Nysa-Scythopolis: The Southern and Severan Theaters. The Stratigraphy and finds 9789654065962, 9654065967

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Aerial view of the theater (photographer, D. Silverman); northeastern section of the theater scaena (photographer, G. Laron).

The civic center, view to the northwest (photographer, D. Silverman); aerial view of the civic center (photographer, G. Laron).

IAA Reports, No. 58/1 bet she’an archaeological project 1986–2002 Bet SHE’an III, Part 1

nysa-scythopolis: the Southern and severan theaters Part 1: The Stratigraphy and Finds gabriel mazor and Walid Atrash

With Contributions by Marc Balouka, Lawrence Belkin, Ariel Berman, Avi Katzin, Tania Meltsen, Débora Sandhaus, Tali Sharvit and Tamar Winter

ISRAEL ANTIQUITIES AUTHORITY JERUSALEM 2015

Bet She’an Archaeological Project Publications Israel Antiquities Authority

IAA EXPEDITION DIRECTORS: RACHEL BAR-NATHAN GABRIEL MAZOR

VOL. III: NYSA-SCYTHOPOLIS: THE SOUTHERN AND SEVERAN THEATERS Part 1: The stratigraphy and finds

IAA Reports Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority Editor-in-Chief: Judith Ben-Michael Series Editor: Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz Volume Editor: Shelley Sadeh

Front Cover: Aerial view, looking southeast (photographer: G. Laron) Back Cover: Severan Theater scaenae frons (T. Meltsen) Frontispiece: G. Laron, D. Silverman Typesetting, Layout and Cover Design: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Production: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Illustrations: Tania Meltsen, Natalia Zak, Irina Berin Printing: Art Plus Ltd., Jerusalem Copyright © 2015, The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem POB 586, Jerusalem, 91004 ISBN eISBN 9789654065962 ~www.antiquities.org.il

In Memoriam

Amir Drori, 1937–2005 Founder and First Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority (1989–2000) Foremost Supporter of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project

Contents

PART 1: THE STRATIGRAPHY AND FINDS (IAA Reports 58/1) ABBREVIATIONS

vi

PREFACE

ix

THE BET SHE’AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT CHRONOLOGICAL CHART

xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

1

CHAPTER 2: THE SOUTHERN THEATER

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

9

CHAPTER 3: THE SEVERAN THEATER

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

21

CHAPTER 4: THE POTTERY

Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

189

CHAPTER 5: THE GLASS FINDS

Tamar Winter

207

CHAPTER 6: THE COINS

Ariel Berman

229

CHAPTER 7: ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS AND PROPOSED RECONSTRUCTION

Walid Atrash

273

CHAPTER 8: RECONSTRUCTION WORK IN THE SEVERAN THEATER

Lawrence Belkin and Avi Katzin

349

CHAPTER 9: THE ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS Appendix 9.1: List of the Architectural Elements

Gabriel Mazor

371 583

CHAPTER 10: THREE MARBLE STATUES FROM THE SEVERAN THEATER

Tali Sharvit

613

PART 2: THE ARCHITECTURE (IAA Reports 58/2)

APPENDIX 1: LIST OF LOCI AND BASKETS

625

vi

Abbreviations

AA AAS AASOR ABSA ACOR ADAJ AJA AnatSt ANES ANRW AS ‘Atiqot (ES) ‘Atiqot (HS) BAR Int. S. BASOR BCH Bet She’an I Bet She’an II BJ BMB BSOAS CAH DaM DOP ESI HA HA–ESI IAA Reports IEJ INJ IstForsch IstMitt JBL

Archaölogischer Anzeiger Les annales archéologiques arabes de la Syrie 1951–1965 Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research Annual of the British School at Athens American Center of Oriental Research Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan American Journal of Archaeology Anatolian Studies Ancient Near Eastern Studies Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt Assyriological Studies English Series Hebrew Series British Archaeological Reports (International Series) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Bulletin de correspondance hellénique G. Mazor and A. Najjar. Bet She’an I: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Caesareum and the Odeum (IAA Reports 33). Jerusalem 2007 R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash. Bet She’an II: Baysān: The Theater Pottery Workshop (IAA Reports 48). Jerusalem 2011 Bonner Jahrbücher Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Cambridge Ancient History Damaszener Mitteilungen Dumbarton Oaks Papers Excavations and Surveys in Israel Hadashot Arkheologiyot (Hebrew) Hadashot Arkheologiyot–Excavations and Survey in Israel Israel Antiquities Authority Reports Israel Exploration Journal Israel Numismatic Journal Istanbuler Forschungen Istanbular Mitteilungen Journal of Biblical Literature

vii JDAI JEA JGS JRA JRS JSP LA LIMC MA MAAR MDAIR MEFRA NEAEHL 5 OCD OIP Öjh PBSR PEFQSt PEQ PUAES PWRE QDAP RB SBF SCI SHAJ ZDPV ZPE

Jahrbuch des deutschen archäologischen Instituts Journal of Egyptian Archaeology Journal of Glass Studies Journal of Roman Archaeology Journal of Roman Studies Judea & Samaria Publications Liber Annuus Lexicon iconographicum mythologiae classicae Mediterranean Archaeology Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome Mitteilungen des deutschen archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung Mélanges de l’École française de Rome, Antiquité E. Stern ed. The New Encyclopedia of the Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 5: Supplementary Volume. Jerusalem 2008 S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford 1996 Oriental Institute Publications Jahreshefte des österreichischen archäologischen Instituts in Wien Papers of the British School at Rome Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement Palestine Exploration Quarterly Publications of the Princeton University Archaeological Expedition to Syria Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der classichen Altertumswissenschaft Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine Revue Biblique Studium Biblicum Franciscanum Scripta Classica Israelica Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins Zeitschrift fϋr Papyrologie und Epigraphik

Abbreviations Used in This Volume IAA Israel Antiquities Authority IAHU Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem IDAM Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums UME University (of Pennsylvania) Museum Expedition

ix

Preface

Following the conquest of the East by Alexander the Great, about 30 Greek poleis were founded in Coele Syria by the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties (although for some of them Alexander the Great was referred to as the founder or ktistes). First established as military strongholds and administrative centers, and later refounded as Greek poleis, they became the predominant vehicles by which Greek culture was gradually spread throughout the Hellenized East. Despite relatively wide-scale excavations conducted in most Hellenic cities of the Decapolis, none of them revealed a theater of the Hellenistic period. Edmond Frézouls (1961:68) reached the conclusion that the Hellenic cities in the East, which later became part of the Roman Empire’s eastern provinces, were not truly acquainted with the Greek theater culture (Frézouls 1952a; 1952b; 1959; 1961; 1982). Gideon Fuks, in his work published prior to the wide-scale excavations at Nysa-Scythopolis (Fuks 1983:123–124), suggested that this city might have set a notable exception. It was known to have been founded by Dionysus (Lifshitz 1970:62, n. 3; Di Segni, Foerster and Tsafrir 1996:345– 348), whose cult was strongly associated with the theater culture (Frézouls 1961:68). However, the excavations of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) expedition, conducted in 1986–2002 on behalf of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project at Tel Iztabba, the location of Hellenistic Nysa-Scythopolis, proved otherwise. No clear evidence for the existence of a theater was anywhere revealed (Bar-Nathan and Mazor 1994; for a review of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project, see Bet She’an I). Evidence obtained from seal impressions found during the excavations of Tel Iztabba (Mazor, Sandhaus and Finkielsztejn, in prep.) indicates that the cult of Dionysus, the divine founder of the city, was practiced at Nysa-Scythopolis as early as the Hellenistic period. Its significance at Roman Scythopolis is clearly demonstrated by a number of inscriptions (Di Segni 1997) and the presence of three theaters within the

city’s civic center. The Northern Theater, located in front of a spacious piazza at the foot of Tel Bet She’an, was partly excavated in various probes by the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University (IAHU) expedition, the results of which have not yet been published (Atrash 2006). The Southern and Severan theaters, the subjects of the current volume, were excavated and researched by the IAA expedition. The Southern Theater was identified during the excavations of the Severan Theater, and is reported here for the first time (see below). The Severan Theater was first surveyed, described and precisely located on the map of the Survey of Western Palestine (SWP), drawn by the team of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) in April 1874. Claude Conder and Herbert Kitchener (1882 II:106–107) considered the theater to be “the best preserved specimen of Roman work in western Palestine.” Remarkable features of the theater’s cavea, according to Conder’s description, were the oval recesses half way up the cavea (drawn by Condor, see Condor and Kitchener 1882 II: figure on p. 107). They had been previously observed by William Bankes in 1818, who included them in his relatively accurate plan of the theater (see Segal 1999:51–52, n. 80, Fig. 52), and referred to in other survey reports of the site (Irby and Mangles 1823:301–303; Robinson 1856:326–332; Gúerin 1874:284–298). The Severan Theater was first excavated by Shimon Applebaum on behalf of the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums (IDAM, now the IAA) during the years 1960–1961 (Applebaum 1960; 1961; 1962a; 1962b; 1963:380–383; 1971; 1978:77–97; Applebaum, Isaac and Landau 1978:139–140, n. 13), then again by Avraham Negev in 1962 (Negev 1963). Apart from some brief preliminary reports by Applebaum, no comprehensive, let alone final, report of the excavations was published. Applebaum briefly referred to a full-sized marble statue (Applebaum 1978:96–97), as well as an inscription from the theater (Applebaum, Isaac and Landau 1978). Negev cited

x several inscriptions in a letter to the director of the IDAM (Applebaum 1965:2). A later article briefly discussed the unique acoustic cells (Ovadiah and Gomez de Silva 1981–1982) that were found in the theater. The wide-scale excavations conducted in the Roman city’s civic center during the years 1986–2002 by the IAA expedition, on behalf of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project, resumed the excavations of this theater, which was largely exposed by Applebaum, and which was now fully exposed and researched. An earlier theater, erected in two construction phases, was discovered below the later Severan Theater. As it was buried below the Severan Theater and no continuation was observed between the two, they are dealt with as two separate theaters. In the present report, the earlier theater is termed the ‘Southern Theater’, as opposed to the contemporary Northern Theater, while the later one built over it is termed the ‘Severan Theater’, as it was built during the reign of the Severan Dynasty. During and after the IAA excavations, consolidation work was conducted in the Severan Theater by the IAA preservation team, first directed by Alon BenZvi and later by Evgeny Ivanovsky. Following the consolidation, wide-scale restoration works were undertaken in the aditus maximi, the scaena, the northeastern section of the scaenae frons, the nearby section of the media cavea and its praecinctio, several vomitoria and the theater’s circumference wall, all supervised by the architects Lawrence Belkin and Avi Katzin, who have contributed a chapter to the current report summarizing the consolidation and reconstruction works and their fundamental guidelines (see Chapter 8). The IAA Expedition of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project The staff of the IAA expedition, directed by Gabriel Mazor and Rachel Bar-Nathan, included the following members: Field Supervisors: Walid Atrash (theaters), Jacob Harel, Arfan Najjar, Menahem Arazi, May Gordon and Anat Achiav. Assistant Supervisors: Laura B. Mazow, Eyal Baruch, Wahib Daud, Yael Gorin-Rosen, Yael Kadosh (theaters) and Ilan Pahima. Surveyors: Dan Bahar, Roni Saban, Beni Arubas and Tania Meltsen (plans and figures of theater publication). Photography: Gabriel Laron and Yoram Lahman.

Architectural Elements Recording: Edna Amos, Sara Shor and Tania Meltsen. Pottery Analyses: Mark Balouka, Smadar Shapira, Naomi Amit and Debora Sandhaus. Pottery Drawing: Irina Ledisky-Reznikov. Pottery Restoration: Boris Kats, Frida Raskin and Moshe Ben-Ari. Numismatics: Ariel Berman and Haim Gitler. Metal Laboratory: Ella Altmark. Glass Artifact Analysis: Yael Gorin-Rosen and Tamar Winter. Mosaic Floor Recording: Tamar Shadmy. Epigraphy: Vassilios Tzaferis and Lea Di Segni. Architects: Amnon Bar-Or, Lawrence Belkin, Giora Solar, Peter Bogut, Avi Kazin, Max Tan’ee and Marcel Lubash. Engineers: Jacob Shefer and Abraham Sevilia. Contractors: Yehuda Davidovitch, Habib Gandur and Talal Omar. Preservation: Yevgeni Ivanovitz and Ilan Pahima. Administration: Menachem Efrony, Eyal Eldar and Ronit Eini. The Publication of the Theaters The completion of the excavation of both the Southern and Severan Theaters was followed by research into their architectural units and numerous architectural elements. This was first conducted by Walid Atrash, Amnon Bar-Or and Edna Amos as part of a comprehensive restoration proposal of the scaenae frons of the Severan Theater (Bar-Or and Atrash 1988; Atrash and Bar–Or 1990; Atrash and Amos 1997), and it was continued with analysis of the theater’s architecture and stratigraphy conducted by Walid Atrash and Gabriel Mazor. In 1997, the IAA expedition was granted full publication rights for the excavations of the Severan Theater conducted by Applebaum and Negev. No records of the 1960–1962 excavation by Applebaum exist, apart from some photographs and a few unrecorded pottery finds and coins, nor were any architectural elements recorded, drawn or analyzed. They were found scattered haphazardly in the area north of the theater’s facade wall. Finds from Negev’s excavation were not located in the IAA storage and were presumably lost. They were not published apart from a short note (Negev 1963).

xi These architectural elements were fully processed, and some were included in the restoration work. This report also integrates the pottery and coins from the 1960–1962 excavations, as best as possible in view of the lack of records, with the results of the latest IAA excavations, in order to present a comprehensive final report of the Southern and Severan Theaters of NysaScythopolis. Other studies of the theater include a partial analysis of the scaenae frons friezes published by Ovadiah and Turnheim (1994), although this does not relate to the Severan Theater’s stratigraphy or chronological stages. A thorough analysis of the Severan Theater’s scaenae frons construction stages and a reconstruction of the Severan Theater were undertaken by Atrash (2003; 2006). The extensive use of the northeastern section of the Severan Theater, mainly its eastern aditus maximus and the piazza in its northeastern corner, as the premises for a large pottery workshop during the Umayyad period, has been studied and published (Bet She’an II). The chronology of the site, as established by the IAA expedition, was published in Bet She’an I and slightly revised in Bet She’an II; it is here further adjusted to incorporate the theaters’ phases (see the Bet She’an Archaeological Project Chronological Chart, p. xiii). For general information concerning the Bet She’an Archaeological Project, its expeditions, excavation results, publication methodology, the historical background and related bibliography, see Bet She’an I. The geographical setting and history of Nysa-Scythopolis related to the excavations results also appear in Mazar et al. 2008: 1616–1644. The present volume, Bet She’an III, the final report of the excavations of the Southern and Severan Theaters, is bound in two parts. Part I includes the introduction (Chapter 1) and the stratigraphy of the Southern Theater (Chapter 2) and the Severan Theater (Chapter 3), based on the current and earlier excavation results. This is followed by the finds from the 1986–1990 seasons (integrating the few finds from the 1960–1962 excavations): pottery (Chapter 4), glass (Chapter 5) and coins (Chapter 6). Part II comprises the architectural analysis of both the Southern and Severan Theaters, their architectural stages and restoration, as well as research methodology and comparanda (Chapter 7), the preservation and reconstruction works conducted in the Severan Theater (Chapter 8), the analysis of all the theaters’ architectural elements

(Chapter 9, with its own appendix) and a presentation of three marble statues recovered in the Severan Theater (Chapter 10). Finally, Appendix 1 presents the list of loci and baskets. The plans and sections, figures and plates are all the fruit of the recent research. All the plans, isometric reconstructions and drawings of the architectural elements were meticulously prepared by Tania Meltsen. The Israel Antiquities Authority, our base and research center, and its directors, have granted support to the Bet She’an Archaeological Project. The late Amir Drori, the founder and first director of the IAA, encouraged and supported the Bet She’an Archaeological Project, referring to it as the IAA flagship. Thanks are also due to the late Shuka Dorfman, his successor, for dedicating the Beth She’an Archaeological Project final publications to him. We are thankful to Arthur Segal, who read the manuscript and whose valuable scholarly remarks contributed considerably to the research of both theaters, and to Donald T. Ariel, who greatly aided in the publication of the coins. Thanks are also due to the IAA publication department: to the editor-in-chief, Judith Ben-Michael, to the series editor, Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, to the volume editor, Shelley Sadeh, and to the publication-office staff. Last but not least, to Tania Meltsen, whose skills and patience perfected all the drawings of the reconstructions, plans, sections, and architectural elements for the final report, and to Gabi Laron for his superb photography. The excavations of both the Southern and Severan Theaters conducted by the IAA expedition followed the monumental work conducted by Shimon Applebaum in the Severan Theater, in whose footsteps we were honored to follow. Our research integrates material that he generously donated and discussed with us, as well as further material that was later donated by his family, after he regretfully passed away. Although the excavation and research of the theater were completed years after it was first revealed by Applebaum, we were always inspired by his archaeological knowledge and experience. We wish this publication to stand as a tribute to his pioneering archaeological work at NysaScythopolis.

G. Mazor and W. Atrash Jerusalem 2015

xii R eferences Applebaum S. 1960. A Letter to the General Director of the Israel Antiquity Department (IAA Archive). Jerusalem. Applebaum S. 1961. A letter to the General Director of the Israel Antiquity Department (IAA Archive). Jerusalem. Applebaum S. 1962a. Chronique archéologique: Bet Shean. RB 69:408–410. Applebaum S. 1962b. The Roman Theatre of Beth-Shean. In The Beth Shean Valley: The 17th Archaeological Convention. Jerusalem. Pp. 71–73 (Hebrew). Applebaum S. 1963. Where Saul and Jonathan Perished: Beth Shean in Israel. The Roman Theatre Revealed and a Greek Statue Discovered. Illustrated London News March 16, 1963:380–388. Applebaum S. 1965. A Letter to the General Director of the Israel Antiquity Department (IAA Archive). Jerusalem. Applebaum S. 1971. A Greek Statue from Beth-Shean. Museum Haaretz Bulletin 13:11–13 (Hebrew). Applebaum S. 1978. The Roman Theatre of Scythopolis. SCI 4:77–103. Applebaum S., Isaac B. and Landau Y.H. 1978. Varia Epigraphica. SCI 4:139–140. Atrash W. 2003. The Scaena Frons of the Roman Theatre in Scythopolis (Bet She’an): Architectural Analysis and Reconstruction. M.A. thesis. University of Haifa. Haifa (Hebrew). Atrash W. 2006. Entertainment Structures in the Civic Center of Nysa-Scythopolis (Beth-She’an) during the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Ph.D. diss. University of Haifa. Haifa (Hebrew). Atrash W. and Amos E. 1997. The Roman Theater Scaena Frons: Third Interim Report (IAA Internal Report). Bet She’an (Hebrew). Atrash W. and Bar-Or A. 1990. The Roman Theater Scaena Frons: Second Interim Report (IAA Internal Report). Bet She’an (Hebrew). Bar-Nathan R. and Mazor G. 1994. Beth-Shean during the Hellenistic Period. Qadmoniot 107–108:87–91 (Hebrew). Bar-Or A. and Atrash W. 1988. The Roman Theater Scaena Frons: First Interim Report (IAA Internal Report). Bet She’an (Hebrew). Conder C.R. and Kitchener H.H. 1882. The Survey of Western Palestine II: Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography and Archaeology. London.

Di Segni L. 1997. A Dated Inscription from Bet Shean and the Cult of Dionysos Ktistes in Roman Scythopolis. SCI 16:139–161. Di Segni L., Foerster G. and Tsafrir Y. 1996. A Decorated Altar Dedicated to Dionysos, the “Founder” from Beth Shean, Nysa-Scythopolis. Eretz Israel 25:336–350 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 101*). Frézouls E. 1952a. Tetri romani dell’Africa francese. Dionisio 15:90–103. Frézouls E. 1952b. Les théâtres romains de Syrie. AAS 2:46– 100. Frézouls E. 1959. Recherches sur les théâtres de l’orient syrien I. Syria 36:203–227. Frézouls E. 1961. Recherches sur les théâtres de l’orient syrien II. Syria 38:54–76. Frézouls E. 1982. Aspects de l’histoire architecturale du théâtre romain. ANRW 11:343–441. Fuks G. 1983. Greece in Palestine: Beth Shean-Scythopolis in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods. Jerusalem (Hebrew). Guérin V. 1874. Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine I–III. Paris. Irby C.L. and Mangles J. 1823. Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria and Asia Minor during the Years 1817–1818. London. Lifshitz B. 1970. Notes d’épigraphie grecque. ZPE 6:62 Mazar A., Mazor G., Arubas B., Foerster G., Tsafrir Y. and Seligman J. 2008. Tel Beth-Shean; The Hellenistic to Early Islamic Periods: The Israel Antiquities Authority Excavations; The Hellenistic to Early Islamic Periods at the Foot of the Mound: The Hebrew University Excavations; The Fortress. NEAEHL 5:1616–1644. Mazor G., Sandhaus D. and Finkielsztejn J. In Preparation. Bet She’an IV: Nysa-Scythopolis: The Hellenistic City at Tel Iztabba (IAA Reports). Jerusalem. Negev A. 1963. Beth-Shean. RB 70:585. Ovadiah A. and Turnheim Y. 1994. “Peopled” Scrolls in Roman Architectural Decoration in Israel. The Roman Theatre at Beth Shean, Scythopolis (Rivista di archeologia, Suppl. 12). Rome. Robinson E. 1856. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: A Journal of Travels in the Year 1852. London. Segal A. 1999. The History and Architecture of Theaters in Roman Palestine. Jerusalem (Hebrew).

xiii

The Bet She’an Archaeological Project Chronological Chart*

Stratum

Period

Date

Nature of Settlement, Historical Events and Theater Stages

1

Ottoman

1516–1917 CE

Small village and serai

2

Late Islamic/Mamluk

1291–1516 CE

Sporadic settlement

3

Crusader/Ayyubid

1099–1291 CE

Fortress of Galilee Principality

4

Abbasid/Fatimid

749–1099 CE

Post-749 CE earthquake settlement

5

Umayyad II

697–749 CE

Pottery workshop built within the theater’s premises; destroyed in January 18, 749 CE earthquake

6

Umayyad I

659–697 CE

From the 659 CE earthquake to ‘Abd al-Malik’s reform (697 CE)

7

Arab-Byzantine

634/635–659 CE

From the Arab conquest to the June 7, 659 CE earthquake

8

Byzantine III

550–634/635 CE

Cessation of building inscriptions, city deteriorates

9

Byzantine II

507–550 CE

Second renovation stage of the civic center, reduction in size of the theater and construction of the porticus along the facade

10

Byzantine I

400/404–507 CE

Establishment of Palestina Secunda (400–404 CE)

11

Roman IV

244–400/404 CE

Renovations following the May 19, 363 CE earthquake, reduction in height of the theater’s summa cavea

12

Roman III

130–244 CE

Hadrian’s visit, the Antonine and Severan dynasties; monumentalization of the civic center––construction of the Severan Theater and the later addition of the postscaenium

13

Roman II

31 BCE–130 CE

Imperial planning of the civic center, the Southern Theater: Phase I—Tiberius, Phase II—Flavian

14

Roman I

64/63–31 BCE

Pompey’s conquest, the founding of Roman Nysa-Scythopolis by Gabinius (57–55 BCE)

15

Hellenistic III

108/107–64/63 BCE

Hasmonean destruction

16

Hellenistic II

2nd century BCE

Foundation of the polis by Antiochus IV

17

Hellenistic I

3rd century BCE

Nysa-Scythopolis established as a military stronghold by Ptolemy II

*Revised from Bet She’an II to reflect the most current research

G. Mazor and W. Atrash, 2015, Bet She’an III/1 (IAA Reports 58/1)

Chapter 1

I ntroduction Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

The conquest of Coele Syria by Pompey (64/63 BCE) established a Roman province in a region that was densely settled by Greek cities controlling extensive territories. The Greek poleis of the Decapolis, previously conquered by the Hasmoneans, were seized by the Roman legions and shortly after rebuilt or refounded as Roman cities by Gabinius, the governor of the newly established province (57–55 BCE; Josephus, War I.vii.7; Antiquities XIV.iv.2). In honor of the governor, Nysa-Scythopolis was renamed for a while Gabinia Nysa (Barkay 2003:159). Due to the sense of security granted by the Roman Empire (Pax Romana), Nysa-Scythopolis was transferred from the well-protected mounds (Tel Bet She’an and Tel Iztabba) and refounded in the late first century BCE and early first century CE in the vast area of the ‘Amal basin and its surrounding hills. Evidence for the earliest stage of the Roman city in the first century BCE derives mainly from coins and pottery, while architectural remains are thus far insufficient to reconstruct any significant part of the city plan. On the other hand, the excavation results supply far more data regarding the plan of the civic center in the early first century CE (Plan 1.1). Within the civic center of Roman Nysa-Scythopolis (Roman II; 31–130 CE), the forum was the main focal point of the urban plan, which may have been influenced by city-planning trends customary in the Republican West, and far less common in the East. The forum contained a basilica in its northeastern part and two temples in the southeast. Paved streets surrounded the forum on all four sides, two of which, Pre-Northern Street and Pre-Valley Street, extended further out and led to two of the main city gates, the Caesarea and Damascus Gates (Plans 1.1, 1.2). South of the forum, the Southern Theater was erected. The unique location of the city on a major regional crossroads that linked the flourishing coastal cities with the extensive trade network of Damascus and

the wealthy poleis of Arabia (Roll 2002), lent the city immense strategic importance and economic prosperity, which reached its zenith in the second century CE. The urban planning of the city’s civic center during the second century CE, best termed ‘From Function to Monument’ (Plan 1.3; Segal 1997), was architecturally characterized, as in most poleis in the provinces of the Roman Empire, by its remarkable new imperial architectural design and baroque decor, as reflected in its colonnaded streets and monumental public buildings. The ‘monumentalization’ of the city landscape was a consequence of Hadrian’s tour to the region (128–132 CE), in which he presumably visited Nysa-Scythopolis, and was further advanced by his successors, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, and even more so by Septimius Severus toward the end of the century. In all the cities of the eastern provinces, intensive urbanization was everywhere marked by the Flavian architectural renaissance, characterized by its monumental and exquisitely decorated public buildings. Colonnaded streets adorned by nymphaea and propylaea, temples and shrines dedicated to the imperial cult, such as caesarea, kalybe structures and altars, public halls including odea, theaters, hippodromes, amphitheaters and other entertainment facilities, as well as thermae, city gates, bridges and roads, were erected, establishing the Roman imperial koine (Plan 1.3; Fig. 1.1). In the early second century CE, the quarries of superb-quality limestone in the Gilboa Mountains were extensively exploited to supply the flourishing city of Nysa-Scythopolis. At the end of the century, architectural elements carved of marble and granite imported from Asia Minor and Egypt further enriched the city’s grandeur. The civic center of NysaScythopolis was graced with a monumental, richly adorned, baroque-oriented appearance (Lyttelton 1974) that characterized the city throughout the entire Roman and Byzantine periods.

2

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

9

12 16

15 11

5

8

2 13

6

1 10 3 4

14

‘Ain el Mel`ab 7

‘Ain el-Malhah

0

1. Forum 2. Basilica 3. Forum Temple I 4. Forum Temple II 5. Temple(?) 6. Bathhouse 7. Southern Theater 8. Public Halls

9. Temple of Zeus Akraios 10 Street of the Forum Temple 11. Pre-Monument Street 12 Pre-Northern Street 13 Pre-Palladius Street 14 Theater Street 15 Shops 16 Pre-Valley Street

Plan 1.1. Nysa-Scythopolis: civic center of the first century CE.

100 m

3

Chapter 1: Introduction

4

17

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Civic Center 7. Southeast (Gerasa) CityNysa-Scythopolis: Gate 13. Hellenistic City Plan 1.2 city plan Tel Bet She’an 8. Samaritan Synagogue 14. Eastern Bridge (Jisr el-Maktu’a) 1. Civic center 8. Samaritan synagogue 15. Western bridge Northeast (Damascus) City Gate 9. Church of Andreas 15. Western Bridge 2. Tel Bet She’an 9. Church of Andreas 16. Eastern cemetery Northwest (Caesarea) City Gate of the Martyr 16. Eastern Cemetery (Tell el-Hammam) 3. Northeast (Damascus) city10. Church gate 10. Church of the Martir (Tell el-Hammam) Southwest (Neapolis) City Gate Monastery of Lady Mary 17. Cemetery 4. Northwest (Caesarea) city11 gate 11. Monastery of Lady Mary 17. Cemetery South (Jerusalem) City Gate 12. Northern Cemetery 18. House of Kyrios Leontis

19. Circular Piazza 20. Bathhouse 21. Mosque 21. Mosque 22. Crusader fortress 22. Crusader Fortress 23. Turkish serai 23. Turkish Serai 24. Amphitheater 24. Amphitheater (Hippodrome)

5. Southwest (Neapolis) city gate 12. Northern cemetery 18. House of Kyrios Leontis second centurypiazza CE. 6. South (Jerusalem) city gatePlan 1.2. 13.Nysa-Scythopolis: Hellenistic citycity plan of the 19. Circular 7. Southeast (Gerasa) city gate 14. Eastern bridge 20. Bathhouse (Jiser el-Maktu’a)

(hippodrome)

4

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

1. Forum 14. Valleyplan Streetof the second century 20. Temple Plan8. Caesareum 1.3. Nysa-Scythopolis: civic center, CE of Zeus Propylaeum 2. Basilica 9. Temple of Zeus Akraios 15. Street of the Eastern Thermae 21. Valley Sreet Propylaeum 3. Forum Temple I 10. Street of the Forum Temples 16. Western Thermae 22. Monument of Antonius 10. Street of the Forum Temples 18. Caesareum propylaeum 1. Temple ForumII 4. Forum 11. Street of Monuments 17. Thermae Propylaeum 23. Altar 11. Street of Monuments 19. Forum propylaeum 2. Basilica 5. Temple(?) 12. Northern Sreet 18. Caesareum Propylaeum 24. Nymphaeum 12. Northern Street19. Forum Propylaeum 20. Temple of propylaeum 6. Eastern ThermaeTemple 13. Palladius Street 25. Zeus Northern Theater 3. Forum I 7. Severan Theater Temple II 13. Palladius Street 21. Valley Street propylaeum 4. Forum

14. Valley Street 22. Monument of Antonius 5. Temple (?) Plan 1.3. Nysa-Scythopolis: civic center of the second century CE. 15. Street of the Eastern thermae 23. Altar 6. Eastern thermae 16. Western thermae 24. Nymphaeum 7. Severan Theater 17. Thermae propylaeum 25. Northern Theater 8. Caesareum 9. Temple of Zeus Akraios

Chapter 1: Introduction

5

Fig. 1.1. Nysa-Scythopolis: aerial view of the Roman–Byzantine civic center, looking southwest.

Four designated complexes (the hippodrome, the odeum, and the Severan and Northern Theaters) comprised the entertainment facilities of NysaScythopolis during the late second to early third centuries CE (Roman III). South of the civic center, a 270 m long, 67 m wide hippodrome was constructed (see Plan 1.2). Its cavea was partly built over a fill within its perpendicular walls and partly over vaulted substructures with entering vomitoria. The beatenearth floor of the arena was surrounded by a high wall decorated with a colored fresco depicting hunting scenes. Two tribunalia marked the center line of both longitudinal cavea sections, and a vaulted room below the northern tribunal may have accommodated a shrine.

Within the second-century civic center, a caesareum was erected upon a wide, leveled plateau, and a small odeum was built along its southern porticus (Bet She’an I). This small, theater-like, roofed auditorium had an ima cavea of 14 rows of seats furnished with profiled, white-limestone seats that accommodated an audience of c. 600 people. Its limestone-paved orchestra was entered via its aditus maximi and it had a narrow pulpitum and a high scaenae frons with three entrances from the porticus of the caesareum. It may have functioned as a bouleuterion, and the hall to the west of it, presumably a library, may have served as the municipal archive.

6

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Two theaters adorned the civic center in the late second century CE (Roman III). The Severan Theater, built over the earlier Southern Theater to the south of the forum, was founded partly upon the slope of the southern hill and partly over a vaulted substructure. Its orientation due north does not fit the setting of the forum; both complexes, separated by a street and a considerable difference in elevation, retained their separate architectural and functional diversities. The Northern Theater, partially revealed by the IAHU expedition (Arubas 2006:48–58; Atrash 2006:68–71; Arubas, Foerster and Tsafrir 2008:1641), was built into the southwestern slope of Tel Bet She’an and therefore faces southwest, an uncommon direction for a theater. It was relatively small and its cavea, not accommodated with vomitoria, was entered via the aditus maximi. Its southern facade was adorned by a porticus postscaenium (Atrash 2006: Fig. 240) that finds its best parallel in the northern theater at Gerasa (Clark et al. 1986:205–230, Fig. 1). The Northern and Severan Theaters of Nysa-Scythopolis were connected by a 170 m long colonnaded street (Palladius Street) with piazzas at both ends, creating a well-balanced urban plan (see Plan 1.3) that continued well into the Byzantine period (Plan 1.4), although the Northern Theater was dismantled during the late Byzantine period (Stratum 8, Byzantine III). Most of the entertainment facilities of Roman Nysa-Scythopolis were still functional throughout the entire Byzantine period (Byzantine I–III), although the nature of the performances conducted in them obviously underwent considerable changes over time, as paganism gave way to Christianity. Late in the Roman period, the summa cavea and porticus of the Severan Theater collapsed as a result of the earthquake of 363 CE and when reconstructed, the scaenae frons

was reduced in height. The scaenae frons was again reduced in height in the early sixth century CE. Despite its repeated reduction in size during the Byzantine period, the theater’s northern facade was enriched by a monumental porticus and a vast piazza, with a nymphaeum in front of it. The media cavea seems to have been removed during Stratum 8 (Byzantine III), and by the end of the Byzantine period, only the ima cavea was still functional. The Northern Theater apparently suffered constructional problems following the earthquake of 363 CE, and was finally dismantled in the sixth century CE (Byzantine III), apart from its southern facade, which remained to adorn its piazza. The odeum was active until the mid-fifth century CE, when it was dismantled along with the entire caesareum compound. In the framework of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project, the IAA excavations were conducted within the Southern and Severan Theaters and the surrounding area. Fortunately, the northeastern part of the Severan Theater had not been excavated by Applebaum in 1960–1962, enabling the IAA expedition to excavate here the Islamic phases (Strata 7–2) and the consecutive stages of the Severan Theater during Roman III–IV and Byzantine I–III (Strata 12–8). During excavation of the foundations of the eastern aditus maximus and the hyposcaenium, the presence of the earlier Southern Theater was revealed. Its construction phases are dated within the first century CE (Roman II, Stratum 13), and it was later completely covered by the Severan Theater. Subsequent probes conducted in other locations in the Severan Theater further confirmed the existence of the Southern Theater and its dating. Additional excavation and probes were undertaken, as required, to clarify stratigraphic or architectural problems during the complex architectural analysis.

7

Chapter 1: Introduction

Plan 1.4 Nysa-Scythopolis:9. civic center, plan 1. Forum Byzantine Building 2. Basilica 10. Round Church 11. Street of Monuments 1. Agora 3. Theater Street 10. Round church 4. Theater piazza Street 2. Basilica 5. Temple(?) 11. Street of12. Northern Monuments 13. Palladius Street 3. Theater Street Street Street 6. Eastern Thermae 12. Northern14. Valley 4. Theater piazza 13. Palladius Street Street 7. Severan Theater 15. Silvanus 8. Caesareum 16. Western Thermae 5. Temple (?) 14. Valley Street

of the Byzantine period Propylaeum 17. Thermae 18. Sigmae

19. Forum Propylaeum 19. Agora propylaeum 20. Round Church Propylaeum 20. Round church propylaeum 21. Valley Street Propylaeum 21. Valley Street propylaeum 22. Monument of Antonius 22. Monument of Antoninus 23. Altar 24. Nymphaeum 23. Altar 24. Nymphaeum 6. Eastern thermae Plan 1.4. 15. Silvanus Street Nysa-Scythopolis: civic center of the Byzantine period. 7. Severan Theater 16. Western thermae 8. Caesareum 17. Thermae propylaeum 9. Byzantine building 18. Sigmae

8

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

R eferences Arubas B. 2006. The Impact of Town Planning at Scythopolis on the Topography of Tel Beth-Shean: A New Understanding of Its Fortifications and Status. In A. Mazar. Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean 1989–1966 I: From the Late Bronze Age to the Medieval Period. Jerusalem. Pp. 48–58. Arubas B., Foerster G. and Tsafrir Y. 2008. Hellenistic to Early Islamic Periods. NEAEHL 5:1636–1641. Atrash W. 2006. Entertainment Structures in the Civic Center of Nysa-Scythopolis (Beth-She’an) during the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Ph.D. diss. University of Haifa. Haifa (Hebrew). Clark V.A., Bowsher J.M.C., Stewart J.D., Meyer C.M. and Falkner B.K. 1986. The Jerash North Theatre, Architecture

and Archaeology 1982–83. In F. Zayadine ed. Jerash Archaeological Project 1981–83. Amman. Pp. 205–302. Lyttelton M. 1974. Baroque Architecture in Classical Antiquity. London. Roll I. 2002. Crossing the Rift Valley. The Connecting Arteries between the Road Network of Judaea/Palaestina and Arabia. In P. Freeman, L. Bennett, Z.T. Fiema and B. Hoffmann eds. Limes XVIII (Bar Int. S. 1084 I). Oxford. Pp. 215–230. Segal A. 1997. From Function to Monument: Urban Landscapes of Roman Palestine, Syria and Provincia Arabia. Oxford.

