate the smokers” are important in terms of demonstrating the participation in Green Crescent’s public relations campaign through social media. A similar process has taken place on Instagram and the level of attention that Green Crescent tries to create in terms of cigarette addiction and passive smoking through Instagram posts became evident. It can be said that posts such as “I was very happy watching it and shared it in my story. It’s been a great impression, great job 👏🏻👏🏻👏🏻”; “I hope smoking at bus stops gets banned 🙏”; “Green Crescent so glad we have you 💕💕” reveal the success of Green Crescent in achieving its public relations goals that it tries to manifest through social media. The fact that the followers pay attention to the public relations campaign of Green Crescent in order to raise awareness on 9 February and lean on the subject with comments and posts embody data that can be evaluated as positive in terms of the goal to be achieved. When the comments are analyzed, it is evident that Green Crescent and the followers who send their comments and likes to the post think the same way. This similarity is very important in terms of the formation of sympathy between the business and the target audience. The fact that this campaign, which takes place with news content in the traditional channels, enables the participation of the target audience by taking place in the social media, and the re-sending of the shared images by the followers to their friends, are also important in terms of the expansion of the campaign. This interaction through social media tools contributes to the emergence of positive feelings and thoughts between the enterprise and the audience it tries to reach. In this way, it is possible for the target audience to participate in the actions and activities of the enterprise and to support them without concern. The success of the teaser activity with astronaut is considered important in this

28

Ercan Aktan

respect. This success is also sustained by the following user comment: “It’s been such a nice project that I’m not sure if it could be told in a better way…”

4.2.3  Findings on Critical Thinking Although the success of the events organized as part of public relations a­ ctivities depends on many factors, it also lies in providing positive feedback to the criticisms directed by the target groups. In other words, in public relations ­activities, there may be those who dislike the practice as well as those who like it; there may be those who are against it as well as those who support it. Nevertheless, it is important to appreciate the views of critically approaching audiences for the success of public relations activities. In this context, it is obvious that there are critics as well as those who support Green Crescent with regards to the public relations campaign initiated by Green Crescent with the astronaut performance. The focal point of the criticism against Green Crescent consists of the comments arguing that Green Crescent fails to go after those who smoke in no-smoking places adequately. In other words, in the followers’ comments on the social media posts of Green Crescent about the astronaut campaign, the opinions that Green Crescent does not duly fulfill its responsibility stand out. Some of these comments are as follows: “People smoke in indoor spaces we called Green Crescent after and after nobody comes we called again they said we came but nobody was smoking”; “instead of this much advertisement make sure that people observe the prohibitions and fines are applied properly people smoke in all indoor spaces airport and stations what are you doing?”. From similar comments, it can be said that Green Crescent’s public relations efforts caused a critical view of the target audience due to some experiences. In other words, the comments made for Green Crescent’s posts on social media have turned into an environment where the negative dialogue that the society has previously established with the target audience is also discussed. The basis of public relations is to consider all positive and negative opinions and attitudes coming from the target audience. When considered accordingly, it is important that the negative comments of followers regarding the astronaut campaign are taken into consideration by Green Crescent and that steps are taken to eliminate the situations that cause the criticism of the followers.

5 Conclusion and Assessment The Web 2.0 era, also called the digital revolution, has brought about significant gains compared to the past in terms of communication technologies and infrastructure. Digital communication infrastructure, which allows many interpersonal or mass communication channels regardless of time and space, leads

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

29

to speed and pleasure in communication actions. Digital communication has enabled the parties to communicate and manifest an entity by producing their own content. However, by means of the possibilities of commenting, liking, sharing, and reproducing the content produced; users can also have a say in the content of the communication they will establish with others. The fact that individuals are given the right to speak during the communication or that they become determinative of the content of the messages produced affects the level of satisfaction this will create upon them. In this regard, social media environments where users come together, produce, and socialize constitute a significant area. Social media has one of the most important roles in the rapid transformation of public relations actions from traditional structure to contemporary look. Social media’s feature of content produces by users and being able to convey this content to wide audiences in a short while contributes significantly to the field of public relations as well. In other words, social media communication has enabled significant changes in the traditional public relations understanding and has led public relations to shift towards new forms of practice called digital public relations or public relations 2.0. It would not be wrong to say that the two-way communication infrastructure, which public relations has been trying to provide and delivering plans and studies for this, is achieved with social media. On the other hand, social media interaction enabled corporate information to be sent to target audiences as well as information about target audiences that would be useful for the organization to be obtained. In this respect, it would be appropriate to say that public relations actions carried out through social media communication lead the way to organizational gains. On the other hand, due to the expansionary nature and speed of social media, it may be possible that the negativities that may arise in terms of public relations reach the target audiences in a way that can be considered impossible to prevent as compared to past. Similar results were reached when the social media posts regarding the “Astronaut at Bus Stop” campaign, which is the Green Crescent’s February 9 World Smoking Cessation Day activity, were examined. The data obtained from the research conducted on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts of the Green Crescent Society were analyzed with a descriptive approach. From the perspective of the curiosity arousal category which is among the analysis categories, user comments show that the efforts to attract attention with the teaser have been successful. In other words, it is possible to say that the attention of the target audience is drawn to smoking addiction and passive smoking through the attitude of wondering why someone in astronaut costume may have been at the bus stop, manifesting his/her opinion about this and commenting

30

Ercan Aktan

on it. At the same time, it can be said that providing access to a wide group of followers also contributes to the activity and aims of Green Crescent in terms of allowing the message to expand. It is very important for public relations actions to be supported by the target audience, to find a response and to reach the objectives. Besides, the support of the target audience to a campaign is one of the main factors on its success. When evaluated in the context of astronaut campaign, which is the research object, it can be seen that the comments of the followers include the opinion that Green Crescent’s efforts to draw attention to smoking addiction and passive smoking are very important. In this context, it is evident that the followers think that the photos and videos shared by Green Crescent on their social media accounts were successful. This is important for the success of the campaign. On the other hand, critical views that accuse Green Crescent of failing to do its part in terms of smoking addiction and passive smoking through social media posts were obtained as a result of the research as well. The common point of these views is that Green Crescent is slacking off with regards to the necessary controls. In other words, as opposed to the target audience who support Green Crescent with their likes, there are also target audiences criticizing it in a way that other users can see. The findings are important in terms of revealing the positive and negative aspects of public relations efforts in the social media era in the literature. In other words, the changes and transformations in the understanding of public relations in the social media era and the findings regarding this field are also among the findings of this study.

References Aktan, E. (2017). Gelenekselden Yeniye: Sosyal Medya Çağında Halkla İlişkiler ve Online Medya İlişkileri. (Eds: E. Taşdemir & E. S. Aslan) Sosyal Medya İletişimi (s. 33–53). Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı. Alikilic, O., & Atabek, U. (2012). Social media adoption among Turkish public relations professionals: A survey of practitioners. Public Relations Review (38), 56–63. Alikilic, Ö. A. (2011). Halkla İlişkiler 2.0. Ankara: Efil Yayınevi. Allagui, I., & Breslow, H. (2016). Social media for public relations: Lessons from four effective cases. Public Relations Review (42), 20–30. Baccarella, C. V., Wagner, T., Kietzmann, J., & McCarthy, I. (2018). Social media? It’s serious! Understanding the dark side of social media. European Management Journal (36), 431–438.

Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations

31

Badea, M. (2014). Social media and organizational communication. ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences (149), 70–75. Bashir, M., & Aldaihani, A. (2017). Public relations in an online environment: Discourse description of social media in Kuwaiti organizations. Public Relations Review (43), 777–787. Blankespoor, E. (2018). Firm communication and investor response: A framework and discussion integrating social media. Accounting, Organizations and Society (68–69), 80–87. Chen, S.-C., & Lin, C.-P. (2019). Understanding the effect of social media marketing activities: The mediation of social identification, perceived value, and satisfaction. Technological Forecasting & Social Change (140), 22–32. Cheng, X., Fu, S., & Vreede, G.-J. (2017). Understanding trust influencing factors in social media communication: A qualitative study. International Journal of Information Management (37), 25–35. DiStaso, M. W., McCorkindale, T., & Wright, D. (2011). How public relations executives perceive and measure the impact of social media in their organizations. Public Relations Review (37), 325–328. Dong, T., Liang, C., & He, X. (2017). Social media and internet public events. Telematics and Informatics (34), 726–739. Kocyigit, M. (2017). Dijital Halkla İlişkiler ve Online Kurumsal İtibar Yönetimi. Konya: Eğitim Yayınevi. Men, L. R., & Tsai, W.-H. (2015). Infusing social media with humanity: Corporate character, public engagement, and relational outcomes. Public Relations Review (41), 395–403. Navarro, C., Moreno, A., & Al-Sumait, F. (2017). Social media expectations between public relations professionals and their stakeholders: Results of the ComGap study in Spain. Public Relations Review (43), 700–708. Nduhura, D., & Prieler, M. (2017). When I chat online, I feel relaxed and work better: Exploring the use of social media in the public sector workplace in Rwanda. Telecommunications Policy (41), 708–716. Nisar, T. M., Prabhakar, G., & Patil, P. (2018). Sports clubs’ use of social media to increase spectator interest. International Journal of Information Management (43), 188–195. Roshan, M., Warren, M., & Carr, R. (2016). Understanding the use of social media by organisations for crisis communication. Computers in Human Behavior (63), 350–361. Sanderson, J., Barnes, K., Williamson, C., & Kian, E. (2016). ‘How could anyone have predicted that #AskJameis would go horribly wrong?’ public relations, social media, and hashtag hijacking. Public Relations Review (42), 31–37.

32

Ercan Aktan

Sebastião, S. P., Zulato, G., & Santos, T. (2017). Public relations practitioners’ attitudes towards the ethical use of social media in Portuguese speaking countries. Public Relations Review (43), 537–546. Toledano, M., & Avidar, R. (2016). Public relations, ethics, and social media: A cross-national study of PR practitioners. Public Relations Review (42), 161–169. Türkdoğan, O., & Gökçe, O. (2015). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemi (2 b.). Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi. Valentini, C. (2015). Review is using social media “good” for the public relations profession? A critical reflection. Public Relations Review 41(41), 170–177. Vercic, D., Vercic, A., & Sriramesh, K. (2015). Looking for digital in public relations. Public Relations Review (41), 142–152. Web_1. Campaign Türkiye: https://www.campaigntr.com/yesilayin-astronotuher-yerde/. Access: 18.02.2019. Web_2. Yeşilay: https://twitter.com/1920yesilay. Access: 05.02.2019. Web_3. https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/saglik/sigaranin-zararlarina-astronotladikkat-cekildi/1387801. Access: 08.04.2019. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2016). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri (10 b.). Ankara: Seçkin Kitabevi. Zhao, X., Zhan, M., & Liu, B. (2018). Disentangling social media influence in crises: Testing a four-factor model of social media influence with large data. Public Relations Review (44), 549–561.

Duygu Aydın, Mehmet Safa Çam

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization Introduction The competitive nature of modern marketing urges businesses to take vigorous actions within a data-based approach. In such a market environment, communicating emotionally with consumers has become insufficient. Instead, companies are seeking ways to turn real data and information into value through emotional links that would attract consumers. In this context, data storytelling offers businesses a storytelling model with substantial communicative value. In the digital age, brands give priority to share a visual story rather than providing raw statistical data to stakeholders in their communication efforts conducted both online and in traditional media. Thus, enterprises acting with a value-based approach have been in search of establishing emotional bonds in the light of causal data with their target groups. Companies working within this point of view have been in search of creating emotional relationships with their target groups through the causal data. Transforming data into a story usually means communicating data visually through infographics, video, animation, flowcharts, and written content to perform much more effective communication. Accordingly, data storytelling is intelligible as a set of efforts that cover the processes of collecting data and visualizing it in a narrative approach (Seçkin, 2019). When businesses acquire data and undergo statistical analysis, they can gain essential insights relating to consumers and the market environment. However, data tables, statistics, and explanations may not be a satisfactory action to carry out the communication efforts of these informative results. Under these circumstances, visualization efforts are being used to achieve an aesthetic value, increasing accessibility and clarity of data. In the next step, the visual data with narrative elements are presented with imagery characters and causal plots. Hence, the mass of statistics which only the experts can interpret in the beginning becomes a communicative message that all stakeholders can share universally through a story-based understanding. When raw data becomes a story, this prominent step enables consumers to get an idea of what is happening. Therefore, the storytelling of data provides new scopes for businesses to conduct practical communication efforts within all kinds of media. This study discusses the concept of data storytelling as a practical and inspiring communication approach for the marketing discipline and exemplifies it with

34

Aydın and Çam

various efforts by our national brands. In this context, the study will likely be inspiring the profit-oriented businesses as well as public and non-governmental organizations to increase the communication value of data they already have.

1 Storytelling from Ancient Times to Modern Age People have made all the realities, experiences, and expectations of their lives meaningful in the stories and conveyed these issues within the narratives at the center of the need for communication. The human being who discovered that the stories were useful tools of expression transferred his experiences from the cave walls to the clay tablets throughout history, and most importantly, they immortalized their thoughts. In this respect, stories constitute a vital type of communication that we use many times in our daily lives as one of the ways of transferring emotions to other people. Therefore, we can talk about the ability of storytelling as the most popular way of having the knowledge and delivering it to others. This situation also shows that stories undertake the role of unifying tissue that makes the facts worth remembering during the interactions among people. From this perspective, storytelling becomes an integral part of human culture and nature by gaining a social meaning. Barkın (2017:26) states that we learn about the victories, defeats, love, and hatred that societies had millions of years ago, from the stories they wrote and drew on the cave walls. That is why “storytelling is one of the distinguishing features between human beings and other living things”. The common attribute of these stories in which the events experienced by humanity is their incredible reaching speed and being memorable. It also makes the stories unique that the characters at the center of events become heroes with whom the reader is emotionally connected. Moreover, this situation is not limited to human life, but it is transformed into a unique heritage from generations to generations. This meaning tool of social dynamics has lost nothing of its qualities today in which the knowledge and technology are decisive, but it has also developed its derivatives which keep up with the era. According to Abbott (2008:1), humankind has been telling stories since the first day he started to make meaningful wholes from words; thus, we begin to tell stories when we share an event or situation socially based on chronologically and causality. This continuum emerges as a result of a natural tendency for individual and becomes a distinctive feature offered to use of language. However, this differentiating attribute does not just come from telling stories. It also enables our brains to process information with ease that is a primary task of the mind. As we can see, storytelling represents one of the essential ways of making information sufficient and perceptible.

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

35

Hurlburt and Voas (2011: 4) emphasize that the stories scratched to the cave walls in the tribal age evolved into an auditory activity during the development of the language. After centuries, those stories have become legends which indicate the moral values of the first human’s culture. The myths, which are generally overdrawn, have been passed on from generation to generation and shaped as narratives that comprise the codes of traditions, superstitions, and life culture since tribal times. Similarly, Barthes (1982: 25) argues that the tradition of telling stories practiced in an unlimited variety of ways in every period of humanity is the oldest course of action. From myths to legends, tales, and novels from tragedies to comedies, many narrative genres are the product of storytelling tradition. Therefore any social formation cannot be considered as lacking a narrative culture. Storytelling, therefore, has an intercultural and international structure, just like life itself. Since it is transmitted from generation to generation in written and audible forms, it naturally leaves behind historical boundaries. This view has a much more meaningful framework for the modern man. The individual, who benefits from the blessings of the digital world, can share almost any information with other people as a personal story. Today, the stories which have a rapid dispersion through technology applications such as social media and Web 2.0 are quite different from the stories written or drawn on cave walls. But the presence of the unifying tissue is still unchanging. Therefore, regardless of the size and type of alteration, it can be arguable that the increasing need for communication and connection in the modern age is satisfied by an unprecedented willingness in human history.

2 Digital Culture and Visual Storytelling Digital applications coming into our lives with technology have enabled communication visualization and made images, symbols, typography, icons, and drawings to use almost a necessity. This new visualized form of data, which becomes more understandable through the use of graphical representations, has also enabled the simultaneous transfer of storytelling to a new platform. The storytelling that presents a situation or event using plot, place, and characters is defined as an effective means of communication as it can unite the narrator and listeners around common imagery. People set all the facts of their lives in the form of stories, which are the most effective way of presenting and remembering information. Considering the databases expanding day by day, only the storytelling of the data can bring a human perspective to the increasingly complex and rapidly changing world of the digital age (Sanderson, 2016). Besides, storytelling as a means of storing and transferring tool is pervasive with technological

36

Aydın and Çam

resources based on visualization (Kosara and Mackinlay, 2013:44). The stories, which contain textual and visual structures and constructed through raw data, are one of the most frequently used communication tools in today’s companies. Similarly, visual storytelling performs this activity – either static or dynamic – in the digital era for the same purpose (Zhao et al., 2015:2). With the technology revolution, there is an increasing acceleration in the use of digital tools. Digital cameras, mobile phones, and personal computers are some of the tools used in almost every area. Also, social media and Web 2.0 technologies that come into our lives with internet technologies have enabled almost all users to become storytellers. In this respect, it is possible to define digital storytelling as a form of ­communication in which data-based information is shared with visual multimedia tools and resources (Robin et al., 2011:3). Describing the story with a visual identity also means the visualization of communication and data transfer. According to Hullman and Diokopulos (2011: 2231), who view this argument through persuasion, digital storytelling is a form of communication that requires the use of digital forms of basic rhetorical tools. In contrast to many rhetorical elements used in verbal language, tropes, metaphors, and other rhetorical figures that can be seen as a visual symbol, a cartoon, or in the form of an infographic undertake the mission of transmitting information and making them ­memorable. In this context, Ma et al. (2012:17) see visualization as a major communication approach that harmonizes the daily practices of scientists. They emphasize that the visualization is employed for the purposes such as clarifying the experimental findings, sharing them in the form of data sets, and presenting them chronologically on a story axis, thus can be transformed into a functional communication device if used correctly and effectively. With this respect, presenting data in a visual structure through digital technologies is principal to make the raw data into meaningful information. Moreover, visualization is intuitive so that it does not require to comprehend complex statistical algorithms or parameters (Keim, 2002:1). Knaflic (2015: 8) states that it is an ability to elucidate the data itself and that this qualification has become much more meaningful nowadays, as data-based decision-making processes are on the rise. The refinement of the data in effective visual integrity is also the key factor to achieve success in c­ ommunicating the findings. Thus, it enables the ways to provide maximum returns to the enterprises within the scope of their activities. That’s the reason for success, which depends on the performance of the business as well as to perform an effective communication with target audience aiming the presentation of the data.

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

37

3 Visual Form of Data Storytelling Storytelling strategies can vary according to the media type. Unlike a film or advertisement, the use of some fundamental mechanisms such as the flow of mind, character analyses, and depictions in the narratives written in a manuscript become a necessary part of it (Segel and Heer, 2010:1139). Professions that often use technological tools to communicate with their target audience, such as artists, designers, psychologists, and communicators, have now explored the potential of digital visual media to create a narrative experience. In this context, they have developed highly effective methods to attract the interests of the users and lead them in the desired way. According to Lee et al. (2015:84), it is seen as a new communication opportunity in recent years that the compelling and intriguing stories based on data can be explained with the help of visual tools. Lee and his colleagues (2015: 84) view the storytelling of compelling and interesting data-based information with the help of visual tools as a new communication opportunity in recent years. Hence, data visualization can be considered both as a basic design element that constitutes a story and as an effective way of telling it. In this respect, it seems that technological adaptations such as videos, interactive graphics, flowcharts, digital maps, and infographics are some of the tools used by the business organizations in the context of data-based storytelling (Amini et al., 2015:3). Almost every sort of graphics presented online has a story design. The use of these instruments aims to provide information in a direct, understandable, and effective manner (Boy et al., 2015:1449). These techniques utilize the ability of visualization to present the main idea surprisingly. Furthermore, it is aimed to bring the target audience together with compelling content and data set effectively in an entertaining way. Segel and Heer (2010:1140) state that data stories differ significantly from traditional storytelling. According to them, the stories we read or watch in a movie are typically based on the continuity of a plot in a causal plane. However, while the relationships between the visualized data can be arranged in a linear order, the users become engaged to question and ask for alternate explanations. Data storytelling can be defined as the presentation of information by using compression or abbreviation techniques. The main goal is to make data as visual as possible so that the recipient can focus on the most crucial point in the message. It should have both a visual framework and structural story elements based on presenting data on digital platforms in the most intelligible form (Echeverria et al., 2018:3). In this sense, data storytelling is the communication of massive data by transforming them into meaningful stories (Adegboyega and Heravi, 2018:696). Lee et al. (2015:85) state that the principle of visual data storytelling

38

Aydın and Çam

is a three-stage process in which information is produced, narrated, and told. According to them, the creation of the first stage requires the use of statistical analysis during the experimental process. In this context, it becomes likely to interpret the data by filtering and classifying, therefore, making them meaningful. In the storytelling phase, the aim is to get fluent and intelligible information by creating a plot or repeating sections that are compatible with the data. At this stage, the data is arranged in the order of importance; relations among the departments are developed so that the data becomes consistent with the general framework of the message. Finally, it is aimed to make a presentation during the telling phase by using useful visual tools and platforms to receive interactive feedback. Data storytelling often requires the use of visualization techniques to support a written or oral narrative (Ren et al., 2017:2). Such a narrative approach is defined as narrative visualization. Besides, the use of visual elements such as text and graphical annotations is among the most prominent features of data storytelling (Segel and Heer, 2010:1140). Similarly, Lee and colleagues (2013:2417) emphasize the message attributes in the story, saying that users experience an analytical process in which they can perceive the message with the help of visual elements. The textual annotations with visual techniques such as graphs, flowcharts, and infographics make the data more comprehensive. Accordingly, visual data stories can arise in several contexts (Lee et al., 2015: 85–88): • A visual data story includes a series of events supported by data and containing facts (stages describing changes in energy consumption over the years, etc.). • The elements that constitute the story (data, event, change, time) are visualized to support the message. Visualization requires the use of narrative as well as annotations to clarify, emphasize, and prevent ambiguity. • The story elements are presented in a meaningful order or within a link among them to support the communication goal. This procedure is used for purposes ranging from educating or entertaining audiences by showing the facts to convince them with exciting sights. As can be seen, the use of visual data as a means of communication tool appears as an adapted approach to compelling storytelling. The importance of visual narrative techniques has started to increase due to the rapid spread of infographic usage and the development of fields such as data journalism (Amini et al., 2015:3). Hullman and Diakoplous (2011:2235) state that visualizing data is a visual formatting effort to improve the transmission and perception efficiency of data in a communicative context. Data storytelling, which takes advantage of almost all kinds of rhetorical techniques, just like in a written or verbal story,

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

39

makes it easier to make user-centered metering with the possibilities of interaction as well as conveying the message to the target audience. As a way of presenting data most reasonably, stories offer important opportunities as a means of an integrated communication approach that provides an active and experiential process. Visual data stories serve as a functional device on the point where complex data becomes information (Kosara and Mackinlay, 2013:50). Therefore, the presentation of data in the form of visual integrity is significantly influenced by the need to gain meaning and insight into complex scientific data sets. However, it would be appropriate to state that data-based visual storytelling is built on the inferences obtained from the raw data stacks of the researches separately and independently.

4 Basics of Data Storytelling On the other hand, the fact that the pages of the raw data belong to organizations had a completely different meaning from the daily practices of the consumers, and the fact that the experts could only solve this meaning led the institutions to search for new solutions. In this direction, institutions are transforming data obtained during different processes into strong stories with the help of visual tools and transfer them to their stakeholders. Noting that even the tabulated data only answers the question of “What’s going on?” but cannot answer the question “Why?”. Sanderson (2016) states that business can overcome this problem with data-centric storytelling. Thus, enterprises take the most critical step in transforming their data centers into a profit center where all stakeholders can access the data presented in a suitable language and format. In this context, data storytelling provides a methodology for communicating information to a particular stakeholder audience with an engaging narrative. Therefore, it is the last and undisputed most crucial part of the data processing continuum. The data storytelling process brings together three key areas of expertise. (1) Data science is an interdisciplinary field of expertise that acquires knowledge and insights and makes them accessible. Data-driven analysis plays a significant role in the realm of substantial changes in our daily lives, such as social media and consumption, where we spend much of our time in modern times. (2) Digital visualization techniques such as graphs, tabulation methods, and visual maps provide solutions to help us understand a large amount of data collected. Converting data to graphics makes them more intelligible and meaningful, but they can also have some limitations. Although at first glance, they can clarify what happened to an extent, they lack the essential context to explain their reasons. Narrativity (3), the last and most vital component of data storytelling, provides a solution to this

40

Aydın and Çam

fundamental problem (Sanderson, 2016). Narratives reinforce our perceptions of messages delivered to us by using language in a way that suits our wants from the data. Therefore, given that the data and its visual description provide essential evidence, narratives play a key role in conveying these ideas. On the other hand, the increasing prevalence of trust and dependence on data has led enterprises to look for talented employees. A report by LinkedIn in 2016 indicates remarkable insights. The report says data analysis and related working fields have become the warmest professional careers in recent years. LinkedIn has reported that the only occupation category which takes part consistently in the top four is related to data analysis and its communication (Dykes, 2016). Google Chief Economist Hal Varian (2009) states that data management, which means understanding, processing, visualizing, creating value and communicating data from it, is an essential skill that will mark the coming years, not only at the professional level but also at a young age during the college education. According to him, to understand and produce meaning in the masses of data that we can have everywhere today should be considered as a priceless talent. The fact that occupations in the data management category are widely sought by the enterprises supports this opinion. In an article published in the Harvard Business Review, a similar point was pointed out, and it was stated that the most critical step throughout managing big data is communication processes related to data-based information (Anderson, 2018). The article emphasizes the necessity of touching communication approach rather than experience with statistical models. It is among the professions that gain importance in the future by telling visual stories showing the insights obtained from the data and making the basic algorithms meaningful as it can convey complex results to non-technical stakeholders. Data storytelling can be seen as a difficult task for businesses, but the fact that data-based decisions and activities turn into a necessity has an increasing significance day by day. In this context, telling the data with stories enables the organization to become successful, particularly on digital platforms (Martin, 2018). The concept of data-based storytelling associated with many applications such as data visualizations, analytical reporting, dashboards, and data presentations are interpreted as simply visualizing data effectively, but it is more than creating visually appealing PowerPoint presentations. In this respect, it is likely to tell that data storytelling combines two opposite poles, such as raw data and communication task (French, 2018). Data storytelling is a structured approach to communicate data-centered insights. In addition to that, this approach involves a combination of three essential elements: data, visuals, and narrative (Fig. 1). It is necessary to figure out how these different elements work together in data

Engage

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

Narrative

Change En

in pla

Ex

41

Visuals lig

hte n

Data

Fig. 1:  Components of Data Storytelling. Source: Dykes, 2016, https://www.forbes.com

storytelling. Initially, combining the narrative with data helps businesses explain what the data is about and why the insight is essential. A complete realization of insight is up to a broad context and interpretation capacity. In this respect, when visuals are applied to the data, insights that cannot be noticed without graphs can be understood more clearly. Many interesting patterns and outliers in the data are latent in rows and columns of tables without the help of data visualizations. When the narrative and the visuals are brought together, the consumer can be immersed in an experience of fun and emotional flow (Dykes, 2015:301). Therefore, as a requirement of an innovative management approach for modern and sharing businesses, as a result of combining the data with the right visuals and stories, a compelling data story can arise.

4.1 Principles of Data Storytelling Segel and Heer (2010:1142) emphasize that data-based storytelling can be critical to clearly understand the data sources intuitively and rapidly, and state that visualization technologies have a prominent communication advantage by incorporating visualization technologies into storytelling design. Tufte (1998:146) argues that this advantage arises from the ability of visualization that has graphical excellence, to transfer data clearly and effectively. Similarly, Ryan (2016:221) states that the aim at this point is to “convey the key message clearly and effectively”, by emphasizing the context and meaning obtained through visual enhancements. Echeverria et al. (2018:132) state that visualizations are designed to explore and explain insights, but data stories focus only on the latter. Therefore, data stories aim “to explain what is happening in the data and why

42

Aydın and Çam

this characteristic is important”. As having the feature of which convey a significant argument based on evidence, data stories become one of the most powerful communication tools for brands. French (2018) underlines that businesses need an original story idea to differentiate from their competitors and that the data are exciting factors that reveal these stories. According to him, this provides the opportunity to transform the data available to the business into a unique communication tool. Pica (2018) states that visual data is a way of communicating predictions fast, precise, and accurate in story format, which gives people the capacity to understand phenomena intuitively, and he emphasizes that four critical objectives have been attained in presentation-based interaction in this process. These aims are to inform, activate, revive, and communicate the value obtained. Accordingly, the features that enable data storytelling, which makes visual data understandable, to work as a functional device in today’s business structures can be summarized under two headings: Goal Orientation: Data visualization should be implemented to enable the target audience to understand the data (Echeverria et al., 2018:132). Therefore, filtering data in the visual design stage and refining it in terms of the communication process will make it easier for users to understand the results provided. At this point, a design application with a high potential to transmit data can invite users to comment on predictions and increase interest in business processes. User-Oriented: Data should, above all, be used to show key points and help revive a story. For this purpose, it requires the use of many elements such as tables, charts, graphs, visuals, statistics, and interactions (Radcliffe, 2017). The semantic value obtained from each of these tools may vary depending on the story and the basic data. Besides, data storytelling focuses on developing appeals that maximize the interests of users or visitors. Therefore, design and expression elements should be used together to create meaning within the visual section. Text blocks can also be used to clearly illustrate how to interpret visual elements (Echeverria et al., 2018:133). On the other hand, data stories that focus on visual design elements such as graphs and tables are a combination of flowing data visuals with explanatory texts. In this regard, the use of text can be substantial in terms of adjusting the degree of data presented, creating a context for them, and adding detail to the data story. Also, Dietz (2017) states that the best data storytellers use metaphors to induce the mental capacity of the audience with the power of figurative language. Besides, making use of personal anecdotes as a rhetorical complement will also allow the development of a sincere language by moving away from business-type jargon. Thus, this practice becomes functional as a formal narrative that allows listeners to experience an emotional as well as analytical and mental experience at the center of data-driven inferences.

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

43

5 Types of Data Storytelling It is possible to express that visual storytelling based on data brings together two important issues that are frequently discussed today. The first one is data science, which has been dealt with at a strategic level within the scope of business activities in recent years, and the other is the concept of storytelling which is used as a practical tool within the framework of marketing communication. As a channel that transmits data which has gained meaning through analytical processes, storytelling is used as a way to effectively convey a difficult subject to the target audience. At this point, it would be appropriate to state that the storytelling became ambiguous in terms of the structural elements (plot, character, place, time), transformed into a digital face and conveyed the information in a warm and intimate tone with the help of visual tools. Therefore, data storytelling can be defined as communicating the data in a more intelligible and engaging format with the help of visualizations. In this regard, all kinds of visual narrative forms such as advertisements designed by brands based on data, visual narratives presented on websites related to sustainability efforts, data-based content and videos shared on digital platforms, and historical charts where corporate information are told can be considered among data storytelling types. Even so, there is a limited number of classification studies on data visualization and storytelling in the academic literature. Nevertheless, the current studies can explain the phenomenon in general terms. The first of these publications is the result of a content analysis of 58 visual narratives by Segel and Heer (2010). Thus, the researchers took the first step in defining a type of storytelling in which data was visualized and transmitted. They concluded that the concept of data storytelling could be categorized into seven basic types as a result of their approach in their studies. These seven types emerged by the investigation of visual and narrative components of storytelling based on data are as follows: news style, annotated graphics, segmented posters, flowcharts, comics, slideshows, and movies/ videos/animation. However, according to the researchers, these species should not be considered as independent of each other but rather as designs that are compatible to come together to generate more complicated but engaging visual forms. In the following section, the types of visual storytelling included in this classification are explained with examples.

5.1 Magazine Style Data Storytelling It is the presentation of data visuals with explanations placed in a flowing text in accordance with the journal type of media. In this static type of data storytelling, which is widely used, there is a transition of a single frame (Segel and

44

Aydın and Çam

Fig. 2:  Ulker’s Environmental Sustainability Report. Source: http://www. surdurulebilirlik.ulker.com.tr/

Heer, 2010:1147). Businesses often present key points in their data with a visual presentation and annotations. A text and visual sequence that will facilitate understanding of data-based predictions and results such as social responsibility projects, market research, turnover and profit information, and new investment projects are shared with the target audience in the form of magazine design. Readers can also reach articles line by line and interact with linked sections to access related visualizations. This avoids additional cognitive effort (searching for interactive links, matching data and descriptions, etc.) for users who strive to make the message meaningful. However, according to Kwon et al. (2014: 5), ­traditional magazine-style articles are beneficial for these purposes; they are often limited to providing contextual information within simple prose. Ülker –­international food company based in Turkey – has a method of sharing digital data on corporate social responsibility projects and incorporates a magazineformat approach (Fig. 2). Within the scope of its sustainability efforts for the environment, Ulker reduced its water consumption by 24 % on a unit production basis and went on to explain its success with visuals and texts. In this context,

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

45

while there is a place cursor in the upper block of the design that emphasizes the topic examined, readers are also informed about the other topics. Similarly, Sabancı Holding preferred to convey its banking sector activities in the text block with an annotated table and graph, in particular, the tables where the numerical data related to the sector have been enriched and made meaningful with the information containing general explanations by visualizing all of them (Fig. 3).

5.2 Annotated Charts These are visual tools that are created by enriching and making sense of the data represented by graphs with footnotes and description boxes. In this context, comment boxes or footnotes serve as message points that provide users with more background information about a particular set of data. Stolper et al. (2016:12) stated that explanations have a significant role as narrator’s representative in data-based storytelling and emphasized three features of the annotations as follows: content (text, symbol, etc.), location, and timing (the description should appear and disappear if requested). However, with unlimited freedom for users to evaluate data, there is also the risk that disclosures may be inconsistent, irrelevant, or confusing. For instance, if the visitor no longer displays annotations when he zooms or filters the data group in which the footnote is contained, this may cause inconsistency with the logic of the visualization. However, companies may want to add value to the presentation with additional explanations when interactive actions are performed such as selecting and filtering or zooming a data group. In this case, the descriptive text is expected to work under an interactive visual arrangement. Similarly, Ren et al. (2017:230) stated that explanations play an essential role in conveying key points in visual data-driven storytelling, and that footnote boxes, which are either static or dynamic, help presenters to explain and emphasize the underlying messages consisting of data. In addition to helping clarify important messages or data, annotations allow viewers to focus and concentrate on specific parts of the graphs (Lee et al., 2013:2417). Also, appropriately placed annotation boxes potentially make data easier to store and produce aesthetic ­appeal by ­generating more context (Borkin et al., 2013:2307). On the other hand, creating a data-driven story developed with tags and explanations and enabling users to interact reduces the risk of noise associated with the visualization of the message and thus increases intelligibility. Thus, ­reliability and participation due to interactive visualization are established in storytelling (Ma et al., 2012:18). Hullman and Diakopoulos (2011:2233) consider explanation techniques as one of the four editorial layers of data storytelling as

46

Aydın and Çam

Fig. 3:  Sabancı Holding Annual Report. Source: https://yatirimciiliskileri.sabanci.com/ tr/faaliyet-raporlari

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

47

Fig. 4:  Toyota’s Historical Chart. Source: https://global.toyota/en/company/ trajectory-of-toyota/history/

well as visual presentation, data set, and interaction. In this case, the description fields which consist of labels, pointers, dynamic texts, diagrams, and other visual symbols are of great importance in terms of positioning a data in the minds of users by gaining a message character. Data stories consist of different data visualization techniques, combined with historical graphs and explanations in particular. Toyota Global, for example, aims to create a richer user experience by utilizing the descriptions and visuals in the graphics to support the story of its historical background (Fig. 4). In this context, the visual history visualization presented on the brand’s website enables visitors to examine and compare the data. Besides, users are enabled to use interfaces that allow them to filter and focus on any point on the historical graphs, thereby enhancing interaction. Among this process, users read the story of the brand in detail in the description boxes and become a part of this experience. Therefore, it can be said that the digital and visual history presented on Toyota’s website represents one of the most potent examples of the unique nature of stories that invite users to explore.

5.3 Flowcharts-Infographics Data flowcharts provide a way to tell a story of a process or system data on a hierarchical plane. Therefore, it ensures general information about the entire

48

Aydın and Çam

Fig. 5:  AFAD Infographic Designs. Source: https://www.afad.gov.tr/tr/13016/Infografik/ grafik/27167

processes of the business. Furthermore, specific operations based on data can be easily illustrated by a flow chart. The flowchart enables a schematic presentation by combining the story pieces connected with boxes and arrows. Thus, different ways of generating solutions to any issue are identified. Flowcharts are used to analyze, design, document, or manage processes or programs in various fields (Ren et al., 2017:231). In this context, infographics are used by journalists, computer and data scientists, and statisticians in a broad background to conceptually explain various information. It is possible to consider that two main factors inspire the communicative power of infographics. Primarily, the relationship between graphical representations and raw data helps users make sense of this connection. The second factor stems from the fact that visual design promises artistic freedom to the data communicator. Thus, it allows the creation of a unique and personalized message graphic in an aesthetic language shared by universally (Lee, 2013:2418). On the other hand, infographics are visual graphic representations of data or statistics that aim to present the message in a quick, precise, and meaningful way. Typically, it consists of a composition of figures, flowcharts, images,

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

49

Fig. 6:  Turkcell’s Partitioned Poster. Source: https://medya.turkcell.com.tr/infographics/ rakamlarla-turkcell-teknoloji-zirvesi-2016/

arrows, and titles. These elements are arranged with a consistent theme, color, layout, and typography. Statistical infographics include numbers and information represented in the form of maps and images. It tells a story on its own as a visual representation of intriguing data and messages. In this context, it is necessary to have a synthesis of graphic design, data visualization, and storytelling skills to design infographics effectively (Underwood, 2017). For example, the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (AFAD) reported the research and information processes on information systems and communication technologies with a useful infographic (Fig. 5). The long-term process, associated events, and situations are presented with visualizations, flowcharts, and consistent typography. Thus, AFAD aims to transform the data which can be perceived as tedious and incomprehensible by many of its stakeholders into a story with a hierarchical flow and causal connections and a message with high communicative value.

5.4 Partitioned Poster Partitioned posters, which are a type of infographics, can have more than one frame to visualize different but related groups of data. Segel and Heer (2010:1142) state that posters with a segmented message network are planned as multiple design frames. Accordingly, the design space is divided into at least two frames and the data is associated with each other. In the partitioned poster, which is used to improve investor relations, Turkcell has combined its performance indicators and the applications it has made available in this process with the profit data it provides to investors (Fig. 6). The information for each category was presented to the visitors in a segmented design and separate frames. Similarly, the Association

50

Aydın and Çam

Fig. 7:  TAYSAD Partitioned Poster. Source: http://www.taysadmag.com/infografik

of Vehicle Supply Manufacturers (TAYSAD) presented data on payment trends within segmented infographics to consumers (Fig. 7). In the report, data on payment trends and financing loans in many European countries are presented in an infographic format divided into different frameworks and headings.

5.5 Comics, Cartoons, and Animations Visual media often includes scene passages similar to those between sections of a fictional film or comics panels. The continuity of a coherent message interconnected between the scenes increases the impact of cognitive processes towards the given message (Segel and Heer, 2010: 1140). In this respect, comics represent an indiscriminate yet powerful and intriguing way of telling stories; where pictures, text, visual footnotes, and explanations come together. Sequential art, known as comics produced from data-based visualizations, is used as an innovative method for data-based storytelling. Consequently, cartoons, which are a visual communication tool, can be seen as a popular graphical application used to transfer information to all target groups, especially children and young people (McCloud, 2011).

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

51

Fig. 8:  Sütaş’s Cartoon-Format Data Communication. Source: https://www.sutas.com. tr/uploads/images/sutas-surdurulebilirlik-raporu-2017.pdf

Comics enable to create narratives that use cartoon designs of scenes that include both photography and live animations. Data-driven comic reports emerge after arranging a series of humorous panels that contain visual graphic elements. Each frame designed to be consistent with both visual and textual elements is aimed to convey the overall story told in comic books in a hierarchical sequence that gradually develops (Zhao et al., 2015:1). Sütaş shared the data concerning integrated business model with cartoon graphics in a humorous tone in its report prepared within the scope of sustainability efforts (Fig. 8). The images he used were also cartoon graphics of cows in the brand’s corporate identity and advertising efforts; therefore, Sütaş was able to convey a consistent visual data story to its stakeholders. Visualization represents a practical approach in the communication process of all kinds of data regardless of their quality. Accordingly, one of the data communication methods used by brands is animation videos. According to Sinar (2016), animated films combining a high-quality data set and an engaging issue for the brand’s stakeholders can be very efficient in explaining complicated and troublesome concepts and profoundly influencing viewers through an emotional experience. This may be true for data, in particular, indicating the variation between multiple groups and periods. In this way, it is possible to maximize the informative, appealing, and convincing effect obtained as a result of standard and static data visualizations. Similarly, Nakakoji et al. (2001:83) tell that in

52

Aydın and Çam

Fig. 9:  Happiness Cycle Animation Video of Ulker. Source: http://www. surdurulebilirlik.ulker.com.tr/

terms of interpreting data, making comparisons between values, dividing them into smaller components, focusing attention, predicting change, and then giving an idea of what happens next; animations performed better than static graphics and tables. Today, the race to increase message involvement with appealing visuals continues under more competitive conditions than ever before. Animated and interactive data stories are among the innovative methods used by brands in this relentless struggle. Ulker’s animated film “The Cycle of Happiness”, which is designed to tell a story that the company provides added value to the environment can be considered as the product of such an approach (Fig. 9). The brand has transformed its achievements into numerical data and conveyed these data with an emotional story within the theme of ‘happiness’. Within the story based on the data, Ulker depicted independent heroes struggling between causal spots. Therefore, Ulker has positioned itself as a value-oriented brand that makes significant contributions to the happiness of story heroes and other stakeholders through products and services. Briefly, Ulker’s animated film, prepared within the scope of sustainability efforts, shows how productive the role of data communication can play in positioning a brand.

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

53

6 Conclusion Data storytelling is the art of telling a brand story with visualized data. Nowadays, by transforming statistical data into stories, businesses produce a semantic value that attracts and affects consumers. Within this context, the most important tactical activity that makes data valuable for brands is to increase their communicative meaning by placing them in a story. This also turns into a distinctive form of communication that allows consumers to make sense of statistical data and static tables and does not require any expertise. Statistics and data processing require specialized discipline. Therefore, the opportunity to activate consumers are quite low. However, people rationalize their emotional decisions based on causal facts. In other words, we look for ­acceptable reasons behind what we feel emotional intimacy. Therefore, it is possible to tell that the idea of transforming the data into a story by visualizing derive from a natural tendency in which emotional and rational processes are used together in decision-making. Thus, it is essential to enrich the communicative value of the data to engage people and make data emotionally sufficient. In a sense, this may also mean the adoption of human characteristics to increase the effectiveness of statistical data and establish an emotional connection. On the other hand, it may be correct to add a new context to the fact that people now live under a message bombardment. Modern man has been rained with visual knowledge that technological tools bring to life. When we examine almost every kind of message, from television advertisements to illuminated and remarkable media advertisements, it will be seen that the enormous flow of information encompasses human life. The visual representation of all those data traffic makes it possible for consumers to make sense of them. Therefore, data storytelling is a reflection of brands’ desire to communicate with their stakeholders both online and traditionally in a market environment where data gains importance. With this approach, brands create the context and communicate correctly to enable consumers to recognize the connections in the emergence of facts or trends. Today, while many brands have no problems in accessing and analyzing data, they face difficulties in converting it into value. This means that brands are not acquainted with the digital tools that enable data storytelling and visualization, or they do not give any importance to those efforts. However, data-driven marketing which has become a necessity and visual reporting, which increases the communicative value of data, can contribute to the long-term success of brands. The storytelling of data used in a wide range from corporate social responsibility efforts to presenting consumer trends research results, new product strategies,

54

Aydın and Çam

and pricing policies require a visual reporting approach. In this way, businesses will provide the information they need in the decision-making process as well as making their information accessible and transparent. The invaluable contribution of this effort to the corporate image of the enterprise through the sensitivity and responsibility of creating a data society is beyond anything. All brands, regardless of their size, can access the necessary tools and information that can use data storytelling. The primary action is to think strategically and make decisions on these processes. At this point, trying to comprehend the importance of storytelling in the process of transforming consumer and market insights obtained from raw data into a visual message with high communicative value will be an approach that increases the motivation of the businesses. In this study, it is aimed to give examples about how the enterprises whose data need is increasing day by day, transform their data stack into a story with communicative value. Data storytelling, which is a relatively new concept in the academic literature, offers unique opportunities for businesses that meet their stakeholders, especially in communication channels that develop due to digitalization. As practical usage becomes widespread, brands will be able to transform their data into value-driven information that makes sense to consumers.

References Abbott, P. H. (2008). The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative (Second Edition), New York: Cambridge University Press. Adegboyega, O., and Bahareh, H. (2018). “Patterns in Award Winning Data Storytelling”, Digital Journalism, 6(6), pp. 693–718. Amini, F., Henry Riche, N., Lee, B., Hurter, C., and Irani, P. (2015). “Understanding Data Videos: Looking at Narrate and Visualization through the Cinematography Lens”, Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Seoul, Suth Korea: ACM, pp. 1459–1468. Anderson, H. (2018). What Data Scientists Really Do, According to 35 Data Scientists, https://hbr.org/2018/08/what-data-scientists-really-do-accordingto-35-data-scientists (Date of Access: 22.04.2019). Barkın, M. (December 2017). “Hikâyenin Geleceği”, Mediacat, 1(2017), pp. 26–28. Barthes, R. (1982). Introduction to the Structural Analyses of Narratives, New York: Hill and Wang. Borkin, M. A., Vo, A. A., Bylinskii, Z., Isola, P., Sunkavalli, S., Oliva, A., and Pfister, H. (2013). “What Makes a Visualization Memorable?” IEEE Transactions Visualization and Computer Graphics, 19(12), pp. 2306–2315.

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

55

Boy, J., Detienne, F., and Fekete, J. D. (2015). “Storytelling in Information Visualizations: Does It Engage Users to Explore Data?”, Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM, pp. 1449–1458. Dietz, K. (2017). Data Storytellıng. What It Is, What It’s Not, How to Do It, https://www.juststoryit.com/inside-story-blog/2017/11/30/data-storytellingwhat-it-is-how-to-do-it-how-to-think-about-it (Date of Access: 03.05.2019). Dykes, B. (2015). “Data Storytelling: What It is and How it Can Be Used to Effectively Communicate Analysis Results”, Applied Marketing Analytics, 1(4), pp. 299–313. Dykes, B. (2016). Data Storytelling: The Essential Data Science Skill Everyone Needs. https://www.forbes.com/sites/brentdykes/2016/03/31/datastorytelling-the-essential-data-science-skill-everyone-needs/#279ac2de52ad (Date of Access: 22.04.2019). Echeverria, V., Martinez-Maldonado, R., Granda, R., Chiluiza, K., Conati, C., and Shum, S. B. (2018). “Driving Data Storytelling from Learning Design”, 8th International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge, ACM, pp. 131–140. French, K. (2018). Why Data Visualization + Data Storytelling Is Marketing Gold, https://www.columnfivemedia.com/data-storytelling-brands-datavisualization (Date of Access: 21.04.2019). Hullman, J., and Diakopoulos, N. (2011). “Visualization Rhetoric: Framing Effects in Narrative Visualization”, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 17(12), pp. 2231–2240. Hurlburt, G. F., and Voas, J. (2011). “Storytelling: From Cave Art to digital media”, IT Professional, 13(5), pp. 4–7. Keim, D. A. (2002). “Information Visualization and Visual Data Mining”, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 8(1), pp. 1–8. Knaflic, C. N. (2015). Storytelling with Data: A Data Visualization Guide for Business Professionals, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Kosara, R., and Mackinlay, J. (2013). “Storytelling: The Next Step for Visualization”, Computer Sciences, 46(5), pp. 44–50. Kwon, B. C., Stoffel, F., Jäckle, D., Lee, B., and Keim, D. (2014). “Visjockey: Enriching Data Stories through Orchestrated Interactiand Visualization”, In Compendium of the Computation+ Journalism Symposium, New York, pp. 1–5. Lee, B., Kazi, R. H. and Smith, G. (2013). “Sketch Story: Telling More Engaging Stories with Data through Freeform Sketching”. IEEE Transactions Visualization and Computer Graphics, 19(12), pp. 2416–2425.

56

Aydın and Çam

Lee, B., Riche, N. H., Isenberg, P., and Carpendale, S. (2015). “More Than Telling a Story: Transforming Data into Visually Shared Stories”, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 35(5), pp. 84–90. Ma, K. L., Liao, I., Frazier, J., Hauser, H., and Kostis, H. N. (2012). “Scientific Storytelling Using Visualization”, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 32(1), pp. 12–19. Martin, C. (2018). Data Visualization: How to Tell a Story With Data, https:// www.forbes.com/sites/nicolemartin1/2018/11/01/data-visualization-how-totell-a-story-with-data/#420b0bd04368 (Date of Access: 20.04.2019). McCloud, S. (2011). “Comics: A Medium in Transition”, Computer Graphics Forum, 30(3), Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Nakakoji, K., Takashima, A., and Yamamoto, Y. (2001). “Cognitive Effects of Animated Visualization in Exploratory Visual Data Analysis”, Proceedings Fifth International Conference on Information Visualisation, IEEE, pp. 77–84. Pica, L. (2018). PICA Protocol: A Visualization Prescription for Impactful Data Storytelling - Whiteboard Friday, https://moz.com/blog/impacfful-datastorytelling (Date of Access: 03.05.2019). Radcliffe, D. (2017). 10 Key Principles for Data-Driven Storytelling, https:// www.journalism.co.uk/news/10-key-principles-for-data-driven storytelling/ s2/a713879/ (Date of Access: 01.05.2019). Ren, D., Brehmer, M., Lee, B., Höllerer, T., and Choe, E. K. (2017). “Chartaccent: Annotation for Data-Driven Storytelling”, 2017 IEEE Pacific Visualization Symposium (PacificVis), IEEE, pp. 230–239. Robin, B., McNeil, S., and Yuksel, P. (2011). “Educational Uses of Digital Storytelling around the World”, Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE), pp. 1264–1271. Ryan, L. (2016). The Visual Imperative: Creating a Visual Culture of Data Discover, Cambridge: Morgan Kaufmann. Sanderson, D. (2016). What is Data Storytelling, https://www.nugit.co/about/ (Date of Access: 21.04.2019). Seçkin, E. (2019). Data Storytelling: Verinin Hikâyeleştirilmesi. http:// creathinks.com/icerik-yonetimi-tr/data-storytelling-verininhikayelestirilmesi/ (Date of Access: 05.05.2019). Segel, E., and Heer, J. (2010). “Narrative Visualization: Telling Stories with Data”, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 16(6), pp. 1139–1148.

Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization

57

Sinar, E. (2016). Use Animation to Supercharge Data Visualization, https:// medium.com/@EvanSinar/use-animation-to-supercharge-datavisualization-cd905a882ad4 (Date of Access: 02.05.2019). Stolper, C. D., Lee, B., Riche, N. H., and Stasko, J. (2016). Emerging and Recurring Data-Driven Storytelling Techniques: Analysis of a Curated Collection of Recent Stories, https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/ wp-content/uploads/2016/04/MSR-TR-2016-14-Storytelling-Techniques.pdf (Date of Access: 03.05.2019). Tufte, E. (1998). “Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence and Narrative”, Computers in Physıcs, 12(2), pp. 146–155. Underwood, J. (2017). Storytellıng wıth Infographıcs: Where to Start, https:// www.jenunderwood.com/2015/11/23/storytelling-infographics-start/ (Date of Access: 01.05.2019). Varian, H. (2009). Hal Varian on How the Web Challenges Managers, https:// www.mckinsey.com/industries/high-tech/our-insights/hal-varian-on-howthe-web-challenges-managers (Date of Access: 22.04.2019). Zhao, Z., Marr, R., and Elmqvist, N. (2015). Data Comics: Sequential Art for Data-Driven Storytelling, College Park: HCIL Technical Report, University of Maryland.

B. Oğuz Aydın, Ceren Yegen

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday Introduction Consumption has meanings beyond consumer practice. Beyond the needs, the routinized consumption, which is a habit on the basis of today’s capitalist economy and the prerequisite of social acceptance, continuously exists even if the intermediaries change. However, in the process of consumption, which was characterized by Baudrillard (2008) as the system of systematic and global indicators, the consumer society today, in the new media age, has evolved towards the next generation of digital consumers. Web-based shopping opportunities carried consumption beyond the borders of physical actions and popularized shopping over computer/keyboard. In this process, where the consumption channels are diversified, some popular phenomena are attempted to be formed on a process basis for creating mass interest for shopping. Translated into Turkish as Kara Cuma (Black Friday)/Şahane Cuma (Fantastic Friday)/Efsane Cuma (Legend Friday), the “Black Friday” campaign, which refers to a mass shopping practice, is one of them. Today, the Black Friday process refers to the clearance shopping campaigns held in the first Friday following the Thanksgiving Day. Black Friday, which emerged in the USA, was initially used for noel shopping, and subsequently it evolved into its current version, referring a global and mass shopping practice. The Black Friday campaigns are so popular today that they attract attention in many parts of the world. In the Black Friday campaigns, where there are sales with various rates of discounts, sometimes individuals compete against each other for buying products, and the stores/brands draw attention through changing attractive discount rates. The Black Friday campaigns also have widespread media coverage. To such an extent that the density of shopping during these periods are covered in the main news bulletins. Moreover, it can also be mentioned that it is being attempted to form a global shopping culture by means of the Black Friday. The popularization of Black Friday also mediated the creation of new species as its continuum. The Monday campaign, created by the name “Cyber Monday”, is the first of these and is aimed to be popularized like the Black Friday.1 1 Today, there are also campaigns such as Wild Sale, Labor Day Sale, Weekend Sale, and Weekend End Sale, in which the users are invited to periodic and thematic shopping.

60

Aydın and Yegen

A mass shopping action is planned by Cyber Monday as well, and potential customers are reached through discounts at various rates similar to Black Friday. Although Cyber Monday is less popular today than Black Friday, it is important to understand the new consumption myths on a universal and global scale. Moreover, there are dialogues on both cases in the social media today, which is now a public discussion domain, and relevant campaigns are frequently involved in social networks. However, there are those in social networks who think that the translation of the Black Friday description into Turkish as Kara Cuma (Black Friday) is a negative connotation. In social networks, the reflexive shares of individuals draw much more attention than their consumer identities or shares. Therefore, in this study, the Kara Cuma (Black Friday) network, which characterizes a different debate instead of Black Friday, will be laid out as a current, new, and capitalist consumption myth, through its views on social networks. The research study consists of literature review and research parts. In the theoretical part of the study, the role of media in consumption, capitalism, and consumption processes will be discussed. In the research part of the study, the Black Friday Network on Twitter, a popular social network today, will be investigated through the social network analysis method. Thus, obtained through the data, it is aimed at developing a current perspective towards the new media-based/ assisted capitalist consumption phenomenon.

1 Consumption “To consume” is derived from the Latin verb “consumere”, which means “to swallow”, “to annihilate”, and “to spend”. “To consume” was firstly seen in English in the 14th century as “to consume”. However, in its uses in the early French and English, the connotations of the concept were almost always negative. The concept was also used in meanings such as to consume something in order to destroy, burn, vaporize, or throw it. Even serious diseases such as tuberculosis were characterized as diseases that “consume” their victims due to these negative connotations. This usage was documented in the Oxford English Dictionary (1395) as well. It was such common that the tuberculosis began to be known as “consumption” for a while. In this period, the physical consumption was defined in the context of commodities, and it was often referred to as synonymous with waste (Graeber, 2011:491–492). Veblen’s “Conspicuous consumption” approach is important in understanding the consumption as a process. Veblen mentions a class in the approach; a consuming

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

61

class (idle class). According to him, the “Idle Class” (Leisure Class) is a product of modern times, comprised of individuals consuming for modernizing. Consuming, for them, is an indication of social status and prosperity (Veblen, 1899; Bagwell and Bernheim, 1996). Belonging to this competitive consumption, which aims to indicate membership in a superior social class, demonstrates itself in the use of assets as a means of showing the success and prosperity of the individual. According to Veblen’s theory, individuals imitate the consumption habits of other individuals at higher points in the hierarchy. The social norms governing this emulation are changing as the economy and social fabric change over time. The tendency to buy expensive and unnecessary goods is a model of consumer behavior that becomes very common in our society. We consume luxury items to meet practical needs, mostly to impress the ones around us. The phenomenon of social consumption has become increasingly evident in modern society. Although much less limited to the developed countries, the conspicuous consumption constitutes the overwhelming portion of the consumption where it exists (Watkins, 2015; Patsiaouras, 2010:10–46; Trigg, 2001:99; Bergman, 2010). Consumption, in Baudrillar (2008), stands for a system of indicators, and in this system, the indicators have become the object of consumption with the progression of capitalism, and the consumption has steered away from being a need. According to Baudrillard, consumerism or late capitalism is an extension of the hyper-reality idea. Because today, everything in our daily world is a simulation of reality, and the simulation is completed through the production and consumption of goods. Therefore, each indicator with a symbiotic message is consumed (Sørensen, 2013:24). According to Sundie et al., (2011), today’s flashy expenses can be read as a social signal/indicator for potential friends. In the postmodern society, consumption is strictly dependent on the c­ reation of a sense of “self ”. Some people suggest that the products have greater ­significance and meanings than their primary functions. Even today, it is virtually ­impossible to buy any product that is not embedded in certain identity symbols (Tood, 2012:58). In this context, consumption describes a form of identity, as well. The consuming identity is created by the individual in certain frameworks for ­specific purposes. At this point, the suggestion of Giddens (2014:13) is remarkable emphasizing that the self is transformed into something that is reflexively produced in our day of top or late modernity. It is also necessary to mention that the consumption is a phenomenon that paves the way for optimistic views on economic and social development. Because according to certain approaches, consuming is a sign of a good economy and a high prosperity level and mass consumption is also related to “democratization”

62

Aydın and Yegen

of consumption. This approach concerning the mass consumption phenomenon suggests that the rise in consumer expenditures is the result of an increase in “progress” that promises consumers to bring more options, freedom, peace, and happiness (Patsiaouras, 2010:10–46; Carroll, 2001). In the daily life, purchase and consumption behaviors are frequently repeated, and over time, consumption develops as a habit. Habits, rituals lead people to consume. Rituals play an important role in both traditional and modern consumption. It has such significance that food historians have catalogued countless rituals that involve the preparation, and consumption processes of foods and beverages (Ji and Wood, 2007; Campbell and Cochrane, 1999; Vohs et al., 2014). There are many factors that lead individuals to consumption. Some of these are the desire to have something, satisfaction, need, and advice (Heitmann et al., 2007; Deaton, 2005; Michael, 1975). Individuals from almost all age groups are interested in the consumption phenomenon. For example, since the generation Y spends 39 billion USD per year in the United States, it is seen as a generation with a “very high purchasing power” (Cited from Nowak, Thach and Olsen 2006, by Ganesan, 2012).

2 An Important Phenomenon in Consumption: Capitalism Capitalism, in general, is defined as the economic system, in which special actors take the control and allow the use of ownership in their own interests, and the invisible hand of the pricing mechanism automatically coordinates the supply and demand in the markets’ economic system (Scott, 2006). Capitalism is a socio-economic system based on the production of goods with a rational cost and price calculation, and on a consistent capital accumulation for re-investment purposes. However, the concept was integrated with a culture and character particular to itself, describing a change. Because the everyday systems in societies and economy have changed to a little extent since the industrial revolution. The power of capitalism is masked by certain developments such as the increase in per capita income and the once-luxurious things in capitalist countries (economic housing, cleanliness, lighting and heating, clothing, travel, entertainment) turning into being accessible to all. Today, thanks to the capitalist flow, we can have access to bread, home, car, mobile phone, shirt, shoes and buy all the other goods we need to support our daily life. In the early years of capitalism, political economists struggled to understand this flow, and a critical approach of how capitalism works has emerged. But recently, it has been steered away from such critical understanding. Instead, we create complex mathematical models, infinitely analyze the data, review the widespread layers, and examine

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

63

the details; however, among a pack of papers, reports, and forecasts, we do not observe any insight concerning the systemic character of the capital flow. The origins of capitalism are claimed to be two-way in the contexts of Weberian2 and Sombartian approaches. These are “asceticism (Protestant Ethic)” as emphasized by Weber, and the “rapacity/acquisitiveness” stressed as the main theme in the studies of Werner Sombart, which are considered to be mostly neglected (Bell, 1976; Butler, 2018:5–6; Harvey, 2010: vi). According to Sombart (2001:9–35), the Jewish influence had an important role in the long story of capitalism. Modern capitalism is more than an expression of the Jewish spirit. Because, in the initial phases of trade, Jews had always been present where there had been trade with money, and they have mediated the birth of modern capitalism. In Marx, capitalism is a phenomenon that describes the goods-production system which has bad effects on society. According to Marxism and Marx, who allegedly formed a “religion” for its believers in the context of the sociological self-belief, capitalism, similar to all previous socio-economic systems that have been destroyed by themselves throughout the history, would conclude with its own collapse along with its own social logic. The surplus value theory that Marx emphasized is important for understanding his views on capitalism. According to him, surplus value is the production by the labor of the workers in exchange for surplus-price. In other words, the paid laborers in capitalism are exploited as they were in feudalism and slavery. They all perform surplus labor for the owners of the production means. Capitalist production requires conflicts in manufacturing and distribution. Competition is an indispensable feature of capitalism; however, most often, it creates instability, crises, and unemployment; this indicates that capitalism is not only the most productive but also the most systematic and destructive production style in the history. Capitalist economies, under the competitive conditions, are contradictory due to the conflict of interest and surplus value accumulation. This instability is structural, and even the best economic policies cannot completely prevent it (Schumpeter, 2003; Saad-Filo, 2002; Moseley, 2002; Khalil, 1992; Anderson, 2012). Marx also thought that capitalist agriculture was harmful to nature and capitalist exploitation was harmful 2 Weber (2011: 14) states that: “From a complete economic point of view, the main problem in the history of universal culture is that capitalism demonstrates itself in changing forms; in other words, it is not that it demonstrates itself as adventurous, commercial capitalism or based on war, politics, business, and profit. The difference is rather due to the lack of business capitalism based on bourgeoisie that includes a sensible organization of free labor…”

64

Aydın and Yegen

to human labor. Marx believed that capitalist farming damages the soil quality and that bad harvests have turned into economic crisis (O’Connor, 1988: 13–14). There are also approaches claiming that capitalism refers to a legal, social, economic, and cultural system that Schumpeter calls “creative destruction”. According to these approaches, capitalism is a spiritual and cultural initiative, although it is derived as materialistic by philosophers who are supporters of materialism. Contrary to what is depicted by the ones, who want to weaken or destroy it, capitalism is far from being an immoral area for conflict of interest and is highly structured by ethical norms and rules (Palmer, 2011). Reisman (1998) states that it should not be surprising that those who are considered as important economists are also the foremost defenders of capitalism. Because ­according to him, it is not difficult for an economist to be a defender of capitalism, if he desires that people live and thrive, to the extent that he truly understands the principles governing economic life. Instability for modern capitalism has become a seemingly structural feature, not an exception (Jacobs and Mazzucato, 2016:2–3). Today it is important to focus on understanding the undeniable relationship between the current form of capitalism and the global free market (Oliver, 2015:2–4). Because in our day, it is also thought that consumption in capitalist societies becomes an everyday practice as well as a lifestyle (Demirel and Yegen, 2015:121). The consumption that the capitalist system focuses today is a current, global, and popular process; the system continues by the consumption of certain predetermined goods by individuals. Thus, the existence of capitalism continues, and individuals carry out the action of consumption in line with what has been predetermined for them. Consuming today is a capitalist practice and is also debated on the basis of utilitarianism. The utility of consumption is the satisfaction that the consumer feels by using a good, and according to the theory of consumer behavior, the aim of consumers is the highest satisfaction. On the other hand, how to measure the utility is a controversial issue. In this context, “Cardinal” and “Ordinal” utility theories were suggested. According to the “Cardinal Utility” theory, a score can be given to the consumer of each commodity or component of the commodity, indicating the degree of utility provided. Economists defending the cardinal benefits are divided into two groups. The first group believing that the utility is cardinal and summable is comprised of economists such as Jevons, Menger, and Walras, while the second group of economists such as Edgeworth and Fisher believe that the utility is cardinal but not summable. According to the “Ordinal Utility” theory, the utility is unmeasurable, so it is not possible to measure the utility but it is possible to measure the satisfaction (Turkler, 1986:8; Oflaz, 2007:11–12).

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

65

3 Media Factor in the Consumption Process In our day, through the shaping of economic, cultural, and even political identities, the consumption is at the center of our social life (Stavrakakis, 2006). In the process of consumption, mass media and media have an important role. The emergence of the public opinion along with the use of newsletters, newspapers, and printing houses, and the mass media emerging as a mediator for social consciousness always have significant missions in the history (Koloğlu, 2013:11). The media, which has been strengthened by technological developments over the years, remains as a dominant power in the social and economic context today. It is claimed that “the dominant media organs are organizations that sell the privileged viewers to other businesses”, so it renders the ownership structure of the media controversial, which is in a close relationship with democracy, state, and the ruling government (Chomsky, 2012:12–13). As Güz (2008:1) emphasized, there is a close relationship between the freedom of the press organs in the countries and the character of political power and political regime. Since the media is an environment that enables rapid and effective reach to the masses, it also demonstrates an effective utility in conveying the values and teachings of the capitalist system (Demirel and Yegen, 2015:119). An important agent of consumption in capitalist societies is the popular culture (Fiske, 2012). The products and contents of popular culture are offered through media and consumed by popular societies. According to certain approaches, consumer capitalism is not sustainable in environmental, social, and even financial terms (Jackson, 2016). Nevertheless, it is obvious that Western societies have historically evolved into a new stage in the evolution of capitalism. Because the relevant societies are characterized by companies that use monopolist power and ensure maintaining the demand by advertising through the media (Benhabib and Bisin, 2002). The concepts of “Prosumption” and “Prosumer”, indicated by Ritzer and Jurgenson (2010), are also important for the relationship among consumption, capitalism, and media. “Prosumption” and “Prosumer” include both production and consumption, rather than focusing on production or consumption. Prosumption stands for the interrelated process of production and consumption. Because the world today has entered into a new process of social transformation, particularly associated with the internet and the Web 2.0, a larger centrality has been formed based on the media context, and the producing consumers have emerged. Nevertheless, while the capitalist powers and interests are in an attempt to control the profits on these websites (Facebook, Twitter, etc.) and on other sources, they have achieved fluctuating achievements so far. In our digital age,

66

Aydın and Yegen

the producer has taken the position of both the consumer and the producer in the digital context (Ritzer and Jurgenson, 2010:14). As Fuch (2011) pointed out, in this process, rather than workers doing something for consumers, the majority of consumption requires consumers to do a lot of things for themselves and pay no fees. Through “hiring consumers”, the consumer in a fast food restaurant can be one’s own waiter, and one’s own gas pump attendant in the self-service petrol stations. According to Ritzer and Jurgenson, the Web 2.0 facilitates the emergence of prosumption (producing consumption/consumption) capitalism, and capitalist economy is always dominated by the producing consumption (Ritzer and Jurgenson, 2010; Fuchs, 2011). The new media, which emerged different from traditional media today and brought an interactive, concurrent trend to the information process, is also mediating the dissemination of the relevant system. The new media combines many internet-based platforms/applications with users, intensely influencing the traditional journalism practice. Today, unlike the traditional journalism, there are also internet sites that include information on its original field (Koloğlu, 2013:179). In addition, new journalism practices and types have also emerged. The advent of online news has opened the way to discuss the consumption, alteration, and dissemination of the news in the printing and publishing environments. In addition, online news consumption is discussed concerning temporal and spatial effects and consequences of getting news on this media (Mitchelstein and Boczkowski, 2010). The terms “Social Media” and “Web 2.0” have been used to define the World Wide Web (WWW) applications, blogs, and microblogs such as Twitter, social networking websites, video/image/file sharing platforms or wikis; and they have become popular in the past years (Fuchs, 2017:34). New media-based social media is essentially a concept about sharing thoughts and ideas of people with others and facilitating this sharing. Social media allows people to connect with others, eliminates existing spatial and time constraints on traditional communication methods, provides online tools that enable the sharing of multimedia content, and benefits from easy-to-use interfaces that allow even non-experts to share (Fotis, 2015:16). At this point, the fact cannot be rejected that social media has shaped the consumption patterns of the contemporary society. Technology gives individuals the ability to become a photographer, video producer, author or blogger, creating new communication perspectives on many subjects, and bringing a different form to media consumption (Grijalva Verdugo and Izaguirre Fierro, 2014:30). Today, social media has also provided new opportunities of social interaction for consumers on the internet. Consumers use social media to create content and

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

67

to establish a network with other users (Hajli, 2014:387). Consumers also see social media as an effective tool in their purchasing experience. Consumers collect information through social media, communicate, and share ideas with other consumers for products and services. Consumers are also directly communicating with their preferred companies and brands. All these elements have given birth to a new generation of consumers called “Social Consumption Generation”. Social media has a great and real impact on consumer behavior. Because purchasing decisions are always influenced by the “social impact” regardless of the environment. Social impact is also readily available today through social media. According to some approaches, using social media positively influences the consumption behaviors of users. Internet and social media increase the market opportunities for products and services. Many social media platforms have been transformed into a domain of consumption and trade now. At this point, it is important to understand and investigate the potential impact of social media consumption (Pjero (Beqiraj) and Kërcini, 2015:145; Intravia et al., 2017).

4 A New Consumption Myth: Black Friday Black Friday, which is localized in Turkish as Şahane Cuma (Fantastic Friday)/ Efsane Cuma (Legend Friday)/Kara Cuma (Black Friday), refers to the first Friday after the Thanksgiving Day in the United States of America. In the Black Friday, which has been accepted as the start of Noel shopping season since 1932, the stores and shops are opened in early hours, causing an intense shopping circulation. The “Kara Cuma (Black Friday)” meaning of the Black Friday has a tragic connotation. Because the word was first used in 1961 in the newspapers, and the term was first used in the literature with the traffic accidents and affrays happened during the shopping spree in Philadelphia. As per today, the Black Friday stands for a practice in which there are intense shopping activities and inventory stock-outs in the stores owing to high discounts (Kırık, 2018). However, the meaning of Black Friday in Turkey is quite reflexive. To such an extent that the individual is disturbed since the word Friday, which is a holy day for Islam and Muslims, is used in a description as Black Friday, and it is accepted as an insult to Muslims. There is an increasing interest in Black Friday with each passing day. Because the Black Friday practice is presented as a popular shopping culture, the consumer encounters Black Friday campaigns in social media as well as in traditional media. As a result of the interest in Black Friday, internet search and shopping trends are shaped in line with the campaigns. The independent digital marketing agency, SEM, has recently shared the trends of Black Friday in

68

Aydın and Yegen

the digital market. SEM Chairman of the Executive Board, Ali Yılmaz indicated that online search has increased in special discount days, particularly in Black Fridays. Yılmaz also expressed that the highest intensity in online search is in the categories of smartphones, shoes, accessories, and perfumes (Haber Türk, 23.11.2018). Black Friday has been popular in many countries such as Canada, Germany, England, France, Switzerland, Romania, Mexico, Norway, and Belgium (Kırık, 2018). The shopping spree, which is named as Black Friday, has begun to become fashionable in Turkey as well. In more detail, the discount propaganda is ­employed by many brands and firms during this year as well as the last year (2017). Consumer associations express that the discounts announced in these periods might be unreal (Milat, 11.21.2018). Black Friday has attracted the attention of crooks and thieves as well. Those, who take advantage of the interest and the intensity in the process, have targeted consumers in various forms. For example, in the Black Friday of this year (2018), they stole the smartphone and 2000 Turkish Liras of a woman who was shopping at a store in Istanbul Nişantaşı (Show TV main newsletter, 11.25.2018). Experts also think that there are also fraudsters, who take advantage of the Black Friday getting popularized in Turkey. For instance, it is pointed out that, based on certain attractive opportunities such as “Discount Coupon” and “Free Gift Card”, whose usage is thought to be increasing in the Black Friday periods, ­certain ­personal information and credit card passwords of consumers shopping on e-commerce websites can be seized (Haber Türk, 11.25.2018). With the popularization of the Black Friday, new types have also emerged as its follow-up. For example, the Cyber Monday is one of them as a Monday campaign. Brands are aiming for a mass purchase with Cyber Monday, and they reach to potential customers with various campaigns/promotions like Black Friday. It is observed that, in general, the mentioned campaigns only apply to online purchases. It is probable that the word “cyber” at Cyber Monday has been consciously preferred to draw attention to online shopping. In this context, it can be mentioned that only the discounts and promotions available on the internet are indicated through the Cyber Monday.

5 Analysis: The Black Friday Network on Twitter 5.1 Method On Twitter, users establish a relationship or link when they follow each other. Twitter’s logic is mostly about realizing the subject content from other users they

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

69

choose to follow. In other words, when a user follows another user, the tracked user’s share will appear on the other user’s Twitter post. Users can also establish relationships by responding to a message sent by another user (reply), or by using user name/s to share a user (mention). Thus, all users are exposed to each other’s messages in this network of relationships created by users. On Twitter, user-generated subject networks help identify the content group that each user is exposed to. Thus, the roles of social interaction patterns, the form of clustering, and key participants that serve as the center of the network can be revealed. Therefore, in order to examine the links and discussion patterns in the obtained data set, this study used the Selective Exposure Cluster Method procedure developed by Himelboim et al., (2013). This procedure suggests the steps of determining (1) major clusters, (2) the central (hub) actors of these clusters, (3) the most frequently shared hyperlinks, (4) the hashtags and the mentioned user names, and finally the step of (5) visualizing the data. In order to understand the Black Friday network completely, it is important to understand that there are individuals, who think that, in social networks, the translation of certain practices such as Black Friday campaigns into Turkish in a way that defines the Friday as “Black” is a negative connotation. In this study, the posts were analyzed that were compiled from the Twitter social networking platform for the “Black Friday”. In the study, the tweets containing the keyword “Black Friday” and information about the users of these tweets were collected from the Twitter platform through the NodeXL software on December 04, 2018. The NodeXL is a functional software for collecting data by searching for selected keywords and hashtags. In line with the number allowed by the application interface, the resulting data set is limited to the 2000 users, who included the keyword “Black Friday” in the last tweets, mentioned, or responded to these shares. The relationships of the subject network were between 10:01 a.m., on November 30, 2018, and 11:33 a.m., on December 04, 2018. This period was preferred since it coincided with the Black Friday campaign period concerning the scope, and the Twitter was preferred as the domain for investigation since it is qualified as an online public domain (Yegen, 2013). The resulting data include explanations about each user, the time they joined Twitter, and statistical information such as follows, followers, and the number of tweets. The data were processed by the calculation of the following network metrics to generate information about the relationships of the users connecting to each other through following, mentioning, and responding: (1) General network metrics that include statistics about the entire network (actor and connection quantity, modularity, etc.) (2) The number of incoming connections to the account (in-degree Centrality), (3) Criteria for the clusters forming the network,

70

Aydın and Yegen

(4) The most commonly used hashtags, hyperlinks, and the mentioned user names in the tweets in the dataset. As the conclusion of this analysis procedure, answers were sought for the following research questions: RQ1: Do users create different clusters while contributing to a subject given on Twitter? RQ2: Do the hubs in a cluster have a consistent perspective? RQ3: Do the hashtags, hyperlinks, and mentioned usernames used in a cluster describe the discussed subject?

6 Findings First, a data set was created from the Twitter platform concerning the subject network created by users on the “Kara Cuma (Black Friday)” keyword shares in Turkish. It was determined that there were 1275 users in the data set and 1197 connections among users (following, mentioning, and responding). Based on the relationships between the users, network analysis was applied to the data obtained by following the stages specified in the method section. Clusters RQ1: Do users create different clusters while contributing to a subject given on Twitter? From a network perspective, the group is the community that is more interconnected than others. Relatively more adaptive or heavily connected groups create regions called as clusters (Hansen et al., 2011:41). Using the ClausetNewman-Moore algorithm included in the NodeXL software, two sets of relatively more connected user groups were identified in the subject network (Fig. 1). The first of these two clusters (G1) consists of 868 users connected by 867 connections. The first cluster constitutes 68,08 % of all users on the network and 72,55 % of all connections. The second cluster (G2) consists of 91 users ­connecting with 92 connections. This cluster constitutes 7,14 % of all users on the network and 7,70 % of all connections. Therefore, these two clusters ­constituted 75,22 % of all users on the entire network and 80,25 % of all connections. The m ­ odularity value for these clusters revealed that there was a moderate (.43) distinction between clusters. Modularity is a value between zero and one. The higher the modularity, the more apparent or distinct the clusters; that is, the clusters are less connected to each other (Himelboim et al., 2013:179).

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

71

Fig. 1:  Communication Level among the Clusters

As seen in Fig. 1, the communication among the two main clusters and all clusters is minimal. In response to the first question, the modularity and the metrics of the links demonstrate that users created a moderate cluster while contributing to a topic given on Twitter. Hubs RQ2: Do the hubs in a cluster have a consistent perspective? In order to determine the core users at the center of the clusters, each user’s connections were calculated. This calculation includes the number of incoming connections (in-degree centrality) to a user. For both predetermined clusters, the accounts were selected with high in-degree centrality. As a result of the calculation, the users with one and over in-degree centrality value for the clusters are given in detail in Tab. 1. The perspectives about “Kara Cuma (Black Friday)” or the relationships established with the subject in each cluster were separated by three reception forms of Hall (2006). These forms are dominant-hegemonic position, negotiated position, and oppositional position. The findings demonstrate that two hubs, who are the singer/songwriter (@yildizztilbee) and the fan (@bayramkaragz14), in the first cluster consistently share content either rejecting or not accepting the conceptualization of “Black Friday”, thus, bringing together a cluster with an opposite perspective. In the second cluster, it can be mentioned that, as in the first cluster, the account (@fakirin_yeri), which is considered

72

Aydın and Yegen

Tab. 1:  Hubs and Account Descriptions Cluster

User Name (Hub) Cluster 1 @yildizztilbee

Description

Tweet

Instagram:YildizzTilbee Facebook:YildizzTilbee

“What is the black friday? there is only one friday It is the holy Friday have a blessed Friday ” @ Now we have a new-fangled “Yıldız Tilbe Each bayramkaragz14 spring starts with a flower black Friday, you have a Friday, is it insufficient? Each love starts with a passion Each love starts It’s a pity! Damn you! #HaveaBlessedFriday with a look” Cluster 2 @fakirin_yeri You shameless! You’re “From the Friday Khutba of not crying, at least feel the Directorate of Religious ashamed of laughing!… Affairs: Black Friday is an unpleasant term disgusting all Muslims”. A pleasant sensitivity. I wish it (the directorate) were as sensitive as this one against the “Black money”, “grafting”, “bribery”, “oppression and injustice”, “govern with justice” #1NotefortheNight #Leave1SaytotheNight #sunday @tr__hbr @Tr__Hbr @Kim__ “Magnificent Friday” while Dedi @Tr__News @ ordering, “Black Friday” while Murekkep_Damla @ waiting for the shipping Magduriyetler1 @Tr__ Dunya @Tr__Ekonomi @Tr__Teknoloji @ Tr__Spor @Tr__WEB @ TR__TUBE

as an individual user according to the account description, made a share with an opposing perspective through a quotation from the Friday Khutba of the Directorate of Religious Affairs. It is observed that the news blog account (@ tr__hbr) in the second cluster shared that, in the campaignizing consumption, the individuals are in a “magnificent” mood while ordering, and in a “black” mood while waiting for the shipping. According to this conclusion, it can be mentioned that a consistent perspective is formed by the hubs concerning the “Kara Cuma (Black Friday)”.

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

73

Analysis of the Hyperlinks, Mentions, and Hashtags RQ3: Do the hashtags, hyperlinks, and mentioned usernames used in a cluster describe the discussed subject? In this phase of network analysis, as a result of the clustering analysis applied to the data set, the hashtags, the users, and the hyperlinks mentioned in the two large clusters were listed. In both clusters containing hubs with opposing perspectives, the single most frequently mentioned domain name was determined to be the Twitter.com (5) social network platform. In other words, the mentioned hyperlinks are still originated from Twitter users. In addition, the most commonly mentioned user in the first cluster is the account named @yildizztilbee (859), and in the second cluster, the accounts named as @fakirin_yeri (88) and TR__HBR (2). The most commonly used single hashtag is the #hayırlıcumalar (#HaveaBlessedFriday) in the first cluster, and no labels were used in the other cluster. In response to the third research question, it is evaluated that the most commonly mentioned users, hashtags, and hyperlinks in clusters associated with perspectives opposing the “Black Friday” conceptualization. The highest hyperlinked domain names in these clusters have been, again, the Twitter.com social network platform. While creating the three most-mentioned account hubs, the hashtag that reflects the perspective of the clusters is #HaveaBlessedFriday.

7 Conclusion and Evaluation The argument that an individual can exist only by consumption is undoubtedly a major issue in debates over consumption. The consumption, which is indicated as an ontological act, calls out to the consuming subject with new forms and trends changing almost each passing day. Black Friday, which brings great popularity to mass consumption and is also an important argument for the global market, describes a new kind of shopping trend, and many brands and organizations are organizing concurrent and attractive Black Friday campaigns, particularly on social networks. It has been observed that there are campaigns and discount rates for Black Friday even in the formations that offer online courses on Instagram.3 This also indicates the importance attributed to social networks 3 For example, in a course-theme account on Instagram, such a call was made “BLACK FRIDAY DISCOUNT courses are now starting from 24.99 TL!”, and additionally, the user, who is also the consumer, is given an opportunity to make a selection over a list of courses (software development). One point more, in the same account, a similar discount campaign was made for the Cyber Monday as well.

74

Aydın and Yegen

Tab. 2:  Hyperlinks, Mentioned Users, and Hashtags Clusters Cluster 1 Cluster 2

Number of Number of Hyperlink Users Connections Domain Name 868 867 twitter.com (3*) 91 92 twitter.com (2*)

Mentioned Users

Hashtags

@yildizztilbee (859*) @fakirin_ yeri (88*) @tr__hbr (2*)

#hayırlıcumalar (1*)

*Numbers

in the consumption process. It is quite clear that individuals today perform many practices through social networks. It was observed in the analysis conducted in this study that although the Black Friday stands for a mass and concurrent consumption process, the term is reflexively interpreted by some social media users in Turkey, alleging that it is negating the Cuma (Friday) which is a holy day in Islam. In the analysis conducted in the context of the Twitter, this finding was found to be supporting that the opposing positions are dominant in the Black Friday network. It is significant that the terms were developed against the Black Friday such as “Have a Blessed Friday” and “Holy Friday”. It can also be considered that the singer Yıldız Tilbe, who o ­ pposed to the Black Friday conceptualization through her Twitter account, played the role of a digital opinion leader. Because Tilbe is one of the active and dominant actors of the Black Friday.

References Anderson, P. D. (2012). Capitalism and the science of history: Appleby, Marx, and Postmodernism, Grand Valley Journal of History, 1(2): Article 1. Bagwell, L. S. & Bernheim, B. D. (1996). Veblen effects in a theory of conspicuous consumption, The American Economic Review, 86 (3): 349–373. Baudrillard, J. (2008). Tüketim Toplumu - Söylenceleri, Yapıları, 3. Basım, Çev. Ferda Keskin, Hazal Deliceçaylı, İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bell, D. (1976). The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Publishers. Benhabib, J. & Bisin, A. (2002). Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism, Department of Economics, New York University.

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

75

Bergman, A. (2010). Conspicuous Consumption –A Study of Prestige-Related Consumer Behavior, Lund University. Butler, E. (2018). An Introduction to Capitalism, First published in Great Britain in 2018 by The Institute of Economic Affairs 2018. Campbell, J. Y. & Cochrane, J. H. (1999). By force of habit: A consumptionbased explanation of aggregate stock market behavior, Journal of Political Economy, 107 (2): 205–251, 1999 by The University of Chicago. Carroll, C. D. (2001). A theory of the consumption function, with and without liquidity constraints, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 15 (3): 23–45. Chomsky, N. (2012). Medya Gerçeği, 4. Basım, Çev. Abdullah Yılmaz & Osman Akınhay, İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. Deaton, A. (2005). Franco Modigliani and the Life Cycle Theory of Consumption, Research Program in Development Studies and Center for Health and Wellbeing, Princeton University, March 2005. Demirel, S. & Yegen, C. (2015). Tüketim, Postmodernizm ve Kapitalizm Örgüsü, ilef dergisi, 2 (1): 115–138. Fiske, J. (2012). Popüler Kültürü Anlamak, 1. Baskı, Çev. Süleyman İrvan, İstanbul: Parşömen Yayınları. Fotis, J. N. (2015). The Use of Social Media and Its Impacts on Consumer Behaviour: The Context of Holiday Travel, A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bournemouth University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, May 2015, Bournemouth Unıversity. Fuchs, C. (2011). Internet Prosumption in Contemporary Capitalism, URL: http://fuchs.uti.at/wp-content/uploads/prosumer_internet.pdf. Fuchs, C. (2017). Social Media A Critical Introduction, Second Eition, SAGE Publications Ltd. Ganesan, A. S. (2012). Consumption, Spending and Investment Behaviour of Malaysia Generation Y, A research project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Business Administration, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Faculty of Accountancy and Management, May 2012. Giddens, A. (2014). Modernite ve Biresel-Kimlik Geç Modern Çağda Benlik ve Toplum, 2. Baskı, Çev. Ümit Tatlıcan, İstanbul: Say Yayınları. Graeber, D. (2011). Consumption, Current Anthropology, 52 (4): 489–511. Grijalva Verdugo, A. A. & Izaguirre Fierro, R. O. (2014). Media consumption patterns and communicative competence of university students, Global Media Journal Canadian Edition, 7 (2): 23–39.

76

Aydın and Yegen

Güz, N. (2008). Türkiye’de Basın-İktidar İlişkileri (1920–1927), 2. Bası, Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi. Haber Türk. (2018a). “Black Friday döneminde tüketici internette neler arıyor?”, 23.11.2018, URL: https://www.haberturk.com/ black-friday-doneminde-tuketici-internette-neler-ariyor-2232028-ekonomi. Haber Türk. (2018b). “Sanal dolandırıcıların “Efsane Cuma” oyunu”, 25.11.2018, URL: https://www.haberturk.com/ sanal-dolandiricilarin-efsane-cuma-oyunu-2235274-ekonomi. Hajli, M. (2014). A study of the impact of social media on consumers, International Journal of Market Research, 56 (3): 387–404. Hansen, D. L., Schneiderman, B., & Smith, M. A. (2011). Analyzing Social Media Networks with NodeXL: Insights from a Connected World, Burlington, MA: Morgan Kaufmann. Harvey, D. (2010). The Enigma of Capital and the Crises of Capitalism, Oxford University Press. Heitmann, M., Lehmann, D. R. & Herrmann, A. (2007). Choice goal attainment and decision and consumption satisfaction, Journal of Marketing Research, XLIV (May 2007), 234–250. Himelboim, İ., Smith, M. & Shneiderman, B. (2013). Tweeting apart: Applying network analysis to detect selective exposure clusters in Twitter, Communication Methods and Measures,7: 169–197. Intravia, J., Wolff, K. T., Paez, R. & Gibbs, B. B. (2017). Investigating the relationship between social media consumption and fear of crime: A partial analysis of mostly young adults, Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 158–168. Jackson, T. (2016). Beyond Consumer Capitalism—Foundations for a Sustainable Prosperity, Centre for the Understanding of Sustainable Prosperity, Working Paper No 2, Guildford: University of Surrey. Jacobs, M. & Mazzucato, M. (2016). Rethinking Capitalism: An Introduction, In Rethinking Capitalism Economics and Policy for Sustainable and Inclusive Growth, pp. 1–27, Eds. M. Jacobs & M. Mazzucato, Wiley-Blackwell In association with The Political Quarterly. Ji, M. F. & Wood, W. (2007). Purchase and consumption habits: Not necessarily what you intend, Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17 (4): 261–276. Khalil, E. L. (1992). Marx’s understanding of the essence of capitalism, Journal History of Economics Review, 17, pp. 19–32. Kırık, A. M. (2018). “Kara Cuma safsatasının bilinmeyen yüzü!”, 25.11.2018, URL: https://www.milatgazetesi.com/doc-dr-ali-murat-kirik/ kara-cuma-safsatasinin-bilinmeyen-yuzu/haber-187690.

A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday

77

Koloğlu, O. (2013). Osmanlı’dan 21. Yüzyıla Basın Tarihi, İstanbul: Pozitif Yayınları. Michael, R. T. (1975). Education and consumption, in Education, Income, and Human Behavior, Editor: F. Thomas Juster, ed., Volume Publisher: NBER, pp. 233–252. Milat. (2018). “ ‘Black Friday’ tuzağına düşmeyin!”, 21.11.2018, URL: https:// www.milatgazetesi.com/ekonomi/black-friday-tuzagina-dusmeyin/ haber-187205. Mitchelstein, E. & Boczkowski, P. J. (2010). Online news consumption research: An assessment of past work and an agenda for the future, New Media & Society, 12 (7): 1085–1102. Moseley, F. (2002). The “heart and soul” of Marx’s critique of capitalism: Exploitation or social form – or both? A reply to Murray, In Rethinking Marxism, . O’Connor, J. (1988). Capitalism, nature, socialism: A theoretical introduction, Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 1 (1): 11–38. Oflaz, V. E. (2007). Türkiye Tüketim Harcaması Esneklik Tahminleri, 2003, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Oliver, B. (2015). Capitalism and suffering, PINS [Psychology in Society] 48, 2015. Palmer, G. T. (2011). Introduction: The Morality of Capitalism, In The Morality of Capitalism What Your Professors Won’t Tell You, Edited by Tom G. Palmer, Illinois: Students For Liberty & Atlas Network, Jameson Books, Inc. Patsiaouras, G. (2010). Rethinking Veblen’s contribution to Consumer Research: a phenomenological enquiry into the perception of ‘status consumption’ by middle-income British consumers, Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Leicester. Pjero (Beqiraj), E. & Kërcini, D. (2015). Social media and consumer behavior – How does it works in Albania reality?, Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 4 (3): 141–146, MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy. Reisman, G. (1998).CAPITALISM A Treatise on Economics, California: TJS Books. Ritzer, G. & Jurgenson, N. (2010). Production, consumption, prosumption – The nature of capitalism in the age of the digital ‘prosumer’, Journal of Consumer Culture, 10 (1): 13–36. Saad-Filho, A. (2002). The Value of Marx Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism, Taylor & Francis Group: Routledge. Schumpeter, J. A. (2003). Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, Introduction by Richard Swedberg, Taylor & Francis: Routledge.

78

Aydın and Yegen

Scott, B. R. (2006). The Political Economy of Capitalism, Copyright © 2006 by Bruce R. Scott, Working papers are in draft form. Show Tv. (2018). “Efsane Cuma’yı hırsızlar da fırsat bildi”, 25 Kasım 2018 Tarihli Ana Haber Bülteni. Sombart, W. (2001). The Jews and Modern Capitalism, Translated by M. Epstein, Batoche Books Kitchener. Sørensen, P. K. (2013). The Meaning of Consumption A Conceptual Analysis of Contemporary Consumption Leading to a Preliminary Argument for Consumertisation as a Conceptual Frame, Department of Media, Cognition and Communication, M. A. Thesis, Faculty of Humanities, University of Copenhagen. Stavrakakis, Y. (2006). Objects of consumption, causes of desire: Consumerism and advertising in societies of commanded enjoyment, Gramma 14: 83–106. Sundie, J. M., Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Tybur, J. M., Vohs, K. D. & Beal, D. J. (2011). Peacocks, Porsches, and Thorstein Veblen: Conspicuous consumption as a sexual signaling system, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100 (4): 664–680. Thoumrungroje, A. (2014). The snfluence of Social Media intensity and EWOM on conspicuous consumption, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 148 (2014): 7–15. Todd, D. (2012). You are what you buy: Postmodern consumerism and the construction of self, University of Hawai’i at Hilo, Hawai’i Community College HOHONU, 10: 48–50. Trigg, A. B. (2001). Veblen, Bourdieu, and Conspicuous Consumption, Journal of Economic Issues, 3(1): 99–115. Türkay, O. (1986). MİKROİKTİSAT TEORİSİ Cilt I, Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Yayınları: 551, A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Ve Basın - Yayın Yüksekokulu Basımevi. Veblen, T. (1899). The Theory of the Leisure Class, New York: Macmillan. Vohs, K. D., Wang, Y., Gino, F. & Norton, M. I. (2014). Rituals enhance consumption, Psychological Science, 24, 1714–1721. Watkins, J. P. (2015). Economic Waste and Social Provisioning: Veblen and Keynes on the Wealth Effect, Presented at the 2015 Annual Meetings Association for Evolutionary Economics Boston, Massachusetts January 5, 2015. Weber, M. (2011). Protestan Ahlakı ve Kapitalizmin Ruhu, Çev. Hasan İlhan, İstanbul: Sayfa Yayınları. Yegen, C. D. (2013). Yeni Bir Kamusal Alan Olarak Sosyal Medya. ANEMON Muş Alparslan Üni̇Versi̇Tesi̇ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1, 119–135.

Yasin Bulduklu

Unexpected Events in Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations Introduction Health care services that arise in the case of illness are expanding its scope by means of developing technology and communication tools. Health services, which were used as a result of the deterioration of health status in the past, have turned into a structure including the continuation of health status, health promotion, aesthetic regulations and complementary practices that have recently started to take place more in the field of health. The way health services are delivered has changed due to the developments in health sciences, increasing expertise in almost all levels of health care and technological developments. Alongside science and technology, spread of health care communication changed the dimension. People’s access to health messages has evolved into a structure independent of time and space boundaries. In terms of health services, the rapid development of communication has created both advantages and disadvantages such as: the compliance of health institutions with new technologies; adaptation of their own processes; and applications to the new situation. The effective use of communication technologies allowing immediate response to potential reactions has enabled health care providers and organizations to access the people more interactively and directly. On the other hand, the rapid dissemination of unexpected events, especially medical errors, and uncontrolled sharing have put health providers and health institutions in a difficult position. It is obligation for health institutions to continuously monitor, evaluate, and improve their services. Health institutions must continuously also adopt a technology-compatible approach and keep up with scientific developments. Health care expertise, which was used to be evaluated in terms of medical attendant, expanded its scope including various professional fields such as nursing and et.al. This expansion and the emergence of subspecialty areas resulted in the division of services. The multiple structure of health services into multiple sub-units has made, the team work, which is a necessity in health care, coordination among groups, departments, branches and professionals more important. Providing inter-employee coordination of health institutions requires effective internal communication network. As an indisputable in all levels of health services, communication is a structure that needs to be addressed at both individual

80

Yasin Bulduklu

and organizational level. Presenting delicately the divided service elements in accordance with corporate objectives, satisfaction of the employees and the service providers, and holistic care quality require the correct planning and implementation of the communication strategies. The success of health institutions in standing out in the competition, realizing its mission, and reaching its vision require an effective communication system both inside and outside the organization. Developing communication tools has caused a necessity for both internal and external communication through digital means. There are two general dimensions of corporate communication. The first is effective communication network to prevent the occurrence of some circumstances. A good corporate communication will facilitate inter-team interaction, and thus contribute to social capital positively. Health institutions that create an effective communication atmosphere within the institution will prevent small mistakes and warn members of the institution against the disruption of operational level and potential negative circumstances. The second dimension of corporate communication is aimed at implementing both internal communication networks and external communication strategies after the emergence of undesirable situations. The external dimension of public communication requires more reactive applications. As they cannot be predicted, unwanted and unexpected conditions require rapid decision and response from health institutions. Every time the response is delayed, it causes the problem to grow. Communication and especially public digital communication, which are vital in delivering health care in the potential negative circumstances, is the subject of this section. This section contains information about the digital management of communication in some undesirable and sudden occurrences that can lead institutions to an undesirable situation; information about the effective management of communication through digital platforms in the cases of crisis.

1 The Structure of Healthcare Services and Unexpected Events Health care includes the processes of diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of diseases. The prevention of diseases, and the development of the health level of the society and the individual are also within the scope of the health services. Health institutions offering health services to individuals are classified as first, second, and third places according to the service criteria they deliver. Protective health delivery services in Turkey are grouped as healing or rehabilitation services (Sarp, 2017: 31). On the other hand, health promotion is in the scope of the health services, and health institutions are taking more and more

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

81

responsibility in this context. Increasing health awareness of people, changing lifestyles and habits with regard to developing technology, has influenced the structure of health services, the need for service, and health policies. Increasing the average life expectancy of people, medical developments, changing diet patterns, and habits raised the demand for health services; and countries have been allocated more and more resources to health to meet this demand. The rising demand for health products and services, especially in recent years, has caused different studies in health, business, marketing, and general management all over the world. The increasing demand for health-related products and services, especially in recent years, has caused different inquires/searches into health business, marketing, and general management all over the world. It is necessary to know some of the characteristics of health services in general, for health managers, health communication professionals, marketing experts, and health policy makers, although there is a continuous modification in the structure and functioning of health services. Some unexpected and undesirable circumstances adversely affecting the trust causes the waste of resources, especially in the provision of health services and creates negative effects on resources, health institutions, and the health system. The most important issue that might put the institution in a difficult and undesirable position is not responding immediately. Preferring to stay passive in all negative circumstances will cause affected people to take into action in a number of undesirable ways, especially the legal processes, and this situation will put health care institutions in an unwanted processes. Ignoring the people, trying to covering up the situation, being late to respond, and ineffective using of all means of communication are among the mistakes made in the management of unexpected/undesirable events. Continuous monitoring in delivering the health services, and controlling of corporate operation and communication at every stage prevent possible negative circumstances. Regular scanning of what is written, shared, commented, and complained, especially on digital platforms, has an impact on the perception of corporate image and satisfaction. Due to its financial issues, health services are based on not only the partnership of those who demand the services but also those who do not. For this reason, the potential problems arouse the attention of public and cause a reaction. While there is less interest in the news about the success in health, negative content attracts people’s interest more. Health services are delivered to individuals in the society in various ways. The institutions providing health services are composed of different sizes and types such as surgeries, polyclinics, hospitals, and rehabilitation centers. In addition to this, as well as different health teams, health institutions include home health

82

Yasin Bulduklu

care, community health research, vaccination campaigns, and health screening. All health-related product providers, such as pharmacies and medicines, are also in the health care process (Aydın, 2017: 57). Although health services are generally offered for the benefit of the individual, all the institutions mentioned above essentially deliver the service in the risky situations. This risk may be related to the health status of the person and sometimes to the conditions of the service. In fact, the process in health care requires deciding between risk and harm. In some cases, risks are more important than harm; and in this case, health services are considered inappropriate to deliver. The opposite situation means that the claimant consumes the service. At this point, there is a need to classify these unexpected events and risky conditions. Due to its structure, some of the health delivering consists of risk to a degree. What is meant by an unexpected circumstance is not about the case of patient-related risks. Instead, it is about unforeseen circumstances such as unpredictable processes associated with natural conditions or some situations that an institution cannot prevent. Unexpected circumstances are those that put the corporate functioning, continuity, and corporate vision at risk. The unexpected event is used to refer to the negative circumstances that are unpredictable in the beginning of the provision of health care and obstacle in obtaining desired results. These unexpected events cannot be predicted by the service provider and patient at the beginning of the applied procedures (Bulduklu, 2015:90). Numerous factors in the provision of health services have the potential to affect the quality and outcome of the service. Many factors such as the environmental conditions, the way employees do business, the conditions and conditions of internal communication, and patient privacy can cause unforeseen events in health. This situation may cause undesirable consequences for the patient, their relatives, the service providers, and the health institutions. Undesirable events in health are characterized by various concepts, and one of the most important concepts among them is crisis. To avoid conceptual confusion and restrict the meaning of crisis, it can be said that unexpected negative events are used to describe all the circumstances that prevent the desirable consequences. Considering that some treatment or health service outcomes ultimately result in certain complications, the expected complications should not be considered in the context of unexpected events. However, it should be stated that these complications need to be explained to the patients and their relatives before the application. Therefore, the subject of this section is not communication management after complications. The subject of this section is the digital technology–mediated communication management after the occurrence of the undesirable events and negligence in medical

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

83

process. Before mentioning the unexpected events, explaining the specific characteristics and structure of health services will contribute to this section. These characteristics are as follows: Health Condition is immensurable: There is not a common criteria or a scale in defining of an individual health condition. Although health condition of a person is being tried to be determined by laboratory findings, it is unlikely that the level of health can be revealed in real terms. Because health is a holistic and abstract concept, it effects the evaluation both in terms of individual and social level. Health indicators such as mental, spiritual, and social are the main factors that prevent this measurement. The condition of the person may affect concept of health and these indicators. This abstract structure of the state of health, which is closely related to the personal perception, has a potential to create unexpected events. Evaluation of the satisfaction obtained from health is subjective, and the degree of expectation and perception has an effect on evaluation: Similar to the assessment of health condition, health services are of a subjective structure. As well as the satisfaction of the individual from the service, the effectiveness of the treatment is closely related to the psychological processes. The relationship between a person’s expectation from a health institution and what he/she subjectively are treated, are also components of satisfaction. The opposite conditions cause negative effect on the wellbeing. This subjective evaluation of health is one of the reasons for unexpected events. The provision of services in the health sector, which requires intensive cooperation, is presented by intensive labor process: Cooperation is a process of communication that involves innovative solutions and problem-solving in all the areas of expertise, organizational levels, or health care workers. Cooperation aims to address problem-solving, collaboration, innovative solutions regardless of status, occupation, and branch. Cooperation also targets at achieving a higher standard of health care or organizational outcomes. Mutual respect, different complementary competences, and equal balance of power between groups are the requirements of the process of cooperation (Brown, 2008: 155). Problems in cooperation or communication are among the most important factors in the emergence of unexpected consequences and unforeseen events in health. Health services are offered in a multi-structure context: Health care service is offered with the holistic efforts of people from different education and occupational groups. The outputs of the services can be affected by every changing condition of a sharer. This means that the number of providers is high. Insurance companies, medical goods and service manufacturers; Social Security Institution; higher education institutions; non-governmental organizations; and

84

Yasin Bulduklu

legal representatives are the actors that are likely to intervene in health services. This structure of services can lead to unexpected consequences in health care. The level of information between the provider and the recipient of the service in health is unbalanced in terms of the provider: Knowledge is the determinant of power in the field of health more than any other sectors. This power allowing the server to dominate the patient and to decide on his/her health determines the direction of the effectiveness in health care. Regardless of status, class, or role; the recipient of the service is subject to provider. Despite all developments and legal arrangements, health care users can insist on giving the power to the providers voluntarily for their health care decision. This situation, which creates an obligation/pressure on the health care provider in deciding on the well-being of the individual, especially the body, may lead to unexpected events. Health is a need that cannot be postponed and substituted: As a nontransferable and non-deferred right, health is one of the basic human rights. In addition, health services cannot be substituted with another product or service. According to this, it can be claimed that health is a right but utilizing from it is a need. The right to health, which is protected in the constitution of many countries, does not take into consideration variables such as race, religion, sex, etc. The right to health, which is related to being human, is also protected by international conventions and codes. The fact that health is a right under special protection may also create some cases like the occurrence of unexpected events or national or international legal cases. The need for and consequences of health are unpredictable: It is not possible to predict when the individual will need health services. Along with not predicting when the disease might occur; incidents such as accidents, epidemic possibilities (vaccinations), and disasters can create demand for health services. Individuals can apply to health care organizations to regain their well-being, to protect themselves from disease, or to improve their health. While the expectation of the outputs of the services received in each condition is positive, the result of the service is both immeasurable and unpredictable. In particular, high expectations or increased expectations by the institution or service provider may raise the likelihood of unexpected events. Health care is abstract and heterogeneous: As in other service areas, health services are in an abstract structure. Its abstract structure, instant consumption, impossibility of storing, and the difficulty in evaluating the quality reveal some problems. What is meant by the heterogeneity of health services is that different patients with the same disease cannot always get the same benefit from the same treatment. A large number of variables, ranging from demographic, sociocultural characteristics, genetic structures of individuals, to their past and family

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

85

history can also be effective in this heterogeneity. While structural features, perceptions, and expectations can reveal the difference; cultural differences can change the status of benefiting from the same service (Hayran, 2017:83). This situation related to the nature of the services may also affect the quality of the service and cause negative assessment of the health institution. The perceived quality of the health services is the main element in the evaluation of health institutions. The evaluation of the service determines the attitudes towards the service and the health care provider. In spite of all their efforts, health institutions cannot meet the expectations of people from time to time. Furthermore, the issues perceived during the presentation of the service can sometimes lead to negative consequences for health care providers and institutions. Due to a number of factors, health services are among the services with a high potential in revealing negative results. An unexpected condition in health can be defined as a state of deviation from the desired results, which the physician or the patient cannot predict at the beginning of the procedure. Examples of unforeseen health events include medical errors, malpractice treatment, problems during or after an operation, disabilities of the patients due to negligence of health care providers, communication problems arising from employee attitudes, broadcast of communication tools, and adverse conditions that arise because of various reasons. At this point, the unexpected event means the results that have emerged but have not yet turned into a crisis. Timely intervention in unexpected events also means protecting corporate resources and image. As Gürbüz (2019: 320) states that the image, which makes a difference with its effect and is a factor of disintegration, can evolve into negative by momentary error. Besides its technology-oriented structure, health care delivery is highly labor intensive. Both the dependence of human resource and excessive use of technology results in many factor-based outputs in terms of the results of the service. Because health is among the areas where most of the unexpected events occur, the results are related to many factors. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the risk of damage during health care is much higher than the risk of damage by air travel or nuclear power plants. The risk of injury from a flight is found to be 1/1,000,000 (one millionth), while it is 1/300 in health services. This is the average based on the incidence of adverse events in the world. When differences between developed and developing countries (risk 20 times more in developing countries) are ignored, the probability of unexpected consequences in health services increases considerably. Numerous results, such as the operation of the wrong areas of patients, transplant errors, infections, burns, falls and misdiagnosis can be given as examples of unexpected events (Boinot, 2009).

86

Yasin Bulduklu

While it can be said that unexpected events are inevitable for health care, some of them are preventable and some of them are unpreventable structure. Correct decisions and effective communication management are required in both cases. Unexpected events are used to describe the circumstances in which the organization has not yet faced a crisis situation that might turn into a major crisis if they are not managed properly. There may be sometimes no possibility of preventing an event, although the processes are applied correctly and in a defined way. A minor negligence of a person in the team, system failure, and evaluation of the patient or his/her relatives, reasons of competitors or the media may cause the occurrence of the event. The demand for health care emerges after an unexpected situation. The management of unexpected events that occur in or after the provision of the service requires management of expertise and strategic communication. Unexpected conditions in health can be revealed by many factors. Some of these factors are listed below (Bonacum et al., 2004): a. The nature of an intervention b. Complications that occur rarely and are part of the intervention c. Unpredictable results due to patient’s condition d. Factors arising from individual or team work, human neglect, and error e. Problems resulting from environmental or clinical setting f. Preventable and inevitable disruptions that occur during deliverance of the service. In addition to the multifactorial structure of unexpected events, the ones listed above have been categorized by generalizing with regard to the most common situations. The results of each factor can be solved with a separate communication approach. Face-to-face and digital communication through platforms is vital in unexpected events in health services. There is a need for effective communication planning and implementation both inside and outside the institution.

2 Unexpected Events in Health Services and Corporate Communication Health institutions consist of people, values, norms, culture and technologies. Without tools, equipment, procedures, technology, and facilities; people cannot work and organizations are out of existence (Wears & Berg, 2005:1262). On the other hand, all these sources have no meaning without people. The main subject of health care by both the server and the recipient is human and the smallest error can be life-threatening. When all technologies are checked, people can create unexpected problems when they perform their tasks meticulously. While

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

87

both technology and human problems can be prevented with proactive view, it should be emphasized that unexpected events are reactive. The more delayed the reactive applications, the more likely they are to create a crisis and to lead devastating effects. The fact that health services can be offered by public and private sector initiatives, the negative effects of unexpected events will have negative effects on competition and corporate image. At the same time, the consequences of unexpected events: patients, relatives, service providers and health institutions may be undesirable. In such cases, it is an increasingly important requirement to communicate with the public quickly, to continuously monitor social media, electronic mail, blogs and other communication channels alongside traditional communication channels such as the call center. Competition in health has made the image and reputation of institutions more important. Reputation, in its simplest definition, is related to gaining the trust of employees, investors, suppliers and all other stakeholders. Corporate reputation is a concept that includes the image and values of organizations and is strictly committed to the complete fulfillment of responsibilities. The protection of corporate reputation also includes the effective management of adverse events and crises. Reputation, which has a close relationship with trust, has the potential to affect the credibility of institutions. Health institutions, which are subject to many unexpected situations and are on the agenda as it stands, lose their image and then their reputation. Fees received by health care providers under various names may be under the threat of unexpected events and undesirable situations. Failure to manage unexpected events in this manner may threaten the organization’s goals, the personal satisfaction of the server, the institutional life, and indirectly the health system. Establishing image and reputation of institutions, keeping their image positive, and maintaining their nominal values are related to managing communication. In today’s world, where the indicators are more important than those shown and how they are interpreted, image and reputation are among the most important issues for health institutions like all institutions. Today’s corporate values are based more on the abstract beings of the perceived image and reputation of the institution than on the material resources and capital. Although management of communication in ordinary periods is important in terms of perceptions of corporate image and reputation health institutions, communication is more vital in managing unexpected events. Institutions, through internal communication, can create a structure where their employees will create synergies and create a perceived positive image through external communication. Therefore, the correct design of corporate communications, managing, implementing proactive and reactive applications

88

Yasin Bulduklu

is the first condition for institutional success. While the communication of the institutions with the target group requires a continuous proactive management, there is a need to turn to the reactive dimension in the emergence of unexpected events. The fact that the institutions keep all communication channels open, they interact with the target audience and the public continuously is directly related to managing the communication with the proactive approach. The decisions taken by the managers should be formed in the context of the interaction through the feedback received. Both in unexpected events and before, it should be known that the web pages are the window of the institution that is opened to outside world and should be kept up to date and the information about the developments should continuously be transferred to the masses. In particular, external communication requires particular attention in the communication of unexpected events. The initial statements should be planned face to face with the patient or his/her immediate relatives first, and after the event comes to the public agenda and then to cover all communication platforms. When making explanations outside the organization, it is necessary for corporate effective communication management to include the following dimensions: Information on processes: Health services are composed of a large number of processes associated with the other, as well as the cooperation of a number of different service providers. Although health services are offered in a fragmented structure, the evaluation of the service area is addressed to the whole. The institution or the server will decide whether to start defending to accept the situation. It is not true to be apologetic in every negative situation in health services. In the process review, if the problem is understood to originate from the patient, there is a need to present the issue in an evidence-based manner. In such cases, it should be underlined that directly accusing the patient or his/her relatives is wrong. Affected: This situation should not be interpreted as to reduce the severity of the situation according to the variables. Whoever is affected by the event, the basic priority of the institution should be a human-oriented view. What is meant by the situation of the affected people is that the communication designed for the harm to the elderly person and the communication pattern used in the negativities affecting the young age cannot be the same. In the same way, the tactics used in the management of the event, which is influenced by a socially important person, and the tactics used in the events where others are influenced cannot be the same. Ethical rules: Although the rules of ethics have become increasingly dependent on law, the history of ethics is quite old. Since Hippocrates, health service delivery has been carried out within the framework of ethical principles. Although the

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

89

provision of health services is utility oriented, the priority has been assessed in the context of not harming any period. Although there are examples of unexpected events occurring among ethical dilemmas, there are many difficulties in disclosure of the violation of ethics rules and communication management. In the unforeseen circumstances, the disclosures in which the subject is based on a violation of ethical principles must include both an apology and indemnity obligation. On the other hand, the violation of the code of ethics should be managed through the structuring of communication, knowing that it is likely to turn into a crisis. Other public bodies: It is a common mistake for institutions to use channels that include comprehensive informational activities and other public bodies on issues that need to remain within a smaller framework. This error, which causes the uninformed public bodies to examine the situation, causes the subject to be known by more people. It should not be overlooked that if the unforeseen events cannot be managed properly by other public bodies, the effect of the incident will be more spreading and more involved in the media agenda. Public relations and strategic communication are vital in the management of unexpected events in health institutions. A management philosophy within the framework of public relations will improve the quality of the relationship between the institution, professional, and patient. Many issues such as the patient’s confidence in the physician or the institution before treatment, the quality of the health outcomes, and the patient’s follow-up process in case of wrong treatment require realization of public relations (Real & Street, 2009). Here are some unexpected events and issues to be considered in the management of these situations: Medical error: Events where management is responsible for the occurrence of medical errors are those that require compensation. Steps for compensation should be planned before disclosure; this plan should be communicated to the victim or relatives in the appropriate environment by the appropriate person in a suitable tactic. If the event becomes public knowledge, it must be announced from all mass media, especially traditional ones. In these statements without going into much detail, it should be stated that the indemnity obligation will be fulfilled. Because the other communication contents will create a perception for making mistakes, this will adversely affect the target audience impression. Preventable failures: These are developments that arise on the basis of the nature of the service or the defects of the workforce, leading to an unexpected end to the process. These situations, which prevent access to successful results, are generally preventable. It should be kept in mind that even if the problems are difficult to prove by the patient or his/her relatives, it will occur in the investigations. After a thorough examination of the problems, it is necessary to make an explanation,

90

Yasin Bulduklu

to be honest in the information given to the patient, to his/her relatives or to the public, and to include the points related to the compensation. Communication problems arising from personnel: The inability of effective internal communication, the non-employment of qualified personnel, the routine functioning of the employees, and the low motivation and similar reasons cause problems in the communication of the personnel with the patient and his/ her relatives. Continuous monitoring of communication problems arising from personnel and management of corporate internal communication within the framework of strategic plans and targets will prevent the growth of problems. Negative situations caused by communication affect the institution, patient, relatives, and health service provider negatively. This impact may be legal or be in the form of negative content and image use in non-unsupervised media (social media, complaint sites, etc.). Continuous supervision of the communication of personnel and the development of communicative awareness through in-service training will result in the resolving the events in the early phase. In particular, the fact that interpersonal communication and group communication are open, and to focus on the initiatives that will create team spirit, may prevent the occurrence of unexpected events. Reader et al., (2008: 120), in this case, relate to the reluctance of the nurse to report the errors observed; found that the lack of communication and sharing in order arrangements between nurses and doctors directly contributed to the formation of preventable negative events. On the other hand, it was also revealed in studies that the effectiveness of in-team communication created more positive results. Clear communication between team members has also been seen to result in high performance of flexible leadership and collaborative atmosphere in solving problems. When explaining the problems arising from the employee, it should be stated that instead of directly blaming one person, the reasons of the defect have been eliminated; the contents of all measures, including the removal of the employment contract and the cancellation of the employee’s employment contract, must be transferred to the public or to the patient or his/her relatives. Possible complications: Complications refer to the emergence of a condition that could harm the patient as a result of medical interventions or care. Although known complications are not considered within unexpected events, they require proactive treatment within the framework of communication. Patients should be informed about the procedure to be applied, information about possible negativities should be transferred within the framework of correct communication strategies. Verbal consent should be obtained rather than written consent of the patient. This approval means more than signing up without reading. The patients and their relatives will be aware of the potential negativities, prepared for the

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

91

bad results, and rationalize their reactions. Accordingly, it is important to avoid the expressions that overestimate the expectation. In medical interventions, the patient and his/her relatives must be told that the application is not the only reason for complications but reasons arising from the patient himself may also cause complications. The patient should be convinced of situations arising from the nature of work. Crisis situations: Crisis is a negative situation that creates negative effects on the existence and functioning of the individual, institution or society, unexpectedly emerging and matched with the losses. Coombs and Holladay (2010), starting from the stages of crisis management, the first stage of crisis situations that occur before the crisis comes up, the negativity should be stopped at the moment the unexpected events occur. In the first stage, pre-crisis preparations should be made and the crisis should be tried to prevent by using risk and crisis management techniques. If the emergence of the crisis cannot be prevented, a response to the crisis and rapid reactions are required. This stage, where the crisis phase and crisis management principles are applied, is the level at which the organization’s steps will determine its future operations. Once the initial effects have been overcome and the fire has partially started to fade, steps towards the post-crisis phase are needed. This is the stage in which the crisis is thoroughly evaluated. The causes of the crisis, how it has been overcome, what has been learned, and the steps to be taken after the crisis should be determined after the crisis. It is also necessary to take rehabilitative steps towards the state of the public, institutional assets, and image affected by the crisis. It should be stated that the first stage defined by Coombs and Holaday is related to planning the steps for the moment of crisis. Especially large-scale crisis situations (natural disasters, terrorist attacks, radioactive attacks, etc.) require institutional communication as well as inter-institutional communication. In such cases, close cooperation and communication of institutions with their own crisis desks with district, province, region and central crisis desks is mandatory. Responsibilities of communication, both in-house planning and inter-agency coordination, must be defined, identified, and communicated through a single speaker. Since the informing of the people and the victims of the crisis is vital in such situations, one-stop management of all elements of corporate communication is a precondition for successful crisis communication. In case of crisis, the inadequacy of the institution to meet the information needs arising in the public will create information pollution; the information will not be spread from the first and only source. The structure of crisis situations, which is already directed towards negative perception tendency, may result in the transformation of institutions into a threatening condition.