G. Mazor and W. Atrash, 2015, Bet She’an III/1 (IAA Reports 58/1)

Chapter 2

The Southern Theater Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Introduction The presence of an earlier theater, whose remains had been sealed by the foundations of the later Severan Theater built upon it, was unknown to Applebaum during his excavations in 1960–1962. The first evidence of the Southern Theater of Stratum 13 was revealed during restoration works in the eastern aditus maximus of the Severan Theater and its adjoining northeastern cavea segment. The eastern aditus maximus, while mostly preserved, including a substantial section of the western part of its barrel vault, was leaning dangerously to one side, and the adjacent cuneus of the ima cavea had partly collapsed. Reconstruction work aimed to repair the theater’s foundations, where presumably its constructional problems existed, and to rebuild the entire northeastern part of the Severan Theater, reusing its original masonry. To this end, the eastern aditus maximus walls and vault were dismantled, while marking every stone in the process. When the Severan Theater foundations were reached, remains of earlier walls appeared under the floor foundation of the eastern aditus maximus and in the core of its southern wall. Further excavations below the collapsed northeastern section of the cavea exposed other earlier walls buried beneath it. In addition, excavations under the pulpitum pavement within the hyposcaenium down to the foundations revealed a solid platform that predated the Severan Theater. All these remains pointed to the existence of an earlier theater, presumably of the first century CE (Roman II, Stratum 13). In our quest after the nature, dimensions and type of this earlier theater, several probes were opened, first in the orchestra, then in several vomitoria, and finally in the core of the southern wall of the western aditus maximus. The accumulated data of these excavations, although fragmentary, left little doubt that beneath the Severan Theater were substantial remains of an even earlier theater, subsequently termed the Southern Theater. Two phases were clearly observed, both of

which are attributed to Stratum 13, the first during the first quarter and the second during the fourth quarter of the first century CE. In most places, the builders of the Severan Theater, during the late second and early third centuries CE, covered over the Southern Theater units, sometimes founding new walls upon the earlier foundation platforms. As the Severan Theater foundations penetrated deeply, and as this later complex could not be removed, only limited probes could be executed and no clean and conclusive loci of the Southern Theater phases were obtained. Thus, the dating of the Southern Theater’s phases is based mainly on its relative stratigraphy, architectural analysis, the nature of its masonry and the study of some of its architectural elements that were uncovered in foundation fills of the Severan Theater (see Chapter 9). The remains of the Southern Theater were revealed in excavations below the hyposcaenium, aditus maximi, the orchestra and Vomitoria 10–11 and 14–15 of the Severan Theater (Plan 2.1) Their locations are therefore described according to the Severan Theater units in which they were revealed, although these do not correspond to the Southern Theater units in either of its phases (see Plan 3.1). The following report describes all the remains revealed during the excavations that can be attributed to the Southern Theater. The theater was founded in Phase I, and in Phase 2, it was enlarged (for the architectural analysis of both phases, see Chapter 7).

The Southern Theater: Phase I Beneath pavement remains and foundation layers containing clay pipes and a drainage channel in the western part of the eastern aditus maximus, a corner of two walls (W2205, W2206) was revealed, preserved to eight courses high, forming a well-constructed foundation platform (-155.32/-158.22; Plans 2.1– 2.3; Fig. 2.1). Wall 2205, running east–west, was first exposed in a 13 m long section, and two more

10

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

W2109

1

4

W2160

W2206

2

W2205

W2221

5

Vomitorium 2

4

W2191 W2192

W2190

rium 3 Vomito

W2194

3

Vomitorium 18

Vomit or

ium 17

Vomit or

ium 16

2

4 ium

Vo m

Vo m

ito

14

riu

m

15

m

m

riu

ito

riu

ito

13

12

Vomi torium 8 Vomito rium 9

m

m Vo

m Vo

W70727

ito

riu

11 rium

to Vomi

Severan Theater

644

Southern Theater Phase II

W70

10

Southern Theater Phase I

W70643

20 m

0

25

W706

W70617

Vomitorium

Vo mi tor Vo mi ium tor 6 ium 7

W

60

76

tor mi 5 Vo ium tor i m Vo

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Proscaenium Hyposcaenium Scalarium I Cuneus 1 Aditus Maximi Orchestra

Plan 2.1. Southern Theatre: Phases I and II (superposed on the plan of the Severan Theater).

sections of it were later revealed to the west under the orchestra pavement (see below), thus reaching a length of 24 m (see Plan 2.3). At its eastern end it created a corner with W2206, of which a 2.6 m long stretch was revealed running southward, where it passed under the southern wall of the aditus maximus (W2194). Wall 2206 was preserved up to 10 courses high (-154.65; Plan 2.2: Section 1-1; Fig. 2.2). A narrow trench along W2205 was excavated in a compacted fill of

basalt stones and gray soil (L1267). At level -158.22, a foundation layer of small to medium-sized basalt stones was reached. As the area of the probe was too narrow for deeper excavation, the foundation trench could not be exposed and the date of the foundation layer could not be confirmed. Both W2205 and W2206 were meticulously constructed of well-cut and dressed basalt stones laid in alternating courses of headers and stretchers (see Fig. 2.1). The masonry courses were

Chapter 2: The Southern Theater

Fig. 2.1. Southern Theater, Phase I: Wall 2205 and its corner with W2206, looking south.

c. 0.35 m high and stepped, each course protruding c. 4 cm from the one above it. The inner core of the corner was constructed of medium-sized, roughly cut basalt stones set in hard, light gray mortar. Under the aditus maximus floor, the corner was preserved to 2.54 m high, and under W2194, to a height of 3.27 m When the foundation of the aditus maximus’ floor of the Severan Theater was built, which incorporated pipes and a drainage channel, the upper courses of W2205 and W2206 were partly dismantled. A probe was opened in the northeastern corner of the Severan Theater orchestra (L1069). At a level of -154.93 (see Plan 2.3), the upper courses of the westward continuation of W2205 further west were exposed. Another probe along the northern face of W2205 in this location (L50645) revealed its foundations resting upon the bedrock. Four stepped, well-cut and dressed basalt masonry courses, each about 0.3 m high, of the wall were revealed. The foundation course of W2205 is higher in the orchestra probe, indicating that the bedrock rose from east to west. This foundation course was built into a foundation trench hewn into bedrock, and protruded some 0.25 m from the outer face of the superstructure. Some fragmentary Roman-period sherds were revealed in the foundation trench (L1072).

Fig. 2.2. Southern Theater, Phase I: Wall 2206 runs under W2194, looking south.

11

12

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

0

4

1

m

W2196 L60636 W2205 -154.96

-158.22

Aditus maximus

W2206

2

L1267

-155.32

W2191

L1253

L1257

W2190

2

W2192

W2194

-149.00

-149.85

1

L1240 L1281 -154.76 -150.55

-148 W2191

-150 -152

W2190

L1240 L1253 L1257 L1281

W2194

W2196

-154 -156

Southern Theater Phase I

W2206

1-1

W2205

-158 -148

Southern Theater Phase II Severan Theater

W2191 W2192

-150 W2194

-152 -154 -156

W2205 W2206

2-2

Plan 2.2. Southern Theater: Phase I and II wall remains within the eastern aditus maximus of the Severan Theater.

0

W2046

4 m

L50645

-156.95

Orchestra

W2109

L1124

L1072

-154.93

W2160

L1114

-157.10

W2205 -155.32

Hyposcaenium

W2190

Acoustic Cell

W2191

Severan Theater

Southern Theater Phase II

W2192

Aditus Maximus

Southern Theater Phase I

W2206

Plan 2.3. Southern Theater walls: Phase I and II wall remains under the eastern aditus maximus, orchestra and hyposcaenium of the Severan Theater.

W2079

Chapter 2: The Southern Theater

13

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 2.3. Southern Theater, Phase I: Wall 2205 exposed in a probe at the center of the orchestra, looking south. Fig. 2.4. Southern Theater, Phase I: Severan Theater cavea collapse removed, revealing earlier walls, looking south.

Fig 2.5. Southern Theater, Phases I and II: Wall 2190 in the rear and W2191 in front, under the Severan Theater ima cavea, looking south.

Another probe conducted along the central axis line of the orchestra (L50639) revealed the continuation of W2205 further west. Construction of the Severan Theater’s central drainage channel cut W2205, which was otherwise well preserved (-156.15). Four courses of fine basalt masonry of W2205, each about 0.3 m high, were exposed in the probe (see Plan 2.3; Fig. 2.3). The 0.8 m wide space between W2205 and the Severan Theater proscaenium wall (W2046) was excavated

throughout, revealing a foundation (L50645) containing no diagnostic pottery. The northeastern segment of the ima cavea of the Severan Theater collapsed during the earthquake of 749 CE. Prior to restoration work, the collapsed layer, composed of hard-limestone cavea seats and their basalt stone foundation, was removed and the fill below was excavated (Fig. 2.4). Within the fill, two walls were revealed, W2190 in the south and W2191 in the north

Chapter 2: The Southern Theater

(see Plan 2.2: Section 1-1; Fig. 2.5) and the area in between the walls, 0.75–0.90 m wide, was excavated. The upper part of the fill was sealed by a layer of small and medium-sized basalt stones set in hard gray mortar (L1240). Under it, soft-limestone architectural elements were embedded in a compact fill (L1281), including two joining fragments of a Corinthian capital (A40627, A40628), a fragment of an Ionic capital (A40630), a fragment of an architrave (A40632) and three column drums (A40642–40644), all presumably originating from the Southern Theater’s scaenae frons columnar facade. The fill and its embedded architectural elements were removed (L1257) and a foundation layer of small basalt stones set in dark gray mortar was exposed (L1253) and further excavated in a limited area (-154.35/-154.56). This foundation layer seems to have been attached to W2190 in the south and extended under W2191; its northern continuation was cut by the later W2194. No pottery was associated with the foundation layer, thus no data confirmed the dating of the walls (see Plan 2.2: Section 1-1). Wall 2190 of Phase I was preserved in a 2.7 m long segment and 0.4 m of its (unknown) width was exposed. It had a basalt stone foundation with a relating floor foundation at level -154.76. The superstructure was built of well-cut and dressed, softlimestone masonry, and preserved to a height of 4.21 m (-150.55) at its eastern end. The upper courses of the wall sloped down from east to west and its uppermost course sloped toward the north and seems to have been the springer course of a sloping barrel vault. The northern wall of the Southern Theater’s eastern aditus maximus was apparently dismantled entirely when the eastern aditus maximus of the Severan Theater was built. It is reasonable to assume that the northern wall of the Southern Theater’s aditus maximus in Phase I was erected over W2205 and W2206. That would determine the width of the Southern Theater’s aditus maximi, although no remains of its superstructure were preserved.

The Southern Theater: Phase II The excavations of the hyposcaenium of the Severan Theater revealed several renovation stages of the drainage system and the system of supporting arches under the pulpitum floor. In the lowest layer of the hyposcaenium, a c. 6.5 m wide foundation platform (W2109) was revealed along the east–west axis of

15

Fig. 2.6. Southern Theater, Phase II: foundation W2109 under the Severan Theater pilasters, looking south.

the hyposcaenium at level -156.95/-157.10 (see Plans 2.1, 2.3). It was constructed of well-cut and dressed basalt stones in its southern face, while its northern side rested against bedrock and its inner core contained small to medium-sized, cut but not dressed basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar (Fig. 2.6). Although the flat surface of the foundation platform (W2109) was revealed, there were clear indications that it originally reached somewhat higher, and that about three of its upper courses had been later dismantled. This foundation platform was reused for the arch system of the Severan Theater’s hyposcaenium that was built over it in Stratum 12 (see below; see also Chapter 7). The excavation of the cavea foundation of the Severan Theater and its eastern aditus maximus walls

16

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

revealed two components of the Southern Theater that are related to Phase II, the southern wall of its eastern aditus maximus (W2191) and sections of its cavea circumference wall (see below W2192 = W60762/ W70617, W2221). Wall 2191 was preserved in a segment 13 m long, 1.2 m wide and 4.91 m high, its upper course reaching level -149.85 (see Plan 2.2: Section 1-1). It was connected in the east to W2192 that protruded northward some 0.4 m from their connection line, and its stepped courses declined toward the west. Wall 2191 had two basalt stone foundation courses and its superstructure was built of soft-limestone masonry. It had a well-built northern face and a broken southern one, presumably as it was originally built into the cavea core of the Southern Theater in Phase II and was not meant to be seen. The wall was built over the Phase I foundation and upon the southern wall (W2190) of the eastern aditus maximus of the Southern Theater in Phase I, which was obviously buried beneath its cavea. As a result of the earthquake of 749 CE, a c. 6.6 m wide section of the basalt stone face of W2194 of the Severan Theater eastern aditus maximus collapsed, presumably at a weak spot. Behind the collapsed masonry face, the inner core was exposed (see Plan 2.2: Section 2-2), revealing a segment of an earlier wall that had been integrated into the inner core of the later wall. This was the northeastern corner of W2192, 2.4 m wide (Fig. 2.7), which continued further south within the ima cavea foundation core. It was built of mediumsized to large stones in dark gray mortar to a height of 4.6 m. The lower courses of W2194 covered the lower part of W2192, but it most certainly continued further down, presumably to the upper level of W2206 (-154.65) and thus its preserved height reached 9.43 m. The currently exposed lower three courses (1.05 m high) were constructed of well-dressed basalt masonry in alternating courses of headers and stretchers and they shared the same height and construction method as those of W2205 and W2206. The upper courses (3.55 m high) of the wall were built of well-cut and smoothly dressed soft-limestone (nari) masonry of varying heights (0.37–0.97 m) that were presumably plastered. As they were covered by the later aditus maximus wall, they were relatively well preserved (see Fig. 2.7). The northwestern end of the semicircular circumference wall of the Southern Theater cavea in Phase II (W2221) was also observed within the core

of the southern wall of the Severan Theater’s western aditus maximus, whose outer face had partly collapsed as well (see Plan 2.1; Fig. 2.8). Since the collapse of this wall face was not as severe as that of the eastern aditus maximus, only the upper part of W2221 was partly exposed. However, its width, height and construction technique were undoubtedly the same as those of W2192. Based on the assumption that W2192 and W2221 were the two northern ends of the Southern Theater’s semicircular circumference wall of its cavea in Phase II, two probes were conducted along its assumed route in two of the Severan Theater’s vomitoria (Plan 2.4:2, 3). In the northern part of Vomitoria 14–15, W60762 was revealed under the floor (-146.83) as it ran across both passages (L70614). Its exposed segment, 6.85 m long and 1.7 m wide, ran under the side walls of the vomitoria as it continued in both directions (Fig. 2.9). It was built of small to medium-sized basalt stones, mostly laid in headers, with an inner core of small stones held in hard, dark gray mortar. It was also revealed under Vomitoria 10–11 (W70617) as it continued westward (see Plan 2.4:3). As the plan of these walls was drawn, it became obvious that all of these wall segments (W2192, W60762, W70617 and W2221) were part of one semicircular wall that surrounded the ima cavea of the Southern Theater in Phase II. In the fill over W60762 (L70614), Roman, Byzantine and Mamluk pottery was recovered, along with two coins of the third century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 84, 165) and one of the Mamluk period (Coin Cat. No. 825). Attached to W70617 on both its southern and northern faces in Vomitoria 10 and 11, scanty remains of perpendicular foundation walls were revealed (L70651). In the east, W70644, preserved in an 8.2 m long section, ran north–south perpendicular to W70617 (Figs. 2.10, 2.11). Parallel to it, 2.4 m to the west, a 3.5 m long section, 2.3 m wide, of W70643 was attached to W70617; it ran across the vomitorium connecting passage. Wall 70625, 3 m long, continued W70643 northward (see Plan 2.4:3: Section 1-1; Fig. 2.12). All of these walls were reused as foundation courses of the vomitoria walls of the Severan theater, and they were all covered by the floor foundations of the vomitoria. In the south, 8.3 m from W70617, another semicircular wall (W70727) was found (L70756), presumably the semicircular perimeter wall of the Southern Theater’s summa cavea in Phase II (Fig. 2.13). It was 2 m

Chapter 2: The Southern Theater

17

Fig. 2.8. Southern Theater, Phase II: Wall 2221, the circumference wall, integrated into the core of the Severan Theater’s western aditus maximus wall, looking southwest.

Fig. 2.7. Southern Theater, Phase II: the northeastern corner of W2192, looking south.

Fig. 2.9. Southern Theater, Phase II: Wall 60762, the Southern ► Theater’s circumference wall, under the foundations of the Vomitoria 14–15 passages, looking east.

wide, built of large, well-cut basalt stones in the same technique as the other walls of the Southern Theater, and its upper level was -145.99. All these walls were preserved up to two, 0.4 m high courses; the first course, protruding c. 0.15 m from that above it, was embedded into a foundation trench and held in hard, dark gray mortar. Attached to them were scanty remains of pavement foundation layers, presumably of the Southern Theater’s vomitorium floor (-146.18), which was somewhat lower than the side-wall foundations of the Severan Theater’s vomitorium and ran below them. The fragmentary remains of the pavement foundation were discerned in both Vomitoria 10 and 11, and they

18

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

10 m

0

1

Scalarium I

1

W2192

W2191

Cuneus 1

0

2

2

m

3 2

1

1 W7064

1 rium 1 Vomito 25 W706

0

W70617

44

W70640

-146.18 7

W7072

-146.83

W6

076

2

m

-145.99

1

L70614

2

L70651

L70756

Vomitorium 15

0

m 10

2

u Vomitori

W70642

Severan Theater

W706

W70643

-146.83

Phase II

W70639

3

Vomitorium 14 W70641

W70640

-145 -146

W70727

W70643

W70617

W70625

-147 -148

1-1 Plan 2.4. Southern Theater walls: Phase II wall remains under Severan Theater units: (1) scalarium I and Cuneus 1; (2) Vomitoria 14–15; (3) Vomitoria 10–11.

m

Chapter 2: The Southern Theater

Fig. 2.11. Southern Theater, Phase II: a section of W70644 under the later vomitorium wall, looking east.

Fig. 2.10. Southern Theater, Phase II: two basalt courses of W70644 under the later vomitorium wall, looking north.

Fig. 2.12. Southern Theater, Phase II: Wall 70625 built over bedrock, extended northward to the later vomitorium foundations, looking north.

Fig. 2.13. Southern Theater, Phase II: the circumference wall (W70727), looking west.

19

20

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

were observed to the north of W70617, reaching the western, inner face of W70625 further north. Below it was a compact fill of basalt stones and soft-limestone chips mixed with crumbled travertine, but no pottery. All these foundation walls of the Southern Theater were built of smaller basalt masonry than those of the Severan Theater, they were constructed into foundation trenches hewn into the sloping bedrock of the northern hillside, and they were all superimposed by the Severan Theater vomitorium walls (W70639, W70641 and W70640). Assuming that these were the Southern Theater’s vomitorium and circumference walls in Phase II, its plan and dimensions could be reconstructed (see Chapter 7).

Concluding R emarks Although the remains of the Southern Theater were by their nature fragmentary, revealed mainly in investigative probes of limited scale, the probes were located throughout the theater, thus yielding the widest possible evidence and detailed data for clarifying its plan, construction phases and date. The largest segments were exposed under the eastern aditus maximus and the attached cavea section of the Severan Theater, where important evidence of its plan in both phases was obtained. This enabled us to choose the optimal locations for additional probes in order to further clarify the details of the plan and the phases of the Southern Theater (see Plan 2.1; see Chapter 7). It is clear from the excavation results that the theater had two phases, although their dating could not be confirmed. As all the fills covering these remains resulted from the construction of the Severan Theater, the pottery recovered in them could not aid in their dating. The reuse and integration of the earlier foundation platform in the hyposcaenium of the Severan Theater further prevented any precise dating. The probes in the orchestra and the vomitoria contributed important architectural data of the Southern Theater’s plan in both phases, though not of its date. Furthermore, foundation trenches and floor foundations clearly associated with the Southern Theater yielded no datable pottery or coins. All that can be established

is that below the Severan Theater rested the remains of the Southern Theater, which clearly reflected two phases. The first had an ima cavea, while a summa cavea was added in the second phase, which enlarged both the aditus maximi and the scaena. Stratigraphy could only furnish a terminus ante quem, as both phases of the Southern Theater clearly preceded the Severan Theater built above. It can be reasonably assumed that the second phase of the Southern Theater was active until it was covered by the Severan Theater, and that the Southern Theater was erected in the first century CE as part of the civic center, although it is separate from the forum in both orientation and levels. The softlimestone architectural members that were found in the fills and were presumably part of the architectural decor of the scaenae frons of the Southern Theater are further analyzed in Chapter 9. The use of soft limestone as the preferred material for architectural members and wall masonry was observed elsewhere in the site, for instance in the forum basilica and temples dated to the first century CE. In the early second century CE, the Gilboa Mountain quarries were exploited, and the superb hard limestone that was quarried there became the preferred material for masonry and architectural elements, ultimately replacing the soft limestone, the use of which was reserved for very specific requirements such as marble-faced walls and plastered barrel vaults of thermae. Therefore, it seems clear that the wall masonry and soft-limestone architectural elements of the Southern Theater, in both its phases, must be dated to the first century CE. The assumed dating of their architectural style became crucial to a more precise dating of the Southern Theater phases. In Chapter 7, the fragmentary evidence from the excavations is assessed and related to the dating of the soft-limestone architectural elements. The construction of Phase I seems to date to the reign of Tiberius (14–37 CE), while Phase II, in which the theater was enlarged, is dated to the Flavian period (69–96 CE). The overall architectural analysis of the Southern Theater is presented and set within the typology of first century CE theaters in the region, which seems to validate the dating of its phases to the early and late quarters of the first century CE.

G. Mazor and W. Atrash, 2015, Bet She’an III/1 (IAA Reports 58/1)

Chapter 3

The Severan Theater Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Introduction Excavations of the Severan Theater, first conducted by Applebaum in 1960–1962 and continued by the IAA expedition in 1986–2002, have uncovered the entire complex (Fig. 3.1; Plan 3.1). The current report follows the customary architectural division of Roman theaters into four subcomplexes: the scaena, the cavea, the aditus maximi and the orchestra. These major subcomplexes are in turn further divided into their specific units and subunits (see below),1 and the description and stratigraphic analysis of the theater complex follows this division. In each unit, the report begins with the

Severan construction stage of Stratum 12 (Roman III) and follows the unit’s renovation stages through Strata 11–9 (Roman IV–Byzantine II) and occasionally into Stratum 2 (Late Islamic/Mamluk period; Table 3.1). In the absence of a detailed stratigraphic report of Applebaum’s work, the meager data extracted from his preliminary reports, either published or in the IAA archives, are presented together with the research work of the IAA expedition. Applebaum’s observations regarding the dating of various construction stages of the theater are presented in full, and discussed whenever the new data raise questions concerning his conclusions.

Fig. 3.1. Severan Theater, looking northeast.

22

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Table 3.1. Subcomplexes and Units of the Severan Theater: Construction (+) and Renovation (++) Stages Subcomplex/Unit

Stratum 12

Stratum 11

Proscaenium

+

++

Pulpitum and Hyposcaenium

+

++

Stratum 10

Stratum 9

Scaena ++

Hyposcaenium approaches and staircases

+

Corridor and tunnel east of the hyposcaenium

++?

Pulpitum flanks Scaena’s central drainage system

+ +

++

Hyposcaenium drainage system Scaenae frons Scaenae frons podium

+ +

++

++ ++

+

Versurae

+

Postscaenium foundation

+

Postscaenium and entrances

+

++? ++?

Cavea Balteus

+

Ima cavea

+

Praecinctio

+

Media cavea

+

Vomitoria and acoustic cells

+

Summa cavea

+

Ambulacrum podium

++

++ ++

+

Aditus Maximi Eastern staircase

+

Eastern aditus maximus

+

Western aditus maximus

+

Orchestra

+

Applebaum presented a general field plan of the theater, which forms the basis of all our plans in this work. However, he did not prepare any detailed plans or sections of the theater’s subcomplexes and units. In the framework of the IAA expedition, these were remeasured and new plans and sections were drawn up according to the theater’s development stages (Plans 3.2–3.36). Applebaum’s photographs, whenever available, are integrated into the report, although most of the accompanying photographs were taken by the IAA expedition, and these thoroughly record the entire theater. Of the 1140 architectural elements that were recovered from the theater, over two-thirds (758; see Appendix 9.1:A6001–A6864) were found by Applebaum where they had collapsed over the pulpitum and the orchestra in the earthquake of 749 CE. As no detailed records of this collapse layer were made, the

++

++

++ ++

++

++

++

only available data must be extracted from Applebaum’s photographs. The remaining elements (382; see Appendix 9.1) were excavated by the IAA expedition in the theater and the civic center, and their find spots are accurately recorded in the report and in Appendix 9.1. Analysis of the pottery, glass artifacts and coins recovered in the theater by the IAA expedition accompany this excavation report. Unfortunately, artifacts found by Applebaum have been mostly lost and only occasionally were they mentioned by him. Those that were located in the IAA storehouses have been incorporated in the discussions here. The theater’s subcomplexes will be described as they were left by Applebaum, followed by some preservation works conducted by architect Max Tan’ee of the National Parks Authority in 1964–1965. The IAA expedition conducted further excavations in the

23

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

26

10

A 7

8

6

5 3

9

22b

C

2

3

4 1

15 14

19

25

18

13

C

14

24 14 12

14 14

13

13

19

14

14 13

18 19

14

11

22a

19

13

14 19

9 15

D

13

23

18

8

7

13

13

19

18

16 19

19

19 18

B

18

18

18

17

0

A. Scaena 1. Proscaenium 2. Pulpitum 3. Pulpitum Flanks 4. Hyposcaenium 5. Scaenae Frons 6. Valvae Regiae 7. Hospitalia 8. Versurae 9. Itinera Versurarum 10. Postscaenium

20

21

20 m

B. Cavea 11. Balteus 12. Ima Cavea 13. Cunei 14. Scalaria 15. Tribunalia 16. Praecinctio 17. Media Cavea 18. Vomitoria 19. Acoustic Cells 20. Ambulacrum 21. Summa Cavea

C. Aditus Maximi 22a. Eastern Aditus Maximus 22b. Western Aditus Maximus 23. Western Staircase

D. Orchestra 24. Orchestra 25. Bisellia 26. Forum Temple II

Plan 3.1. Severan Theater subcomplexes and units.

scaena and versurae, which yielded stratigraphic data that clarified the construction stages and their dating.

The theater is presented by units within subcomplexes (Plan 3.1).

24

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Scaena The theater was constructed during the Severan Dynasty (193–211 CE). Shortly after its completion, sometime during the first half of the third century CE, the complex suffered serious constructional problems, as revealed in the aditus maximi and the scaena. The ima cavea, founded on the hill slope and over the buried remains of the Southern Theater, began to slide down the hill. In order to stop the slide, a huge wedge-shaped foundation was constructed deep into bedrock in front of the scaenae frons, and a postscaenium was constructed above it. New versurae were built and connected to the scaenae frons, which was somewhat shortened in the process. Also shortened in these reparations were the proscaenium and the pulpitum. The postscaenium’s flanking corridors were connected to the aditus maximi and the caveae sections, and the northern sides of the ima, media and summa caveae, as well as the upper porticus, were integrated with the versurae. As we do not know if the original scaena of the Severan period in Stratum 12 possessed a postscaenium, and as both the original construction and the reparation works were consecutive in date, presumably executed by the same architect and builder, they are considered as technical phases of the single original construction stage (Stratum 12). The scaena, 93 m long and 23 m wide, located to the north of the orchestra, included the pulpitum, which was the focal point of the scaena, bordered by the scaenae frons columnar facade in the north, the proscaenium in the south and both versurae in the east and west (see Plan 3.1), while the postscaenium stretched to the north of the scaenae frons and its inner corridors––northern, eastern and western––bordered the scaenae frons and the versurae. During Roman IV and Byzantine I–II (Strata 11– 9), the scaena underwent major renovations. It was lowered by a third following damages inflicted by the earthquake of 363 CE (Stratum 11), and again by another third in the early sixth century CE (Stratum 9). Throughout this span of time, however, the scaena retained its basic plan and components. The theater served as an active auditorium until Byzantine III (Stratum 8) and was later reused during Umayyad II (Stratum 5) as part of a large pottery workshop, some installations of which were found over its eastern

section (see Bet She’an II). In the earthquake of 749 CE, the scaenae frons collapsed over the pulpitum and orchestra (Figs. 3.2, 3.3), while the rest of the theater was hardly damaged. Applebaum reported the existence of Islamic-period buildings erected over the ruined scaena, dated generally to Strata 4–2. He dismantled them entirely and left no records, plans or photographs of their remains. The scaena was excavated by Applebaum, apart from its eastern part that was uncovered by the IAA expedition. The hyposcaenium was partly excavated by Applebaum and further exposed by the IAA expedition.

Proscaenium Stratum 12 The proscaenium wall (W2046) extended from east to west in front of the pulpitum (Plan 3.2). Its original length could only be estimated (see Chapter 7), as it was shortened later in Stratum 12 (see below). It was built of three masonry types (Fig. 3.4). Its foundation, 1.8 m wide, consisted of four basalt courses, 2.16 m high, the lowest foundation course protruding some 0.10 m on both faces. Over the foundation courses, a 0.25 m high, hard-limestone course was laid, its upper surface serving as the floor of the proscaenium niches. Above this course, the upper part of the wall, constructed of soft limestone (nari), was narrower, 1.6 m wide. Of its four original courses, two were preserved to a height of 0.71 m. In the lower course, basalt corbelling slabs were inserted into its northern face, opposite the line of abutments in the hyposcaenium (Fig. 3.4) that carried the supporting wooden beams of the pulpitum floor (see below). The southern face of the proscaenium was adorned with alternating niches, six rectangular and five semicircular. Remains of marble slabs and metal (bronze and lead) clamps indicated that the walls and floors of all the niches were covered with marble slabs. The upper surface of the wall, at the level of the pulpitum pavement, was paved with marble slabs with a plain cornice profile that followed the outline of the niches. Five fragments of these marble slabs were found (A6673a–e), although not in situ. The proscaenium was somewhat better preserved at either end than in its central part. In the center, a poorly preserved, semicircular niche divided the wall into two symmetrical sections with slight differences in niche sizes. The niches are described from east to west (see Plan 3.2; Fig. 3.5).

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.2. Severan Theater: 749 CE earthquake collapse of scaenae frons over pulpitum and orchestra, looking north.

Fig. 3.3. Severan Theater: 749 CE earthquake collapse of scaenae frons over western pulpitum, looking west.

25

W2088 W2114

Severan Theater

Southern Theater Phase II

W2101 -153.21 L1102

-154.11

W2102

11

-159

-158

-157

-156

-155

-154

-153

-152

-151

10

9

7

W2046

W2046

L1190 L1143

0

6 5

W2156 W2160

-154.30

4 m

3

L1296

4

L1128

W2109

2

L1140

W2204

L1142 L1187 L1195 W2079 L1263

1

W2056

W2109

L1142 L1187 L1195 L1263

W2160

-158.28

L1143 L1190

L1171

-158.28

1-1

T6

-153.00

Plan 3.2. Severan Theater: scaena in Stratum 12.

8

L50648

W2079

1 1

W2202

W2201

W2144

W2196

26 Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.4. Severan Theater: the inner face of proscaenium W2046 with inserted corbelling stones, after reconstruction (1987–1989), looking southwest.

Fig. 3.5. Severan Theater: the proscaenium niches, looking northeast.

27

28

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Niche 1: Rectangular niche (0.60 x 0.92 m), 1.25 m west of W2204, preserved to a height of 0.71 m with remains of a marble-slab floor (-154.26). Niche 2: Semicircular niche (D/R 1.15/0.50 m), 1.25 m from the former, two courses preserved (-153.59/ -154.31) with mortar remains (Fig. 3.6). Part of the marble floor of the niche was found in situ (-154.20). A fragment of a rectangular marble slab (0.11 × 0.75 m, 2 cm thick) bears the remains of a two-line inscription, the upper of which has six letters, 4 cm high; the lower has nine letters, 5 cm high: …∆] ΤΟΝ ΤΟ ΤΙΜΟΘΕΟΥ [Τ …Timoteus... At the beginning of the inscription, a decorated leaf was carved, whose roundness fits the niche’s contour (Fig. 3.7). Niche 3: Rectangular niche (0.75 × 0.90 m), 1.15 m west of the former, one course of its wall preserved (-153.80/-154.30).

Fig. 3.6. Severan Theater: the proscaenium, Niche 2 with remains of marble-slab floor, looking north.

Niche 4: Semicircular niche (D/R 1.2/0.5 m), 1.4 m west of the former; one course preserved (-153.88/ -154.31), in which square nail holes for marble facing were observed. A fragment of a marble slab bearing an inscription and a round decoration was found between Niches 3 and 4, most probably belonging to the latter. Remains of two lines can be discerned, the letters in the second line: …IOY (L1128, B5248L). Niche 5: Rectangular niche, most of which is not preserved, 1.19 m west of the former. Niche 6: Semicircular niche, most of which is not preserved. Niche 7: Rectangular niche (0.60 x 1.22 m), one course preserved (-154.00/-154.39). Niche 8: Semicircular niche (D/R 1.10/ 0.45 m), 1.1 m west of the former, two courses preserved with several nail holes in its stones (-153.95/-154.39). Niche 9: Rectangular niche (0.6 × 0.8 m), 1.2 m west of the former, two courses preserved (-153.88/-154.38; Figs. 3.8, 3.9). Niche 10: Semicircular niche (D/R 1.10/ 0.45 m), 1.4 m west of the former, one course preserved (-153.94/ -154.33). Fragments of marble slabs were found on its floor at level -154.33 (Figs. 3.8, 3.9). Niche 11: Rectangular niche (0.55 × 0.85 m), 1.1 m west of the former, two courses preserved (-153.87/154.30). Following the excavations, the proscaenium niches were restored in soft-limestone masonry (Fig. 3.10). When the postscaenium was added and the versurae were altered sometime around the mid-third century CE (Stratum 12), the proscaenium was somewhat shortened to a length of 27.1 m and two staircases, 3.1 m wide, were built on either side leading from the aditus maximi to the pulpitum (see Plan 3.2). In the east, the staircase was built between podium W2202 attached to W2196, the northern wall of the eastern

Fig. 3.7. Severan Theater: the proscaenium, inscription on marble slab of Niche 2.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

10

9

Fig. 3.8. Severan Theater: the proscaenium, Niches 9 and 10, before excavation, looking north.

10

9

Fig. 3.9. Severan Theater: the proscaenium, Niches 9 and 10, after excavation, looking north.

Fig. 3.10. Severan Theater, restored scaena (1992), note proscaenium niches in front, looking northeast.

29

30

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.11. Severan Theater: restored proscaenium, blocked niche at the eastern end, looking north.

aditus maximus, and its counter, podium W2204. It had five steps, 0.22 m high and 0.35 m deep. The western staircase was built between podium W2114 and a counter podium attached to W2088, the northern wall of the western aditus maximus, and also had five steps. Both podium W2204 and podium W2114, erected at either end of the proscaenium wall, blocked part of two semicircular niches of the proscaenium and protruded some 0.12 m from the wall face, which was the width of the niches’ marble facing. The partly blocked niches can still be seen (Fig. 3.11) at the eastern and western ends of the proscaenium. Stratum 11 During Roman IV (Stratum 11), symmetrical staircases mounting the pulpitum were built into Niches 3 and 9 (described and removed by Applebaum). Niche 9 was dismantled in Stratum 11 and part of its side wall was enlarged to a width of 1.25 m and lowered to a level of -154.09, for the construction of the steps. In Niche 3, similar alterations were observed. When the steps were dismantled by the IAA expedition (L1296), two coins were found (Coin Cat. No. 209 of Maximian [286–305 CE], Coin Cat. No. 245 of Constantine II [337–341 CE]), which presumably date the construction of the steps to immediately after the earthquake of 363 CE.

Stratum 5 Above the proscaenium were the remains of an Umayyad II pottery kiln (L50648), first uncovered by Applebaum (Bet She’an II: Plan 2.2; Fig 2.6). He found two coins (Coin Cat. No. 734, dated to the sixth century CE, Coin Cat. No. 759, dated to Umayyad II [650–690 CE]).

The Pulpitum and the Hyposcaenium Stratum 12 The pulpitum extends between the versurae in the east and west to a length of 55 m, and between the scaenae frons in the north and the proscaenium in the south to a width of 8.4 m. Beneath the pulpitum, the hyposcaenium was enclosed in the north by the foundation of the scaenae frons, W2079, in the east and west by the versurae foundation walls, W2144 and W2102, and in the south by the proscaenium wall, W2046, which was flanked on either side by W2196 and W2088, the extensions of the aditus maximi northern walls (see Plan 3.2). Applebaum uncovered the paved pulpitum floor of Stratum 9, which represents the only preserved remains of the pulpitum pavement. No remains of a pulpitum pavement from Strata 12, 11 or 10 were preserved, and it may be assumed that it had a wooden floor, although this cannot be proven.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

The hypothetical wooden floor of the pulpitum would have been supported by wooden beams that spanned the hyposcaenium at intervals of c. 2 m from south to north in its upper level (see Plan 3.1). At both the western and eastern ends of the hyposcaenium, four foundation walls supported the southern ends of the beams: Wall 2101 and W2102 in the west and W2201 and W2144 in the east (see Plan 3.2). Wall 2101 (-153.21/-154.00), the foundation of the western aditus maximus’ northern wall (W2088), ran from east to west and joined W2102 (Fig. 3.12) at a right angle. Wall 2101 was 7.5 m long and protruded 1.2 m from W2088. It was built of five large basalt-stone courses (-154.01/-156.54), and its first course, founded on bedrock, protruded some 0.1 m from the foundation wall’s face. On top of W2201, an accumulation layer (L1102; see Plan 3.2) of hard gray soil contained second–sixth-century CE glass fragments and two coins of the second and fourth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 23, 306). Wall 2102 ran from north to south, connected to the scaenae frons foundation (W2079) on one side and to W2101 on the other. It was 5 m long and built of five courses (-154.11/ -156.54) of well-dressed basalt masonry, founded on bedrock; no remains of a related floor were discerned. On the eastern side of the hyposcaenium, W2201 ran from east to west and served as the foundation of the northern wall (W2196) of the eastern aditus maximus. It was built of large basalt stones and protruded about 1.2 m from the first course of W2196. Wall 2144 ran from north to south and joined W2201 on its southern end and W2079 on its northern end. The scaenae frons foundation wall (W2079) enclosed the hyposcaenium from the north. Its upper part, 5.9 m wide, was built of 11 basalt courses (-153.00/ -159.75). Upon this, the uppermost course, made of hard limestone, served as a foundation platform for the scaenae frons podium. The wall was widened in its lower part (6.6 m) with the construction of three stepped courses against its southern face, starting from its fourth course (-154.51) and reaching the top of the central passage vault (-155.32) that passed between the walls (see below). The northern ends of the supporting beams of the pulpitum floor were anchored over the upper step. The proscaenium foundation in the south (W2046) was pierced along its northern face at regular intervals of c. 2 m by 12 cavities equipped with basalt corbelling slabs in their lower part, into which the southern ends of the wooden beams were inserted.

31

Fig. 3.12. Severan Theater: the corner of W2101 and W2102 at the western end of the hyposcaenium, looking southwest.

Below the hyposcaenium floor level, a foundation wall (W2109) of an earlier stage (Stratum 13; see Chapter 2), running east to west, was reused in the hyposcaenium in Stratum 12. It was 6.5 m wide, located about 0.7 m from the scaenae frons (W2079) in the north and 1.5 m away from the proscaenium (W2046) in the south (see Plan. 3.2). The foundation wall was constructed of well-cut and dressed basalt courses in its southern face, while its northern was attached to bedrock. Its inner core contained small to mediumsized basalt stones compactly laid and leveled in a hard, gray mortar. It was founded upon the sloping bedrock and reached down to seven courses on the northern face and two on the southern. In Stratum 12, another wall (W2160) was attached to the southern face of the earlier foundation wall from east to west, 0.55–0.60 m from the proscaenium (see Plan 3.2, Fig. 2.6). It was 0.95 m wide, built of two basalt courses, each 0.55 m high. The top of W2160 was approximately level with that of the proscaenium’s foundation. Over W2160, an abutment system was built, of which one abutment (W2056) was preserved up to one course high (-155.64).

32

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

It seems that W2160 carried a line of 12 intermediate abutments that supported the wooden beams at their southern end, while the earlier foundation wall carried two additional lines of abutments along the center and northern part of the hyposcaenium, none of which, apart from W2056, survived the later renovation stages of the pulpitum supporting system during Roman IV to Byzantine II (see below).

Wall 2109 (-155.46/-157.25) was covered by a thick fill of basalt stones and soil (L1140, L1171; Fig. 3.13) that contained third–sixth-century CE pottery sherds, a glass fragment (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5:3:27), and two coins of the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 249, 590). Between W2109 and the scaenae frons foundation (W2079), the 0.7 m wide space was sealed with a compact fill (L1142, L1187, L1195, L1124, L1263) of basalt stones and black soil that contained

Fig. 3.13. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, fill over W2109, looking east.

Fig. 3.14. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, upper surface of W2109 and W2160 with pipe under W2046 (left side of photograph) that drains into T6, looking south.

33

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

m 4 W2046

5

Basalt

12

11

10

9

8

7

0

T6

6

W2079

The pulpitum floor of Stratum 11 (Roman IV), constructed in the late fourth–early fifth centuries CE, after the earthquake of 363 CE, was presumably laid over wooden beams that were carried by supporting walls and abutments, the remains of which were exposed in the hyposcaenium. The hyposcaenium in this stage was 55 m long and 8.4 m wide (Plan 3.3). Attached to the scaenae frons foundation (W2079) was a row of 12 abutments, whose basalt courses were laid upon the stepped courses of the wall. They were mostly preserved to a height of one course, their dimensions 1.1–1.2 × 2.2–2.4 m, and the distance between them 1.0–1.5 m (2.2–2.4 m from each abutment center to the next). Along the hyposcaenium’s central axis, 2.2 m south of the latter, a parallel row of abutments was built. Further to the south, along the proscaenium (W2046), supporting basalt corbellings were inserted into the soft-limestone courses of the proscaenium’s northern face at equal intervals (1.8 m apart, 2.2–2.4 m from each stone’s center), parallel to the location of the abutments. The abutment system in this stage thus consisted of twelve pairs of abutments and their counter corbellings, and three pairs of abutments that spanned the passage over the central channel, T6, which bisected the hyposcaenium along its central south–north axis. The abutment system can be technically divided into two sections, eastern and western, each containing six pairs of abutments, all built of basalt courses (Plans 3.4, 3.5).

4

Stratum 11

Plan 3.3. Severan Theater: plan of hyposcaenium in Stratum 11.

3

2

1

second–third-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the third century CE (Coin Cat. No. 178). This narrow space may have served in Stratum 12 as a drainage channel, presumably connected to T6, the central channel (see below). Its rubble-floor level (L1263), which adjoined W2109, was founded on bedrock and upon it was found a coin dating to Umayyad II (c. 734 CE [116 AH]; Coin Cat. No. 770). Between W2160 and the proscaenium (W2046), another 0.7 m wide space, sealed by a fill of yellow travertine soil (L1190, L1143; see Plan 3.2: Section 1-1), contained sixth-century CE pottery sherds. A segmented clay pipe, 0.38–0.40 m long and 0.15 m in diameter, was laid next to the proscaenium wall (W2046) and was covered with hard gray mortar (-156.71). It presumably began in the eastern part of the hyposcaenium and ran westward to drain into Channel T6 (Fig. 3.14).

34

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Abutment 1: Wall 2083 (L1269) had five stone courses (1.1 × 1.3 m). Integrated among its stones were a limestone column drum and a limestone krater (L1269, B3214). The abutment was founded over a fill of small limestone and basalt fragments and upon the three stepped courses of the scaenae frons foundation (Fig. 3.15). Abutment W2091 (0.75 × 1.10) stood along the central axis parallel to W2083.

W2079

8

7

W2026 W2024 W2053

L1177 L1176 W2100 W2110 T6 W2052 5 4 6 W2094 W2096 W2055 L1168 L1179 L1169 W2016

-154.15 -156.22

W2046

Basalt

L1066 L1092

-153.66 -156.20

W2087 3 W2044 L1266 -153.39 -156.20

L1269 W2083 L1016 W2067 L1018 2 -156.20 1 L1023 L1054 W2045 W2091 L1112 L1136-7 L1139 L1180 -156.26

W2204

1

W2017

W2077

1

-153.36 -154.08 -155.32 -156.22

-153.00

Abutment 2: Wall 2067 (-154.35/-156.20) was preserved to three basalt courses (1.35 × 1.65 m), founded on a fill and upon the stepped courses of the scaenae frons foundation. Abutment W2045 (0.9 × 1.1 m) stood in the center, parallel to W2067. Abutment 3: Wall 2087 (-154.47/-156.26) was preserved to two courses (1.35 × 1.75 m), founded on a fill of small stones and upon the stepped courses of

0

4

m

W2079

-153 -154

W2096 W2046 W2100

-155 -156 -157

1-1

Plan 3.4. Severan Theater: eastern part of hyposcaenium in Stratum 11.

35

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

the scaenae frons foundation. Abutment W2044 (1.0 × 1.1 m; L1266) stood parallel to W2087, and its foundation of limestone and basalt rubble penetrated the fill to level -156.20. Abutment 4: Wall 2110 was built of five basalt courses (1.20 × 1.65 m), of which only its eastern face was preserved, mounting the stepped courses of the scaenae frons foundation. It was founded over a fill (L1176) of firmly compressed basalt stones and hard, dark gray mortar that penetrated deeply. In the abutment’s core were found sixth-century CE pottery sherds and a coin dated to the third century CE (Coin Cat. No. 96). Abutment W2094 stood parallel to W2110, and was preserved to four courses (1 × 1 m). It was founded over a fill (L1168) that contained second–sixth-century CE pottery sherds and a coin dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 628). Abutment 5: Wall 2100 was preserved to two courses (1.20 × 1.55 m) founded over the same fill (L1177) as W2110. In its core were found sixth-century CE pottery sherds. Abutment W2096 stood parallel to W2100 and was preserved to four courses (1.0 × 1.1 m). It was founded over a fill (L1169) that contained

Fig. 3.15. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Abutment W2083, looking northeast.

-153.39

-154.59

W2079

W2072

W2074

W2075

W2076

12

11

10

9

-153.48 -155.40 L1020 L1050 L1131 L1138

-153.85 -155.42

W2035

-153.70 -155.42

W2033

-154.60 -155.50

-154.80

W2020 W2017 W2016 W2053

-154.53 -154.95

-153.35 W2077 -155.32 7 8 -154.30 -153.67 -155.77 -156.09

T6

W2032 W2031 W2026 W2024 -155.50 L1028 L1029 W2046

Basalt

0

4

m

Plan 3.5. Severan Theater: western part of hyposcaenium in Stratum 11.

6 W2052

W2055

36

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

second–sixth-century CE pottery sherds and two coins dated to the second and fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 25, 384). Integrated among the abutment courses was a soft-limestone Ionic capital (A40622; see Fig. 9.4:3). Abutment 6: Wall 2016, built of six courses (0.7 × 0.9 m), mounted the stepped courses of the scaenae frons foundation (Fig 3.16). Abutment W2055 stood parallel to W2016 and was built of five courses (1.16 × 1.30 m). On its western side it was founded over the eastern wall (W2052) of the central channel (T6) and on the east over a fill of travertine lumps (L1179), in which two coins dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE were found (Coin Cat. Nos. 593, 602). The corbelling stone in the proscaenium, parallel to W2055, was not preserved. Abutment 7: Wall 2017 (-153.35/-155.32) stood opposite W2016 on the western side of the central channel. It was built of five courses (0.7 × 0.8 m) that mounted the stepped courses of the scaenae frons foundation (Fig. 3.16). Abutment W2020 was attached to it from the west, creating a larger abutment, 1.6 m wide, built of eight courses that mounted the steps. Abutment W2024 stood parallel to W2017, founded over the western wall (W2053) of the central channel. It was built of six courses (0.9 × 1.0 m), the two uppermost of which served as the spring courses of

the arch that spanned the tunnel constructed over the central drainage channel between W2024 and W2055. Abutment 8: Wall 2077 was built of several courses (1.1 × 1.1 m). Abutment W2026 stood parallel to W2077 and was built of four stepped courses (1.00 × 1.15 m) that narrowed upward (0.75 × 0.85 m). Abutment 9: Wall 2076 was built of several courses (1.0 × 1.5 m). Abutment W2031 stood parallel to W2076 and was built of five courses that narrowed upward (0.95 × 1.00/1.05 × 1.10 m). Abutment 10: Wall 2075 was built of several courses (1.00 × 1.15 m). Abutment W2032 stood parallel to W2075 and was built of five courses (1.2 × 1.3 m; Fig. 3.17). The first three courses were built-in steps, while the upper two were a later (Stratum 9) renovation. Abutment 11: Wall 2074 was built of several courses (1.30 × 1.35 m). Abutment W2033 stood parallel to W2074 and was built of six courses (1.00 × 1.05 m). The lower four were built-in steps and leveled with small stones, while the upper ones were a later renovation. Abutment 12: Wall 2072 was built of several courses (1.35 × 1.35 m). Abutment W2035 stood parallel to W2072 and was built of six courses (0.9 × 1.0 m). The lower four were the stepped courses, the upper two were a later renovation.

Fig. 3.16. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Abutments W2016 and W2017 constructed over the protruding steps of the scaenae frons foundation wall, looking north.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

37

Stratum 9

Fig. 3.17. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Abutment W2032, looking north.

The construction of the abutments attached to the scaenae frons foundation differed from those along the hyposcaenium central axis. The former stood partly over a light gray soil layer (L1028, L1029; see Plan 3.5), their courses attached to and mounting the wall’s steps, while the latter were freestanding abutments upon a layer of yellow travertine soil. Floor remains of that stage were observed on the eastern side of the hyposcaenium (-156.20). On this side, the foundation layer, over which the abutments were founded (L1016, L1018, L1023, L1054, L1112, L1136, L1137, L1139, L1180; Plan 3.4) was excavated down to W2109, the earlier foundation wall. On the western side, a similar foundation layer was revealed (L1020, L1050, L1131, L1138; see Plan 3.5). On both sides, the upper gray soil and a travertine layer covered a destruction layer that overlay the earlier wall (W2109) and included basalt masonry and rubble, as well as third–sixth-century CE pottery, a fragment of a marble slab and eleven coins of the second–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 34, 38, 94, 111, 177, 307, 643, 644, 654, 655, 657).

Applebaum’s plan of the pulpitum (1978:82–83) reflected its latest renovation stage dated to the early sixth century CE (Stratum 9), in which the stage was divided into three sections, the central pulpitum, 30 m long, and two separate flanks, the western, 12.9 m long, and the eastern, 12.1 m long. Both flanks were paved with limestone slabs that were later dismantled and reused in the Umayyad II theater pottery workshop. The flanks were separated from the pulpitum by banisters, the architectural elements of which were found scattered around, and their original locations were determined by the imprints in the paving’s foundation layer. The flanks were entered from the hospitalia, the itinera versurarum and by staircases leading to them from the aditus maximi. Narrow staircases were constructed alongside the bordering banisters’ shafts that descended from north to south into the eastern and western ends of the hyposcaenium. The relatively well-preserved pavement of the pulpitum (8.4 × 30.0 m) can be technically divided into two parts, northern and southern, both of which were further divided into eastern and western sections by the central drainage channel T6. These divisions were reflected in the differing nature of the preserved pavement sections, as well as the subterranean supporting system in the hyposcaenium (Plan 3.6). In the northern part of the pulpitum, the limestone pavers were preserved on both sides of the central drainage channel, laid over a compressed fill (see Fig. 3.18), while the central drainage channel, supported by arches, was presumably covered with a wooden floor. The southern part of the pulpitum was probably also covered with a wooden floor laid over arches that were also divided into two sections on either side of the central channel. The following description of Stratum 9 follows the divisions of the pulpitum pavements and the hyposcaenium subterranean support system. Northeastern Section of the Pulpitum and the Hyposcaenium The northeastern preserved limestone pavement of the pulpitum, 0.25 m thick, was laid in 22 north–south rows (Fig. 3.18). The slabs, 0.4–1.6 m long and 0.40–0.85 m wide, were found in situ and mostly broken (Plan 3.7). Next to the scaenae frons (W2079) they were preserved at level -153.29, while in the south, next to W2027, they sank to level -153.49.

38

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Plan 3.6. Severan Theater: pulpitum in Stratum 9.

0

Proscaenium

Pulpitum

Scaenae Frons

4

m

Pulpitum

Fig. 3.18. Severan Theater: limestone pavement of the northern part of the pulpitum, looking west.

The pavement was laid over a construction case (3.0 × 13.3 m) that was enclosed by retaining walls and filled with compressed soil. The retaining walls were constructed over a fill layer that covered the abutments of the earlier (Stratum 11) support system (Fig. 3.19), while compressed soil filled the construction case and buried the abutments within it. Wall 2082 (L1265) retained the fill from the east. It ran from north to south, was 6.85 m long (-153.66/ -155.23), and varied in width, its northern end 0.7 m wide. Its eastern face was built of five courses of wellcut basalt stones, while its inner (western) face, which was covered by the fill, was irregular, built of mediumsized limestone blocks and broken architectural elements, including a column fragment marked by two Greek letters, presumably mason marks (A40655), and a fragment of a stone lid (L1265, B3207) integrated into the upper wall. The pulpitum pavement slabs covered W2082 as well. Wall 2027, the fill’s southern retaining wall (see Plan 3.7: Section 1-1), was built along the northern side of the hyposcaenium’s southern arch system of the current stage (-153.69/-155.23). It ran from east to west and was integrated into W2082 in the east and W2018 in the west. It was 12.1 m long and its width varied along its length (0.7–1.0 m). Its southern face was well constructed of four limestone and basalt courses, into which some architectural elements were integrated. The northern face was irregular and built of various materials such as medium-sized basalt stones and limestone architectural elements, including a pedestal (A40615), a cornice (A40616), a frieze element (A40617), four column drums and a marble

W2096

W2055 L1121 W2018

W2054

12

L1181

-154.30

11

-153.13 L1178

W2148

W2050

-154.03

10

L1182

9

W2094

W2095

W2099

-155.208

-153.86

-154.07

W2044

W2046

-153.91

L1175

7

-154.71 -155.22

6

-153.69 -155.23

-153.50

L1046 L1048 L1097 L1098 L1100 L1101 L1103 L1105 L1108 L1110

-153.48

3

-154.24

2

W2027 L1129

1

L1270

-153.86

-155.00

4

W2045

W2204

1-1

-153.49

W2027

W2090

T7

W2046

Plan 3.7. Severan Theater: eastern part of pulpitum in Stratum 9.

-156

W2079

4

-153.49

1 -155

-154

-153.45

5

W2022

-153.61

W2045

-153.97

W2092

-153.29

W2091

W2016

W2098

W2093

W2097

W2082 L1265

W2079

W2011

1 W2139

W2022

0

L1160

2

m

W2078

W2138

W2144

Scaenae Frons

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

39

40

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.19. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, the retaining walls of the pulpitum pavement replacing the earlier arch support system, looking west.

architrave slab (A60617; Fig. 3.20). As the wall was dismantled (L1129), sixth-century CE pottery and a fourth-century CE coin (Coin Cat. No. 229) were found in the wall’s core. Wall 2018, the western retaining wall, ran north– south between two earlier abutments, W2016 in the north and W2055 in the south. It was 2.9 m long and 0.7 m wide. Its western face was well constructed of seven limestone courses (-153.69/-156.50; Fig 3.21), while its eastern face that retained the fill was irregular, built of medium-sized basalt stones. The wall was partly founded over W2052 and in its northern part over a fill of gray soil. In the foundation courses of W2018 several fragments of architectural elements were integrated, including a limestone cornice (A40618). As the wall was dismantled (L1121), third–sixth-century CE pottery was revealed along with glass fragments (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.3:31, 32). The construction case

was closed in the north by the foundation courses of the scaenae frons (W2079). The pulpitum pavement was laid upon a compact foundation layer that contained many small basalt stones and limestone and marble fragments with no mortar. Under it, the fill (L1046, L1048, L1097, L1098, L1100, L1101, L1103, L1105, L1108, L1110; see Plan 3.7: Section 1-1) of light gray soil contained basalt stones and limestone masonry fragments of differing size along with fragments of marble architectural elements such as column shaft sections (A44), a fragment of a Corinthian capital (L1048, B5077), a fragment of a fluted marble column shaft (A40601), two fragments of marble Corinthian capitals (A40602, A40621), an architrave slab (A40605) and a fragment of a limestone Ionic capital (A40606). Fragments of soft-limestone column drums were also found in W2027 and W2082, integrated into the stone courses.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

41

Fig. 3.20. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, column drums and a marble architrave slab extracted from W2027, looking east.

Fig. 3.21. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, western face of W2018, looking northeast.

The fill layer also contained third–sixth-century CE pottery, glass fragments, tesserae, metal pieces and 13 coins from the third–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 75, 81, 87, 95, 97, 99, 110, 168, 172, 186, 192, 598, 634). As the fill was removed, five square, basalt-masonry abutments were revealed, built over the scaenae frons foundation (W2079), part of the Stratum 11 support system (see Plan 3.4:1–5), which went out of use in Stratum 9 and was buried in the case fill. The fill also

covered the remains of an earlier Stratum 11 floor next to W2079, at level -156.06. Within the fill layer and over the hyposcaenium floor, a basalt krater (L1048, B5077S) was revealed. A thin accumulation layer covered the floor (L1066, L1092), over which the foundation courses of the Stratum 9 retaining walls were laid. It contained travertine lumps and third–sixthcentury CE pottery, as well as a fragment of a marble cornice and four coins of the first–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 10, 33, 87, 648).

42

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Northwestern Section of Pulpitum and Hyposcaenium The northwestern section of the pulpitum (3.5 × 13.2 m) was paved with 22 rows of limestone pavers laid along a north–south axis, which were preserved in situ (Fig. 3.22). The pavers, 0.4–1.6 m long, 0.40–0.85 m wide and 0.25 m thick, most of them broken, were preserved next to the scaenae frons at a level of -153.11, while further to the south they sank to level -153.22. The foundation case constructed within the hyposcaenium was enclosed by W2019 in the east, W2012 in the south, W2000 in the west, and by the scaenae frons foundation (W2079) in the north (Plan 3.8). These retaining walls were buried in the compressed soil that filled the foundation case and the earlier (Stratum 11) abutments of the pulpitum wooden floor’s support system (Fig. 3.23). In the east, W2019, 3.1 m long and 0.5 m wide, ran from north to south between two abutments, W2017 in the north and W2024 in the south. Its eastern face was constructed of six basalt and limestone courses, in which architectural elements were integrated. The wall had no inner (western) face and when dismantled (L1122), architectural elements were revealed in its core, including a base (A40609), a pedestal (A40604) and a frieze member (A40603) decorated with an acanthus scroll inhabited by a rosette. At its northern

end, the wall was founded over a gray soil layer, while its southern end rested on the western wall (W2024) of Drainage Channel T6. Its foundation courses penetrated deeper than those of W2012, the southern retaining wall (Fig. 3.24). As the wall was dismantled, third–sixth-century CE pottery was found, along with a coin from the third century CE (Coin Cat. No. 199). In the south, W2012 was attached to an earlier, Stratum 11 abutment in the central axis of the hyposcaenium. The alluvium layer over the wall (L1034) contained third–sixth-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the years 395–408 CE (Coin Cat. No. 386). Wall 2012 was connected to W2019 in the east and to W2000 in the west. It was 12.1 m long and 0.8–1.1 m wide. Several architectural elements were integrated into its wellbuilt southern face (L1123), including half a limestone base (A40610), a fragment of a Corinthian capital (A40611), two cornice fragments (A40613, see Fig. 9.15:3; A40614), a soft-limestone column drum and a basalt millstone (L1123, B3206S, B5240E; Fig. 3.25). The wall’s northern face was irregular, as it retained the fill. Its western end, connected to W2000, was built of three courses of soft-limestone column drums. The wall was founded over an earlier wall with an alluvium layer between them. When the wall was dismantled (L1123), third–sixth-century CE pottery was found

Fig. 3.22. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, northwestern part of pulpitum limestone pavement, looking north.

-157

-156

-155

-154

-153

W2088

0

W2013

-154.84

2 m

W2000 W2035

W2013

1-1

W2032 W2084

W2114

-154.70

24

W2085

-153.48 -154.90

W2000

23

22 21 L1053

17

W2030

W2026

L1119 L1118

L1017

W2024

-154.06 -154.28

W2025

W2046

-154.05 -153.99 -153.99 -154.01

W2031

W2086

A40612

-153.89

-153.60

-154.10 -154.48 -153.48

L1034

L1007 L1115 L1009 L1120 20 19 18

L1041 -154.11 -155.40

-153.41

-153.51

Plan 3.8. Severan Theater: western part of pulpitum in Stratum 9.

L1041 L1053

W2034

W2117 W2033

1

-153.48

W2034

W2002

-153.22

L1074 L1080 W2012 L1123

W2033

W2003

-154.35

W2084

W2102

-153.45

W2004

W2032

-153.11

W2007

-153.10

L1024 L1125 L1130 L1135

-153.86

15

-154.18

Proscaenium

-153.89

16

-154.18

-154.90

-153.11

W2079

L1073 -153.48

W2031 W2030 W2008

-153.86

W2085 W20 W2005

W2035 W2001

W2086

W2006

W2026

W2009

-153.00

W2017

-153.44

14 L1017

1

-153.44

13

L1117 -153.42

-153.78 -155.08

L1122

W2047

W2025

W2010

W2019

W2024

Scaenae Frons

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

43

44

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.23. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, the northwestern part with retaining walls and earlier (Stratum 11) abutments, looking northwest.

Fig. 3.25. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, basalt millstone in W2012, looking south.

Fig. 3.24. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, W2019 founded upon W2053, the wall of the central channel, looking northwest.

along with four coins of the second–third centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 31, 58, 89, 106).

Wall 2000 is the western retaining wall of the foundation case. West of it, a staircase descended into the hyposcaenium. The wall, 6.85 m long and 0.7 m wide, ran from north to south along the width of the pulpitum. At its southern end, an arch was built and W2012 was connected to it. Its western face was well constructed of five limestone courses, while its inner (eastern) face was built against the fill. The pulpitum pavement was laid over a compact fill (L1034, L1073, L1074, L1077, L1080) of brown soil containing basalt- and limestone-masonry pieces, and fragments of marble and limestone architectural elements. The latter included a soft-limestone column

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

drum, a section of a marble column shaft (L1073, B5121), a fragment of a marble Corinthian capital (L1074, B5129), a hard-limestone base (L1073, B5138), a marble base (L1074, B5132), a hardlimestone cornice fragment (A40619) and a fragment of a black marble fluted column (A40645). The fill also contained a large amount of pottery ranging from the second to the fifth centuries CE, metal fragments, a small glass bowl (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.1:10), and 18 coins ranging in date from 159/50 CE to the seventh century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 20, 50, 60, 64, 66, 67, 76, 91, 113, 114, 189, 264, 358, 651–653, 679, 751). The fill covered the early, Stratum 11 abutments (Plan 3.8) attached to the scaenae frons foundation (W2079). Southern Section of the Hyposcaenium The southern part of the hyposcaenium in Stratum 9 consisted of an oblong passage, along which arches were built to support the pulpitum floor (see Plan 3.6), presumably made of wood. It was 30 m long, 3.2 m wide, and separated into two sections, western and eastern, by a passage, 1.3 m wide, that crossed through the center of the stage on a south–north axis. In the center ran the theater’s main drainage channel (see below). The hyposcaenium’s southern section was partially exposed by Applebaum (Fig. 3.26). The IAA expedition completed the excavation, during which the remains of the supporting arches were revealed, mostly in a state of collapse, presumably a result of the earthquake of 749 CE. Applebaum (1965:4; 1978:81,

45

88, 91) briefly described the hyposcaenium and its excavation results as follows: “The hyposcaenium is divided into sections of varying length by voussoir arches, the crowns of which remained below the level of the stage. Its width varied but the average was about 1.5 m. Descent was provided by stairs set in the stage, at its extreme east and west limits and at its center. Judging by parallels, more particularly by that of the theater of Syracuse (Bieber 1961:179–180) the subterranean passage, which was a late feature in the history of the Beth She’an theater, contained the machinery for lowering and rising the sectional curtain (siparium) in front the stage, and a stone slab found at the east end of the passage contained a square opening into which a mast, one of a number necessary for such machinery could have been stepped.” He further noted that “although the hyposcaenium appears to have been built in the fourth century CE, pockets of Severan pottery in its western half suggested that it had been preceded by an earlier structure along the same line.” He then described the finds derived from sections cut in the fill of the hyposcaenium: “the fill of the passage could be divided into two parts, an upper and a lower (Strata IVA–V and VII–VIII respectively, reading from top to bottom). They were separated by VI, which contained much masonry debris and also opus sectile from the scaenae frons. Byzantine coins were found in both sections, but sixth century CE coins were confined to the upper strata; those below included coins as late as the fifth, and two occurred in the lowest

Fig. 3.26. Severan Theater: the 1962 excavations of the hyposcaenium, looking north.

46

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

stratum. On the other hand Strata IVA and V contained quantities of sherds of the type dated by coins to the second half of the fifth century in the strata belonging to Byzantine dwellings built over the western gate of the theater when the latter was in a state of dilapidation and disuse. Together with these sherds a number of fragments of glass polycandelia were encountered. It would therefore seem that the hyposcaenium, first built in its present form in the later fourth century CE, was used between 450–500 as a domestic rubbish dump, but that some time in the sixth century, possibly in the reign of Justin (518–527)—six of whose coins came from the orchestra area—it was reconditioned, and a water channel was inserted in its western half. This contained a fourth to fifth century coin in bad condition, while another was extracted from its masonry, in which a third century statue-torso had been incorporated.” The passage was thus excavated by Applebaum, who cleared its 749 CE earthquake collapse (just the upper part and its nature was not defined by him). Some of the arches’ abutments were dismantled by him, while several others were restored. The area was further uncovered by the IAA expedition. The arch system in the southern part of the hyposcaenium, based on pairs of masonry-built abutments, was constructed between W2012, W2027 in the north and W2046 in the south. It was divided into two sections separated by the central channel, each with 12 arches (see Plans 3.7, 3.8). They seem to have been constructed in one stage, incorporating fourteen abutments of the earlier Stratum 11 together with 28 additional abutments of the current stage. In the northern line, the new abutments were added between the well-separated abutments of the previous stage, which in turn were rebuilt and raised in order to fit the new required arch levels (Fig. 3.27). The remains of 24 basalt-masonry arches were revealed, of which six were fully reconstructed by Applebaum. The arches were 1.50–1.57 m high, 0.5–0.7 m wide and 0.6–0.7 m apart (Fig. 3.28). They will be described from east to west, referring to both construction stages (Strata 11 and 9; for Arches 1–12, see Plan 3.7; and for Arches 13–24, see Plan 3.8). Arch 1: A restored arch (W2090; -153.49/-155.60) was built of roughly cut basalt stones, the courses of which were leveled by small stones. It rested over W2027 in the north and over an abutment (0.65 × 0.67 m) of three courses attached to W2046 in the south.

Fig. 3.27. Severan Theater: the arch system in the southern part of the hyposcaenium, looking northeast.

Arch 2: A restored arch (W2091; -153.50/-156.26) was built in the same manner over two abutments, the northern earlier one (Stratum 11) was constructed of three basalt courses (1.1 × 1.1 m) and the southern (0.60 × 0.68 m) of two. Arch 3: Abutment W2092 (-154.24/-155.40), the northern abutment of the arch, was built of roughly cut basalt stones (0.6 × 1.2 m) in three courses. Its northern face, attached to W2027, was built of rubble held in mortar. Its counter abutment in the south was not preserved. Arch 4: A restored arch (W2045) was built of roughly cut basalt stones. It rested over a northern, earlier (Stratum 11) abutment with two stepped courses (1.10 × 1.14 m) and over a new southern abutment (0.60 × 0.72 m) preserved to two courses (Fig. 3.29). Arch 5: Similar to Arch 3, of which only the northern abutment (W2022) was preserved.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

47

Fig. 3.28. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, the arches and abutments restored by Applebaum, looking southeast.

Fig. 3.29. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Arch 4 (W2045) constructed over two earlier, Stratum 11 abutments, looking southeast.

Arch 6: A restored arch (W2044), rested on two basalt abutments. The northern (1.0 × 1.1 m) was a reused Stratum 11 abutment, the foundation of which penetrated an accumulation layer and rested on a fill of stones and travertine lumps in gray soil (L1266). The southern abutment (0.70 × 0.75 m) was attached to the proscaenium (W2046; Fig. 3.30). Arch 7: The northern abutment of the arch (W2093) was built of three roughly cut basalt stones (0.65 × 1.10 m), while its northern face, attached to W2027, was built of rubble (see Fig. 3.30). The southern abutment W2097 (-153.91/155.22) was built of four basalt courses (0.65 × 0.80 m). Both abutments rested over a hard brown soil layer containing little sixth-century pottery, which was laid over a thick fill (L1175). Arch 8: The northern abutment of the arch (W2094; -153.86/-156.20) was a reused Stratum 11 abutment built of four basalt courses (1 × 1 m). It served Arches 8 and 9 and rested over a fill layer (L1168). The southern abutment (W2098; -154.07/-155.22) was built of four basalt courses (0.70 × 0.85 m) in the same manner and rested over the same fill. Arch 9: It shared the same northern abutment (W2094; -153.86/-156.20), as Arch 8 (above). Over the western side of W2094, two basalt courses were built on three sides, while the fourth, attached to W2027, was built of rubble held in mortar. The southern abutment

48

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.30. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, abutments of Arches 6 and 7 (W2044 and W2093), looking south.

W2099 (-154.07/-155.22) was built of three basalt courses (0.75 × 0.95 m). The arch between them was not preserved. Pottery of the third–sixth centuries CE was accompanied by three coins, one from the reign of Constantius II (341–346 CE; Coin Cat. No. 259) and two from the fourth–fifth centuries CE that were found in its foundation layer (L1182; Coin Cat. Nos. 626, 627). Arch 10: The northern abutment (W2095; -153.61/ -156.24) was an earlier Stratum 11 abutment built of four courses of basalt on all four sides. It rested over a fill (L1169). The southern counter abutment was not preserved. Arch 11: Abutment W2148 (-153.97/-155.40) was attached to the eastern side of an earlier abutment (W2055). It was built of four basalt courses (0.6 × 0.9 m).

Its southern and eastern exposed faces were well built, while the other attached sides were composed of rubble and mortar (Fig. 3.31). It rested over a layer of gray soil and small basalt stones (L1178), in which a coin dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE was recovered (Coin Cat. No. 629). Wall 2050 (-154.03/ -154.80), its counter abutment in the south (0.70 × 0.85 m), was built of four basalt courses. Arch 12: Abutment W2055 (-154.13/-156.22), a reused Stratum 11 abutment, was well built on all four sides of five basalt courses (see Fig. 3.31). Its western side rested upon the eastern wall of the central drainage channel. Between the wall and the abutment was a fill layer (L1179; Stratum 11). In the proscaenium, Abutment W2054 (-154.30/-156.22; 0.7 × 0.8 m) was built over the eastern wall of the

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

49

Fig. 3.31. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Abutment W2148 attached to W2055, looking south.

central drainage channel, separated by a soil layer (L1181). It was constructed of five basalt courses, some limestone masonry and a fragment of a limestone cornice (B5385). Glass fragments from within the abutment courses included the base of a bottle (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.3:41). Further to the west beyond the central drainage channel, the western part of the arch system (Arches 13–24) continued westward (see Plan 3.8: Section 1-1; see Fig. 3.27). Here the abutments were relatively well preserved and one arch (Arch 24) was fully restored. Arch 13: Abutment W2024 (-153.42/-156.09) was a reused Stratum 11 abutment built of six basalt courses on all four sides (1.0 × 0.9 m), the upper two serving as the arch’s spring courses. It was founded over the western wall (W2053) of the central drainage channel. Abutment W2047 (0.6 × 1.45 m; -153.44/-154.44) in the south was attached to an earlier one and built of five basalt courses. It stood parallel to Abutment W2024. Arch 14: Abutment W2025 was built of five basalt courses on three sides (0.55 × 0.80 m), while the fourth

(northern) side was attached to W2012. It was founded over a yellow soil layer (L1117), which contained third–sixth-century CE pottery, a button, glass sherds (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.4:48) and two coins of the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 347, 380). Abutment W2010 (-153.44/-155.09) stood parallel to W2025 (0.95 × 1.40 m) and was built of five basalt courses. Arch 15: Abutment W2026 (-153.86/-155.77), a reused Stratum 11 abutment, was originally built on all four sides of four basalt courses (lower 1.00 × 1.15 m; upper 0.75 × 0.85 m), each course protruding about 4 cm from the one above. Abutment W2009 (-153.86/ -155.09) in the south was built of five basalt courses (0.60 × 0.65 m). Arch 16: Abutment W2030 (-154.18/-155.06) was built of three basalt courses on three sides (0.55 × 0.90 m), while the fourth was attached to W2012. It was founded over a yellow soil layer (L1118) that contained third–sixth-century CE pottery and some glass fragments. Abutment W2008 (-153.89/-155.08)

50

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

in the south was built of four basalt courses (0.55 × 0.80 m) over a yellow-soil layer. Arch 17: Abutment W2031, a reused Stratum 11 abutment, was built of five basalt courses on all four sides, each course protruding some 4 cm (lower 1.05 × 1.10 m, upper 0.95 × 1.00 m) from the one above. In the west, W2086 was attached to it, thus creating a 1.4 m wide abutment (Fig. 3.32). Abutment W2086 (-154.10/-154.95; L1119) was built of four basalt courses (0.4 × 1.0 m) on two sides only. It was founded over a yellow soil layer (L1119) that contained a coin dated to the reign of Constantius II (346–350 CE; Coin Cat. No. 267). Abutment 2007 (-154.28/-155.28), which stood parallel to W2086, was built of four basalt courses (0.80 × 0.85 m). Arch 18: Abutment W2085 (-154.48/-155.02) was attached to W2032 in the west, its first course serving as its foundation, the second consisting of a gray-granite column-shaft section (A40612; see Fig. 3.32), while its upper course had a basalt block set over W2032 (0.5 × 1.0 m). It was founded upon a yellow soil layer (L1115, L1120) containing third–sixth-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the reign of Constantine I (326–330 CE; Coin Cat. No. 226). Abutment W2006 (-154.06/ -154.76) stood parallel to W2085 and was built of three basalt courses (0.55 × 0.80 m).