92

Yasin Bulduklu

Manager’s flaws: Managers are persons who have authority to represent institutions and who are identified with the institution as they move upwards in the hierarchical structure. The steps taken by the institution managers in their private lives, their explanations, the way they take place in the media and their behavior that suggests the connection with any ideology can lead to an unexpected event. Although it must be the main philosophy to block such events, it is not possible to prevent it from time to time. In particular, in all public bodies, it is a necessity to adopt the image repair path in such cases, which leads to the deterioration of the image perception of the institution. In this context, an intensive communication campaign, corporate advertisements, and most importantly social responsibility projects are needed. In such cases, communication needs to be in the form of emphasis on these issues, in other words, mass communication is needed. Attacks of competitors: Due to the increasing number of private entrepreneurs, the health sector has been transformed into a structure where competition is getting harder every day. Institutions that wish to receive more shares from the common patient pool can sometimes implement initiatives that push the ethical boundaries. These kinds of attacks are not always direct; sometimes it may be in the form of disrupting the balance in technological competition. Such a situation cannot be addressed in the context of unexpected events. The fact that the organization is in constant screening activity against the actions of competitors will mean that the possible situations will be solved without hampering the institution. The negative events should be explained rationally to the public, the responsible persons should be exposed, and the reasons should be explained in the framework of logic. A structure should be established for institutions to prioritize respect for their competitors during their own corporate activities, and respect for competitors in possible unforeseen events should constitute the framework for the disclosure. As a result of communication tools: In unforeseen events, it is more difficult to solve the causes of communication tools while solving individual situations is easier. For example, resolving issues arising from web page explanations, or social accounts may require more effort. It is important to consider these elements of corporate communication with a proactive approach and to establish the necessary control mechanisms before the problem arises. The problems that are caused by the means of communication, the most likely to do the greatest damage, are undoubtedly the events that are the subject of traditional media.

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

93

3 The Use of Digital Media in Unexpected Events Like other institutions, health institutions aim to reach their target audience in order to be perceived better in public and they use communication platforms to achieve goals (Gürbüz, 2018:28). In unexpected events, communication at all levels should be explicit, sincere, evidence-based, and should be done comforting of conscience. In addition, empathy should be prioritized. Each communication effort should focus on explanations in a way that the affected person, group, or public will understand. Medical applications, procedures, and supply of health care are efforts, which have specific jargon, often used between professionals that have terminologies which make sense of the same meaning. Therefore, the fact that creation of the complicated contents for stakeholders will lessen the understandability of health-related information at public explanation. Instead, the way of better clarification should be adopted so that the language used in necessary fields could be understood. In the event that the victim is at a singular level in the clarification of the events, it would be beneficial to place the person in a safe environment, to adopt an empathic approach, and to use techniques related to persuasive communication. As for the explanations directed to the mass, they require that those who are not the target of communication should be regarded as well. In researches, made on the basis of both traditional and digital tools: • Health associations should adopt an evidence-based approach about the necessary dimensions of the subject, evidence which supported explanation, or defense should be open to the accessibility of the victim or public. The required steps to remedy the deficiencies should be taken into consideration in the explanation process. • The steps taken from starting point of the incident should be explained, if any, punishments concerning responsible people should be transmitted to the public or person or people who are interested in. People moderate their reactions when they believe that negative situations that they face will not happen to other people. In order not to have such problems in future all the detailed information about the taken steps should be transferred. • The media should be continually informed from a single point of contact in cases of excessive interest shown by the media and the public; besides, preparation should be made for all the related questions that may be asked about the subject. The person who will make an explanation about the subject, both should have sufficient information about the event and should be competent in employing communication skills. All the questions should be answered in the explanation process. The questions having inadequate information or proof should be presented with smooth expressions and the fact

94

Yasin Bulduklu

that necessary studies or examinations which will be carried out should be presented in a promising way. • All communication channels should be harmonized. All communication tools supplying the connection of the institutions with the external environment (from call centers to social media accounts) should be structured in a way to give a single voice in the management of unexpected events; information in all channels should be updated at any moment. • In all channels, feedbacks should be evaluated quickly; communication and policies should be reviewed after each feedback. In addition to the messages that the institution will send to the individuals, groups, or institutions outside its own structure, the mission in relation to the feedback from the external environment is also among the important functions of communication out of institution in the management of the unexpected events. Corporate communication experts, at the same time, serve as a function of a bridge in terms of organizations. Communication action based on mutual interaction with all stakeholders is as important as people who affected from the unexpected events for successful management. • Institutions are able to detect developments or complaints early through continuous monitoring and scanning of communication tools, and they may have the chance of intervention before turning into a crisis. Being aware of the unexpected events, learning the details of the issue before turning into crisis, monitoring the channels followed by public, and scanning the developments in giving immediate response to the crisis are extremely important in regard to the effectiveness of corporate communication. Relations with traditional media and communication through digital platforms in unexpected events and negative developments are the top issues that need to be overemphasized by corporate external communication experts. Even though the unexpected events occur due to unforeseen developments, it is extremely important to take some steps for preventing crises that will affect the organization at a high level and it is also extremely significant in accordance with the media relations, taking this situation into consideration. Organizations should plan the relationship and communication with the media continuously and strategically, not when necessary. Not only the advertisements or advertorials, but also the information about the developments and health organizations should be shared by the digital platforms regularly. It is important that the organizations take unexpected events seriously in order not to experience a crisis or to prevent the negative situation from turning into a crisis. The fact that taking some steps in order to prevent unexpected and limited situations from evolving into

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

95

a crisis and executing corporate communication within the pre-planned framework is also a priority for successful subject management. Various pre-existing plans will reduce the effect of the uncertainty. In addition to benefiting the power of traditional media, the use of digital media with an integrated understanding is necessary for the success. The digital management of corporate communication should be considered as follows: • In unexpected negative situations, communication should be structured within the scope of predicting risks, defining conditions, and drawing the limit of the information, which will be explained. Steps that could reduce the impact of the crisis, coordinate support, and recovery are possible with communication (Ulmer et al., 2007). • Negative situations emerged in health institutions will attract the selective attention of the stakeholders of institution and the public institutions more than all the public interest. Proper management of communication related to the subject will ensure that public opinion is in favor of the health institution. Therefore, it should be kept in mind that digital platforms in a segmented form will provide access to the target. Being different from the traditional media, digital platforms are functional to solve the unexpected events in a narrower sense and to prevent its evolution to a crisis. • Unexpected events affecting a person or a group (hospital microbe, harassment, erroneous examination or practices, etc.) are conditions which patients and their relatives demand intensive information and attention. In such circumstances, the communication manager should try to manage the information demanded by the public in accordance with the traditional channels instead of the absolute social channels. It should be taken care that all the messages should be presented from each platform without a delay and intermediary as much as possible. • Explanations to be made in unexpected events should be limited to the subject matter, and it should not be forgotten that the communicative effect of the expressions or efforts intended for distracting attention will be negative. • Accordingly, the information to be provided in the explanations should only be relevant subject matter and the institution should refrain from transferring contents that will create new agenda. Undoubtedly, the main element of extrovert communication of health institutions is the patient and their relatives. Although the target audience of external communication is the potential public in addition to existing public, the priority is devoted to the retention of existing public. Keeping existing publics within the corporate framework is less costly than accessing new publics. Through the

96

Yasin Bulduklu

digital memberships, health institutions should be in communication and interaction with their target audiences continuously and loyalty of health institutions should be increased by means of creating some privileges for them. At an emergent negative situation; adopting a fast, compassionate, empathic, and honest communication style with the patient and/or his/her relative is the most important step towards not losing the existing public. Existing public primarily tend to follow the communication channels more than the others, and they are motivated in the direction of showing interest in all of the content in unexpected events. However, the first step at the management of unexpected events should be aimed at the patient or his/her relatives. The events in the personal dimension should be solved by preferring individual direct communication method. In such cases, the topic can be resolved in-institution before having been reflected to the other publics. Reactive communication with the patient or relative in an unexpected event requires the transmission of the reasons, procedures, and results of the event to the patient or the relative in an explicit, emphatic, and provable way. The fact that the contextual conditions is appropriate for the transmission of negative messages to patient or to their relative is also another issue that needs to be taken into account. It should be remembered that the patient and his/her relative are human and they have values, beliefs, emotions, and rights. In unexpected events, messages should be conveyed to the target audience with fast, compassionate and honest. In addition, the time of notification of the negativity is also important. In such cases, it is frequently observed that the subject is postponed, trying to find an excuse and passing on. All these efforts are aimed at obscuring the clarity and sincerity of the issue and may have negative effects on the level of trust. Instead of planning steps to cover, pass, or spread over time in case of negativity; planning in which physical conditions, words, and by which personnel the situation will be given to the patient will produce more positive results and will prevent crisis. Although corporate external communication includes the steps of health institutions towards all target groups outside the institution, the level at which unexpected events occur is mostly seen in the relationship with patients and their relatives. In fact, the issue stemmed from in-institution practices and if the solution cannot be found within this framework, the crisis management phase should be started. Crisis communication, unlike event management, requires focusing directly on the existing public and potential public. Accordingly, managing the communication of unexpected events is planned in a narrower environment and could be overcome with less effort and resources. The reason for the crisis is that the necessary measures have not been taken while the issue is still at the stage of identification. Early resolution of the negative situations

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

97

means that the issue is not presented to the public. The greater the number of people who are aware of the issue, the more difficult it is to manage the issue. On the other hand, the greater the number of people affected by negative situations, the greater the likelihood that the institution will face with deep crises. For this reason, institutions have to take care of the unexpected events and keep in mind that communication is the most powerful solution instrument in the negativities experienced. Institutions should keep all communication channels open at all times and take steps to prevent possible crisis situations before they grow. Although it is possible to foresee the level of impact and magnitude of events through digital platforms, it is preferable to resolve events inherent to the individual level without reflecting them on digital platforms that are made available to the public. In order to prevent the unexpected medical events from being known to the wider masses, the institutions should do the following: Disclosure: It is considered an ethical obligation to give full disclosure to the patient or family when the patient or his/her family encounters any medical problems. Most health service providers or institutions prefer to cover up when faced with such an event. However, this may have negative consequences for the patient and the caregiver, the provider, the health institution, and the health system (Hendrich et al., 2014: 39). In such cases, it is a wrong approach to assign responsibility to the practitioner or to the source of negativity. Under such circumstances, health institutions should act with a patient-centered approach with their own employees and should implement the tactics and strategies for the solution of the event without the need for compensation and litigation process as planned. All communication actions, particularly the sharing of employees on digital platforms, must be properly structured and implemented. It is the responsibility of the management level of the health institution and the public relations specialist to take measures to ensure that medical events do not end unexpectedly. Each unexpected event or negative result also creates an opportunity for institutions to learn. Public disclosures of unexpected events should include what has been learned as well as the stages of the process. It should be communicated in a manner supported by evidence from digital environments and evidence of all phases of the process. Whether the statement is made directly to the patient or his/her relatives or shared with the public, information should be given in the explanations about what has been learned from the situations that have arisen and what will be done in order to prevent the event from occurring. Showing sincerity: Whether the subject is explained to the patient or his/her family, or shared via traditional or social media, it is extremely important to be sincere and open during the explanation. This sincerity and openness should be evaluated in terms of the internalization of the situation rather than the only

98

Yasin Bulduklu

visible indicator and the fatigue of the problem in favor of the patient. In cases where the events do not go as expected or do not result, the reasons should be explained to the patients and their families with honesty. An intimate language should be used in a balanced way, and the sadness of the situation should be explained in an empathic manner to the patient, relatives, or the public. The balance should not be overlooked in the use of sincere language, especially in statements made from digital platforms. In empathic language use, excess will be misunderstood by the public. Excessive empathy will give rise to suspicion. Accordingly, it is seen that the important point in the representation of sincerity is the persuasion of the code of sorrow. Ability to answer all the questions: Unexpected events are equivalent to efforts by patients and their relatives to understand the situation with a large number of questions and to ease their conscience. Institutions should carry out studies to predict possible questions before the disclosure and pay attention to respond to each question during their disclosure. Although digital platforms allow two-way communication, feedback is not as fast as in face-to-face communication. For this reason, sufficient care should be taken to ensure that the shares made through the digital channels do not leave obscure area. It is observed that especially the relatives of the patients have an attitude towards feeling responsible for the incident that occurs when the subject is in the dimension of the patient and his/her relatives. In such cases, correct answers to the questions may reduce the perceived responsibility of the organization. If the issue finds stakeholders at the media level, institutions should also be prepared for the inciting approach and questions of media members. The main element of correct understanding in such situations is to remain calm and answer questions patiently. The attitude that evokes uncertainty during the answers to the questions or aims to end the explanation as soon as possible means the gaps that must be filled for the media or patients. Questions that are not answered in the disclosure will mean issues that people or the media will comment on. Communicate with the right person: After an unlikely case, the patient should be informed about the issue. In some cases, especially death (lack of mental health, victim of child, the need for intensive care of the patient, the possibility of violence, etc.), communication with the patient’s relatives is necessary. Communicating with the right person may be vital to avoid crisis and corporate goals. In such cases, the right person is the closest individual to the patient. On the other hand, it may be necessary to choose the secondary relatives of the patient. For instance, if a child is lost though all medical interventions, it may be a rational choice to provide information to uncle or/and aunt instead of explaining the subject to the mother and father. Well, it is not recommended

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

99

to use more distant contacts outside of relatives as a means of communication. This situation will mean that the relatives of the patients will receive information from a distance farther from the distance of the health care provider and will increase the level of the questioning of error or responsibility. Who will provide information in unexpected events is also very important. The premise responsibility of the health attempt, preferably the highest qualified and most experienced team member, should be determined to provide information: the title, experience, and competence of the person concerned should be reported to the patient, relative, or the media before giving information. Consideration should be given for respect to the patient and his relatives, and maintain confidentiality of the information before it is being shared on digital platforms. Acceptance of the responsibility or explanation of the reason: Medical interventions are the functions that require a large number of employees to work in close cooperation as a team. Failure or carelessness of a person in the team may reveal unexpected medical events. The results, rules, and processes must be accurately analyzed before explaining unexpected events from all communication channels. When responsibility or responsibilities are determined in these analyses, the disclosure of the relevant issues in communication can prevent possible major crisis situations. Before the event reaches these dimensions when the issue is in crisis or when it is subject to legal process, the subject should be included in the first statements. Thus, the patient, his or her relatives, or the public will be more likely to adopt a view to understand the situation, and the size of the damages will be reduced in case of emergence of hidden facts. Moreover, unexpected events are not always caused by the system or by the service provider. Explanations in such situations, the first prejudice or things, that come to mind is that the institution has produced an excuse. The first route of not being responsible for these accusations is to present the justification in the rationality on the basis of evidence. Patient’s failure to follow instructions or other reasons may constitute grounds in the event of medical unexpected events. This condition suggests an institutional design where the process can be monitored from beginning to end. Such precautions previously taken by managers provide significant evidence in explaining unexpected events. To promise investigation or to survey the incident: In some conclusions, it is sometimes very easy to find the rationale or responsiblity of the problem except for what is expected. However, health care services are provided in certain processes and in multi-professional cooperation, so the analysis of events from time to time is complex and may require long research. Promising to examine the incident in such cases may be far from satisfying the patient and their relatives. Explanations are needed for supporting by some evidence, including

100

Yasin Bulduklu

responsibilities for the events which the institution has shown reflexes. Similarly, the faith that is a preliminary step was necessary for investigations, which required time, should be demonstrated in all communication environments (especially in digital media) to convince the patient, relatives, and the public. As a point of view, it should be emphasized that the responsibility of the health institution will not be eliminated by finding the responsible person for the event. Demonstrate impartiality/provide an impartial investigation: Some unexpected events can be demonstrated by evidence-based investigations and lawful by the organization. For other conditions, both the institutional perspective of the institution and the labor supply can create a perception of prejudice on the subject. These situations require detailed access to for comprehensive and ­further investigation. Time-dependent researches also create the demand for the external control. Demanding an external observer or investigator and sharing this request with the patient and relatives or with the public is the best way to demonstrate that the institution is impartial. The person, who will also assume the duty of surveyor, should be acceptable to the patients and their relatives. These researches will last for at least a few weeks and will enable the institution to examine the event in detail, the effects of the events will be in the phase of decline. The participation of the patient or their relatives in the investigation of the event is not a usual practice but can contribute significantly to the matter. From this point, it should not be forgotten that any research will take long time, even for years. According to this condition, maximum three months should be d ­ etermined as the time of limit in investigation or research. It should be noted that each delay will damage the sense of justice, because the patient or their relatives will have to wait patiently for the unexpected situation. In addition, long-time investigations, researches, and surveys will incorporate the legal dimension into the case. As soon as the issue is cleared as a priority, the image of the corporate will not be damaged, also the corporate resources will not be wasted. Demonstration of no intentional: The most common of the health professionals are individuals who love people, give importance to human health, and whose beliefs are “health is the most important value”. All their educational life was designed and shaped first by the principle of “no harm”. When encountered with an unexpected event, the health care staff is one of the most affected and the most saddened persons. Well, it is important to emphasize that the transfer of unexpected events from traditional and digital media and communication with the victims is independent from the phenomenon of personnel or system responsible. Any system intentionally does not want the patient or relatives to be harmed. Similarly, any professional would never want the patient or relatives

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

101

to be harmed. These issues should be emphasized in the construction of communication. At the same time, as an expression of sadness, “the use of apology” should not be avoided. A commitment that it will not happen again: As mentioned above a few times, people do not want to see their own negative sides at the other people. To know that especially the negativity will be corrected in themselves creates a different sense of satisfaction. To clarify both the explanation and the next negativity, the most important thing is to determine the occurrence process and the responsible ones in the negative situations and to explain the reasons of the problem. The emergence of any negativity in the next initiatives is related to learning experience from the past events. When corporation promise that necessary steps will be taken in the statements in their digital platforms, this will cause a positive interpretation of the issue at the media for both the patients and relatives. Communication or create contacting point: Sometimes unexpected events come up with an option that creates the compensation obligation. Regardless of the responsibility of the patient or the obligation of compensation are present, there is a need for an “employee” who can reach the aggrieved person directly after unexpected events. This employee will usually offer a facilitating function to prevent huge crisis, when employee is a communication professional who is impartial in the negativity. The person, who will serve as a kind of mediator between the sides, must be communicated and mediated with the aggrieved person. In such events, it would be useful to advise the patient or relative to recommend direct communication rather than using digital technologies such as e-mail. The function of convincing in the communication skill of the contact point is important in terms of corporation benefit. According to some of the previous studies, when unexpected medical events occur, honest and open communication with patients and their relatives and applied established clarification protocols have emerged successful results. In America (2006), an introduced management program, namely “Ascension Health” supports the early identification and reporting of unexpected medical events. The program steps in the system were defined as: In order to determine whether the service provided is reasonable, it is necessary to conduct an immediate investigation, apologize if necessary, and accept the early responsibility. The system was applied in 2007, but some reasons have created obstacles on its applicability such as: a) the explanation protocol is not widely accepted, and b) the idea of “full disclosure of unexpected medical incidents” is not necessary for hospital teams and physicians.

102

Yasin Bulduklu

4 Conclusion The fundamental emphasis in the management of unexpected events is communication. The most common unexpected events showed cases as: inaccuracies in the application of the examination or treatment, medical errors, misfortune during the intervention, and neglect or defects. Communication problems arising from employees may also occur unexpectedly in events. Although sustained monitoring and evaluation is required for unexpected results that are preventable, unexpected events require commonly a reactive approach. However, this situation should not mean to be drawn away from the proactive view of negative improvements. Especially in the management of unexpected events, communication plan should be readiness. The resilient implementation of the communication plan at all levels will mean effective management of unexpected events. Among these arrangements; the pattern of communication, receiving the public to which priority information, the structure of the message and the media to which the message will be transmitting is a prerequisite for successful management event. The factors which consist of the basic characteristics of the provision of the health services have the potential to affect the outcome of the service and the satisfaction. A wide range of factors from the conditions of initiative to the skills of the employees, respect for the valuations of the patient, and internal communication design may influence the unexpected results. Health, due to its structure as naturally, is composed of services that require teamwork and close cooperation. Disruptions in the team communication are the most inflictive factors among the factors that have an impact on the negative results, and it has been demonstrated that open communication between the team members will provide major advantages in solving problems. For that, it is necessary to focus on comprehensive communication covering the whole organization in corporate communication; the communication in team is a necessity to prevent corporate success and the occurrence of unexpected events. Health institutions managers and corporate communication administrators are responsible for preparing the appropriate environment for teamwork. Effective and apparent communication within the team is the principal factor for the success of corporate communication and the achievement of the goals of the health institutions. From time to time, the cause and origin of the errors are not obvious. When an unexpected event occurs, whether the cause is apparent, it is a major importance for the institutions to evaluate the situation. Correct assessment and unbiased analysis of the process is the first circumstance for reducing the risk of repetition. Every event should be analyzed before and after; it must be explained why it occurs

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

103

and makes inferences about how and what to do to reduce further damage. Late disclosure or deficient transmission of information will be result in more public coverage and thus damage to the corporate image. Digital communication roads have become more primary than traditional explanations, so it means that the hand of the corporations is more powerful in such events and will/may arise in crisis situations. It is obvious that the possibility of communication to create a crisis will be prevented by the correct communication experts’ configuration and managing the messages for digital platforms by means of digital technology. In unexpected medical events; obvious, sincere, and empathic communication with patients and their families means at least no more problems and no crisis for patients, service providers, and institutions. For that reason; obvious, sincere, quick decision-making and implementation, and fair evaluation should be adopted as the basic philosophy in communication with patients, relatives, or the public. The quick transmission of the message also suggests “new media”. The new media is a platform in which institutions can create their own content, and they can receive their feedback directly. When the reasons of the events are balanced and earnest from the first hand, digital platforms can offer enormous advantages in unexpected events. Even though the traditional mass media which comes to mind when it comes to relations with the media for the health institutions, correctly managing the new media is essential for successful unexpected event management. Health institutions should use the developing technological opportunities effectively in the condition of communication. The new media has changed the direction of government in the face of health institutions with their structure and makes the patient even stronger. Because of the new media, the smallest problem can reach to hundreds, thousands, and millions of people so that the problem could be known by everyone. In conclusion, it will not be wrong to say that the effective use of new media by health institutions will provide advantages in unexpected events. That is why, it has become an obligation for health institutions to use professional social media managers.

References Aydın, S. (2017). Sağlık Sisteminin Genel Özellikleri ve Türk Sağlık Sistemi, Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi-I (M. Şeker & Y. Bulduklu, Eds.), Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, 52–75. Boinot, P. (2009). Preventable Adverse Events in Healthcare: Issues and Solutions, https://www.hinnovic.org/post/preventable-adverse-events-inhealthcare-issues-and-solutions, Access Date: 22.02.2019.

104

Yasin Bulduklu

Bonacum, D, Carole, D, Moidel, B. I. & Haas, D. (2004). Communicating about Episodes of Harm to Patients, Achieving Safe and Reliable Healthcare Strategies and Solutions, (M. Leonard, A. Frankel, T. Simmonds & K. B. Vega, Eds.), Chicago: Health Administration Press, 93–112. Brown, J. P. (2008). Collaborative Cross-checking, Improving Healthcare Team Communication (C. P. Nemeth, Ed.), Chicago: Ashgate Publishing Company, 155–178. Bulduklu, Y. (2015). Sağlık Hizmetlerinin Sunumunda Beklenmeyen Durumlar ve Halkla İlişkiler, SD Sağlık Düşüncesi ve Tıp Kültürü Platformu, 35, 90–93. Coombs, W. T. & Holladay, S. J. (2010). The Handbook of Crisis Communication. Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell. Gürbüz, S. (2018). Kurumsal İmaj Oluşturmada Kurumsal Sosyal Sorumluluk Faaliyetleri: İzlenim Yönetimi Taktiklerinin YouTube Videolarında Kullanımı, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Dergisi, 1(1), 28–41. Gürbüz, S. (2019). Siyasi Lider İmajına Etki Açısından Fotoğrafın Rolü: 2017 Halkoylaması Örneğinde Liderlerin Sosyal Medya Fotoğrafları, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 69(18), 318–331. Hayran, O. (2017). Sağlık Hizmetlerinin Kamusal ve Özel Yönü, Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi-I (M. Şeker & Y. Bulduklu, Eds.), Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, 76–97. Hendrich, A., McCoy, C. K., Gale, J., Sparkman, L. & Santos, P. (2014). Ascension Health’s Demonstration of Full Disclosure Protocol for Unexpected Events During Labor and Delivery Shows Promise, Health Affairs, 33, 39–45. Reader, T., Flin, R. & Cuthbertson, B. (2008). Factors Affecting Team Communication in the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), Improving Healthcare Team Communication (C. P. Nemeth, Ed.), Chicago: Ashgate Publishing Company, 117–134. Real, K. & Street, R. L. (2009). Doctor-Patient Communication from an Organizational Perspective, Communicating to Manage Health and Illness, (D. E. Brashers ve D. J. Goldsmith, Eds.), New York: Routledge, 65–90. Sarp, N. (2017). Sağlık Hizmetleri ve Sağlık Hizmet Kuruluşları, Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi-I (M. Şeker & Y. Bulduklu, Eds.), Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, 30–51. Ulmer, R. R., Seeger, M. W. & Sellnow, T. L. (2007). Post-Crisis Communication and Renewal: Expanding the Parameters of Post-Crisis Discourse. Public Relations Review, 33(2), 130–135.

Health Institutions and Digital Public Relations

105

Wears, R. L. & Berg, M. (2005). Computer Technology and Clinical Work: Still Waiting for Godot. JAMA, 293(10), 1261–263. http://www.macrmi.info/files/2414/1234/8177/Unexpected_Medical_ Outcome_-_Patient_Info_Handout.pdf; Access Date: 22.02.2019.

Özlem Duğan

Examining E-Complaints against Airline Companies in Terms of Public Relations Introduction As the management processes of organizations transform into a strategic structure and as the two-way communication gains importance, the issue management aspect of public relations has become important as well. Adopting a proactive approach makes it easier for institutions to overcome avoidable crises. In this context, through the proactive approach, it becomes possible for institutions to reduce risks and avoid a potential crisis. A successful conduct of issue management, which is comprised of efforts to prevent the emergence of a crisis, by organizations contributes to their reputation and image. In order for the continuation of the organization and to reach its goals, the issue management should be employed successfully. Issue management is not only important for the satisfaction of the target audiences, but also for revealing the strategic perspective of the organization and demonstrating its issue management skill. Particularly today, when the two-way communication has gained importance, new approaches of organizations for immediately reaching the target audience and solving the problems are important indicators demonstrating the attitudes of organizations towards their customers. Organizations should direct their activities by adopting a proactive communication policy concerning the issue management and by organizing their social responsibility projects considering their shareholders. Through these strategic plans, the organizations aim at protecting their images and reputations, decreasing possible risks, protecting their market share, and taking new opportunities. While organizations are trying to avoid situations that adversely affect the relationships with their stakeholders and protecting their image and reputation, they also take into consideration the positive or negative experiences of the consumers concerning their products or services. Aiming at keeping the existing customers and acquiring new ones, the organizations strive to avoid irreversible damages due to negative experiences by keeping their relationship with consumers at a certain level. The organizations are aiming at accurately managing the complaints concerning their products or services, increasing the number of loyal customers,

108

Özlem Duğan

protecting the brand and image from negative situations, encouraging customers to share positive messages with other customers, increasing the quality perceptions of the customers, and increasing the profits (Barış, 2006: 15–16). Although a customer is not satisfied with the product, it depends on the level of issue management success of the organization to satisfy a customer through a right complaint management. Therefore, the satisfaction of a customer, even if there is a complaint, should be analyzed again. This can contribute to a more accurate satisfaction analysis for the organization. The consumers can directly use the complaint mechanisms, which helps to reveal the views of the consumers about the organization, such as the customer relations units, telephone, fax, and e-mail, or they can indirectly use these mechanisms such as complaint websites, arbitrator delegations, and courts (Kitapçı, 2008:112). In previous studies, it was revealed that half of the customers, who were not satisfied with the products or services, shared their negative experiences with people around them rather than the manufacturer of the product or the service (Phau and Sari, 2004: 407). The discontent increases even further if the organizations react slowly to resolve the complaint in the cases that will negatively influence the organizations. Negative opinions about the company rapidly spread abroad. In this respect, the company should assume the responsibility in response to the complaints of customers and quickly find a solution. The company should produce solutions to prevent complaints in the future, rather than focusing on quick fixes (Kotler, 2000a: 186–187). Complaints are one of the important feedback tools for the institutions. Therefore, it should be considered as the most useful and meaningful source of information in increasing customer/consumer satisfaction (Heung and Lam, 2003:283) and the organizations should consider complaints as an opportunity. In this context, the “sikayetvar”(lit. “I have a complaint!”) website, a digital complaint platform, brings consumers and organizations together in cases of dissatisfaction, providing an opportunity for the consumers to find solutions for the problem and for the organizations to protect their image and reputation (Çakmak Karapınar and Öcal, 2017:104–105). In context of this study, particularly the complaints were investigated that were made on the “sikayetvar” website, a complaint platform. The study is comprised of strategic issue management, issue management concerning public relations, and the implementation parts. In this study, the complaints about four airline companies were investigated. The names of the airline companies were not mentioned; instead, they were coded as company-1, company-2, company-3, and company-4. The data obtained from the mentioned website were analyzed

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

109

through the content analysis method. The obtained analysis results were evaluated in the findings section.

1 Strategic Issue Management Issue management is the process in which the organization searches and finds a solution for problems arising from various causes, defends the organization against these problems, and develops strategies that will influence the public policy (Sohodol Bir, 2006:20). Issue management is an approach that is used to analyze, comprehend, and shape the social environment in favor of the organization. It is to continuously monitor the environment in order to examine the problems that have positive or negative potential impacts for the organization (Minnis, 2001: 991; Akyürek, 2015:138). Issue management, which involves all the early warning efforts focusing on preventive efforts, is a process that demonstrates the need for strategic planning, and reflects the strategic thinking bringing together creative and analytic skills (Brønn and Brønn, 2002:249). Issue management, which is comprised of prediction, development, and defense activities, involves identification, observation, analysis, and determination of the priority of issues. Policy development is the basis of issue management. In this process, opinions should be produced in order to maintain a consistent defense (Arrington and Sawaya, 1984:149). Issue management involves the processes of predicting the negative cases, which can damage the organization or the shareholders, and planning actions to be taken against them. In this process, it is important to have a mutual balance between the organization and its stakeholders and to manage the social resources in this balance. It is imperative for the organization to know the expectations of its stakeholders, to analyze the environment and issues, to determine the priority, and, in the light of all abovementioned issues, to develop a management strategy. Identifying a management strategy or delineating a management policy is one of the indispensable decisions for a successful implementation of issue management in an organization. Therefore, organizations should be careful when identifying issues that may arise (Çakmak, Karapınar and Öcal, 2017:106). Hainsworth and Meng, who conducted important studies on issue management, stated that the issues that may affect the organization have a life cycle. Tucker and Broom (1993:38) refer to the issue management as the process management, in which the interests of the organization and its stakeholders are looked after. In process management, it is aimed to protect the reputation and image of the organization, to reduce potential risks, and to protect its market share. In issue management, upon determining the problem, a quick and honest response

110

Özlem Duğan

prevents problems (Gonza’lez-Herrero and Smith, 2008). Organizations should prepare their institutional plans by taking into consideration the problems and rumors. Issue management should not only be employed by focusing on the external environment; on the contrary, proactive plans for internal and external environment are essential for a successful implementation of issue management (Heath, 2009:337). Strategic issue management consists of five stages. These stages can be explained as follows: • • • • •

Determination, Analysis, Strategy Development, Implementation, Evaluation.

The determination of the issue is initially identified by preplanning the steps to be taken. The analysis stage is the process, in which the dimensions of the issue, who is likely to be influenced from it, the ability of the organization to manage the issue, and possible problems to emerge are investigated. The third stage is the strategy development. At this stage, the steps to be taken and action plans are determined about the issue, as well as deciding which media tools to be used for communication and who are responsible for the communication (Bulduklu and Yarar, 2018:130). One of the most well-known life cycle models related to the emergence, development, and resolution of issues was revealed by Hainsworth. According to Hainsworth (1990), the issues have a life cycle, and this lifecycle consists of origin, amplification, organization, and resolution stages. In the origin stage, the issues have not yet been revealed to the public. They have attracted the attention of organizations as the issues that are likely to become a problem. During the amplification stage, the issue begins to appear on media. With this appearance, groups and individuals begin to adopt the issue and become a party. As a result, the issue now takes its place on the public agenda and becomes a part of the public policy. At the organization stage, each group begins to look for solutions for the issue according to their own interests. In search of this solution, the groups want the state organs to take action, prepare necessary regulations, and resolve the issue. In the resolution phase, state organs are mobilized for the issue, and the issue is no more a case that is up to the institutional initiative. Thus, the issue is resolved (Regester and Larkin, 2002:49). The issue or issues that are important for the institution may emerge from internal or external factors. The issues such as the lack of research and

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

111

development studies, decreasing job satisfaction and motivation of employees, and the inability to adapt to technological developments are internal strategic issues. Similarly, the issues such as policies of competitors in the market, political incompatibilities, and changes in rules are external strategic issues. When the issue/issues turn into problems, they can negatively influence the corporate objectives. If the issue is resolved without turning into a problem, opportunities may arise. The emergence of the opportunity is possible with proper management. In particular, accurate management of external issues can create opportunities from institutional perspective (Elimimian and Edevbie, 2013:33–34; Karademirlidag, 2005:5). Examining from the perspective of issue management or strategic issue management, issues can also be classified as subjects that can be transformed into opportunities or emerge as threats. When the issues are successfully managed, they turn into an opportunity for the organizations, let alone being threats. However, issue or issues that cannot be managed successfully can become a crisis for organizations. Therefore, it is also necessary to manage the issues as well as identifying them. Issues have the potential to negatively influence the structure, functioning, and future of institutions. Therefore, it is important for the future of the organizations to manage the issues and extricate themselves from these cases with the least impact (Çakmak Karapınar and Öcal, 2017:108). According to Tucker and Broom (1993:25), following the determination processes of issues, the implications of issues on stakeholders, the perceptions of stakeholders, and their behavioral tendencies on issues are determined, and based on these results, an issue management program is implemented. Successful implementation of issue management makes significant contributions to the organizations. According to Heath and Cousino (1990:8) and Sohodol Bir (2006:18), it provides important benefits to the organizations in fields such as increasing the market share of the organization, developing its reputation, improving its relationships with the stakeholders and target audiences, understanding the real expectations of the environment, providing a communication during the discussions concerning public policies, increasing the sensitivity to the changes to occur in the environment of the organization, and evaluating opportunities and threats possible to emerge from the internal and external environment. In the process of issue management, the issue management should be regarded as a part of strategic planning and communication should be established with the public (Sohodol Bir, 2006:18). An accurate identification of the issues is beneficial for the organization in directing the operations, allowing the organization to differentiate the issues as related to public order or related to business, or strategic

112

Özlem Duğan

issues (Çakmak Karapinar and Öcal, 2017:105). As a proactive management approach, in the issue management, which should be planned particularly by the senior management, it is necessary for the organizations to create a managerial process by creating early warning systems based on predicting the issue before it turns into a crisis.

2 Issue Management Concerning Public Relations The issue management, which has an important place in public relations practices, is of importance for the future of organizations. The issue management, which expresses the predetermined measures to prevent a crisis, is significant in the management of the organization in the strategic planning of public relations. Public relations are examined in two parts, as proactive and reactive. One of the important aspects of proactive approach is the issue management. Preliminary preparation is important for successful public relations work. Preliminary preparation is to take precautions concerning any kind of issue. It stands for being ready for the worst case scenario. Issue management is a public relations application that is proactive and systematic (Ural, 2006:73) in predicting problems, anticipating hazards, minimizing surprises, solving problems, and preventing crises. With the increasing importance of the strategic point of view in public relations practices, stakeholders have been involved in the processes, and the concept of issue management has developed in this context. In issue management, the determination of the issues and management of the identified issues come to the fore (Sohodol Bir, 2006:20). Issue management helps reactive organizations to respond to change and helps the change to strategically manage itself. It achieves this depending on comprehensive planning, management, and communication programs, and among these, the communication program has a particular importance for issue management (Çakır, 2017:151). Issue management is considered as the capacity to understand, mobilize, coordinate, and redirect all strategic and policy planning functions and all public relations skills influencing the corporate destiny to achieve a single goal (Japues, 2009: 282). Public relations practitioners communicate to help organizations manage information exchanges, identify and solve problems, and assist in managing conflicts and behaviors (Long and Hazleton, 1987). Considered one of the most important functions of public relations practitioners (Ewing, 1997:173), issue management becomes equal to or more important than other public relations functions such as media relations, marketing public relations, investor relations, internal communication, and social communication. In recent years, with the

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

113

strategic planning and issue management being involved into the job definition of public relations, the maturation period of this profession is completed (Ewing, 1997:173). Public relations practitioners have crucial roles such as identifying key points in issue management, establishing good relations with organizational stakeholders, and maintaining organizational interests involving environmental scanning as well. In addition to these roles, public relations practitioners should apply a symmetrical public relations with a mutual interaction rather than acting like an advocate of the institution, as seen in an asymmetric approach (Bowen, 2005). Today, when two-way communication has gained importance, public relations practitioners should not only be in a robust communication effort with their target audiences (Kaya, 309) but also successfully conduct the crisis communication. Evaluating the issue management as the process of observation and realization, Peltekoğlu (2012) stated that the main condition to prevent a crisis is the successful evaluation of the process. Solving the issue can prevent the crisis as well. The issue management, which is seen as the preliminary stage of the crisis, prevents further growth of the problems by taking precautions. A customer dissatisfaction that is seen as insignificant by the institution may be a signal of a crisis. Therefore, a problem that is not solved in the right time may be the source of a crisis. In order for the issue management process to be managed in a beneficial manner for the organization, the importance of the issue communication should be realized, and the public relations function is needed, which can manage this communication process best, and ultimately, the public relations must be integrated in this process (Sohodol Bir, 2006:26). It is necessary to communicate successfully with stakeholders in order to implement the decisions made by the institutions in accordance with their strategic decisions. In the issue management, a behavior adopted by the institution can be approved by a group of stakeholders while it may not be approved by another stakeholder group. At this point, the institution must adopt a behavior appealing to all stakeholder groups. However, it is not easy to accomplish. This can be achieved by successful implementation of the communication process of the issue management (Karademirlidağ, 2005:114). Particularly determination of the issues and their analyses reveal the importance of public relations techniques in the communication phase of the action plan. It is only possible to detect probable issues that will emerge as problems by effective communication with the social stakeholders of the organization. Therefore, a successful issue management is only possible with effective implementation of public relations (Ural, 2006:79). In 1978, the American Public

114

Özlem Duğan

Relations Association defined the issue management as a process that is used by a company to increase its knowledge about public policies and as a program that improves the effectiveness of the company (Regester and Larkin, 2002:26). According to Tucker and Broom, the issue management is a management process, which helps to protect markets, reduces risk, creates opportunities, and manages corporate reputation for the benefit of both the organization and the primary stakeholders (Tucker and Broom: 1998:38). In order to succeed in the issue communication, organizations should analyze the environment as well as the issues. Because organizations communicate with their target audiences through issue communication. With this communication, the organization should draw a positive perception in the minds of target audiences and shape its image and reputation accordingly. Failure to successfully manage issues and communicate with stakeholders in this process can create a negative perception in the minds of the target audiences concerning the organization. It is very difficult to change or eradicate the negative perception, image, and reputation in the minds of the target audiences. For this reason, organizations should be able to realize the issues before they emerge and determine their relevant measurements and strategies to be used in management of this issue. In other words, the organization must adopt a proactive communication process and fulfill its requirements continuously in a repetitive process. Thus, the organization will adopt the strategy necessary for the management and solution of the issue and it will be built on a solid foundation (Cakmak Karapınar and Öcal, 2017:114). According to Miler (1999:5), the institution’s public relations specialist should be able to plan and manage the steps of issue communication. The specialist should have the ability to examine the organization externally that is necessary for a successful analysis of the issues and the environment. Public relations includes many processes ranging from environmental analysis and collection of public information to the determination of public reactions to the organization. It is important for the organizations not to face the crisis situation. Therefore, the public relations specialist must pre-determine the tendencies that arise or possible to arise in the internal and external environment of the organization. According to Cakmak Karapınar and Öcal (2017:108), public relations practitioners should know that classifying the issues according to their types or forms of emergence will benefit in understanding the effects and characteristics of issues for organizations and the public. The issue management, which is crucial for the public relations, is based on identifying possible situations that may have a negative impact on the organization and determining relevant issue(s) to develop strategies. Considering the importance of public relations for the role of consultant, it becomes crucial in

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

115

planning and strategy development stages in taking administrative decisions. For example, DuPont company prioritized the problems of the sector and the public about the food, McDonald’s company about animal welfare, and Daimler Chrysler company about the safety of child passengers, and they developed and implemented policies. These organizations also managed the internal environment together with the external environment, where the products and services were distributed (Özel and Yılmaz Sert, 2014:104–105). As another example, the British Airways company observed during its privatization process that the company was working inefficiently, it had a negative image concerning the customer services, and the public offering would not be possible without solving the issue. To solve this problem, the company prepared a program aimed at changing the behaviors of its employees towards their customers and towards each other, providing trainings for the employees about extraordinary customer service. The newly developed system was named with an emotional term, “love”. Complaint management program classified the complaints according to their types, providing suggestions about solutions about the problem. It took about a month for complaints to be answered before the complaint management program was implemented; following the program, 80 % of the complaints were answered within just three days. Thus, the customer satisfaction level increased from 40 % to 65 % (Köse, 2007:39–41). In this respect, in the strategic issue management process, the data obtained through monitoring and evaluation phases can provide advantages to the organizations since it involves clues indicating the developments of the future (Başarır, 2019:248). As a component of public relations implementations, issue management can be evaluated as a process of developing a proactive approach to emerging developments. Issue management is a field struggling to reach the excellence in public relations by integrating the public interests and organizational interests.

3 Method The aim of this study is to classify the complaints against four airline companies operating in Turkey, to examine how the companies solved the complaints, and to determine the extent that the companies were successful in issue management. The complaints of above-mentioned four companies were obtained from the “www.sikayetvar.com” platform. The website, which was founded in 2001, serves in Turkey. With a potential to turn the potential customers into customers, the website is a digital platform, in which the consumers seek solutions for their negative experiences regarding products and services, companies attempt to regain the satisfaction of their customers, and they produce

116

Özlem Duğan

solutions for negative experiences in order to protect their image and reputation. Additionally, in order to encourage the companies to solve more problems, the thank-you notes of the customers whose problems were solved are also included in the platform (Çakmak Karapınar and Öcal, 2017:116–117). The data obtained from the website were analyzed through content analysis method. The content analysis is a method used for understanding and comparing the publications, narrations, and records (Arıkan, 2013:51). The content analysis, which is defined as demonstrating a certain text, book, or document, by digitizing their certain properties, can be comprehended by in-depth ­analyses through certain criteria on the properties of the documents such as their perspectives, philosophies, language, and narration (Karasar, 2012: 184). The concepts and relationships are reached with the data obtained from the content analysis. The obtained data are initially conceptualized, and subsequently, the revealed concepts organized in a logic, and ultimately, the themes explaining the data are determined. Through this method, the researcher gets familiar with the collected data and further analyses can simply be conducted with the obtained data (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2008:227; Altunışık, et al., 2012:324–325). In the study, the complaints, which were shared in the website between 01 January 2019 and 15 May 2019 (4.5 months), were taken into consideration. The categories of the complaints were created through examining the complaints in the website and based on the “Issue Management in Public Relations: an Investigation over the Sikayetvar website” of Çakmak Karapınar and Öcal (????), and based on the “Insufficient Usage of Facebook as an Interactive Platform in the Corporate Communication in terms of Participation, Feedback, and Responsiveness Aspects: an Evaluation of Turkish-Origin Airline Companies” conducted by Türk (2018). The study is limited to the data obtained from the website and four selected airline companies. The study is also limited to the contents of the comments on the website. The companies are the first four companies with the highest numbers of flights in Turkey. Therefore, the four ­companies were selected according to the numbers of the complaints entered on the website. This provides an opportunity to examine more complaints and complaint types in the study. In the research, answers were sought for the following questions: • In which categories are the complaints against the airline companies operating in Turkey? • Do the complaints, which were made against the four airline companies included in the study, show a similarity or difference? • How the four airline companies included in the study reacted to the complaints?

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

117

Tab. 1:  2019 (May) Statistics of the Sikayetvar Platform Company No Company 1 Company 2 Company 3 Company 4

Number of Complaints 3.273 3.637 538 398

Number of Thank-You Notes 92 116 32 8

Satisfaction Rate (%) % 13 % 14 % 21 % 10

4 Findings The data of the study were analyzed through the content analysis method and evaluated. In the study, it is observed that the number of complaints against the first airline company was 3.273 as of 15 May 2019 in the www.sikayetvar.com platform, while the number of thank-you notes was 92, and the satisfaction rate was 13 %. There were 3.637 complaints against the second company, 16 thank-you notes, and the satisfaction rate of the second company was 14 %. As per the third company, there were 538 complaints and 32 thank-you notes, while its satisfaction rate was 21 %. The last company had 398 complaints, 8 thank-you notes, and its satisfaction rate was 10 %. Examining the numerical data of the airline companies, it was determined that it is related with the number of passengers of the companies that the bigger companies (there were 1402 complaints about the company-1, while there were 827 complaints about the company-2) had higher numbers of complaints while smaller companies (there were 157 complaints about the company-3, and 100 complaints about company-4) had lower figures of complaints. When the causes of the complaints were examined, it was observed that the common complaints were about delays, gift cards/coupons, flight cancellation, being late for the flight, incomplete/late reimbursement, staff behaviors, and demands for readjustment or change on the ticket. This proved that the four airline companies had similar complaints. When the comments concerning the contents of the complaints were examined, it was determined that in general the complaints were not solved, and that the same airline company will never be used again.

4.1  Delay Among the complaints made against the four companies, the high number of complaints about delay draws attention. The rate of the delay complaints for the

118

Özlem Duğan

Tab. 2:  Distribution of the Causes of the Complaints against the Companies Cause of the Complaint Gift card/ coupon Broken baggage claim Delay Late/ incomplete reimbursement Staff behaviors Ticket cancellation Demand for change or readjustment on ticket Lost baggage/ goods Seat selection/ change Call center Selling over tickets Flight cancellation Expensive ticket price Baby seat Inconsistent application Over baggage Meal problem Being late for the flight Attendant demand Broken equipment Pet flight Flight demand

Company 1

Company 2

Company 3

Company 4

Number Percent 204 14.55

Number Percent Number Percent 44 5.32 6 3.82

Number Percent -

165

11.77

52

6.29

31

19.75

5

5.00

183 48

13.05 3.42

137 110

16.57 13.30

19 14

12.10 8.92

47 16

47.00 16.00

97 43

6.92 3.07

77 22

9.31 2.66

9 14

5.73 8.92

6 1

6.00 1.00

162

11.55

44

5.32

9

5.73

3

3.00

86

6.13

25

3.02

8

5.10

3

3.00

37

2.64

9

1.09

2

1.27

1

1.00

17 16

1.21 1.14

39 17

4.72 2.06

2 -

1.27 -

-

-

130

9.27

34

4.11

24

15.29

2

2.00

33

2.35

19

2.30

2

1.27

-

-

6 8

0.43 0.57

3

0.36

-

-

1 1

1.00 1.00

5 11 103

0.36 0.78 7.35

23 8 108

2.78 0.97 13.06

1 1 1

0.64 0.64 0.64

7

7.00

4

0.29

3

0.36

-

-

1

1.00

10

0.71

4

0.48

-

-

-

-

2 8

0.14 0.57

2 3

0.24 0.36

1 -

0.64 -

1 -

1.00 -

119

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations Tab. 2: (continued) Cause of the Complaint Handicapped passenger Baggage right Sending too much messages Check-in transactions Hygiene problems Website failure Total

Company 1

Company 2

Company 3

Company 4

Number Percent 7 0.50

Number Percent Number Percent 1 0.12 1 0.64

Number Percent -

6 2

0.43 0.14

17 -

2.06 -

-

-

-

-

3

0.21

22

2.66

4

2.55

1

1.00

2

0.14

1

0.12

-

-

2

2.00

4 1402

0.29 100

3 827

0.36 100

8 157

5.10 100

2 100

2.00 100

first company was 13.05 % (n=183), while it was 16.57 % (n=137) for the second company, 12.10 % (n=19) for the third company, and 47.00 % (n=47) for the fourth company. In the content of a delay complaint against the first company, a customer reacted: “We waited for two hours for the İzmir-İstanbul flight. We experienced the same delay in the returning flight due to the same reason. If you do not have enough numbers of planes, it would be a better strategy to plan flights accordingly, thus, you do not waste the time of people. It is the first time I preferred your company. I will never do this again”. In another complaint against the second company, the customer stated the dissatisfaction about the flights as follows: “The flight that was scheduled at 10:10 was delayed to 16:15. The plane took off at 16:45. We could leave the plane at 21:15. We were captivated within the plane for 3 hours. Subsequently, they ruined people within the airport. I will struggle in this issue in material and moral terms”. Another customer made a complaint against the third company about a delay as follows: “They put the people’s dander up by causing delays. The Stuttgart-Antalya flight on 25 March 2019 was scheduled as 13:45, but they took the passengers into the plane one hour before the schedule, and they took off after 3 hours following 2 hours 15 minutes of waiting, additionally 3 hours for the flight, they made us sit on those seats for 6 hours 15 minutes in total. I have a complaint about this issue”. In another complaint against the fourth company, the customer stated the dissatisfaction concerning the flights as follows: “While the scheduled time of the flight was 08:35, it took off with 1 hour delay, on top of it, it delayed for

120

Özlem Duğan

1 more hour, and they mentioned that the next step is uncertain, there is no one as the authority. No compensation, no alternative flight. There is none to communicate. Our next step is not certain”.

4.2 Broken Baggage Claim Among the complaints made against the four companies, the high number of complaints about broken baggage draws attention. The rate of the broken baggage claim complaints for the first company was 11.77 % (n=165), while it was 6.29 % (n=52) for the second company, 19.75 % (n=31) for the third company, and 5.00 % (n=5) for the fourth company. A customer complained against the first airline company with statements as follows: “My luggage arrived with all sides broken. I waited for two days for my luggage. I am traveling by bus for years, and I have not experienced any problems, but when I prefer traveling by plane since it is guaranteed, I find my luggage either broken or lost. It shouldn’t be in that way, I kindly request you to take necessary steps”, and wanted the problem to be solved. A customer made a complaint against the second airline as follows “I handed over my luggage just before the Van-Adana flight. When I arrived in Adana, I noticed that my 4-wheeled suitcase had a missing wheel and its place was collapsed inward. I applied to the authority to document the case in a report. However, officials did not fulfill my demand, stating that my luggage was labeled as ‘damaged’ before the flight. I was surprised at this, because before the flight, my suitcase was hale and hearty except for some little peelings, and moreover, I had no verbal or written informing about the damage realized before the flight. Since my luggage was labeled in a wrong way without giving any information, and additionally, since it was handed over to me far gone, I demand compensation for this unjust treatment”. A complaint against the third airline was written about the delivery of a broken luggage. The complaint of the customer is as follows, “The luggage, which I handed over in a hale and hearty condition in Munich, was handed over to me in Ankara in a condition that the handle was broken and lost, the wheel was broken and its fabric was torn. They documented a damage record. They mentioned that the second stage is uploading the photo, suitcase plug, etc., that I should conduct on the internet page. I tried to upload 4 different times in 2 days, but although I entered all the information correctly, the system did not record. I called the customer service. They also did not help, leaving me with an unresolved bad service and a broken suitcase”. The customer complained against the fourth airline, stating “In the Antalya-Dusseldorf flight, our 3 luggages were damaged as a result of throwing during loading or unloading. One of them is far gone, and there are countless crashes on the other

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

121

two. I demand from the authorities that this unjust treatment is compensated and necessary measures are taken to prevent such annoying events in the future.”

4.3 Incomplete/Late Reimbursement One of the most common complaints are about incomplete/late reimbursement. The rate of the incomplete/late reimbursement complaints against the first company was 3.42 % (n=48), while it was 13.30 % (n=110) against the second company, 8.92 % (n=14) against the third company, and 16.00 % (n=16) against the fourth company. The complaint against the first airline was made as follows: “Due to the renewal of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality elections, 464 TL was charged for my reservation and it was not reimbursed. I’ve been calling every day for a week, they’ve caused a serious suffering. I sent a notice and waited for a week, and now they responded that I should send a notice after my flight. They are trying to prolong the issue, procrastinating and encouraging me to give up seeking the amount to be paid”. A complaint regarding the late/incomplete reimbursement against the second company was as follows: “I cancelled my ticket and I was told there would be a refund within 4 days. No one called me for 15 days. None of my e-mails was responded. After long hours of efforts, we could reach them. They initially told us we’d have a refund. Upon a period without any payment, we reached them again. This time, they said that we should speak with the website that we purchased the ticket. We mentioned that we purchased the ticket from the company’s own website. You see, they don’t want to pay. They beat around the bush. They treat us mockingly”. The customer additionally complained that no solution was made. A customer complained about the late/incomplete reimbursement against the third company: “I purchased a round ticket for my trip to Hamburg. When I reached the airport for my return flight, they told that the gates were closed at 08.18 and there was no plane. I had to buy an additional ticket for a connecting flight. Please warn your Germany Hamburg employees, they are not only offhand but also close the office earlier. Therefore, I ask you to reimburse the additional return flight ticket. Otherwise, I will take legal action against your company”. In one of the complaints concerning the late/incomplete reimbursement against the fourth airline, the customer complained: “The amount for the two tickets I purchased for the March 1 Adana-Istanbul flight was withdrawn twice from my credit card, and despite my calls, perhaps more than fifty times, I still neither have an answering call, nor a response e-mail. No one cares about the extra 488 TL that I paid. What a lightminded company”.

122

Özlem Duğan

4.4 Gift Card/Coupon An important part of the complaints against the companies were about gift cards/ coupons. The rate of the gift card/coupon complaints against the first company was 14.55 % (n=204), while it was 5.32 % (n=44) against the second company, and 3.82 % (n=6) against the third company. In one of the complaints against the first airline, the customer wrote: “The credit card bonuses of my daughter were withdrawn. I’ve given three feedbacks for this. Every time it has been told that this problem will be corrected with the first update, but neither has the update been conducted nor the problem has been solved. Still no action”. A customer complained about the second airline stating: “I started the ticket purchasing through the mobile application to benefit from the company’s 40 % New-Year discount campaign. As I kept trying to find the 40 % discount button, I realized that the deadline of the campaign was close, and I also realized that the company was playing with its customers like a fish, by turning the discount campaign issue into a puzzle. At the end of the transaction, I got a message stating that there was an error in my 3D payment, which made me lose much more minutes, I regret to say that the price of the ticket rose up to 742 TL, which should be 530 TL if the discount would work, which was their own fault. Later, when I refreshed the page, the campaign was terminated, but the ad was still on. Upon my correspondence with the authorities, I was asked to send a screenshot! I think I need to be psychic or should have a time machine to get this image. My problem is left unsettled and I’m humiliated. It has been tried and tested that the company’s problem-solving method was to produce dissolution by ignoring customer s­ atisfaction”. In a complaint against the third company, a customer m ­ entioned “I am a bonus member of the company, for some reason they insist on not including my last 4 flights in the program. They’re making illogical excuses such as name confusion. I can understand, let there be a name confusion in one flight. But hearing the same excuses for four flights is really unbelievable. I demand that my flights be included in my bonus program as soon as possible.”

4.5 Staff Behavior There are complaints about staff behaviors against the airline companies as well. The rate of complaints against the first company was 6.92 % (n=97), while it was 9.31 % (n=77) against the second company, 5.73 % (n=9) against the third company, and 6.00 % (n=6) against the fourth company. In a complaint against the first company, the customer stated: “I was going to fly to Bodrum with the Milas Bodrum flight with seat number 13b. I twisted my

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

123

ankle on the escalator at the airport. Therefore, I sat in the front part of the plane on the 3rd seat row. The cabin attendant asked me to show my boarding pass when the plane was to take off. When I explained the situation to him, he lifted up his voice in a disgusting manner and said to me ‘let us take you to your own seat’. When I told him that I wanted to pay for the seat, he said, in an insulting way, that I should have done it before the flight. He did not treat me with geniality, when I was leaving the plane he stared at me, and I am reporting this situation in order to inform the company for necessary steps.” The complaint against the second airline company was as follows: “I called customer service due to a problem experienced in the Gaziantep (Oğuzeli) airport, they did not help me, they are very rude and quite unsympathetic, I will never use your company again, I am complaining about your company and I expect an apology.” In a complaint against the third airline company, the customer included the following statements: “Your staff at the check-in and baggage delivery point for a flight from Antalya to Izmir was very disrespectful; without completing our transaction he took the luggage of another passenger. He didn’t want to give us our ticket, he didn’t want to take our luggage. I will never prefer your company again, I have never seen such a disrespectful staff.” In a complaint against the fourth airline the customer included the following statements: “I encountered the worst staff attitude I’d ever seen in my life. They made me regret to ask questions. Airline staff are known for their kindness, but I came to thank God since they did not curse because we asked questions. If they can’t even tolerate a very simple question, the staff should be given communication training and they should be banned from counseling. I will never prefer you again.”

4.6 Demand for Change or Readjustment on Ticket There are complaints about demands for change or readjustment on ticket against the airline companies. The rate of complaints against the first company was 11.55 % (n=162), while it was 5.32 % (n=44) against the second company, 5.73 % (n=9) against the third company, and 3.00 % (n=3) against the fourth company. A customer complained against the first airline with following statements: “Since my ticket was promotional, they could not make any changes on it. I demanded this change on 09.05.2019 that was 3 days before the flight. I’m sure this ticket can be resold, I think your company needs to prevent wastage in these matters. It is not a success to sell cheap tickets and refuse any changes on them, the system should definitely be developed”. A customer complained about the second company, stating: “I got your company’s flight tickets from a website. I wanted to convert my international ticket to an open-date ticket. While the amount of my

124

Özlem Duğan

ticket reduced from 1040 TL to 940 TL during the transaction, an additional total of 285 TL was demanded as the converting transaction fee. I paid too much extra money even before using the ticket. Isn’t there any system that questions this, how can they demand these extra amounts so comfortably?” In a complaint against the third company, a customer stated: “I applied to the agency where I bought 2 tickets from your company for cancellation since my father-in-law was taken to the emergency and subsequently taken to the intensive care upon sudden kidney and lung failure. The agency demanded certain documents to be emailed demonstrating the status of hospitalization and the blood relation between the patient and the passenger and they stated that they will communicate with the company. Although I emailed necessary documents, I learned that the company made a negative feedback. They mentioned that they can return about half of the flight price after deductions. As a result, we learned that it is not enough to have a health excuse like a father taken to the intensive care for cancelling a ticket, and that he must be passed away. For your information, I state that these trade policies are not humane”. In a complaint against the fourth company, a customer wrote: “If you cannot interfere with the tickets sold through agencies, why do you let them sell your tickets? The name I wrote on the ticket was a few characters different from the passport, therefore, I just want you to fix the name so they (the officials) don’t give us any trouble during the check-in, and you don’t even admit it. Do you want me to buy a new ticket? You are the airline company of years, but institutionalism and customer satisfaction is 0, really shame on you”.

4.7 Flight Cancellation There are complaints about flight cancellations against the airline companies as well. The rate of complaints against the first company was 9.27 % (n=130), while it was 4.11 % (n=34) against the second company, 15.29 % (n=24) against the third company, and 2.00 % (n=2) against the fourth company. In a complaint against the first company, the customer expressed his complaint: “I paid my hotel fee (non-refundable) for the honeymoon as well. When you think everything’s going well, your company cancels the flight on its own request, providing me a new ticket for 1 day later or on my wedding day. Moreover, the company, which also asked whether I would like to cancel the ticket without caring all the money I paid for the hotel being wasted (!), doesn’t pay the wasted hotel money that I bought on their commitment when I arrived 1 day later. How come! the comments of the staff without understanding the case, unjust treatment, loss of money… I organized the hotel in that particular date because of your company! Which one am I to regret, your company that I trustfully bought the ticket? The

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

125

brand that treats me as if I am travelling an-hour distance, with zero customer satisfaction!” In a complaint against the second company, the customer expressed: “We purchased tickets for the Izmir-Sivas direct flight from your company. On March 25, 2019, when I searched the same flight to purchase another ticket, I got a message that there were no flights planned on that day. What happened to our flight? I called the customer service, told the situation, and they said the flight was cancelled. There’s still too much time before the flight date, they said, I’d be notified. Like a joke? But this is a reality for this company. I will never prefer them even if they sell it for 1 TL”. In a complaint against the third company, the customer stated: “We purchased round tickets for a flight from Istanbul to Antalya. We trusted the company and paid for all the holiday expenses. The company canceled our ticket and did not arrange a new flight, treating us unjustly. Since it’s a feast term, it is difficult to find new flight tickets. The tickets are very expensive and leave us in a very difficult position for transportation. All we want is to enjoy our holiday as planned and being provided alternatives for our cancelled tickets. The installments of the tickets have already charged on my credit card”. In a complaint against the fourth company, the customer expressed: “I purchased tickets for the Istanbul-Paris 11:15 flight. I  was notified via an SMS that my flight was cancelled. When I called the call center, they said that there was no other flight on the same day, or they could make a refund. I had to accept the flight from the previous day. With my already arranged hotel reservations and train tickets, and since their company was the source of the problem, shouldn’t they have to offer an alternative flight from another company? Previously, there were flight cancellations in other airline companies, but I was not treated unjustly, and they found an available ticket from other companies.”

4.8 Being Late for the Flight The customers made complaints about being late for the flight as well. The highest rate of complaints were against the second company with 13.06 % (n=108), while it was 7.35 % (n=103) against the first company, 7.00 % (n=7) against the fourth company, and 0.64 % (n=1) against the third company. In a complaint against the first company, the customer said, “I reached at the airport 45 minutes before my flight, but I realized the message on the screen that the time was up for receiving the ticket, and I went to the counter. I found out that there was no room on any other flight that evening, I changed my ticket to Monday morning and I paid a penalty fee of 130 TL + a seat selection fee of 40 TL. As a result, although I did check-in and there was enough time before the flight, I was

126

Özlem Duğan

Tab. 3:  The Response/Feedback Status of the Complaints

Company 1 Company 2 Company 3 Company 4 Total

Responded Number 36 34 10 2 82

No Response Number 1366 793 147 98 2404

not allowed into the plane, I made 170 TL extra payment for the next day’s flight and I was late for my shift”. In a complaint against the second company, the customer wrote: “I was not allowed to the flight to Batman airport. There was still 43 minutes before the take off, they treated unjustly to a lot of people like me, and didn’t let them into the plane, and moreover, the company employee was always rude instead of helping us. They changed the date of our flight ticket and additionally charged us 140 TL. And I’m going to start my shift with a two-day delay, and I’d been a victim both in material and moral terms. I used this airline company many times before, and I had no problem when they had delays, but I was not allowed to the plane even I arrived 43 minutes before the flight’s departure time, this is an injustice”. In a complaint against the third company, the customer stated: “Your webpage failed when I was making my check-in for the Antalya-Izmir flight, and I missed the flight since I couldn’t complete the online check-in. No interest was shown when I asked your staff for the cause of the problem. I was told that it was my problem”. In a complaint against the fourth company, the customer wrote: “My return flight was at 01:30, but there was a number of personal problems during the transportation to the airport (car tire blowout). The gates were closed by the officials when I arrived (Although there was still 5 min left). Despite all my efforts, I couldn’t get on the plane, and since I had to return the same night, I purchased a ticket from another company for 300 TL. I demand for compensation of this unjust treatment and for refund of the extra ticket I had to purchase for the return”. The solution status of complaints were reflected on the sikayetvar platform. In general, the complaints were removed from the website following a thank you for the company. However, it is remarkable that the response status of the complaints is low. Instead of solving the problems, the companies prefer not to respond to the mentioned platform. However, it is an undesirable situation for companies, which adopt a strategic management approach, to be indifferent for

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

127

the negative views or dissatisfactions against themselves. It is necessary for the organizations that adopt the two-way communication to protect their customers by solving the complaints.

5 Conclusion The issue management is an important aspect of public relations. A strategic public relations management brings along a successful issue management. Trying to solve the issue before it turns into a crisis and taking necessary measurements against negative situations necessitate a strategic management approach. Preventing negative views against the organizations, changing them to positive views, strengthening the reputation of the organization, and bringing immediate solutions for the complaints about products or services are among the required activities of today’s modern organizations. As a result of globalization, the organizations have to solve the problems by providing immediate feedbacks for the complaints. In order to understand the target audiences and predict their demands, the causes of the complaints should be revealed, and necessary measurements should be taken. Instead of providing quick fixes, the causes of the complaints should be determined and preventive mechanisms should be established to eradicate such complaints. According to a research, a satisfied customer influences five people in a positive way, while a dissatisfied customer influences 9–21 people in a negative way. Only 4 % of the dissatisfied customers make complaints against the companies; however, it is difficult to regain the dissatisfied customers (Flott, 1995). Therefore, organizations need to provide solutions for the complaints. As was proved in this study, the causes of complaints against the four airline companies were determined (Tab. 2). The causes of complaints are generally similar. The excessive number of complaints against the four airline companies and the low level of thank you and satisfaction levels (Tab. 1) demonstrate that the service is not much satisfactory. Additionally, the response rate of the companies for the complaints is very low (Tab. 3). Today, when the two-way communication gains importance, it is necessary for the companies to establish mechanisms to solve the complaints. According to Foster (2000:94), the complaints should be solved swiftly, mechanisms should be established that facilitate complaining such as free phone lines. In this study, it was observed that another complaint is that the phone lines (call centers) used for complaints are also paid. However, Barlow and Moller (2008:125), the authors of the book A Complaint is a Gift, state that it is possible to turn a complaint into an opportunity. In the framework of these opportunities,

128

Özlem Duğan

the customer should be thanked, it should be explained why the feedbacks are valued, apologies should be made for the mistakes, a promise should be made for the problem, necessary information should be asked, the mistake should be corrected as soon as possible, the satisfaction of customer should be checked, and ultimately, future mistakes should be prevented. When the complaints are solved, according to Akan and Kaynak (2008:3), customers may prefer several options such as not using the organization again, making complaints against the organization, applying for the corporate units protecting the customers, and continuing to use the same organization as if nothing happened. It can be concluded that the possible impact of the issue, concerning the issue management for the organization, is a vital information that should be included into the corporate planning and strategy. Predetermination of the issue can only be possible by monitoring the development of the issue on its life cycle. The issue life cycle also provides a healthy functioning of the issue management process. Attempts to determine and solve the mentioned issues is a process that can be achieved with the support of the public relations. The public relations experts, who are seen as the strategic guides for the organization, serve as a bridge between the expectations of the shareholders and the expectations of the organizations. The perceptions of target audiences concerning the organizations are significantly influenced when the public relations professionals develop an approach that solves the issue or issues without letting them turn into crises through a mission that starts and maintains a dialogue-based communication process, and when they implement these strategic decisions in the framework of symmetric communication approach and in line with the expectations of the target audiences.

References Akan, Y. & Kaynak, S.(2008). “Tüketicilerin Şikâyet Düşüncesini Etkileyen Faktörler”, Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 63(2), ss. 1–19. Akyürek, R. (2015). “Halkla İlişkilerde Sorun Yönetiminin İşlevi”, Kocaeli Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Araştırma Dergisi, 9, ss. 127–139. Altunışık, R., Coşkun, R., Bayraktaroğlu, S. & Yıldırım, E. (2012). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Sakarya: Sakarya Kitabevi. Arıkan, R. (2013). Araştırma Yöntem ve Teknikler, Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık. Arrington, C. B. & Sawaya, R. N. (1984). “Managing Public Affairs: Issue Management in an Uncertain Environment”, California Management Review, 26(4), pp. 148–160.

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

129

Barış, G. (2006). Kusursuz Müşteri Memnuniyeti İçin Şikâyet Yönetimi, İstanbul: MediaCat. Barlow, J. & Moller, C. (2008). A Complaint is a Gift: Recovering Customer Loyalty When Things Go Wrong, 2. Edition, California: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Başarır, M. (2019). Stratejik Halkla İlişkiler Uygulama Alanı Olarak Konu/ Sorun Yönetimi, Halkla İlişkiler ve Uygulama Alanları Yeni Eğilimler, (ed. Özgür Selvi, Zülfiye Acar Şentürk), ss. 225–250. Konya: Eğitim Yayınevi. Bowen, A. S. (2005). “A Practical Model for Ethical Decision Making in Issues Management and Public Relations”, Journal of Public Relations Research, 17(3), pp. 191–216. Brønn, P. S. & Brønn, C. (2002). “Issues Management as a Basis for Strategic Orientation”, Journal of Public Affairs, 2(4), pp. 247–258. Bulduklu, Y. & Yarar, A. E. (2018). “Halkla İlişkilerde Konu Yönetimi ve Sosyal Medya: Ülker “1 Nisan Reklamı” Örneği”, PESA Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 4(1), ss. 124–133. Çakır, V. (2017). Issue Management Studies from Turkey’s Perspective: The Case of Cargill Turkey Ü. Arklan içinde, Practice Fields in Public Relations: The Panorama of Turkey (s. 143–166). Franfurt am Main: Peter Lang GmbH. Çakmak Karapınar, D. & Öcal, D. (2017). “Halkla İlişkilerde Konu Yönetimi: Şikayetvar Sitesi Üzerinden Bir İnceleme”, Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, 13, ss. 103–124. Elimimian, J. U. & Edevbie, N. (2013). “Issues Management: Managerial Tools for Effective Strategic Planning and Implementation”. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(15), pp. 34–39. Ewing, R. P. (1997). Issues Management: Managing Trends through the Issues Life Cyle, In C. L. Caywood, (Ed.), The Handbook of Strategic Public Relations and Integrated Communications, (pp. 173–188), New York: MeGraw-Hill. Flott, L. W. (1995). Customer Satisfaction, Quality Control, Harward Business Review, September. Foster, T. R.V. (2000). Müşteri Memnuniyetinin 101 Yolu,(Çev. Meral Gönenç), İstanbul: Alfa Basım Yayın. Gonzalez-Herrero, A. & Smith, S. (2008). “Crisis Communications Management on the Web: How Internet-Based Technologies are Changing the Way Public Relations Professionals Handle Business Crises”, Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 16(3), pp. 143–153. Hainsworth, B. & Meng, M. (1988). “How Corporation Define Issues Management”, Public Relations Review, 14(4), pp. 18–30.

130

Özlem Duğan

Hainsworth, B. E. (1990). “The Distrubution of Advantages and Disadvantages”, Public Relations Review, 16(1), pp. 33–39. Heath, R. L. (2009). “A Rhetorical Theory Approach to Issues Management”, In Public Relations Theory II (pp. 63–99), C. H. Botan & V. Hazleton (Eds), New York: Routledge. Heath, R. L. & Cousine, K. R. (1990). “Issue Management: End of First Decade Progress Report”, Public Relations Review, 17(1), pp. 6–19.Heung, C. S. & Lam, T. (2003). “Customer Complaint Behavior Towards Restaurant Services”. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 15(4/5), pp. 283–289. Jaques, T. (2009). Issue and Crisis Management: Quicks and in the Definitional Landscape. Public Relations Review, (35), pp . 280–286. Karademirlidağ, İ. (2005). “Halkla İlişkilerde Stratejik Konu Yönetiminde Jenerik İlaç Konusunun İncelenmesi”, Yayımlanmış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Karasar, N. (2012). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi, Kavramlar, İlkeler ve Teknikler, Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi. Kaya, M. (2018). Dijital Halkla İlişkiler Ekseninde Konu Yönetimi ve Twitter, Sosyal, Beşeri ve İdari Bilimler Alanında Yenilikçi Yaklaşımlar 3 (Ed. Atik, Atilla vd.), (ss. 301–315), Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı. Kitapçı, O. (2008). “Restoran Hizmetlerinde Müşteri Şikâyet Davranışları: Sivas İli’nde Bir Uygulama”. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, (31), Temmuz–Aralık, 111–120. Kotler, P. (2000a). Kotler ve Pazarlama, (Çev. Ayşe Özyağcılar), İstanbul: Sistem Yayıncılık. Köse, E. (2007). “Müşteri Sadakati Sağlamada Araçsal Bir Yönetim Olarak Şikâyet Yönetimi”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Miller, K. (1999). “Issue Management: The Link between Organization Reality and Public Perception”, Public Relations Quarterly, 44(2), pp. 5–12. Long, L. W. &Hazleton, V. (1987). “Public Relations: A Theoretical and Practical Response”, Public Relations Review, 13(29), pp. 3–13. Minnis, D. L. (2001). “Issues Management: Part and Parcel of Wildlife Management”. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 29(3), pp. 988–994. Özel Pelenk, A. & Yılmaz Sert, N. (2014). “Halkla İlişkilerde Stratejik Sorun Yönetiminin İşlevi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”. E-Journal of Intermedia, 1(1), ss. 88–106. Peltekoğlu, F. B. (2012). Halkla İlişkiler Nedir?, İstanbul: Beta Yayınları.

E-Complaints - Airline Companies in Public Relations

131

Phau, I. & Sari, R. P. (2004). “Engaging in Complaint Behaviour an Indonesian Perspective”. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 22(14), pp. 407–426. Regester, M. & Larkin, J. (2002). Risk Issues and Crisis Management, New York: Kogan Page. Sohodol Bir, Ç. (2006). “Konu Yönetimi Sürecinde İletişim ve Halkla İlişkiler”. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Hakemli Dergisi, 25, ss. 17–29. Tucker, K., Broom, G. & Caywood, C. (1993). “Managing Issues Acts as Bridge to Strategic Planning”. Public Relations Journal, 49(11), pp. 38–40. Türk, E. (2018). “Katılımcılık, Geribildirim ve Cevap Verebilirlik Boyutlarıyla Facebook’un Kurumsal İletişimde Etkileşimli Bir Mecra Olarak Kullanım Yetersizliği: Türkiye Menşeli Hava Yolları Şirketleri Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”. İstanbul University Journal of Communication Sciences, 55, ss. 171–196. Ural, E. G. (2006). Stratejik Halkla İlişkiler Uygulamaları, İstanbul: Birsen Yayınevi. Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2008). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri, Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.

Mustafa Güngör

The Use of New Media for Digital Public Relations: The Case of Konya Universities Introduction In many periods of history, communication has been provided through the various means and channels. Technology has played an important role in changing the forms of communication. The communication methods, preferences, and priorities of both individuals and institutions and organizations have changed, especially with the advent of digitalization in communication. Today, the institutions and organizations, which carried out their public relations activities with the traditional methods in the periods when there was no digital communication, have been using many new media channels, especially the social media, as a public relations tool due to the fact that they are both a convenience and a necessity. Today, it has become a necessity to carry out the public relations activities on the digital platforms such as internet and social media. This is because the wordof-mouth communication has been carried out intensively on the platforms in question. Therefore, it has become a necessity for the institutions and organizations to follow these channels very well and to provide a quick feedback to the messages and comments about themselves. With the help of digital public relations activities, it is possible to follow the messages and comments on the internet, to provide the necessary answers to them, and to create a public opinion in favor of the institution (Koçyiğit, 2017: 345–346). Also the websites have an important role in ensuring that the institutions communicate with their target audiences. Websites that can provide a positive interaction for the institutions in the virtual environment are also an effective communication medium for the universities. Because the majority of the target audiences of universities and faculties are the young and educated classes, the websites have an important role in the communication of the universities (Yurdakul and Coşkun, 2008). In this study, a content analysis of the social media accounts of the universities in Konya will be carried out and it will be attempted to find out which social media tools are essentially preferred by the universities in the relations with their public. On the other hand, it will be attempted to understand which social media

134

Mustafa Güngör

platform is used more effectively by those following the social media accounts of the universities. Furthermore, within the scope of the study, it will be examined under the title of which public relations models of Grunig and Hunt (1984) the social media accounts of universities fall and it will be attempted to find out how much importance the universities attach to the two-way communication, the main purpose of public relations in communication.

1 Public Relations and Media Communication has gained an important dimension with the rapid technological developments in the 21st century, the inter-institutional competition which has gone beyond the national context and gained international importance, and the prominence of the values attached to the individuals as well as the changing definitions of time and space. These changes and developments have also had an effect on the institutions and organizations as a need. The concept of public relations was born to meet this need. (Solmaz et al., 2012: 254). It is possible to define the “public relations” as an art of convincing (persuading) the public in order to make a certain group accept a behavior or in order to create movement in a certain direction. Furthermore, the public relations processes can be defined as a planned and convincing communication effort created to influence the target audiences, and a process of influencing the public opinion and being influenced by it. Public relations have some functions such as making the public embrace the policies of management, continuously and completely announcing the activities to the public, creating a positive atmosphere, and furthermore, ensuring a cooperation with the public in order to know what the public thinks about and expects from the management. In fulfilling these functions, the mass media plays the leading role. Establishing good relations with the media in the public relations activities is only possible through knowing the structure and functions of the mass media (Bıyık and Güven, 2009: 175). It is a must for the institutions or organizations to exchange message with the target audience, that is, to communicate. Media is one of the most important tools used by the public relations units that communicate with the target audience on behalf of their institutions. Considering the fact that the public relations is a process of “recognition and promotion”, the institutions and organizations should first recognize the environment they are in relation with, then introduce themselves to the same environment with the help of media and other communication tools (Işık and Akbaba, 2009: 213).

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

135

The good dialogue with the media and the effective use of communication tools lie at the basis of the public relations practice, which can be briefly defined as the recognition and promotion activity. The success of a public relations practice is evaluated to the extent that the mass media is properly used. When considered from this perspective, the use of mass media in a public relations practice is both a necessity and a logical and useful attempt. It is possible to state that the most important tool for communicating with the public is the media. Time and cost should also be taken into consideration in planning the public relations. Therefore, it is necessary to determine which tools can be used to convey the messages to the public as soon as possible and with the minimum cost. When choosing the mass media, the positive and negative aspects of the media should also be taken into consideration (Bıyık and Güven, 2009:193–194). The media is the sole means of reaching out to the large masses for those who carry out the public relations activities. Establishing a good communication network with the media is important for the communication and interaction between the institution and the target audience (Işık and Akbaba, 2009: 226). As is seen, the media is at the focus of the public relations process. Another important point is the structure of the media preferred in the public relations. That the medium chosen for the public relations enables two-way communication is important in terms of reaching the objective of public relations.

2 Importance of Two-way Communication in Public Relations Public relations is a process including the systematic and continuous efforts for eventually making a change in the mass in line with the desires of the business and in the business in line with the desires of the mass, with the purpose of gaining the understanding, sympathy, and support of the masses with which an organization or institution operating in the private or public sector has relation (Bıyık and Güven, 2009:193). When considered within the context of communication models, it is important that the public relations is based on the two-way communication. In a public relations activity carried out without receiving feedback, the communication process will be incomplete (Kazancı 1997: 53). The purpose of public relations is to establish the good relations with the target audience through the two-way communication and to ensure a mutual understanding between the institution and its publics (Grunig and Hunt 1984: 22). In the field of public relations in which the two-way communication is essential, the use of the internet has become indispensable in that on the one hand, it gives the opportunity to know the perception and expectation of the society; on

136

Mustafa Güngör

the other hand, it provides information. The current strategies and the strategies to be put into practice in future can be made more effective with the help of the measuring techniques such as the number of visitors to the website, the number of clicks on the content on the site, and the responses to the e-mails. Adapting to these technological developments is also of great importance in terms of the service quality, corporate image, and the competition as well (Uğur and Uğur, 2013: 508). Although in its advent there was no purpose of contributing to the public relations practices, likewise the other communication tools and methods, the social media has also become a public relations tool and method in a short time. It is possible to state that the feature of social media that enables the two-way communication, which is the ideal way of communication in public relations, plays an important role in this transformation. With Grunig’s approach, its structure that is compatible with the concept of perfectionism in the public relations has also accelerated this transformation (Peltekoğlu, 2014: 327). The new media enables the mutual communication. The social dimension of the media reveals itself in that it is mutual, that is, it enables the two-way communication and interaction of the parties involved. The new media provides the individuals with such an opportunity. The individuals using the new media can provide feedback and respond to the news and information they follow and, in this way, they can immediately convey their thoughts to the other party. The social dimension of the media reveals itself as a result of this mutual communication and interaction (Metin, 2016: 224–225). The interactive field created by the social media constitutes a structure that enhances the communication between the institutions and their public. The social networks should be used as an opportunity by the public institutions to understand the opinions of their target audience. Managers should use the problems, criticisms, and opinions shared on the social networks to improve and develop their practices (Yağmurlu, 2013:13–14). That is why the social media is an important tool for understanding and listening to the public. By means of these platforms, on which the people can share their views without any restriction, more clear and free opinions can emerge about the institutions. This, in turn, can contribute to the institutions in terms of structuring themselves better and becoming aware of their deficiencies or weaknesses. Yılmaz (2009: 205–206) puts emphasis on this issue and evaluates that in the past the target audiences were the individuals on the passive side who received the message, but today, each individual plays an active participatory role in the value creation process. From this point of view, it is possible for the public relations professionals to consider the contents created by the individuals as an important source of information.

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

137

Today, it seems not possible that the public relations practitioners do not use the social media or do not benefit from the opportunities on these platforms. Providing the target audience with the right messages, evaluating the feedbacks, and keeping the rapidly spreading information on the internet under control have an important effect on reaching the goals of the institution (Doğan, 2019: 173). In sum, the internet and digital platforms have become a new tool in the public relations processes. The new media also plays an important role in the management and public relations processes. The new media channels take place near the top of the preferences of the public relations professionals, thanks to its structure that enables the professionals in question to reach to and have a mutual communication with the large masses.

3 The Place and Importance of the New Media in the Public Relations Process With the advent of new media, the structure of the target audience in the public relations process has changed. Such that, the target audience that actively uses the new media has also reached an active position where they produce content, comment, and criticize. This situation brought about the transformation in the public relations practices. Along with enabling the interpersonal and group communication, the new media tools also provide service in conveying the news and information to the masses. This feature has caused the managers, educators, traders, politicians, and many other groups to use the new media more. (Güz et al., 2017: 1413). Almost all of the new communication media offer an interaction opportunity. New communication technologies enable the individuals to be informed of each other and their environment without any limitation of time and space and, by doing so, they facilitate the rapid dissemination of information (Akyazı, 2014: 161). Moreover, today’s internet users pull the information towards themselves. Thanks to the network, the users have the opportunity to get the information and use it on any platform as they wish (Yilmaz, 2009: 200–201). With the advent of internet and digitalization, the structure of the media has changed and the new channels that emerged have provided important opportunities for the individuals. Now, the individuals can easily make their voice heard. With the new media, many individuals can share comments and opinions on a topic that is of interest to many people at the same time and share the topic in which she/he is interested within a matter of seconds and reach out to the large masses. Gürbüz (2019: 203) states that the digitalization of communication increases the diversity of communication. It is noted that this diversity

138

Mustafa Güngör

mostly reveals itself in the new media. It is evaluated that the new media communication, which started as being based on the text before, has evolved into the platforms that combine the visual and audio elements, thus tending to meet the needs of the individuals such as self-promotion, self-expression, being liked, being approved, and making friends. These new platforms and tools have emerged along with this great change in the media in recent years and are considered as the new media. Their features are as follows: simultaneous, mutual and multi-layered, having a fast interaction, and the communication means and channels having a multimedia structure (Kürkçü, 2015: 290). This feature of the new media also affects the corporate communication strategies and communication processes. The social media platforms have to a great extent affected not only the everyday communication but also all forms of communication (Murthy, 2013: 33). The corporate communication strategies have also changed along with the digitalization in communication. The biggest advantage of the digital media for the institutions is the speed and the decreasing communication costs. In today’s digital media environment, the institutions should follow, join in, and provide feedback for the topics being talked on, commented on, and shared (Koçyiğit, 2017: 393). From the point of view of Postman, it is possible to state that the first steps from Web 2.0 to the public relations 2.0 were taken, thanks to the developments in communication technology; however, the phenomenon that put these steps over the top and created new concepts is the social media. Considering the historical development of public relations, it can be seen that it has integrated each communication means and methods into its own means and methods. With its features that allow the large masses to communicate in a short time, remove the borders, and shorten the distances; the online media has also been integrated into the tools and methods of public relations. It has been observed that as the online media has become a public relations environment, the power of public relations has increased. The combination of the feature of social media enabling the large scale sharing and the computer technology, which is a part of many technologies, increases the speed of communication to the level of a matter of seconds. Networks such as Facebook and Twitter have been turning into a public relations channels. Today, a tweet instantly appears on the screens of smartphones and reaches to the target audience in a very short period of time. The power of online media in reaching to the target audience is at a level that everyone recognizes its importance. After all, the social media has become a channel not only for the personal communication but also for the public relations practices for managing the corporate reputation (Peltekoğlu, 2014: 321–322).

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

139

The public relations includes not only the promotional activities but also the recognition activities. That is why having information about the target audience is of great importance for the organizations. Today, the public relations activities that ignore the social networks and do not exist on these networks have a little chance of success. People spend a considerable part of their time on the social networks. The individuals who actively use the social networks share their content, message each other, and even get organized through these networks. Today, when such a society exists, the role of social media has gained importance in delivering the message regarding a product/service/idea to the target audience. The positive or negative comments about an institution or organization shared on the social networks are very effective on the people who follow these posts. As a result, the organizations need to have accounts on the social networks and be well up to date about what is going on, and develop new and effective strategies to adapt to the changing conditions (Uğur and Uğur, 2013: 509–510). In public relations activities, it is important to analyze the target audience very well. When the target audience is correctly analyzed, the strategies adopted for the target audience become more effective. The works conducted in line with the analysis provide a basis for the efforts to build trust in the target audience and stakeholders. Due to being curious by nature, the humans are eager to receive news. With the developing technology, the people satisfy this curiosity through the social media. Therefore, the social media is important in that it is a cheap, effective, and fast channel to reach out to the target audience, where the feedbacks are delivered in a second (Tezcan, 2017: 51). The social media platforms, especially the Facebook and Twitter, provide many opportunities for both the private sector and the state institutions and organizations in enhancing the communication with the citizens and serving them better (Altunbaş, 2014: 11). The Internet and social media provide serious opportunities for their users to be up to date about what is going on. The news and information on any topic on the Internet and social media spread faster than the traditional communication tools. Thanks to the interaction they enable between the people and groups in different locations, the Internet and social media provide serious advantages for their users. It should be stated that there is a relationship between the use of social media and to what extent the individuals follow what is going on (Göksu, 2016: 170). Internet environments that speed up the access to the information and make the individuals effective can provide significant advantages in terms of both announcing the activities conducted and being informed of the reactions of the public (Tarhan, 2007: 79).

140

Mustafa Güngör

The commitment and cooperation created by the social media is at the center of the relationship between the institutions and their target audiences. Therefore, the importance of social media has been increasing in the eyes of the institutions. Considering the place of the online communication in the daily life and its ever increasing usage, it will be a natural result that the social media will increase its power in the communication of the institutions with their target audiences. With its every day increasing number of users, the social media, whose access and control power have no boundaries, takes on a function as an important channel of communication method to eliminate the undesired situations (Peltekoğlu, 2014: 327). Furthermore, the social media also has the feature of a public relations medium that can be used by the institutions to create their corporate image. In this regard, today, it is an important requirement that the institutions use their corporate social media accounts to announce all kinds of their activities they conduct to their target audiences (Gürbüz, 2018: 38). The new media users can continue their communication process on online platforms without interruption and in a mutual way. The structure of social media that enables the mutual interaction and simultaneous information sharing is important for the individuals to convey their ideas to the other party at any time. It is also an important advantage for the users not to have any limitation on time and space (Metin, 2016: 225). The Internet and social media usage has been ever increasing. Many institutions and organizations show great interest in the social networks built for them. Both the Internet and social networks constitute the essentials of the network society. Especially the young people show great interest in these technologies, so the digital communication technology is developing with every passing day (Kırık, 2017: 160). The digital public relations professionals who, in the digital communication platforms, receive the messages of their target audiences; become a member to the digital platforms; actively participate in the talks, comments, and discussions when required; and create their own original content take an important strategic step in managing the online corporate reputation of their institutions. This is because staying away from or being passive in the digital communication platforms that are the world of receiving message, participation, relationship, and interaction may cause the corporate image and reputation of the institutions to be negatively affected. In order to strengthen the corporate image and reputation and develop an effective digital public relations strategy, it is necessary to create online contents in a way that these contents can be a part of the company’s philosophy and reputation (Koçyiğit, 2017: 395).

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

141

4 Method In the application part of the study, Twitter and Facebook accounts of five universities operating in Konya will be analyzed. Since the five universities in Konya have around 140 thousand students and the city is labeled as “the city of universities” (Web 1) (memleket.com.tr, 2019), the social media accounts of the universities in Konya were analyzed. In the study, the data was analyzed using the quantitative and qualitative content analysis method. The content analysis is a method used to make the reproducible and valid interpretations about the content from the data of study (Krippendorff, 2004: 18). By means of content analysis, it is possible to evaluate all kinds of content presented in the written, visual, and audio media; and the publication, document, and communication tool shared in all communication channels that exist in the social and commercial life (Arian, 2013: 51). The study was limited to the posts shared on the social media accounts of all universities in Konya in May 2019, and these post were analyzed. The data of the study was obtained in the second week of June 2019. The social media accounts of the universities are the Twitter and Facebook accounts accessed through the links provided by the official websites of the universities. Within the scope of the research, it will be attempted to find out under which public relations models of Grunig and Hunt (1984) the social media accounts of the universities fall. As a result, the objective of this study is to understand to which extent the universities carry out the public relations activities through the social media and what the advantages and disadvantages of their strategies are in this medium. In coding the data of the study, the coding scheme in the study of Onat and Okmeydan (2015) was used.

5 Findings With the advent of new communication technologies and digitalization, the universities have had to update their public relations strategies. That is why the five universities in Konya share the links of all their social media accounts on their official websites. Universities attach importance also to being visible on the social media. That is why when the posts shared in May by all universities are examined, it is understood that some universities share more than one post on some days. Thus, it can be stated that they actively use the social media. Selçuk University, which continues its education activities in Konya, has the longest-standing history among these five universities. Furthermore, Selcuk

142

Mustafa Güngör

Tab. 1:  Social Media Account Activities of Selçuk University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 24205 108 12 0 3862 Facebook Account Activities of Selçuk University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Likes of Followers Posts the Post the University Responded 78666 104 125 0 2482 Types of the Twitter Posts of Selçuk University in May Text Image Video 0 108 0 Types of the Facebook Posts of Selçuk University in May Text Image Video 0 104 0

Total Number of Retweets 240 Total Number of Sharers 77

University has the highest number of students in the city. The social media ­account activities of Selçuk University in May are given in the Tab. 1 below. Having 24205 followers on Twitter, Selçuk University shared 108 posts from this account in May. The posts of the university received 12 comments and the university gave no answer to these 12 comments. These posts were liked 3862 times and retweeted 240 times. According to these data, it is possible to say that the level of interaction for the posts of the university is high. However, it is understood that those who interact fall under the classification of mass audience of Abercrombie and Longhurst (1998: 159–163), that is, they just follow the topic through the media. On Facebook, Selçuk University had 78666 followers as of May and shared 104 posts in May. The number of comments received to the posts shared on Facebook was 125. The university did not also post any response to these comments. While the number of those who liked the university’s posts on Facebook was 2482, the total number of those who shared the content was 77. At first sight, it is understood that the Facebook followers are more active than the Twitter followers. However, most of the comments were posted under the news of martyr, death, and condolences. The number of comments apart from these posts does not differ significantly from the number of comments on Twitter. Although the university has three times more followers on Facebook than on Twitter, the number

143

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations Tab. 2:  Social Media Account Activities of KTO Karatay University in May Twitter Account Activities of KTO Karatay University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 7455 84 29 0 4613 Facebook Account Activities of KTO Karatay University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 32116 68 8 0 1273 Types of the Twitter Posts of KTO Karatay University in May Text Image Video 1 75 7 Types of the Facebook Posts of KTO Karatay University in May Text Image Video 0 61 7

Total Number of Retweets 502 Total Number of Sharers 74

of interactions on Twitter is more than Facebook. This can be interpreted as that Twitter is more actively used by the target audience and may be more effective than the other platforms in reaching the target audience. When the types of the Twitter posts of Selçuk University in May are examined, it is clear that there is no text-only post without any image or video. While the number of posts having various images, especially the photos, were 108, the university did not post any videos on its Twitter account that month. When the types of the Facebook posts of Selçuk University in May are examined, a pattern similar to the Twitter posts is observed. While the university posted 104 images, it did not post any text or video. Considering the fact that today the images attract the attention of the individuals more and the long texts are not read enough, it can be concluded that Selçuk University designed its posts in a way that attracted the attention of the target audience. KTO Karatay University is one of the two foundation universities among the five universities in the city. When the data in the Tab. 2 is examined, it is understood that KTO Karatay University also actively uses the social media in order to reach its target audience. Having 7455 followers on Twitter, KTO Karatay University shared 84 posts from this account in May. The posts of the university received 29 comments, and

144

Mustafa Güngör

Tab. 3:  Social Media Account Activities of Necmettin Erbakan University in May Twitter Account Activities of Necmettin Erbakan University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 10634 39 25 0 1886 Facebook Account Activities of Necmettin Erbakan University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 12124 32 3 0 529 Types of the Twitter Posts of Necmettin Erbakan University in May Text Image Video 3 35 1 Types of the Facebook Posts of Necmettin Erbakan University in May Text Image Video 0 31 1

Total Number of Retweets 187 Total Number of Sharers 13

the university gave no answer to these 29 comments. These posts were liked 4613 times and retweeted 502 times. Having 32116 followers on Facebook, the university shared 68 posts from this account in May. These Facebook posts received 8 comments and the university gave no answer to these comments. The Facebook posts were liked 1273 times and the number of sharers was 74. In the light of this information, it is possible to say that the university is able to convey its messages to a wide audience through the social media tools. When the types of the post of the university are examined, it is understood that the university stays away from the text-only posts as much as possible and it aims to attract the attention of its followers by means of enlivening its posts with images and videos. When the types of the university’s posts are examined, it is possible to state that they are designed appropriate for the structure of today’s social media followers and can be effective in reaching the target audience. Although Necmettin Erbakan University was established in 2010, it has some faculties with a long-standing history. It is the largest university after Selçuk University in the city in terms of number of students. When the data in the Tab. 3 is examined, it is understood that Necmettin Erbakan University also uses the social media as a tool to reach out to the individuals in its target audience. Although the number of Twitter and Facebook followers of Necmettin Erbakan University and the number of posts shared in May are almost the same,

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

145

Tab. 4:  Social Media Account Activities of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May Twitter Account Activities of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes of Retweets Responded 324 35 1 0 247 75 Facebook Account Activities of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes of Sharers Responded 14351 37 4 0 512 79 Types of the Twitter Posts of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May Text Image Video 0 32 3 Types of the Facebook Posts of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May Text Image Video 0 31 6

the number of interactions on Twitter is more than three times more that on Facebook. It is seen that the university follows the right strategy in actively reaching its target audience in both channels. Also, it can be interpreted that Twitter is a more convenient tool to reach out to the target audience. While receiving feedback from the target audience to the university is important, the university’s failure to respond to the comments suggests that the university follows a public relations strategy similar to the two-way asymmetric model of Grunig and Hunt. Necmettin Erbakan University supports most of its posts with the images in both channels. It is understood that the university is trying to reach its target audience by means of making its messages more attractive. Konya Food and Agriculture University is one of the two foundation universities among the five universities in the city. Like the other universities, Konya Food and Agriculture University uses the social media as a public relations channel to deliver its messages to its target audience. Tab. 4 shows the social media activities of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May. The number of Twitter followers of Konya Food and Agriculture University is almost one 44th of the followers on Facebook. However, when we examine the number of interaction of both platforms in May, it is confirmed once again that Twitter is more effective in reaching the target audience. The university did

146

Mustafa Güngör

Tab. 5:  Social Media Account Activities of Konya Technical University in May Twitter Account Activities of Konya Technical University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 1886 39 11 0 1063 Facebook Account Activities of Konya Technical University in May Total Number Number of Comments on Comments Total Number of Followers Posts the Post the University of Likes Responded 1054 38 15 1 868 Types of the Twitter Posts of Konya Technical University in May Text Image Video 0 36 3 Types of the Facebook Posts of Konya Technical University in May Text Image Video 0 38 0

Total Number of Retweets 158 Total Number of Sharers 20

not respond to the comments which were relatively in small numbers compared to other universities. Like the other universities, Konya Food and Agriculture University aimed to attract attention by means of supporting their posts with images. Konya Technical University is one of the three state universities in the city. When the data in the Tab. 5 is examined, it is seen that although Konya Technical University is a new university established in 2018, it actively uses the social media as a public relations tool. When the social media accounts of Konya Technical University are examined, the interpretation that Twitter is a more effective tool in reaching the target audience for the universities will be confirmed once again. Since the university was established recently, whereas all other universities have more followers on Facebook, the newly established Konya Technical University has more followers on Twitter. In other words, today, the target audience also prefers to follow the developments on Twitter. Unlike the other universities, it was observed that Konya Technical University responded to one comment. Deducing from this fact, it is understood that the university can establish dialogue with its followers when it deems necessary. Table 6 shows the Twitter activities of all universities in Konya, and Tab. 7 shows the Facebook activities of all universities in Konya.

147

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations Tab. 6:  Twitter Account Activities of All Universities in Konya in May SU KTO NEU KFAU KTUN TOTAL

Follower 24205 7455 10634 324 1886 44504

Post 108 84 39 35 39 305

Comment 12 29 25 1 11 78

Response 0 0 0 0 0 0

Like 3862 4613 1886 247 1063 11671

Retweet 240 502 187 75 158 1162

Tab. 7:  Facebook Account Activities of All Universities in Konya in May Facebook Account Activities of the Universities in May - Grand Total Follower Post Comment Response Like SU 78666 104 125 0 2482 KTO 32116 68 8 0 1273 NEU 12124 32 3 0 529 KFAU 14351 37 4 0 512 KTUN 1054 38 15 1 868 TOTAL 138311 279 155 1 5664

Share 77 74 13 79 20 263

When the Tab. 6 and 7 are evaluated together, it is understood that the universities attach great importance to the social media and actively use the social media platforms. Although the number of followers on Twitter is less than that on Facebook, the fact that there is more interaction on Twitter shows that this platform is more effective in reaching out to the target audience. Considering that each comment, like, and sharing for a post will reach to those who are the followers of the sharer; it is possible to interpret that the social media is a more effective public relations channel than the websites of the universities. When the data is analyzed, it is seen that the universities are aware of this situation and based on this awareness develop their public relations strategies. The Tab. 8 shows the types of the Twitter posts of the universities in Total in May, and the Tab. 9 shows the types of the Facebook posts of the universities in Total in May. When the Tab. 8 and 9 are evaluated together, it is understood that the universities attach great importance to the visuality in their posts. Considering the fact that people are more interested in watching rather than reading and want to

148

Mustafa Güngör

Tab. 8:  Types of the Twitter Posts of the Universities in May SU KTO NEU KFAU KTUN TOTAL

Text 0 1 3 0 0 4

Image 108 75 35 32 36 286

Video 0 7 1 3 3 14

Tab. 9:  Types of the Facebook Posts of the Universities in May SU KTO NEU KFAU KTUN TOTAL

Text 0 0 0 0 0 0

Image 104 61 31 31 38 265

Video 0 7 1 6 0 14

understand a subject concisely with visuals, it can be interpreted that the universities follow a correct strategy in their post types.

Conclusion The change, which manifests itself in every aspect of life, has emerged in the public relations strategies in line with the opportunities offered by the digitalization of communication and the developing technology along with the internet. Today, the social media channels play an important role in the public relations strategies of the universities. That is why the universities constantly stay active in these channels and try to influence, persuade, and understand their target audience and promote their institution. As a result of the research conducted within the scope of the study, it was evaluated that the universities daily shared post in the social media platforms; thus, it can be stated that the universities try to use the social media as a public relations tool. One of the results reached in the study is that the universities adopted a public relations strategy compatible with the two-way asymmetric model, one of the four public relations model of Grunig and Hunt. So much so that the universities

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

149

see the comments, that is, feedbacks about their posts, but prefer not to respond to these feedbacks. As one of the results of the study, it is recommended that the universities should respond to the comments left by their target audiences, that is, the students and academicians. Because today in the nature of the public relations, it is not enough just to convey messages to the target audience, but the messages conveyed by the target audience should also be evaluated and the feedback should be provided. It can be stated that the universities in Konya are deficient in this regard. Within the scope of the study, it was concluded that Twitter is a more effective tool for the universities in terms of public relations. It has been understood that the universities attach great importance to the visuality in the social media and share their post in line with this and try to attract the attention of their target audiences. Since our age is a visual age, it is understandable to use the visuals to attract the attention of the target audience. The fact that the text-only posts are almost non-existent, especially in a text-based social media platform such as Twitter, has revealed a different result. It was evaluated that the universities used all the social media environments in the same way. It is noteworthy that the text is presented with and within the visuals. Therefore, in the coding, the posts created in a combination of text and visuals were evaluated in the visual category. It should be stated that Selçuk University shares more than other universities in terms of Twitter and Facebook posts. One of the important findings of the study was that although other universities were more recently established universities, they were behind in terms of promoting themselves to their target audience. In addition, KTO as a foundation university was found to share post the most after Selçuk University, a State University. When the video posts of the universities were evaluated, it should be stated that the video content was very few on the social media. The universities need to make their post more effective using short spot videos. In the study, it was found that while the universities actively used the social media channels used by the large masses, they did not prefer the instant message application such as WhatsApp. This situation can be explained as a result of the fact that the universities also use their social media accounts in line with the two-way asymmetric model. In other words, the universities have a tendency not to respond to the target audience. However, responding to the other party using the instant communication applications such as WhatsApp is a requirement for the excellent public relations practice. In addition, it should be stated as a requirement of the excellent public relations practice that the universities should respond to the comments of the users in their existing accounts.

150

Mustafa Güngör

References Abercrombie, Nicholas ve Longhurst, Brian (1998). Audiences (1. Baskı), London: SAGE Publications. Akyazı, Erhan (2014). “Yeni İletişim Ortamlarında Etkileşim ve Mobil Radyolara Yönelik Bir Araştırma”. Marmara İletişim Dergisi, 0 (22), 153– 162. Retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/maruid/issue/22158/238056. Access date: 11.04.2019. Altunbaş, Fuat (2014). Sosyal Medyanın Gücü Kamu Sektörü ve Güvenlik Güçlerinde Sosyal Medyanın Kullanımı, Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi. Arıkan, Rauf (2013). Araştırma Yöntem ve Teknikleri, Ankara: Nobel. Bıyık, Ahmet ve Güven, Ahmet (2009). “Kitle İletişim Araçlarının Halkla İlişkilerde Kullanımı”, Dünden Bugüne Halkla İlişkiler, Ed: Metin Işık ve Mustafa Akdağ, Konya: Eğitim Akademi, 175–195. Doğan, Ahmet (2019). “Yeni İletişim Yollarının Halkla İlişkiler Uygulamaları Açısından Önemi”. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6 (4), 167–174. Retrieved from http://dergipark.org.tr/asead/issue/44866/553360. Access date: 09.04.2019. Göksu, Vahap (2016). Kamusal Alan ve Siyasal Katılma Mecrası Olarak Sosyal Medya, Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi. Grunig, James ve Hunt, Todd (1984). Managing Public Relations, New York: CBS College Publishing. Gürbüz, Salih (2018). “Kurumsal İmaj Oluşturmada Kurumsal Sosyal Sorumluluk Faaliyetleri: İzlenim Yönetimi Taktiklerinin Youtube Videolarında Kullanımı”, Konya Sanat, (1), 28–41. Retrieved from http:// dergipark.org.tr/ks/issue/41836/482801. Access date: 09.05.2019. Gürbüz, Salih (2019). Bir Siyasal İletişim Aracı Olarak Yeni Medya: 2017 Halkoylamasında AK Parti YouTube Videoları Üzerine Göstergebilimsel Bir Çalışma. Anemon Muş Alparslan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (1), 203–210. Güz, Nurettin; Yegen, Ceren ve Yanık, Hayrullah (2017). “Haber ve Bilgi Alma Aracı Olarak Yeni Medya: Muş İli Örneği”. International Journal of Social Sciences and Education Research, 3 (4), 1404–1417. DOI: 10.24289/ ijsser.312902. Işık, Metin ve Akbaba, Ebru (2009). “Halkla İlişkilerin Medyası Mı? Medyanın Halkla İlişkileri Mi?”, Dünden Bugüne Halkla İlişkiler, Ed: Metin Işık ve Mustafa Akdağ, Konya: Eğitim Akademi, 213–228. Kazancı, Metin (1997). Halkla İlişkiler, Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi. Kırık, A. Murat (2017). Sosyal Medya ve İnternet Ortamında Viral Reklamcılık, Konya: Çizgi Kitabevi.

The use of New Media for Digital Public Relations

151

Koçyiğit, Murat (2017). Dijital Halkla İlişkiler ve Online Kurumsal İtibar Yönetimi, Konya: Eğitim Yayınevi. Krippendorff, Klaus (2004). “Content Analysis: An Introductiontoitsmethodology”, ThousandOaks, California: SAGE Publishing. Kürkçü, Duygu (2015). “Yeni Medyanın Gençlerin Medya Alışkanlıkları Üzerine Etkisi”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul: İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Metin, Osman (2016). “Sosyal Medyanın Siyasal Toplumsallaşmaya Etkileri: Bir Alan Araştırması”, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 18 (2), 221–267. Retrieved from http://dergipark.gov.tr/akusosbil/ issue/31333/341901. Access date: 04.05.2019. Murthy, Dhiraj (2013). Twitter: Social Communication in the Twitter Age, İngiltere: Polity. Onat, Ferah ve Okmeydan, Cudi (2015). “Politik Halkla İlişkilerde Sosyal Medya Kullanımı: 30 Mart 2014 Yerel Seçimleri ve 10 Ağustos 2014 Cumhurbaşkanlığı Seçimleri”, Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, (23), 79–94. DOI: 10.31123/akil.436870. Peltekoğlu, Filiz (2014). Halkla İlişkiler Nedir? (8. Baskı), İstanbul: Beta. Schlapp, Hermann (2013). Gazeteciliğe Giriş, Ankara: Vestfalya Eyaletler Yayımevi. Solmaz, Başak, Arslan, Aynur, Aydin, B. Oğuz, ve Duğan, Özlem (2012). “Türkiye’de Halkla İlişkiler Lisans Eğitimi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (27), 253–269. Tarhan, Ahmet (2007). “Halkla İlişkilerde Tanıma Ve Tanıtma Aracı Olarak İnternet: Belediyelerin Web Sayfaları Üzerine Bir Analiz”. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi, 4 (4), 75–95. Tezcan, Elif (2017). “Bir Halkla İlişkiler Uygulama Alanı Olarak Sosyal Medya Kullanımı: Change.Org Zeytin Hayattır İmza Kampanyası İncelemesi”. Electronic Journal of New Media, 1, 47–52. DOI: 10.17932/IAU.EJN M.m.25480200.2017.1/1.47-52. Uğur, Uğur ve Uğur, Sevtap (2013). “Yeni İletişim Teknolojilerinden İnternetin Halkla İlişkiler Alanında Kullanımı: Bir Uygulama”. Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 5 (1), 502–511. Retrieved from http://dergipark.org.tr/sobiadsbd/ issue/11355/135767. Access date: 05.05.2019. Web_1 (2019). Memleket, http://www.memleket.com.tr/konyada-yurtlaryetmiyor-kiralik-evler-ragbette-1486406h.htm (Erişim Tarihi: 10.06.2019). Yağmurlu, Aslı (2013). “Kamu Yönetiminde Halkla İlişkiler ve Sosyal Medya”. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi, 7 (1), 5–15.