Arch 19: Abutment W2032 (-153.60/-155.42), a reused Stratum 11 abutment, was built of four basalt courses. The lower three, of the earlier phase, consisted of mediumsized stones leveled with small stones, and each of its courses protruded some 4 cm from the one above (1.2 × 1.3 m). The upper two courses were added in Stratum 9 and narrowed in size (0.95 × 1.20 m). Abutment W2005 (-154.01/-154.61) stood parallel to W2032 and was built of two basalt courses (0.75 × 0.95 m). Arch 20: Abutment W2084 (-153.51/-155.10) was attached to W2033 in the west and was built of six basalt courses (0.65 × 0.90 m), its lower three attached to W2033, while the fourth was integrated into W2033. Abutment W2004 (-153.99/-154.76) stood parallel to W2084 and was built of two basalt courses (0.75 × 0.90 m), into which a Corinthian capital was integrated. Arch 21: Abutment W2033 (-153.41/-155.42), a reused Stratum 11 abutment, was built on all four sides of six basalt courses. The lower four, of the earlier phase, were built of well-cut, medium-sized basalt masonry leveled by small stones, each protruding some 4 cm from the one above, while the upper two courses, added in Stratum 9, were built of larger stones (1.00 × 1.05 m). Abutment W2003 (-153.99/-155.03) stood parallel to W2033 and was built of three basalt courses (0.65 × 0.70 m; Fig. 3.33).

Fig. 3.32. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Abutment W2031 attached to W2086, looking north.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.33. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Abutments W2003, W2002 and W2001, looking south.

Arch 22: Abutment W2034 (-154.11/-154.94) was built of five basalt courses (0.65 × 1.05 m). Abutment W2002 (-154.05/-154.95) stood parallel to W2034 and was built of four basalt courses (0.60 × 0.65 m; see Fig 3.33). Arch 23: Abutment W2035 (-153.48/-155.40) was built of six basalt courses on all four sides. Its lower four courses, of the earlier Stratum 11 abutment, were built of well-cut, medium-sized basalt masonry leveled by small stones, each course protruding some 4 cm from the one above, while the upper two courses (0.9 × 1.0 m) were added in Stratum 9. Abutment W2001 (-153.89/-155.01) stood parallel to W2035 and was built of three basalt courses (0.60 × 0.65 m; see Fig. 3.33). Arch 24: The first arch at the western end of the hyposcaenium rested over W2000 on its eastern side, and over an abutment that was attached to the proscaenium (W2046) at its southern end. The abutment, 0.6 × 0.7 m, was built of three basalt courses, 0.7–0.8 m each, and above sprang the arch. The arch system built in the southern part of the hyposcaenium thus included two types of abutments,

51

representing two architectural stages. The later ones, from Stratum 9 (see Plans 3.7, 3.8), were attached to the proscaenium (from east to west: W2097–W2099, W2050, W2054, W2047, W2010, W2009, W2008, W2007, W2006, W2005, W2004, W2003, W2002, W2001), while their parallel ones were attached to W2027 and W2012 (from east to west: W2092, W2022, W2093–W2096, W2055, W2024, W2025, W2026, W2030, W2031, W2086, W2085, W2032, W2084, W2033–W2035, W2000). On three sides, they were built of well-cut, basalt masonry, occasionally integrating limestone masonry, while the fourth side was built of rubble and attached to the wall. They were laid over a layer of brown compressed soil at a higher level than the earlier ones. Under their foundations, an accumulation layer of gray soil containing travertine lumps was revealed. The earlier, reused abutments of Stratum 11 (see Plans 3.4, 3.5) were mostly located in the central line of the hyposcaenium (W2091, W2045, W2044, W2094, W2096, W2055, W2024, W2026, W2031–W2033, W2035), while two others were located next to the proscaenium (W2054, W2010). They were all built of large basalt masonry on four sides, and their foundations reached far deeper. Of the entire system, the northern set of abutments, attached to W2012, was relatively better preserved (W2024– W2026, W2030–W2035, W2085, W2086). Between the hyposcaenium abutments of the western section (see Plan 3.8: Section 1-1), a layer of gray accumulation was excavated down to foundation level of Stratum 9 (L1007, L1009). It contained sixth-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the reign of Constantius II (346–350 CE; Coin Cat. No. 265). The abutments that were attached to the proscaenium (W2001– W2009, W2047) were founded upon a layer of hard, gray-brown soil containing travertine lumps (see Plan 3.8; L1017, L1041, L1053), a small amount of stones, sixth-century CE pottery, and third–sixth-century CE glass finds (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.2:24; 5.3:33). The coin assemblage included 40 coins ranging in date from c. 54 CE to the Umayyad period (Coin Cat. Nos. 11–13, 19, 30, 32, 35, 45, 47, 48, 169, 184, 190, 211, 220, 234, 256, 257, 305, 324, 361, 362, 383, 385, 387, 396, 587, 588, 595–597, 604, 637–640, 646, 647, 659, 795). The abutments attached to W2012 were founded over a similar layer. Scanty floor remains were found in various places at level -155.20 in the east, and -155.40 in the west, and they matched the construction level of Abutments

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

W2044 (-155.04), W2093 (-155.06) and W2148 (-155.37) in the east, which dated to Stratum 9. Thus, they seem to represent the floor level of the sixth century CE, which differed slightly in levels on the two sides of the hyposcaenium. The floor level in the western part (-155.40) can be determined by the foundation levels of Abutments W2085 (-155.02), W2025 (-155.08), W2030 (-155.03), W2086 (-155.02), W2001 (-154.95) and W2003 (-155.03), which were erected over a fill layer at a somewhat higher level (see Plan 3.8: Section 1-1). The Arch System of the Central Passage and Drainage Channel in the Hyposcaenium The central passage of the hyposcaenium extended south–north between W2018 and W2019 and the foundation walls of Arches 12 and 13 (Plan 3.9). It was 6.8 m long (from the proscaenium foundation W2046 to the scaenae frons foundation W2079) and its width varied (1.5–2.0 m). Along its route some arches were built over the passage; the first sprang from two abutments that were attached to the proscaenium, W2054 and W2047. Further to the north were abutments W2055 and W2024, both of which carried cross-section arches over the southern part of the hyposcaenium (Arches 12 and 13) and the central passage. The next arch was based on W2028 and W2029 and the fourth was built over two high abutments (W2016 and W2017) erected at the northern end of the central passage over the stepped foundation

of the scaenae frons (Fig. 3.34). The central-passage arches carried wooden beams that supported a wooden floor over the passage. The distance between Abutments W2016 and W2017 and Abutments W2029 and W2028 was 1.9 m, and that between Abutments W2029 and W2028 and Abutments W2055 and W2024 was 0.55 m. Abutment W2016 (-153.36/ -155.32) was built over the protruding steps of the scaenae frons foundation of six basalt courses (0.7 × 0.9 m; see Fig. 3.16). Abutment W2017 stood opposite W2016, at a distance of about 1.25 m, and was built in the same manner of five basalt courses (see Fig. 3.16). The northern ends of W2018 and W2019, which bordered the pulpitum pavement to the east and west, were attached to Abutments W2016 and W2017, concealing one of their southern sides and they may have been part of the earlier, Stratum 11 phase. Abutment W2029, attached to W2018 from the west, was built of large limestone masonry in three courses of 0.58 × 1.64 m each (see Fig. 3.34). Abutment W2028, measuring 0.54 × 1.86 m and attached to W2019 from the east, was also built of large limestone masonry in three courses. Both abutments were attached to W2018 and W2019 and not integrated into their construction. The distance between them was 0.86 m and they were founded over a fill layer (L1008). Abutments W2055, W2024, W2054 and W2047 served the hyposcaenium arch system as well as the central-passage arches (see above, Arches 12 and 13). The distance between both pairs was c. 1.5 m. No floor related to those abutments was found.

Fig. 3.34. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, the abutments that carried the crosssection vaults over the hyposcaenium central passage, looking north.

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Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Valvae Regiae

-153.36

W2017

W2016

W2055

-153.42

13

12

W2047

W2010

-153.88

W2054

W2024

W2025

W2026 -153.89

-153.88 -155.00

14

15

W2009

16

-154.18

1

-154.30

-153.86 -153.44

-153.44

10

9

8

-154.03

W2046

2

0

11

W2095 W2095

W2028 W2029

-153.48 -154.90

17

L1008 L1010

W2148

1

W2050 W2096

W2019

-153.11

W2018

-153.35

W2079

m

-153

W2029

-154

W2028

W2018

W2019

-155

-156

1-1

Plan 3.9. Severan Theater: central passage of hyposcaenium in Stratum 9.

Hyposcaenium Staircases The arch system that supported the pulpitum in the southern part of the hyposcaenium, technically divided into three parts, created a well-planned and functional

subterranean space. Its eastern part, 15 m long, 3.3–3.5 m wide, was enclosed by W2027 in the north, by the proscaenium (W2046) in the south, by W2011 in the east and by the central passage and drainage channel

54

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

in the west (see Plan 3.7). At the eastern end of the pulpitum, a 2 m long, 0.8 m wide staircase, bordered by W2011 and W2082 (Plan 3.10: Section 2-2), consisted of five steps of limestone, basalt and a reused marble architectural element (A40633), and descended into the eastern arched section of the hyposcaenium (L1270). The steps, 0.30–0.35 m deep and 0.20–0.25 m high, began at level -153.86 and descended to level -155.00. The lowest step was 0.84 m higher than the hyposcaenium floor. The staircase was built over a fill that contained sixth-century CE pottery and seems to be the same fill layer that was revealed under the pulpitum’s northern pavement, and thus belonging to the same construction phase. The western part of the hyposcaenium (see Plan 3.8), 14 m long, was bordered by W2012 in the north, by the proscaenium (W2046) in the south, by W2000 in the west and the central passage and drainage channel in the east. At the western end of the pulpitum, a staircase was built between W2000 and W2013, parallel to that on the eastern end. It was 2.4 m long and 0.94–1.00 m wide, and consisted of six steps of limestone and basalt masonry, 0.30–0.35 m deep and 0.20–0.25 m high. They began in the north with a deeper step (0.5 m; -153.86) and descended to level -154.70. The Corridor and Tunnel East of the Hyposcaenium East of the arch system in the hyposcaenium, a passage (T7), 11.6 m long, was constructed of two sections (a corridor and a vaulted tunnel; Plan 3.10: Section 1-1). It began next to the eastern itinera versurarum foundation wall (W2144) and extended westward. At the eastern end of the passage, attached to the western face of W2144, a shaft (0.9 × 1.0 m) was revealed that descended into a narrow corridor. The corridor was constructed of W2138 in the north, W2078 in the south and W2144 in the east. The corridor, including the shaft, was 2.35 m long, 0.95 m wide, and covered with basalt slabs. At its western end it connected to a wider tunnel, 9.2 m long and 1.8 m wide, between W2022 in the north and W2139 in the south. Both these walls were built of well-cut basalt stones and covered with a basalt barrel vault. The tunnel was partly excavated by Applebaum and completed by the IAA expedition. Wall 2138 was constructed of five basalt courses to a height of 1.65 m. It continued toward the west as the tunnel wall (W2022), constructed of a single basalt course, 0.65 m high, from which the barrel vault sprang. The southern corridor wall, W2078, 2.5 m

long, ran parallel to W2138 and was built of six courses to a height of 1.65 m. Its lower three courses were of basalt rubble held in hard mortar, while the upper three were of well-cut, medium-sized basalt masonry. At its western end, as it entered the wider tunnel, it turned at a 90˚ angle to the south for 0.8 m. In this segment, its courses were constructed of large, well-cut basalt stones and they were integrated with those of W2139, the tunnel’s southern wall. The corridor was roofed with basalt slabs set 0.27 m higher than the tunnel’s vault (see Plan 3.10: Sections 1-1, 2-2). The tunnel’s southern and northern walls, W2139 and W2022, were built of one basalt stone course that carried the barrel vault. The barrel vault was constructed of four rows, 0.57–0.72 m wide, and a central row, 0.36 m wide. It was evident from the tunnel construction that it was originally longer, but sometime after it was built, its eastern side was replaced by the narrower corridor. The tunnel’s walls (W2022, W2139) were founded over a shallow foundation layer of small stones laid over a fill with a considerable amount of limestone fragments, which were not properly compressed, and may represent a collapse layer. Inside the tunnel (L1160), a fill of stones and gray soil included third– sixth-century CE pottery sherds and a fragment of an architectural element (A40620), presumably a pedestal. No remains of floors were revealed in the corridor or the tunnel. The tunnel entered the hyposcaenium at a right angle, and the eastern wall of the staircase (W2011) incorporated the tunnel’s western arch into its construction. The exit from the tunnel opened into the staircase’s lower passage; therefore, one turned south into the passage and west again into the hyposcaenium arch system through W2090 (see Plan 3.10). The Pulpitum Flanks The eastern flank (9.2 × 11.9 m) of the pulpitum was enclosed in the north by the scaenae frons (W2079) and in the east by the versura (W2144). It was separated from the pulpitum by W2011, the wall and banister of the staircase that descended into the hyposcaenium (see Plan 3.7). It was entered from the hospitalia, the eastern itinera versurarum and by the wide staircase from the eastern aditus maximus. Its floor, presumably of limestone pavers, was not preserved. The western flank of the pulpitum was bordered by the scaenae frons (W2079) in the north and the versura in the east (W2102). It was separated from

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Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

2

W2079

T7

L1160

W2078

1

W2139

W2011

W2090

W2091

W2045

W2082

1 W2027

W2144

W2138

W2022

W2046

W2204

2

Basalt

0

4

m

-153

-154

W2011 W2138

-155

W2022

-156

1-1 -153

W2079

W2011

-154

-155

W2204 T7 L1160

-156

-157

2-2

Plan 3.10. Severan Theater: Tunnel T7 under eastern part of hyposcaenium in Stratum 9.

W2144

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

the pulpitum by W2013, the wall and banister of the western staircase in the east (see Plan 3.8). The western flank was entered from the hospitalia, the western itinera versurarum and by the wide staircase from the western aditus maximus. The floor pavement was not preserved and its foundation (L1024, L1125, L1130, L1135) was a well-compressed layer of small basalt stones held in light gray soil. About 2 m to the west of W2013 and parallel to it, W2117 was carelessly built of two basalt courses (-153.45) seemingly to support the foundation fill. The fill to the west of it (L1130) contained sixth-century CE pottery, many tesserae presumably indicating the nature of the flank’s pavement and four coins dating from 163/4 CE to the sixth century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 29, 182, 183, 733). Over the floor foundation layer (-153.10), the broken pieces of a marble statue of Hermes were found by Applebaum (1978:96–97), which were restored and are now displayed in the Israel Museum.

wide, and covered with basalt slabs. It was laid upon an earlier, Stratum 13 foundation (W2109; see Fig. 3.14), over which was a yellow travertine layer (L1011) that contained sixth-century CE pottery and two coins, one dated to the third century CE (Coin Cat. No. 180) and the other to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 633). The covering slabs were supported by the channel walls, W2053 in the west and W2052 in the east (see Plan 3.11:1). The eastern wall ascends by 14 cm along its route (-156.28 in the south, -156.35 in the center and -156.42 in the north). Both walls were integrated at their southern ends into the proscaenium foundation courses, indicating a single building phase. The walls, 0.85 m wide, were built of four basalt courses and their upper course receded some 0.2 m, creating a ledge at level -156.51 to hold the covering slabs (Fig. 3.35). Ten of the covering slabs were found in situ, 0.7–1.0 m long and 0.2–0.7 m wide. The channel was filled with yellow soil (L1021, L1022, L1025–L1027) that contained small stones, mid-third to late fourth-

The Scaena’s Drainage System Strata 12–9 Scaena Central Drainage Channel The theater’s drainage system began below the orchestra floor and passed along the central south– north axis of the hyposcaenium, exiting the theater’s postscaenium under its northern facade. In the orchestra, the central channel, T30604, ran from south to north, and side channels T30601 from the east and T30605 from the west drained into it. It crossed the proscaenium at its foundation level (W2046) and drained into the hyposcaenium’s central channel (T6). The latter was the first of a three-segment channel that passed through the hyposcaenium (T6), under the scaenae frons foundation (T8) and further north under the postscaenium to exit the theater (T9). These three wide, deep segments ran along a straight south–north axis, and were constructed of well-cut basalt masonry that was plastered and covered with basalt slabs. At its exit point north of the theater, the channel turned slightly northeast and drained into the main drainage system of the civic center (Plan 3.11:1–3). Channel T6 entered the hyposcaenium from the south by a well-constructed, seven-stepped slope (W2123) under the proscaenium (W2046) and continued northward under the scaenae frons (W2079; see Plan 3.11:1, Sections 1-1–3-3). It was 6.9 m long, 0.8 m

Fig. 3.35. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, Channel T6 with covering stones, looking south.

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Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

0

10 m

W2079

T9

W2017

T8

3

T6 T30605

L1011 W2016 L1021 L1022 3 L1025 -156.72 L1026 -156.28 L1027

T30601

1

-156.78

-156.85

T30604 T6

W2053

-154

-156.28

1

2

1

W2046

W2055

W2052

W2024

-155 W2046 W2123

-156

T30604

T30605 T30601

W2123

-157

W2124

-158

1-1

T30604

-153 W2079

-154

-154.73

W2017

W2016

-155

2

0

2

m

-154

Marble

W2124

W2046

-156

W2068

-155

W2069

W2070

T30601

-157

-156

-158

-157

W2052

W2123

T6

-159

3-3

-158

2-2

Plan 3.11(1). Severan Theater: central drainage channel of orchestra and hyposcaenium; (1) Subplan 1.

T30604

58

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

0

10 m

W2023

T9

T8

L1127

2

T9

T6 T30601

T30605

W2103

W2104

W2104

-157

L1107

W2103

T30604

-158 T8

T8

-159

1-1

1 L1099

1

L1011 L1027 L1022 L1025 L1026 T1

W2079

0

2

m

Plan 3.11(2). Severan Theater: central drainage channel of orchestra and hyposcaenium; (2) Subplan 2.

century CE pottery, and 13 coins dating from 163/4 CE to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 28, 42, 44, 46, 63, 83, 167, 179, 181, 191, 631, 632, 645). In a later stage (Stratum 11), the channel was narrowed to a width of 0.5 m by inner walls attached to W2052 and W2053 in a careless manner, built of pieces of hard limestone, basalt, soft limestone and fragments of column drums (Fig. 3.36). The channel floor (-157.41) was constructed of small, flat basalt stones, firmly held in hard gray mortar and covered with white plaster. About 1.5 m south of the scaenae frons, T6 joined T8 in a steep slope and continued north under the scaenae frons and postscaenium (see Plan 3.11:2, Section 1-1).

Integrated within the well-constructed foundation courses of the scaenae frons and postscaenium was a vaulted service tunnel running south–north, 14.3 m long, 1.5 m wide and 1.85 m high (Fig. 3.37). Its walls, W2104 in the east and W2103 in the west, built of three basalt courses 1.6 m high, carried its barrel vault (W2023), built of five rows of large, well-cut basalt stones (see Plan 3.11:2). The walls were founded over a floor foundation and heavily covered by travertine coating. Built under the tunnel floor, Channel T8, 0.6 m wide, continued T6 toward the north. No covering slabs were found. The tunnel over T8 was divided into two parts attached in a seam that indicated two construction

59

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

0

10 m

3

T9

T8

T6 T30605

T30601 T30604

W2043

W2039 W2105

L1006

L1005

W2043

-155

L1035 L1013

W2042 W2106

L1019

-156

T9 W2023

1

W2039

-157

1

L1005 L1035 L1013 L1019

W2042

W2107 -158

T9

T8

W2104

W2103

L1116

-159

W2105

T8 L1099 L1107 L1127

W2106

-160

0

2

m

L1099 L1107 L1127

1-1

Plan 3.11(3). Severan Theater: central drainage channel of orchestra and hyposcaenium; (3) Subplan 3.

phases. The southern part, 5.9 m long, was constructed together with the theater in the late second–early third centuries CE (Stratum 12). However, its walls revealed constructional defaults and cracks, resulting in unstable courses. The northern part of the tunnel, under the postscaenium, was added shortly after, in the first half of the third century CE, still within Stratum 12, and was extremely strong and stable. Channel T8 was filled with yellow travertine soil (L1099, L1107, L1127) that contained a few sixth-century CE pottery sherds and a coin dated to the third century CE (Coin Cat. No. 188).

The tunnel’s northern segment (over T9), 1.5 m wide and 2.38 m high, turned slightly northeast as it exited the theater under the postscaenium’s northern facade (Plan 3.11:3, Section 1-1). The tunnel walls, W2039 in the west and W2042 in the east, were constructed of six basalt courses to a height of 1.65 m. Over the tunnel walls sprang a 1.8–1.9 m high barrel vault (W2043), built of nine basalt stone rows (see Plan 3.11[3], Section 1-1). Channel T9, 0.6 m wide and 0.5 m deep, was built differently from T8; its walls, W2105 in the west and W2106 in the east (-157.64), were made of three

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

basalt courses (foundation level -158.40), the upper one receding some 0.25–0.35 m to create a wider foundation for the construction of the tunnel walls (W2039, W2042) that were built upon it. The walls of Channel T9 were founded over yellow travertine

soil (L1005, L1006) at level -158.40 (see Plan 3.11:3, Section 1-1). In this segment (Channel T9), the covering slabs were preserved at level -157.70, 1.2 m long, 0.3 m wide and 0.24 m thick (see Plan 3.11[3]: Section 1-1; Fig. 3.38). The channel floor (-159.75)

Fig. 3.36. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, the narrowing of Channel T6 in Stratum 11, looking south.

Fig. 3.37. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, the tunnel over Channel T8, looking south.

Fig. 3.38. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, covering slabs over Channel T9 at the connection point with Channel T8 and the tunnel, looking north.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

was constructed of plastered basalt slabs that were better laid in the northern part than in the southern. The remains of a later floor were observed at level -158.40, built of limestone and basalt stone. In the absence of dating material recovered from under this floor, its date remains obscure, although it is obviously later than Stratum 9. The channel was found filled with a light gray accumulation (L1116), with no finds. In Stratum 9, the water channels drained into the tunnel instead of into the subterranean drainage Channels T8 and T9, which eventually clogged up. as a result, the tunnel also filled with an accumulation of soil (L1013, L1019, L1035; -155.94/-156.99) that contained a few pottery sherds of the sixth century CE. Hyposcaenium Drainage System on Either Side of the Central Channel During Stratum 10, Channel T1, 28 m long, 0.8 m wide and 1 high, was built in the western part of the hyposcaenium (Plan 3.12: Section 1-1). It ran from the west, from under the western itinera versurarum floor, and drained into Channel T6, the Stratum 12 central drainage channel that continued in use. Channel T1 was roofed by large basalt slabs that were laid diagonally to create a seemingly vaulted roof (Fig. 3.39). It was preserved in its western part, while a similar channel in the eastern part of the hyposcaenium was taken apart during Stratum 9. The preserved part of T1 was 0.8 m

Fig. 3.39. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium, drainage system, Channel T1 with its vaulted roof, looking west.

61

wide and 1.0 m high, and was comprised of W2112 in the west and W2080 in the east, the southern wall sections, W2121 in the west and W2081 in the east and basalt covering stones in the west (W2118). The walls of the western part of Channel T1, 0.7 m wide, founded over a floor (-155.20), were built of three courses of well-cut basalt stones that sloped toward the east (-156.10). The upper course inclined inward and held the large, trapezoidal basalt covering stones (0.6–1.1 × 0.8 m). Its floor, constructed of small basalt stones held in a dark gray, waterproof mortar, also sloped eastward (-155.20/-156.10). It was found filled with alluvial soil, brick and marble fragments along with third–sixth-century CE pottery and glass fragments. On both its northern and southern wall faces was a thick coating of small basalt stones and gray-yellow soil set in well arranged and compressed layers (L1133, L1134, L1141). This coating contained third–sixth-century CE pottery and three coins of the second–third centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 41, 49, 117). The channel was built over a foundation layer of small basalt stones held in gray soil (L1104, L1109, L1111, L1126, L1132) that contained third–sixth-century CE pottery, glass fragments and a second-century CE coin (Coin Cat. No. 39). Under that layer was a compressed layer of yellow travertine soil (L1113) containing late first–second-century CE pottery and a first-century BCE coin dated to the reign of Gabinius (Coin Cat. No. 8). In the eastern part of the hyposcaenium, the eastern part of Channel T1 ran between W2080 and W2081 and two rows of abutments, the northern row built along the scaenae frons foundation, the southern row built along the hyposcaenium’s central axis until it drained into channel T6. Wall 2080 and W2081 were preserved to a height of three to four basalt courses and slanted slightly eastward. They were built upon the channel’s floor and were made of small basalt stones in dark gray mortar, at level -155.70 in the west and -156.10 in the east. When the pulpitum pavement of Stratum 9 was laid, the channel’s covering stones and upper walls were cut by W2012, and the channel filled up with yellow soil (L1083, L1087) containing much third–sixth-century CE pottery and a fragment of a glass bottle (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.3:28). The channel was founded over a layer of gray soil (L1089) containing many sixth-century CE pottery sherds, bones and charcoal. Between the channel’s northern wall and the row of abutments attached to the scaenae

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

1 W2121 L1134 L1141

-159.80

L1082

W2080 W2118

-155.41

T1

L1084

L1083

-156.10

L1086

L1085

W2017 L1088

-154.90

L1089 -156.10

L1087

W2081

W2077

-154.90

-159.80

W2035

W2101

W2033

W2032

W2031

W2026 W2024

W2016

T6

W2052

W2102

L1133 W2112

W2075 W2076

W2074 W2072

W2053

W2079

W2055

1 W2088

W2046

W2114

0

Basalt

4

m

-152

-153 W2079

W2118

-154

W2121

L1133

T1

W2101

W2112

-155

L1104 L1109 L1132

-156

L1113 L1111 L1126

-157

1-1

Plan 3.12. Severan Theater: Channel T1 in the western part of the hyposcaenium in Strata 11–9.

frons, a gray-brown fill was excavated (L1082, L1084, L1085, L1086, L1088) that contained many third– sixth-century-pottery sherds. Under the floor of the eastern part of the hyposcaenium (L1012), within gray soil that contained sixth-century CE pottery, a clay water pipe, T4,was installed in Stratum 9 (L1166). Ten segments were preserved, each

about 0.38 m long and 0.18 m in diameter, at -155.59 in the east and -155.44 in the west (Plan 3.13; Fig. 3.40). It drained into a stone basin that was integrated into the southern part of the central drainage channel (Channel T6). The fill within it contained third–sixth-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 465).

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

63

Fig. 3.40. Severan Theater: the hyposcaenium drainage system, clay water pipe under floor, looking north.

In the center of the southwestern part of the hyposcaenium, Channel T2 ran from west to east (Plan 3.13: Section 1-1). A segment of it was cut by Applebaum and its remains clearly indicated that it continued eastward and drained into the aforementioned basin. The channel, 0.25 m wide and 0.2 m deep, was built of two brick and stone walls and was covered with stone slabs. Wall 2038, the preserved segment of the channel’s northern wall (-154.84), was 2.7 m long and 0.2 m wide, and was made of bricks (0.20 × 0.25 m, 0.1 m high) in its western part, and of basalt stones in its eastern. The preserved segment of the channel’s southern wall (W2037; -154.88) was 2.5 m long, built of bricks. Its floor (-155.08) was of small stone chips and pottery sherds embedded in waterproof plaster. The basalt covering slabs (W2036; -154.73) were preserved in its eastern part in a 1.5 m long section, each slab 0.2 m thick. In the yellow soil within the channel (L1014, L1094), sixth-century CE pottery and glass sherds were found. The channel was built over a fill layer (L1093, L1095) of hard brown soil, mixed with small stones that contained sixth-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 650). The construction of T2 superseded an earlier clay pipe, T5 (L1096, L1015), presumably of

Stratum 10, that ran from west to east and drained into the same stone basin. Its preserved section, 2.1 m long, consisted of seven segments, 0.3 m in length and 0.14 m in diameter. The pipe was covered with small basalt stones held in dark gray mortar and was installed into a brown fill (L1096) containing sixth-century CE pottery and two coins (Coin Cat. Nos. 185, 649). In Stratum 9, Channel T3 (L1002; -155.20/-155.45) was constructed in the central passage of the hyposcaenium, replacing Channel T6. It exited from the stone basin, passed between W2018 and W2019 (see Plan 3.13), continued northward between Abutments W2016 and W2017and drained into the scaena tunnel (T8, T9) that exited the theater in the north. The channel’s walls, W2014 in the east and W2015 in the west, were built of basalt stones with a straight inner face and a rough outer one, and its floor (-155.45) was constructed of clay bricks. The channel was excavated by Applebaum and then re-filled. East and west of the channel between W2014 and W2018 and between W2015 and W2019, black soil with a few basalt stones was revealed (L1003; -155.20/-155.47) and excavated down to the foundation level of the channel. It contained several third–sixth-century CE pottery sherds and a fragment of a glass bowl (see

64

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

-155.45

W2037

W2038 T2

W2014

1

W2015

T3

W2018

L1003 L1008 W2016

W2019 L1002

L1004 W2017 L1010

T5

L1012 L1166

T4 -155.59

-155.44

1

0

4

m

-154

W2036 W2037

W2038

-155

T2

W2004

L1014 L1094

L1015

T5 L1096

L1093 W2084

L1095

-156 1-1

Plan 3.13. Severan Theater: drainage channels and pipes within the hyposcaenium in Stratum 9.

Chapter 5: Fig. 5.2:17). The channel was founded over a fill (L1010) of gray-black soil that contained many sixth-century CE pottery sherds, marble fragments and 56 coins dating from the third–fifth centuries CE (Coin

Cat. Nos. 86, 240, 266, 271, 272, 302, 309, 310, 350, 377, 389, 414–420, 469–498, 566–570, 615–617). The drainage system of Stratum 9 thus consisted of channels and pipes that ran along the eastern and

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

western parts of the hyposcaenium, T2 in the west and T4 in the east. Remains of earlier clay pipes were found in both eastern and western (T5) sections of the hyposcaenium. All the pipes and channels of Strata 10 and 9 drained into the stone basin located in the central passage, which served as a collective manhole for the entire drainage system. Exiting the stone basin, Channel T3 ran through the hyposcaenium’s central passage and exited the theater under its northern facade. A probe (1.5 × 2.0 m) conducted next to the theater’s northern facade (L1039, L1052, L1185) revealed, apart from third–sixth-century CE pottery, fragments of glass vessels (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.1:5; 5.2:12, 13, 19, 26), all of which were dated to third–sixth-centuries CE. Fourteen coins were retrieved as well, ranging from the third century CE to Umayyad II (Coin Cat. Nos. 199, 218, 230, 246, 251, 304, 353, 594, 605, 636, 640–642, 782). From here, it continued under the theater street in front of the northern facade, and drained into the cloaca maxima that ran under Palladius Street.

Scaenae Frons Stratum 12 The scaenae frons (W2058) with its podium was erected over a 5.9 m wide, stepped foundation (W2079), whose 11 basalt masonry courses narrowed gradually upward.

65

The foundation’s uppermost surface course was of limestone masonry, over which the scaenae frons superstructure was built (Plan 3.14: Section 1-1; Fig. 3.41). This construction technique, which separated the foundation platform from the superstructure erected over it, was also observed in the aditus maximi as well. Elsewhere in the city, it was observed in both city gates, in the eastern bridge and in the odeum (Bet She’an I:27). It was designed for earthquake regions, as it granted the superstructure a certain flexibility and calculated sliding margins, thus preventing vertical forces from reaching up to the superstructure, as they were cut horizontally at the non-bonded juncture. The scaenae frons wall (W2058), the two lowest courses constructed of basalt, the upper courses of softlimestone blocks, was integrated with the podium in front of it, built of hard-limestone masonry, as a single structure stretching between both versurae. When the postscaenium was added and the versurae renewed in the first half of the third century CE, the scaenae frons was connected at both ends with the northern walls of the versurae, W2237 in the east, 12.3 m long, and W2135 in the west, 12.8 m long. The original scaenae frons between the two walls was 51.9 m long and 6.0 m wide, preserved to a height of 5.66 m (-147.34/ -153.00; see Plan 3.14: Sections 1-1, 2-2). When the northern walls of the versurae were connected to the scaenae frons (W2058), the entire northern facade

Fig. 3.41. Severan Theater: the scaena, looking southeast.

W81

-154

-152

-150

-148

2

W2073

Basalt

W57

W2135

W2235

W2134

-154

-152

-150

-148

3

F38

F42

F37

W74 W72

F30

W71

-154

-152

-150

3-3

W65 W75

1-1

W2058

W2079

2-2

W64

-148

F31 W68

F32

W76

W69

F35

W2023 W77

F40

20 m

Plan 3.14. Severan Theater: scaena.

0

W2058

F39

F36

W70

1 1

W78

W80

W2058

W2060

W2059

F33

W2144

L50624

W67

W2140 L1279 W2201

F34

W79

3

F43

W70748

W60

W59

F41 W2237

L50613 W2236

W2141 W58

L1183

W2142

2

72

3 80

1

W2240

W

64

W 90

W90759

W73

W66

L1039 L1052 L1185

66 Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

67

Fig. 3.42. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons, looking north.

Fig. 3.43. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons western hospitalia lintel and arch spring course, looking southwest.

reached a length of 77 m. Two juncture lines marked the connections of the basalt walls of the versurae with the soft-limestone wall of the scaenae frons. The combined wall had seven entrances and four rectangular exedrae in its northern face (F38–F41). In the central section were three entrances into the pulpitum: the valvae regiae and the hospitalia with exedrae in between (Fig. 3.42). At both ends were entrances connecting the postscaenium’s northern corridor with the itinera versurarum, the entrances into the spiral staircase shafts and two more rectangular exedrae. Wall 2058 was preserved in the east to a height of six courses (-150.04/-153.05), in the center to (-147.39/ -153.17), and in the west to (-148.55/-153.16; see Plan 3.14: Section 2-2). The three entrances into the pulpitum

were 3.1–3.3 m wide, although both hospitalia were narrowed to 2.4 m by limestone doorposts that were 1.8 m deep and protruded inward some 0.4 m on each side. Over the entrances were set limestone lintels, 0.6 m wide, at a height of -148.30/-149.21, while barrel vaults of soft-limestone covered the entrances in the northern face. The vaults sprang at level -149.21 (Fig. 3.43). The valvae regiae was 3.1 m wide. Its doorposts were built of ten limestone masonry courses, differing in heights, seven of which survived in situ (-151.36/ -154.18). The limestone courses were well integrated with the wall’s soft-limestone courses (Fig. 3.44). Over both sides of the entrance, two arch-supporting blocks, 2.2–2.5 m long and 0.90–0.95 m high, were preserved,

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.44. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons valvae regiae doorposts and side doorpost, looking south.

Fig. 3.45. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons valvae regiae arch as revealed by Applebaum, looking north.

while the arch itself was dismantled by Applebaum in order to bring in his heavy equipment (Figs. 3.45, 3.46) and not later restored. Into the northern side of

W2058, two exedrae (F39, F40), 3.5 m wide and 1.8 m deep, were built on either side of the entrance (Fig. 3.47). They were roofed by barrel vaults, the spring courses of

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

69

Fig. 3.46. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons valvae regiae after the removal of its arch by Applebaum, looking south.

Fig. 3.47. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons wall, Exedra F40 in the northern face of W2058, looking south.

which were preserved at level -149.18. The vault of the eastern exedra (F40) was preserved in four courses to level -147.42, while that of the western exedra (F39) was preserved in two courses to level -148.33. They were built of soft-limestone masonry set over basalt courses and their current preservation is extremely fragile. The northern wall of the western versura (W2135) was built of basalt masonry preserved to a height of 11 courses (-147.46/-152.95), into which the arched

entrance, 1.5 m wide, 2.88 m high (-150.14/-153.02) that led into the versura staircase was integrated (Fig. 3.48). The entrance facade had partly collapsed; its eastern part was preserved in two courses and gradually rose to a height of seven courses toward the west (-148.21; Fig. 3.48). Exedra F38, 3.4 m wide and 1.8 m deep, preserved to a height of eight courses (-148.69/-153.13), was roofed by a barrel vault, as were all the exedrae (Fig. 3.49), although its vault was not preserved.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.48. Severan Theater: the scaenae frons wall (W2135) and the northern wall of the western versura with the arched entrance to the versura staircase, looking southwest.

Fig. 3.49. Severan Theater: the eastern exedra (F41) in the northern side of W2058, looking south.

When the postscaenium was added, with its inner vaulted corridor, pilasters were attached to the northern face of the scaenae frons on either side of

all the entrances and at its eastern and western ends (see Plan 3.14). Counter pilasters on the southern face of the postscaenium (W2059) carried the arches of

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

the corridor vault. In the center of the scaenae frons, only the pilaster foundations were preserved, while on the western side, Pilaster W2235 was still attached to W2135. It was 3.5 m long, 0.5 m wide, and preserved to a height of eight courses (-149.39/-152.95). The upper courses were integrated into W2135, and the eighth course served as the vault’s spring course (see Fig. 3.48). The pilaster’s foundation rested upon the corridor floor (-153.95). In the east, a similar pilaster, W2236, was attached to W2237. The northern wall of the eastern versura (W2237) was also constructed of basalt masonry, of which six courses were preserved (-150.04/-152.95). As on the western side, it also had an arched entrance into the versura staircase at its center that was 1.4 m wide and 2.88 m high (-150.40/-153.28). To the west of the entrance, an exedra (F41), 3.3 m wide and 1.8 m deep, was preserved to a height of six courses (see Plan 3.14: Section 2-2; see Fig. 3.49). The western wall of the exedra, at its juncture with the soft-limestone wall (W2058), was badly damaged, and in its preserved state it is gradually stepped down to the wall’s first course. The wall’s core consisted of large basalt stones, laid in compact layers, each sealed by small stones and dark gray soil (Fig. 3.50). Within the core’s upper layer, an Umayyad II lamp was found (L50624, B506106),

71

indicating that this corner had already collapsed prior to the earthquake of 749 CE, presumably in the earthquake of 659 CE.2 When the postscaenium was erected, the pilaster at the eastern end of the scaenae frons (W2236) was attached to the northern face of W2237, and joined W2142 in the east. It was 3.5 m long, 0.5 m wide, stood upon the corridor’s floor foundation, and was preserved to a height of four courses (-150.77/-152.72). It was revealed leaning dangerously to the north and therefore dismantled (L50613). Between W2236 and W2237, a later fill of gray soil contained Umayyad pottery sherds. the scaenae frons columnar facade was attached to the southern face of W2058. its curving contours adorned its three entrances (see Plan 3.14: Section 3-3), with the valvae regiae marking the scaenae frons central axis. It was set within a semicircular apse, 18.8 m in diameter, and had projecting sections on both sides, 3–4 m long, into which rectangular niches (1.2 × 1.3 m) were cut (Figs. 3.51, 3.52). From these two sections, the wall continued westward and eastward in straight, 5 m long segments, which were the widest parts of the scaenae frons (4.4 m). In the center of the southern face, two semicircular niches were inserted, 1.3 m in diameter and 0.7 m in depth (see Plan. 3.14).