152

Mustafa Güngör

Retrieved from http://dergipark.org.tr/josc/issue/19023/200585. Access date: 09.05.2019 Yılmaz, Elgiz (2009). “Yeni Medya ve Halkla İlişkiler: Hedef Kitleye Ağ Üzerinden Erişmek”, Dünden Bugüne Halkla İlişkiler, Ed: Metin Işık ve Mustafa Akdağ, Konya: Eğitim Akademi, 197–212. Yurdakul, Nilay ve Coşkun, Gül (2008). “Fakültelerde Web Sitelerinin Kurumsal Tanıtım Amaçlı Kullanımı: İletişim Fakülteleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma”. İstanbul Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, (33) 141–156.

Salih Gürbüz

The Use of Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation: The Sample of Tat Gida Farmer Stories Introduction Associating the raison d’être of all the created beings or their survival to “narrating” can contribute, though little, to expressing to what extent narrating is valuable for all the created beings. But, understanding for narrating is a gift given to the human beings. When we look at our universe, we observe that every living being has a language; and initially, they can tell their demands using these languages; subsequently, they can achieve their demands as far as they are understood; and ultimately, they can be happy and live as long as their demands are achieved. A flower, which is destitute due to lack of water, tells that it struggles to survive and wants water from its caretaker. A street animal suffering hunger in urban life tells about its hunger and despair by looking for food among the wastes/leftovers of people. The clouds in the sky tell that they will turn into raindrops and fall to the ground in the form of rain by getting dark. Falling and yellowing leaves tell that the winter is coming. Greening nature and flowering trees tell the spring. Water sources become polluted and smell badly; in this way, they tell people that how cruel they are. When an erosion takes place, the soil tells that it is left without trees. It can be listed by many examples that the nature has a language, and narrating is for every creature. But, narrating by understanding is peculiar to humans. Human being records in mind every moment and place lived through the history. They carry and transfer what they record in their minds by telling other memories. These quotes create the verbal memory. These narratives, recorded in written form, have been transferred for centuries as the guiding information on the humans’ struggle for existence in the world in accordance with the significance of the subject. While the narrative is formed by individuals, it has the power to influence and change the other individuals and even individuals who will live centuries later. This power can be stated among the life sources of humans. Humans are strong and free as long as they understand and tell. When the words become quiet, then both humans and social memories will also become quiet.

154

Salih Gürbüz

Throughout the history, human beings have used a wide variety of narrative styles in accordance with the possibilities of time and space in which they lived. Today, a change, which can be called as a digital change, is taking place in the narrating. The roots of this digital change and transformation can be based on the migration that started quickly from the rural area to the cities after the 1950s. In this migration process, the migration of verbal culture, which was prevalently a part of the daily life in the rural areas, can also be mentioned. This process can be stated as a migration of verbal narrative to electronic narrative or electronic word. Radios, used in every house prevalently, were a kind of new taletellers or storytellers that gathered people around a narrator. Later on, the task of these narrators on the radio gained a new dimension with televisions. Both radio and television can be defined as the electronic elements of this verbal narrative. The Internet started to be used after the 1990s and many individuals could reach the Internet at home in the 2000s with the computer technology, and subsequently, with the smartphone technology; these developments have brought the dimensions of the narrative even further. Moreover, with this narrative transformation achieved through the Internet, it can be mentioned that the narrative culture has also returned to the process experienced before the rural-urban migration. Because storytelling and sharing, in which a target audience gathered around a narrator at the same medium at the same time in a village, allowed for a mutual interaction. There was a real communication between both the narrator and the audience. Each side could be both the narrator and the audience sometimes, and the elements of narrative could affect both sides transiently. This bond of interaction between the narrator and the audience broke off with radio and television. A long process took place in which the audiences pacified. The ideas, thrills, and emotions of the audiences became completely worthless. However, with the introduction of the Internet into the daily life of individuals, it can be stated that the pacification process that individuals experienced have been reactivated. Because, it can be stated that the narrator and the audiences had the chance to mutually share their ideas on a topic that is currently discussed, thanks to the opportunities the Internet provides. Moreover, we are experiencing a period in which every individual became a teller through the Internet. Besides some criticisms on the Internet technology, the reticence that was imposed on individuals through radio and television has turned into words via social media and web Internet providers. It can also be stated that the words rallied, and the freedom of uttering has been gained by humans again. Perhaps, this can be considered to be the most significant advantage of the Internet. However, it is also worth noting that technology

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

155

decision makers shape this advantage. This is because web technologies and social media environments can determine the limits and kinds of narrative. While some social media tools are based on texts, some others have been structured to be able to make visual expression. However, individuals can make narrative freedoms even within these limits and frames that were presented to them. Thus, in such an environment, corporations, just like individuals, have had the opportunity to express themselves more easily to their target audience. Because, in the information society we are in, corporations can only be successful to the extent that they can raise awareness about themselves in the eye of their communities and create a perception of giving information, promoting, knowing their responsibilities and protecting the public interest. While doing this, corporations shape their narrative forms by taking the characteristics of their target audiences into account through storytelling, which enables mutual interaction, and in doing so, they resort to public relations, which is also referred as the profession of corporations telling themselves and understanding their target audience. Corporations should not only be limited to expressing themselves but also have to develop and maintain positive relationships with their target audiences in order to survive. In other words, corporations need to understand their target audience so that they can tell. Among the elements that require this obligation is the reputation of corporations as well as of individuals. With reference to the definition that reputation is a perception formed over time, corporations can realize their desires and obligations to be recognized as a reputable corporation in the minds of their target audiences through various methods of narration. The corporations that are aware of this can use all the opportunities provided by the internet for public relations purposes and share the answers to various questions such as what their corporations are, for what and for whom, what they do, what they will do, and how they do. What shapes the purpose of this study is the interest of analyzing how this narration can be used for corporations. While building this curiosity on a scientific theory, narrative theory has been the starting point. Both the questions asked by the narrative theory for persuasion and the reputation scales obtained from the literature to comprehend the reputation of corporations were examined by the researcher during the research process. Thus, in the evaluation of the research data selected to be used in this study, digital stories containing narrative features produced for the target audience of the corporation selected for the study were examined, and in consequence of these examinations, the reputation elements that the corporation wanted to create on the target audience were investigated.

156

Salih Gürbüz

1 The Concept of Storytelling Mankind’s relationship with the world specifies the historical origin of the concept of storytelling. All kinds of traces left by the first people from their time to the present can be regarded as a heritage of story. For this reason, Kent’s (2015: 480) definition of storytelling states that storytelling is a part of all kinds of activities performed by mankind for centuries. The meaning of the concept of storytelling may differ according to various disciplines from literature to communication. The story is defined as the narration of real or fictional events with a plot by following an oral or written chronology (Czarniawska, 2004: 17). Escalas defines the story as a concept involving actors who undertake or play predetermined actions and events to achieve specific goals (1998: 273). Escalas’ definition of story also points to the elements that are objects of interest for this study. Because the scientific object of interest of this study is to find out what the digital stories produced in a corporate sense tell in order to reach the public relations goals of the corporation. When you speak of storytelling, it is generally considered that it is a term of literature as a form of narration. In the basic sense, storytelling is “narration” according to the Turkish Language Association’s glossary of literary terms, and it is defined as “narration of real or imaginary events narrated in genres such as novels, stories, fairy tales, and plays”. Yet nowadays storytelling is no longer just a narrative form. Storytelling is addressed as the persuasion, promotion, narration, awareness raising, informing, image and reputation efforts that are widely used today, which has a beginning, development and present, has a hero, story, time and place, and is used to influence the perceptions in the minds of individuals in line with a pre-designed intention, which includes cultural components, containing corporate identity and visual indicators by taking its source from corporate culture. Corporations, like individuals and societies, survive with culture. Values such as language, religion, art, lifestyle, traditions, and morality have an impact on individuals, societies, and corporations. The formation of audio-visual elements and narration in parallel with these values is important with regards to their effect on the target audience (Kılanç, 2013: 39–40). Stories have been used throughout history to facilitate the learning environment and process along with various teaching methods in that it attracts people’s attention and arouses interest in the subject. Emotional connections are very essential for the knowledge to stick in the mind. Storytelling, which has a significant role in the creation of this effect, is utilized in their favor by the advertising and economic world of the 21st century (Arı, 2018: 54).

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

157

Another concept that should be addressed along with the story is the storytellers. In all cultures, story or fairy tale tellers have been verbal memories of that particular culture throughout history. Stories play an important role in the continuity of cultures. Therefore, the role of storytellers required an important sense of responsibility. İnceelli (2005: 132) states that this important task is transferred to mass media today. Each of the mass media is now a storyteller. The audience and narrators who previously shared the same space and time face to face are separated from each other with the mass media. With the Internet and social media, the stories have gained a virtual or digital identity. Thus, it can be stated that the audience and the narrator, the distance between whom disappeared with the mass media, reapproached each other, if not in the old sense, by means of digital stories produced on the internet and new media environments. Sinclair (2011: 176), in a quote from the famous British literary writer Barbara Hardy, points out that the story is a concept that surrounds over so many people. Hardy uses the following phrases when describing the story; “we dream in narrative, day-dream in narrative, remember, anticipate, hope, despair, believe, doubt, plan, revise, criticize, construct, gossip, learn, hate and love by narrative”. According to this definition, the story is almost like everything vital for man. From this definition, it can be stated that there is an aspect of the story created by – yet transforming – the human being.

2 Digital Storytelling When you speak of narration, it can be described as the act of an individual conveying an event he/she witnessed in another time and place by using various elements of the language. Thus, it can be considered that the term “storytelling” is the sharing of a life experience with another or with others. The performance of storytelling is subject to the presence of a target audience. Storytelling is not a simple flow of information. Through storytelling, individuals can have the opportunity to chat on life, to look at life from different perspectives, and to move into a shared thinking process. In this respect, storytelling has the function of making the events and problems experienced together become a matter of everyone. Because it is accepted by everyone, the individual easily adopts these stories, regards as a part of himself and tells them to others. In this respect, the elements shared in storytelling emerge as the principles of living together. The main point in storytelling is to convey the life experience as it is, without undergoing any change or transformation. If a change is anyhow to be mentioned in this conveyance, it can only be the peculiar contribution of another individual. In fact, this can be referred to as one of the most powerful aspects of storytelling

158

Salih Gürbüz

(Sütcü, 2013:81–82). Storytelling is a narrative method that enables all kinds of legends and heroes to spread from mouth to mouth in societies from past to present. The concept of story has always existed throughout the history of mankind and has been considered as a concept worthy to be shared and told grippingly. Today, storytelling, which still exists, is now being conveyed through methods embracing new communication technologies (Dönmez & Güler, 2016: 156). Storytelling is valuable in that it makes complex experiences meaningful. Telling a complex event with stories simplifies the transfer of information (Soydaş & Yılmaz, 2016: 1113). Apart from being a literary term adorned with “cultural values”, storytelling came into use very effectively in managing the perceptions of the masses today. Storytelling can affect the purchasing behaviors of people/societies in product or brand promotions through important values​​ such as language, religion, lifestyle and traditions and becomes an important tool for companies to reach the target audience (Kılanç, 2013: 46). In today’s world where everything has developed and changed at a dizzying pace, narrative forms of individuals are also affected by this change. The places where today’s individuals express themselves the most are social media environments based on the internet. Individuals usually meet all the needs of daily life, from politics to economy, from purchasing behaviors to loving and being loved, in these environments. As such, this situation affects the corporations formed by individuals as well as the individuals themselves. The change of the internet has also digitized the narrative forms of individuals. Corporations are also affected by this digital transformation. The storytelling, referred to as digital storytelling, dates back to the 1980s. In the 1990s, it began to find a response in the corporate context. With the inclusion of Web 2.0 technologies in everyday life, the stories produced by individuals have become visible and accessible to many. Social media environments such as YouTube became important tools for people to share the stories they produced. Stories are transmitted to millions of individuals and provide instant feedback with the social media tools used in daily life by individuals of almost all ages (Küngerü, 2016: 191). Today, storytelling is one of the best tools for brands to tell about themselves, and brand stories of corporations attract the attention of target audiences (Duğan, 2018: 201). Storytelling is used by a wide range of sectors from banking to the food sector as an introductory tool (Kılanç, 2013: 38). Digital storytelling combines different media genres by making use of the basic features of new communication environments such as digitality, interactivity, hypertextuality, convergence, and virtuality, thus increasing the impact on target audiences by adding a different dimension to the narrative (Küçüksaraç, 2018: 517). In this respect, it can be stated that digital storytelling contributes to more and effective narration.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

159

When we turn our minds back to ancient times, we realize the need of mankind for tools such as cave walls to tell his stories. This need is true of today’s people as well. Today’s individuals can tell their stories in digital media with the help of developing technology through photographs, videos, and various visuals. With these tools, stories can be spread to a wider audience and enable the narrative to be more functional for the narrator and the target audience. From a corporate point of view, it is considered that it makes significant contributions to the recognition, popularity, preferability, and increase of sales of corporations especially through more interaction in social media (Soydaş and Yılmaz, 2016: 1114). Storytelling, which is an event-based form of narrative, is one of the ways of communication. In storytelling, what a person or persons do are told in action. In order to mention a storytelling narrative, there must be a narrative consisting of the flow of events and the events must be linked to each other. Digital Storytelling also includes written, visual and auditory communication. Thus, a vivid and realistic conveyance of the story may take place and the message to be given can be ensured to be more permanent in the mind (Balaman, 2016: 43). As one of the building blocks of communication, storytelling is a method used by corporations for reasons such as establishing emotional bonds with target audiences, providing memorability, and increasing the effect of the message. Today, though, storytelling is a necessity that is almost imperative for corporations through various social media applications (Akbayır, 2016: 67). Because new media has two-way functions, and this forces the corporations to use social networks effectively (Bulduklu and Karaçor, 2017: 292). Because today, individuals of all ages use the new media and its variants, social media environments, and can fulfill many of their daily needs through social media. In public relations practices, which are referred as a pre-planned management function to provide mutual benefit among target groups of corporations, new tools have come into use along with the traditional tools as the return on technology (Tarhan, 2007: 93). Today, the presence of cultural approach as an alternative to the functional/administrative approach in public relations is mentioned as well. Thus, it is considered that public relations have a cultural function along with the management function. The cultural function of public relations is built on the idea that there is a relationship between the creation of meaning in society and public relations. From this cultural point of view, it is argued that public relations is a narrative form, even a storytelling, and public relations experts are storytellers (Akçay, 2017: 498). More recently, the power of the story has captured the attention of public relations professionals and tens of thousands of professionals now offer advice online for using stories in public relations (Kent, 2015: 480). It can be stated that the use of stories as a public relations tool

160

Salih Gürbüz

in the online environment can create more convincing and positive perceptions on target audiences. Because storytelling is inherently the conveyance of correct information.

3 Relationship between Public Relations and Digital Storytelling With the political, economic and technological changes occurring in the process of social development, public relations is the one which plays the regulatory role for the relationships between manager and managed, producer and consumer (Yavuz, 2013: 23). Public relations is a management function that has communication at the core, creates an environment for corporation and public interaction and encompasses planned efforts to have corporate activities approved voluntarily (Geçikli, 2013: 2–3). Public relations are all kinds of words, actions or activities used to influence the public. Public relations can be defined as the art of having an organization loved and respected by employees, customers, and the people it is related to (Tortop, 1993: 4). Public relations take place in a communication process based on two-way relations. Public relations is a process of change and it aims change. Public relations definitely work on the facts, it reflects the facts (Kazancı, 2007: 74). In this sense, the principles of public relations can be specified as: establishing two-way communication, providing accurate information, realism, credibility, working patiently, planned and programmed work, repetition and continuity, widespread responsibility and requiring expertise (Geçikli, 2013: 18–21; Yavuz, 2013: 26–27; Sabuncuoğlu, 2004:59–62; Tengilimoğlu and Öztürk, 2004: 77–81). In another definition, public relations is the whole of the efforts and activities of the corporation towards integration with society (Sabuncuoğlu, 2004: 4). According to the definition of IPR (Institute of Public Relations), public relations is about respectability – it is the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you (Theaker, 2008: 19). In another study, public relations is defined as a cultural mediator and it is stated that public relations is an effort to create the environment in which corporations live, sustain and protect their lives through discourse. Thus, public relations, depending on the symbolic power of the corporations it serves, conducts a communicative struggle to protect or transform the categories such as correct, good, healthy, useful, organic, environmentalist, reliable, durable, benevolent, native and national, which take place in the social perception and enable the perception of the world. In this struggle, public relations practices differentiate corporations, brands, products and individuals by matching them with values ​​that can be distinguished from others, and the content, form and distribution of practices are arranged in order

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

161

to convey the desired meaning (Özkan, 2018: 77–78). Özkan’s approach to public relations is the investigation of how public relations understand the society it is in and what the corporation wishes to tell for its acceptance in that society and on which values it wishes to promote the corporation and its products through storytelling, which is among the aims of this study as well. In other words, how public relations listens to the target audience and how aware the target audience is as a result of this listening and how it designs the activities it produces to reinforce and sustain this awareness are the scientific concerns of this study. When the public relations literature is examined, the two-way symmetrical communication model points out to the formation of positive relations between corporations and their target groups such as trust, mutual dialogue, tolerance and gaining the support of the target audience. This can be addressed as corporation’s listening to the public, effort to win the public and desire to inform the public in all the activities that it will carry out (Kazancı, 2007: 70). In this respect, mutual participation, being aware of the target audience and siding with the right information, which are addressed among the elements of corporate storytelling, coincide with the principles of public relations. Because the activities of public relations should be based on actions that are correct. Thus, it can be stated that storytelling is one of the important tools that public relations can resort to. Because the nature of both embodies the concept of correctness. The public relations activity, which will be carried out with a correct story, will also have a positive impact on the image of the corporation before the target audience. In this respect, storytelling that stands out with its positive aspects will contribute to the creation and development of positive image by corporations. According to Erdoğan (2015), the essence of the storytelling concept in the corporate sense is entirely composed of realities (http://www.diemakademi. com). Accordingly, storytelling and the principle that public relations is real and it sides with the reality complement each other. For this reason, it can be suggested that storytelling is a method that public relations should use. Digital storytelling can be taught as the newest sample of a narrative tradition. It involves producing and sharing stories using digital tools, incorporating multimedia elements such as image, sound and words in a narrative that is then disseminated via a web platform. Bryan Alexander offers the most laconic definition: “Simply put, it is telling stories with digital technologies. Digital stories are narratives built from the stuff of cyberculture” (ala.org). Digital Storytelling is the modern version of the ancient art of storytelling. Digital stories attain their power by weaving images, music, narrative and voice together, thereby giving deep dimension and vivid color to characters, situations, experiences and insights (electronicportfolios.com).

162

Salih Gürbüz

Telling something is the necessity of a daily life for individuals. If someone is not able to tell about himself, he has a lot of problems in his everyday life. After a while, these problems can cause behavioral disorders in his/her communication skills. As a result, these communication disorders can create serious threats to the life quality of the individual. The communication disorders of the corporations, as well as the individuals, may threaten those corporations. In his study, Kent (2015:480) states that it is essential for public relations professionals to benefit from stronger storytelling skills. In order to understand the corporate communication skills and behaviors, academics may regard narrative theory as a useful framework. Narratology is the study of stories and story structure and the ways these effect our perception, cognition and emotion. The everyday stories that we tell each other are the reconstruction of our experience in narrative form, and these become the elements of remembered life. Moreover, finely tuned stories are the content of most works in many of our arts – theater, literature, and film; often poetry, art, and dance; and occasionally music (Cutting, 2016:1713). Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing at a hectic pace, the idea of narrative has penetrated almost every discipline and profession. No longer the sole province of literary scholarship, narrative study now is cross-disciplinary, not fitting within the boundaries of any single scholarly field. The “narrative turn” has entered history, anthropology and folklore; psychology, sociolinguistics and communication studies; and sociology (Riessman ve Quinney, 2005:392). Finally, we ought to note the high practical worth of a narration in public relations. Today, PR experts are defined as great professional storytellers. Making the positioning of a person, a good or a service, a large corporation or a small business, PR experts create an inimitable story and present it to the public. In the emotion-centered world, marketing stories become a greater part of our life. When we choose shoes, a laptop or a car, we are directed on a story that we want to join. The whole of our life becomes an endless story (Rodin,2009:269). From this perspective, producing public relations stories and presenting them to the target audience, especially in digital environments, can help organizations become stronger in the market and differentiate from their competitors. Corporate goals, histories, heroes and informational, and convincing communication are often conveyed through myths and stories. Reifying corporation, and corporate’s employees, as trusted and beloved community members requires the use of subtle rhetorical principles and communicative tools designed to reveal identification, empathy, and memorable situations and experiences. Hereby, organizational messages often take the form of stories. Unfortunately, knowing that storytelling is important and knowing how to create effective

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

163

narratives is not the same thing (Kent, 2015:480). Therefore, it is stated by the experts that there are certain elements that need to be considered when creating stories. Sülün (2017), a storyteller, draws attention to the importance of the fact that the stories have humane characteristics as far as possible, that the stories are the stories of the employees and that the faces of the employees are the faces of the organization. He also states that the stories should be told as they are and that the vision, mission and values ​​of the institution should be associated with the story. He considers that stories should be free from exaggeration, excessive decoration and that it is important to be aware of the viewers and the audience and include them in the stories.

4 From Digital Stories to Corporate Reputation In the conceptual framework that was aimed to be conveyed so far, the theoretical link between storytelling and public relations has been tried to be established. Another purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between corporate reputation built through public relations and storytelling. In this respect, the concept of reputation, which is a very important element for institutions, should also be explained. The corporate image and corporate reputation, which are known to be among the most important vital elements of corporations, are the concepts that have been studied extensively for institutions in terms of differentiating the institutions of today which become the same, with their own brands and products. Although they are similar and mixed with each other, image and reputation are institutional elements that work together, support each other, and bring returns to institutions when they are consolidated. The conveyance of these two values ​​to the target groups and stakeholders in a positive way is realized through public relations, which is a professional field of activity. Flanagan (2005: 445), while stating that corporate reputation can be one of the most important strategic resources of institutions, draws attention to the importance of corporate reputation. Reputation plays an important role in achieving sustainable competitive advantage for all corporations today. Reputation reflects the real structure of the corporations, tells the stakeholders what the corporation is and what it wants to do. Positive reputation perception of stakeholders provides material and moral benefits for corporations. Because reputation affects and mobilizes stakeholders’ emotions (Işık et al., 2016: 364). Reputation of the corporations is also important in terms of their acceptance by society and their compliance with their target groups (Bulduklu, 2015: 237). In another definition that draws attention to the nuance between corporate image and reputation; corporate image is defined as

164

Salih Gürbüz

how institutions perceive the target audience “at the current moment”; while corporate reputation is defined as how corporations are perceived “over time” through all kinds of public relations activities (Balmer & Greyser, 2003: 4). In this respect, it can be stated that the reputation of the corporation can be established over time through public relations activities. In shaping the perception of reputation of today’s target audiences, which can be called as online society, the information to be presented through the content created through online channels will affect the perception of reputation of target audiences towards the organization. Fombrun and Shanley (1990: 234) summarize this issue and state that the source of corporate reputation is the appropriate information produced about the activities of the corporation. Pira (2005: 131) points out that corporate communication policies should work consistently with strategic management and coordination in the process of corporate reputation building. Peltekoğlu (2014: 2) argues that communication constitutes the vital feature and backbone of public relations which is a communication discipline. She emphasizes that the reflection of the developments in technology on the world of communication affects public relations tools and methods significantly, shapes public relations practices, and even technology can be a determining factor in communication. These changes in the field of communication have led to the emergence of new opportunities. Traditional media tools have been replaced by new media tools. The development of web technology has provided various benefits both for the users of the website and for the corporations and organizations at this stage (Tarhan and Karakuş, 2017: 28). Content shared on the internet can significantly affect the reputation of brands and corporations. All kinds of sharing in online environments increase the reputation of the brand and the credibility of the corporation and establish trust between the corporation and its target audience. Increased trust, yet, has a positive effect on the decisions of customers who intend to buy under the competitive conditions of the corporations (Koçyiğit and Çakırkaya, 2019: 178). As one of the effective tools of persuasion, it might be very important for corporations to make narration on online platforms (Şardağı and Yılmaz, 2017: 88). The various visual and written contents created by the corporations on their own web pages make significant contributions to the communication between the corporation and its target audience. In such an environment, it can be stated that storytelling, which is one of the ways of corporations telling about themselves, sets off a response on the internet and plays an important role in the reputation and image that will be created among the target audience. Gümüş and Öksiz (2009: 2132) point out that what the organization tells about itself, how and what it tells are important for the stakeholders’ perception of reputation.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

165

5 Method This study samples a work of eight videos named “Tat Farmer Stories” released on the corporate website of Tat Gıda corporation, which is prominent to be aiming primarily the female consumers but has a Turkey-wide recognition at the national level. The reason why Tat Gıda was chosen for the study is that the brand recognition of the corporation is quite wide. The fact that the term of “story” was included in the naming of these videos, and that the videos contain storytelling features, enabled these videos to be considered within the scope of this study as digital stories. Accordingly, through the videos included in the sample, the communication that Tat corporation wants to establish with its target audience and what it wants to tell the target audience about itself are examined with qualitative data analysis. While evaluating the data of the study, the research questions prepared by the researcher were used as well as a scale available in the narrative theory literature was stated in the study of Sandıkçıoğlu (2014:56) and were also used in the study of Şardağı and Yılmaz (2017). In the analysis of the stories examined in this study, the answers of the following questions, which were utilized both in the construction of persuasion activity and in the analysis of a persuasion activity that is fulfilled, were primarily sought. Thus, it was aimed to establish a cause effect relationship with the answers to these questions (Sandıkçıoğlu, 2014: 56): 1. Who are the people in the story? 2. What are the functions of these people in the story? 3. What do these people do in the story? 4. Why are they doing that? 5. What are the consequences? The research questions generated by the researcher are as follows: 1. Is it related to the vision and mission of the corporation in Tat Farmer Stories? 2. Have the stakeholders of Tat Corporation or professional actors taken place in Tat Farmer Stories? 3. Are the language elements of the actors local in the stories? 4. Which social values ​​are included? 5. Which gender is more dominant in the stories? 6. How is the presentation of women in the stories? Another important part of this study is to examine the reputation of Tat Corporation. In order to analyze the reputation, the 7-dimensional Corporate Character Scale, which was used for reputation measurement by Davies and Chun

166

Salih Gürbüz

(2002: 147) in their study, was used for this study. The seven dimensions in this scale are specified as: agreeableness, competence, enterprise, chic, ruthlessness, machismo and informality. It is important to express this scale briefly. The elements of corporate reputation adapted by Chun (2005: 98) from Davies and Miles (1998: 18) include the identity that “corresponds to what the corporation is”; the desired identity that “corresponds to what the corporation tells about itself ” and the image that “corresponds to what customers think of the corporation”. In this study, the desired identity corresponding to what the corporation tells about itself will be considered as an element of reputation. Thus, we will try to make evaluations about the reputation of the Tat corporation by making inferences about its desired identity from the stories told by it. In doing so, we will ground on the Corporate Character Scale given in Tab. 1, which is based on the metaphor method by Aaker (1997: 347) used for measuring the corporate reputation of the external target audience (consumers), developed by Davies et al. (2001: 120) in order to include the internal target audience (employees) as well, and used for measuring reputation in the analyses of Davies and Chun (2002). Shortly, taking account of the 7-dimensional Corporate Character Scale, evaluations are made about the reputation of the corporation by making deductions about the desired identity of the corporation from the stories told by Tat Corporation about itself.

6 Findings The findings on the stories analyzed according to the research questions of the study and the narrative theory are included in this section. The findings obtained according to the questions used in the evaluation of the data of this study, which were specified in the method section, according to the narrative theory are evaluated below. Stories analyzed were coded as Story 1 - Story 8. Story 1- The Story of Aylin Çakir Who are the people in the story? The story includes a family of farmers working for Tat. The primary person of the story is the middle-aged female farmer with children, named Aylin Çakir. The spouse and children of the woman are secondary people in the story. What are the functions of these people in the story? The female farmer stresses that she has been growing tomatoes for Tat for 20 years, and this job is always exciting. The woman states that she has been dealing with soil since she was born, thus making a reference to experience. She states that she shows the same attention she pays in the kitchen for the tomatoes she cultivates for Tat. She emphasizes that tomato cultivation is a work of love and labor.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

167

Tab. 1:  Corporate Personality Scale’s Dimensions Dimensions Agreeableness

Facets Warmth Empathy Integrity

Competence

Enterprise

Chic

Ruthlessness

Machismo Informality

Conscientiousness Drive Technocracy Modernity Adventure Boldness Elegance Prestige Snobby Egotism Dominance NA NA

Items Cheerful, Pleasant, Open, Straightforward Concerned, Reassuring, Supportive, Agreeable Honest, Sincere, Sociallyresponsible, Trustworthy Reliable, Secure, Hardworking Ambitious, Achievementoriented, Leading Technical, Corporate Cool, Trendy, Young Imaginative, Up-to-date, Exciting, Innovative Extrovert, Daring Charming, Stylish, Elegant Prestigious, Exclusive, Refined Snobby, Elitist Arrogant, Aggressive, Selfish Inward-looking, Authoritarian, Controlling Masculine, Tough Rugged Casual, Simple, Easy-going

(Davies and Chun, 2002)

What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? The story takes place in several locations, including the field, the house, the village road and the Tat factory. The female farmer cooking in the kitchen of the house for her family with the tomatoes she grew herself, and the little baby of the woman who eats red tomatoes smiling and happily convey positive emotional messages to the consumer such as trust and happiness. The tidy look of the kitchen reinforces the farmer’s care for her home and work. The presentation of the tomatoes on a plate on the dining table implies that the farmer family produces what they eat for Tat. The fact that the female farmer smells the tomatoes she grows and expresses her happiness on her face tells the audience the naturalness of the tomatoes. In this respect, it is emphasized that the tomatoes produced for Tat are natural. The statement of the female farmer that she

168

Salih Gürbüz

processes tomatoes by hand is another narrative element that reinforces the naturalness of the product. The fact that the female farmer states that she has been raising crops for Tat for 20 years is an expression of the everlasting trust between Tat and the farmer. What are the consequences? In the storytelling, the event and the plotline are expressed in the introduction, development and conclusion sections in the context of the positive impressions and perceptions Tat wants to leave before the consumer. In the early hours of the day when the day starts to glow, the bustle of work is presented with the image of the woman and her husband in the field. In this respect, the dedication of the farmer working for Tat is emphasized. The female farmer spends time with her family during the day also engages in the kitchen works which reinforces the perception of the woman dedicated both to her family and to her work. The scene that the woman takes away the picked tomatoes by the tractor at the end of the day stands out as an important message for women, who are the consumer mass, in terms of expressing that women’s hands are involved in every stage of production. Tat, as a corporation, also emphasizes that Tat products, which are produced for women as primary consumers, emerge with the labor of women and show the value and importance of working women to the audience. Story 2- The Story of Aliye Yağci Who are the people in the story? An old woman named Aliye Yağci takes role as the narrator of the story and the primary person of the script. Secondary persons include working women, children and grandchildren of the primary person. What are the functions of these people in the story? The woman says that she has grown tomatoes from the time of her grandfather and that she cares for the tomatoes as she does for her grandchildren and her children. Thus, the feelings of experience and care are conveyed to the audience by the old woman. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? The story takes place in three locations: the old woman’s house, the village road and the field. In the story, when the woman prepares the breakfast table, she puts the tomatoes they grew and the tomato paste they made themselves. With this image, the woman gives the message that the same tomato and tomato paste prepared for her own family reaches the audience’s table. The narrator woman says that they have planted tomatoes for the Tat factory for 50 years. By doing so, she reveals the strong relationship between her and the Tat corporation. Thus, the trust of the tomato growers whom Tat works with for the corporation is emphasized to the target audience that will consume Tat products. It is implied that

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

169

this cooperation, which lasts almost a lifetime, depends only on the trust and good working conditions. This reinforces the confidence of the consumer mass, who is the audience, in the corporation. The fact that the old woman prepares the breakfast states that she handles the daily care of the animals and takes the workers to the fields gives the message that the woman is in every field of daily life. Women working in the field are also important. It is implied that the women are fully involved in the cultivation of tomatoes. The characteristics of Anatolian women such as hard work, versatility in business life, productivity, strength and success were aimed to be transferred to Tat corporation. In addition, a narrated version of the saying “as if the mother’s hand touched it” is presented to the audience. Because the mother-made product and the mother’s food are the most precious and sacred things. Tat intends to make the audience feel this value. Thus, it wants to explain that it is a quality product that can be consumed with confidence and peace of mind. The woman states that she cares for the tomatoes one by one like she does for her grandchildren and her children. It is apparent that the awareness that child raising is the most important responsibility in the world is associated with tomato cultivation. Tat corporation intends to tell the target audience how seriously and meticulously the tomatoes are grown and how conscious the farmers growing them are. It is seen that the woman brings the tomatoes she prepared to turn into tomato paste to Tat factory with the tractor she drives herself. It is especially emphasized that the woman’s won labor is involved in every stage of the process from the growing of tomatoes to the delivery to factory. It is also important that women’s labor, a noble labor, be reminded to the audience again with this story in terms of showing the corporation’s appreciation of women. Because this product group is offered to female consumers. The mass of women who will consume this product will see that this product comes to the table with the labor of women, and it will affect the purchasing preferences of the product positively. What are the consequences? In the storytelling; introduction, development and conclusion sections are presented sequentially. The story begins in the first light of the morning and ends at the end of the day. The narrative deals with a woman’s 50-year Tat story. This woman has grown tomatoes to Tat corporation throughout her life. In other words, she dedicated both her private and working lives to Tat. In this respect, Tat corporation wants to convey itself to the target audience as a lifelong brand. The involvement of children and grandchildren in the story also tells the audience that Tat is a brand from generation to generation. It is told that the story of the arrival of the tomato to the table, from the tomatoes and tomato served up on the breakfast table to the tomato seedling planted with hand labor one by one,

170

Salih Gürbüz

requires a lot of effort, care and meticulousness. Identifying tomato growing with growing children and grandchildren is also an important message of the story. In the conclusion part of the story, the textual presentation of the message “If you look after the tomatoes like your child, those tomatoes will look after your child for years as well” summarizes the whole message of the story. By establishing a relationship between children and tomatoes, the message that the continuation of a healthy generation will actualize by consuming quality products, and that this can only be possible by being as attentive in the preparation of quality products as the care given to a child. Story 3- The Story of Gönül AY – Fifty Years of Tomato Passion Who are the people in the story? In the first scene of the story, an adult female farmer is displayed as the primary person in the scenario. The story includes the narratives of this female farmer named Gönül AY. The story also includes the wife and granddaughter of the woman at the primary role as secondary people. What are the functions of these people in the story? In this story in which a farmer’s family takes role, the female farmer associates her relationship with Tat with a 50-year marriage. The importance of marriage that demands loyalty and labor is also reflected in tomato cultivation. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? The story takes place in several locations: the farmer’s house, the village road, the field and the Tat factory. Narrator woman states that they grow tomatoes for Tat. Storyteller emphasizes that planting tomatoes is like marriage and requires loyalty. It is also stated that planting tomatoes requires labor such as marriage. It is emphasized that there are hard times in tomato cultivation which is like marriage, but these difficulties are overcome by the help of Tat. The family starts the day with a breakfast where the tomatoes they grow are highlighted. Later, the flowers planted in Tat tomato paste boxes in the garden of the house are cared for and thus, it is pointed out how Tat became a part of the daily life of individuals in Anatolia. The image of the journey in the tractor, the most important vehicle of the Anatolian farmer, includes the display of the female farmer, who embraces the picked tomatoes with the compassion of a mother, sitting on the tractor body. The fact that red, the color of love and passion, was used in the tractor choice also makes a reference to the love of the farmer family for their work. Likewise, the color of the clothes on the narrator female farmer and her grandchild is red; in this sense, it is associated with both the tomato and the corporate color of the Tat corporation. In addition, with the image where the female farmer holds the tomato for offering with her hands in blue colored gloves, which is the color of the cleanness, it is implied that Tat corporation cares about hygiene at every stage of the production.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

171

What are the consequences? In the storytelling; introduction, development, and conclusion sections are presented sequentially. The story shows how a farmer’s family lived for and with Tat from the beginning to the end of the day. It should be stated that displaying the tomatoes put on the table in the very first scenes emphasizes that the farmer produces the tomatoes he eats himself for meal for Tat, and this is given to create a sense of trust for the consumer. In the story where tomato planting is associated with marriage and family institution, the message that Tat products are a family product and that families can consume with peace of mind is implied. In the conclusion part of the story, by displaying the message “We are as loyal to Tomato as we are in love with it” textually, it is emphasized that Tat corporation prioritizes love and loyalty which are the most important feelings in every stage of tomato production. Thus, it can be stated that the corporation wishes its customers to feel love and loyalty towards the corporation. Story 4- The Story of Hatice Bora Who are the people in the story? In the first scene of the story, an adult female farmer is shown as the primary person in the scenario. In the story, this farmer named Hatice Bora states that the whole family, with her children and her husband, plants tomatoes. In this way, the wife and children of the woman are included as secondary people in the story. What are the functions of these people in the story? The story includes not only the family of the narrator woman but also another family that grows products for Tat. It is implied that growing tomatoes is laborious and one may need the help of others while doing that. It is explained that farming, which is a laborious occupation, is a profession practiced through friendship and solidarity. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? The story takes place in three locations: the house, the village road and the field. The story begins with the narrator woman sowing flowers in an old box of Tat tomato paste. Thus, it is shown that growing things for Tat and with Tat continues all the time and in various ways. She joyfully takes care of her children. She knits for them. In this way, the motherhood responsibilities of the woman are displayed. She also wears glasses in a scene. Thus, years of tire and experience of the eyes are highlighted. In a later scene, the family is joking in the truck bed and traveling towards the field. In this scene, the mother is not the driver. She assumes the duty of accompanying her children to travel safely in the truck bed. As in other stories, the woman’s clothes are red. In the visuals where woman picks tomatoes with their hands and places them in

172

Salih Gürbüz

crates, the seriousness and meticulousness of the work done “one by one with hands” is emphasized in this story as well. The expression that “raising a child requires a village of people” is said by the storyteller woman, and it is stated that it is the same for raising tomatoes. In the process of growing tomatoes, the message that this struggle can be overcome with friends doing this job is given to the audience. The main emphasis of the story is that every stage of this flavor reaching to the tables requires serious labor. In this story, it is not only women who work in the fields. It is stated that both women and men are engaged in this work altogether. The images where two families working for Tat chats together is accompanied by tea. Tea’s feature of symbolizing the concepts of chat and friendship is covered in the story. The joy of the friendship established for Tat and through Tat is conveyed to the audience through both families. What are the consequences? It can be said that the introduction, development and conclusion sections are presented sequentially in the story. The scenes displaying the time the family spends together in the morning after the day starts, and that the family goes to the field and works together are included. The story concludes with the images of the tomatoes picked from the field departing with a tractor at the end of the day. In the story, the great effort tomato growing takes is especially highlighted. The message that bringing up a child alone is difficult is given by identifying it with tomato growing. In this respect, it is told that tomato growing is not a job that a family can do on its own, but that this difficulty can be overcome when it is done together with other families doing this job. It also draws attention to the fact that unity and friendship between families are formed owing to coming together for Tat, and to Tat’s feature of unifying and establishing bridges of friendship among people. In the story, the storyteller woman says “Tat is a member of the family as well; I entrust both my children and the tomatoes to Tat and my family”. The fact that such responsibility as important as the entrusting of children is laid on Tat conveys the message that the company is reliable. Story 5- The Story of Hüseyin Şahin Who are the people in the story? In the first scene of the story, an adult male farmer is displayed as the primary person in the scenario. In the story, Hüseyin Şahin states that he is a 21-year Tat farmer and he is called “Rich Hüseyin”. He attributes the reason for this naming to what he has learned from the trainings provided by Tat to farmers. The secondary people in the story can be specified as the child of the farmer, villagers, field workers and Tat experts.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

173

What are the functions of these people in the story? In this story, the farmer tells what a knowledgeable and experienced tomato grower he is, thanks to Tat. He emphasizes that Tat corporation is farmer-friendly. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? This story mostly includes the static images of the narrator. In the first scene, when the morning starts to glow, he is presented to the audience standing in his field and watching it proudly with self-confidence. Afterwards, he is seen walking while holding his son’s hand. In this scene, the love and protection of the father are given to the audience in order to support the narratives in the following scenes. In the following scenes, the farmer father states that he works in Tat factory, that he learned a lot from Tat engineers, that’s why he knew a lot about tomatoes. In this sense, the audience is told that Tat is a corporation that supports him as well as its employees in every respect. It can be suggested that farmers who work with Tat, a corporation that stands by its farmers, are also given a message in this story. His cheerfully waving around while driving means that the farmer shares his happiness arising from knowledge with others around him. In addition, examining tomatoes in the field with his hands is how he displays his knowledge and experience. At the end of the day, there is again the farmer standing proudly in the field and a sunset scene. What are the consequences? Unlike women stories, the male farmer starts the day from his field. It is implied that work comes first for men. Unlike women stories, the farmer’s relationship with his family was not revealed in this story. In the video, in which the farmer shares the story of why he calls himself “Rich Hüseyin”, it is emphasized that he owes the source of this wealth to Tat. It is stated that Tat adds a lot to the farmers working with him as a corporation in raising quality products. It is told that Tat corporation attaches great importance to farmer-friendliness and training of farmers. The farmer states that working with Tat is a source of pride and that even his child is aware of this pride. While explaining this, the expectation of the child who wants him to go slowly while passing by the village coffeehouse with a tractor full of tomatoes is expressed. It can be stated that the quality of tomatoes grown with knowledge and experience is wished to be shown to all villagers. Through the villagers, all viewers are given the message of how the quality of the produced tomatoes are, thanks to Tat. Story 6- The Story of Kadir Kirci Who are the people in the story? The primary persons of the story are a farmer father and his son. Both individuals are present in the story simultaneously. The story tells the relationship of father and son with Tat. Grandchildren are included as secondary persons.

174

Salih Gürbüz

What are the functions of these people in the story? In this story, two farmers, father and son, tell that the tomatoes they grow for Tat are the product of supreme self-devotion. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? In the first scene where the first sunrise of the day is shown, the image of a girl swinging on a tree swing with joy is displayed. It can be said that the grandfather looks at his granddaughter with joy and takes energy from her. In addition, the sunrise and the little girl can be referred to as the symbols of abundance. The farmer father, who shows a piece of soil in his hand, says that farmership starts over with every sunrise. The farmer, who says that they pay all their attention to the crops, tells that even the offspring were neglected during the tomato cultivation process. In saying this, the sadness of the tone of his voice adds a sensuality to the story. The amount of self-sacrifice required for growing tomatoes is especially emphasized. The son farmer speaks of the smell of tomatoes and the appearance of the first reddening tomatoes. He states that it is the greatest happiness for a farmer. Here, the smell of tomatoes is the expression of the naturalness of the Tat tomatoes, and that the farmer witnesses every moment of the tomatoes from reddening to picking is the expression of self-sacrifice in tomato growing. What are the consequences? It is seen in the story that growing tomatoes for Tat is considered as a heritage transferred from one generation to another and that working with Tat is identified with the concept of heritage. In the conclusion of the story, the farmer father, who says that he can entrust his field only to his son and Tat, equates his trust to Tat with his son. Thus, it is made clear to the audience how reliable Tat is. The passion between the taste and the farmer is reinforced by the phrase “50 Years of Tomato Passion” written at the end of the video. Story 7- The Story of Mehmet Uğur Who are the people in the story? The primary person of the story is an old male farmer. Secondary persons of the story can be specified as the workers in the field. Yet, the story takes place with the narration of the primary person. What are the functions of these people in the story? Mehmet Uğur, the storyteller, draws attention to the importance of labor and patience in tomato growing. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? The story starts with a scene where a farmer keeps an eye on the weather from his home’s window in the first hours of the day. It describes the labor in tomato growing where even the weather conditions are painstakingly followed. A farmer coming to his field in the first hours of the day with his own motorcycle is

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

175

displayed. Scenes of the farmer inspecting the situation of the tomato seedlings with his hands after coming to the field are presented. These images depict the respect of the farmer to his job. They are considered as that he takes pains with all the tomato seedlings, respectively. The image of flowers in Tat tomato paste box is displayed in this video as well, and the persistence of Tat in minds is assured by all means. In addition, the Tat logo on the tractor reinforces this perception as well. The beauty of the tomato which is labored over is highlighted. It is noted that Tat tomatoes are obtained with intensive labor. What are the consequences? The storyteller farmer states that his acquaintance with Tat dates back to 35 years. Considering the fact that working with Tat in such long process is loyalty, it can be said that the role of Tat’s strong communication with the farmers in this togetherness is highlighted. It is assessed that Tat satisfies its farmers and therefore farmers do not work with any firm other than Tat. With the message of “I am a Tat farmer for 35 years, and my tomatoes are Tat tomatoes” at the end of video, the farmer is considered to be more than happy to be working with Tat. This message can be evaluated in terms of creating the perception that the company that satisfies its manufacturers will also satisfy its consumers. Story 8- The Story of Turhan Şengökmen Who are the people in the story? The primary person of the story is an old male farmer who says he has been a tomato producer incessantly since 1975. The secondary person can be specified as the farmer’s son. What are the functions of these people in the story? The common feature of the two farmers, father and son, is that they work with Tat. Both farmers, as father and son, tell about the niceness of doing agriculture and say that this came true with Tat. What do these people do in the story and why are they doing that? The story begins with a scene where the father and son are arm in arm. Both stare at the son happily and hopefully. This can be considered as the happiness of being together. And what makes this togetherness possible is Tat. In another scene, father and son sit in the field leaning back on a large tree. The tree here is considered as the symbol of Tat corporation for whom they have been working for long. In addition, while picking a tomato from a tomato seedling, the farmer’s son holds the roots of the seedlings firmly as his father picks the tomato. This image is essential as well in that it tells they act together. It is stated that when they sometimes think differently on agriculture, father and son come to terms owing to Tat, which they depict as the path of mind. What are the consequences?

176

Salih Gürbüz

It is stated that with Tat, the new knowledge of the young farmer is combined with the experience of the old farmer. In other words, it is conveyed to the audience that both new technologies and traditional experiences are important in the cultivation of Tat tomatoes. In support of this assessment, the presence of a newer tractor in this story is noteworthy, rather than the image of the older model tractor in the other stories. Tat intends to be perceived as a company that unites both generations on common ground by eliminating the generation gap. Thus, it can be said that the company wants to send messages to the consumers who have been using Tat for a long time as well as the new generation consumers. The answers to the six questions prepared by the researcher are expressed as follows. According to this; when the relationship between Tat Farmer Stories and the vision and mission of the corporation is evaluated; it can be stated that the stories partially overlap with the mission and vision of Tat Gıda corporation. On the website of the corporation, the statement of “to create regional and world brands over time, that provide products and services adding value to its consumers and creating loyalty” is given as the vision of the corporation. When evaluated within the framework of these statements, it is assessed that the stories that emphasize the values ​​of the producers were told and that a connection between the consumer and the corporation was intended to be established through these stories. When the relationship between the mission definition of the corporation and the stories is evaluated, it is assessed that the relationship of the corporation mission with the stories cannot be expressed as clearly as the vision-story relationship. The mission statement of the corporation includes “Providing profitable and sustainable growth in priority sectors in the markets in which we operate in Turkey and abroad by delivering innovative products to consumers with our brands”. Only one of the stories is considered to have a narrative devoted to the mission of “innovative organization”. What the corporation understands and intends to tell about innovation in production and product could have been presented to the target audiences in some of these stories. When the question of whether Tat’s stakeholders or professional actors act as the actors in Tat Farmer Stories videos, the primary individuals who act as narrators in the stories and the individuals represented in the videos were assessed to be farmers working with Tat Gıda. Farmers working with Tat corporation and their family members were used as players. Thus, in order to influence its target audience as a firm, Tat corporation intended to tell its positive relationship with its stakeholders through stories. It is considered that Tat Gıda gives the message that it is a company coming from the people to its consumer mass through the producers it works with, who come from ordinary people with their clothing, speech, daily habits and roles. When

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

177

the language elements used by the actors in the narration are examined, it is noteworthy that the narrative language is made out of a local dialect. The elements of local dialect used in the villages of Bursa city where the story videos were shot are included in the stories. The actors in the videos are farmers from various parts of the country working with Tat. A naturalness has been added to the stories as the farmers speak with the dialect of the region where they live. The message that the corporation comes from the people was intended to be given to the target audience. When the answer to the question of which social values ​​are included in the stories is examined, the value of being a family is especially emphasized as a basic element in the narration of the stories. Farming is a profession done with all family members in Anatolia. Thus, it can be stated that Tat company institutionally wants to position itself in the minds of the audience as one of the family. The tomato growing process of farmers has been associated with important values​​ such as marriage and child-rearing. Thus, it is shown to the audience that the farmers who make production for Tat are a member of Tat family. In addition, the message that the tomatoes used in Tat products can be consumed with peace of mind by the families, who are the consumer mass, is particularly emphasized. Assessing which gender is more dominant in the stories, it is evident that women and men of all ages have taken role in the videos. Tat wanted to state that it is a family business in this way as well. The fact that four of the shooted stories were made with male farmers and four of them were made with female farmers support this. When the representation of female identity in the stories is investigated, it should be stated that female farmers are evenly included in the stories as compared to men. In the stories where old and young female farmers take role, Tat conveys the message that it is both an experienced and an energetic corporation to the audience. In addition, considering female identity as the symbol of fertility, Tat has identified herself with female farmers as a corporation and wanted to present the corporation with the concept of fertility, which is one of the important values for the society. Women’s responsibility of child-rearing is also identified with tomato cultivation and the value of the products of the women’s hand is intended to be revealed. It was also intended to give the message that female farmers do their jobs meticulously like they are raising children. Thus, it can be stated that the message that Tat products are delivered to consumers through rigorous processes is given. Another important aspect of this study is the evaluation of digital stories according to the reputation scale used by Davies and Chun (2002) in their studies, which was mentioned in the method section.

178

Salih Gürbüz

According to this; it is stated in the stories that the employees are supported by Tat for educational purposes. Tat appears to be supportive to its employees and stakeholders and socially responsible. In addition, the fact that friendship, working together, family and marriage ties were highlighted in the stories was considered as an expression of the friendly, sensitive and sincere characteristics of Tat corporation. It should be stated that the elements of the local language used in the narration of the stories may evoke a sense of sincerity. Another point that draws attention about the Tat corporation is that it is regarded as an individual from the family by the storyteller farmers. This can be specified as the informality and agreeableness of the organization. In all the stories, it was highlighted that Tat corporation is a reliable manufacturer. This can be considered as the competence of Tat corporation. In addition, the diligence of men and women involved in the production of products and their relationship with their work from morning till night are emphasized in all stories. These features indicate the competence of Tat corporation as well. The display of images with Tat’s logos in all stories, especially tractors and flowers grown in old tomato paste tin cans, was also considered as showing the corporateness to the audience. In this respect, it has been considered that Tat wishes to make itself look competent. In the stories, messages of being an achievement-oriented organization were given as well. In stories where it is stated that raising children and grandchildren is important, the importance given to competence by Tat corporation can be evaluated from another perspective. The fact that the father especially states that he could only entrust his field to his son and Tat corporation in one of the stories can be associated with competence, a dimension of reputation, which is the expression of trust in Tat corporation. Another factor emphasized in the narration of the stories is that tomatoes are grown with self-devotion. Thus, it can be stated that Tat corporation positions itself as ambitious and achievement-oriented. This can be assessed in terms of the competence of the corporation. In another story, emphasizing the togetherness of father and son was considered as an emphasis on diligence. The fact that farmers tell in the stories that they are pleased to be working with Tat for many years shows their trust and gladness stemming from Tat. This can be expressed with competence from among reputation dimensions. It is stated in the story that farmers have been working with Tat for many years and not working with other corporations. In this sense, Tat can be said to be more prestigious, exclusive and charming than other corporations. In this respect, it can also be considered that Tat is a chic corporation according to the reputation scale. Another fact addressed in the stories is that producing tomatoes for Tat and working for Tat is a source of pride for farmers. In this respect,

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

179

it is considered that Tat intends to be perceived as prestigious, charming and exclusive as a corporation. In the stories, it is stated that both traditional and new technologies are used in the production of the products. In this respect, there is an indication that Tat corporation is trendy and innovative. Thus, Tat institutionally expresses itself as an entrepreneurial corporation. According to a story that emphasizes that growing tomatoes for Tat is exciting, it can be stated that the corporation has the feature of enterprise reputation from among reputation dimensions. By means of the pieces from the daily life of the farmers shared in Tat stories, it can be stated that the corporation is simple and casual. Thus, it is assessed that there is no formality between the organization itself and its target audience.

Conclusion This study was carried out over an eight-video sample named “Tat Farmer Stories”, which are regarded as digital stories, shared by Tat Gıda corporation with its target masses on its 50th anniversary. Four of the digital stories tell about the togetherness of female farmers with Tat corporation and four of them tell about that of male farmers’. In the analysis of these digital stories, together with the research questions prepared by the researcher mentioned in the method section, five questions used in the narrative theory during persuasion activity and to analyze these persuasion activities are utilized to examine the use of the stories for public relations purposes. The answers to these questions were addressed through qualitative content analysis. In addition, assessments regarding the corporation’s reputation are done considering Davies and Chun’s 7-dimensional Corporate Character Scale, which is used for reputation measurement. Accordingly, it can be stated that both female and male farmers are considered equally valuable in the corporate entity of Tat. The fact that Tat included female farmers in their stories can be explained with the desire to realize the communication it wants to establish between its target audience through the women identity. Thus, the corporation emphasizes the message that it is a corporation that values women, ​​ that is valued with women and that produces with women’s labor. It reinforces this communication through the stories of the manufacturers, Tat suppliers, who are real people in life. This can be expressed as a valuable narrative in line with the principles of public relations which foresee credibility, trust and accuracy. This can be expressed as a valuable narrative in line with the principles of public relations which prescribe credibility, trust and accuracy. The common characteristic of farmers is that they have been working with Tat corporation for a long time. Thus, it was implied

180

Salih Gürbüz

that supplier farmers working for Tat are experienced. According to this; Tat intended to express himself as an experienced corporation to its target audience. The characteristics of female farmers being attentive, self-devoting, compassionate, loving, caring, loyal and laboring both in their home and work life in the field are explained. The characteristics of male farmers of being experienced in their work, knowledgeable, self-devoting, patient, laboring and having a spirit of solidarity are emphasized. Thus, it was considered that these characteristics of both male and female farmers are attributed to the corporation. In this respect, it can be stated that Tat intends to tell its target audience that it is doing its job with care, self-devotion, love, care, labor, knowledge and experience. These characteristics are also considered to constitute the reputation components of the corporation. In addition, it was pointed out from the visuals and narratives in the stories that the tomatoes produced for Tat are natural, reliable, hygienic and healthy; they are produced with high quality with conscious producers; and traditional and new technological production methods are used together. Thus, it can be stated that adjectives such as healthy, quality, reliable and natural are attributed among Tat corporation’s reputation components. In addition, it was intended to tell the target audience that tradition and technology are inseparable elements for Tat corporation. It is considered that the importance of the family was especially emphasized in the stories of the Tat corporation. Thus, it can be stated that Tat intends to tell its target audience the importance it attaches to family value as a corporation. It can be concluded that the perception of family-appreciating corporation is generated among Tat reputation elements. The strong sides of the woman identity are another element that is particularly emphasized in the stories. By highlighting the roles of women in the production stage of the products, it was aimed to explain that female employees are important for Tat corporation. The importance of women’s labor was pointed out and the message that women’s hands had been touched on the products produced. Thus, the perception of trust in consumer’s mind is reinforced. Because women are representatives of trust. The concepts of loyalty and passion are also mentioned in the stories. Thus, it can be stated that Tat wishes to convey the message that it is a corporation to be faithfully connected to the minds of its target audience. According to the evaluations made with regards to the research questions, the relationship between Tat Farmer Stories and the mission and vision of the corporation is considered to be partially coherent. It can be stated that the values​ ​of the consumers are taken into consideration in the stories, and by addressing those values, it is intended to establish a bond with the target audience. In this sense, the terms “providing products and services adding value to its consumers

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

181

and creating loyalty” in the vision statement of the corporation is intended to be emphasized in the stories. In these stories, Tat Gıda gives the message that its products can be consumed safely for families, that the concepts of labor and love are paid attention to during the production stage, that it is an organization that supports its producers, and that it reflects this to its consumers as a corporation that values its stakeholders​​. However, it is noteworthy that the mission of the corporation is not addressed as clear as its vision in the stories. Corporations can communicate more effectively with the target audience by giving more space to the mission and vision characteristics of the corporation while telling themselves through stories. The fact that farmers directly working with the corporation took part in the stories can be considered as important in terms of increasing the credibility before the target groups. Along with the self-promotion activities of corporations, digital content involving stakeholders and consumers associated with the corporation can provide greater benefit to the corporations. Considering the narrative language of the stories as an important element in terms of the impact it will have on the target audiences, the use of local language elements may contribute to the perception of the corporation as a corporation that is not disconnected from the public, comes from among the stakeholders and target groups, and recognizes them. It should be stated that this has been achieved in these stories. In the stories, the importance of being a family and the value attributed to the family are emphasized in general. Important social values ​​such as marriage, child-rearing, friendship and cooperation are told in the stories. In terms of comprehending the corporate culture of the corporation, sharing these values ​​in the stories may create a perception of family corporation before the target audience. This perception can also contribute positively to the reputation of the corporation. Equal space is allocated for male and female genders in Tat Framer Stories. It is emphasized that both men and women are two unique individuals for Tat, and both genders are indispensable in the production of products. The motherhood and wifedom roles of the woman were also intended to be told. In this respect, Tat intended to identify the success of the woman in very special roles such as motherhood and wifedom with the corporation. The responsibility and care of women in raising children were intended to be attributed to the corporation. Tat Gıda has tried to create the perception of a responsible and diligently producing corporation. This is considered to be a factor that can especially have an impact on women, who are the target consumer mass. In the evaluations made in terms of the reputation scale, according to the stories told in Tat Farmer stories; it is considered that the corporation can associate itself with agreeableness, competence, chic, enterprise and informality

182

Salih Gürbüz

dimensions of reputation. It can also be stated that primarily the competence and agreeableness dimensions are highlighted in the stories of the corporation. Thus, it can be emphasized that Tat corporation makes itself look more competent among its competitors in its work. Tat Corporation has the characteristics such as supportive, socially-responsible, friendly, sensitive and sincere. These can be specified as informality and agreeableness of the corporation. In addition, it can be stated that Tat Corporation is reliable, achievement-oriented and ambitious. Tat can also be said to be more prestigious, exclusive and charming than other corporations. Tat corporation can also be evaluated as trendy, innovative, exciting and entrepreneurial corporation. Finally, Tat corporation can be stated as simple and casual corporation. This study is deemed valuable in understanding how storytelling in public relations literature can be practiced in digital environment. It should also be stated that with digital stories, narrations that will contribute to the reputation of the corporation can be possible. In this respect, corporations should be able to tell themselves to their stakeholders and target groups through stories where their stakeholders and target groups are selected as narrators. Thus, it has been evaluated that digital storytelling can contribute to the reputations of corporations that permanently need to be kept alive. Because today’s world requires public relations to be performed in digital environment as is the case with almost every field of activity. In this respect, it can be stated that it would bear a privilege for corporations to include digital storytelling among public relations activities and to do this both through social media accounts and corporate web pages.