Fig. 3.50. Severan Theater: Exedra F41, the inner core of its western wall, looking southwest.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.51. Severan Theater: the eastern niche flanking the valvae regiae, looking north.

Fig. 3.52. Severan Theater: the western niche flanking the valvae regiae, looking north.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

73

Fig. 3.53. Severan Theater: the western hospitalia, looking north.

The wall then retreated inward on both sides toward the north, narrowing to a width of 2.1–2.3 m, creating rectangular exedrae, 13 m wide, with the hospitalia at their center (Fig. 3.53). On both sides of the hospitalia, rectangular niches were set into the wall, the eastern 1.3 m wide and 0.5 m deep, the western 1.4 m wide and 0.8 m deep. All these niches were meant to be seen through the intercolumniation of the screening facade and they held marble statues, one of which was found on the western side of the pulpitum, while two others were revealed in a later fill (see Chapter 10). Wall 2058, built of soft-limestone masonry, was plated with marble of various colors and patterns in opus sectile designs. Holes for the bronze clamps that fastened the marble veneer were found in the wall face. Scaenae Frons Podium Along the southern face of the scaenae frons (W2058), and integrated into its construction, ran a podium that followed the line of the central semicircular and the two rectangular exedrae and their flanking protruding sections, wider at the valvae regiae and narrower at the hospitalia (see Plan 3.14: Sections 1-1, 3-3). The podium, although built in segments, retained the same height and profile all along its route. It was constructed of four hard-limestone-masonry courses to a height of approximately 2.2 m, with small variations along its

route (-150.90 to -150.78/-153.02 to -152.78). The lower course had a base molding, the next two courses served as a dado, and the crowning block had a cap molding (Fig. 3.54; see Chapter 9). On both sides of the valvae regiae, two wide podium segments (2.5 × 4.0 m) protruded, while the hospitalia were flanked by narrow protruding podium segments (1.2–1.4 × 1.5 m; see Fig. 3.53). The pattern of the scaenae frons podium, over which the columnar order composition was set, created the foundation for the deep perspective of the richly decorated facade (Fig. 3.55). The podium segments, 3.2–3.4 m wide, turned south along the facades of the itinera versurarum. At both ends of the scaenae frons, podium segments, 2.5 m long and 1.6 m wide, connected, at right angles, the scaenae frons podium with that of the versurae, which ended in the south with separated podium segments (1.2– 1.4 × 1.4–1.6 m) attached to the versura walls (Fig. 3.56). On the eastern side, the single podium segment (W2140) of the eastern itinera versurarum (-150.86/ -153.21) was dismantled during restoration work and later rebuilt. It stood over the corner of W2144 and W2201, constructed of large basalt stones. Between the podium (W2140) and the itinera versurarum wall (W58), light gray soil (L1279) contained pottery sherds of the third–fifth centuries CE, including a fragment of a Byzantine lamp decorated with a cross (B3265). The

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.54. Severan Theater: the podium east of the valvae regiae, looking north.

Fig. 3.55. Severan Theater: the scaena frons columnar facade, looking north.

Fig. 3.56. Severan Theater: podium sections on both sides of the eastern itinera versurarum, looking northeast.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

original podium on both its ends presumably underwent some changes as it was apparently shortened when the renewed versurae were added. As a result, the podium segments along the versurae were attached to the walls and not integrated in their construction, as in the rest of the scaenae frons (W2058), in which the podium sections were obviously built together with the wall in one construction phase. The podium was found leaning slightly toward the north, mainly at both ends, especially the eastern end, presumably the result of the theater’s sliding momentum that occurred shortly after its construction, the pressure of which affected the podium as well. Originally built in Stratum 12, the podium remained unchanged and carried the scaenae frons columnar facade throughout its various renovation stages. It was uncovered in its remarkably well-preserved condition, and required only minor conservation and restoration work, mainly of small broken corners.

Versurae Stratum 12 The versurae on the eastern and western ends of the scaena functioned as reinforcement towers (see Plan 3.1; Fig. 3.1). They were built in the first half of the third century CE, when the postscaenium was added (see below). There was no clear evidence for the existence of earlier versurae that might have been part of the

75

original plan of the theater and were later replaced, although such a possibility is reasonable. The versurae were symmetrical units with itinera versurarum that led into the pulpitum at ground level. These passages were roofed by barrel vaults and the remains of the second-floor rooms and staircases leading into the ima cavea and the postscaenium’s northern corridor were preserved over them. In their northern part, spiral staircases ascended the entire height of the versura floors and led to the media and summa caveae and the upper levels of the postscaenium northern corridor. Western Versura The western versura (8.7 × 13.0 m) was preserved to the height of its first floor (-147.94/-153.27). Its enclosing walls were W51 in the west, W53 in the east, W2135 in the north and W2131 in the south (Plan 3.15). Wall 51, built of basalt masonry, was 11.4 m long, preserved to a height of nine courses of 0.6–0.7 m each, reaching 5.78 m (-147.78/-153.27). The itinera versurarum was located at its southern end. The arched entrance was 3.0 m wide and 4.3 m high (-148.97/-153.27), and its arch sprang from the fifth course at level -150.23 to a height of 2.2 m. The arch was 2.2–2.0 m wide, built of 11 stone blocks (Fig. 3.57) and over it two more horizontal basalt courses were preserved. The upper part of W51, which also served as the wall of the second-floor room built over the itinera versurarum, was preserved to two courses, the first a 0.75 m high, basalt course (-147.49/-148.24). It was 1.6 m wide

Fig. 3.57. Severan Theater: the western itinera versurarum, looking east.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

and 4.0 m long. At its southern end, a second, softlimestone course was preserved over the basalt course. It was 0.6 m high (-146.89/147.49), preserved in a

1.65 m long segment, and built into the stone core of W2131 that served as the southern wall of the versura and the northern wall of the aditus maximus. Wall 51

W81

W2134

F37

1

F42

W2235

W2135 W2058

6

W5

W53

W 52

W2073 W57

W51

F38

W54

W55 W2288

1

W2131

0

4

m

-148 -150 W2131 W55

-152 -154

Plan 3.15. Severan Theater: western versura.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

connected with W2131 in the second floor. Attached to the western and northern faces of W51 were two segments of basalt walls, W2073 and W2235, which carried the vaults of the postscaenium western and northern corridors. Wall 53, built of basalt masonry, was preserved to a height of 5.44 m (-147.83/-153.27). Its southern part, 8.2 m long, ran parallel to W51, while in its northern part, a pilaster (1.9 × 2.2 m) protruded eastward, parallel to the scaenae frons podium. The five courses, built over W53 and 3.08 m high (-147.83/-150.91), were integrated with the soft-limestone courses of the scaenae frons (W2058; Fig. 3.58). The southern end of the itinera versurarum’s arched entrance was 3.0 m long and 4.2 m high. Its arch sprang from above the sixth course (-150.23) and was built of 11 rows, each 1.2 m wide (-149.07/-153.27). Over it, two horizontal courses were preserved (-147.83). The eastern wall of the secondfloor room was preserved to one limestone course, 0.75 m high (-147.83/-148.59), 1.2 m wide and 0.8 m long. At its southern end, one soft-limestone course was preserved to a height of 0.61 m (-147.34/-147.95), built over the core of W2131. Over the western and eastern entrance arches of the western itinera versurarum was a barrel vault that sloped slightly toward the east, in accordance with the entrance arches that differed in heights. The vault was 3.5 m wide and both its carrying walls, W54 in the north and W55

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in the south, were preserved to a height of five to six courses up to the vault’s spring courses (see Plan 3.15: Section 1-1). Of the original barrel vault, seven rows were preserved; the rest were reconstructed. Above the vaulted itinera versurarum was a rectangular room (4.0 × 5.8 m). Its southern wall was not preserved, although its wall core, constructed of large basalt stones, was preserved at its western end to a level of -147.67 and at its eastern end to a level of -147.95. The upper parts of W51 and W53 served as the room’s western and eastern walls. The northern wall (W2135), built of basalt stones that integrated with the versura’s western wall, was preserved to a length of 2.3 m, a width of 1.1 m, and to a single course, 0.6 m high (-147.82/-148.44). Its northern face was straight, while its southern face was rounded as it encircled the spiral staircase’s peripheral wall (W52). Wall 2135 was built of basalt masonry and preserved to 11 courses, to a height of 5.52 m (-147.43/-152.95). In its center was an arched entrance, 1.5 m wide, that led to the spiral staircase via a corridor. The corridor, 1.5 m wide, 2.1 m deep and 2.88 m high (-150.14/ -153.02), was roofed by a barrel vault. Its entrance facade was partly ruined, the eastern side preserved to two courses (-152.00) gradually ascending southward to seven courses (-148.21). The corridor walls were built of four basalt masonry courses, over which five stone rows of a vault were built.

Fig. 3.58. Severan Theater: the western itinera versurarum, looking west.

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The spiral staircase’s peripheral wall (W52) was circular, preserved to nine courses, and in its northern side an entrance led to the staircase. The staircase’s inner wall (W56), 1.5 m in diameter, surrounded an inner cylindrical shaft, and along its entire height were windows for lighting and ventilation, three of which were preserved. They were wedge shaped, and the lowest one in the west was 1 m high, 0.5 m wide in its outer face and 0.28 m in its inner. The second window in the western side was 1.2 m high, 0.45 m wide in its outer face, 0.15 m in its inner, and roofed by a basalt slab, over which the staircase roof was built. A third, similar window was built higher in the southern side. The staircase diameter was 5.2 m, and the depth of the steps was 0.9–1.0 m, of which 22 were preserved. They were wedge shaped with an inner width of 0.22–0.30 m, an outer width of 0.40–0.45 m, and a height of 0.2 m. Some of them were integrated into both inner and outer walls, while others were inserted into one side and attached to the other. The roof of the staircase started over the wall’s sixth course and rose with the steps in a spiral construction. It was built of wedge-shaped basalt slabs, which were placed with the wide side outward, in segments of varying width (0.6 × 1.5 m) and rising in steps (-147.70/-148.52).

Western Corridor The postscaenium’s northern corridor turned southward at right angles at its eastern and western ends, and led toward the northern entrances of the aditus maximi. These corridors are referred to here as the western and eastern corridors, and included in the description of the versurae. The western corridor, 15.5 m long and 3.4 m wide, was roofed by a barrel vault that sprang from W2073 on the east and W57 on the west (see Plan 3.15). At the southern end of the corridor were two cross-access entrances, one leading from the west into the itinera versurarum, the other leading southward into the aditus maximus. The junction of these entrances was roofed by a 3.5 m wide cross-section vault. At its northern end, the western corridor’s barrel vault was connected to the vault of the postscaenium’s northern corridor by a semi-cross-section vault (see Plan 3.15). At the northwestern corner of the versura, W2235 was attached to W2135, its upper courses integrated into the latter wall. Wall 2235 ran from east to west and bonded in the west with W2073. It was 3.5 m long and 0.5 m wide, preserved in eight courses to a height of 3.46 m. From its eighth course (-150.28) sprang the vault of the postscaenium’s northern corridor. Wall 2073 was attached to W51 and its southern end was integrated with W2131, including the cross-section vault (Fig. 3.59). The wall was 12 m long and 0.9 m

Fig. 3.59. Severan Theater: the western passage with the spring stones of the cross-section vault, looking south.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

wide. The northern part of W2073 was preserved to five courses (-150.58), to a height of 1.8 m, the lowest course covered by the corridor floor. The southern part was preserved to eight courses (-149.43) and its upper course served as the spring course of the crosssection vault, built over the entrances into the itinera versurarum and the aditus maximus. In this part, the wall’s courses were integrated into W51, although the courses of the two walls did not match. Parallel to it on the west was W57, the western wall of the corridor that was joined, at its southern end, with the northern wall of the aditus maximus by arches. The wall was constructed of basalt masonry, preserved in two courses, 1.2 m high (-151.73/-152.97). It was 11.5 m long, 3.6 m wide and in its southern end a 3.5 m wide entrance was spanned by two superimposed arches. The upper one, 0.61 m higher than the lower one, was partly preserved as it was integrated into W2131. It was 1.5 m wide, sprang from above the seventh course of W57 at level -148.28, and was preserved to two courses. The lower arch, attached to W57 from the east, was 1.5 m wide and served as a pendentive to the southern end of the corridor’s cross-section vault. It sprang from the fifth course of W57 and was preserved to three courses, to a height of 1.2 m (-148.84/-150.04). a staircase was built into the wall core, in the northern face of W57, and ascended from north to south to the summa cavea. It was constructed of basalt slabs that were 1.5 m wide.

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Four steps of the staircase were preserved, 0.36 m deep and 0.27 m high. Eastern Versura The eastern versura (8.35 × 13.00 m) was preserved up to the lower courses of its second floor (-148.19/ -154.01; Fig. 3.60). Its enclosing walls were W58 in the west, W2240 in the east, W2237 in the north and W2196 in the south (Plan 3.16). Wall 2240, 11.5 m long, was built of basalt masonry. Its northern end, which joined W2237, was preserved to two courses, while its southern end, connected to the northern wall of the aditus maximus (W2133), was preserved to ten courses of 0.6–0.7 m each, to a height of 5.91 m (-147.59/ -153.50). At the northern end of the wall, a 6.7 m long segment of its core was preserved in steps over its two lower courses. It was built of large basalt masonry, its courses leveled by small stones. At the southern end of the wall was the itinera versurarum with its barrel vault. In its eastern facade of W2240 was an arched entrance 2.9 m wide. The arch, which sprang from above the fifth course at level -150.57, was 3.95 m high, and built of 11 voussoir members; above it, two horizontal courses of the upper wall were preserved. In the entrance, a foundation wall (W100617) 3.45 m long stretched from north to south, built of four courses, each 0.3–0.4 m high, with small leveling stones between them. The third course retreated some 8 cm from the wall face.

Fig. 3.60. Severan Theater: the eastern versura, looking south.

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At the northeastern corner of the versura walls (W2240 and W2237), two wall segments were attached, W2142 in the east and W2236 in the north, which served as the spring courses for the vaults of the northern and eastern corridors of the postscaenium. The versura’s western wall, W58, was built of basalt masonry and preserved up to ten courses, to a height of 5.2 m, upon which one course of soft limestone remained. At the wall’s southern end stood the 3 m wide, western arched entrance of the itinera versurarum. The arch, 3.26 m high and 2 m wide, sprang from above the fifth course and was built of 11 voussoir members, over which one horizontal course was preserved (-148.30). Between the two arched entrances of the itinera was a barrel vault that sloped slightly down from east to west. It was 3.5 m wide; its height in the east was 4.07 m and in the west, 3.61 m. The walls of the passage, W59 in the north and W60 in the south, as well as the northern face of W2133, the aditus maximus’ northern wall, were found leaning strongly inward. They were preserved up to five or six courses, up to the spring course of the preserved vault, which was built of 13 courses. Over the itinera versurarum vault, a rectangular room (4.0 × 5.8 m) was built. The southern wall (W60) of the room was preserved up to three soft-limestone

courses, to a height of 1.1 m. About 3.15 m from the southwestern corner of the room was a 1.15 m wide entrance and the remains of several steps mounting over the aditus maximus vault toward the northeastern vomitorium. The northern wall (W59) of the room ran from east to west and integrated at its western end with W58 of the versura and in its eastern end with W2240. It was preserved up to one soft-limestone course. Its southern face was straight, while its northern face was rounded, as it was part of the peripheral wall of the radial staircase. In its center, a 1.5 m wide entrance was built of basalt masonry. The western wall of the room (W58) was 1.2 m wide and had a large arched window similar in measurements to the lower itinera versurarum arched entrance. The side posts of the window were preserved up to two courses, reaching 1.32 m in height. The arched window has been fully restored (Fig. 3.61). A segment of the eastern wall (W2240) of the room was preserved in the second floor up to a single course at its southern end, 0.6 m long, 0.56 m high and 1.1 m wide. Its western face was built of soft-limestone blocks, while its eastern face was of basalt masonry and its southern end was integrated with the core of W2133 at level -147.30. There may have been an entrance here that led up to the second floor of the postscaenium northern corridor but its remains were not preserved.

Fig. 3.61. Severan Theater: second-floor window in the western wall of the eastern versura after restoration in 2000, looking east.

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Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

20 m

W2023

L80655 L90609

-154.01

W 80

72

3

L1186 L70734 F43

-154.01

1

2

L80606 L80756 L90614

-148.30

W100617

-152.86

W60

-154.00

-147.30

2

W2133

W2196

0

4

W80757

W2144

W58

-153.50

W60665

-148.19

W59

W2140 L1279

W2143 L110690

-153.50

W2240 W2142

-147.59

W61

W2213

W.2215

F41 L1276

L1061

W2236 L50613 W2237 L1164 L1300 L50625 -151.54

W2212

W62

W2058

W2211

-151.07

-149.87

64 1

W90759

1

W 90

W70759a

0

m

-148

-150

W2237

W2058 W2212

-152

-154

1-1

-148

W2240

-150

-152

W2142

W59

W60 W100617

-154

W60665

W2143

2-2

Plan 3.16. Severan Theater: eastern versura.

L90779

L100610

-158.93

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

The northern wall of the versura (W2237) was built of basalt masonry. It was 5.9 m long, preserved up to five courses to a height of 2.98 m. At its center was the entrance to the spiral staircase. The entrance corridor was 1.35 m wide, 2.1 m long and 2.85 m high, and roofed by a barrel vault (Fig. 3.62). Two steps descended to the corridor floor (-153.62). The doorposts were built of five courses of basalt masonry, 2.7 m high, from which the five voussoir members of the entrance arch sprang.

Fig. 3.62. Severan Theater: the eastern versura, arched entrance and passage into the round shaft of the staircase, looking south.

The corridor led to the spiral staircase. The staircase’s outer wall (W62), 0.9 m wide, and inner wall (W61), 1.5 m wide, were circular, preserved to a height of ten courses. All along W61 were windows for lighting and ventilation, three of them well preserved. They were wedge shaped, their inner width 0.15–0.20 m, outer width 0.45 m, and height 1.2 m. In the spiral staircase, 22 steps were preserved, 0.9–1.0 m long. The first five were wedge-shaped limestone slabs, presumably reflecting a renovation stage, with an inner width of 0.25–0.27 m and an outer width of 0.40–0.42 m, and a height of 0.20–0.24 m. The rest of the steps were wedge-shaped basalt slabs with an inner width of 0.28–0.32 m and an outer width of 0.40–0.45 m. Some of them were integrated into W62, while others were attached to it (Fig. 3.63). The staircase roof began above the seventh course of the peripheral wall (-149.71), built of wedge-shaped slabs in segments of varying width (0.6–1.5 m) and rising in 0.6 m high steps. In the south, at the level of the itinera versurarum vault (-149.41), a segment of the staircase branched off to the south toward a 1.5 m wide entrance in W59. Three steps, 0.4 m wide and 0.32 m high, were preserved here, which led to the second-floor room above the itinera versurarum.

Fig. 3.63. Severan Theater: the spiral staircase in the eastern versura, looking northwest.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Eastern Corridor North of the eastern versura stretched the postscaenium’s northern corridor, which turned southward at its eastern end into the eastern corridor (see Plan 3.16), 15.1 m long. Wall 2236, attached to the versura’s northern wall (W2237), cornered with W2142. It was 3.5 m long, 0.5 m wide, and preserved up to four courses to a height of 1.95 m. It was built of large basalt masonry over the corridor’s floor foundation, and was found leaning eastward. The space that had opened between the two walls had filled up with soil containing Umayyad pottery (L50613). Attached to the versura’s eastern wall (W2240) was W2142, which was joined at its southern end to the northern wall of the aditus maximus by a vault that was 3 m wide and 12 m long. The wall survived up to three courses, each 1.31 m high. The northern part of the wall had 0.85 m high courses. The eastern corridor was roofed by a barrel vault that rested upon W2142 and its parallel wall, which was dismantled down to its foundation level (-153.50) in Byzantine II (Stratum 9), and can be reconstructed in accordance with the theater’s western side. At the passage’s southern end were two cross-

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access entrances, the first from east to west, parallel with the aditus maximus, leading into the itinera versurarum, while the second ran from north to south and led into the aditus maximus. The meeting point of the two entrances was roofed by a cross-section vault, the spring courses of which were preserved in W2133. The walls of both the versura and the eastern corridor were built over a large foundation platform constructed of basalt masonry, which was laid over bedrock. The platform extended from W2143 in the north, built in ten courses to a height of 5.51 m (L1164), W2133 in the south, W2144 in the west and W80757 and W90759 in the east (see Plan 3.16). Its width from W2133 in the south to W2143 in the north was 5.8 m, while its length in the south was 9.2 m, and in the north, 10.1 m. In the area of the eastern corridor, the foundation platform was revealed at two different levels. Its northern part (8.5 × 9.5 m) ran from W2143 in the north to W60665 in the south and from W90759 in the east to W2142 in the west. Its southern part (3.4 × 7.0 m), which was 0.5 m lower, ran from W60665 in the north to W2133 in the south, and from W80757 in the east to W100617 in the west (Fig. 3.64).

Fig. 3.64. Severan Theater: eastern versura foundation platform, looking northwest.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Wall 60665, which marked the width of the eastern corridor that led into the itinera versurarum, was preserved in two courses, the lower, 8.45 m long, protruded some 0.3 m and served as the foundation wall for W59, the itinera versurarum’s northern wall (see Plan 3.16: Section 2-2). Over the southern part of the foundation platform, a layer of gray soil was excavated (L80606, L80756, L90614), containing little pottery, a lamp fragment and water-pipe segments dating to Byzantine II and Umayyad II, along with a coin from 117/18 CE (Coin Cat. No. 15) and another dated to the seventh century CE (Coin Cat. No. 749). Exedra F41 in the versura northern wall was rebuilt by Applebaum. Its barrel vault, which was not preserved, was reconstructed in 1998. In the upper level of the preserved exedra, a Stratum 2 wall was revealed as part of a building that was mostly dismantled by Applebaum. It was built along the exedra (L1276), attached to W2213, and was preserved in its foundation course. Within the wall foundation, in a layer of gray soil, was a coin dating to the fourteenth century CE (Coin Cat. No. 806). The exedra was blocked during Umayyad II by W2212 that was built along its facade, between W2211 in the west and W2215 in the east (see Plan 3.16: Section 1-1). The basalt stone wall was preserved, and its core contained sixth–eighth-century CE pottery sherds and five coins of the third–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 98, 238, 410) and of the eighth century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 766, 790). The walls of Exedra F41 were covered by a layer of accumulated soil (L1300, L50625) that contained pottery sherds ranging from the sixth century CE to the Abbasid period, glass fragments (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.3:38; 5.4:43), a nail and a coin dated to the eighth century CE (Coin Cat. No. 789). The entire area of the corridor was poorly preserved, the masonry severely cracked and the walls were leaning to the north. The entrance into the versura staircase was strengthened and stabilized by Applebaum during the 1960 excavations, while the remainder was stabilized by the present expedition.

Postscaenium Stratum 12 Postscaenium Foundation Shortly after the completion of the theater during the first half of the third century CE, the postscaenium

was constructed over a foundation platform. The two ends of the postscaenium terminated in asymmetrical lines: the western side in an obtuse angle, the eastern side in a diagonally cut corner (see Plan 3.1; Fig. 3.65). The relatively massive foundation platform (W2023; see Plan 3.14), 109 m long and 8.2 m wide, was built as a giant wedge of 18 stepped basalt courses, each receding 5–10 cm, set into a foundation trench that was hewn 8.5 m deep into bedrock (Fig. 3.66). Over this foundation platform, the postscaenium, with its northern, eastern and western inner corridors, and both versurae (see above) were constructed. In the south, the foundation platform W2023 was attached to W2079, the foundation wall of the scaenae frons (see Plan 3.14), creating a connecting seam (Figs. 3.67, 3.68) that was also observed in the walls of the scaenae frons tunnel and drainage channel (T8), W2104 and W2103 (see Plan 3.11:2, Section 1-1). The eastern side of the postscaenium foundation platform, which was stripped of its superstructure during Byzantine II (Stratum 9), ended in the east in three wall faces constructed of large basalt masonry: Wall 80723, W90641 and W70759a (see Plan 3.16; Fig. 3.64). These wall faces zigzagged to fit the contours of the Temple of Demeter and Kore-Persephone, which predated the postscaenium construction (see Plan 3.1). This temple, built in the first century CE, was part of the forum’s southern temples compound (see Plan 1.1). Wall 80723 ran from northeast to southwest and joined W90641 at its southern end. It was revealed in five courses, rising to a height of 3.2 m, each course receding slightly (0.10–0.15 m). Wall 90641 ran from northwest to southeast and joined W70759a at its southeastern end. It was 2.8 m long, revealed in five courses, each receding slightly. Wall 70759a ran from north to south and was 2.35 m long, revealed in ten courses (covered by L1061). The lower six courses, 0.35–0.60 m high, were stepped, each receding 0.12 m. The upper four were presumably dismantled during Byzantine II (-155.37) leaving just the wall core (Fig. 3.69). Above the wall, a coin dated to the late third/early fourth centuries CE was found (Coin Cat. No. 207). A probe conducted east of the foundation platform revealed a fill (L90779) of light gray soil mixed with travertine chunks that covered bedrock. Within it were remains of walls dated to Roman II, presumably part of the early stage of the temple precinct dated to the first century CE (Mazor and Bar-Nathan 1996:8–11, Figs.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

2, 5). The accumulated fill contained a few Roman II pottery sherds and a coin minted by Tiberius in c. 22–30 CE and commemorating the reign of Augustus Divus (Coin Cat. No. 9). East of W80723, a travertine layer contained some mixed pottery and a nail. At level -156.37, several walls of the aforementioned Roman II temple precinct were cut by the postscaenium foundation platform. In the foundation trench of W70759a (L100610), a layer of travertine soil mixed

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with ashes contained first–second-century CE pottery sherds and some olive grains. Over the postscaenium foundation, an accumulated fill of light gray soil (L70734, L1186; see Plan 3.16) contained a few pottery sherds ranging from the sixth–eighth centuries CE and three coins dating to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 574) and two to the seventh–eighth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 764, 765). Over the eastern end of W2023, an ash layer

Fig. 3.65. Severan Theater: the postscaenium and its foundation platform, looking west.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.66. Severan Theater: postscaenium foundation platform courses (W70748), looking south.

Fig. 3.68. Severan Theater: scaena foundation platform seam, looking west.

Fig. 3.67. Severan Theater: scaena and postscaenium foundation platform in the east, looking south.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

87

Fig. 3.69. Severan Theater: scaena and postscaenium foundation platform, upper core courses, looking southwest.

(L80655, L90609) was revealed. Under it was a fill containing many brick and marble fragments, animal bones, lamps and water-pipe fragments, tesserae, nails and plaster. A fragment of a basalt bowl (L80655, B806149), a clay figurine (L80655, B806237) and pottery were dated to the sixth–seventh centuries CE. Glass finds (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.1:2, 3, 6, 7, 9; 5.2:18, 25; 5.3:30), as well as five coins, were also found in this fill, ranging from the third to the sixth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 70, 325, 517, 571, 736). The core of the foundation platform was constructed of horizontal layers of large basalt fieldstones that were leveled and sealed with small stones and dark gray mortar (Fig. 3.69). During Umayyad II (Stratum 5), over the northern part of the postscaenium’s foundation platform and east of the eastern versura wall (W2142), pottery-workshop installations were built. Some of their wall foundations penetrated deep into the foundation platform’s core. At this stage, other parts of the platform were dismantled and covered

by the workshop’s waste piles (Bet She’an II:58–60). The dismantling of the postscaenium eastern corridor already began in the sixth century CE (Stratum 9; Byzantine II), when a porticus was built to the north of the theater facade, and continued until Stratum 5. Over the northern part of the foundation platform (W90759), light brown soil (L110690) covering the core contained a few pottery sherds of the sixth and seventh–eighth centuries. Postscaenium Entrances The postscaenium wall (W2023) had three adorned entrances in its northern facade. The central entrance was aligned with the valvae regiae, along the central axis of the scaenae frons, and was flanked by two entrances in the west and east, thus dividing the northern facade into four symmetrical sections. On either side of the central entrance were alternating exedrae: two in the northern face opening to the north, and two in the southern face opening to the south. At the eastern and

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.70. Severan Theater: the postscaenium northern facade, looking south.

western ends of the wall were semicircular apses facing south into the inner corridor (see Plan 3.14; Fig. 3.70). The postscaenium was excavated by Applebaum and according to handwritten notes on his plans, several of these exedrae and apses were paved with mosaic floors (-152.66). The fragmentary remains of the mosaic floors were dismantled when his excavations reached the foundations (-153.34), and no references in his preliminary reports refer to the nature or style of the mosaic floors or their dating. Western Entrance. The western entrance, 3.5 m wide and 4.1 m deep, was slightly narrowed to 3.25 m by its limestone doorposts (Plan 3.17; Fig. 3.71). It carried an architrave-frieze lintel, flanked by s-shaped consoles and crowned with a cornice. The entrance’s western wall (W2134) was built of limestone masonry on its

northern side and preserved to a height of four courses. On its southern side, it was built of basalt masonry and preserved up to five courses, to a height of 2.42 m (see Plan 3.17: Section 1-1). The eastern wall (W66) was 3.3 m wide and 4.1 m long (see Plan 3.17: Section 2-2). Its northern side, built of limestone masonry, was preserved up to three courses, to a height of 1.66 m. Its southern side, built of basalt masonry, was preserved up to five courses, to a height of 2.46 m. Integrated into W66’s construction was a 1.9 m long, 0.3 m wide pilaster preserved up to six courses. The entrance threshold, comprised of limestone slabs, was 0.65 m wide, founded upon the foundation wall (W2023). South of it was a floor segment of large limestone slabs (0.65–1.00 × 1.15–1.50 m). In the inner corners of the doorposts, two square holes were observed in the threshold slabs, presumably for door hinges.

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W2023 -152.81

-151.21

-150.50

-152.89

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-150.41

-150.45

0

1 m

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-151.00

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Limestone

Basalt

2-2

Plan 3.17. Severan Theater: postscaenium facade, western entrance.

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Fig. 3.71. Severan Theater: the postscaenium western entrance, looking south.

Fig. 3.72. Severan Theater: the postscaenium central entrance, looking south.

Central Entrance. The central entrance, 3.8 m wide and 4.1 m deep (Plan 3.18; Fig. 3.72) was framed by doorposts of limestone masonry in its northern facade. The doorposts carried an architrave-frieze lintel, flanked by s-shaped consoles and a richly decorated crowning cornice. The western wall (W64) was 1.9 m wide, its northern side, built of limestone masonry was

preserved up to two courses, to a height of 1.35 m (see Plan 3.18: Section 1-1), while its southern side, built of basalt masonry, was preserved up to three courses, to a height of 1.51 m. The eastern wall (W65) of the entrance, 1.8 m wide, was built of limestone masonry on its northern side, preserved up to two courses, to a height of 1.18 m (see Plan 3.18: Section 2-2), while its southern

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1

2

W2023 -152.97 -151.83

-151.76

W65

W64 -153.01

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1 m

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0

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Limestone

Basalt

Plan 3.18. Severan Theater: postscaenium facade, central entrance.

2-2

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side, built of basalt masonry, was preserved up to four courses, to a height of 2.05 m. The threshold of limestone slabs, 0.55 m deep, was founded upon the foundation wall (W2023). On the southern side of the threshold, a 2.7 m segment of pavement matched the width of the entrance, also made of limestone slabs, 0.50–0.85 × 1.70 m. Eastern Entrance. The eastern entrance, 3.55 m wide and 4.1 m deep (Plan 3.19; Fig. 3.73), was narrowed to 3.25 m by its limestone doorposts. It was crowned with the same type of decorated architrave-frieze lintel, flanked by two s-shaped consoles and a cornice, as the other two entrances. The western wall (W67) was built of limestone masonry on its northern side, preserved up to two courses, to a height of 0.61 m (Plan 3.19: Section 1-1). Its southern side, built of basalt masonry, was preserved up to five courses, to a height of 2.67 m. The eastern wall, W2141 (Plan 3.19: Section 2-2), was dismantled down to its foundation level (-152.82), and on its northern side, one limestone block was preserved. The threshold, 0.62 m deep, built of limestone slabs, was laid over the foundation wall (W2023). To the

south of the threshold was a segment of pavement of large limestone slabs. During the excavations in the early 1960s, the architectural elements of all three entrances were recovered. These limestone elements were recorded and analyzed (see Chapter 9) and a reconstruction proposal was presented (see Chapter 7). Postscaenium Exedrae and Apses The postscaenium was adorned on its northern and southern faces with wide, deep rectangular exedrae (see Plan 3.14). On either side of the central entrance were two exedrae facing north (F30 and F31 in the west, F32 and F33 in the east) and a similar set facing south (F37 and F36 in the west, F35 and F34 in the east). Exedrae F36 and F35 had parallel exedrae (F39, F40) opposite them in the northern face of the scaenae frons (W2058). Opposite Exedrae F34 and F37 in the southern face of the postscaenium were the hospitalia. At the western and eastern ends of the postscaenium, two semicircular apses in the southern face, F42 and F43, completed the elaborate system.

Fig. 3.73. Severan Theater: the postscaenium eastern entrance, looking south.

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Plan 3.19. Severan Theater: postscaenium facade, eastern entrance.

2-2

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The integrated pilasters flanking Exedrae F37 and F34 and the central entrance on the southern face of the postscaenium stood opposite similar pilasters flanking the valvae regiae and the hospitalia on the northern face of the scaenae frons (W2058). At both ends of the postscaenium’s southern face, pilasters were integrated into W2134 and W70748, opposite W2235 attached to the western versura, and W2236 attached to the eastern versura (see Plan 3.14). These pilasters carried rib arches that supported the barrel vault of the postscaenium’s northern corridor at ground floor. The following description presents the exedrae of the northern and southern facades of the postscaenium. Exedra F30. The exedra (2.35 × 3.90 m), enclosed by W71 in the east, W72 in the south and W73 in the west, opened to the north. Wall 71 was 1.6 m wide, preserved in its southern part up to six courses and in its northern part, to one course (see Plan 3.14, Fig. 3.74), in which an integrated doorpost protruded some 0.2 m. Wall 72, 6.9 m long and 1.4 m wide, was preserved up to eight courses, the first six of basalt masonry (-150.53), the rest of soft-limestone masonry in the center and basalt masonry on both ends. Integrated into its southern face in its western corner was a pilaster (1.9 × 0.5 m), of which six courses (-150.53) were preserved. Wall 73 was 0.9 m wide. Its southern part, built of basalt masonry, was

preserved up to three courses (-150.53), its northern part to three (-151.49), into which a doorpost was integrated. Exedra F31. The exedra (2.35 × 3.90 m) that flanked the central entrance from the west (see Plan 3.14; Fig. 3.75), excavated by Applebaum down to its floor foundation (-153.37), was built of small basalt stones and mortar over W2023. The exedra was enclosed by W64 in the east, W68 in the south and W69 in the west. The eastern wall, W64, 1.9 m wide and built of basalt masonry, was preserved in its southern end up to four courses, to a height of 1.51 m, while its northern end, built of limestone masonry, was preserved up to three courses, to a height of 1.35 m. Its doorpost was built of basalt masonry and protruded 0.2 m. The southern wall, W68, 6.8 m long and 1.2 m wide, was preserved up to six courses. a pilaster (0.3 × 1.9 m) was integrated into the southeastern end of W68. Wall 69, 1.1 m wide, was preserved up to six courses at its southern end and four at its northern end, in which an integrated doorpost protruded 0.2 m. Exedra F32. The exedra that flanked the central entrance from the east (2.35 × 3.90 m; see Plan 3.14), excavated by Applebaum down to its floor foundation (-153.37), was made of small basalt stones and mortar

Fig. 3.74. Severan Theater: the postscaenium, Exedra F30, looking southeast.