References Aaker, J. L., (1997). Dimensions of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347–356. Akbayır, Z. (2016). Bana Bir Hikaye Anlat: Marka İletişiminde Hikaleştirme ve İnternet. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 3(12), 67–84. Akçay, E. (2017). Çağımızın Hikaye Anlatıcılığı Olarak Halkla İlişkiler: Vehbi Koç Biyografileri üzerine Bir İnceleme. Moment Dergi, 4(2), 498–517. Arı, S. (2018). 21. Yüzyıl Sanat Ve Tasarım Eğitiminde Hikayelerin Kullanımına Dair Öneriler. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(4), 53–64. Balaman, F. (2016). Dijital Öyküleme’nin Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Demokratik Değer Yargılarına Etkisi: Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Örneği. Current Research in Education, 2(1), 42–52.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

183

Balmer, J. M. T. and Greyser, S. A. (2003). Revealing the Corporation: Perspectives on Identity, Image, Reputation and Corporate Branding. Routledge: London. Bulduklu, Y. (2015). İmaj Yönetimi Yaklaşımlar, Taktikler, Stratejiler. Literatürk: Konya. Bulduklu, Y. ve Karaçor, S. (2017). Sağlık Hizmetlerinde Kriz İletişimi Ve Yeni Medya. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, (14) Sağlık İletişimi Özel Sayısı, 279–296. Chun, R. (2005). Corporate Reputation: Meaning and Measurement. International Journal of Management Reviews, 7(2), 91–109. Cutting, J. E. (2016). Narrative Theory and the Dynamics of Popular Movies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(6), 1713–1743. Czarniawska, B. (2004). Narratives in Social Science Research. Sage: London. Davies, G. and Chun, R. (2002). Gaps between the Internal and External Perceptions of the Corporate Brand. Corporate Reputation Review, 5(2–3), 144–158. Davies, G., Chun, R., and Da Silva, R. V. (2001). The Personification Metaphor as a Measurement Approach for Corporate Reputation. Corporate Reputation Review, 4(2), 113–127. Davies, G and Miles, L. (1998). Reputation Management: Theory versus Practice. Corporate Reputation Review, 2(1), 16–27. Dönmez, M. Ve Güler, Ş. (2016). Transmedya Hikâyeciliği “Doritos Akademi” Örneği İncelemesi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Vizyoner Dergisi, 7(16), 155–175. Duğan, Ö. (2018). Transmedya Hikaye Anlatımının Halkla İlişkilerde Kullanımı, Ercan A. (Ed.), Halkla İlişkilerden Reklama, Sosyal Medyadan Turizme: Transmedya Hikayeciliği, 193–216, Konya: Literatürk. Erdoğan, D. A. (2015). http://www.diemakademi.com/hikayenin-gucunukesfedin/, Access Date: 28.05.2019. Escalas, J. E. (1998). Advertising Narratives: What Are They and How Do They Work?, Barbara S. (Ed.), Representing Consumers: Voices, Views, and Visions, içinde, 267–289, London: Routledge. Flanagan, D. J. and O’shaughnessy, K. C. (2005). The Effect of Layoffs on Firm Reputation. Journal of Management, 31(3), 445–463. Fombrun, C. and Shanley, M. (1990) ‘What’s in a Name? Reputation Building and Corporate Strategy’, Academy of Management Journal, 33(2), 233–258. Geçikli, F. (2013). Halkla İlişkiler ve İletişim. Beta: İstanbul. Gümüş, M. ve Öksiz, B. (2009). İtibar Sürecinde Kilit Rol: Kurumsal Sosyal Sorumluluk İletişimi. Journal of Yaşar University, 4(14), 2129–2150.

184

Salih Gürbüz

Işık, M., Çiçek, B. ve Almalı, V. (2016). Üniversitelerin İç Paydaşlarının Kurumsal İtibar Algısını Ölçmeye Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Bitlis Eren üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt 5(3), 163–180. İnceelli, A. (2005). Dijital Hikaye Anlatımının Bileşenleri. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 4(3), 132–142. Kazancı, M. (2007). Kamuda ve Özel Kesimde Halkla İlişkiler, 7. Baskı, Turhan Kitabevi, Ankara. Kent, M. L. (2015). The Power of Storytelling in Public Relations: Introducing the 20 Master Plots. Public Relations Review, 41(4), 480–489. Kılanç, R. Ö. (2013). Marka Öykülemelerinin İnternette Kültürel Değerler Çerçevesinde Yansımaları. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication, 3(2), 38–47. Koçyiğit, M. and Çakırkaya, M. (2019). eWOM Arama Motivasyonları ile Online Kurumsal İtibar Algısı Arasındaki İlişkiyi Tespit Etmeye Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 18(1), 177–196. Küçüksaraç, B. (2018). Marka İletişiminde Dijital Hikaye Anlatımı: Anne Blog Yazarlarından Marka Hikayeleri. 2nd International Conference on New Approaches in Social Sciences and Humanities, İstanbul, Turkey, 516–526. Küngerü, Ayhan (2016). Bir İfade Aracı Olarak Dijital Öykü Anlatımı. Abant Kültürel Araştırmalar Dergisi, 1(2), 190–202. Özkan, G. (2018). Halkla İlişkilerin Toplumsal Rolüne İlişkisel Bir Bakış: Sosyo-Kültürel Yaklaşım. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 18(2), 73–80. Peltekoğlu, F. B. (2014). Halkla İlişkiler Nedir?. Beta Basım Yayım: İstanbul. Pira, Aylin (2005). Halkla İlişkiler İçin Okumalar. Dönence Basım ve yayın: İstanbul. Riessman, C. K., ve Quinney, Lee (2005). Narrative in Social Work: A Critical Review. Qualitative Social Work, 4(4), 391–412. Rodin, Pavel (2009). Storytelling and Narrative Construction as PR-Tool. Humanities and Social Sciences 2009, 14–16 may, Ukraine. Sabuncuoğlu, Zeyyat (2004). İşletmelerde Halkla İlişkiler. Aktüel Yayınları: İstanbul. Sandıkçıoğlu, B. (2014). İkna Kuramları. Mine Oyman, (Ed.), İkna Edici İletişim kitabı içinde. Eskişehir: Aöf Yayınları. Sinclair, Joanna (2011). The Impact of Stories. Charles Despres, (Ed.), Leading Issues in Knowledge Management. UK: Ridgeway Press, 175–192.

Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation

185

Soydaş, Nurgül ve Yılmaz, Berkant (2016). Yeni Medya Ortamlarında İçerik Oluşturma Aracı Olarak Dijital/Görsel Hikayecilik Anlatımı, 2.Uluslararası Medya Çalışmaları Kongresi, Antalya,Türkiye, 1108–1121. Sülün, Sinan (2017). Kurumsal Hikayenizi Anlatmak İçin 7 Öneri, https://www. marketingturkiye.com.tr/haberler/kurumsal-hikayenizi-anlatmak-icin-7oneri/, Erişim tarihi: 28.05.2019. Sütcü, Özcan Yılmaz (2013). Ortak Bir Dünya Deneyimi: Hikaye Anlatıcısı, ETHOS: Felsefe ve Toplumsal Bilimlerde Diyaloglar, 6(2), 76–92. Şardağı, Emine ve Yılmaz, R. Ayhan (2017). Anlatı Kuramı ve Reklamda Kullanımı: Anlatı Analizi Çerçevesinde Bir İnceleme, Maltepe Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 4(2), 88–133. Tarhan, Ahmet (2007). Halkla ilişkilerde tanıma ve tanıtma aracı olarak İnternet: Belediyelerin web sayfaları üzerine bir analiz. Selçuk İletişim Dergisi, 4(4),75–95. Tarhan, Ahmet ve Karakuş, Melis (2017). Siyasal İletişimde Web Sayfalarının Halkla İlişkiler Amaçlı Kullanımı: Siyasal Partiler Üzerine Bir Analiz. Route Educational and Social Science Journal, 4(5), 28–41. Tengilimoğlu, Dilaver ve Öztürk, Yüksel (2004). İşletmelerde Halkla İlişkiler. Seçkin Yayıncılık: Ankara. Theaker, Alison (2008). Halkla İlişkilerin ElKitabı (çeviren: Murat Yaz) (2. Basım). Media Cat Kitapları: İstanbul. Tortop, Nuri (1993). Halkla İlişkiler. Yargı Yayınları: Ankara. Yavuz, Cavit (2013). Halkla İlişkiler. Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara. http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/keeping_up_with/storytelling, Erişim tarihi: 28.05.2019. http://electronicportfolios.com/digistory/, Erişim Tarihi: 28.05.2019.

Aydın Karabulut

Independent and Nonverbal Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age Introduction Technology promises the mystical forces in the old narratives to today’s human being. This power and speed bring many opportunities and risks. Even though the promise is optimistic in itself, it is always like drinking the wine frothed by good and evil. Their uncanny and possibilities give birth to their own offspring. One of the most important leaps in communication for the human being, who always manages the idea of p ​​ rogress with a linear understanding of history, is the invention of the telegraph which combines the limits of the eye with the opportunities of imagination. “With the telegraph, people have moved to a new culture, electricity and electronic media culture, without realizing it. Thus, we have entered a whole new world where the concept of time and space ends” (Baldini, 2000, p.88). Following this, electronics have developed further and now competed with human intelligence and even left it back. In this respect, it can be said that the human definitions in the classical sense will change in the near future. The communication technologies, the new masters of time and perception, have accelerated images and built new realities in this “recent time”. The network, which is the space of this new reality created, and the people that produced, can communicate with each other at the same time. For today’s people, living in the network and following events have become a part of the daily life. This great routinization and inclusion corresponds to McLuhan’s term “global village”. The backbone of global change is undoubtedly the development of techno-vehicles. The fact that techno vehicles are increasing as an exponential function has opened the doors of the previously imagined formations. For instance, the concept of world state as an idea has become possible with the help of increasing and accelerating networks. The communication technologies, the new masters of time, and the reality produced by these technologies are constantly changing. Hence, the network can be thought as the magic word that explodes all time-space and offers a new ontological opportunity. The disappearance of contrasts such as time, space, good, bad, beautiful and ugly means that uncertainty is sovereign. If polarities are nonexistence, it is not possible to talk about the direction. In this age where the network and virtuality are dominant,

188

Aydın Karabulut

“Everything gained a blurry appearance. This is a clear result of the dominant code, which is based everywhere on the principle of neutralization and insensitivity” (Baudrillard, 2008, p.16). The magical myths seem to have been embodied by the network technologies in our time. At this time when space is no longer a field of determination, people can be in many places at the same time. Of course, this magical situation not only has declared the end of geography, but also led to a reassessment of time and the system of values, and the distinction between good and evil became somewhat blurred. With this blur, people have not remained the same but evolved into a different topology while the daily life practices change. The most important feature of the human being in this topology is that he constantly rejoins the pleasure and speed consumed by pleasure and speed. This type of human being, who is collector and transformer, was identified by Nietzsche and named as “the last human”. This human species have turned their face from the celestial to the earth – as if it had never disappeared. With the loss of horizon, spiritual power has decreased and caused a change in the rhythm and harmony of life. Along with this change “Lyotard, like Derrida, stresses that the essentialist foundations of all these great narratives are no longer acceptable” (Robinson, 2000, p. 52). It is seen that the great narratives disappeared and left to the blurred shores of certainty instead. In this respect, the individual in the network is not an individual in the ideological sense. At the same time, since the network has no beginning and end, there is only mid hat Deleuze calls for “rhizome”. It can be said about a post-space situation where the image dominates the exhibition with a fast endless performance with the medium online situations in the network; this new communication and post-space look like a space where different ethical codes are different from the common public space. The first flare of this sharp transformation in values ​​was thrown when Nietzsche declared the “Death of God”. The Death of God can be understood as a declaration of great changes and transformations. Yet, this death “(…) is not only the death of a certain theological existence, but also the disappearance of transcendence, which is the basis of our morality” (May, 2017, p. 20). Therefore, this great change has dismantled all the structures from ethics to ontology and moved the boundary stones. In this earthquake, the tomb of God or all the colors of transcendence in this bloody extinction is covered by “the network” of bit and byte sands of digital deserts. This network is also a bazaar of surrogates, and a phenomenon that formulates the individual who falls into repetition with the eternal recurrence of the bottomless indicator, and produces a faber rather than homofaber which downgrades not to the subject but the object. There is no poetry in the functioning of the network; however, there is a universe dominated by quantity without emotions.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

189

Chips, which take over the processing power of the network, serve out the things with the gates of cold logic such as “and” “or” “nor”.

1 Health Myth In the deserted and desolate universe, where this speed and the meaning of the blessed are withdrawn like the night, Nietzsche had long said that after God’s death, health would rise to a divine level. “If there was a horizon of meaning that we could get out of naked life, health wouldn’t be so absolute” (Han, 2017, p.32). Today, health is the crown of all areas. The body seems to be the new omnipotent god of the age. The body is blessed with an increasing consumption jargon, and fitness is the worship of the “last man”. Yet, now swollen bellies are accepted as an indifference to nature and morality of the age, dietitians, who are the commanders of the new age, command the society from the ivory towers. Advertisements bring new lives to consumption shrines in the service of turbo capital, such as magic bullets. This illusion; with the demonstrations and temptations of light, which is the decadence of apollonic elements, the individual is dragged into a decision-making state. In this context, “Capitalist production surrounds their bodies and souls in such a way that they give them gates without resistance to everything put before them” (Adorno, 2011, p. 64). The possibility of individual existence after ongoing stereotyping and homogenization in this environment seems unlikely. In this age of shameless media where unabashed and endless visuality reigns, the old age is perceived and punished as a sin. (Sennett, 2008, p. 97). Sennett, in his “The Corrosion of Character”, posited that flexibility is the character of youth, and rigidity of old age, concluding that being even 30 years old made one too old for the advertisement business (2008, p. 98). In this context, Rigel wrote; “Standing at the side of media Gods who are born, who live and die, cartoon characters that never grow old and are not allowed to die have also increasingly carved their share of time in the story hours of contemporary man” (2000, p. 11). While Virilio espouses a similar view as thus, “For corporations, the critical age will still be forty: Not as the age of promotion to a position of responsibility, but rather as that of dismissal on the grounds of old age!” (2003, p. 98). The demand for youth is also rooted in the relative independence and slowness of experienced individuals. Experience, unlike analysis – synthesis processes – operates rather slowly and consequentially slows down the gears of production and consumption. Yet ambitious young adults with an eye for a head-start in life are highly open to exploitation by turbo capital. Older individuals – also taking into

190

Aydın Karabulut

account the unique wisdom of a more advanced age – and even mid-adults pose a threat to the cycle. The perfect proportions continuously cited by women’s and fashion magazines force individuals to submit to the rule of geometry. And for those who do not adhere to the dictates of Geometry exists an admonition: “If you shirk in your bodily worship, committing the sin of negligence, you are to be punished. All the pain you suffer stems from the guilty irresponsibility directed at yourself and your salvation” (Baudrillard, 2013, p. 165). Thus, for an individual tired of happiness in the fluid modern world, “the quest for Fitness [becomes] a perpetual process of self-control, self-deprecation, self-deprivation and constant worry” (Bauman, 2017, p. 123).

2 The Hegemony of Vision and the Depth of Sound The glorification of the body, as a decline of meaning and essence, can be explained by the dominant paradigm of the era being the “Eye”. The eye, with the advantage of speed, has engulfed all space, leading to a shrinking of space and time, and “the End of Geography”. The eye is an organ that surrounds and grapples space, and the visuality nurtured by sight is the most important concept of our age. Ours is a time when the non-Visual is ignored. “Today we ascribe a visual character to any kind of information. An entire theory of communication is built upon visual information, where hypotheses are laid out in charts and diagrams” (Ellul, 2012, p. 146). Even habits of speech such as “Visionary” allude to this dominance. The field of journalism sees an event’s newsworthiness questioned for lacking visual proof. As the human body has visual value that is recognized in this atmosphere, bodily worship becomes vitally important. According to Baudrillard “(…) transparency is ‘the gaze randomly having intercourse with everything it sights’ (Promiskuitat), essentially Prostitution” (Han, 2015, p. 30). Despite the importance of visual imagery, its retention in memory is lesser than that of sound (Rigel, 2000, p. 32). For the brain uses sound to reconstruct an event, while vision entails laziness and freeloading in place of creation. Thus the importance of face-to-face conversations in ancient times is clear. Socrates took a stand against writing, preferring to talk. When asked about this choice, he claimed that a person’s mood cannot be deduced from writing (Warburton, 2019, p. 15). As such, writing could trigger different meanings in a person’s mind each time it is read. Ergo, reading is not an innocent act with the meanings changing as soon as the process of reading begins. Althussser (1995, p. 30) even alluded to this when saying “There is no such thing as an innocent reading”. One could also posit the

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

191

existence of something beyond meaning in face-to-face contact. Philosopher of Ethics Levinas cited that ethics begins in the face, pointing at the importance of facial contact in interpersonal relations. While writing does have importance for its permanence and stability, it lags behind in the flexibility of words, for the maxim that faith comes from listening (Ong, 2014, p. 94 ) is known since time immemorial. That the foremost promise of technology is speed is undeniable. The considerable need for speed of a society can be construed as the decline of desire in the mind. It can hardly be claimed that as mechanical speed increases, so does perception with it. Thoughts require time to brew and take root. “We see clearly how the society’s drive for speed affects the individual. For a person’s relationship to space goes in parallel to their relationship with objects. In either situation, the individual is forced to rapidly sever their ties, seeing their speed of living accelerate” (Toffler, 1981, p. 87). One can only self-reflect when holding still. As chaos increases, the individual’s access to self-purifying catharsis, and to cognitive tools, also becomes harder. It would seem impossible for an individual without access to these tools to locate themselves. In this scenario, the fundamental question of “How does one be himself?” is an open-ended one, in need of an answer. The capitalist system, as an answer, claims that happiness is only possible through consumption. Accordingly, “(…) it is not the satisfaction of needs, wants and desires, but rather the commodification and recommodification of the consumer: consumers are relegated to the state of a commercial good” (Bauman & Lyon, 2013, p. 40). Here, the individual is like a horse under constant whipping. Each time the crop strikes, their rates of consumption and gratification increase. As a result the individual puts the nominal value of an object before its usage value, leading to desire for the said object. Accordingly, “(…) it is not the satisfaction of needs, wants and desires, but rather the commodification and recommodification of the consumer: consumers are relegated to the state of a commercial good” (Bauman & Lyon, 2013, p. 40). Surely this desire is always kept fresh via advertisement. The consumer has thus only silenced the never-ending desire within for a while. The promise of happiness will be postponed until the next collective ecstasy in a temple of consumption. Here, “what ensures the continued existence of the system is recognizable as the perpetual novelty we have referenced being kept alive primarily by advertisements, fashion, and other means of mass ­communication, and the entrenchment of transience as a value in the minds of the masses” (Köse, 2010, p. 114). Desires refueled by planned obsolescence condition of the individual – who is defined by incompleteness – to feeding a never-ending hunger.

192

Aydın Karabulut

The density of man’s quest for pleasure – should we delve into theological references – could remind us of the fall from Heaven and the desire to rebuild the paradise lost, this time on Earth. For every society has partaken in this utopic search on Earth, yet the unhappiness and tiredness of man has increased further in our age and recipes for happiness have turned up in droves. In contrast to the previous search for happiness, and more of managing and limiting expectations, these desires have constantly been fuelled in our time. Starting from a common assumption – that at times when the search for happiness is most common, man is also in his most unhappy state – it can be claimed that our age is the nadir of personal happiness. Via means of collective numbing and the enticement of fashion, our lives and bodies have become exhibitions. As the gears of the era turn with an almost libidinal economy, they grind individuals addicted to the show world and performance. This grinding does not even entail real pain, since as Baudrillard said even death has been killed in this new age, replaced by simulacra. It is beyond quixotic to try and search for reality at a time when even “fake” is a hollow concept, and as a result “real” does not (or rather, cannot) exist. Baudrillard, writing about this age where advertisement has morphed into parody, said, “(…) for everything to be sucked up and rendered meaningless by advertisement, (no matter what the signs in question may be) comforts the individual by pulling them into a surprising hyperreality and ensures our inability to trade this irresistible form of ‘seduction’ for anything else” (Kellner, 1997, p. 135). Similar moral degradation has also taken place in morality. The symptoms of this decadence, predicted by Nietzsche almost 150 years ago, have spread through all strata of society by way of the media. The media has thus “(…) contributed to the degradation of civil virtue as much as bribery (…) In short, this great corruption causing scandal in its appearance for making visible the difference between desired virtues real practices, is nothing but the Rubicon crossed before the exhibition of ordinary ‘weaknesses’ and luxury, and the hurried acceptance of material or symbolic privileges” (Bourdieu, 2006, p. 13). In this increasingly vast desert of meaninglessness, the individual, “(…) receives the most punishment for upholding his virtues” (Nietzsche, 2015, p. 88) as he attempts to be himself and create his own values.

3 High-Enticaplosive Advertisements The enticement of masses has historically been of great interest to those in power. Amongst the prime contemporary methods of enticing specific behavior and managing perceptions in the masses is advertisement. For the gears of consumption in the contemporary consumerist society to function, and to keep

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

193

production and consumption at nominal values, society is constantly encouraged to consume more. In this role, “Advertisement is the Culture Industry’s Elixir of Life” (Horkheimer & Adorno, 2010, p. 215). Although the means of enticement have evolved, it is difficult to say that the human weaknesses used in such enticement have done the same. For enticement can at times be based on lust, violence, or fear. Advertisements, meanwhile, aim to convert attention to revenue by making absence-based overtures to the lack or happiness of individuals. These overtures are largely shaped around better health or more happiness. In an era where happiness is fetishized, happiness is offered to individuals by way of commodities and cyclical commercial invitations. While these advertisements may last for a short while, their back-ends include a vast, dense web of thoughts, measurements, and analysis. The instrumental usage of the mind is wholly in service of enticement. In a sense, “(…) products of the cultural industry, as they continuously regress the entertainment they promise as a commodity to a mere promise, eventually, overlap with the advertisements they require for being unable to provide such entertainment” (Horkheimer & Adorno, 2010, p. 215). The gears of capital aim to annihilate all obstacles in the pursuit of commerce. Even a period of mental recovery and focus is seen as dangerous by those who have colonized the attention of individuals. All value systems are mobilized in the hunt for attention. The most sacred values are put to use for advertisement. As such “media institutions are always commercial enterprises and even public services operate in the pursuit of profit” (Altmeppen & Arnold, 2010, p. 332). One cannot expect separately presented illuminated enticements and advertisements which are injected into the individual by the libidinal cycle of desire to say anything lasting or consistent about life, for inconsistency and transience are the character of this age. In this global enticement for profit, values are constantly devaluated. In a sense, “Advertisement is without meaning, it may only have interpretations. These interpretations (and the behaviours they induce) are never personal; all of them are differentiative, marginal and unifying. These interpretations of the advertisement relate to the industrial production of differences; I believe that the consumerist system would be even better defined as such” (Baudrillard, 2013, p. 95). Montaigne envisioned advertisement as a means for gathering attention to solving the problems of the poor (Mattelart, 1991, p. 11). In the c­ ontemporary system of values with its enormous revenues, always melting and disintegrating in the fire of desire constantly held alight by the gatekeepers, there are advertisements for advertisements. A product is able to hold the spotlight with rumors before it is released, keeping the average individual occupied. This endless enticement is

194

Aydın Karabulut

repeated with every advertisement, presented to the ­individual with a promise for happiness whose arrival is delayed time and again. (Horkheimer & Adorno, 2010, p. 186). Consequentially, “ (…) ­advertisement increasingly does not revolve around simple information or promotion, and rather around the manipulation of desires and tastes by using images which may or may not be connected to the product being marketed” (Harvey, 2010, p. 320–321). Sensual pleasure, as the libidinal character of the age, constantly puts itself forward with new promises. Femininity is generally marketed as an object of desire. A woman eating a bar of chocolate, with its phallic undertones, may be considered an example of sex-by-proxy in its imagery of oral sex. Chocolate and ice cream advertisements include constant references to oral sex as their focal point. In this triangle of sex, advertisements, and chocolate; the indirect emphasis is on “the Anatolian society is being told, through mental and emotional programming supported by the use of sex in advertisements, that ‘consumption’ is an exciting experience akin to sex. Consumption can make unimaginable, hithertoimpossible things happen” (Erdoğan, 2009). In parallel is the idea that “No erotic scene exists that does not contain both provocative suggestions and implications that these suggestions must certainly be tried out” (Horkheimer & Adorno, 2010, p. 187).

4 Transparent Nihilism or the End of Pleasure The lights of Paris used to present themselves to the people in all their warmth and glow, a fascinating appearance. Parisians would fall for the charms of this glow and like moths flock to the shops, spending their time stealing dreams from each other. Time was not the only thing that was spent. Each storefront offered a shiny, new illusion, aestheticizing disappearance and oblivion. In this phantasmagoria, each would take their share of the luminous dreams they were offered, trading time in its place. Balzac, though touring the furthest reaches of Paris in his novels, could not stay away from these lights. Not only Balzac, Walter Benjamin also writes of these storefronts and the “Flâneur” wantonly eyeing them in the Passagework’s description of Paris. In the “Dark Ages” when the Internet was yet to be invented, people would pay the most attention to the displays as they passed by such shops. It was known that hunting attention and turning it into profit was directly proportional to the attributes of the storefront. Contemporary storefronts exhibit not only goods, but also lives. And today, when everything has turned into exhibits, it can be said that these displays are still what people pay the most attention to.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

195

Afterwards, with the “Great Enlightenment” brought by the invention of the internet, commerce began migrating to the virtual world. It can be said that with the ever-accelerating speed of the internet, globalization has also increased its pace, entering a new era. With the increased globalization, professional meetings and conferences have also moved online. The changes to the storefront, catalyzed by the minimization of the webcam and the explosion in social networks with web 2.0 afterwards, has made contemporary life wholly digitalized. It can be said that this digital transformation has seeped into every corner of our lives, making them transparent. Today, in multiple countries, prostitutes can freely display and market themselves, dancing on the storefront – which is once again a place where the human body is commercialized like any commodity. This ­commercialization has created a sort of transparency that “…vitrifies man. And therein lies the ­violence” (Han, 2015, p. 12). This violence is first directed at the individual’s own self. The question is one of enticing desire, turning it into ­pleasure. Nancy’s description of body and pleasure states, “(…) this body is alien to itself – having had a sort of relationship like someone else coming near and invading it” (2016, p. 61). So it dawns that today, privacy violations, which had increased with the prevalence of surveillance, have especially soared with the ­dissemination of the internet. “That private life and space which used to be written down in diaries is now recklessly exposed in public. The synoptic power structure which developed with the ever spreading visual media, where everybody watches everybody else, has irreversibly torn apart private space” (Yücel, 2017, p. 510). The increasing exposure has made desire the companion of pornography, turning its face towards the sensual. Obviously, cursing thousands of years of desire and s­ exuality like an ascetic monk is a sin against life itself. Yet, with the praises of ‘satyr’s said in our day and time; relegating the nobility of humans to an animalistic existence is a repeat of previous mistakes. In other words, “Our center of gravity has categorically been tilted towards libido economics; such an understanding of economics encompasses nothing but the neutralization of desire, whether it be devoted to the drive, to a machine-like performance, but most of all to fantasies of suppression and liberation” (Baudrillard, 2014, p. 51). Similarly, Alain de Botton phrased this view as follows: “(…) As we need to go to work, experience relationships, look after our children and attempt to utilize the full potential of our own minds, we cannot allow our sexual instincts to limitlessly express themselves whether online or in other media; for such freed sexual instincts would instantly destroy our identities” (Muraz, 2018, p. 24).

196

Aydın Karabulut

5 The Unbearable Lightness of Peeping, or Getting Caught in the Net The modern world sees the naked truth in all its detail exposed in full. This is an era where we desire to know all parameters of existence and lifting its veil allow science to progress. Certainly a veil has a seductive, enticing function. In this regard, it is very different from pornography. The unknown affects and rules the consciousness, forcing our imagination to make new assumptions. Conversely, transparent clothes and bodies come with a pornography warning. They give no quarter to paths and stories, and being ends- and interest-oriented, are violent and transient. “Direct pleasure that allows no imaginary or narrative deviation is pornographic” (Han, 2015, p. 32). The private bits of daily life exhibited in the interest of transparency mark the end of private life, just as a life lived constantly on the storefront in a package of beauty marks the ends of pleasure. For these are internal instincts, slowly growing in the pathways in search of indirectness. “A society of transparency is a society against pleasure. Pleasure and transparency cannot co-exist in the pleasure economy of mankind. Transparency is foreign to libido economics. The negativity of secrets, veils and covering oneself invigorates the desire and deepens pleasure” (Han, 2015, p. 31). Aristotle claimed that slavery may only be extinguished when textile looms are able to knit fabric on their own (Aristoteles, 1975, p. 12). Aristotle, in thinking that machines would free mankind, surpassed his age by a great deal. His views may even be deemed prophetic for their time. In our age, however, machines are now everywhere. There are even debates on accepting such as a new species. The idea of a Self 3.0 points at a new species of artificial intelligence, and to the future. These machines are evolving beyond organic human existence and rapidly into cyborgs. The new man, changed and evolved in this strange field, is spending increasingly more time in machine-related relationships and environments. This new man lets life pass through its crystal without memory, remembrance or fidelity, twisting, and bending values. The bent values do not enrich the environment – like white light sent through a pyramid would – but instead denote the desertification of speech and memory. Here the past is murdered for now’s sake. In the web, long-term loyalty is dangerous, most connections are momentary. In the flexible world, connection types are also becoming digitalized. It has been a long while since the switch was made from organic to digital memory. New moments, times stripped from their context are flowing away.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

197

Like sand in a desert, they glimmer in the shoulders of individuals as the violence of being made similar. Mankind, spending its time in accordance with decrees compiled in machine time, has practically accepted the rule of the eye. He would not be able to demonstrate reality if the events in question are not part of some visual reality. The other is no longer a curiosity but merely a covert operation to hold watch over. The evolution of curiosity to spying was certainly most affected by surveillance technologies. Thus “There is something in surveillance, especially in the looks of the surveillers, that is not a stranger to the pleasure of surveillance and the pleasure of surveilling pleasure” (Foucault, 2015, p. 109). The new media has adopted a more “medium is message” approach, and images have become touchable. Seeing as how sight is also a kind of touch (Merleau-Ponty, 2016, p. 75), it can be said that surveillance is triggered by touch. Descartes claimed that the blind see with their hands (Merleau-Ponty, 2016, p. 46). Blindness today is no longer a dark blindness in the contemporary man. Those who can see are not the God of the blind, but rather their demon. The situation resembles the faith of those who break free from Plato’s cave. The existence of a light that numbs and does not enlighten enslaves the mind via the vibration of smart devices and unconscious messages sent on them, while surveillance and being surveilled have become tools of pleasure. The dependency created is so great that “(…) a network collapse has almost the same effect as a natural disaster” (Dijk, 2018, p. 245). For in today’s panoptical system, “(…) all are spied upon by all others or some others, depending on where they are; a unified, round-robin surveillance apparatus is born for there are no absolute spots. Perfect surveillance is a product of bad intentions” (Foucault, 2015, p. 98). The effectiveness of the eye has made surveillance even more important. With the network surrounding all, surveillance and control have become greatly important, and a government’s survival has become dependent on its ability to spy. The aforementioned imbalance does not only create psychological and unconscious abnormalities. It also destroys the rhythm and spirit of life, o ­ ffering a counter-life to it. Technical progress, its conveniences always vaunted and affirmed, appears to be a setback in the face of life itself. Thus “(…) ­individuals feel they are facing a more anonymous, opaque, inaccessible and uncontrollable reality” (Dijk, 2018, p. 244). Whereas Castells summarizes the tragedy by saying “The separatist nature of a web society tears apart rhythms of the life cycle, whether biological or social” (2013, p. 590).

198

Aydın Karabulut

6 Fi series as a Postmodern Life Trailer Analysis of part 1 of the Fi Series Tab. 1:  Identification of the Fi Series Category Type Director Producer Production Year Cast Topic

Puhutv, special serie Tragedy, romantic Mert Baykal Ay Yapım 2017 Ozan Güven, Serenay Sarıkaya, Mehmet Günsür, Berrak Tüzünataç, Büşra Develi A man loves a woman and the world changes. But it’s not the love that radically changed life, but the courage to reach it. In the brutality of love for that person, he starts so big storms that he finally breaks down everything he touches. Sometimes it is necessary to destroy everything before life can renew itself. The story of the people who chase the passion created by Nükhet Bıçakçı from the first book of the best-selling Fi - Çi - Pi trilogy, who fly to the fire at the expense of burning and stand upright against the stage.

Sequence 1 Time 07:39 Indicator Nude woman, man, bathtub. Indicative Seminude woman and man. Screened

Denotative Meaning Woman and man talking in the bathtub. Connotative Meaning The intimate conversation of men and women. Transforming the female body into a pleasure tool.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

199

Sequence 2 Time 07:57 Indicator Two people. Indicative Two people who are close with one another. Screened

Denotative Meaning Two people being close to each other. Connotative Meaning Expression of the sexuality of two unmarried people. The sensual convergence of two people to the lips and lips on the screen is social value corrosion.

Sequence 3 Time 15:36 Indicator: Person. Indicative The person who is facing back. Screened

Denotative Meaning Naked woman. Connotative Meaning A woman stripped in the series is peeking. This situation is shown innocent. It is a violation of social norms to transform the breach of privacy into a spectacle of pleasure with emotional temptations.

200

Aydın Karabulut

Sequence 4 Time 18:10 Indicator Two people. Indicative Two people who are half-naked. Screened

Denotative Meaning Two people are kissing. Connotative Meaning An aesthetic display of the moral collapse of human beings to the audience and presenting a behavior that harms the sense of as an aesthetic goal is an example of corruption.

Sequence 5 Time 44:44 Indicator Two people. Indicative Man and woman. Screened

Denotative Meaning Woman making love with a man. Connotative Meaning The presentation of the sex life of two people to the audience in the series, the voice of the woman’s orgasm in the background to be heard in an audible manner, and the public representation of an illegitimate relationship corresponds to a corrupt situation.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

201

Sequence 6 Time 45:21 Indicator Woman and dialog. Indicative Can Manay’s girlfriend. Dialog Woman: I’m dating someone; we had dinner this evening! Can Manay: Good, glad for you! Maybe this time you’ll find what you’re looking for! Screened

Denonative Meaning That woman says she’s dating someone. Cononative Meaning The normalization of deception in out-of-value relationships created by the out-of-crooked relationship. Postmodern relationship styles. As Funk says, the problem of linger… While having sexuality with a person he/she is connected with, fiction establishes the ground for corrupt relationships.

202

Aydın Karabulut

Sequence 7 Time 46:01 Indicator Woman and dialog. Indicative Manay’s girlfriend. Dialog Woman: Who Can This? I haven’t had a toothbrush in this house for two years, you’re hiding a woman’s scarf? Say something! Man: There is nothing to say. You can go if you want… F. you Can Manay! Screened Denotative Meaning The woman is swearing. Connotative Meaning It is an inconvenience that a woman swears. The mechanical shame of deception is shown as the normality of the anomaly. Analysis of part 2 of the Fi sequence. Sequence 1 Time 29:45 Indicator Two people. Indicative Can Manay having sex with his girlfriend.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

203

Screened Denotative Meaning Two people are having sex Cononative Meaning The trailer can be regarded as a degenerate situation in terms of demonstration of sexuality. The presentation of unification only in the manner of making love is rendered life worthless by the reduction of sexuality only to sensual. Analysis of Part 3 of the “Fi” Series Sequence 1 Time 51:32 Indicator Two people. Indicative The woman and man are having sex. Screened

Denotative Meaning The woman and man are having sex. Connotative Meaning It is known by the woman that the man making love on the stage has a lover. After the study, these two people have experienced degeneration. Premarital sex is shown here normally.

204

Aydın Karabulut

Analysis of part 6 of the Fi sequence. Sequence 1 Time 04:21 Indicator Bearded man and dialog. Indicative One person and his/her abusive speech. Speech Malay: I am having a conversation with this lady. Bearded Man: What is it to you? Jerk! Screened

Denotative Meaning The bearded man is swearing. Connotative Meaning It is wrong to give these curses uncensored, and it is degeneracy.

Sequence 2 Time 04:25 Indicator Injured man. Indicative Battered person.

Screened Denotative Meaning The man is exposed to violence by Can. Connotative Meaning The demonstration of violence in the series without being censored is a corrupt situation.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

205

Sequence 3 Time 10:33 Indicator Man and woman. Indicative Deniz and his girlfriend Duru. Screened Denotative Meaning We see two people in the same house in a very normal way. Connotative Meaning The exaltation of extramarital coexistence is corrupt. There is an overdue of legalization of an illegal situation. Sequence 4 Time 15:25 Indicator Two people and dialog. Indicative Duru and Can. Dialog Can Manay: Because you aren’t a house cat. You are a tiger! Screened

Denonative Meaning The man comments on the character of the woman. Cononative Meaning Marriage has become negative in the words of house cat. In the series, there are negativities directed against marriage. This situation is shown to be normal in a corrupt relationship.

206

Aydın Karabulut

Sequence 5 Time 20:13 Indicator Dialog. Indicative Profana language. Dialog The man who has a blue suit. Who the fuck is that? Screened Denotative Meaning The character is swearing. Connotative Meaning Abusive speeches can be considered corrupt..

7 Discourse Analysis This situation has become routine in a certain way since the individual is constantly experiencing reality. From this point, the individual has to spend his life in routines. However, this monotonous state has been drawn to a different plane with the exploitation of the media today. This reality has become hyper! In this respect, the media’s predominance is virtuality. The virtual world that he presents enforces consciousness by imposing his own time and space. The solution of this issue should be sought in the plane of the mind and space. While the films provide a world of viewers, the virtual space is giving each viewer a virtual body and role (Funk, 2007, p. 42–43). By manipulating both the Apollonic elements and instincts with the illuminated universe it creates, the media destroys the natural and healthy, the will. The media, which is the civilization of these bright lives and icons, is in high-power oscillations. In this aspect, in media products “(…) there are people who are ready to put aside their problems in the daily life and a colonized cultural life in order to escape to the media world which has more attractive characters than real people” (Kellner, 2003, p. 202). Thus, routineity in sequences can be seen as a false solution to escape the above-mentioned vicious benign return. This is the reality of the sequence

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

207

analyzed above. In the series, Can Manay, the character glorified by the media; he is diseased, schizophrenic, and postmodern in life; and he constantly worships number and rating, leading a very slippery, uncanny life to keep it going. He desires to go higher, to increase rating, paranoidly. When viewed from this respect, the life he lives in corresponds to a situation where values ​​become worthless. This lifestyle is presented as perfect in the series; the corruption of everyday relationships is a game of continuity. In this way, the individual is free to do everything he aims. For example, Manay is able to watch the woman he falls in love with. This observation is also commonplace in the film as it is a common and experienced situation in daily life. Sexuality is often used to keep the audience’s attention alive in the series. Gods of the glittering world, like Zeus, live with their desires and live daily relationships. In this respect, “Famous people are produced and used in the world of media show. Celebrities; the symbols of media culture are gods and goddesses of daily life” (Kellner, 2003, p. 25). The individual who watches these series is shown to be attracted to this glittering side of life. In the film, desires are constantly flogged. Power can be said to be the result of the incarnation of the popularity of Manay. Manay perceives this interest in the show as a show for those who cannot show themselves in daily life, and finds this herd instinct worthless. However, the show corresponds to a reality in the context of being a show, whereas the presentation of the shown reality with a deformed structure destroys the reality of the show. Subsequently, the lives in this series can be considered as extremely hyper presentation of real life. So, this reality is false, not real. The shiny presentation of counterfeiting also creates a negative situation on individuals. Another element in abundance in the series is the glorification of greed and blasphemy. Ambition in eternity is the most painful and stimulating whip in today’s fast world. But this whip and pain can fetishize over time and make one addicted to pain. Yet, ambition is the purpose of the unreasonably. In this respect, the hyper-terrorization and terrorization of emotions suggest “homo, homini lupus”. This is a philosophy that is needed to bring new bodies and energies to the wheels of capital. The series uses lots of hidden ads (especially Samsung). In this respect, the series serves the master capitals.

8 In Lieu of Conclusion Today’s human being, the product of postmodern media culture, is the “last man” of an impatient depletion that preys on the surface and changes life. This person can be defined as with the pleasure and speed of his saddlebag constantly throwing dice, lingering with bottomless indicators. In addition, it is

208

Aydın Karabulut

a worshiped entity whose reality is showcased, preferring reality shows to reality, and constantly repeating the exhausted pleasures in the shopping temple. This person, who does not know the “middle”, shortens with short summaries and wanders through the network with the impoverished dima, resembles the distorted image of â Flâneur. As Deleuze said, I don’t think the media have much opportunity or inclination to capture an event. First of all, they often show the beginning or the end of the event, whereas an event continues even if it is short, even momentarily 2013 (2013, p. 170). In this respect, human consumption created by the postmodern media culture continuously increases the rate of its own consumption by constantly drinking the brine. In the analyzed series, references, accepting normlessness as norm, exhibition of privacy, etc. were determined. It can be said that the existence of good and evil has always been present since the beginning of time. One of the reasons why the situation is tragic today is the displacement of good and evil. Although this may seem bad, the rate of dissolution is likely to lead to the emergence of the different springs that Nietzsche mentions, either new or the rate of the earthquake. If this is considered to be cyclical, further decomposition will shorten the time required for the new situation. We have no choice to disappear degeneration by accelerating (Nietzsche, 2015a, p. 92). In this way, the desert needs air rather than light. The hidden paradise sought by the people looking for an island in the land of the lakes is sacrificed quantitatively by the media, the Pied Piper. The digital messiah, who wanders in the mountains, not in the mountains, aims to eliminate historical human beings by his own nature. In this respect, if it is said like Nietzsche, the values ​​need to be reassessed. The human being who sips the good and the evil from the glass of extinction has a tragic depth. However, people who are affirmed continuously lose their opportunities to meet with negativity and lose their pain. The cooperation between medicine and the media seems to be successful in this respect. With this perspective, and with the sayings of Baudrillard “there is light resources, but no more light” (2005, p. 148), and Foucault’s announcement of the death of human beings marks the absence of hope by drawing attention to the light that illuminates but deepens the darkness, and to a world that has been demolished.

References Adorno, T. (2011). Kültür Endüstrisi - Kültür Yönetimi. (N. Ülner, M. Tüzel, & E. Gen, Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. Althusser, L. (1995). Kapital’i Okumak. (C. Kanat, Çev.). İstanbul: Belge Yayınları.

Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age

209

Altmeppen, K.-D., & Arnold, K. (2010). Ethik und Profit. C. Brosda, C. Schicha, C. Schicha, W. Hömberg, C. Klenk, B. Pörksen, M. Rath, C. Schicha, & C. Brosda (Dü) içinde, Handbuch Medienethik (s. 331–348). Netherlands: VS Verlag. Aristoteles. (1975). Politika. (1. bs; M. Tunçay, Çev.). Remzi Kitabevi. Baldini, M. (2000). İletişim Tarihi. (G. Batuş, Çev.). İstanbul: Avcıol Basın Yayım. Baudrillard, J. (2005). Bir Parçadan Diğerine; François L’yvonet İle Söyleşi. (A. Yaşar, Çev.) İstanbul: İnkılap Kitabevi Yayınları. Baudrillard, J. (2008). Simgesel Değiş Tokuş ve Ölüm. (O. Adanır, Çev.) İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınevi. Baudrillard, J. (2013). Tüketim Toplumu (6 b.). (H. Deliceçaylı, & F. Keskin, Çev.) İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Baudrillard, J. (2014). Baştan Çıkarma Üzerine. (4. bs; A. Sönmezay, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bauman, Z. (2017). Akışkan Modernite. (S. O. Çavuş, Çev.). İstanbul: Can Yayınları. Bauman, Z., & Lyon, D. (2013). Akışkan Gözetim. (E. Yılmaz, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Bourdieu, P. (2006). Karşı Ateşler (1 b.). (H. Yücel, Çev.). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Castells, M. (2013). Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi/Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür Cilt 1. (3. bs; E. Kılıç, Çev.). İstanbul: Bilgi Üniversitesi. Deleuze, G. (2013). Müzakereler (2 b.). (İ. Uysal, Çev.). İstanbul: Norgunk Yayıncılık. Dijk, J. van. (2018). Ağ Toplumu. (3. bs; Ö. Sakin, Çev.). İstanbul: Kafka Kitap. Ellul, J. (2012). Sözün Düşüşü. (3. bs; H. Arslan, Çev.). İstanbul: Paradigma Yayınları. Erdoğan, İ. (2009). Televizyon Reklamlarında Gündelik Hayatın Temsili: Seks ve Çikolata. Bilim ve Ütopya, (179). Foucault, M. (2015). İktidarın Gözü. (4. bs; I. Ergüden, Çev.). Ayrıntı Yayınları. Funk, R. (2007). Ben ve Biz-Postmodern İnsanın Psikanalizi (1 b.). (Ç. Tanyeri, Çev.) İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Han, B.-C. (2015). Şeffaflık Toplumu. (H. Barışcan, Çev.) İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Han, B.-C. (2017). Yorgunluk Toplumu (3 b.). (S. Yalçın, Çev.) İstanbul: Açılım Kitap.

210

Aydın Karabulut

Harvey, D. (2010). Postmodernliğin Durumu. (S. Savran, Çev.) İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T. W. (2010). Aydınlanmanın Diyalektiği (N. Ülner & E. Ö. Karadoğan, Çev.). İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınları. Kellner, D. (1997). Culture and Media. D. Owen, M. Waters, S. Ashenden, P. Connolly, N. South, A. Hunt, M. Dean, & D. Owen (Dü.) içinde, Sociology after Postmodernism (s. 138–158). London: SAGE Publications. Kellner, D. (2003). Medya Gösterisi. (Z. Paşalı, Çev.) İstanbul: Açılım Kitap. Köse, H. (2010). Medya ve Tüketim Sosyolojisi. Ankara: Ayraç Kitapevi. Mattelart, A. (1991). Reklamcılık. (F. Ersoy, Çev.). İstanbul: İletişim. May, T. (2017). Deleuze: Bir Birey Nasıl Yaşayabilir. (S. Çalcı, Çev.) İstanbul: Kolektif Kitap. Merleau-Ponty, M. (2016). Göz ve Tin. (4. bs; A. Soysal, Çev.). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Muraz, Ö. (2018). Gövdenin Açık Halleri (Sanatta Yeterlilik Tezi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü). Geliş tarihi gönderen http://www. openaccess. hacettepe.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/handle/11655/5258. Nancy, J. -L. (2016). Haz Bedeni/Corps de Plaisir. Cogito 85 Üç Aylık Düşünce Dergisi Kış 2017 Felsefe’de Eros, (85), 60–66. Nietzsche, F. (2015). İyinin ve Kötünün Ötesinde. (A. İnam, Çev.) İstanbul: Say Yayınları. Nietzsche, F. (2015a). Putların Alacakaranlığı. (M. Tüzel, Çev.) İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Ong, W. (2014). Sözlü ve Yazılı Kültür. (S. Banon, Çev.) İstanbul: Metis Yayınları. Rigel, N. (2000). Rüya Körleşmesi. İstanbul: Der Yayınevi. Robinson, D. (2000). Nietzsche ve Postmodernizm. (K. Ökten, Çev.) İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. Sennett, R. (2008). Karakter Aşınması/Yeni Kapitalizmde İşin Kişilik Üzerindeki Etkileri (3. bs; B. Yıldırım, Çev.). İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları. Toffler, A. (1981). Şok (3 b.). (S. Sargut, Çev.) İstanbul: Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi. Virilio, P. (2003). Enformasyon Bombası. (K. Şahin, Çev.) İstanbul: Metis Yayıncılık. Warburton, N. (2019). Felsefenin Kısa Tarihi (35. bs; G. Ateşoğlu, Çev.) İstanbul: Alfa Yayınları. Yücel, V. (2017). Siber Alan ve Gerçekliğin Gençler Üzerinde Gündelik Sosyal Regülasyonu: Facebook. 18.

Deniz Özer

Organizations’ use of Social Media from the Perspective of Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations 1 Introduction Technological developments have led the public relations to a platform that is simpler, faster, but more complex and intense. The easy and fast aspect of public relations is the ability to reach the target audience; to learn their problems, complaints, demands, and suggestions directly; and to do it instantly in a two-way manner. Its complex side is the inability to respond to every sound on a very crowded and polyphonic platform without boundaries, and the inability to ensure that every message reaches the desired target audience. However, if the organizations have an effective and controlled use, they are also aware of the advantage of organizationally turning it in favor. In this respect, it is not possible for organizations to stay away from social media. Social media has a great influence on revealing the awareness of organizations, the ability to reach the target audiences, and extraordinarily changing the dimensions of the communication established with the target audiences. Social media-based communication plays an important role in marketing-oriented public relations studies as well. Therefore, it is imperative that most of the communication activities are performed on social media. The form of communication has turned into a dialogical communication with internet. Dialogical communication is based on efficient mutual communication and two-way excellent public relations theory. Organizations have begun to actively use the dialogical communication on social media. Organizations have also reflected this effective communication method to the marketing-oriented public relations efforts. Marketing-oriented public relations are “broad, interdisciplinary, awareness and information raising campaigns or programs directed towards special groups or masses in order to increase the sales and use of products and services of the organization”. In this way, organizations have begun to manage their marketing-oriented public relations practices based on dialogical communication. In this regard, the aim of this study is to reveal the extent of use of social media and its efficiency in dialogical communication and marketing-oriented

212

Deniz Özer

public relations efforts emerged from the communication forms of organizations as a result of technology-based change. In this context, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts of an organization, which was selected as the sample, aimed to be examined concerning marketing-oriented public relations application fields through the principles and properties of dialogical communication by means of content analysis method, and a holistic result is aimed to be achieved. In this study; the public relations, marketing, and advertising activities of the organizations in the digital media and their target audiences were discussed together with their continuing efforts to perform communication cycles on this platform; thus, results were obtained concerning the marketing-oriented public relations efforts.

2 Marketing-Oriented Public Relations Public relations is a management function that provides mutual benefits, defines, establishes, and protects relationships among the stakeholders of an organization (Cutlip et al., 1985:4). The purpose of public relations practices is to establish an understanding based on the complete truth or knowledge, to seek mutual interests, and to communicate in a two-way manner (Black, 1989:1). According to Bernays, in cases of competition, when the complexity of life increases, public relations employs the public communication quickly and efficiently. Healthy decisions can be made by establishing information exchange (Bernays, 2012:8). It is an important communication management that defines the change and stimulates public relations. It plays an important role in giving a place and transferring messages in mass media. It understands the role of harmonious unity like in symmetrical public relations. Public relations actually contributes to real changes in society by promoting new ideas and new solutions for problems (Odabaşı, 2017:194–195). Organizations will not be understood without answering the community. Because responsible organizations should be able to explain their behaviors and motivations, and should realize public opinion and thought. Since public relations is an integral part of the subject and does not have a separate function, it is embodied within the management (Kogan, 1976:6). In his book titled Crystallizing Public Relations, Bernays (1995:114) emphasized that the gist of public relations is understanding the basics of the public motivation. Today, with the complex tools of communication, it requires a little more intensive effort. But nowadays, despite this heterogeneity, in other words, the target audience, the diversity of media channels, as well as psychological, geographical, and economic differences, organizations can succeed in presenting the facts to the public.

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

213

Bernays (2012:2–3) focuses public relations at one point as the convergence of information, persuasion, and integration activities, and emphasizes that public relations is used in these three aspects: to integrate the mutual relations of the public in order to inform the public, to change attitudes and behaviors, and to convince the public. In doing so, it has become one of the main objectives to use the technology, in other words, the media in the most effective and intensive way. Technology is improving faster than human relationships and pulls the masses. There are two main objectives of public relations in organizations. The first is to get in contact with the three important divisions of the people: customers, shareholders, and employees. Ensuring mutual understanding and cooperation among these three groups is essential for success. The second objective is to introduce the company’s services and products in a highly competitive world (Black, 1989:135). To achieve this, society is more complex today, the processes are much faster, and therefore, the need to communicate with the target audiences is much more needed today than it was yesterday. The organizations benefited from public relations and began to participate in public relations marketing activities to accomplish their second objectives. In this context, the importance attached to marketing-oriented public relations practices has also been noticed. The concept of marketing-oriented public relations emerged in the 1980s as a result of efforts to differentiate general public relations applications from special public relations techniques that support marketing (Harris and Whalen, 2009: 27). Marketing-oriented public relations is “the use of public relations techniques and strategies to reach the marketing goals”. Marketing-oriented public relations is the set of applications that support the marketing activities in line with the marketing strategies for increasing the sales of the organization (Okay and Okay, 2018: 548). It originates from the need to combine the marketing goals with the corporate goals. Its aim is to raise awareness, to increase the sales, and to establish relationships among consumers, companies, and brands (Harris and Whalen, 2009: 29). Kotler reports that the motives behind the development of marketing-oriented public relations are its versatility, its structure that accords with drama, and its ability to draw attention by eluding from the excessive amount of information (Harris and Whalen, 2009: 23). Other causes behind featuring the marketingoriented public relations are as follows (Harris and Whalen, 2009: 23–42): – Mass advertisement is no more a solution. There are organizations that cannot afford high advertisement costs as well as mass marketing professionals that are aware of the value added to the marketing mixture by public relations.