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Fig 3.75. Severan Theater: the postscaenium, Exedra F31, looking southeast.

laid over W2023. The exedra was enclosed by W76 in the east, W75 in the south and W65 in the west. Wall 76, 1.5 m wide, was preserved up to six courses. At its northern end, a doorpost protruded 0.2 m. The southern wall, W75, 7.2 m long and 1.3 m wide, was preserved to a height of ten courses. The lower six were of basalt masonry, while the upper four (-150.57) were of soft-limestone masonry in the center of the wall, and of basalt masonry at either end. In the southwestern corner of W75, a 0.30 × 2.05 m pilaster was preserved to a height of seven courses. The western wall, W65, was 1.75 m wide, its southern part, built of basalt masonry, was preserved up to six courses. Its northern part, preserved up to four courses and reaching a height of 1.35 m, was built of limestone masonry, apart from its doorpost that was built of basalt masonry and protruded 0.2 m. Exedra F33. The exedra (2.35 × 3.90 m) was enclosed by W80 in the east, W2059 in the south and W78 in the west. Wall 80, 1.6 m wide, was preserved in its northern part up to six courses and to five in the south. At its northern end, an integrated doorpost protruded 0.2 m. The southern wall, W2059, 6.50 m long and 1.35 m wide, was preserved up to eight courses, the lower six of basalt masonry, the upper two of soft-limestone masonry in the center and basalt masonry at either end. In the southeastern corner of W2059, an attached

pilaster (0.3 × 1.9 m) was preserved up to seven courses (-149.78). Wall 78, 1.2 m wide, was preserved in its southern part up to six courses and in its northern, to five. At its northern end, a doorpost protruded 0.2 m. Exedra F37. The exedra (2.6 × 3.5 m) faced the western hospitalia and its enclosing walls were W73 in the east, W74 in the north and W66 in the west. Wall 74, 1.6 m wide, was preserved up to two courses (-152.49). pilasters, 0.3 m wide, were integrated into the southern ends of W73 and W66 (Fig. 3.76). Parallel pilasters were attached on both sides of the hospitalia, of which only foundations were preserved (see Plan 3.14). Exedra F36. The exedra (2.7 × 3.9 m) was enclosed by W69 in the east, W70 in the north and W71 in the west (see Plan 3.14, Fig. 3.77). Wall 70, 1.5 m wide, was preserved up to four courses (-151.62). For W69 and W71, see Exedrae F30 and F31. Exedra F35. The exedra (2.7 × 3.7 m) was enclosed by W78 in the east, W77 in the north and W76 in the west (see Plan 3.14; Fig. 3.78). Wall 77, 1.5 m wide, was preserved up to two courses (-152.46). For W78 and W76, see Exedrae F32 and F33. Exedra F34. The exedra (1.4 × 1.5 m), standing opposite the eastern hospitalia, was enclosed by W67

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in the east, W79 in the north and W80 in the west. Wall 79, 0.7 m wide, was preserved up to three courses in its center (-152.00). two 0.3 m pilasters were integrated into the southern ends of W67 and

W80. Similar pilasters were attached to the opposing doorposts of the hospitalia, of which only foundations were preserved. For W67, see the eastern entrance, and for W80, see Exedra F33 (see Plans 3.14, 3.19).

Fig. 3.76. Severan Theater: the postscaenium, pilasters on either side of Exedra F37, looking east.

Fig. 3.77. Severan Theater: the postscaenium, Exedra F36, looking north.

Fig. 3.78. Severan Theater: the postscaenium, Exedra F35, looking northeast.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Western End of Proscaenium The postscaenium ended in the west with W2134, 13.8 m long and 4.2 m wide (see Plan 3.14), which joined at a right angle with W81, whose western face was built at an obtuse angle (Fig. 3.79). Wall 2134 was preserved on its eastern side up to nine courses. The lower seven courses along its northern face were of basalt masonry (-149.93), while the rest were of soft limestone (-149.00). In the wall’s southern face, about 1.1 m away from the doorpost of the western entrance,

Fig. 3.79. Severan Theater: Wall 81 at the postscaenium’s western end, as revealed by Applebaum, looking north.

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a semicircular apse (F42), 3.3 m in diameter, was built into the wall (Fig. 3.80). About 1 m to the west of it, a pilaster (0.30 × 2.25 m) was integrated into the wall. Wall 81, which closed the postscaenium’s northern corridor in the west, was 3.1 m long, 1.9 m wide in the south and 1.0 m in the north, and preserved up to three courses. A probe opened along the wall foundation west of W81 revealed that it descended in a 0.25 m wide step in the west and did not continue any further. The excavations in the light yellow soil (see Plan 3.14; L1183) yielded a few sixth-century CE pottery sherds and glass fragments. Eastern End of the Proscaenium The postscaenium ended in the east in a similar manner, although only part of W70748 was preserved to a length of 8.9 m and to a height of four courses. Its northern face was dismantled down to foundation level, presumably during Umayyad II. in its southern face, 1.5 m from the doorpost of the eastern entrance and built into W70748, was an apse (F43), 3.4 m in diameter. In its floor foundations (-153.14) were remains of an earlier apse, erected 2.8 m from the doorpost (Plan 3.20). About 1.1 m from the apse’s eastern side, a 0.3 × 2.7 m integrated pilaster was revealed.

Fig. 3.80. Severan Theater: the postscaenium, the western semicircular apse, looking northwest.

W75

W2058

W65

F32

F40

F35

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4 m

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-153.16 L1079

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F34

kiln6

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Plan 3.20. Severan Theater: probe in postscaenium northern corridor.

0

L1030 L1059

L1033 L1036

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W2236

98 Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

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Probe in the Postscaenium’s Northern Corridor In the postscaenium’s northern corridor, c. 83 m long and 4.3 m wide, a probe was excavated into its foundation core (W2023; Plan 3.20). It first cut through a Byzantine II floor (Stratum 9; L1030, L1059), under which a drainage channel (T10) was installed. The channel ran from east to west and its walls, built of basalt stones, were plastered (Fig. 3.81). Within the channel was a water pipe (L1031) made of seven clay segments held by clay rings and strengthened with plaster. The pipe segments were 0.3 m long and 0.18 m in diameter. In the channel were sixth-century CE pottery sherds and two coins, dating to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 375, 635). The floor foundation and water channel were dismantled (L1033, L1036, L1037, L1038, L1079), and some third–sixth-century CE pottery sherds, glass fragments (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.4:44), and a coin dating to the eighth century CE (Coin Cat. No. 767) were found. Over the floor foundation, attached to W2058, a pilaster (W2060) was constructed (L1032). It was 2.6 m long and 0.7 m wide, built of basalt masonry and preserved up to two courses, the lower of which protruded slightly to the north. The proscaenium foundation platform, revealed below the floor foundation, was constructed of layers of large basalt fieldstones that were leveled with small stones and mortar (L1060, L1068, L1075, L1081) and contained very few non-diagnostic pottery sherds of the Roman period (Fig. 3.82).

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Fig. 3.82. Severan Theater: the postscaenium northern corridor’s foundation core, looking west.

Excavation of the Scaena by Applebaum (Strata 11–8) The area of the scaena was mostly excavated by Applebaum (Fig. 3.83), including the collapsed layer of the scaenae frons revealed over the pulpitum and orchestra (Fig. 3.84), the result of the earthquake of 749 CE. In the later part of the Byzantine period (Byzantine II–III, Strata 9–8), the diminished theater still played a major role in city life. The pulpitum was still adorned by the columnar scaenae frons facade with its flanking versurae and its postscaenium. Thus, the collapsed debris revealed by Applebaum represented the state of the scaena in general, and the scaenae frons in particular, after the final renovation stage in Stratum 9,

Fig. 3.81. Severan Theater: the postscaenium northern corridor, Channel T10 under the floor, looking east.

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Fig. 3.83. Severan Theater: Applebaum’s excavated squares (Strata 4–2) over the postscaenium, looking northeast.

Fig. 3.84. Severan Theater: Applebaum’s excavation in the (Stratum 5) scaenae frons, looking northwest.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

dated to the early sixth century CE (Byzantine II). The layer of collapsed debris included soft-limestone masonry of the scaenae frons’ rear wall, basalt masonry of the versurae towers, limestone masonry elements and adorned lintels of the postscaenium entrances, and numerous architectural elements of the scaenae frons’ columnar facade (see Fig. 3.2). The collapse layer was regretfully not recorded by Applebaum, apart from several photographs, which show a large amount of masonry and architectural elements in the northeastern corner and in front of the eastern hospitalia (Fig. 3.85). Within the collapse layer, architraves, friezes and cornice members, as well as many sections of column shafts, can be seen, with masonry blocks scattered over them. The collapse brought down the lintel of the eastern hospitalia, while the lintel of the western hospitalia survived in situ. A similar picture was observed in the center and eastern sides of the scaenae frons podium, which was covered by collapsed masonry and architectural elements. When the scaenae frons podium was cleared, many architectural elements such as bases, capitals and architrave members were recovered in front of the scaenae frons, including several pedestals that were found in situ. This collapse layer clearly indicated that prior to 749 CE, the scaenae frons was still standing to the height of one story.

Fig. 3.85. Severan Theater: Applebaum’s excavation in the scaena, the collapsed layer of architectural elements in front of the eastern hospitalia resulting from the 749 CE earthquake, looking west.

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All the collapsed architectural elements cleared from the theater by Applebaum were placed randomly to the north of the theater facade. They were later removed by the IAA expedition to a more suitable location, sorted and re-arranged according to their types and material, fully recorded and analyzed. The completion of the theater excavations, as well as those of the civic center, revealed many additional architectural elements that had been moved out of the theater during its various renovation stages throughout Roman IV to Byzantine II, during which the scaenae frons was gradually reduced in height and some of its marble and granite architectural elements were replaced with limestone members, while the original ones were reused elsewhere in the civic center. As they could be identified by material, type, dimensions and nature as originally belonging to the theater, they were added to the theater assemblage and incorporated according to the scaenae frons columnar facade of its various stages (see Chapters 7 and 8). Under the collapsed debris of the scaenae frons columnar facade, Applebaum found the broken parts of a complete marble statue. It was uncovered in the western flank of the pulpitum at the foot of a square niche built into the scaenae frons rear wall (Fig. 3.86; see Chapter 10: Fig. 10.1). Applebaum’s records state

Fig. 3.86. Severan Theater: statue found in 749 CE collapse layer south of the western niche of the scaenae frons’ rear wall, looking west.

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that it was found in a layer of red soil, at a level that was higher than the pulpitum floor’s pavement. He first identified its findspot as the remains of a pool dated to Byzantine III, but later claimed that the statue was found under the scaenae frons collapse, and refrained from dating its level (Applebaum 1961; 1975:66–67; 1978:83, n. 11, 96–97). Since it was found, according to Applebaum, under the earthquake debris of 749 CE, it would be reasonable to assume that it was found over an Umayyad II layer of Stratum 5, rather than a Byzantine III layer, indicating that it was still standing in place within the niche when the earthquake occurred. The statue, 1.77 m high, portrayed a naked figure, presumably Hermes, wearing a chlamys over his shoulder. It was dated by Applebaum to the late second or early third century CE, i.e., the construction date of the Severan Theater. In his preliminary report, Applebaum generally recorded the finding of pottery sherds and coins with little or no reference to date. He also mentioned a bronze door hinge of the valvae regiae, lead clamps and marble fragments of the opus sectile wall plating, presumably from the scaenae frons wall (Applebaum 1965:4; 1978:84–85), which were not found by us in the IAA storage facilities. In his preliminary report, Applebaum described the upper layer over the entire scaena as agricultural soil (1960:1, Plan 155). In this report, the upper part of

the valvae regiae was recorded at level -147.50. On the western side of the scaena, remains of an Islamic building, presumably of the seventeenth century, were found. One of the Islamic walls was built next to the valvae regiae lintel. It ran from north to south, constructed of roughly cut basalt stones. Under it, an earlier Islamic stratum of unclear date was partly revealed, founded over a deep accumulation layer that sealed the collapsed architectural elements of the scaenae frons. The area of the western versura, referred to by Applebaum (1960:1) as the theater’s western gate, was excavated in 18 squares, in which two Islamic-period strata were observed, the earlier of which was dated by him to the eighth–ninth centuries CE. Over the theater’s northwestern corner, he noted the exposure of a solid construction (fortress?) of the eighth–tenth centuries CE, with no further details or plan of the structure. In the upper level, generally described by him as over the western gate, he described the excavation of rooms and a square building, built of roughly cut basalt stones (Fig. 3.87). he found, reused as a threshold in a late Islamic building located in front of the western gate (versura), a limestone architectural element bearing a worn inscription of four lines, of which three lines are legible, the letters 0.10–0.12 m high (Fig. 3.88; Applebaum 1961):

Fig. 3.87. Severan Theater: the scaena and cavea in the early days of Applebaum’s excavations, looking northwest.

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Cavea The semicircular cavea was the southern subcomplex of the theater. It was separated from the scaena by the orchestra and the aditus maximi, and from the orchestra by the balteus. It was divided by two horizontal praecinctiones (see the reconstruction in Plan 7.3) into three sections: the ima, media and summa caveae, and crowned at the top with a porticus (see Plan 3.1). The ima cavea underwent reconstruction by the IAA expedition (see Fig. 3.97; Chapter 8).

Fig. 3.88. Severan Theater: an inscription on a limestone element in secondary use from Applebaum’s excavations of the postscaenium, looking north.

TO TEN NEON EPΓON TPATH IOY The new work .…….. When the walls of the late Islamic building were dismantled, another limestone architectural element with an inscription was discovered, presumably also reused as a threshold, as it shows secondary cuts and a shallow depression for a door hinge. It was 1.4 m long, 0.6 m high and 0.34 m wide, and the remains of a worn three-line inscription were discerned, the letters 7 cm high; only the upper line was legible (Fig. 3.89; Applebaum 1961): EPΓON TEC NEAC BACILI KHC …the work of the new basilicae…

Balteus Stratum 12 The balteus, a 1.6 m wide semicircular passage, separated the bisellia of the orchestra from the ima cavea. The original pavement of Stratum 12 consisted of large, hard-limestone slabs, 0.4–1.1 m wide and 0.4–1.5 m long, mainly trapezoidal in shape, which were laid perpendicular to the axis of the passage, at level -154.08 in the northwest, -153.90 in the center and -153.89 in the northeast (Figs. 3.90, 3.91). Most of these slabs were preserved in situ (Plan 3.21; Fig. 3.90). Two sockets were found in the pavement slabs, a square one (7 × 10 cm, 7 cm deep) in front of Scalarium V, and a round one (0.3 m in diameter, 0.21 m in depth) on the eastern side of Cuneus 4. Cuneus 4 was attached to the podium wall of the ima cavea, in which a rectangular part of the cap molding was cut (0.17 × 0.20 m) immediately above the round socket and two anchoring holes were drilled into the podium wall on either side (see discussion, Chapter 7). The first step of each scalarium was laid over the balteus pavement, each step semicircular, 0.72–0.76 m in diameter and 0.28–0.33 m in height. The balteus was accessed by three entrances: one at either end and one in the center that was 1.8 m wide.

◄ Fig. 3.89. Severan Theater: an inscription on a limestone element in secondary use in an Islamic/Mamluk building excavated by Applebaum over the postscaenium.

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Fig. 3.90. Severan Theater: the balteus, looking north.

Stratum 11 In Stratum 11, repairs were made at the eastern end of the balteus pavement, where a 1.60 × 1.94 m segment was re-paved and adjusted in level to that of the eastern aditus maximus pavement’s later stage (-153.67). At this stage, some basalt slabs were integrated into the original pavement. The foundation layer (L1261) of the pavement consisted of dark soil and crushed lime mortar containing small lime lumps and soft-limestone fragments (Fig. 3.92). a coin (Coin Cat. No. 796) dated to Umayyad II seems to have penetrated into this foundation.

◄ Fig. 3.91. Severan Theater: the uncovering of the balteus by Applebaum, looking southwest.

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Stratum 9 In front of Cuneus 3, the remains of an elevated, marble-slab pavement were found by Applebaum at level -152.96, laid over an 8 cm fill the entire width of the balteus (Fig. 3.93). It was attached on its southern side to the ima cavea and on its northern side to the rear side of the bisellium seats. Applebaum assumed it to be an Islamic construction, although it seems to be part of the paved axis that led, within the balteus, to the Stratum 9 tribunal in the center of the ima cavea (see below).

Ima Cavea Stratum 12

Fig. 3.92. Severan Theater: probe under balteus pavement, looking southwest.

In Stratum 12, the ima cavea consisted of eight cunei and two adjacent tribunalia, all constructed of hard, white limestone. The cunei were separated by nine scalaria (Plan 3.21; Fig. 3.94) built along the axis lines of the acoustic cells as they were presumably meant to serve as open, centralized acoustic channels

Fig. 3.93. Severan Theater: the ima cavea during Applebaum’s excavations, looking southeast.

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IX

I

2

L1235 L1240 L1281

L1261

8

1

VIII

II 2

1

7

III

VII

3

6 5

VI

-145

IV

V

20

1

0

4

m

W70755

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Plan 3.21. Severan Theater: balteus and ima cavea in Stratum 12; Section 1-1, the seats.

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-145 -146 -147 -148 -149 -150 -151 -152 -153 -154

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Plan 3.21 (cont.). Severan Theater: balteus and ima cavea in Stratum 12; Section 2-2, the scalarium.

Fig. 3.94. Severan Theater: the ima cavea after restoration work (1989–1990), looking southeast.

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along the ima cavea. Therefore, the number of scalaria matched the number of acoustic cells (see below) and determined their axis lines. All the cunei were trapezoidal, 5.5–9.5 m wide and 10.4 m long. They began with the podium, a low wall divided into sections by the scalaria, followed by 14 regular seat rows and crowned with a row of curiale seats for eminent spectators (-152.24/-146.05). The seat rows were 0.46 m high and 0.8 m deep. The highest row was poorly preserved. The backs of the curiale seats were reconstructed to a height of 0.4 m, somewhat lower than the backs of the curiale seats in the orchestra. The curiale-seat back was 0.16 m thick, and the seat was 0.84 m high (including the back) and 0.48 m deep. All seat rows had a 0.14–0.17 m protruding horizontal cap molding that became vertical next to the scalaria (Fig. 3.95). The profile of the molding, 10 cm high, had a 1 cm horizontal groove that did not appear at the rows’ vertical ends, except for one seat at the eastern end of Row 3 of Cuneus 5. The sections of the podium wall, 1.18 m high and 1 m wide, built of two courses of masonry blocks, was intersected by the scalaria, and its upper part had a profiled cap molding. Fig. 3.96. Severan Theater: the ima cavea scalarium, looking south.

Fig. 3.95. Severan Theater: the ima cavea seat row and its cap molding next to the scalarium, looking south.

The scalaria connected the balteus (-153.89) with the praecinctio (-146.35). They were 0.74 m wide and had 32 steps, 0.23 m high and 0.32 m deep. The first semicircular step over the balteus pavement was 0.72–0.76 m in diameter and 0.28–0.33 m in height (Fig. 3.96). The northwestern and northeastern scalaria at either end of the ima cavea had a profiled banister along their northern side that reached the tribunalia and encircled them (see Plan 3.21). The tribunalia were

not preserved, although the eastern one was recently reconstructed by the IAA expedition. Their dimensions were 3.4 × 5.0 m and both apparently had four seat rows continuing those of the adjacent cuneus (Fig. 3.97). Within the seat rows of the ima cavea, three types of sockets, with numerous subtypes, were observed (see Plan 3.21). Two different socket systems served two main purposes: Type 1 held the fence-posts that enclosed the orchestra and turned it into an arena (see Chapter 7), while Types 2 and 3 served the supporting system of the velum in the Byzantine period (Graefe 1979). Type 1: Rectangular or square in the seat’s surface; Subtype 1a: 0.21–0.23 × 0.27–0.30 m, 0.3 m deep; Subtype 1b: 0.12–0.15 × 0.12–0.15 m, 0.1 m deep; Subtype 1c: 0.07–0.10 × 0.12–0.14 m, 0.1 m deep; Subtype 1d: 0.08–0.10 × 0.08–0.12 m, 3–7 cm deep. Type 2: Rectangular or square in the seat’s profiled cap molding, 0.10 × 0.12 m. Type 3: Round in the seat’s surface; Subtype 3a: diameter 0.08–0.10 m, 4–6 cm deep; Subtype 3b: diameter 0.26–0.30 m, 0.3 m deep; Subtype 3c: diameter 0.34–0.36 m, 1–5 cm deep.

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Fig. 3.97. Severan Theater: Cuneus 1 and scalarium I with eastern tribunal, after reconstruction, looking east.

The first row of Cuneus 1 had two Subtype 1a sockets, 1.3/1.5 m away from both ends and 2.5 m apart. Row 6 had two Subtype 1b sockets at the southern end and in the center that were 3.15 m apart. The first row of Cuneus 2 had three Subtype 1a sockets, at both ends and in the center, 2.37 m apart. In the center of Row 6, at the southern end of Row 10, and at the northern end of Row 12, were Subtype 1b sockets. Row 13 had two sockets, one of Subtype 3b, 3.1 m away from the southern end, and a Subtype 3a socket, 3.28 m away from the first. The first row of Cuneus 3 had two Subtype 1a sockets, 1.45 m away from both ends and 2.38 m apart. In the balteus, a Subtype 3b socket was observed next to the eastern end of Cuneus 4. Over it, in the podium’s profiled cap molding, was a 0.2 m wide groove that had two 2 × 2 cm anchoring holes on either side. The first seat row of Cuneus 4 had three Subtype 1a sockets at both ends (0.15 m away) and in the center, 2.4–2.5 m apart. about 2 m away from the western end of the seat row, a Subtype 1b socket was observed and above it, in the profiled cap molding of the second row, a 0.12 m socket of Type 2. Row 3 had a Subtype 1b socket about 2 m away from its western end, and above it, in Row 4, a Type 2 socket in the seat’s profiled cap molding.

Row 6 had a Subtype 1b socket at its eastern end and a Subtype 3c socket 2.28 m away from its western end, with an anchoring hole of 4 cm. Row 9 had three Subtype 1b sockets, at both ends and in the center, 3.34 m apart. Row 10 had two Subtype 1b sockets, one 2.55 m away from its western end and the other 0.1 m away from its eastern end. Row 13 had a Subtype 1b socket 2.84 m away from its western end. In Cuneus 4 there were four Subtype 1b sockets on each side located over the same axis line. The first row of Cuneus 5 had two sockets of Subtype 1a, 0.15 m away from the eastern end, 0.32 m away from the western end, and 2.1/2.5 m apart. One Subtype 1b socket was observed in its far eastern side. Row 3 had two Type 2 sockets, 8 cm away from the seat’s profile and 0.4 m apart. In Rows 4 and 5, the seat’s profiled cap molding had Type 2 sockets, 1.96 m away from their eastern end. Rows 5 and 6 had two Subtype 1b sockets at their western ends. A Subtype 3a socket was observed in Row 6, 2.9 m away from its western end, and a Subtype 3b socket, 1.8 m away from its eastern end. Row 9 had three Subtype 1b sockets at the western end, at a distance of 3.21 m away from its western end, and 1 m from the eastern end. Row 10

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had two Subtype 1b sockets at the western end and 2.3 m away from the eastern. Row 13 had two Subtype 1b sockets at the western end and 2.65 m away from the eastern end. Row 15 had a Subtype 1b socket at its western end and two Subtype 1d sockets, the first some 0.36 m away from its eastern end and the other at a distance of 1.14 m. Here again, a line of seven Subtype 1b sockets was observed on the western side of the cuneus. The first row of Cuneus 6 had two Subtype 1a sockets, 1.2 m away from the eastern end and 2.29 m away from the first. A third Subtype 1c socket was observed 0.4 m away from the eastern end. All of these were located about 0.12–0.15 m away from the seat’s profiled cap molding. Row 1 of Cuneus 7 had three Subtype 1a sockets in the same location at both ends and in the center, 2.42 m apart. Row 6 had a Subtype 1b socket with 2 × 2 cm anchoring holes on either side, at its southern end. In Row 7, 0.95 m away from its northern end, a Type 2 socket was observed. Rows 10 and 14 had two Subtype 1b sockets in their southern end. In Row 11, three Subtype 1d sockets were found, 0.20–0.22 m away from the profiled cap molding of the Row 12. The first is 0.28 m away from its northern end, the second, 2.8 m, and the third 2.8 m from its southern end. Here again, a line of three Subtype 1b sockets was observed on the southern side. The first row of Cuneus 8 had two Subtype 1a sockets, 1.5 m from its southern end and 2.5 m from the first, and a Subtype 1b socket at its northern end. Row 6 had two Subtype 1b sockets, one at the southern

end and the second 3.31 m toward the center. Row 15 had a Subtype 1d socket 1.5 m from its southern end. Scalarium V was the only one that had sockets of Subtype 1b located in Steps 19, 24 and 29. Applebaum (1960) reported several Greek letters engraved on the seats. A thorough survey of the seats revealed various sets of Greek letters: CIB, BA, PON, W, T and BV over the ima cavea seats (Figs. 3.98– 3.100). As a result of the earthquake of 749 CE, the northern section of Cuneus 1 and the eastern tribunal collapsed. Prior to major reconstruction work, the area was cleared and excavated. The collapsed debris, found under a heavy accumulation of soil, was removed (L1235, L1240, L1281) and the cuneus’ foundation was revealed. The foundation was constructed over a slope that corresponded with the angle of the seats, of large to medium-sized basalt stones in dark gray mortar (Fig. 3.101). As the foundation layer was excavated, the remains of earlier walls were revealed that date to the first century CE, belonging to the earlier Southern Theater (see Chapter 2). The penetration of the cuneus construction deep into the foundation layer of the earlier Southern Theater, and the collapse of the cunei in the earthquake, resulted in disturbed loci with mixed pottery of the first century BCE–sixth century CE and a coin dated to the third century CE (Coin Cat. No. 176). In the collapsed debris, many seats were found, as well as scalarium steps and banister elements. The seats of the ima cavea were fairly well preserved (see Fig. 3.93) except for Row 15, in which the curiale

Fig. 3.98. Severan Theater: the ima cavea, Greek letters on seat (CIB), looking south.

Fig. 3.99. Severan Theater: the ima cavea, Greek letters on seat (BV), looking south.

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Fig. 3.100. Severan Theater: the ima cavea, Greek letters on seat (PON), looking south.

Fig. 3.101. Severan Theater: foundation core under ima cavea seats, looking south.

seats were mostly broken or missing. The scalaria were also well preserved, except for several that were reused in Umayyad II. Some of the steps were replaced with basalt stones, presumably during Byzantine II, and some of the seats show repairs with the same basalt stone. Most of the seats next to the scalaria had vertically profiled ends, many of which were poorly preserved, and numerous other seats have old cracks. In the center of the ima cavea, in the lower part of Cunei 4 and 5, the vertical profile of the seats was better preserved, presumably as a result of a tribunal that was built over them in Stratum 9 (see below).

reaching the third row at level -151.85. According to Applebaum, the platform was c. 5.2 m wide, 2.4 m deep and 0.65 m high. Its northern wall was built of soft-limestone masonry placed in headers, and the floor was paved with marble slabs (Fig. 3.103). Around the platform, numerous architectural elements were scattered (e.g., A6265, A6266), including some broken column-shaft sections, a Corinthian capital and pedestals. On the eastern side, a base was preserved in situ. Applebaum referred to the platform in his preliminary report as a late feature, a rectangular, masonry-built platform whose significance and function he could not clarify (Applebaum 1978:92, Pl. B). The seats’ cornice above the podium had rectangular recesses cut into it to the left and right of the platform, probably for the iron railing that enclosed it. In the balteus, Applebaum observed a rough footwalk built of fragments of marble slabs, which he dated to the Early Islamic period. According to Applebaum, the footwalk approached the platform from both sides and afforded access to it. It would be reasonable to assume, based on Applebaum’s preliminary report and photographs, that in Byzantine II, presumably the early sixth century CE (Stratum 9), architectural elements from the theater’s scaenae frons were reused to decorate a newly built platform in the lower central section of the ima cavea (see Fig. 3.103). The platform must have served as a tribunal for certain honoraria as the theater was still active at the time, as evidenced by the extensive renovation conducted in the hyposcaenium, indicating use of its pulpitum.

Stratum 9 In the center of the ima cavea, in the lower part of Cunei 4 and 5, a platform was built, presumably during Byzantine II. It was excavated by Applebaum (1965:3) and entirely dismantled by him, leaving no record of its nature. The excavator stated that it may have been surrounded by a metal fence, the anchoring sockets of which were preserved over the seats of Cunei 4 and 5 (see Plan 3.21). Next to it, coins of the second–third centuries CE, and mainly coins of the first half of the sixth century CE, along with a few Early Islamic coins, were found along with several coin die (Applebaum 1978:92, No. 19). The latest Byzantine coin was of Mauritius Tiberius (582–602 CE). From Appelbaum’s photograph (Fig. 3.102), the platform seems to have covered parts of the first two rows of Cunei 4 and 5, adjacent to the central scalarium (Scalarium V),

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Fig. 3.102. Severan Theater: platform remains revealed by Applebaum over ima cavea seats, looking southwest.

Fig. 3.103. Severan Theater: the platform wall and pavement, looking south.

Later Strata Excavated by Applebaum The tribunal continued to stand throughout Umayyad II, although Applebaum’s dating of its lower footwalk to the Early Islamic period is problematic, as at that time the theater was no longer functional. In any event, whether the tribunal was still used in Umayyad II for some unknown function or not, it collapsed as a result of the earthquake of 749 CE. During Stratum 5 (Umayyad II), Scalarium VII (Fig. 3.104) was converted into a water channel, as all

the step angles were filled with a sloping, light gray mortar surface. The work was dated by Applebaum to the seventh century CE, based on several coins that were found in the mortar. A layer of sediment over the scalarium and the nearby seats indicated intensive water activity. Apparently the water entered into the auditorium via a nearby vomitorium. A large number of finds were recovered by Applebaum from the general fill and over the ima cavea seats (Applebaum 1965:2), including nine coins, of which five date to the third– sixth centuries CE and two to the seventh century CE.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.104. Severan Theater: the ima cavea, Scalarium VII turned into a water channel in Umayyad II, looking southwest.

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All later interventions in the ima cavea were dismantled by Applebaum, who refrained from recording them on the theater plans. According to Applebaum’s preliminary report (1960:1), the theater’s ima cavea was covered by a substantial accumulation fill, over which agricultural terraces were built in the Late Islamic period. The theater’s high walls were in some places reused, while in others their stones were dismantled and reused for later constructions. When work began in 1960, he opened a 5 × 5 m probe in the ima cavea and excavated to a depth of c. 4 m, where collapsed architectural elements were revealed. He also cut a trench on a south–north axis in the theater’s ima cavea, and later cleared the inner part of the theater with heavy mechanical equipment (Fig. 3.105). The report by the Survey of Western Palestine team (Conder and Kitchener 1882:107) made no reference to the cavea. Applebaum (1960:1), in his preliminary report, referred to some earlier probes presumably conducted by the archaeological inspector Na‘im Makhouly, on behalf of the Mandatory Public Works Department, of which no report was found in the archives. Nehemiah Tzori (1962:180) mentioned in his survey report two probes he conducted in the ima cavea in 1945 and 1954, also with no detailed records.

Fig. 3.105. Severan Theater: Applebaum’s excavations clearing the ima cavea with mechanical equipment, looking southwest.

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Praecinctio Stratum 12 A semicircular passage, 1.5 m wide and c. 52.8 m in diameter, separated the ima from the media cavea (see Plan 3.21; Fig. 3.106). On one side it was bordered by the media cavea podium, pierced all along at regular intervals by vomitorium entrances and the entrances of the podium staircases, and on the other side by the ima cavea curiale seats. It was accessed from the ima cavea scalaria and the vomitoria. The passage was first excavated by Applebaum (1960:1; 1978:86) and three probes were conducted in it by the IAA expedition (Plan 3.22). Three segments of the praecinctio’s original pavement of Stratum 12 were preserved in situ at level -146.35, the first, 16.35 m long, bordered Cunei 7 and 8, the second, 6.2 m long, bordered Cuneus 6, and the third, 5.4 m long, bordered Cuneus 4 (see Plan 3.21). Most of the hard-limestone pavement slabs in these areas were well preserved, measuring 0.35–0.80 m wide, 1.00–1.15 m long and 0.3 m thick. The podium (W70755) of the media cavea was 1.8 m wide. Its first limestone foundation course, 0.45 m high, protruded 0.12 m into the praecinctio and the passage pavement was attached to its upper level (Fig. 3.107; see Plan

Fig. 3.107. Severan Theater: the praecinctio pavement attached to the media cavea foundation course, looking northeast.

Fig. 3.106. Severan Theater: the praecinctio between the ima and the media caveae, looking southwest.

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3.22: Sections 1-1, 2-2). In the vomitorium entrances, the limestone foundation course served as the entrance threshold, 1.9 m wide. The first step of the scalaria was at the pavement level (Fig. 3.108). The podium was preserved along its route in two–three courses and in some places the first two steps of the podium staircases were preserved. The three probes were conducted along the praecinctio in areas where the pavement was missing. The first was opened in the northeast, in front of Acoustic Cell 2 (3 × 3 m, L50637; see Plan 3.22: Probe 1). In that area, several of the ima cavea seats of the last row of Cunei 1 and 2 had been dismantled, presumably during Umayyad II. in the southern part of the probe, a round installation, c. 1 m in diameter and one basalt course high, the nature of which was unclear, was revealed. Its upper level was -147.67 and it was 0.4 m deep with no floor remains. It had an opening in the south and was filled with light gray soil and travertine lumps. Based on its pottery, it was dated to the Abbasid period. Within the fill, a coin of the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 630) and a glass fragment (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.4:45) were also found. In the southwestern corner of the probe, the remains of a tabun were found, 0.6 m in diameter and with a hard, concrete floor at level -147.62. The second probe (see Plan 3.22 Probe 2, Section 1-1) was conducted along Cuneus 4 of the ima cavea (1.5 ×

2.2 m). Its upper level had already been excavated by Applebaum (1960:1) and filled by him with soil containing mixed pottery, the latest of which was dated to the Mamluk period (Figs. 3.109, 3.110). This late fill was removed and the foundation layers were excavated (L70754). Two foundation layers were uncovered, each 0.8–0.9 m wide and 0.55 m deep, constructed of small to medium-sized uncut basalt stones, with a hard, dark gray concrete layer between the two layers (see Plan 3.22: Probe 2; Fig. 3.110). Under it, a sterile layer of light gray soil filled a foundation trench down to the rock-cut foundation of the seats (-149.30) of the Southern Theater (Stratum 13). No pottery was found in the foundation layer, only a coin of the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 573). Prior to the construction of the podium (W70755) of the media cavea, a foundation trench was cut into the hillside bedrock (see Plan 3.22: Probe 2, Section 1-1) that was revealed at level -147.70 in the south and level -148.80 in the north, under the last seat row of the ima cavea. Wall 70755 was built over four foundation courses, about 1 m high, that were erected in the foundation trench and protruded some 0.2 m from the upper wall courses. The foundation trench was filled with sterile, crumbly, light gray-yellowish soil fill to level -147.33 (L70754). the foundation layers of the praecinctio pavement and curiale seat row were built over it (see Fig. 3.110).

Fig. 3.108. Severan Theater: the praecinctio and vomitorium pavement, looking west.

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wide and 0.2 m high, had a floor (-146.78) paved with small basalt stones. The channel’s walls, 0.42–0.52 m wide, were built of soft limestone and covered with a coating of alluvial soil (L50647). The channel was constructed into the pavement foundation layer and since it had earlier been excavated by Applebaum, its pottery content was of a mixed nature, from Roman IV to Abbasid, and could not date the channel. it may have been installed in Roman II, based on the coins, dating to the second century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 24, 26, 40, 53), found under the floor of the channel. These coins may serve as a terminus post quem for the praecinctio foundation in the Severan period.

Media Cavea Stratum 12

Fig. 3.109. Severan Theater: the praecinctio, Probe 2, basalt-stone foundation layer, looking northeast.

Fig. 3.110. Severan Theater: the praecinctio, Probe 2, foundation layers, looking east.

The third probe (see Plan 3.22: Probe 3, Section 2-2) was opened south of Cuneus 6 of the media cavea (3.0 × 1.1 m). Its upper level, already excavated by Applebaum and refilled, revealed when cleared a 1.15 m long segment of a channel that ran from northwest to southeast (see Fig. 3.107). The channel, 0.23 m

The semicircular media cavea, the second horizontal section of seats, was built over the vomitoria, a complex of vaulted entrances that led into the praecinctio, and a series of acoustic cells (see below). It was bordered on its inner side by the media cavea podium and on the outer side by the ambulacrum wall (Plan 3.23). It had an inner diameter of 55 m, an outer of 90 m, was 17.75 m deep and rose at a steep angle. Prior to its excavation by Applebaum, its general contour and some of its vomitorium entrances had already been described by nineteenth-century travelers and surveyors such as Bankes in 1817 (Bowsher 1997), Irby and Mangeles (1823:301–303), Robinson (1856:326–332), Guérin (1874:289–298) and Conder and Kitchener (1882:106–107). These early descriptions noted the odd phenomenon of the acoustic cells and the unique setting of the vomitoria. Bankes, then the PEF survey, supplied relatively accurate plans of the vomitoria and acoustic cells, although in the latter the theater’s shape was erroneously drafted as over half a circle. No seats of the media cavea were preserved, as they had all been removed at some time, presumably during the late Byzantine period. The foundation core was constructed of large to medium-sized basalt fieldstones, compactly compressed in hard, dark gray mortar, and sloped toward the center around its semicircular contour. On its inner side was the media cavea podium, preserved to a height of one to three courses (Figs. 3.108, 3.111). Along the podium, the staircases and vomitorium entrances were preserved, the former from

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Fig. 3.111. Severan Theater: the media cavea foundation core, looking west.

one to three courses, the latter to their full height. The solid core above the vomitorium entrances was well preserved to the height of the barrel vaults, which were constructed within the core. It rose up to its outer perimeter wall, which was the ambulacrum’s inner perimeter wall. As this wall was well preserved to a height of 12 courses, the core was held firmly in place. In some places the core was preserved even higher than the perimeter wall, to a level of -156.39.