214

Deniz Özer

– Public relations is more efficient today in changing the attitudes of consumers about the products. Naturally, establishing relationships is the field of public relations. – The problems of the new market conditions cannot be solved with old principles. Marketing brand messages and the images should be compatible. In his book titled Your Future Public Relations, Bernays (1961: 18) explained good public relations activities as creating the right image in the public mind, enhancing the environment of idea between the organization and public, promoting the product and services of the organization, and adapting to the larger organizations of the society. Today, these efforts are performed in a more integrated and technology-based manner. The organization which plans to create a brand should create a story, and this is employed through the public relations. These tools, which were defined as the “pens” of public relations by Kotler, are “publications, events, news, social problems, corporate identity tools, lobbying, and social investments”, and they are suggested to be more efficient than advertisements (Kotler, 2017: 48). In this purpose, Kotler emphasizes the importance of creating contents that discuss the organization and the brand. Content marketing is a marketing approach that involves creating attractive, appropriate, and beneficial contents for a clearly addressed target audience, and that involves hosting external contents, content sharing, and content support, thus, aiming at creating conversations about the contents. It is defended in this approach that the content is the new advertisement, and the tags that are used for content share in the social media are equivalent to the traditional ad slogans (Kotler et al., 2017: 167). The fields of usage of the marketing-oriented public relations are listed as follows (Harris and Whalen, 2009: 27–29): Product Promotion: Launching new products, promoting, reminding, and repositioning existing products, showing new benefits of old products, combining people with products, engaging customers with online products, and arising interest in a product category. Market creation (development): Access to demographically defined markets, creating new markets, access to secondary markets, strengthening weak markets, access to markets defined by lifestyles, and defining firms and products for special interest markets. Advertising support: Expanding advertisement access, breaking consumer resistance against advertising, stick out against the ad crowd, generating news before the ad starts, converting ad to news, supporting the ad by verifying its messages and claims, completing the ad by attracting attention to the benefits

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

215

of extra products, attracting visitors to websites, and creating awareness about the product in the media while the product is not advertised. Marketing support: Testing the marketing concepts, strengthening sales promotion campaigns, increasing brand awareness through sponsorships, making marketing programs available to local audiences, creating new media and reaching consumers through new methods. Corporate reputation: Creating consumer confidence and belief for the company behind the product, providing consumer support that will overlap the subjects adopted by firms and brands, positioning the firms as leaders and specialists, interpreting the issues that will emerge in the market environment and the impact of the agenda, opening channels of communication between marketing staff and activists, conveying marketing decisions taken for the public interest, influencing opinion leaders, and protecting products at risk. Sales support: Ensuring distribution, generating interior traffic, increasing sales questions, motivating selling power, and providing retailer support. Five different models are presented revealing the organizational relationship between marketing and public relations (cited from Harris by Okay and Okay, 2018: 555): Distinct but equal functions: Functions of public relations and marketing are different. Marketing works for profit by fulfilling customer needs. Public relations is in an effort to create and maintain goodwill between the organization and its target audiences. Equal but intersecting functions: Marketing and public relations basically have common points. Functions such as product promotion and customer relationship management can involve both the contributions of public relations to the marketing and the policies of marketing. The dominant functions of marketing: Marketing can benefit from the public relations in presenting products and services to the target audiences. Public relations only provides the support needed for corporate and product marketing. The dominant functions of public relations: The dominance of public relations is based on controlling marketing. Public relations ensures that relationships and communications among the organization and its stakeholders are healthy and consistent. Public relations appeals to the organization itself and its general environment. As per the marketing, it needs the help of public relations in line with the customer satisfaction function. Equal functions of marketing and public relations: The priority of both public relations and marketing is to appeal to their target audiences. The image in the minds of the audiences about the organization is critical in taking marketing

216

Deniz Özer

decisions. In order to positively influence the attitudes and perceptions of audiences; planning, implementation, and analysis reveal the priority of the management of public relations and marketing. The main function of marketing-oriented public relations is to ensure a convincing integration of emotional information and correct information through implementation and support socially beneficial subjects and other activities. In this direction, the new opportunities are created, the existing ones are strengthened, weaknesses are supported, and threats are eliminated through situation analysis based on probable situations. In other words, the implementation of proactive and reactive approaches is also possible in marketing-oriented public relations (Alan, 2011:78). The proactive approach should be applied in foreseeable and planned situations, and reactive approach should be implemented in unpredictable situations. Proactive public relations is implemented by long-term marketing policies. It involves a strategic process such as product placement, promoting the business, and communicating with the target audiences. The reactive efforts of marketing-oriented public relations are determined based on external factors such as government policies, consumer behaviors, and competition, which are also known as changes in the market. It may not be always possible to make a pre-planning (Peltekoğlu, 2004:64). When the public relations depends on marketing strategy, it plays a special role, and credibility and reliability of marketing function better. Advertising costs are much more than the cost of public relations. The product promotion is a strategic tool for marketing-oriented public relations; and thus, it provides a positive reflection on the media. Additionally, Harris and Whalen (2009:84) suggest new approaches. The first two dimensions of these approaches are the push and pull strategies. The push strategy means pushing the product through the channels with sales promotions. As per the pull strategy, it is the strategy of targeting consumers and creating consumer demand. The push tools used in marketing-oriented public relations are fairs, private publications, sponsored meetings, breakfasts, receptions, and communication environments where the product is introduced to the commercial sector, sectoral publications that draw attention to promotional support and new products, news releases that the sales team will use on sales phones or that will be directly posted to them, articles included in sectoral publications about products targeting customers and purchasing managers, stories about advertising and promotional support including marketing-oriented public relations, interviews, and success stories.

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

217

The tools used in pull strategies are press events and trips, product/story placements, technological tools, demonstrations, sample product distributions, survey studies, press releases, public announcements, and scientific meetings. The Internet is a medium for attracting consumers in line with their wishes and needs (Alan, 2011:88). The pull strategy is used in large-budget programs; however, both push and pull strategies can be used simultaneously. The information conveyed from the media is presented to the consumer unavoidably disregarding whether they want or not. People using the media for different purposes also encounter or seek this information. Since the information contained in the media is considered to be newsworthy, it is received; in other words, it is pulled (Harris and Whalen, 2009:84). The lawmakers, government, political parties, trade unions, and public interest groups, all of which create the market barriers, have assumed the gate keeping role for the media in the market environment. However, it has been directed towards the pass strategy in marketing. In addition to the four elements of marketing, which are product, price, distribution, and traction, there are additionally power and public relations. Power is a pull strategy to gain the support of multiple parties. As per the public relations, it is a push strategy. With power and public relations, it is possible to transition into a pass strategy that is beneficial in the market environment (Harris and Whalen, 2009:87). All three strategies should be involved in marketing planning. The pass strategy covers company policies, and it is the function of corporate public relations. Brand and trust creators use push and pull strategies, and they are under marketing-oriented public relations. While some products may succeed only using a pull strategy, the push strategies should be considered equivalent for some other products. The pass strategy also includes responds from the company. All three strategies should function harmoniously with each other (Harris and Whalen, 2009:87).

3 Dialogical Communication and Public Relations Dialogue is establishing communication-based and honest relationships by the public relations professionals aiming at serving corporate objectives and looking for an answer to the needs of the target audience. There are the interests of target audiences on its basis. There is a relationship management here. Relationship management demonstrates that relationships can be controlled and managed. This includes “unconditional respect to the other”. Dialogue communication pertains to a relationship that develops and protects rather than controlling the

218

Deniz Özer

organization’s target audience (Kent, 2017:2). The idea of dialogue is one of the important communication types, and it is based on attitudes between this organization and the public. Due to the ever-changing technological environment, higher numbers of organizations are increasingly starting to use social media to engage their target audience. According to Kent and Taylor, the theory of dialogue was first applied by Pearson in corporate communication and public relations studies. The theory is based on the symmetric public relations model, and this model relies on the practice of requesting feedback from the public. The theory of dialogue is seen as the guide of public relations theory (Akwari, 2017:17). Interaction is the key in relationships. On the other hand, the establishment of relations is essential for public relations practice and this includes a process. Relationships can be created, adapted, and modified related to corporations and publics over the internet (Russell, 2008:14). As Long and Hazleton pointed out, public relations practitioners communicate to help organizations manage information exchanges, identify and solve problems, and assist in managing conflicts and behaviors (Kent, 2017:7). The theory of dialogue suggests that organizations should be socially responsible, should work to make society a better place, and should contribute to their environment. This also includes the assumption that interpersonal communication features such as trust, respect, and empathy are necessary for an honest and meaningful interaction. So dialogue is not just about face-to-face or simple conversations conducted on social media platforms. Kent and Taylor explain the features of the dialogue with the concepts of “risk, reciprocity, intimacy, empathy, commitment”. Although all of these features are not always together and necessary, the greater these features the stronger the dialogue link. Kent and Taylor (2002, 25–29) describe these features as follows: 1. Reciprocity: Agreeing that organizations and the target audiences are inseparably connected to each other. Includes cooperation and reciprocal equality. It is defined by “inclusion or orientation to cooperation” and “reciprocal equality spirit”. There is a common orientation. 1.1 Collaboration: Dialogue is based on cooperation and all participants support it. Cooperation is also important in public relations. Success is achieved through everyone’s contributions. Therefore, different perspectives should be taken into consideration for success. 1.2 Reciprocal equality spirit: There is no power or superiority in the dialogue. There is an environment where everyone with a different status can tell their opinions. In terms of public relations, there already exists

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

219

this reciprocity. The demands and needs of both parties are known and accepted. 2. Proximity: It involves establishing real-time interactions and maintaining the relationship. It’s a tendency towards a relationship. Proximity is important for organizations to communicate with the target audience and to understand the general perception, and for the target audience to convey the demands to the organization. The three features of the proximity principle are the “proximity of the asset, temporal flow, and participation”, which clarify the dialogue process. 2.1. The concurrence of the assets: It demonstrated the time that the parties participating in the dialogue are in contact with the current issues, not after the decisions have been made. The parties communicate in a common area. 2.2. Temporal flow: Dialogue communication is relational. It includes understanding past and present, and formats future relationships. Dialogue is not just happening right now; its focal point is to create a continuous and shared future for all participants. It is negotiated through dialogue, and it is attempted to build a fair and acceptable communication and relationship for everyone involved. 2.3. Participation/integration: The communicative proximity is that both parties are reachable in the dialogue process. It should be continuous, not only at leisure times. Ideas should be respected. The decision-making process can benefit from the views in this participation and reach wider walks of life. The needs of the people are taken into consideration. The institutional efficiency is increased by using two-way relationships. 3. Empathy: An atmosphere of support and trust occurs when the dialogue is successful. It is the desire for well-wishes for others and to demonstrate that it is more important. With empathy, people are approved, supported, and provided with a common orientation. This feature of the dialogue is explained by “supporting”, “social orientation”, and “approval of others”. 3.1. Support: The dialogue creates an environment where others are not only encouraged to participate, but also their participation is facilitated. Dialogue is open to everyone. Efforts are made for mutual understanding. Being biased is not accepted, communication is not blocked, and conversations are not distorted. 3.2. Orientation to the community: The dialogue establishes an interaction between individuals and organizations, and provides a common orientation. In public relations, this common orientation has already been adopted and it constitutes the basis for maintaining the relationship.

220

Deniz Özer

3.3.  Confirmation: Ignoring others during the dialogue will break the ­communication. The condition of the dialogue is to create confidence. Even if there is no common idea, everyone should be able to express their opinions and this opportunity should be provided unconditionally. It is difficult to regain the confidence, and in such a case, no one wants to communicate. 4. Risk: Dialogue can have the potential to produce unpredictable and dangerous results. In the dialogue process, the risk assumption is defined by three features: “Security gap”, “being vulnerable against unexpected consequences”, and “accepting the uniqueness of others”. 4.1. Security gap: Knowledge is power and dialogue involves sharing information with others. But since the dialogue involves a risk, it necessarily makes the participants vulnerable in certain cases. The security gap is at risk in cases of fabricated relationships and the possibility of changes in participants. 4.2. Unexpected results: Dialogue communication is not always predictable. This spontaneity arises with the interactions of participants and their individual beliefs, values, and attitudes. Dialogue focuses on the problems of people, there is no forced persuasion and manipulation; however, there is always a risk involved. 4.3. Acceptance of the unknown other: This risk feature is the unconditional acceptance of uniqueness and individuality of the parties in the dialogue process. It involves that the other is not the same. It is accepted that individuals are unique and valuable because of their differences and the differences they bring to the dialogue. Public relations is largely in the effort to reduce the environmental risks in order to maximize stability, predictability, and profits. Thus the “risk of dialogue”, in organizational terms, attempts to minimize ambiguity and misunderstandings. It provides a way to share information in situations where there is ambiguity. 5. Commitment: It is the final principle of dialogue. Accepted as a fundamental set of assumptions, it is the basis for the previous four principles of commitment. Righteousness is protected by maintaining an open and continuous communication. It involves understanding and interpreting what others have said or felt. The commitment explains the three features of the dialogue: reality and originality, commitment to conversation, and interpretation. 5.1. Reality: Dialogue is honest and open. There is no deception or an unexplained situation. Organizations that establish good relations with each other and the public will try to reach mutually beneficial solutions.

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

221

5.2.  Commitment to conversation: Conversations are made within the framework of reciprocal benefit and understanding, not to exploit the weaknesses of the other. Sharing the same meanings or working with common insights is very important for dialogue relationships. 5.3.  Interpretation: Dialogue requires interpretation and understanding because it is interpersonal. Dialogue requires all participants to be disposed and to tell their opinions. It also includes understanding other interpretations. In order for the dialogue to be effective, it is necessary to accept the value of establishing an organizational commitment and relationship. In order to include dialogue in public relations; establishing interpersonal relationships, mediated dialogue relations, and an organizational approach should be adopted (Kent, 2017:30): Establishing interpersonal relationships: Institutional leaders need to be comfortable in dialogue. Institutional members should be trained in dialogue. In this purpose, the skills required are to be able to listen; to establish empathy; to grasp the issues in local, national, and international frameworks; to detect a common ground between the parties; to think long-term rather than short-term targets; and to have the diversity of perspectives and communications towards the opposition groups. These interpersonal skills are adapted into the context of public relations, and they help establish internal communication relationships. Public relations specialists are in communication with media and other groups. Taking into consideration these factors strengthens the relationships with the target masses. Establishing mediated dialogue relationships: Organizations can strengthen their commitment by using mass channels to communicate with the public. Organizations should create mediums such as a website, telephone access, public forums, and social media accounts where the public can participate in discussions on organization-related issues. It has become almost impossible to implement effective public relations, without using internet, particularly the social media. Internet is an important field where dialogue can strengthen establishing relationships. The internet includes functions such as real-time discussions, providing feedback, providing an opinion, presenting organizational information, member biographies, and contact information. Organizational procedure approach to dialogue: Dialogue involves confidence, satisfaction, and sympathy; and it is the first step towards communication. The target audience should not be considered as the “others” by the organizations. A dialogue-containing public relations approach creates institutional mechanisms to facilitate dialogue.

222

Deniz Özer

Tab. 1:  The Relationship between Dialogic Principles and Social Media (Source: Yağmurlu, 2013: 102) Dialogic Principles Dialogical cycle

Usefulness of the information Encouraging re-visits

Simple interfaces

Visitor protection

Definition

Twitter examination subjects The medium where the Tweet organization/public supporters reciprocally communicate Retweet Mention The provided Subject of tweets information should be attractive and beneficial for the publics Creating the wish to Frequency of revisit the website by tweets the publics through updates The provided interface Design should have the ease of use Ease of use Mobile option Providing commitment Number of by drawing the followers attention of the visitors Kalut index

Facebook examination subjects Update

Response Like and share Subject of update

Frequency of update Design Ease of use Mobile option Number of followers

There are three ways to facilitate dialogue communication with a conversation that leads to a mutual understanding between the organization and the public (Muckensturm, 2013:19): – Organizations respond to messages. – Asks questions to consumers. – Sends newsworthy pieces of information. Kent and Taylor have proposed five principles to successfully integrate the dialogic public relations to the Internet (Muckensturm, 2013:16) (Tab. 1):

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

223

1. Dialogic cycle: It involves the people asking questions to the organizations and the organizations responding them. Social media allows this process. Therefore, educated personnel are required to respond to comments. The most important part of this principle is that when a customer establishes a communication, the organization should initiate the communication cycle by responding. This principle cannot be fulfilled if no response is given from the organization. Sometimes the response is blocked. 2. The benefit of information: Organizations publish important and useful materials for customers. If customers have information about the organization, it will be easier for them to engage in dialogue. Customers should feel that the shared information is valuable. The information provided should answer the questions of customers and should be a way for customers to discover what they are looking for. 3. Creating the feedback visits: To establish a dialogue relationship, websites and social media sites need to be attractive and interactive with up-to-date information so that the customers will want to visit the site again. Among the preferences that an organization can do to encourage feedback there are frequently asked questions, downloadable and sendable pieces of information, and forms. 4. Simple interfaces: Websites must be easy to use and must contain a formatted organizational chart. In all social media accounts, all pages must be structurally identical. Photos and shares must be consistent. This is the way to create dialogue in terms of showing the corporate image of these websites. It also allows easy surfing. 5. Visitor protection: It means providing links to ads or other sites that will not disturb the customer. Customers should not be allowed to easily get away from corporate websites. This principle is important, since creating a dialogue should not only be a tool, but a goal that will attract the visitor and create a commitment. These principles were researched and tested on social media (Muckensturm, 2013:18). In a study conducted by Kent and Taylor (2002), it was suggested that social media could be used to establish dialogue and relationship. Examining social media through a dialogue helps practitioners to communicate better using dialogue abilities. Considering the social media as a dialogue will help create a sense of communication similar to traditional platforms. As social media grows, it is necessary to examine and understand how communication develops in this field.

224

Deniz Özer

Tab. 2:  Dialogic Features and Social Media Examination Subjects (Source: Yağmurlu, 2013: 102) Dialogical Feature

Definition

Risk

Interacting with individuals in their own conditions and accepting the risks arising from this

Proximity

Empathy

Partnership

Commitment

Social media examination subjects Vulnerability

Unexpected problems Accepting the unknown other Informing the publics and having Concurrence of assets a medium through which the publics can convey their wishes and demands Temporal flow Integration Pre-admission concerning the Supportiveness expression of different opinions Orientation to the society Confirmation Discussing without struggling for Cooperation power or dominance based on the idea that the organizations and publics are partners Reciprocal equity spirit Accuracy Talk Interpreting Commitment to communication Righteousness without excluding the other based on mutually benefit that not excludes the other Conversation Interpretation

Although there are dialogical communication research studies conducted on webpages (Eray, 2016; Engin and Akgöz, 2016; Özdemir and Yamanoğlu, 2010; Boztepe, 2013; Akwari, 2017; Akbulut and Okumuş 2014), there are also studies related to social media (Muckensturm, 2013; Yağmurlu, 2013; Türkal

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

225

and Güllüpunar, 2017; Can, 2017; Şimşek, 2016). The dialogical research studies on social media were conducted through social media accounts of municipalities, universities, NGOs, private companies, and political parties. Each of these studies used a similar methodology and some common results were obtained. In these studies, the use of the five dialogical communication principles mentioned in this research were investigated through the content analysis method.

4 Framework of the Study This research study discusses the relations of organizations based on the dialogical communication on social media in terms of marketing-oriented public relations. Marketing-oriented public relations efforts of the organizations, and in this context, the process of communicating are examined in terms of dialogical principles. In the research, the social media accounts of an airline company are assessed based on the dialogic principles determined by Kent and Taylor. In this context, the research is conducted answering two questions. First, “How are the principles of dialogic communication used in social media accounts?” Second, “To what extent the dialogic principles are used in corporate accounts in context of marketing-oriented public relations?” The investigation of the research examined a three-month period between 01 January 2019 and 31 March 2019 in Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts. The analysis, which was conducted as qualitative and quantitative content analysis, was evaluated within the framework of dialogic communication principles and marketing-oriented public relations.

4.1 Finding Concerning the Use of Dialogical Principles in Social Media Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts were examined in order to monitor whether the dialogical principles were used for establishing quality dialogue in social media. Dialogic cycle: In Tab. 3, shares on social media accounts, likes and comments to shares, and the mentions that are shared by other people are shown numerically by months. Accordingly, social media accounts are actively used. The organization has frequently made shares, though not every day. The organization initiates the communication process and creates a continuous cycle by receiving feedback. On the other hand, followers can also be the side that initiates. Usefulness of knowledge: It is important for the shared information to be interesting, useful, and meaningful for the people. The dialogue process is initiated

226

Deniz Özer

Tab. 3:  Dialogic Principles Analysis-Dialogic Cycle Facebook Jan Feb Share 26 18 Like 3000 10147 Comment 1761 2226 Mention 1305 1616

Mar 41 294985 6305 53935

Twitter Jan Feb 36 24 20277 11209 592 646 1488 2350

Mar 46 3240 13651 62118

Instagram Jan Feb 15 14 593499 402114 4402 6738 -

Mar 16 997589 6900 -

Tab. 4:  The Subject Distribution of the Contents Shared According to the Usefulness of Information Principle

New flight Special day Contest Corporate ad Promotion Informing Survey Job advert Social responsibility

Twitter Jan Feb 12 5 2 1 1 1 9 5 7 5 3 2 1 4 1 1 -

Mar 5 2 2 17 13 1 6

Facebook Jan Feb 9 6 2 1 2 3 11 5 1 1 3 -

Mar 5 2 3 10 15 1 5

Instagram Jan Feb 12 9 1 1 2 1 1 2 -

Mar 3 5 5 3

with this information and relations with followers are developed. The shared information is grouped by categories in Tab. 4. According to this, the shared information involves flights, special days, contests, corporate ads, promotion, informing, surveys, job postings, and social responsibility. Encouraging re-visits: The re-visit principle is evaluated through update frequency. It is observed that there were frequent notifications within the research period. There are few days that no shares were made, and some notifications were repeated on other days. Moreover, shares were generally made at the same time on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram accounts, and the least number of shares were observed in the Instagram account. For the convenience of visitors, links about the subject were added to the shares. Simple interface: This principle is often available for the webpages, but the useful design of interfaces is also possible in the social media platforms owing to

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

227

the features such as design, ease of use, and mobile options. From this perspective, it was observed that applications developed for products and services were introduced, contents such as videos and airport maps on certain subjects were shared, and links to mobile applications were provided. The fact that these links are useful, rich, fast, and accessible shows the active presence of the interface feature. Protecting visitors: The principle of protecting visitors in order to attract the visitor’s interests and to create loyalty is important for ensuring continuity of the dialogic communication. Answering the comments, critiques, and questions of visitors through shares and providing links about new applications and maps encourage visitors to visit the site again. The protection of the number of followers during the research period is important in transmitting the corporate news and increase the probability of re-visits. It was observed that the organization’s efforts for ensuring the dialogic principles in social media were generally successful. It may be mentioned, as a deficiency, that some shares were made only in one social media account, the visual contents were not shared simultaneously, and the content was not always similar. The minimum number of shares were made in the Instagram account. The highest number of shares were made on the Twitter account.

4.2 Finding about the Use of Dialogical Principles in Social Media for Marketing-Oriented Public Relations It is possible to mention that marketing-oriented public relations practices are used as an effective method in achieving the marketing objectives of organizations. The subject-distribution of the marketing-oriented public relations practices that the organization shared in social media accounts are demonstrated in Tab. 5. Product/service promotion: Comments on new flights on Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram: applications; maps showing the location of the organization in the airport; airport maps; promotion of mobile applications; and introduction of the new airport are all evaluated within the scope of the dialogic cycle. Product promotions consist of pieces of information that include price, time, and transportation conveniences for consumers. This involves the principle of the usefulness of information in the dialogical communication. These beneficial contents, which draw the attention of consumers, are effective for revisiting the websites. The links below the product and service shares involve the principle of the simple interface facilitating the access to information.

228

Deniz Özer

Tab. 5:  Social Media Shares of the Organization Concerning Marketing-Oriented Public Relations Product Promotion

Market creation

Advertising support

Marketing support

Corporate reputation

Sales support

–  Mobile applications –  Transportation maps –  Info about flights to countries and cities –  Parking lot availabilities –  Affordable ticket opportunities –  Direct flight info –  Office services –  Promotions of flights to new cities and countries –  Promotional flight fares –  Short surveys for the consumers to learn about the places to be visited –  Corporate commercial films –  Promotion of new service fields –  Product and service promotions –  Promotional videos for flying safety –  Promotion of new services –  Survey studies for flights –  Consumer advices and views about products and services –  Surveys for sharing experience and knowledge –  Social responsibility works –  Special day sharings (women’s day etc.) –  Link sharing for promotional flights –  Informing about direct flight –  Maps about the ticket offices –  Mobile interface applications

Creating a market: It is possible for the organizations to protect the existing customers and to gain potential target audiences by organizing new flight routes to different destinations in Turkey and in the world, institutional agreements, survey questions asking visitors which places they want to travel, and providing information about affordable prices. Shares about the increasing number of flights to new countries and cities demonstrate that the organization is growing in the new markets.

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

229

Advertising support: Corporate advertising films, introduction of new service areas, product and service promotions, and flight safety videos were continuously shared in three social media accounts. Social media provides an important, cheaper, and always accessible advertising medium for organizations to reach a wider and varied audience without time limitation. For this reason, an important part of the organizations’ shares were made for corporate and service advertisements. Marketing support: Introducing new services, providing alternative cities and fares for potential audiences, providing direct sales opportunities based on interest concerning products and services, and obtaining views of consumers about products and services are the factors demonstrating that the organization actively uses social media for the marketing support. Social media is also an effective and cost-free marketing medium. The organization supports their messages with promotional videos and draws attention to the products and services by attracting visitors. Corporate reputation: Conveying decisions of public interest is important for establishing confidence and belief in organizations. The shares about social responsibility projects and special days contribute to the corporate image, and they are efficient in forming and strengthening the institutional reputation. Sales support: Brand awareness is increased through campaigns such as sales promotion and sponsorship. The marketing support is provided to consumers in new ways through the new media. It motivates the sales force by directing the sale of products and services on social media to ensure the distribution of products and services. New products and applications are introduced, and they are reminded and repositioned with re-shares. The sales support is ensured through arousing interest in products and services. Within the framework of the dialogical principles, marketing-oriented public relations practices are used as an effective method in achieving marketing objectives of organizations. Tab. 6 shows the distribution of marketing-oriented public relations practices in the social media accounts of the organization according to the dialogical principles. The activities of mutual communication within the scope of dialogic communication principles are as follows: Dialogic cycle: Questions were asked about products, services, applications and organizations. The critiques and complaints of individuals about products, services, applications, and the organization were answered and necessary steps were taken. Thank-you notes were shared for the positive shares and contents of individuals. Surveys were organized to individuals about products, services, applications, and the organization. Special day shares were made. Followers requested information on products and services. Informative videos and shares

230

Deniz Özer

Tab. 6:  Dialogical Principles and the Social Media Practices of the Organization Concerning Marketing-Oriented Public Relations Dialogic cycle

Usability of information

Encouraging re-visits

Simple interface

Protecting visitors

–  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  – 

Product and service shares Answering comments and questions Thank-you shares Survey shares Existing and new flights New vacancy announcements Organization/service promotion videos Special day shares Information writings/press releases Social responsibility shares Updating the data Organizing contests Informative videos Access links Following current events Introducing mobile applications Providing links to informative contents Facilitating the access to the contents Introducing new interface designs Protecting the number of the followers Answering the questions

were made about the organization, services, and applications. Corporate advertising and promotional videos were shared. Usefulness of information: The principle of the usefulness of information was used by providing information about the new airport through transportation maps. Information about flights to different countries and cities was conducted within the framework of the usefulness of information principle as well. Useful pieces of information were shared about services to attract followers. Encouraging re-visits: Regularly informing the visitors about the activity to be performed was aimed at protecting visitors and revisiting the website. All kinds of sharing, following all the changes, and access to the organizations and services for followers through mobile applications are provided for the principle of encouraging the re-visits. Simple interface: Videos, transportation information, private lounges, and links to frequently asked questions are all pertaining to the introduction and use of

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

231

interface designs. With new and special designs, both useful information was conveyed to the consumer and the principle of encouraging re-visits was used, and additionally, the interface became more useful by providing ease of access with the given links. Protecting visitors: All shares of the organization on social media are relevant to the marketing-oriented public relations practices. Providing the opportunity for the followers to access the information required as well as the service opportunities provided for the followers open the way for following the social media accounts of the organization. The dialogic principles are used as a whole in the social media. Each of the shared information not only creates a dialogic communication cycle for the followers, but also shares useful information, and, additionally, functions in an integrated way to ensure regular and continuous follow-up of corporate accounts. As a result of the evaluation of the dialogic principles in the context of the dialogic properties, the points that can be mentioned about how the organization uses the dialogic process is explained as follows (Tab. 2): Risk: It is important for the organization to conduct regular updates in terms of dialogic communication and to answer customer comments and questions for avoiding potential problems. The reviews consist of positive and negative contents. Negative shares and interpretations of the organization are always a risk, and may have unexpected consequences. In this process, it is observed that the organization acted consciously in meeting the risks involved in communication. Proximity: The frequency of sharing is evaluated in terms of ensuring concurrency, temporal flow, and integration. Sensitive shares were made on corporate promotion, special days, and social subjects. Answers were given to the comments of users. In this way, communication between the users and the organization was often performed simultaneously, and a close interaction was ensured. Communication was established on the basis of a common, shared, respectful, and need-oriented relationship. Empathy: In terms of being supportive, community oriented, and approving; communication with visitors on social media was performed to solve problems, in an understanding and soft way. A responsive and supportive approach was adapted for the questions, comments, and shares of visitors. Shares were made supporting the solutions of social problems. Communication was performed in an unbiased way, open to expressing thoughts, in accuracy and confidence.

232

Deniz Özer

Reciprocity: Cooperation of the organizations and the spirit of reciprocal equality are observed in their approaches to meet and understand the positive and negative critiques of the visitors. The style was sincere and respectful. There was an approach to solving problems. A common understanding was dominant in the interactions between the organization and individuals. Dialogues were developed with followers based on mutual understanding, and answers were given to questions and problems. Commitment: The communication was employed in the form of informing, promotion, and information gathering in terms of accuracy, conversation, and interpretation criteria. Honesty is important for the visitor in terms of confidence. Conversations and interpretations were built on this understanding, and communication of the two parties were formed based on their understandings. Communication was based on a constructive understanding by the organization. Social media has been used extensively and effectively.

5 Conclusion and Evaluation Corporate attitudes and behaviors affect consumer perceptions, preferences, and behaviors. In this sense, social media offers both advantages and disadvantages in establishing communication and relationship with the target audiences. On the one hand, information is transmitted quickly from the social media; and at the same time, wider audiences are reached. On the other hand, this fast environment causes undesirable information to be conveyed, and cannot provide simultaneous and adequate information to every information request from the target audiences. At this point, the dialogue theory is the communication principles developed to facilitate interaction between target audiences. Communication and public relations practitioners interact with target audiences and use dialogue effectively. The function of marketing-oriented public relations is aimed at products, brands, and customers. In this context, the primary aim is to provide support for developing strong and continuous relationships with consumers on social media. The target audiences are encouraged to communicate about the product, brand, and organization by creating word-to-mouth advertising. Social media is vitally important in establishing a relationship between the target audiences and the brand, the product, and the organization. In order to establish efficient interpersonal communication, organizations should know the perception and the understanding of the target audiences. According to Kent and Taylor, relationships are organic in the dialogue process,

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

233

and effective interpersonal communication is important to create confidence. At this point, it is necessary to know the perception and understanding of the target audience. Within the framework of this approach, understanding and controlling the target audiences, informing them about the corporate objectives, promoting products and services, and establishing strategic relationships and communication are becoming satisfactory as long as it is mutually performed. According to Kent and Taylor, this is explained by the perception that “the sum of the whole is bigger than the sum of the pieces”. The organizations mentioned in the current study have been evaluated concerning how they used the dialogic communication principles in social media in terms of marketing-oriented public relations. The organizational relationship between marketing and public relations is a dialogic-based communication on social media concerning both the efforts to create goodwill for public relations and to meet the customer needs of the market and to increase the level of satisfaction. A strategic process such as product placements, publishing corporate news, and communicating with stakeholders is governed by the proactive approach. Reactive behaviors can be controlled more quickly in the face of negative shares on social media about the organization. Within the context of marketing-oriented public relations strategies, the information is transmitted to the consumers through social media, using the push strategy. On the other hand, the pull strategy is also used by receiving information from the target audience. Communicating directly with followers provides an important convenience for organizations in their advertising and marketing efforts. This study is more comprehensive in terms of the obtained results and limited in terms of more detailed representation of statistical examinations; additionally, it is a preliminary study since it demonstrates the applicability of the dialogic principles and marketing-oriented public relations practices in the social media.

References Akbulut, Ö., & Okumuş, M. (2014). Diyalojik İletişim Çerçevesinde İnternetin Kamu Diplomasisi Amacıyla Kullanımı: AB Ülkeleri ve Türkiye örneği. International Academik Conference, İstanbul. 16–17 October. Akwari, C. C. (2017). Dialogical Communication and Public Relations Websites: A Content Analysis of the Global Top 250 PR Agencies. Elecrtonick Thesis and Dissertions. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4f51/5dd86065ebe3c 7b12b896c5d5f95589f3a38.pdf. Access date: 17.05. 2019. Alan, G. A. (2011). Postmodern Tüketim Kültüründe Pazarlama Yönelimli Halkla İlişkiler. Marmara Üniversitesi SBE Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım ABD Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi.

234

Deniz Özer

Bernays, E. L. (1961). Your Future in Public Relations. Richard Rosen Press. New York. Bernays, E. L. (1995). Crystallizing Public Opinion. Ig Publishing. New York. Bernays, E. L. (2012). Public Relations. Snowball Publishing. New York. Black, S. (1989). Introduction to Public Relations. The Modino Press Limited Published. London. Boztepe, H. (2013). Halkla İlişkilerin Kurum ve Hedef Kitle Arasında İlişki Oluşturma Amacı ve Kurumsal Web Sayfalarının Diyalojik Halkla İlişkiler Aracı Olarak Kullanımı. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi. 20: 86–104. Can, S. (2017). Diyalojik İletişim Gözüyle Gazi Üniversitesi Twitter Hesabına Bi Bakış. SOSBİLKO Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Konferansı. www. researchgate.net/profile/serap_can/publication/329058805. Access Date: 16.05.2019. Cutlip, S. M., Center, H. A., Broom, M. G. (1985). Effective Public Relations. Prentice-Hall International Editions. 6th Edition, USA. Engin, E. ve Akgöz, E. B. (2016). Belediyelerin Web Sitelerinin Diyalojik İletişim Açısından Analizi. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi. 10:91–110. Eray, E. T. (2016). Utalization of Corporate Websites as a Dialogic Public Relations Tool in Turkey. Global Media Journal TR Edition. 6(12): 201–213. Harris, T. L. ve Whalen, T. P. (2009). 21. Yüzyılda Pazarlama Profesyonelinin Halkla İlişkiler El Kitabı. Rota Yayınları: İstanbul. Kent, L. M. (2017). Principles of Dialogue and the History of Dialogic Theory in Public Relations. www.researchgate.net/publication/318509024. Access Date: 16.05.2019. Kent, M. L. ve Taylor, M. (2002). Toward a Dialogic Theory of Public Relations. Public Relations Review. 28: 21–37. Kogan, I. S. (1976). Public Relations. Alexander Hamilton Institute Incorporated. New York. Kotler, P. (2017). A’dan Z’ye Pazarlama. 1. Baskı. MediaCat yayınları. İstanbul. Kotler, P., Kartajaya, H., Setiawan, I. (2017). Pazarlama 4.0 Gelenekselden Dijitale Geçiş. 1. Baskı. Optimist Yayınları. İstanbul. Muckensturm, E. (2013). Using Dialogic Principles on Facebook: How the Recommodation Sector is Communicating with Its’ Consumers. All Thesis 1056. https://tigerprints.clemson.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=2657&context=all_theses. Accsess Date: 15.05.2019. Odabaşı, Y. (2017). Postmodern Pazarlama. 5. Baskı. MediaCat Yayınları. İstanbul.

Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations

235

Okay, A. ve Okay, A. (2018). Halkla İlişkiler, Kavram, Strateji ve Uygulamaları. 10. Baskı. Der Yayınları. İstanbul. Özdemir, B. P. ve Yamanoğlu, A. M. (2010). Türkiye’de Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları Web Sitelerinin Diyalojik İletişim Kapasiteleri Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. 1(2): 3–36. Peltekoğlu, F. B. (2004). Halkla İlişkiler Nedir? 3. Baskı. Beta Yayınları İstanbul. Russell, E. A. (2008). An Analysis of Public Relations and Dialogic Communication Efforts of 501 (C) (6) Organizations. Ball State University, Master Thesis. Şimşek, G. (2016). BüyükşehirBelediye Başkanlarının Diyalojik İletişim Çerçevesinde Sosyal Medya Uygulamaları. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi. 9(46): 829–839. Thomas, L. H. ve Whalen, T. P. (2009). 21. Yüzyılda Pazarlama Profesyonelinin Halkla İlişkiler El Kitabı. 1. Baskı. Rota Yayınları İstanbul. Türkal, İ. ve Güllüpunar, H. (2017). Diyalogsal Halkla İlişkiler Bağlamında Sosyal Medya Kullanımı: Türkiye’de İlk 100’de Yer Alan Şirketler Üzerine Bir İnceleme. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi. 5(2): 591–618. Yağmurlu, A. (2013). Diyalojik İletişim Çerçevesinden Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi Sosyal Medya Uygulamaları. Selçuk İletişim Dergisi. 8(1): 95–115.

Şakire Özkan, Birgül Taşdelen

How Twitter Was Used during the 2018 Presidential Election by the Candidates in Turkey Image Creation in the Context of Dramaturgy Theory1 Introduction Social media tools create a very different way of communication than traditional media by providing effortless and fast interaction. Social media offers users an alternative world where they can interact by sharing their daily routines with their followers. Social media channels are also very important for created self-image presentation of the users. Users are able to build their identity they desire and present it to their followers. Social media due to its structure is a means of interaction used by almost everyone today. The use of social media is increased in the political sphere too, due to its popularity in all the age group of the population and easy reach to wide audience. Twitter is the most used platform for political reasons with a high potential to increase political participation. Political leaders are using twitter, as it is an ideal connection for users not only to provide general information but also to disseminate political views to the public through their networks. Therefore, they use their personal social media pages to communicate activities with their followers during election campaigns by creating a self-image of their choice to present themselves in public. In this study, created self-images on candidates twitter accounts for campaign in the 2018 Turkey presidential election have been content analyzed in the light of Goffman’s created self-image presentation dramaturgical theory. Goffman says that people make an impression by using created self-image presentation, and social media providers do offer a suitable stage for this purpose.

1 Definition of Self and Created Self-Image Presentation Self is the created view of one’s self (Beyazyüz and Göka, 2012: 19). The created self-image is the objective side of the personality; it is collection of the 1 The first version of this study was presented between 26 and 28 April 2019 in Çukurova 2. International Multidisciplinary Studies Congress.

238

Özkan and Taşdelen

self-evaluation of one’s mind and the self-evaluation of oneself in other’s mind. The information collected by the individual forms his created self-image and shapes his behaviors. One can increase his self-esteem, confidence, and happiness by improving his created self-image (Kulga, 2014: 60). According to Zel (2011: 50) self is personal reflection of communal gained experiences and individuals do have more than one status in social life. He says when behaviors required by those statuses are exhibited, various roles come to existence. By being in contact with others socially, an individual will play his role by showing his best manner possible. He argues that even if the behaviors are role-played, it is not against the true self, because by role-playing the good behavior, it may over time become parts of oneself. Goffman considers the presentation of social self through the conceptual framework discussed in the work of created self-image presentation in daily life. Goffman also applies the identity in accordance with social and situational rules and adapts it to social events that develop within online interactions (Boz, 2012: 30). Turner’s work, similar to Goffman’s created self-image presentation, describes that when a person tries to explain himself, he will mention personal objective observations from outside (1982: 143). Jensen and Gilly (2003: 385), referring to the point of ideal self-image presentation, stated that personal information is often changed as desired in accordance with the ideal self- image. Goffman sees behind all the communications a public life interaction, and focuses on individual exchanges in which he describes the situation as the world being the theater scene where publicly determined social roles are distributed and played (Lazar, 2009: 44). In Goffman’s described theater stage, it is the place where individual will have various roles, and will perform differently for each of the roles. The individual mostly present himself by performing carefully calculated roles to leave an impression he wants and to receive the feedback he wants from those around him. When an individual plays those roles, he wants his observers to believe in what is presented to them, and he wants to create a positive image and leave a solid impression of himself (Goffman, 2016: 19–29). Goffman explains the roles and performances offered by individuals in social interactions in everyday life, using a number of terms. Goffman’s terms are as follows (Soncu, 2016: 28): Front Scene: It is the area where the behaviors are displayed with special care to influence the audience (Goffman, 2016: 126). Behind the Scene: It is defined as the area where an image may contradict the impression drawn by a certain performance (Goffman, 2016: 112). Interaction: It is defined as the effect of people who are physically in the same environment that affect each other’s activities (Goffman, 2016: 16).

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

239

Given Impression: The actor presents himself through oral symbols (Goffman, 2016: 16). Impressive Impression: Observers impression of what the actor wants to tell by means of body language and gestures (Goffman, 2016: 16). Personal Showcase: The player’s racial characteristics, age, gender, physical appearance, oratory style, gestures, and facial expressions (Goffman, 2016: 34). Performance: One of the participant’s activities in a particular event that can influence any of the other participants (Goffman, 2016: 28). Showcase: It is the standard expression used by the person consciously or unconsciously during performance (Goffman, 2016: 33). Dramatic Re-enactment: The person acts in front of others in a way that represents his needs in a meaningful way to others (Goffman, 2016: 40–43). Idealization: A performance that is presented in accordance with the understanding and expectations of the society (Goffman, 2016: 44–45). Keeping the Expression Controlled: It is an attempt to convey an impression that will prevent misunderstandings during the performance to avoid some problems (Goffman, 2016: 59). Misrepresentation: Incorrectly, used signs, contradictions can eliminate the reality of performance and result in suspicion in other areas (Goffman, 2016: 63–71). Mystery: When performing, it is perceived as a type of communication by creating control over what is acted out and what is not visible. In this way, certain distance can be held which can fascinate the audience (Goffman, 2016: 73). Reality and False: There are two views that explain behavior with common sense. The real performances, truth, sincere or honest, seem to be the reaction of the individual to the conditions of his situation. Fake performances are seen as the role-played by theater actors and do not look like real. The behaviors exhibited do not actually have an equivalent (Goffman, 2016: 76). Role-Routine: The action pattern, which is exhibited during a performance and can be played in other cases (Goffman, 2016: 28). Goffman defines different created self-image presentations in relation to the personal expectations of an individual and his social environment in daily life. In addition, he says that the individual creates an image of himself as a result of his created self-image presentations which are developed through his needs, responsibilities, interpretations, and expectations of his social environment. Within the social environment, there will be people who recognize him and his created self-image in their minds as well as a social self that created the bond of belonging. It can be said that the individual has different social selves that are suitable for different people or groups that he values. In addition, the

240

Özkan and Taşdelen

individual may show a different aspect of himself to each group (James, 1952: 189–190).

2 Presentation of Self in Social Media and Creating Images New communication technologies have transformed users from only receiving information into active users who can instantly communicate with other users and produce content. Social media became one of the indispensable things in people’s life because applications like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter enabled the users to reach all kinds of information for entertainment of their interest, upload content they produce to those platforms, and allow them to interact with other users (Karaoğlu, 2015: 51). Social networks, which provide those opportunities to their users, are web-based structures that create strong alternatives for people to communicate and share information based on their interests and needs (Borges, 2009: 47). According to Boyd and Ellison (2007: 211), social media channels are internet-based networks where individuals can create content and communicate with the public with open or semi-open profiles. The online communication system, which increasingly speaks a universal and numerical language integrates both the production and promotion of words; sounds and images of cultures are used to makes them suitable for the tastes and psychological likings of individuals globally. Interactive computer networks are shaping lives by creating new forms of communication and environments for interactions (Castells, 2008: 3). These features of social media create the platform of new social relations and enable the formation of new concepts such as virtual space, virtual reality, virtual communities, and virtual identities by moving many forms of relationship in daily life to a new dimension through internet and social media (Biçer, 2013: 36). Goffman takes the social and situational rules and adapts those to social events that develop within online environments (Boz, 2012: 30). People have the freedom to create their online identity with the desire to present their ideal self (Bargh and McKenna, 2004: 575). In the process of online self-image creation, users can choose which self-image to share or not share with their followers. Best example is personal social media accounts, unlike other interactive environments, it provides a highly controllable environment for created self-image presentations to their users (Boz, 2012: 40). Creating an account requires some information to present a complete self-image (Subrahmanyam and Greenfield, 2008: 121). With the freedom of the user to enter any information they feel comfortable with.

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

241

In political campaigns, candidates determine the ideal candidate they imagine themselves to be by comparing the image of their ideal candidate with the image of other candidates. The candidates create the image they want for the political campaign and demonstrate their behaviors according to their choice during the campaign (Devran, 2004: 197–199). The approach of the politicians to life, politics, and things about themselves have a significant effect on their image management. The politicians are not only motivated for the sake of their power, authority, and pursuing respect, but also the goal of self-realization and dignity (Uztuğ, 2004: 57–58). For this reason, creating an image becomes a very important practice in political campaigns. Research shows that there is an ideal candidate profile in the minds of voters already. When making a decision, voters make a comparison between their ideal candidate image and the real candidate image (Devran, 2004: 1969). The images are created from the previous knowledge of existing images, events, or information of the actual candidate (Kurşun, 2011: 52–53). Using all stored information, voters determine an image appropriate to their values ​​and expectations. However, the point to be emphasized is the image has to have a positive impression to succeed. The social structure and values of ​​ the populations in which the image is introduced are an important factor for it to be accepted or rejected. The psychological and sociological indicators of the society are the elements that complete the image. Created Image is a collection of previous experiences and observations of the individual in other’s minds (Gençer, 2017: 74). It is very important that the political candidate identifies himself and makes an appropriate position for the identity. In the implementation phase of the identity, communication has a very important role both in the formation and delivery of the message. Uztuğ (2004: 53) when attempting to clarify identity describes the image in four ways: True self, “who am I am” Ideal self, “what I want to be” Ideal social self, “what I want to be known as” Social self, “what I am known as”.

On the social media site, the user creates the profile within a certain standard. The created profile reproduces the identity presentation in a defined social situation and format. Those systems provide the necessary infrastructure for the digital creation of one’s identity to be seen and followed by others (Boz, 2012: 37). Due to the structure of social media, the created identity is changeable. The most important reasons for changed identities are psychological factors such as the desire to be liked by others and stimulating the life of persons dreams (Saçak, 2017: 100).

242

Özkan and Taşdelen

3 Use of Social Media in Political Communication Political communication is defined as the way of communication used by political actors to put certain ideological aims into minds of certain groups, masses, countries, or blocks in society and motivate them to act on it when necessary (Aziz, 2003: 3). Political communication has been an activity in Europe since the late 1960s and later spread almost all around the globe (Ceylan, 2014: 51). With the development of communication technology when social media channels are discussed in terms of political communication methods, it should be considered separately from other political channels on the internet. Social platforms that obtain data from web 2.0 are not directly dependent on the strategic decisions of the political parties as the channels used by the potential electorates. Also if the online campaigning sites of political parties are seen as a representation of the top-down communication relationship with the electorates, it does include other activities within. The most important determinants of those activities is that the political actors are closer to the voters (Bayraktutan et al., 2014: 62). This is a new style of political communication through social media. The success of this new style has been proven in the US presidential elections in 2008. Barack Obama’s use of social media tools in different and more effective ways than other candidates brought him the success. After this success, other world leaders also used social media for their political campaign activities. Obama was successfully able to reach the target group by using social media in his campaign work as the first leader globally and wrote a new history in political campaigns (Genel, 2012: 23; Gökgül, 2016: 83). If a social media site created in the name of politicians can be managed successfully, it can contribute to the formation of political agenda and election campaigns as seen in the Obama example (Baysal, 2010: 130). According to Bayraktutan et al. (2011: 6–7), the reasons for using social media in political campaign work is as follows: • To introduce and publicize both the parties and the leaders of the political parties standpoint. • To share the campaign program on regular basis with voters. • To collect opinions of voter on certain topics. • To obtain financial support for the parties as long as the political regulations allow. • To accumulate a supporting audience for the political party and its leader online. When the political structures of the parties are analyzed in social media, it shows that it became a medium where leaders can address directly to the electorate

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

243

masses without any party policies. Social media enables leaders to serve all political communication activities from a single location (Saçak, 2017: 25). Due to the interactivity, accessibility, and measurability qualities of Twitter, it is preferred for political communication activities. Twitter, as a social media tool, offers individual use and allows politicians to explain their thoughts in a non-formal friendly manner. The opportunity to interact with politicians easily increases the participation of individuals in the political process (Gökgül, 2016: 86). Political leaders’ voices and words are often heard and read in newspapers, rallies, and radios. Leaders are the most influential political actors for voters and party volunteers. The behaviors and rhetoric of the leaders are spreading rapidly by the media to the headlines and to the masses. As one of the most effective tools, Twitter removes the obstacles of time and space, and it gives the opportunity to those who want to reach the political actors anytime and everywhere. No restrictions on the number of tweets and the fact that the adult electorate uses this platform quite frequently allow Twitter to be used as an attractive political communication platform for political actors (Bostancı, 2015: 106). Katz et al. (2013: 88) list some reasons why politicians use social media in general and Twitter in particular: • To improve their image by appearing as understanding and sensitive to the public. • To make the party and the leader visible online, gather the public’s attention and reach out to the potential voters. • To motivate their supporters for action. • To show their criticism clearly. • To defend their management style. The use of Twitter in the field of political communication has attracted many politicians. Therefore Twitter has become a frequently preferred tool both in the political campaign process and in daily use (Gökgül, 2016: 84).

4 Method The overall objective of this study is the use of Twitter; how the candidates created self-image and presented themselves during 2018 presidential election in Turkey. For these purposes, the following questions were developed: • What are the natures of the tweets? • What are the types of tweets? • Who is being spoken to on tweets?

244

Özkan and Taşdelen

Tab. 1:  Political Candidates Adaylar Meral Akşener Muharrem İnce Temel Karamollaoğlu Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Selahattin Demirtaş Doğu Perinçek TOPLAM

• • • •

Frequency (f) 412 331 162 120 84 41 1150

Percent (%) 35,8 28,8 14,1 10,4 7,3 3,6 100,0

How are the tweets’ written language and style? What are the visuals used in tweets? What contents are the tweets focused on? How are the profiles used in the accounts?

This study was carried out with content analysis which brings some limitations. These limitations can be listed as follows: • The study analyzed only the tweets in May and June 2018 of six candidates for the 2018 presidential election. • The images that were repeated more than once in the study were excluded from the coding. While collecting the data, the account of each political candidate was followed. The images were then examined by two separate encoders and a coding guide was created. In preparing the coding guide, a work called “New Environment in which the Self is Submitted to Likes; Instagram” was used (Soncu, 2016). The coding guide generated from 1150 tweets of 6 political candidates in May and June 2018. Those tweets were coded in 13 main and 81 subcategories. The contents were encoded by two independent encoders and the inter-coding fit was 80.7 %.

5 Results The data obtained for this study were analyzed with content analysis application with the help of sub-objective questions, and they are presented in separate headings below. The highest number of tweets among the six political candidates examined belong to Meral Akşener (f = 412, 35.8 %). She was followed by Muharrem Ince,

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

245

Tab. 2:  Candidates/Publication Date (f) CANDİDATES/ DATE OF BROADCAST Meral Akşener Muharrem İnce Temel Karamollaoğlu Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Selahattin Demirtaş Doğu Perinçek TOTAL

May

June

TOTAL

175 133 75 28 43 14 455

237 198 87 92 54 27 695

412 331 162 120 84 41 1150

Temel Karamollaoglu, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Selahattin Demirtas, and Dogu Perincek. Content analysis results show 455 tweets were used in May 2018 and 695 tweets were used in June 2018. All six political candidates used tweets more in June 2018. The nature of the tweets taken by the candidates is collected more in the “rally” and “news” category, followed by “articles”, “projects”, “television programs” and “other” categories. When the candidates and the nature of the tweets were examined, it was revealed that Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Muharrem İnce, Meral Akşener, and Temel Karamollaoğlu tweeted in the “rally” category. Doğu Perinçek shared “news”, “information”, and Selahattin Demirtas shared a series of “articles:”. Meral Akşener is the one who shares tweets with most “projects” and “news”. The type of tweets examined was predominantly “tweet” (f = 1112), followed by “reader response” and “retweet”. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Selahattin Demirtaş shared the most “reader response”, and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Muharrem İnce, and Meral Akşener used the most “retweet” option. Analyzed data show that the political candidates were mostly in communication with the citizens. Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Selahattin Demirtas tweeted to politicians once time. When the language and narrative of the tweets are examined, most were in “language used in general public”. When the quality of the tweets is examined, there were mostly “advertisement” tweets (f = 681), followed by “informative”, “promise”, “judgmental/critical/accusatory” and “others”. All applicants have mainly “advertising” tweets. “Informative”, “Advertisement”, and “Provide/Advise and Alternatives” tweets were used by Akşener’s followed by Muharrem İnce, Temel Karamollaoğlu, and

CANDIDATE/ News TV Articles Interview Advertisement Rally Live TWEETOBJECTIVITY Programs Broadcast Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 9 2 7 0 2 70 2 Muharrem İnce 78 1 17 1 1 164 3 Meral Akşener 154 24 25 2 3 153 2 Temel Karamollaoğlu 57 18 20 5 0 30 0 Doğu Perinçek 25 2 1 5 1 2 1 Selahattin Demirtaş 28 0 43 1 0 0 0 TOTAL 351 47 113 14 7 419 8

Tab. 3:  Candidate/Tweet Attribute Relationship (f)

1 120 3 331 1 412 7 162 0 41 1 84 13 1150

22 11 136 23 3 0 95

3 21 2 1 1 11 39

2 31 10 1 0 0 44

Projects Video Art Total

Photography

246 Özkan and Taşdelen

247

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election Tab. 4:  Candidate/Tweet Type (f) CANDIDATES/TWEET TYPE Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Muharrem İnce Meral Akşener Temel Karamollaoğlu Doğu Perinçek Selahattin Demirtaş TOTAL

Tweet

Responding to the Retweet Reader 1 5 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 0 25 0 26 11

114 328 409 161 41 59 1112

TOTAL 120 331 412 162 41 84 1149

Tab. 5:  Candidate/Dialogue Relations CANDİDATE/ DIALOGUE Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Muharrem İnce Meral Akşener Temel Karamollaoğlu Doğu Perinçek Selahattin Demirtaş TOTAL

Citizens

Politicians

Artist Businesman

TOTAL

119 331 412 162 41 83 1148

1 0 0 0 0 1 2

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

120 331 412 162 41 84 1150

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Tab. 6:  Candidate/Language-Expression Relation (f) CANDİDATE/ DİL-ANLATIM Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Muharrem İnce Meral Akşener Temel Karamollaoğlu Doğu Perinçek Selahattin Demirtaş TOTAL

Language Used in General Public 120 331 412 162 41 84 1150

Scientific/Academic Language 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 120 331 412 162 41 84 1150

Informative Provide/Advise and Alternatives Advertisement Judgmental/critical/accusatory Positive/supportive Magazinsel Confusing/contradictory Promise TOTAL

TWEET STYLE/ CANDIDATES

Tab. 7:  Candidate/Tweet Style (f) Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 20 1 77 1 2 0 0 19 120 34 15 239 8 5 0 0 30 133

Muharrem İnce 52 15 263 24 11 0 0 47 412

Meral Akşener 30 11 70 16 10 0 0 25 162

Temel Karamollaoğlu 4 1 15 6 2 0 0 13 41

Doğu Perinçek

39 13 17 6 0 0 0 9 84

Selahattin Demirtaş

179 56 681 61 30 0 0 143 1150

TOTAL

248 Özkan and Taşdelen

249

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election Tab. 8:  Candidate/Visual Number Relation (f) CANDİDATE/VISUAL NUMBER Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Muharrem İnce Meral Akşener Temel Karamollaoğlu Doğu Perinçek Selahattin Demirtaş TOTAL

Visual 167 484 273 83 36 37 1080

NON 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

TOTAL 167 484 273 83 36 37 1080

Tab. 9:  Candidate/Visual Attribute Relationship (f) VISUAL ATTRIBUTE/ CANDIDATE No visual material Tables/graphics/ marks Cartoons Illustrations Logos, Stamps Live Broadcasts Posters Photographs Videos Text Others TOTAL

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 1 15

Muharrem Meral Temel Doğu Selahattin TOTAL İnce Akşener Karamollaoğlu Perinçek Demirtaş 0 0

2 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

4 15

0 0 0 45 1 35 12 11 0 120

0 1 0 74 36 135 45 39 0 133

0 0 1 100 82 117 45 65 0 412

1 0 0 20 0 27 38 74 0 162

0 0 0 0 4 14 7 16 0 41

2 0 0 0 0 15 1 65 0 84

3 1 1 239 125 343 148 270 1 1150

Selahattin Demirtaş. The most “Judgmental/Critical/Accusatory” and “Positive/ Supportive” tweets were used by Meral Akşener and Temel Karamollaoğlu. When the number of visuals is examined, it is seen that Muharrem İnce scored with 484 tweets the most; followed by Meral Akşener with 273 visuals, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan with 167 visuals, Temel Karamollaoğlu with 83 visuals, Selahattin Demirtaş with 37 visuals, and Doğu Perinçek with 36 visuals. The visuals used by political candidates were mainly “photographs”, “text”, and “live broadcasts”, followed by “videos”, “banners”, “table charts”, “cartoons”, and “others”. Meral Akşener and Muharrem İnce mainly used “photographs”,

250

Özkan and Taşdelen

Tab. 10:  Alignment of Visual Material with Content CANDIDATES/CONTENT ALIGNMENT Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Muharrem İnce Meral Akşener Temel Karamollaoğlu Doğu Perinçek Selahattin Demirtaş TOTAL

Aligned

Not Aligned Neutral

TOTAL

120 133 411 162 41 84 1150

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

120 133 412 162 41 84 1150

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

“live broadcasts”, and “posters”. Most of the tweets of Temel Karamollaoğlu and Selahattin Demirtaş were visual in the form of “text”. Recep Tayyip Erdogan used the most “live broadcast” tweets. When the consistency of the tweets with the visual content is examined, there are largely compatible tweets. It was found that all political candidates shared tweets compatible with visual content. The content the candidates mostly dealt with were the content of “politics” and “elections”, and followed by “news”, “personal information”, “education”, “economics”, “technology”, and “art”. “Personal information” tweets were mostly used by Muharrem Ince, Meral Aksener, Selahattin Demirtas, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, and Temel Karamollaoglu. “Education” and “technology” tweets were used by Muharrem Ince, Meral Aksener, and Recep Tayyip Erdogan; “economy” was used by Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Meral Aksener; “art” was used by Muharrem Ince, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, and Temel Karamollaoglu; “health” was used by Recep Tayyip Erdogan and Temel Karamollaoglu; “Sports” was used Meral Aksener and Temel Karamollaoğlu; and Muharrem used Ince, tweets in “others” category. All six of the political candidates used professional profiles in their tweets.

6 Conclusion The growing popularity of media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram create opportunities for political leaders to turn into independent online people. Twitter in particular is a suitable medium to create a personal brand. In this study, created self-image presentations of political leaders through personal branding were analyzed. Goffman (1959) states that individuals always try to manage their first impression on others. When we look at Twitter, it is concluded that four themes (the information broadcast

Personal Information Technology Education Economy Transportation Election Art Health Sport Advertisement Information based news Others TOTAL

CONTENT

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan 7 3 2 4 1 79 2 1 0 3 21 0 120 9 1 9 0 0 274 3 0 0 0 33 2 331

Muharrem İnce

Tab. 11:  The Most Common Content of the Candidates (f) Meral Akşener 5 2 7 6 0 320 0 0 8 0 64 0 412

Temel Karamollaoğlu 1 0 0 0 0 126 1 1 3 0 30 0 162

Doğu Perinçek 0 0 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 0 5 0 41

Selahattin Demirtaş 4 0 0 0 0 76 0 0 0 0 3 0 84

26 6 18 10 1 911 6 2 11 3 156 2 1150

TOTAL

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

251

252

Özkan and Taşdelen

Tab. 12:  Profiles Used by Politicians PROFILES Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Muharrem İnce Meral Akşener Temel Karamollaoğlu Doğu Perinçek Selahattin Demirtaş TOTAL

Individual 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Professional 120 331 412 162 41 84 1150

TOTAL 120 331 412 162 41 84 1150

of impressions made by political leaders; interaction; sharing personal information) are focused on introducing oneself implicitly or explicitly. When we analyzed publication by the political leaders on Twitter, we concluded that the focus was on four themes: information sharing, interaction, personal information sharing, and presenting the personal branding with full or semi information flow. The most important focus in the presentation was personal branding. According to Goffman’s theory, Twitter – the scene – has a front and a back side. Twitter with open fields, that’s means open profile and information flow represent front and, with non-public/hidden twitter profiles the back side. According to the findings of the research, all the political candidates prefer the front stage by making their profiles open to the public. They also want to give their followers confidence by sharing their own profiles on their private personal accounts, which is the ultimate and vital element in the construction of a personal brand. When tweets of political candidates are examined, the content included “personal information” followed by “politics”. Therefore, we determined that political candidates share personal information via twitter accounts and use their accounts interactively. The second element, which is indispensable when a person performs to an audience is “response tweeting”, as stated in the findings, we observed the interaction on Twitter. The candidates have mostly communicated with the citizens on their accounts. Therefore, the candidates have established a strong connection with the population to ensured their loyalty. Twitter is a priority platform in which political candidates actively and personally interact. For political candidates it is clear that creating a personal brand in social media is valuable. Apart from traditional environments, social media, which is a new medium, enables political candidates to present their desired messages to their target audience and keep voters in their focus of attention.

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

253

References Aziz, Aysel (2003). Siyasal İletişim, Birinci Baskı, Ankara: Nobel Yayınları. Bargh, John A. and Katelyn McKenna YA. (2004). “The Internet and Social Life”, Annu. Rev.Psychol. Volume 55, pp. 573–590. Bayraktutan, Günseli; Binark, Mutlu; Çomu, Tuğrul; Doğu, Burak; İslamoğlu, Gözde; Telli, Aydemir A. (2011). “Sosyal Medyada 2011 Genel Seçimleri: Nicel –Nitel Arayüzey İncelemesi”, Selçuk İletişim, Cilt 7, Sayı 3, ss. 5–29. Bayraktutan, Günseli; Binark, Mutlu; Çomu, Tuğrul; Doğu, Burak; İslamoğlu, Gözde; Telli, Aydemir A. (2014). “Siyasal İletişim Sürecinde Sosyal Medya ve Türkiye’de 2011 Genel Seçimlerinde Twitter Kullanımı”, Bilig, 68, 59–96. Baysal, Sezin (2010). “Siyasal İletişimde Bir Halkla İlişkiler E-Ortamı Olarak Sosyal Ağların Kullanımı”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Beyazyüz, Murat and Göka, Erol (2012). Geçimsizler: Kişilikleri Tanıma ve Geçinmeyi Kolaylaştırma Kitabı, İkinci Baskı, İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları. Biçer, Serkan (2013). “Facebook Sosyal Ağ Sitesinde Akademisyenlerin Kendilik Sunumu”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Eskişehir: Eskişehir Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Borges, Bernie (2009). Marketing 2.0 Bridging the Gape between Seller and Buyer through Social Media Marketing, Arizona: Wheatmark. Bostancı, Mustafa (2015). “Bir Siyasal İletişim Aracı Olarak Sosyal Medya: Milletvekili ve Seçmen Örneğinde Bir Alan Araştırması”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Boyd, Danah M. and Ellison, Nikole B. (2007). “Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship”. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Volume 13, Issue 1, pp. 210–230. Boz, Nevfel (2012). “Yeni İletişim Ortamlarında Dijital Kimlik Ve Benlik Sunumu”, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Castells, Manuel (2008). Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi: Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür, Çev: Ebru Kılıç, İkinci Baskı, İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Ceylan, Mehmet (2014). “Bir İletişim Biçimi Olarak Siyasal İletişim: Recep Tayyip Erdoğan’ın “Ulusa Sesleniş” ve “Millet’e Hizmet Yolunda” Konuşmalarının İncelenmesi”, Yayınlanmamış, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi. Devran, Yusuf (2004). Siyasal Kampanya Yönetimi, İkinci Baskı, İstanbul: Odak İletişim Yayınları.

254

Özkan and Taşdelen

Gençer, Yeliz (2017). “Siyasal İletişim Yönetiminde Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’ün Lider İmajı”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Kocaeli: Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Genel, Mehmet G. (2012). “Siyasal İletişim Kampanyalarında Sosyal Medyanın Kullanımı (12 Haziran 2011 Seçimleri “Twitter” Örneği)”, The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication, Volume 2 Issue 4, ss. 23–31. Goffman, Erving (2016). Günlük Yaşamda Benliğin Sunumu, Çev: Barış Cezar, Üçüncü Basım, İstanbul: Metis Yayınları Gökgül, Ahmet N. (2016). “Sosyal Medyanın Siyasal İletişim Aracı Olarak Kullanımı: 7 Haziran 2015 Genel Seçimleri Twitter Örneği”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul: İstanbul Yeni Yüzyıl Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. James, William (1952). The Principles of Psychology, Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. Jensen Schau Hope and Gilly, Mary C. (2003). “We are What We Post?: SelfPresentation in Personal Web Space”, Journal of Consumer Research, Volume 30, pp. 385–404. Karaoğlu, Burcu (2015). “Gündelik Hayatta Benlik Sunumunun Sosyal Paylaşım Ağı Facebook Üzerinden İncelenmesi”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Katz, James E.; Jain Anshul; Barrıs Michael (2013). The Social Media President: Barack Obama and the Politics of Digital Engagement, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Kulga, Celile E. (2014). “Günlük Yaşamda Benlik Sunumları Üzerine Bir İnceleme”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara: Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Kurşun, Ahmet T. (2011). “Okulların Kurumsal İmajının Okul Yöneticilerinin Etik Liderlik Özellikleri ve Bazı Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Konya: Selçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Lazar, Judith (2009). İletişim Bilimi, Çev: Cengiz Anık, Ankara: Vadi Yayınları. Saçak, Emine (2017). “Sosyal Medyada Siyasal İletişim, Siyasi Liderlik ve 2015 Genel Seçim Çalışmalarına Katılan Liderlerin Twıtter Söylem Çözümlemeleri”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Soncu, Ayşegül (2016). “Benliklerin Beğenilere Sunulduğu Yeni Ortam; Instagram”, Uluslararası Hakemli İletişim ve Edebiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, Sayı:13, Sayfa: 214–233.

Twitter used during the 2018 Presidential Election

255

Subrahmanyam, Kaveri and Greenfield, Patricia (2008). “Online Communication and Adolescent Relationships”, Future of Children, Volume 18, Issue 1, pp. 119–146. Turner, Jhon C. (1982). “Towards a Cognitive Redefinition of the Social Group”, Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, Ed: Taifel Henri, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–40. Uztuğ, Ferruh (2004). Siyasal İletişim Yönetimi: Siyasette Marka Yaratmak, İstanbul: Mediacat Yayınları. Zel, Uğur (2011). Kişilik ve Liderlik, Üçüncü Baskı, Ankara: Nobel Yayınları.

Ahmet Tarhan

Social Media Presence of Banks in Terms of Public Relations: The Example of Ziraat Bank, Iş Bank, and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank Introduction The developments in newer communication technologies provided many opportunities to businesses in recent years; one of these opportunities is the use of social media applications. The social media (Weinberg, 2009:1), which associates the share of knowledge, experience, and viewpoints, has transformed the oneway understanding of the traditional media, enabling two-way communication between institutions and their target audiences. The banking sector, which is in a competition to offer the best products and services to its customers, has taken into consideration the developments in communication field and started to adopt a new communication approach, in which products and services are promoted and the customers are involved in this processes through their assessments about these products and services. The banks, which combine two-way communication ability of social media and the approach of contemporary public relations practices that takes the target audience to the center in the promotion of products and services, have the opportunity to enter a two-way dialogue through Twitter, one of the social media platforms. Thus, the information exchange becomes possible that can be beneficial to both the banks and the customers (Thoring, 2011:143). Based on the use of Twitter, one of the most widely used social media platforms of our day, this study focuses on Twitter utilization levels of a public, a private, and a participation bank, using a sample of data obtained between January 1, 2019 and March 31, 2019. In this research study, which used the content analysis method, it was questioned how the banks used their Twitter accounts in informing their customers, developing responses to their demands, expectations, suggestions, questions, and problems, and involving them in their decision-making processes. Through the analysis, it was aimed to determine whether the banks sufficiently benefited from the two-way communication ability that is provided by the Twitter.

258

Ahmet Tarhan

1 Public Relations in Banking Sector In the Western countries, particularly in America, it was accepted as a requirement by the business world to establish better relations with the public in the 1930s, and this approach was adopted by the banks as well (Yavuz, 1972: 50). In Turkey, it was observed that the private sector that gradually grew stronger after the 1960s started to utilize the procedure of public relations in order to defend themselves against certain parts of the society, particularly against the consumers, who gradually became more organized (Kazancı, 2013: 13). Grand holding companies and some banks accepted the significance of public relations particularly after 1969 (Peltekoğlu, 2004: 98), and this was the first step of evaluating the public relations as a management factor within an organization. With the transition of our country to the liberal economy after 1980, it was observed that the banks diversified and extended their services in many fields such as foreign trade, brokerage operations, credits, retail banking services, and stocks/shares operations although there was not a significant change in the target audiences of the banks concerning the public relations implementations. The 1990s were the years that the retail banking transactions boomed. Subsequently, the electronic banking services were diversified, starting to be widely used. Today, with the development of products and services in retail banking and with the increasing use of credit card for shopping, the banks gained a larger customer base (Özdemir, 2012: 10). Initially established to provide certain services to customers, the banking sector has now evolved into a sector where it is now compulsory to provide services to target audiences with different qualifications. As in all enterprises operating in the service sector, this situation applies to the banking sector as well, based on the need to increase the level of customer satisfaction by producing the right product and service solutions to various target audiences. The development in technology, diversification of the target audience receiving the services, and complicating competition conditions increased the importance of communication between banks and their customers (İraz et al., 2012: 207). For the banks which had to centralize the customer satisfaction regarding their products and services, the need for public relations units and implementations in managing the communication process with the customers has become a necessity.

2 The Public Relations Need of Banks In today’s globalizing world, increasing competition and changing business world based on consumer demands and expectations in products and services

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

259

have moved the public relations practices to a different dimension (Göksel and Yurdakul, 2002:3). With these developments, public relations activities aimed at preserving and enhancing the reputation of the institution, establishing good relations with the outside world, and gaining trust and support of the public are of higher significance for the banking sector than others (Özdemir, 2012:14). Public Relations which can be defined as pre-determined efforts to establish and sustain relationships based on goodwill and mutual understanding between an organization and its target audiences, is a field of application that is highly needed by the banks, which are the institutions that individuals secure their savings (Jefkins, 1995:7). Efficient public relation practices have become mandatory for banks in order to convince the public and create a reliable image in the face of developing technology, diversifying target audience, and strict competition (İraz et al., 2012:214). Banks are one of the most advanced sectors concerning the public relations practices. The banking sector, which immediately puts into practice the technological developments in order to provide better services to its customers, leads the change in many areas as well. Despite the intensity of public relations practices in the banking sector, the significance of these activities are increasing in each passing day, let alone decreasing (Özdemir, 2012:5). Besides their basic tasks such as research, counseling to senior management, problems and/or early warning before a crisis occurs, and communication (Kalender, 2008:30), the banks, similar to other institutions, need to utilize various public relations practices such as in-house communication, corporate public relations, media relations, inter-agency communication, public works, investor relations, strategic communication, corporate social responsibility, crisis management, event management, sponsorship, corporate identity and image, etc. (Theaker, 2006:21). Previously, banks were using the traditional mass communication tools such as newspapers, magazines, radio, and television, in order to inform their target audiences concerning their public relations activities; with the development of new communication technologies, they now benefit from corporate webpage, social media accounts, and mobile phone applications. Thus, the promotion practices, which were being employed as one-way previously, are now practiced in a two-way communication manner, which has been introduced by the new communication technologies as a support for public relations practices. This allows for faster detection and solution of any problem in service provision arising from internal or external reasons, thus increases the customer satisfaction.

260

Ahmet Tarhan

3 Twitter as a Social Media Tool of Banks for Public Relations Businesses realized the potential of Twitter in introducing products and services to their target audiences and in providing fast and perfect customer services through real-time feedbacks about the products and brand (Weingberg, 2009:126). Microblogging is a new form of communication in which users define their current mood via instant messaging, mobile phones, e-mail, or the web. Since Twitter, which was firstly used by the software engineer Jack Dorsay in October 2006 (Java et al., 2007:56), provides an ability to access and respond to messages in real-time (Newson et al., 2007:56) and it draws attention as a platform that is used by countless institutions. Twitter users use this platform for (1) sharing what is happening in their lives, (2) doing chat, (3) sharing information, and (4) news (Java et al., 2007:62–63). In addition to these purposes, the banks that are operating in the service sector inform their various target audiences about their products and services through their corporate Twitter accounts, and additionally, they determine the demands, complaints, questions, and acclaims in order to follow appropriate public relations policies. Twitter, which provides mutual dialogue opportunities for banks and customers, has a number of unique components. Through these components, it can provide its users with a communication style that is different from traditional mass media.

3.1 Components of Twitter What renders Twitter so popular and what encourages the banks to use it as an efficient tool is, definitely, certain unique technical properties that Twitter provides to the users. These are, Tweet: Twitter’s main goal is to provide the user with an answer for the question “What are you doing?” in 140 characters and less (Weinberg, 2009:125). Some people publish real-time updates about their lives; moreover, it is much more beneficial for marketers in answering questions of other users, and for new contents, offers, and news (Zarrella, 2010:39). The contribution of status updates is great in informing customers about a number of products and services that the banks have recently provided. Retweet: It is also considered as a function used to redirect a Twitter message (Cho and Park, 2012:13). For retweet, in order to copy the message in this application written as an answer to the messages of other users, the user should

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

261

put RT and it should be written in a format like messaging with the original author (Boyd et al., 2010:3). It is an important feature in terms of sharing the positive opinions and assessments of other users with wider audiences in a viral way concerning the products and services the banks provide or the public relations activities they perform. Mention: Conversations on Twitter are performed with “@” answers. When “@ username” is added to a tweet, if the user name is the name of the relevant person, it will appear on the answers tab of that person (Zarrella, 2010:41). It is an important function in conveying the demands, expectations, complaints and questions of the target audiences to the banks, and it is also significant for the responses of relevant institutions to the audiences. It is effective in developing dialogue between banks and their customers. Following stands for the membership of you in other users’ accounts as a person/ institution; Followers represent those who are members of your page on Twitter (Cho and Park, 2012:13). The number of followers is important for banks to announce their products and services to wider audiences. Banks can employ various promotional events and sweepstakes in order to increase the number of their followers. URL usage: When Twitter was launched in 2006, its main goal was to answer the question “What are you doin’?” with 140 characters and less (Weinberg, 2009:125). This limitation was extended to 280 characters in 2017 (https:// www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/teknoloji/twitterda-yeni-donem-basladi-karaktersayisi-artti, 2019). Although doubled, this limitation in the number of characters in the messages rendered the shortened URLS that redirect to the desired website as a central means on Twitter for sharing links. Banks, as well, benefit from the URLs that direct their customers to their corporate web pages to provide more detailed information. Hashtags: There is a “#subject” sign at the beginning of the subjects expressed as hashtags in order to freely create web contents using keywords and to allow users to focus on a specific subject (Boyd et al., 2010:2). This component also enables to categorize tweets (Cho and Park, 2012:13).

3.2 Benefits of Twitter for the Banks Twitter, which is a free microblog service that enables the users to communicate with each other (Weinberg, 2009: 125), provided non-simultaneous communications without any geographical limitations among identified individuals (Boyd et al., 2010: 1).

262

Ahmet Tarhan

Twitter, which enables an interactive communication regardless of any limitations compared to the traditional media, has become an important platform, in which the banks and the customers receiving service express themselves. In addition, the motives of the organizations for benefiting from corporate Twitter accounts can be briefly listed as follows (Van Dijk, 2011:337): — It has a chat and dialogue feature such as a phone call or a short conversation, but not connected to a single person or a web page interface, — It enables cooperation and exchange with certain users, — It makes self-expression and self-communication possible, similar to those on blogs, — It allows for status update and control, — It provides information and news sharing, — It is used for marketing and advertising based on location and area of interest. The benefits presented in the first two items are rather relevant to the development of two-way communication. These features are of great importance for the banks involved in the service sector in establishing and maintaining communication processes with customers based on dialogue. On the other hand, other benefits include features that allow banks to inform the customers about various services and products they offer. The banks will have the chance to inform their target audiences, the contents of which can be created as demanded by the banks through Twitter, about numerous public relations events ranging from press conferences to the sponsorship applications, and at the same time, they will have the opportunity to receive real-time feedbacks from their customers for the events. These abilities will provide important opportunities for banks to implement more effective public relations practices by reconditioning their products and services offered to their customers. Aksak and Duman (2015) conducted a research on new communication technologies to reveal the online presence of Yapı Kredi Bank, İş Bank, Türk Ekonomi Bank, Garanti Bank, Akbank, Vakıflar Bank, Ziraat Bank, and Halk Bank operating in our country. It is observed that most of the banks prefer Twitter for reaching their customers in daily and non-hierarchical communication. However, since private banks adopted an approach based on two-way communication, it was concluded that public banks should also take steps in this direction. Kılıç (2017) examined the Tweeter presence levels of Akbank, Garanti Bank, Halk Bank, Iş Bank, Vakıflar Bank, and Yapı Kredi Bank that are included in the BIST 30. Examining the social media shares in 2016 in terms of advertising,

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

263

public relations, and sales development; it was determined that the majority of the tweets were related to “public relations” activities and the Garanti Bank ranked as the first. It was also determined that the tweets concerning “advertising” ranked as the second, and those related with “Sales development activities” ranked as the third. This finding is important since it reveals that banks benefit from Twitter on a public-relations basis. In the light of the data obtained from the literature, in this study, the questions to be answered are: Research Question 1. How is the distribution of Twitter accounts of the banks? Research Question 2. How are the distributions of numbers of the tweets sent, the institutions or individuals followed, and the followers of the banks on Twitter? Research Question 3. How is the distribution of numbers of messages sent by the banks over the days of the week and over the hours of the day? Research Question 4. How is the distribution of subjects of institutional messages sent to target audiences? Research Question 5. How is the distribution of messaging formats used by the corporate Twitter accounts? Research Question 6. Are corporate Twitter accounts one-way and informative, or are they rather two-way and interactive?

4 Method The population of the research is comprised of 17 banks operating in our country as of February 2019 comprising of three Public Deposit Banks, nine Private Deposit Banks, and five Participation Banks. The sample of the research is comprised of a public bank, a private bank, and a participation bank with the maximum numbers of branches according to the list of bank branches operating in Turkey, which is published by the Banks Association of Turkey and the Participation Banks Association of Turkey as of 18 February 2019. Based on the abovementioned tables and number of branches that provide service for public, the Ziraat Bank, which is operating with 1766 branches; the İş Bank, which is operating with 1346 branches; and the Kuveyt Türk, which is operating with 399 branches in the participation bank category were determined as the sample. In the research, the tweets of three banks, which are operating in Turkey and included into the sample, on their corporate Twitter accounts were taken into consideration between 1 January 2019 and 31 March 2019. A coding scale was created for revealing in which days of the week; in which hours of the day; under which titles the messages were sent; the technical properties of the messages,

264

Ahmet Tarhan

Tab. 1:  Private and Public Deposit Banks Operating in Turkey and Number of Their Branches Banks Public Deposit Banks Ziraat Bank Halk Bank Vakıflar Bank Private Deposit Banks Adabank Akbank Anadolubank Fibabank Şekerbank Turkish Bank Türk Ekonomi Bank İş Bank Yapı and Kredi Bank

Number of Branches Domestic

Foreign

1743 991 947 Domestic 1 780 112 72 273 12 499 1324 853

23 6 3 Foreign 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 22 1

Source: The Banks Association of Turkey, https://www.tbb.org.tr/modules/banka-bilgileri/banka_ sube_bilgileri.asp, 18 February 2019

Tab. 2:  The Participation Banks Operating in Turkey and Number of Their Branches Bank Kuveyt Türk Turkey Finance Albaraka Ziraat Participation Vakıf Participation

Number of Branches 399 306 230 91 80

Source: The Participation Banks Association of Turkey, http://www. tkbb.org.tr/banka-genel-bilgileri#1703, 18 February 2019

whether they were one-way and informative or two-way that focused on the demands, complaints, questions, acclaims, and suggestions; and ultimately they were analyzed through the content analysis method. In the analyses, in order to determine the formal properties of the accounts, issues were examined such as the total number of messages that were sent by the

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

265

three banks operating in our country, the institutions or individuals that they followed, number of their followers, their favorites, and whether the corporate logo is demonstrated on the corporate accounts. The analyses were continued focusing on in which days of the week and in which hours of the day the messages were more frequently sent. Considering the fact that the social media is a tool that can be used after the working hours, investigation of this data is of importance to reveal how effective this tool was used by the banks. Another issue examined in the research was about the contents of the messages shared in the corporate social media accounts of the banks. The messages in their accounts were classified according to their subjects. Moreover, the messages received from the customers were also categorized, and it was separately evaluated whether the banks responded to these messages. Through this analysis, it was attempted to determine whether the Twitter accounts of the banks were used only one-way to inform their customers, or two-way focusing on the demands, complaints, and questions of their customers. This study is significant since it reveals the extent that the banks use the social media, which is efficient in implementing a two-way public relations approach based on dialogue.

5 Findings The findings concerning the content analysis of the corporate Twitter accounts of the banks about their general views, structures, the hours and the days of the messages published, subjects, and technical properties of the shared messages are as follows. Considering the general views of the banks above, it is observed that all of the banks determined as the sample have corporate Twitter accounts. Moreover, it is determined that all three banks have the blue badges that protect the users from fake accounts. It is also observed that, among the banks, the first account was opened by the İş Bank in July 2009 on the Twitter, it was followed by the Ziraat Bank in November 2010, and ultimately Kuveyt Türk opened an account on Twitter in March 2012. The findings concerning the structures of the corporate Twitter accounts of the banks are as follows, as of 24 April, 2019: since their joining dates, the highest number of tweets were sent by the İş Bank among the three banks that were selected as the sample. It was followed by the Ziraat Bank and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank, respectively. The difference in the number of tweets are in line with the order of their Twitter account joining dates.

266

Ahmet Tarhan

Tab. 3:  General Views of Twitter Accounts of the Banks Banks Ziraat Bank İş Bank Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank

General Views of the Twitter Accounts Blue Badge Join Date Corporate Twitter Address Yes November 2010 https://twitter.com/ziraatbankasi Yes July 2009 https://twitter.com/isbankasi Yes March 2012 https://twitter.com/kuveytturk

Tab. 4:  Structures of Twitter Accounts of the Banks Banks

Structures of the Twitter Accounts Tweets Following Followers Favorites

Ziraat Bank 4.072 İş Bank 8.846 Kuveyt Türk 2.016 Participation

10 9 4

353 B 196 B 45 B

2 8 -

Photos or Videos 949 771 1.702

Institutional Logo Yes Yes Yes

Link to the Web Page Yes Yes Yes

When their following activities were examined, it was observed that the Ziraat Bank followed 10 accounts, the İş Bank followed 9 accounts, and the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank followed 4 accounts. Ziraat Bank had the highest number of followers. It outpaced the İş Bank and the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank with 353k followers. This is important since it means that the messages on Twitter reach to higher number of individuals. Although the Twitter is a text-based social platform, the users also benefit from photos and videos in order to attract the attention of their followers. It was determined that Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank used the highest number (1702) of videos and photos since the joining date to Twitter. It was followed by Ziraat Bank with 949 videos and photos, while the last one İş Bank shared 771 videos and photos. It was determined that all three banks included their institutional logos and links of their web pages in their Twitter accounts. This is important since it provides an opportunity for the customers who need to receive detailed information concerning the banks and their services. The total numbers of the messages in the Twitter accounts of the banks in the three-month period is 890. Of these messages, 599 were sent by the corporate account of Ziraat Bank, 203 by İş Bank, and 88 by Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank.

267

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations Tab. 5:  Time Distributions of the Messages in the Twitter Accounts of the Banks

Banks Ziraat Bank İş Bank Kuveyt Türk Participation TOTAL

WITHIN THE WORKING HOURS January February March 42 22 28 15 7 23 7 3 2

AFTER THE WORKING HOURS January February March 258 106 143 67 55 36 20 26 30

TOTAL 599 203 88

64

345

890

32

53

187

209

Accordingly, it can be mentioned that the bank that most efficiently used this social media platform was Ziraat Bank. We can also mention that it was Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank, which benefited the least from this platform. The banks provide services for their customers in their branches in certain working hours. Based on the internet and mobile banking implementations provided by the new communication technologies, this period of time has evolved into 7/24. As per the social media, it also transformed the format of the communication between the bank and the customer into 7/24. Therefore, whether the messages were sent within the working hours is an important indicator revealing whether this feature of the social media is sufficiently used. It was determined that, among the 890 messages that were analyzed through the content analysis method, 741 were sent and received after the working hours and 149 were sent during the working hours. This is important since it demonstrates that the banks, which are in the service sector and puts the customer satisfaction into the center, make shares regardless of the working hours, and at the same time, it demonstrates that Twitter is an active communication platform for the customers receiving the service from the bank. It is the subject of further studies whether the messages in the corporate social media accounts of banks were concentrated in the weekdays or weekends. Accordingly, it was determined that the messages in the social media accounts of the three banks were mostly sent and received in the weekdays. Among the analyzed 890 messages, it was determined that 626 were sent and received in weekdays and 264 in the weekends. Examining the days and the hours of the messages of the three banks, it was observed that the majority of the messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of the banks were shared in the weekdays and after the working hours during the three-month period.

268

Ahmet Tarhan

Tab. 6:  Daily Distributions of the Messages in Twitter Accounts of the Banks Banks Ziraat Bank İş Bank Kuveyt Türk Participation TOTAL

WEEKDAYS January February March 136 103 137 62 56 50 27 28 27

WEEKEND January February March 164 25 34 20 6 9 1 5

225

184

187

214

32

48

TOTAL 599 203 88 890

Tab. 7:  Subject Distributions of the Messages in Twitter Accounts of Banks Banks and Contents of Messages Fair Exhibition Sponsorship Social Responsibility Commemoration Meeting/Training Campaign Product/Service Award Press Relations Human Resources Celebration Communication Competition Criticism/Complaint Question Answer Demand Acclaim TOTAL

Ziraat Bank 5 4 2 6 13 1 58 4 285 91 80 41 9 599

İş Bank 1 5 6 1 6 10 1 7 2 1 64 11 36 16 36 203

Kuveyt Türk Participation 1 3 3 4 4 5 17 3 1 10 2 5 12 6 7 5 88

TOTAL 6 4 9 9 7 4 17 40 5 58 8 16 3 5 361 108 123 62 45 890

Another subject questioned in the research was whether the content properties and shares of the messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of the three banks were based on one-way communication or two-way communication. This questioning is of importance since it provides an information concerning the

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

269

subjects of the shares and to what extent the interactive communication approach provided by the social media was implemented. As the conclusion of the content analysis, it was observed that the highest value was in the Criticism/Complaint subject. Among the 361 total number of Criticism/Complaint messages, 285 were shared against the Ziraat Bank, 64 against the İş Bank, and 12 against the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank. Based on the service sector they operate in, it is not surprising that the banks received such messages. Examining from the viewpoint of the subject/problem management, the use of social media in such a way can even transform it into an opportunity for the banks. Satisfactory messages given to the customers explaining that the criticisms have been received and relevant service policies will be implemented can be evaluated as an opportunity. The second highest number of shares is comprised of 123 banks answers to their customers about the Criticism/Complaints, Questions, and Demands. Among the 123 answer messages, 80 belonged to the Ziraat Bank, 36 to the İş Bank, and 7 to the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank. Examining the message distributions, it is observed that the numbers of the Criticism/Complaints, Questions, and Demands received by the banks were in line with the numbers of the sent messages. When the distribution of the messages concerning the acclaims of the target audience was examined, it was observed that İş Bank received 36 messages, the highest number of acclaim messages, while Ziraat Bank received 9, and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank received no acclaim messages from its customers. Examining the messages sent by the banks, it was determined that the highest number (58) of messages shared in the Press Relations category was from the Ziraat Bank. These messages of Ziraat Bank were comprised of the daily economy and finance bulletins which were designed to give information to the media and the target audience. Product/Service category provided for customers was the second in the ranking with 40 messages. Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank had 17 messages, Ziraat Bank had 13, and İş Bank had 10 messages. The least number of tweets sent by the banks were the shares that support customers to reach the bank. There were totally three shares in the communication category, two of which were made to the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank and one to the İş Bank. There was no message of Ziraat Bank in this subject. Other categories with the least number of messages were the Exhibition and Meeting/Training categories. Among the four messages sent in the Exhibition category, three were from Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank and one from the İş Bank. There was no messages sent from the Ziraat Bank in this category. There were four messages in the Meeting/Training category, all of which were from

270

Ahmet Tarhan

Tab. 8:  Technical Properties of the Messages in the Bank Twitter Accounts Banks

Hashtag

Mention

Video

Photograph Retweet

72 22 98

Use of Ural 71 18 37

Ziraat Bank İş Bank Kuveyt Türk Participation TOTAL

11 -

10 17 33

25 23 26

63 1 1

192

126

11

60

74

65

Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank. There were no messages sent from the other two banks in this category. Another important subject examined in the research was concerning whether the banks used their corporate Twitter accounts as one-way or two-way based on dialogue. In this context, since the contents of the messages comprised of the Criticism/Complaints, Questions, Demands of customers, and the answers of the banks for them, they were evaluated as two-way. According to this, the total number of messages in this category was 699, which accounts for 78.5 % of the messages shared. Examining these messages shared in the three-month period, it can be mentioned that banks use their corporate Twitter accounts rather for improving the two-way communication and opening dialogue channels. Examining the messages sent from the corporate Twitter accounts of the banks, the highest number of two-way messages belonged to the Ziraat Bank (506; 84.4 %). It was followed by the İş Bank (163; 80.2 %) and the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank (30; 34.09 %). It was determined that Ziraat Bank and İş Bank, which are operating in the service sector, benefited from this tool in similar figures, it is suggested that Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank should also adopt a policy that will encourage its customers in this manner. The findings concerning the technical properties in the corporate Twitter accounts of the three banks that were analyzed through the content analysis method are as follows: it is observed that the banks include hashtags encouraging their customers to send messages. Among the contents shared by the banks, Kuveyt Türk Bank is the first with 98 hashtags. It was followed by the Ziraat Bank with 72 hashtags, and İş Bank with 22 hashtags. It is an accurate policy for the Kuwait Türk Participation Bank, which was outpaced by the other two in two-way communication level; however, it is not sufficient. It is suggested that it should make efforts encouraging its customers, and in general, its target audience to actively share messages in their Twitter accounts.

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

271

Since Twitter has a limitation in the number of characters, the institutions using this platform have to use the URL. The details that cannot be included in the messages are presented to the customers through the URLs. According to this, Ziraat Bank used 71 URLs in its messages, Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank used 37 URLs, and İş Bank used 18 URLs. The use of mention is preferred when it is needed to send the messages directly to the relevant individual and displayed on the page. It was observed that İş Bank used 11 mentions in its messages, while the other two banks did not use this in their tweets. Sharing videos and photos is another way to draw the attention of the target audience on Twitter, which is a text-based social medium. In this context, among the 60 total number of videos shared, 33 belonged to the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank, 17 belonged to the İş Bank, and 10 belonged to the Ziraat Bank. As per sharing photos, there is a balanced distribution among the banks. There are totally 74 photos: 26 shared by the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank, 25 by the Ziraat Bank, and 23 by the İş Bank. Social media users retweet and thus display on their pages the tweets, which are shared by the followed accounts and compatible with their thoughts, and which they want to share with larger masses. In this context, there were totally 65 retweets. Ziraat Bank shared 63 of them, and the other two retweets were made by the other two banks. Almost all of the retweets of Ziraat Bank were made by the Ziraat Investment account that include data and news about economy.

6 Conclusion Today, the developments in the new communication technologies provide important opportunities for businesses to announce their products and services and to receive feedbacks about them such as wishes, expectations, demands, acclaims, and criticisms of the customers. Banks are the organizations, which are aiming continuity for their customers through their products and services, operating in the service sector. It is of vital importance to determine the expectations of the customers concerning the products and services, and to determine the reasons of, if any, problems. In this process, the role of public relations is vital that will be a bridge between the organization and the public. One of the tools that was created by new communication technologies and widely used in recent years through corporate accounts is the social media. Social media has become an indispensable platform for the public relations units

272

Ahmet Tarhan

of banks, since it provides an opportunity to create the content and enables realtime feedbacks about the products and services. From this point of view, in this study, certain data were collected through content analysis method in order to determine to what extent the three banks, that were selected as the sample comprising of a public deposit bank, a private deposit bank, and a participation bank, used the Twitter, the social media tool, as a means of public relations between certain dates. In this context; The first bank joined Twitter was the İş Bank. It was followed by the Ziraat Bank and the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank. The numbers of the messages shared since the date they opened their social media accounts until 24 April, 2019 are compatible with the Twitter joining dates of the banks. The highest number of messages were sent by the İş Bank (8.846), while Ziraat Bank was the second (4.072), and Kuveyt Türk was the last (2.016). It is observed that the banks shared 890 messages in total, between 1 January, 2019 and 31 March, 2019. Among these messages, 599 belonged to the Ziraat Bank, 203 belonged to the İş Bank, and 88 to the Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank. Examining the messages of the banks sent and received in the specified time period, it was observed that the messages of all three banks were concentrated in the weekdays and after the working hours. Examining the contents of the messages in the corporate Twitter accounts of the banks, it is observed that, among the 890 messages, 361 were in the criticism/ complaint category concerning their products, services, and ad videos shared on social media. In its distribution, the Ziraat Bank ranked the first (285 messages), İş Bank was the second (64 messages), and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank was the last (12 messages). Examining the distribution of the efforts of the banks (Criticism/Complaint, Question, Answer, Demand, and Acclaim) for improving two-way dialogue, it was determined that 699 messages out of 890 messages were in this context. This indicates that this medium is efficiently used in order to improve the two-way dialogue. The findings concerning the corporate Twitter accounts of the banks demonstrated that the banks as well as their customers realized the importance of the social media and they are in an effort to efficiently benefit from this platform in explaining themselves. In order to provide two-way and real-time communication opportunities for organizations in the service sector for forming and maintaining their public relations policies, it is important to seek more effective ways to benefit from social media, particularly the target audience should be encouraged to share contents and to make assessments concerning the products and services. To the extent

Social Media Presence of Banks in Public Relations

273

this is provided, it will be possible to meet the demands and expectations of the customers with the products and services to be offered, and a form of communication will be designed focusing on the satisfaction of both parties. There has been significant improvements in the use of social media platforms by both organizations and customers since the social platforms were first emerged. Further studies can be conducted on the innovations experienced in different sectors in the communication formats owing to the use of various social media platforms. Additionally, further studies can be conducted on questioning the extent of the role of the social media in creating public relations policies of organizations.

References Aksak, Emel Özdora ve Duman, Şirin Atakan (2015). The Online Presence of Turkish Banks: Communicating the Softer Side of Corporate Identity, Public Relations Review, 41, 119–128, Boyd, Danah; Golder, Scott ve Lotan, Gilad (2010). Tweet, Tweet, Retweet: Conversational Aspects of Retweeting on Twitter, Proceedings of the 43rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, IEEE Computer Society, USA, 1–10. Cho, Seong Eun ve Park, Han Woo (2012). Government Organizations’ Innovative Use of the Internet: The Case of the Twitter Activity of South Korea’s Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Scientometrics, 90, 9–23. Göksel, Ahmet Bülent ve Yurdakul, Nilay Başok (2002). Temel Halkla İlişkiler Bilgileri, Ege Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi, İzmir, Yayın No. 15. https://twitter.com/isbankasi. Access date: 24.04.2019 https://twitter.com/kuveytturk. Access date: 24.04.2019 https://twitter.com/ziraatbankasi. Access date: 24.04.2019 https://www.ntv.com.tr/galeri/teknoloji/twitterda-yeni-donembasladi-karakter-sayisi-artti,tJL9EozDfEOJNy-G3s8Krw/ pBQBGRs7YECsIXAxYTw5FA#pBQB GRs7YECs IXAxYTw5FA, Access date: 15.05.2019. İraz, Rıfat; Çetin, Sefa ve Karakoyun, Behice Ebru (2012). Bankalarda Halkla İlişkiler Faaliyetlerinin Performansa Etkisi ve Bir Uygulama, SÜ İİBF Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 12(23), 201–240. Java, Akshay; Song, Xiaodan; Finin, Tim ve Tseng, Belle (2007). Why we Twitter: Understanding Microblogging Usage and Communities, Proceedings of the 9th WebKDD and 1st SNA-KDD Workshop on

274

Ahmet Tarhan

Web Mining and Social Network Analysis, ACM Digital Library, New York, 56–65. Jefkins, Frank (1995). Public Relations Tecniques, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Kalender, Ahmet (2008). Halkla İlişkiler: Kavramlar, Tanımlar ve Uygulama Alanları, Ahmet Kalender ve Mehmet Fidan (Eds), Halkla İlişkiler, Tablet Yayınları, Konya, 11–47. Kazancı, Metin (2013). Kamuda ve Özel Kesimde Halkla İlişkiler, Turan Kitabevi, Ankara. Kılıç, Hicran Özgüner (2017). Bist 30’da Yer Alan Bankaların Pazarlama İletişiminde Twitter Kullanımının Analizi, İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(6), 302–313. Newson, Alex, Houghton, Deryck and Patten, Justin (2009). Blogging and Other Social Media: Exploiting the Technology and Protecting the Enterprise, Gower Publishing Limited, Cornwell. Özdemir, İlker (2012). Bankacılıkta Halkla İlişkiler ve Müşteri İlişkileri, BSAD Bankacılık ve Sigortacılık Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(3–4), 4–15. Peltekoğlu, Filiz Balta (2004). Halkla İlişikler Nedir, Beta Yayınları, İstanbul. Theaker, Alison (2006). Halkla İlişkilerin El Kitabı, Murat Yaz (çev), MediaCat Kitapları, İstanbul. Thoring, Anne (2011). Corporate Tweeting: Analysing the Use of Twitter as a Marketing Tool by UK Trade Publishers, Pub Res Q, 27, 141–158. Türkiye Bankalar Birliği, https://www.tbb.org.tr/modules/banka-bilgileri/ banka_ sube_bilgileri.asp, Access date: 18.02.2019. Türkiye Katılım Bankaları Birliği, http://www.tkbb.org.tr/banka-genelbilgileri#1703, Access date: 18.02.2019. van Dijk, José (2011). Tracing Twitter: The Rise of a Microblogging Platform, International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics, 7(3), 333–348. Weinberg, Tamar (2009). The New Community Rules: Marketing on the Social Web, O’Reilly Media, Inc., Sebastopol. Yavuz, A. Necati (1972). Bankacılıkta Halkla İlişkiler, Türkiye Emlak Kredi A.O. Yayın No: 6, Atak Matbaası, İstanbul. Zarrella, Dan (2010). The Social Media Marketing, O’Reilly Media, Inc., Sebastopol.

List of Figures Ercan Aktan Social Media Interaction and Digital Public Relations: The Example of Turkish Green Crescent Society Fig. 1: The Image of Green Crescent Society’s World Smoking Cessation Day Astronaut Campaign. Source: https://twitter.com/1920yesilay. ������ 25 Duygu Aydin, Mehmet Safa Çam Data Storytelling and Digital Visualization Fig. 1:  Components of Data Storytelling. Source: Dykes, 2016, https://www.forbes.com ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  41 Fig. 2:  Ulker’s Environmental Sustainability Report. Source: http:// www.surdurulebilirlik.ulker.com.tr/ ������������������������������������������������������  44 Fig. 3:  Sabancı Holding Annual Report. Source: https:// yatirimciiliskileri.sabanci.com/tr/faaliyet-raporlari ����������������������������  46 Fig. 4:  Toyota’s Historical Chart. Source: https://global.toyota/en/ company/trajectory-of-toyota/history/ �������������������������������������������������  47 Fig. 5:  AFAD Infographic Designs. Source: https://www.afad.gov.tr/ tr/13016/Infografik/grafik/27167 �����������������������������������������������������������  48 Fig. 6:  Turkcell’s Partitioned Poster. Source: https://medya.turkcell. com.tr/infographics/rakamlarla-turkcell-teknoloji-zirvesi-2016/ �����  49 Şekil 7: TAYSAD Partitioned Poster. Source: http://www.taysadmag. com/infografik ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  50 Fig. 8:  Sütaş’s Cartoon-Format Data Communication. Source: https:// www.sutas.com.tr/uploads/images/sutas-surdurulebilirlikraporu-2017.pdf ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  51 Fig. 9:  Happiness Cycle Animation Video of Ulker. Source: http:// www.surdurulebilirlik.ulker.com.tr/ ������������������������������������������������������  52 B. Oğuz Aydın, Ceren Yegen A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday Fig. 1: Communication Level among the Clusters ��������������������������������������������  71

List of Tables B. Oğuz Aydın, Ceren Yegen A Current and Capitalist Consumption Myth: Black Friday Tab. 1: Hubs and Account Descriptions ...............................................................  72 Tab. 2: Hyperlinks, Mentioned Users, and Hashtags ..........................................  74 Özlem Duğan Examining E-Complaints against Airline Companies in Terms of Public Relations Tab. 1:  2019 (May) Statistics of the Sikayetvar Platform ..................................  117 Tab. 2:  Distribution of the Causes of the Complaints against the Companies .... 118 Tab. 3:  The Response/Feedback Status of the Complaints ...............................  126 Mustafa Güngör The Use of New Media for Digital Public Relations: The Case of Konya Universities Tab. 1:  Social Media Account Activities of Selçuk University in May ............  142 Tab. 2:  Social Media Account Activities of KTO Karatay University in May ...... 143 Tab. 3: Social Media Account Activities of Necmettin Erbakan University in May .....................................................................................  144 Tab. 4: Social Media Account Activities of Konya Food and Agriculture University in May ................................................................  145 Tab. 5: Social Media Account Activities of Konya Technical University in May .........................................................................................................  146 Tab. 6:  Twitter Account Activities of All Universities in Konya in May ........  147 Tab. 7:  Facebook Account Activities of All Universities in Konya in May ....  147 Tab. 8:  Types of the Twitter Posts of the Universities in May ..........................  148 Tab. 9:  Types of the Facebook Posts of the Universities in May ......................  148 Salih Gürbüz The Use of Digital Storytelling as a Public Relations Tool for Corporate Reputation: The Sample of Tat Gida Farmer Stories Tab. 1:  Corporate Personality Scale’s Dimensions ............................................  167 Aydın Karabulut Independent and Nonverbal Postmodern Relationship Forms in the Network Age Tab. 1:  Identification of the Fi series ...................................................................  198

278

List of Tables

Deniz Özer Organizations’ Use of Social Media from the Perspective of Dialogical Communication and Marketing-Oriented Public Relations Tab. 1: The Relationship between Dialogic Principles and Social Media (Source: Yağmurlu, 2013: 102) ................................................................  222 Tab. 2: Dialogic Features and Social Media Examination Subjects (Source: Yağmurlu, 2013: 102) ................................................................  224 Tab. 3:  Dialogic Principles Analysis-Dialogic Cycle. ........................................  226 Tab. 4: The Subject Distribution of the Contents Shared According to the Usefulness of Information Principle ................................................  226 Tab. 5: Social Media Shares of the Organization Concerning Marketing-Oriented Public Relations ....................................................  228 Tab. 6: Dialogical Principles and the Social Media Practices of the Organization Concerning Marketing-Oriented Public Relations ......  230 Şakire Özkan, Birgül Taşdelen How Twitter Was Used during the 2018 Presidential Election by the Candidates in Turkey Image Creation in the Context of Dramaturgy Theory Tab. 1:   Political Candidates ................................................................................  244 Tab. 2:   Candidates/Publication Date (f) ..........................................................  245 Tab. 3:   Candidate/Tweet Attribute Relationship (f) .......................................  246 Tab. 4:   Candidate/Tweet Type (f) .....................................................................  247 Tab. 5:   Candidate/Dialogue Relations ..............................................................  247 Tab. 6:   Candidate/Language-Expression relation (f) .....................................  247 Tab. 7:   Candidate/Tweet Style (f) ......................................................................  248 Tab. 8:   Candidate/Visual Number Relation (f) ...............................................  249 Tab. 9:   Candidate/Visual Attribute Relationship (f) ......................................  249 Tab. 10:  Alignment of Visual Material with Content .......................................  250 Tab. 11:  The Most Common Content of the Candidates (f) ............................  251 Tab. 12:  Profiles Used by Politicians ...................................................................  252 Ahmet Tarhan Social Media Presence of Banks in Terms of Public Relations: The Example of Ziraat Bank, Iş Bank, and Kuveyt Türk Participation Bank Tab. 1: Private and Public Deposit Banks Operating in Turkey and Number of Their Branches ......................................................................  264 Tab. 2: The Participation Banks Operating in Turkey and Number of Their Branches ..........................................................................................  264 Tab. 3:  General Views of Twitter Accounts of the Banks .................................  266 Tab. 4:  Structures of Twitter Accounts of the Banks .........................................  266

List of Tables

279

Tab. 5: Time Distributions of the Messages in the Twitter Accounts of the Banks ....................................................................................................  267 Tab. 6: Daily Distributions of the Messages in Twitter Accounts of the Banks ..........................................................................................................  268 Tab. 7: Subject Distributions of the Messages in Twitter Accounts of Banks ......................................................................................................  268 Tab. 8:  Technical Properties of the Messages in the Bank Twitter Accounts ..................................................................................................................  270

Authors Ercan Aktan Ercan Aktan was born in Karabük. He graduated from Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Public Relations and Publicity. He worked as a lecturer in Public Relations and Publicity Program of Aksaray University Social Sciences Vocational School. He is married with two sons. He works as an associate professor in Public Relations and Advertising Department of Aksaray University Faculty of Communication. He has academic studies on social media, new media, social anxiety and social media, cyber bullying, public relations and advertising in social media, and corporate image and leadership. Bayram Oğuz Aydın Bayram Oğuz Aydın graduated from Anadolu University, Faculty of Economics, Public Administration department in 2007. He has completed his doctoral studies in Selçuk University Faculty of Communication Department of Public Relations and Publicity. His PhD dissertation focused upon electronic wordof-mouth (2014). He is currently working on online communities, education in public relations, online reputation management, and crisis management. B. Oğuz Aydın is Associate Professor at the Department of Public Relations and Publicity, Faculty of Communication, Gaziantep University. Duygu Aydın Duygu Aydın graduated from Selçuk University Faculty of Communication in 2002. She started her academic career in 2004. She received doctoral degree in advertising department in 2010 and became Associate Professor in 2015. Aydın teaches courses in the fields of Advertising and Consumer Behavior, currently works as a faculty member in the Advertising Department of Selçuk University. Yasin Bulduklu Yasin Bulduklu is Associate Professor of Department of Media and Communication at Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Katip Çelebi University. His research interests include health communication, communication management in health, health publications in mass media, and image management. He has many published books and articles. His published books are Health Communication, Communication with Patients, Mass Communication Theories, Approaches in Image Management, and Tactics and Strategies.

282

Authors

Mehmet Safa Çam Mehmet Safa Çam was born in Ankara in 1982, completed his primary, secondary, and high school education in Konya. He graduated from Anadolu University, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Department of Advertising and Public Relations in 2006. Later on, he worked in various private and public institutions for seven years. He started his academic career in 2013 as a lecturer at Aksaray University. In 2015, he completed his master’s degree in Ankara University, Public Relations and Publicity Department and took his doctorate from Selçuk University, Advertising Department in 2019. He is currently teaching as a lecturer in Vocational School of Social Sciences at Aksaray University. Özlem Duğan Özlem Duğan was born in Kayseri in 1980, graduated in 1998 from Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism. She worked as a correspondent in Konya Doğan News Agency between 2002 and 2006, and worked in Selçuk University between 2007 and 2015. She took her master’s degree in Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Public Relations and Publicity. She received her doctoral degree in the same faculty in 2015. Since 2015, she has been teaching as Assistant Professor in Uşak University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Public Relations and Advertising. She has academic studies on crisis communication, public relations training, public relations authorship, health relations, and she has articles published in national and international publications. Mustafa Güngör Mustafa Güngör was born in Konya in 1989, completed his primary, secondary, and high school education in Konya. He graduated from Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema in 2011. He worked KONTV, which is the regional television of Konya, between 2008 and 2015. Later on, he worked at Necmettin Erbakan University Department of Public Relation and Press, between 2015 and 2017. In 2016, he completed his master’s degree in Selçuk University, Social Sciences Institute Department of Radio, Television and Cinema. He started doctorate at Selçuk University, Social Sciences Institute Department of Radio, Television and Cinema in 2017. He has been working as a teaching assistant at Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Cinema and TV, since 2017. Salih Gürbüz Salih Gürbüz was born in Konya, Turkey. He graduated from the English Teaching Department of Anadolu University in 2006. He received his master’s from Selçuk

Authors

283

University Institute of Social Sciences in Public Relations and Publicity in 2010 and completed his doctoral studies at Selçuk University in the same subject in 2016. His PhD dissertation focused on corporate image. He is actively teaching as Assistant Professor in Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Department of Cinema-TV. He is also head of the Cinema TV department. He is maintaining his academic studies on new media, political communication, image, corporate image, and semiology. He has also been a radio personality since 2004. He has been hosting his programs about communication, education, public life, and urban affairs. He has been writing for local and national newspapers as a columnist and shooting short-movies. Aydın Karabulut Aydın Karabulut was born in Elazığ, Turkey. He graduated from the Informatics Technology of in 2003. He received his master’s from Fırat University Institute of Social Sciences in 2009 and completed his doctoral studies at Atatürk University in the same subject in 2018. His PhD dissertation focused on Nietzsche and postmodern media culture. He is actively teaching as Assistant Professor in Gaziantep University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism. He is also a graphic designer. He is maintaining his academic studies on new media, media philosophy, and sociology. Deniz Özer Deniz Özer was born in Samsun. She graduated from Selçuk University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Public Relations and Publicity in 2009. She started to work as a research assistant at Fırat University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Public Relations and Publicity in 2009. She completed her master’s degree at Fırat University, Institute of Social Sciences in Department of Communication Science in 2011. In 2016, she completed her PhD at Selçuk University Institute of Social Sciences Department of Public Relations and Publicity. She is currently working at Ondokuz Mayıs University Faculty of Communication Department of Public Relations and Publicity as Assistant Professor. She has academic studies on public relations and communication studies. She teaches on public relations, copywriting, marketing, and new media. Şakire Özkan Şakire Özkan graduated from the Department of Public Relations and Publicity of the Faculty of Communication at Gümüşhane University. She is studying for a master’s degree at Gümüşhane University Institute of Social Sciences and her thesis is on “The Image of X, Y and Z Generations That Has Created by Instagram and Facebook”. She studies in the fields of social media, advertising, and image.

284

Authors

Ahmet Tarhan Ahmet Tarhan (PhD, Selçuk University) is Associate Professor of Public Relations and Publicity at Faculty of Communication in Selçuk University. His research interests include public relations, publicity, political communication, new communication technology in public relations, and social media. He has many published books and articles. His published books are Public Relations in Government and E-Government Applications, Media and Political Participation, and Public Relations in Municipalities and Citizen Perceptions. Birgül Taşdelen She graduated from Anadolu University, Faculty of Communication, Cinema and Television. She has completed her master’s degree at Selçuk University Institute of Social Sciences in Radio, Television and Cinema and completed her doctoral studies at Anadolu University Institute of Social Sciences in Cinema and Television. She is actively teaching as Assistant Professor in Gümüşhane University, Faculty of Communication, Department of Radio, Television and Cinema. She has published articles in various national and international journals, proclamations published in various congresses, chapters in social media, and television themed books. She works on social media, health communication, and television Ceren Yegen She is an Associate Professor at Mersin University in Turkey. She graduated from Girne American University (GAU) Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism and Broadcasting and completed her master’s degree and doctorate at Gazi University Social Sciences Institute, Journalism Department. She has many articles in various national and international journals. She also has chapters in new media– and political communication–themed books. Her research interests include nationalism, political communication, new media and journalism.