Vomitoria 2–18 and Acoustic Cells 1–9 Stratum 12 The foundation core of the media cavea incorporated a network of vomitoria and acoustic cells that were largely well preserved. The vomitoria were entered from the theater’s semicircular circumference wall, and crossed the ambulacrum toward the praecinctio, which had the same floor level. There were 17 radial vomitoria, numbered by Applebaum from west to east (Nos. 2–18; No. 1 was over the western aditus maximus, and No. 19 over the eastern aditus maximus, neither one preserved), and nine acoustic cells, numbered from east to west (1–9). Most

of the vomitoria were composed of pairs with a connecting passage in between. The vomitorium on the right side entered the cavea at the praecinctio level, while the left-side vomitorium terminated, two thirds of the way, in a wall with an entrance to a narrow diagonal passage that led to an acoustic cell (see Plan 3.23). Vomitoria 16/17/18 in the northeast comprised a set of three parallel vomitoria, the central of which entered the cavea, while from those on either side, two acoustic cells were accessed. The ambulacrum and vomitorium walls were constructed of well-cut and dressed basalt masonry and were roofed by angled barrel vaults constructed of the same basalt masonry. Most of these barrel vaults were well preserved, apart from those of Vomitoria 2/3 in the northwest and 16/17/18 in the northeast, and the ambulacrum barrel vault and its external vomitorium sections (see Plan 3.23). Differences in height between the high barrel vault of the ambulacrum and the gradually descending vaults of the vomitoria created a slope over which the media cavea seats were constructed. All the western entrances of Vomitoria 16/17/18 were recently restored during reconstruction work in the entire northeastern corner of the theater. The

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podium of the media cavea, its scalaria, and several of its seat rows were rebuilt over the reconstructed ceiling of Acoustic Cell 1, in order to present a section of the original setting of the media cavea (see Chapter 8). All the acoustic cells were excavated by Applebaum down to their foundation layer, and no reference was made in his preliminary reports to any finds. Applebaum noted in his preliminary report that all the acoustic cells were built along the axis line of the ima cavea scalaria (Applebaum 1978:80). He further noted that their location, shape and integrated construction into the media cavea foundation pointed to a fundamental plan in which the media cavea scalaria were built over the acoustic cells (see Plan 3.23). The planned correlation between the ima and media cavea scalaria and the acoustic cells points to some kind of functional relationship. Applebaum suggested that there may have been ‘windows’ of some kind in the acoustic cells’ facade wall, i.e., the media cavea

podium, built of limestone masonry. Regretfully, in no place was the podium preserved high enough to clarify this possibility, which seems to be quite plausible (see discussion in Chapter 7). Three variations of vomitoria were distinguished, differing in their plan and the approaches to the acoustic cells. Double vomitoria characterized most of the theater (Vomitoria 4–15; see Plan 3.23). The right-side vomitorium led into the cavea, while the left, parallel one ended in a blocking wall about two thirds of the way. On the right side of the blocking wall, a low entrance opened into a narrow corridor that led in a bent approach to an acoustic cell. The right-side vomitorium entered the praecinctio through an entrance with a rectangular, limestone doorframe that was integrated into the media cavea podium. The podium was cut by the eight vomitorium entrances into nine segments, 5.1 m long in both the northwestern and northeastern ends of

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

the podium, and 9.1–9.2 m long along its semicircular route. On both sides of the entrances, staircases led up to the media cavea scalaria (see Plan 3.23, Fig. 3.108). In the preserved staircase segments, two to five steps of the original 12 survived, and each masonry course held two carved steps. In some of the steps, round sockets were found. The steps were 0.77 m wide, 0.33 m deep and 0.25 m high. The vomitorium entrances had deep thresholds built of two rows of slabs that continued the praecinctio pavement into the entrances. The limestone doorposts and lintels were attached to the vomitorium barrel vaults and had three fasciae crowned with profiles. The podium staircases were installed into the podium, in which the outer, 0.3 m wide, and inner, 0.6 m wide doorposts were built. The entrances into the staircases were framed by doorposts similar to those of the vomitorium entrances, and the staircases were roofed by barrel vaults. The left-side vomitorium was connected to the rightside vomitorium by a transverse passage. The entrance into the acoustic cell was pierced in the right side of the blocking wall, and led into a straight corridor that then turned to the left at an obtuse angle and entered the acoustic cell. In a variation of the double-vomitoria, the acoustic cell was approached by a straight corridor (Vomitoria 2/3). a triple-vomitorium plan with three radial passages is illustrated by Vomitoria 16/17/18. The central vomitorium led into the praecinctio, while the two side vomitoria led into acoustic cells, one by a straight corridor and the other diagonally. The differences between vomitorium types were the result of the theater’s plan, as eight sets of vomitoria led to nine acoustic cells. The location and plan of the vomitoria were the result of the design of the theater’s outer circumference-wall entrances. On the other hand, the acoustic cells’ locations were determined by the ima cavea scalarium locations. As a result, the vomitoria located at either end of the cavea were of irregular shape. The entire length of the ambulacrum and all the vomitoria, except for Vomitoria 16/17/18, were excavated by Applebaum (1961:1; 1965:2; 1978:87– 91). Some of them were excavated in transverse sections, some in probes, while others were simply cleared by mechanical equipment (Fig. 3.112). According to Applebaum’s preliminary report (1978), sections were cut in Vomitoria 5, 7, 11, 15 and 17, all of which were later entirely cleared. In these sections,

Fig. 3.112. Severan Theater: vomitorium being cleared with mechanical equipment by Applebaum, looking south.

he noted secondary walls and floors all dated from the Umayyad to Mamluk periods, but included no records, plans or reports of finds. Vomitoria 2/3. These vomitoria were located at the northwestern end of the cavea, and their barrel vaults were poorly preserved (Plan 3.24: Section 1-1). The left-side Vomitorium 2 was 25 m long, 2.7 m wide in the west and 2.05 m wide in the east. Two passages opened in its northern wall (W20). At its western end, a passage, 2.93 m long and 1.78 m wide, led into another vomitorium (1) that was built over the barrel vault of the western aditus maximus and was not preserved. The passage floor was found above the wall’s first course (-145.49). At the eastern end of W20, another passage, 2.3 m long and 1.9 m wide, led to a staircase that mounted the western versura, and was also not preserved. The passage floor above the first foundation course of the wall was found at level -146.13. Wall 21, which separated Vomitoria 2 and 3, was cut at its western end by a connecting passage, 3.6 m long and 3.75 m wide, and at its eastern end by a narrower passage, 2.5 m long and 2.3 m wide. an entrance in W23 led to a 2.6 m long × 0.88 m wide corridor that connected in a straight axis to Acoustic Cell 9.

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Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

-154.55

0

-151.53

10 m

-150.86 -146.60

Aditus Maximus West

Vomitorium 2

-146.95

Acoustic Cell 9

-146.45

W70755

-146.13

W20

W23

-145.49

-146.05

W21

m3

W19

riu Vomito

W22

-145

-146

L1149

-147

1-1 Plan 3.24. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 2/3.

1 -146.49

L1149

W24

1

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Wall 20 was 22.8 m long, 3.2 m wide at its western end and 2.3 m wide at its eastern. Its northern face was built over the vault of the aditus maximus, and preserved to one course, 0.5 m high, while its southern face was preserved up to three courses, 0.48–0.60 m high. The western end of the wall was preserved to three courses, constructed in steps that protruded 0.12– 0.15 m. Wall 24, which separated Vomitoria 2 and 3, was 20.3 m long. In the west it was 2.64 m wide, in the center 2.95 m, and in the east, where it served as the southern wall of the acoustic cell, it was only 2.4 m wide. The wall was preserved in its western part to a height of eight courses (Fig. 3.113), and in the east up to four. Each course was 0.44–0.55 m high, and its foundation course protruded some 0.28 m from the wall’s face. The eastern end of W24 and W23, which were joined together, was 7.5 m long and 6.5 m wide. In the west, where it was preserved up to four courses, it incorporated the entrance into Acoustic Cell 9; it was 5.5 m wide in the center where the acoustic cell was located. Acoustic Cell 9 was oval-shaped (2.4–2.9 m in diameter), built into W24 and W23, and was closed in the east by W70755, the media cavea limestone podium. The floor of its entrance corridor (0.88 × 2.10 m) was at level -146.45. The corridor walls that integrated with the wall of the acoustic cell were preserved to a height of three courses, each 0.48–0.50 m high. The wall of the acoustic cell was preserved in the south up to four courses and to three in the north. It was founded over a floor foundation of small basalt stones held in hard, dark gray mortar at a level of -146.95, about 0.5 m lower than the corridor floor level.

Vomitorium 3 led into the praecinctio. It was 34.3 m long, 2.9 m wide in the west and 2.5 m wide in the east. Wall 22, the southern wall, was 10.82 m wide in the west and 9.4 m in the east and contained an acoustic cell (8) in its core. It was preserved to a height of five courses in the east, up to the spring course of its vault, and to eight stepped courses at the western end, each 0.4–0.6 m high. The wall’s core was preserved even higher in its western

Fig. 3.114. Severan Theater: southern wall (W22) of Vomitorium 3, looking west.

Fig. 3.113. Severan Theater: Wall 21 between Vomitoria 2/3, looking northeast.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

end, up to three more courses (Fig. 3.114). A probe (L1149; 1.0 × 2.3 m) was opened at the vomitorium’s eastern end, next to the entrance’s threshold (see Plan 3.24: Section 1-1). The foundation layer was composed of small basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar (-146.59). Over it, the vomitorium walls were built; their first foundation course, 0.48 m high, protrudes some 0.18–0.32 m from the walls face into the passage. The vomitorium was excavated by Applebaum, and a late water channel was exposed by him along its southern wall (W22). The channel’s walls were built of bricks, covered with stone slabs (0.2 × 0.2 m) and it ran into the cavea. Applebaum described water running

123

over the ima cavea seats in Cuneus 6 (see Fig. 3.104) during the Islamic period (Applebaum 1965:2), and it may be that the water flow that left sediment remains over the seats came from the channel in Vomitorium 3. Vomitoria 4/5 and 6/7 were not excavated, but it is clear that they are of the double-vomitorium variation with a bent approach to the acoustic cell. Vomitoria 8/9. In these vomitoria, the right-side vomitorium ran into the praecinctio, while the left-side vomitorium led into Acoustic Cell 6 (Plan 3.25; Figs. 3.115, 3.116). Both vomitoria and the acoustic cell

Fig. 3.115. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 8/9, looking north.

Fig. 3.116. Severan Theater: Vomitorium 8, looking north.

124

2

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

5

1

6

-145.50

W707

55

4

-145.70

Acoustic Cell 6

-145.95

4

W29

5

W31

6

-146.40

W26

3 -145.70

L1153

3

9 Vo m it

Vo m

o rium

W30

W27

ito ri

um 8

W25

-145.90

Plan 3.25. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 8/9.

W11

m

1

4

2

0

W 10

W9

W8

-145.60

125

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

-141

-139

Ambulacrum

-141

-143

W9 W27

-145

-147

1-1

Vomitorium 9

Bottom view Vomitorium 8

-141

-139

Ambulacrum

-141

-143

-145

W8

W25

W70755 W29

-147

2-2 Plan 3.25. (cont.). Severan Theater: Vomitoria 8/9; Sections 1-1, 2-2.

126

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

-142

-143

Vomitorium 8 -144 W26

W25

Vomitorium 9

W27

-145

-146

3-3 Acoustic Cell 6

-143

-144

-145 -142

-143

-146

4-4

Acoustic Cell 6

Acoustic Cell 6

-144

-145

W70755

W29

W70755 W29

-146

5-5

6-6

Plan 3.25 (cont.). Severan Theater: Vomitoria 8/9; Sections 3-3–6-6.

were constructed of large, well-cut and well-dressed basalt masonry, apart from the northern entrance in W70755 that was built of limestone masonry. The right-side vomitorium (9) was 27.8 m long, 3.72 m wide at its southern entrance and 2 m wide in the northern. The entrance doorposts and the flanking staircases in the media cavea podium were of the regular types (see above). The left-side vomitorium (8) was 10 m long, 2.83 m wide in the south and 2.2 m wide in the north. The connecting transverse passage between the two vomitoria was 2 m wide and 1.82 m long (see Plan 3.25: Sections 1-1, 2-2). Wall 26 blocked the left-side vomitorium in the north, and the entrance into Acoustic Cell 6 was in its right-hand corner (Fig. 3.117). The corridor into the acoustic cell, 0.75 m wide and 1.74 m high, had a straight section 1.1 m long, then

turned at an obtuse angle to the left for another 3 m, entering the acoustic cell from the right side. Wall 25, 10 m long and well preserved, was divided into three technical sections that carried different segments of its barrel vault (see Plan 3.25: Section 2-2). The northern segment, 3.5 m long, was built of seven courses to the height of 3.3 m. In its upper part an arched niche (2.45 m wide, 1 m high) was built that was blocked by masonry courses (Fig. 3.118). The central segment of the wall, 3.2 m long, which carried a diagonally built vault, had eight courses in the north, 3.65 m high, and nine in the south, 4.5 m high. The southern segment, also built diagonally, was 3.35 m long at its floor level, and 2.5 m long in its upper part, as its southern end was built in retreating courses. It was constructed of 11 courses that reached a height of 5 m in the north and 5.3 m in the south. In the north, W25

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

127

Fig. 3.117. Severan Theater: Wall 26 in Vomitorium 8, looking north.

Fig. 3.118. Severan Theater: Vomitorium 8, blocked niche in W25, looking west.

was connected to W26 (see Plan 3.25). Wall 26 was 2.22 m long and 3.3 m high, built of six courses. The entrance (0.72 × 1.74 m) into the acoustic cell opened on its right side, which had horizontally laid masonry slabs as the entrance lintel and corridor roofing (see Plan 3.25: Section 3-3; Fig. 3.117). The upper part of the wall was arched, as a result of the pendentives built at its connection points with the northern ends of W25 and W27. Wall 27, separating the two vomitoria, was 15.5 m long, 1.8 m wide in the south, 1.82 m in the center and 3.5 m in the north as it integrated with W26, W29 and W31 to contain Acoustic Cell 6 (see Plan 3.25: Section 1-1). About 7.35 m north of its southern end, the transverse connecting passage between the two vomitoria divided the wall into two segments. The western face of the wall paralleled W25 in its three segments, and carried three diagonally rising, barrelvault segments that covered Vomitorium 8 (see Fig. 3.116). Its eastern face, and the opposite W30, were constructed of three segments for the same reason. The northern segment was 7.9 m long, 1.65 m high in the north and 2.8 m high in the south. The central segment was 2.9 m long, 3.35 m high in the north) and 3.8 m in the south. The southern segment was 3.7 m long at its floor level and 3 m long in its upper part. It was 4.4 m

high at its northern end and 5.2 m high at its southern end. Vomitorium 8 was roofed by three consecutive barrel vaults (see Plan 3.25: Section 2-2, bottom view). The northern was a cross-section barrel vault that integrated with the regular barrel vault that covered the connection passage between Vomitoria 8 and 9. The cross-section barrel vault was based on pendentives at its four corners. The western ones sprang from W25, the eastern ones from the entrance corners of W27 (Fig. 3.119). The central barrel vault of Vomitorium 8 was 2.9 m long. It rose at a 15˚ angle, and at its connection with the vault in the north it rested on a vertical wall segment, which was built across the passage rising 1.5 m higher than the barrel vault (see Plan 3.25: Section 2-2). The southern, sloping barrel-vault segment was 2.3 m long. It rose at a 10˚ angle, and at its connection with the vault to the north, it rested over a vertical wall segment built across the passage that was 0.88 m high. The southern end of this barrel vault was not preserved at the point where it intersected with the ambulacrum’s barrel vault, which was also not preserved (Fig. 3.120). In the northern part of Vomitorium 8, a 2.3 × 2.9 m segment of a basalt-slab floor was revealed (L1153), each slab measuring 0.45 × 0.85 m, and laid in disorderly lines (see Plan 3.25, Fig. 3.117).

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

0.85 m higher and rose at a 13˚ angle. The southern segment of the barrel vault, 3.5 m long, began about 0.55 m higher and had a 12˚ angle. Its southern end, which was connected to the ambulacrum vault, was not well preserved (Fig. 3.121).

Fig. 3.119. Severan Theater: vault over the connecting passage between Vomitoria 8 and 9, looking west.

Fig. 3.121. Severan Theater: southern barrel vault of Vomitorium 9, looking north.

Fig. 3.120. Severan Theater: the broken southern section of Vomitorium 8 vault, looking north.

Vomitorium 9 was also roofed by three barrel vaults (see Plan 3.25: Section 1-1). The northern segment of the vault, 7.9 m long, rose at an 18˚ angle (see Plan 3.25: Section 1-1 and bottom view). The central segment of the barrel vault, 3.1 m long, began about

Acoustic Cell 6 was built into W29, W26 and W31. In the north it was closed by W70755, the media cavea podium, preserved up to one course (see Plan 3.25: Section 5-5). The inner corridor that led to the acoustic cell opened from W26 (see Plan 3.25: Section 3-3; see Fig. 3.117). Its side walls were built in the south in four courses, to a height of 2.15 m and in three courses, to a height of 1.65 m, in the north. Both walls were integrated into W29, the acoustic cell’s wall (Fig. 3.122). The corridor was roofed with long basalt slabs, and its northern part was lower than the southern part, as it integrated into the acoustic cell’s elliptical dome. At the southern entrance into the corridor, two basalt steps, each 0.22 m high, descended to the corridor’s floor (-145.40). From the corridor’s floor, another step, 0.55 m high, descended to the acoustic cell’s floor (-145.95). The pear-shaped acoustic cell (2.4 × 3.1 m) was built of well-cut and dressed basalt masonry. In the south it was preserved to its entire height, including part of its elliptical conch dome that sprang from above the fourth course of the wall, while in the north only two courses were preserved (see Plan 3.25: Sections 4-4, 5-5, 6-6). The foundation course of the cell wall protruded some 0.15–0.30 m from the wall face. It did not follow the room’s oval contour, as it was built in several straight

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

129

Fig. 3.122. Severan Theater: Acoustic Cell 6, looking south.

line sections upon a foundation layer of small basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar. Vomitoria 10/11. In this pair of vomitoria, which were cleared by Applebaum, a probe was conducted under the floor level by the IAA expedition (see Plan 2.4), revealing earlier foundation walls of the Southern Theater (see Chapter 2). At the northern end of Vomitorium 10 the remains of three rows of basalt pavers were revealed over W70617 (-145.69; Plan 3.26; Fig. 3.123). Between W70640 in the east, W70642 in the west, W70617 in the north and W70727 in the south, an uneven foundation layer (L70645) was exposed at level -145.36 in the north and -145.68 in the south, and was composed of smaller stones in its northern part and larger ones in the south, held in a light yellow travertine soil (Fig. 3.124). Over it, mixed pottery sherds from the third–eighth centuries CE were found. Wall 70642 was founded on a layer of small basalt stones laid into a foundation trench (Fig. 3.124) that was hewn in bedrock at level -146.45. No pottery was recovered from the foundation trench. On the southern side of Vomitorium 11, along its western wall (W70640), the remains of a compressed lime floor foundation (-146.05) were exposed, and to the east of it a stone foundation (-146.18) was revealed (Fig. 3.125). The lime foundation layer sloped from

Fig. 3.123. Severan Theater: stone foundation layer under Vomitorium 10 floor, looking north.

south to north and was preserved in a 0.9–1.1 m wide segment, c. 6 m long. It covered W70617 and in the connecting passage between the two vomitoria, it rose

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

2

0

m L70753

25

W706

1

W7064

-146.62 -146.20

L70650

W70617

Fig. 3.124. Severan Theater: foundation trench next to W70642, looking south.

-145.80 -145.69

W706

-145.45

W70642

-146.05

44

W706

43

39

W706

-146.10 -145.36

L70731

m 10

ium 11

or Vomit

W70640

riu Vomito -145.68

-146.18

L70645

-145.79

W70727

Plan 3.26. Severan theater: Vomitoria 10/11.

Fig. 3.125 Severan Theater: Vomitorium 11 foundation layers: the compressed-lime layer seen on the right and the stone foundation on the left, both under the vomitorium floor, looking south.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

to the level of Vomitorium 10 (-145.36). When the lime layer was removed (L70731), a stone foundation was seen under it. It was constructed of three courses of small to medium-sized basalt stones and soft-limestone fragments held in a light yellow travertine soil. It was laid over bedrock (-146.44) and its upper level, which sloped northward, was about 0.10–0.15 m lower than the surrounding walls. Between its stones, a few small fragments of first–second-century CE pottery were retrieved. In the northern part of Vomitorium 11, north of W70617 and along W70639, another 1.4 m wide segment of the same stone foundation was revealed. In the west, a fill of light gray soil over bedrock at level -146.62 contained a marble Corinthian capital (A70601), with the lower part broken. The fill (L70650) contained a single second-century CE plate fragment. At the northern end of Vomitorium 11, another segment of a stone foundation was uncovered (L70753), constructed of three courses of large, uncut basalt stones, each course sealed with hard, dark gray mortar containing considerable amounts of ash, lime and crushed pottery. This foundation layer, revealed in a 3.45 m long segment, was laid into a 1.6 m wide foundation trench hewn into bedrock, containing very few small pottery sherds dated to the first–second centuries CE. The vomitorium walls were built partly over this foundation layer and partly over earlier wall remains (see Chapter 2; Figs. 2.9–2.13; see Plan 2.4). At the southern end of Vomitorium 11, a semicircular circumference foundation wall (W70727) whose contour differed from that of the ambulacrum wall, protruded some 0.3 m below the vomitorium walls. Its southern face was built of large, uncut basalt stones and its core was over 7 m wide, reaching W70617 that crossed in the center of both Vomitoria 10 and 11. The eastern wall (W70639) of Vomitorium 11 was built over an earlier wall of the Southern Theater (W70644) that was reused as a foundation course (see Plan 2.4: Wall 70651). It ran from the vomitorium’s southern entrance to W70617 in the north. The northern part of W70639 was built over the foundation layer (L70753). The wall’s foundation course was 0.4 m high and protruded from the wall face by 0.10–0.15 m in a 3.4 m long segment. Another wall segment, 2.2 m long, which ran from W70617 northward, was built over the stone foundation (see

131

Plan 2.4: Wall 70625). This segment’s upper course seems to have been rebuilt in the Severan period. The vomitorium’s western wall (W70640) was partly built over a foundation wall and on its northern side, partly over an earlier wall (W70643). The continuation toward the north of W70640/W70641, was built in the same manner as its parallel wall (W70639), although on its southern side it was partly built over W70625, the earlier wall. Vomitoria 12/13 and 14/15 were not excavated, except for Acoustic Cell 3, belonging to Vomitoria 14/15 (Plan 3.27). Acoustic Cell 3 was cleared to its floor foundation layer (Plan 3.27: Section 1-1, Fig. 3.126) and a probe was cut into it (L60610). The foundation layer (L60615; -145.85) contained small basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar and contained a few secondcentury CE pottery sherds.

Fig. 3.126. Severan Theater: Acoustic Cell 3 foundation layer, looking southeast.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Vo m

55

ito

m

15

77

W

70

45

W

1

riu

-144.80

Acoustic Cell 3 L60610 L60615

-145.80

-145.50

1

Vo m

ito

0

-143

-144

-145

-146

1-1 Plan 3.27. Severan Theater: Acoustic Cell 3.

2

W m

43

riu

m

14

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Vomitoria 16/17/18. The northeastern end of the cavea and its triple vomitoria (16/17/18) were not well preserved, apart from the western part of Vomitorium 17 and the barrel vault over the transverse connecting passage between Vomitoria 16 and 17, which were found intact (Plan 3.28: Sections 1-1, 2-2, 3-3; Fig. 3.127). It seemed that all three vomitoria remained in their collapsed state until the Mamluk period, when Vomitorium 18 was cleared and reused, presumably as poor living quarters. Vomitoria 16 and 18 led into Acoustic Cells 2 and 1, while the central passage led into the praecinctio (Plan 3.28; Fig. 3.127). Vomitorium 16 was 10.5 m long, 3.1 m wide in the east and 2.53 m wide in the west. In the west a small entrance, 0.7 m wide and 2.5 m high, led into an angled corridor, 3.7 m long that accessed Acoustic Cell 2 (Plan 3.28: Section 1-1). Vomitorium 17 ran into the praecinctio. It was 15.25 m

133

long, 2.45 m wide in the east and 2.2 m in the west. Vomitorium 18 was 11.45 m long, 2.55 m wide in the east and 2.3 m in the west. In the west, a 0.9 m wide, 1.8 m high entrance led into a 2 m long corridor that accessed Acoustic Cell 1. All three vomitoria were connected by a 2.17–2.80 m wide south–north transverse passage. The connecting passage continued northward and passed over the eastern aditus maximus vault via Vomitorium 19 that was not preserved and into the second floor of the versura (see Plan 3.28: Section 3-3). The walls of all three vomitoria were better preserved in the south, considerably less so in the north. Only the foundations of Vomitorium 18 were reached. they were constructed of large basalt stones and were built in a technique that was already observed elsewhere, in which each layer of large basalt stones was compactly laid and sealed with a layer of small stones in hard, dark gray mortar.

Fig. 3.127. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 16/17/18, looking northwest.

134

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

-145.80

W40 -145.20 L1293

L1238

W2169

W35

ium 17 W34

1

Vom ito

Acoustic Cell 2

m

4

rium

3 L1239

L1223

L1208 -146.78

-146.40 -146.16

2

-145.49

16

W33

-145.21

-144.94 -146.06

Vomit or

W34

4

L1211

-145.70

L1250

L1244

0

F9

-145.02

3

2

F10

W2170

W2169

Vomitorium 18 W2168

-146.54

L1219

W2189

Acoustic Cell 1

-145.15

W2193

-145.99

W2187

W70755

W2132

-146.78

1

Plan 3.28. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 16/17/18 and the northeastern part of the scaena.

-145.87

135

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

-140

-142

-144

W34

-146

Cell 2

-148

1-1

-142 W34

-144

-145

-146

-146 W70755

-148

2-2

-147

3-3

-142

-144

W2187

W2169 W35

-146

Cell 2 -148

Cell 1

-150

-152

-154

-156

4-4 Plan 3.28 (cont.). Severan Theater: Vomitoria 16/17/18 and the northeastern part of the scaena; Sections 1-1–3-3.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

The southern wall (W33) of Vomitorium 16 was 18.2 m long, 10.7 m wide and poorly preserved at its eastern end to only one course over its foundations (-145.49). It gradually rose to the height of four courses in the west (-143.32), while the wall’s core was preserved to a higher level, reaching 7 m (-140.50; Fig. 3.128). Wall 34, the northern wall of the vomitorium, was 15.2 m long in its northern face and 11 m in its southern face, which was preserved to a height of eight courses (see Plan 3.28: Sections 1-1, 2-2). In the transverse connecting passage, part of the cross-section barrel vault between W33, W34 and W35 was preserved and recently stabilized in reconstruction work of the IAA expedition together with the vomitorium walls. Two of the first courses of the barrel vaults of Vomitoria 16 and 17 in the west were preserved as well. The northern face of W34 was poorly preserved in its eastern section, while in the west it was fully preserved, including its barrel vault. The barrel vault, built of ten masonry rows, sprang from over the wall’s fifth course. At the western end, W34 and W2169 and the entrance into the praecinctio and its barrel vault were recently reconstructed. Wall 2169, the northern wall of Vomitorium 17, 15.2 m long in its southern face and 11.7 m long in its northern, was built of well-cut and dressed basalt masonry in c. 0.5 m high courses. It was preserved to a height of six courses in the east and to its entire height in the west, including part of its vault. In its western face, facing the transverse connecting passage, in a hole created by a missing stone in the wall, a soft-limestone burial headstone (protome) of the third century CE was found (L1244; Fig. 3.128). Wall 40, the northern wall of Vomitorium 18, was constructed over the southern wall of the eastern aditus maximus. It was 8.4 m long, 3 m wide and was preserved to a height of five courses at its western end and just one at its eastern. At the eastern end of the southern wall, an entrance was pierced. While its dimensions could not be determined due to its poor state of preservation, it seems reasonable to assume that it resembled the one found in W20 in Vomitorium 2 (see Plan 3.24). Its western doorjamb was set about 3.1 m away from the wall’s eastern end and its threshold was founded over the wall’s first course (-145.10). Two stone courses in the threshold’s northern side may be the remnants of a staircase that ascended over the barrel vault of the eastern aditus maximus into Vomitorium 19. Wall 35, the western wall of Vomitorium 16, was 2.5 m long,

found mostly in ruins. In its center, a narrow entrance led into Acoustic Cell 2. Its upper part was arched, the result of pendentives built over the corners of W33 and W34. The wall, including its vault, was reconstructed by the IAA expedition (Figs. 3.127, 3.129). Wall 2187, the western wall of Vomitorium 18, was preserved to a height of six courses and to a length of 3.5 m. Its northern side had collapsed. In its eastern side, an entrance was pierced that led, via a corridor roofed with basalt slabs, into Acoustic Cell 1. Vomitorium 16 was originally roofed by three diagonally built barrel vaults. Only a 5.5 m long segment of the western vault was preserved, divided into two sections. The western section, most of which had collapsed and was recently rebuilt by the IAA expedition, rose at a 14˚ angle, while the eastern section, which was about 0.5 m higher, had an 18˚ angle. The roofs of Vomitoria 17 and 18 were not preserved.

Fig. 3.128. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 16/17/18: a protome found in W2169, looking east.

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Fig. 3.129. Severan Theater: Vomitoria 16/17/18: Vomitorium 16, looking west.

Acoustic Cell 2 was built into W34 and W35, and was closed by W70755 in the west, of which only the foundation course at the praecinctio floor level (-146.35) was preserved. Its diagonal entrance corridor, 3.7 m long, was built into W35, and entered the acoustic cell on its northeastern side. The corridor walls were preserved up to four–five courses, each 0.5–0.6 m high, reaching a height of 2.0–2.5 m, and they were integrated into W35. Its roof was constructed of large basalt slabs in two levels, as its western part, 0.7 m long, was about 0.6 m lower and integrated with the cell’s dome. The cell’s inner wall was pear-shaped (2.5 × 3.6 m). Its eastern side was preserved to its entire height, with the spring course of its dome, while in the west the preserved courses were considerably lower (-146.35). The spring course of the dome was placed over the fifth course of the wall, at level -144.60. Acoustic Cell 1 was built into W2187 and W2169 and was closed in the west by W70755. Its corridor, built into W2187, was 2 m long and led to the cell along a straight axis. The corridor walls were built of four masonry courses to the height of 1.8 m, and were integrated with the cell’s wall. A 0.4 m high step led down to the cell floor and the foundation of the cell floor was constructed of small basalt slabs in dark gray mortar at level -146.54. The cell’s pear-shaped wall (2.6 × 2.7 m) was better preserved on its eastern side than on

the west. Acoustic Cell 1 was fully reconstructed by the IAA expedition, including its dome (see Chapter 8). Stratum 2 A thick layer of organic deposit dated to the Mamluk period was excavated in Vomitorium 18. When it was removed, a two-room complex of the Mamluk period was revealed. Three walls, W2193, W2189 and W2168, created two rooms, F9 in the east (L1211) and F10 in the west (L1238; see Plan 3.28). East of F9, a 1.4 m wide area was excavated (L1250) where the vomitorium foundation wall (W2170) and the vomitorium passage floor foundation of Stratum 12 were uncovered immediately, with no remains of later strata (-145.70). The absence of any remains of Strata 11–7 indicated the extent of the clearing that took place prior to the construction of these later rooms. Excavations east of Vomitorium 18 exposed the remains of a staircase, 0.9–1.0 m east of W2170, which ascended from south to north, probably of Stratum 2. Of the original eight steps of the staircase, three basalt steps, 1.5 m wide were preserved (-146.78/-145.87) in the south. They were 0.30–0.36 m deep and 0.16–0.25 m high, built over a foundation of small stones in light red mortar. Another, higher step of the same staircase was preserved further to the north

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(-145.41). As evident by its foundation, the staircase turned west, reached W2168 and entered F9 (see Plan 3.28: Section 4-4). The foundation of the staircase was mostly preserved, covered by accumulation (L1239). Between the preserved steps and the entrance to Vomitorium 18, another layer of late accumulation (L1208), containing sixth-century CE and Abbasid pottery sherds, was revealed over the staircase foundation, indicating a later use of the vomitorium and its entrance in these periods. In the northern part of the staircase, at level -145.41, a foundation layer was constructed of small basalt stones in hard gray mortar (L1223) and closed in the north by a wall that partly overlaid W40. The staircase led from the ambulacrum, into Vomitorium 18 and over the barrel vault of the aditus maximus into the eastern versura. It went out of use after the earthquake of 749 CE, and was built over during the Mamluk period. Room F9, rectangular in shape (2.35 × 2.50 m), was entered from the east via a 1.14 m wide entrance with a basalt threshold in the center of W2168. The western wall (W2189) of the room was preserved up to three courses, to a height of 1 m, and was 0.45 m wide. Both walls were built over the Stratum 12 foundation layer of the vomitorium’s passage floor, and the room’s floor, 2 cm thick, was made of compressed clay. In the western part of the room were two clay ovens (L1293) constructed upon the floor; in the northwestern corner, a third was installed into the floor at level -145.20, and in the southwestern corner lay a fourth (Fig. 3.130). In the accumulated soil under the foundation layer of the floor, sixth–seventh-century CE pottery was found. The floor rested upon a layer of organic deposit containing pottery sherds ranging from the third–eighth centuries CE, animal bones, glass fragments and a Late Roman stamped mortarium rim. During restoration work, another clay oven was found over the vomitorium’s northern wall (W40), in the transverse connecting passage. It was 0.5 m in diameter, preserved to a height of 0.5 m, and had a lime floor (-145.90). Further to the west, the entrance of Room F10 (2.0 × 3.3 m), was not preserved. The western wall (W2193) of Room F10 was preserved to a height of three courses (see Fig. 3.130). The room was filled with a thick layer of organic deposit and ashes (L1238), presumably originating from all the ovens in Room F9. It contained a large quantity of Mamluk pottery sherds and eight coins, including one dated to the late fourth or early fifth century CE (Coin Cat. No. 552) and the

Fig. 3.130. Severan Theater: Vomitorium 18, Mamluk rooms during excavation, looking west.

remainder dated to the Mamluk period (Coin Cat. Nos. 809, 810, 819–823). In the transverse connecting passage between the two vomitoria, the same layer of organic deposit was excavated down to the foundation layer of the passage floor (L1219). It contained the same pottery, a fragment of a bronze candelabrum (B3099) and six coins (Coin Cat. Nos. 16, 27, 175, 803, 824, 834), of which the latter three were dated to the Ayyubid or Mamluk period. The rooms of Stratum 2 were obviously built after the passage was cleared of all earthquake collapse. Any Byzantine II constructions that may have existed here would have been removed, as immediately below the Mamluk structures were the Roman II (Stratum 12) foundations. In light of the Umayyad II theater pottery workshop revealed nearby (see Bet She’an II) and Applebaum’s remark “that most of the theater vomitoria were reused in the Islamic period” (Applebaum 1961:1), it can be assumed that these vomitoria were also reused in Umayyad II, although no evidence was found. In Vomitorium 17, Applebaum

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

(1961:2) noted refuse of an iron-smelting installation of the Early Islamic period, with no further details.

Summa Cavea Strata 12–11 The ambulacrum, c. 3.5 m wide, was constructed of two semicircular walls that carried a barrel vault, over which the summa cavea and its crowning porticus were erected. This part of the theater collapsed in the earthquake of 363 CE and was not rebuilt. The ambulacrum’s inner wall thus became the theater’s outer circumference wall, and the theater’s original circumference wall was left in its half-ruined state. The remains of the podium excavated by Applebaum in the center of the ambulacrum (see below) were entirely removed by him and the passage was completely cleared. The ambulacrum’s inner circumference wall and the remains of the theater’s original outer circumference wall (W53; see Plan 3.23) survived the earthquake of 749 CE. The effects of this earthquake were observed at the northeastern and northwestern ends of the ambulacrum’s walls, while its central section was relatively well preserved. The upper parts of the ambulacrum’s inner and outer walls were consolidated in the framework of the IAA expedition. The ambulacrum’s inner circumference wall was pierced all along by the vomitoria (see Plan 3.23). In the northwest, it was bounded by W20, built over the western aditus maximus’ southern wall. Between Vomitoria 2 and 3 was W21, 2.64 m wide, preserved in five retreating (5–10 cm) courses, each 0.40–0.55 m high to a height of 2.4 m; between Vomitoria 3 and 4 was W22, 10.82 m wide and preserved in seven stepped (10–14 cm) courses, each 0.50–0.55 m high, to a height of 3.7 m. Between Vomitoria 4 and 5 was W42, 1.8 m wide and preserved in seven stepped courses, each 0.5–0.6 m high, to a height of 3.95 m. Between Vomitoria 5 and 6 was W28, 10.55 m wide and preserved in nine courses to a height of 5 m. The lower six courses were stepped, while the wall above them was vertical. In the center of the wall, above the seventh course, a shallow niche, 1.85 m wide and 1.25 m high, was preserved. Its two rear-wall courses were built in 0.1 m receding steps. Wall 43, between Vomitoria 6 and 7, was 1.8 m wide and preserved to a height of ten courses. Over the tenth course at its southwestern end, rested the barrel-vault spring course

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of the ambulacrum (Fig. 3.131). Wall 25 between Vomitoria 7 and 8 was 10.8 m wide and preserved up to twelve courses. The lower six were built in retreating steps, while the upper six were vertical. In the wall’s center, above the seventh course, was a similar shallow niche as in W28. The eleventh course was uneven, as a 1.8 m long segment of smaller masonry, 0.3 m high, was inserted in it. At both corners of the wall, the spring course of a cross-section barrel vault was preserved, serving both the ambulacrum vault and the vomitorium vaults. Wall 27 between Vomitoria 8 and 9 was 1.8 m wide and preserved up to ten courses, nine of which were stepped. The barrel vault of Vomitorium 8 sprang from above the tenth course, and that of Vomitorium 9 from above the ninth. Wall 30, between Vomitoria 9 and 10, was 10.6 m wide and preserved up to eleven courses, the lower seven of which were stepped. In the center of the wall, over the eighth course, a niche was revealed with the same retreating courses in its rear wall. The tenth course of the wall was partly built (1.8 m) of smaller masonry, 0.3 m high, and at both corners the spring course of both the ambulacrum and vomitoria barrel vaults was preserved. The two lower courses of the wall protruded some 0.1 m in a 1.8 m long segment. Wall 70640 between Vomitoria 10 and 11 was 1.93 m wide and preserved to a height of ten courses that were stepped. The tenth course was the spring course of the ambulacrum barrel vault (see Fig. 3.115). Wall 70639 between Vomitoria 11 and 12 was 10.4 m wide and preserved mainly in its center to a height of ten courses. At the bottom of its southern face, its central course protruded, while on either side, 1.8 m long segments of the same course retreated some 0.12 m. The second course did not retreat, while the following three did. In the center of the wall, over the seventh course, was a niche similar to those in W28 and W25. Wall 44 between Vomitoria 12 and 13 was 1.93 m wide and preserved to a height of seven courses. The second course protruded above the lower and the next three retreated. Wall 43 between Vomitoria 13 and 14 was 10.6 m wide and preserved to a height of eleven courses at both ends and ten in the center. Its lower seven courses were stepped and in the center of the wall was a niche. Wall 45 between Vomitoria 14 and 15, was 1.8 m wide and preserved to a height of two courses; it was recently rebuilt to a height of nine in the framework of the reconstruction work. Wall 33 between Vomitoria 15 and 16 was 10.7 m wide and preserved to a height of three courses; it was rebuilt to

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Fig. 3.131. Severan Theater: wall sections facing the ambulacrum between Vomitoria 6/7 and 8/9, looking northeast.

a height of eight courses. Wall 34 between Vomitoria 16 and 17 was 2.05 m wide and poorly preserved up to its first course only. Wall 2169 between Vomitoria 17 and 18 was 1.8 m wide and preserved to a height of six courses. Wall 40, the enclosing wall at the northeastern end of the ambulacrum and the northern wall of Vomitorium 18, was built over the eastern aditus maximus’ southern wall (W2132). The theater’s circumference wall of Stratum 12 was 5.8 m wide, extending from the ambulacrum’s enclosing walls, W20 in the northwest and W40 in the northeast. It was constructed of well-dressed basalt masonry (see Plan 3.23). The wall was found by the IAA expedition completely dismantled at both its northwestern and northeastern ends, and somewhat better preserved in the center, in some sections to a height of nine courses. It was pierced all along by the vomitorium entrances into the ambulacrum, and it can be divided into nine sections of two types, those at the extremes of the ambulacrum and those in between. At both ends were Sections I and IX. The northwestern (I) maintained its original plan, while the

northeastern (IX) was dismantled during the Roman IV reconstruction stage (Stratum 11). The northwestern Section I contained the entrance into Vomitorium 2. It had a 3.5 m wide wall in the north (W2129) and a 3.3 m wide wall in the south (W19), with a 3 m wide entrance into the vomitorium. Wall 2129 was preserved to a height of five courses and had a staircase built along it, ascending from the aditus maximus. Within Vomitorium 2, the staircase turned to the east to ascend to the upper floor level (see below). At the northeastern end, the connection of the eastern aditus maximus entrance with Vomitorium 18 was altered in Stratum 11 into a staircase (see below, ‘eastern staircase’). There were seven identical sections (II–VIII, see Plan 3.23; Fig. 3.132). All the vomitoria had 2.6–3.1 m wide outer entrances narrowing to 2.0–2.3 m wide at the inner entrances. The seven intermediate sections of the circumference wall were each c. 19 m long, 4 m wide and included in their ground floor a staircase to the summa cavea and two flanking rooms (Fig. 3.133). The staircases were 2.4 m wide and four to ten of their original steps were preserved. The steps

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Fig. 3.132. Severan Theater: outer wall sections of the ambulacrum, looking east.

were 0.33–0.36 m deep, 0.22–0.26 m high, and built of well-dressed basalt masonry. The flanking rooms were rectangular and in most cases their rear wall was not preserved. Based on Section VII, which was better preserved, the rooms were about 2.58 m deep and their width differed––those on the right side were 3.10–3.32 m wide, while those on the left were 2.37–3.10 m wide. Section VII was the only one in which the rear wall was partially preserved to its first course (-145.51), as the later Stratum 11 podium (see below) was built over it. Sections II–VIII were not equally preserved. The front walls of Section II were almost entirely dismantled down to their foundations apart from the southeastern wall (W1), preserved to one course. In Section III, W2 survived to one course, while W3 and W4 were preserved up to four courses. Four steps of the staircase were preserved and W5 was dismantled down to its foundation (Fig. 3.134). In Section IV, W6 was dismantled, while W7 was preserved to a height of six courses. Wall 8 was preserved in seven courses, and ten steps of its staircase were preserved, while

W9 was preserved to a height of seven courses (see Fig. 3.133). In Section V, W10 was preserved to nine courses, W11 to eleven and W12 to seven. Four of the staircase steps were preserved and W13 was preserved to nine courses, and the ninth was the vault’s spring course (Fig. 3.135). In Section VI, W14 and W15 were preserved to a height of six courses, W16 to four and W17 to two. In Section VII, W18 was preserved to a height of three courses and its rear wall to one course. Units VIII and IX were entirely dismantled and rebuilt in Stratum 11 with the eastern staircase (see below). In the area of Section VIII, a probe was conducted north of the staircase in order to reach the foundation of the original outer circumference wall (Plan 3.29). Once the later layers were removed, the foundation level of the theater was revealed. The fill layer (L1210) consisted of large basalt stones and black soil that contained third–eighth-century CE pottery, and a coin dated to the reign of Severus Alexander (222–235 CE; Coin Cat. No. 85). The original foundation (W2252) of the circumference wall was revealed in the probe extending south–north (-151.22). It had an eastern face

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Fig. 3.133. Severan Theater: ambulacrum outer wall of Section IV, looking northeast.

Fig. 3.134. Severan Theater: ambulacrum outer wall of Section III, looking north.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.135. Severan Theater: ambulacrum outer wall of Section V, room between W10 and W11, looking north.

Fig. 3.136. Severan Theater: foundation core of the ambulacrum outer circumference wall in Section VIII, looking north.

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Vomit or

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Plan 3.29. Severan Theater: probe in ambulacrum Section VIII.

only, built of two well-dressed basalt stones, 0.4–0.6 m high. The foundation wall’s core layers were revealed to a width of 10.5 m, reaching W33, the ambulacrum’s inner circumference wall (Fig. 3.136). The core layers of the foundation wall presumably ran under W33, as it was observed in the foundations of Vomitoria 16–18. Over the foundation wall (W2252), a layer of light yellow soil contained sixth-century CE pottery. Wall 2252 rested upon bedrock at level -152.22, built into

a hewn foundation trench (Fig. 3.137). The layers of the wall’s core consisted of large basalt boulders laid in compact layers, each sealed with a hard, dark gray layer of mortar, a characteristic technique of Roman III foundations, which was discovered elsewhere in the theater’s foundations, always related to its original founding stage of Stratum 12. Thus, W2252 was the foundation built into the bedrock prior to construction of the theater’s superstructure. As it was hewn into

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bricks, glass fragments, pottery sherds dated to the sixth century CE and four coins dated to the third–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 92, 337, 356, 463). At the far eastern end of the probe, the remains of an almost completely ruined, brick-built installation (L1225) of unknown nature were revealed, dating to Byzantine I (Stratum 10). In the ambulacrum, a foundation layer at level -147.20 (L1312, L70612) was found over the foundation core constructed of boulders (W2252), presumably the ambulacrum’s floor foundation, which sloped down in steps toward the eastern face of W2252. In this foundation layer, glass vessels were found (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.1:8; 5.2:14; 5.3:29, 40), along with 12 coins ranging from the third century CE to the Mamluk period (Coin Cat. Nos. 65, 121, 399, 516, 518, 519, 575, 576, 661, 730, 735, 826).

Fig. 3.137. Severan Theater: foundation wall (W2252) of the ambulacrum outer circumference wall of Section VIII, in its foundation trench, looking west.

bedrock, it was higher in the south and deeper at both the northeastern and northwestern ends, as the bedrock sloped steeply northward, as mentioned above. The theater’s circumference wall that carried the summa cavea and porticus collapsed in the earthquake of May 19, 363 CE (Russel 1980) and the reconstruction of the theater in Stratum 11 (Roman IV) did not replace the summa cavea, resulting in a theater reduced in size. The collapsed remains of the ambulacrum were removed and its area was converted into an outer passage. However, the theater’s original circumference wall was not completely dismantled, but left in its semiruined state for unknown reasons, where it screened the theater from the rear, rock-cut terrace. Only the northwestern and northeastern ends were cleaned and rebuilt in a different plan. In the northeastern area, a new approach into the eastern aditus maximus and vomitorium entrances was erected and therefore the earlier remains were removed down to foundation level. The fill over W2252 (L1308) contained basalt chips, fragments of roof tiles, rectangular and round

The Ambulacrum Podium The ambulacrum and the theater circumference wall were mostly excavated by Applebaum, apart from Sections VIII and IX and the eastern staircase. In a letter (Applebaum 1960) he stated that about 2 m of surface accumulation was removed (Fig. 3.138). A section cut in Vomitorium 9 (Applebaum’s Area C) and east of it, over W10 and W53 of Section V of the circumference wall, revealed a high, square podium (Plan 3.30). In its second and third stages, the podium extended southward and became rectangular. South of it, Applebaum described the circumference wall built as an arcade and dated its construction to the late second century CE. In a later letter to the director general of the IDAM (Applebaum 1961), he described the podium as being five stories high, built next to a staircase that ascended toward the south (Fig. 3.139). Its dimensions were 3.5 × 6.5 m and it was preserved to a height of 3.4 m over the ambulacrum floor level. The northern wall was built of undressed basalt stones and the southern, of basalt ashlars. In its final phase, the podium extended past the circumference wall by c. 0.8 m and was attached to the rock ledge that encircled the theater. The inner core of the podium was composed of wall-fitting courses of mainly undressed, mediumsized basalt stones, fragments of limestone architectural elements, small stones and light gray soil. The podium’s foundations, constructed of undressed basalt stones, rose in steps toward the south over the western wall of Section V and over a fill that had accumulated in its room. The podium was completely removed by

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

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Plan 3.30. Severan Theater: plan of the ambulacrum podium based on Applebaum’s plan.

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Fig. 3.138. Severan Theater: Applebaum’s excavation of the ambulacrum, looking north.

Fig. 3.139. Severan Theater: the ambulacrum podium, looking south.

Applebaum and only referred to in general in his preliminary report (Applebaum 1961), supplemented by several photographs. The finds mentioned by him or those related to its stratigraphy could not be located in the IAA storage rooms, and their nature and dating remain obscure. In his letter to the director general of the

IDAM (Applebaum 1961), he described a construction that began as a podium shortly after the theater was effected by the earthquake of 363 CE, and was later rebuilt three times, the latest in the Islamic period. According to him, it was erected over a travertine layer between the rock-cut terrace and the inner wall of the ambulacrum (W30), and its foundation sealed thirdcentury CE pottery sherds and coins. He dated the first stage to the mid-fourth century CE, presumably to the reign of the emperor Julian. The next stage, based on the absence of certain pottery types and coins, which were found elsewhere in the western aditus maximus, was dated to 450–500 CE. In the latest, fourth stage, an Islamic building, composed mostly of flimsy walls, was built over the podium and thus blocked the entrance of Vomitorium 9. On the ambulacrum floor level, north of the podium and next to the theater’s circumference wall, a drainage channel, running east to west, was presumably built in the first stage in the late fourth century CE (Fig. 3.140). It was 0.2 m deep and its walls were built of basalt stones. its basalt covering stones were found in situ (Applebaum 1961).

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wall staircases that had collapsed in 363 CE along with the summa cavea, seems reasonable, considering its location and construction date. In the ambulacrum area, next to Vomitorium 7, a staircase ascending from northeast to southwest was presumably constructed in the same stage as the podium (Stratum 11) between W5 and W6. It was preserved to a length of 2.54 m, in two masonry courses to a height of 0.82 m (Plan 3.31; Fig. 3.141). The remains of three basalt steps, 0.35 m, 0.75 m and 0.6 m deep and 0.25–0.35 m high, incorporating a limestone architrave segment, were revealed. The upper step, formed of two basalt stones, served as a 0.2 m wide threshold with sockets, 10 × 5 cm, 4 cm deep, on both sides. Southwest of the staircase several segments of a retaining wall were found. It seems to be the remnants of some construction, presumably of Stratum 11, the nature of which is not clear.

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The podium stages were correlated by Applebaum in accordance with the theater’s stages, as determined by him (Applebaum 1978:88–93). He first assumed that since many lamps, along with several ceramic votive figurines and a small fragment of a colossal marble statue (with no reference to its nature or date) were found there, the structure may have possessed some religious functions (Applebaum 1978:87). However, in the same publication, he later suggested that it may have served as a bridge that gave access from the southern terrace to the top of the media cavea. He pointed out (Applebaum 1978:88) that the podium’s earliest stage was certainly a good deal later than the theater’s original construction stage. Analysis of all the available data he presented leads us to suggest that an arched staircase bridge was built over the podium in the ruined ambulacrum. His assumption that it ascended to the media cavea, thus replacing the circumference-

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Fig. 3.140. Severan Theater: a channel north of the ambulacrum podium, looking west.

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Plan 3.31. Severan Theater: ambulacrum circumference wall, staircase between W5 and W6.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.141. Severan Theater: the ambulacrum, staircase between Sections III and IV, looking southwest.

The Ambulacrum The northeastern part of the ambulacrum underwent considerable changes during Roman IV (Stratum 11). The summa cavea no longer existed at this time, and the area of the ambulacrum was remodeled (see Plan 3.32; Fig. 3.142). The theater’s circumference wall at its northeastern end was rebuilt, as W2137 clearly shows. Wall 2137 was rebuilt over the Stratum 12 wall

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foundations that rose in steps from north to south. The rebuilt segment was 11.6 m long, constructed of small to medium-sized basalt stones, in contrast with the circumference wall of Stratum 12 that was constructed of large basalt masonry (Fig. 3.143). The wall’s core from Stratum 12, constructed of large basalt boulders compactly laid in layers, each held and sealed with a layer of hard, dark gray mortar, was not renewed and it seems that only the wall’s face was repaired in Roman IV. The accumulation layer over it (L1280, L1290) contained mixed pottery ranging from the Roman IV to the Abbasid period. Along the wall, the eastern staircase was revealed. It led into the eastern aditus maximus in the north and the ambulacrum in the south (see below). The accumulated soil over part of a partially dismantled, L-shaped dismantled staircase (L1299) that mounted the ambulacrum (see below), contained mixed pottery ranging from the sixth–eighth centuries CE. The northern wall of this staircase, W2243, was integrated with W2220 to its west. Over the core of W2137, north of the L-shaped staircase, a large niche (3.1 × 4.5 m) was revealed opening eastward. It was enclosed by W2243 in the south, the staircase’s northern retaining wall, in the

Fig. 3.142. Severan Theater: the ambulacrum, W2137 in the northeast, looking west.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

I

L1224

W

m -154.80

L50636

L50642 L60776

IV

06

22

Aditus Maximus

3

T606

L1310 L1313

-153.15

T6

L100642

30

III

W2133

30

06

T6

W2152

W2162

4

-152.89 -152.49 -152.27

W2132 L1280

L60773 2 W60796

V

18

-151.85

L1226 L1228 L1290

1

VI -151.60 -151.44 -151.29

W2230

-150.98

-149.00

V II -150.84 -150.60 VIII -150.36

W 2238 W2238

-147.54 -148.50

17

L50612

W2137

L1282 R4

-150.18 -149.96

IX

-149.86 -149.63

1

W2220

L132 R5 F5 L50602 W2243

L1299

-149.43

-148.03

X

L1319

W302

-147

W2243

R5

-148

-149

R4 W2220

W2238 L1282 L50602

L1294 1-1

Plan 3.32. Severan Theater: eastern staircase in Stratum 11.

1

-149.05

W2230

L1189

W2152

1

-152.05

16

84

21

73 21

0

II

W

-155.38

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151

Fig. 3.143. Severan Theater: Wall 2137 built along the staircase in Stratum 11, looking southwest.

west by W2220 and in the north by W2230. Wall 2220 was 4.5 m long and it retained the core of W2137 to the west of it. It was preserved to a height of four courses; its foundation course, 0.5 m high, rested over the core; and each course above it, 0.3 m high, receded inward by 7–15 cm (see Plan 3.32). wall 2230 was 3.2 m long, built of undressed basalt stones in four courses, each 0.25–0.30 m high, and was integrated with the preserved core’s courses to the north of it. The core courses in its southern face were plastered, as they served as the niche’s northern wall. The same plaster was also observed over the foundation course of W2220, which was a reused core course as well. The niche’s floor (-149.00) was laid over small stones in lime mortar and plastered. Upon it was an accumulation of light gray soil that contained sixth-century CE sherds. Wall 2238, built across the niche from west to east, was attached in the west to W2220 and divided the niche into two uneven rooms, R4 in the north and R5 in the south (L50612; see Plan 3.32: Section 1-1). The wall was 2.75 m long, 0.6 m wide, and preserved up to one or two courses, each 0.68 m high, that were poorly built of medium-sized, undressed basalt stones over a 0.65 m high foundation layer of light gray soil that included pottery from the sixth–eighth centuries CE and glass dated of the eighth century CE (see Chapter

5: Fig. 5.1:1). Room 4 (2.1 × 3.2 m) contained gray soil (L1282), in which pottery sherds of the sixth– eighth centuries CE were found. Its floor, a light gray, compressed layer with small stones, was laid at the lower level of W2220. Under it, a light gray fill (L1294) that contained sixth-century CE pottery was uncovered. Room 5 (1.58 × 3.20 m) also contained sixth-century CE pottery (L1324) and its floor was at level -148.30. The floor was similar to that of R4 and rested over a fill (L50602) that reached down to the core level of W2137, and contained sixth–eighthcentury CE pottery.

The Eastern Staircase Stratum 11 Throughout the Roman period, from the construction of the theater in the Severan period to the mid-fourth century CE, the theater was not physically connected to the forum that was located north of it. A considerable difference in elevation between the two complexes, and the existence of temples in the southern part of the forum, determined the architectural setting and the functional division between these two major complexes of the civic center (see Plan 1.3). By the end

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

of Roman IV, the forum had lost its administrative and religious functions, as both its major components, the basilica in the north and the temples in the south, were dismantled (see Plan 1.4). The level of the southern part of the forum was raised and the two temples were covered with a c. 3 m high fill (see Plan 1.4:4). This area was now separated from the main part of the forum by the construction of a new porticus, and was attached to the theater’s northern facade. The main outcome of these changes was the creation, for the first time, of a suitable connection between the theater and the forum. Along the theater’s facade, a basalt-paved street (see Plan 1.4:3) now connected Palladius Street in the west (see Plan 1.4:13) with an irregularly shaped piazza to the west of the theater. The vast area that was separated from the forum (see Plan 1.4:1, 4) was paved with bitumen pavers and became a large piazza stretching north of the theater facade and incorporating its northeastern corner (see Plan 1.4:4). This paved piazza sloped gradually upward from the level of the forum to the theater facade. A wide staircase

stretching across the entire width of the piazza assisted in gradually elevating it to the level of the theater’s street and the entrances of its northern facade. The northeastern part of the piazza was funneled toward a long, wide staircase (see Plan 1.4:4) constructed along the northeastern section of the theater’s circumference wall. The theater’s postscaenium facade was adorned with a porticus, and north of it a paved alley entered the piazza from the east. The vast latrine of the eastern bathhouse was connected to the piazza by a staircase, making it available to the theater audience as well (see Plan 1.4:4). The renovated plan of the southern civic center marked the theater as its focal point, ensuring that the main entrances in the northern facade and the aditus maximi were all now accessible from the forum, from Palladius Street and from the eastern alley (Fig. 3.144). The eastern staircase constructed along the northeastern side of the theater was an essential part of this new plan, as it enabled easy access to the entrances of the eastern aditus maximus and the vomitoria via the northeastern piazza.

Fig. 3.144. The civic center in Byzantine I, looking southwest.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

The eastern staircase was 35 m long, 4 m wide in the north and 5.3 m wide in the south (Plan 3.32). Its western side was attached to the theater’s circumference wall (W2137) and the piazza wall (W2162), and in the east and south it was bordered by two low banister walls, W2152 and W3021 (Fig. 3.145). In the north, a staircase branched off toward the west and entered the eastern aditus maximus. In the south, a 5 m wide staircase branched off and ascended toward the west into the ambulacrum. As the long route of the eastern staircase was rather steep, it was built in alternating sections of sloping landings and steps. The nymphaeum, built in a later stage (Stratum 10) on a diagonal alignment, penetrated the staircase at its northern entrance. As a result, the staircase’s eastern wall (W2152) was cut and attached to W2173, the nymphaeum’s northwestern wall, and the northern end of the staircase was narrowed from c. 4 m to 3 m. The 35 m long, basalt-paved staircase was composed of ten sloping landings (I–X) separated by one or two steps. The depth of the landings varied (1.8–9.3 m), and they were paved in 0.2–0.3 m wide rows. The paving was mostly of basalt slabs, with several limestone slabs indicating repair work. The steps were c. 0.45 m deep,

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and 0.20–0.22 m high (see Plan 3.32; Fig. 3.146), built of rectangular basalt masonry laid in headers. In Landing I, two partial rows of slabs were preserved at level -155.38, connected to the pavement in front of the nymphaeum by two steps, 0.2 m high and 0.4 m deep (-155.61/-155.80). Over these steps, an alluvium layer (L1224) included sixth–eighth-century CE pottery and a coin dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 464). In Landing II, five rows of pavement slabs were preserved that were 1.5 m deep. The steps between Landings II and III were robbed. Landing III, originally 9.3 m deep, was preserved in a 5.2 m deep section of 19 pavement rows over a steep slope (-153.30/-154.80). The steps between Landings III and IV were not preserved. In Landing IV, a section of four pavement rows was preserved, in which a late repair was made using larger slabs. Landing IV was located in front of the entrance into the eastern aditus maximus, and two steps on its western side entered the aditus maximus. Further south, Landing V, still existing 5.2 m wide, was relatively well preserved in its seven original pavement rows, while the banister wall in the east was found at foundation level. Two steps, some slabs of which were missing, led to Landing VI, which was almost fully

Fig. 3.145. Severan Theater: the eastern staircase and nymphaeum, looking southwest.

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Fig. 3.146. Severan Theater: the eastern staircase and eastern aditus maximus, looking west.

preserved. Two steps with several repair slabs led to Landing VII, which was fully preserved, and another two steps led to Landing VIII. As the staircase encircled the theater’s circumference wall, the landings became trapezoidal in shape. One step led to Landing IX, a trapezoidal landing that measured 1.3 m on the west and 1.9 m on the east. Two steps with several missing slabs led to Landing X (2.2 × 5.7 m), whose well-preserved, sloping pavement reached W3021 in the south. The L-shaped staircase at the southwestern end of the eastern staircase that led to the ambulacrum was covered by an accumulation of soil (L1319) containing mixed pottery sherds of the third–sixth centuries CE. The staircase had an unusual L-shaped plan (Fig. 3.147, see also Fig. 3.142), presumably as it was meant to be ascended from both the east and south. From the east, five steps mounting westward were preserved, and from the south, two steps were preserved mounting northward. Those two directions of steps created inner corners. In the area where the steps were not preserved, the staircase foundation was visible. In the

west, the staircase was integrated with the ambulacrum wall (W2220), which was one step lower than the vomitorium floor level. The theater’s circumference wall (W2137) along the western side of the eastern staircase was 11.6 m long, partially preserved to a height of three courses (0.9 m) in the south and nine in the north (3.3 m). Its lower course was built along the slope in steps that corresponded to those of the eastern staircase, and it seems to be of the same constructional stage. The wall courses differed from the original theater masonry as they were built of considerably smaller basalt stones. The wall core on the other hand was the theater’s original wall core of Stratum 12, which was reused in Stratum 11 and given a new wall face. The foundation course of Wall 2137, revealed in a probe conducted in the eastern staircase foundations (Probe 1, see below), was built of small to medium-sized, cut but not dressed basalt stones held in gray mortar (L1226, L1228). The foundation trench, hewn into bedrock (-152.82), contained a few third–sixth-century CE pottery sherds

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

155

Fig. 3.147. Severan Theater: the eastern staircase, looking northwest.

and a sixth-century CE coin (Coin Cat. No. 721). It can be deduced that the wall’s eastern face collapsed in 363 CE, and was rebuilt along with the eastern staircase. The low banister that bordered the eastern staircase in the east, W2152, was 31 m long and 0.6 m wide, and preserved to a height of three courses (Fig. 3.148). It was built of medium-sized, cut but not dressed basalt stones over the staircase foundation layer (L1189; -150.20/-151.40). In the foundation layer, sixthcentury CE pottery and three fourth-century CE coins were found (Coin Cat. Nos. 348, 363, 374). Wall 2152 presumably carried a limestone banister, of which one element (A48) was found upon the staircase pavement and its angle fitted the slope. The wall’s western face bore traces of white plaster. The southern wall of the eastern staircase, W3021, was also a low wall, of which only one course was preserved, 5.8 m long, 0.4 m wide and 0.43 m high. It was connected to W2152 in the east and to the second step of the L-shaped staircase in the west. It was built of medium-sized basalt masonry in the same manner as that of W2152 and over the same

foundation. It was probably plastered and carried a similar banister. Three probes were conducted under the eastern staircase pavement. The first (1) was opened on the western side of Landing VI (see Plan 3.32), east of W2137 (0.75 × 1.50 m), and parts of two pavement rows were first removed. The second (2) was conducted on the eastern side of Landing V (1.5 × 3.3 m), partially under the pavement and partially in an area where the pavement had been robbed. The third (3) was conducted in Landing IV, in an area where the pavement and steps had been robbed and re-used in the construction of the Umayyad II theater pottery workshop installations. This probe (2 × 6 m) ran along the entire width of the staircase, from W2133 in the west to the robbed foundation remains of W2152 in the east. Remains of the pavement’s foundation layer were found in all three probes. It was about 0.1 m thick, composed of small basalt stones in light gray mortar. In Probe 1 (L1226) it was observed at level

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.148. Severan Theater: the eastern staircase and eastern W2152, looking northwest.

-151.74, overriding the foundations of W2137, in Probe 2 (L60773) at level -152.61, and in Probe 3 (L50636) at level -153.67, and it seems to correspond to the staircase slope. In the third probe, in which the pavement had been robbed, the foundation was covered by gray soil containing sixth–eighth-century CE pottery sherds. In all three probes, the pavement’s foundation layer contained no pottery or coins. Under the foundation layer, a thick fill, in some places over 2 m deep, comprised dark brown soil with small and medium-sized basalt stones, tesserae, fragments of marble and limestone architectural elements such as a column shaft, an Ionic capital and a base, as well as pottery sherds of the third–sixth-centuries CE. Built into the fill under the pavement, in Probe 3, were two channels and a clay pipe, part of the theater’s drainage system. Channel T60622, first revealed under the eastern aditus maximus’ mosaic floor (see below), exited this passage under the steps in the northeastern corner and turned northward under the pavement of the eastern staircase (L1310, 1313), where it was uncovered in Probe 3. The channel walls were built of bricks and basalt stones, and none of its covering stones were

preserved in the probe. The channel was 0.2 m high and wide, and a fill with mixed pottery was found over its brick floor (-154.05). The channel was built over a foundation layer of small basalt stones and travertine mortar (-155.05). Channel T60630 was found in Probe 3 in two segments (L50642, L60776). It ran from south to north first under the staircase pavement and then along its eastern wall (W2152), where it entered the nymphaeum’s rear room, presumably its reservoir tank. The channel’s covering stones (-154.36/-154.68), preserved in its northeastern section, contained a fragment of a marble base; however, within Probe 3, the covers were not preserved. Its walls were built of bricks 0.2 m high and wide, and rested on a foundation layer of small basalt stones in gray mortar (L100642). In Probes 2 and 3 (L60773, L50642), several segments of a clay pipe were also uncovered. Each segment was 0.22 m long and 0.12 m in diameter, laid upon bedrock and presumably destroyed when the channels were built. In general, pottery from these probes (1–3) was of mixed nature, dating from Roman IV to Byzantine II. Under the staircase foundation and the water pipes (-155.05), an earlier wall segment (W60796) was

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

revealed in Probe 2, built of limestone masonry. It was 1.9 m long and 0.66 m wide and bore traces of plaster on its northwestern face. Its location under the staircase’s lower fill suggests it was part of the temenos wall of the forum’s temples that was buried under the staircase of Stratum 11. Stratum 5 Excavation of the eastern staircase revealed remains of Stratum 5 over its northern and southern ends, which were used during Umayyad II for some of the pottery workshop’s installations. Two soaking and drying pools for the clay-preparation process were built into the pavement of Landing I and a storage room was erected over the southern end of Landing X. In the process, part of the pavement was removed, low walls were built around the pools, and water installations were installed into the pools (Bet She’an II:28–29). After the earthquake of 749 CE, the staircase was covered by a thick layer of accumulation and collapsed debris. Below this, a layer of gray soil contained scattered basalt masonry, roof tiles, fragments of marble slabs and of architectural elements, pottery and glass. The excavations of Stratum 5 revealed that the pottery workshop’s installations, built into and over the staircase, were in use until the end of Umayyad II, and were destroyed by the earthquake of 749 CE.

A ditus Maximi Eastern Aditus Maximus Stratum 12 The excavations of the eastern aditus maximus revealed its well-preserved walls and parts of its barrel vaults that were still standing to a considerable height. When the passage and its adjacent units were entirely cleared, severe structural problems were observed in its walls and vaults that had to be dealt with. In an extensive restoration project, the barrel-vault sections and their supporting walls were fully recorded and their stone courses numbered, and then they were taken apart and their foundations strengthened. Finally, they were reconstructed in their original setting (see Chapter 8). This work enabled the conducting of several probes into the foundations and the walls, and the study of the construction stages that the eastern aditus maximus underwent, from its construction in the Severan period

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(Stratum 12), through its renovation stages carried out during Roman IV, Byzantine I and II (Strata 11–9). In addition, these probes also revealed the remains of the Southern Theater (Stratum 13) that preceded the Severan Theater, which is discussed separately (see Chapter 2). The eastern aditus maximus, the theater’s main entrance into the orchestra from the east (see Fig. 3.146), was 31.15 m long and 3.3 m wide (Plan 3.33). It had two massive walls on either side, the segments of which were constructed of different types of stones. The segments at its eastern end, each 25.5 m long, W2132 and W2137 in the south and W2133 in the north, were built of basalt masonry and carried three stepped barrel-vault segments that sloped from east to west, of which the westernmost was well preserved. In the west, the aditus maximus walls were continued by 5.65 m long segments, W2194 in the south and W2196 in the north. They were constructed of limestone masonry and carried a barrel vault of the same masonry, which was well preserved and ended with an arched entrance that opened into the orchestra. In the southern wall (W2132/W2137), two vaulted niches were built (Plan 3.33: Section 2-2). The larger one (2.85 × 3.90 m) was located 3.95 m away from the wall’s eastern end, and its floor corresponded in level with that of the passage floor. About 6.2 m to the west, a smaller niche (0.80 × 1.65 m) was constructed in the wall and its floor level was higher than that of the passage. In the northern wall, W2133, two vaulted entrances connected the aditus maximus with the postscaenium (see Plan 3.33: Section 1-1; Fig. 3.149). About 6 m from the wall’s eastern end was a small entrance, and about 4.7 m to its west was a larger entrance. In the west, the limestone masonry wall of the southern side (W2194) served as the scalarium banister of the ima cavea. In the northern wall (W2196), a 3.1 m wide staircase, flanked by two podia (W2202, W2204) led into the eastern part of the pulpitum (Fig. 3.150). The northeastern wall section (W2133) was preserved up to 14 courses, to a height of 7.2 m. The well-cut and dressed basalt courses were 0.4 m high, and the wall’s core was laid in leveled courses of large to mediumsized basalt masonry held in hard, dark gray mortar. The smaller vaulted entrance in the east was 1.8 m wide and 4.2 m high, while the larger one to the west was 3.2 m wide and 5.5 m high. The eastern entrance had collapsed and was restored by the IAA expedition, while the western entrance was well preserved.

Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

-153.67

L1259 W2194

L1252

W2203

L1258

1

2

T40601

W2204

Plan 3.33. Severan Theater: eastern aditus maximus.

W2192 W2191

-154.46

-153.67

W2196 L1249

4

m

W2202

W2199

0

Severan Theater

-153.79

L60601

W2132

L60781

T60629

L1320 -153.62 L60626 -153.58

L1283+L1340

3

-154.32

-152.47

-153.40

W2219

-153.53

L60634

W2133

T60622

W2162

3

Southern Theater Phase II

1

2

-153.15

W2137

Two seam lines were observed along the wall, the first located west of the western entrance and W2133 that connected with the eastern itinera versurarum, and the second between W2133 and W2196, indicating that the wall was technically built of several wall segments. The eastern part of W2133 was poorly preserved and therefore dismantled during restoration work down to its foundation courses (L60634), which were reinforced and the wall rebuilt. Within the wall’s core, a few second–third-century CE pottery sherds were found, as well as a fragment of a marble base (A60634). The northwestern wall segment (W2196) was built of limestone masonry, including its barrel vault and its western entrance arch. It was 5.65 m long and 1.5 m wide, and the barrel vault sprang from the seventh course in the west (see Plan 3.33: Section 1-1). Its northern face was preserved to a height of six courses in the west and 13 in the east (Fig. 3.151). In the ninth course, at level -148.81, a 2.5 m long segment of a decorative profiled cornice was preserved. The wall’s core was constructed of basalt stones held in hard, dark gray mortar. Within the core, a cooking pot dated to the late second–early third centuries CE was found (L1249, B3168), together with an architrave fragment (A40631). Within the basalt masonry courses of the foundation platform, which protruded 1.4 m from the wall’s northern face, several soft-limestone masonry blocks and re-used column drums that were cut in two were incorporated, presumably spolia from the Southern Theater (Stratum 13). The entrance into the eastern part of the pulpitum was built over the foundation courses of W2196. It had a 3.1 m wide staircase of five steps, each 0.35 m deep and 0.22 m high, flanked by two podia (see Plan 3.33; Fig. 3.152). The lower step was set at level -154.23, while the upper, of which only one stone was preserved, was at level -152.78, i.e., 0.49 m lower than the nearby podium (W2204). The eastern podium (W2202) was attached to W2196, its southern face receding some 0.32 m. Its dimensions were 1.2 × 1.7 m and it was preserved to a height of two courses (-153.20). The western podium (W2204), 1.30 × 4.27 m, was fully preserved in three courses. The lower course was 0.4 m high and it had a base molding on its southern face (-154.20). The second was 0.57 m high and served as a dado. The third, built of several blocks set in headers, was 0.4 m high, and had a broken cap molding (-152.85). Both podia were based upon basalt foundations. On their northern side, a groove for the

W2152

158

-156

-154

-152

-150

-148

-146

-156

-154

-152

-150

-148

-146

W2204

W2132

W2199

2-2

1-1

W2192

W2219

W2194

Plan 3.33 (cont.). Severan Theater: eastern aditus maximus; Sections 1-1–3-3.

Southern Theater, Phase II

W2202

W2196

W2133

-154

-152

-150

-148

-146 W2133

3-3

T60622

W2132

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W2219

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.149. Severan Theater: the arched entrances in the northern wall (W2133) of the eastern aditus maximus, looking south.

Fig. 3.150. Severan Theater: the arched entrance into the eastern aditus maximus and the eastern staircase into the pulpitum, looking southeast.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.151. Severan Theater: the northern face of W2196 after restoration in 2000, looking southeast.

Fig. 3.152. Severan Theater: the staircase to the eastern pulpitum constructed over W2196 foundation courses, looking north.

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Fig. 3.153. Severan Theater: the large eastern niche in W2132, looking south.

Fig. 3.154. Severan Theater: the small western niche in W2132, looking south.

insertion of the pulpitum pavement slabs was observed. The western end of W2204 partly blocked the last round niche of the proscaenium wall and protruded some 8 cm from the wall’s face, presumably the thickness of the proscaenium wall’s marble plating (see Fig. 3.11). On the podium, a column drum, 1.1 m in diameter and 1.15 m high, was found with no base under it. In the podium’s upper surface was a square recess (12 × 12 cm) and in its southern face a rectangular one (6 × 10 cm), 2.94 m from its eastern end. A parallel recess (7 × 12 m, 4 cm deep) was observed in the scaenae frons podium, and they must have served some kind of a railing on the pulpitum’s eastern side. Over the podium (W2204), about 3.22 m further to the west, two round recesses, 11 cm in diameter and 2 cm deep, were found in the surface’s southern and northern corners. The southern wall of the aditus maximus was built of two wall segments, W2132 in the east of basalt masonry and W2194 in the west of limestone masonry. Wall 2132 was 25.5 m long, preserved to a height of 17 courses of 0.45–0.60 m (Plan 3.33: Section 2-2), with preserved parts of its spring courses and parts of Vomitorium 19’s wall built over it. Its eastern end was almost entirely ruined, preserved up to seven courses only. During the restoration work, a 2 m wide window was left in the western part of W2132 in order to view an early stage wall of the Southern Theater (Stratum 13; see Fig. 2.7). Along the wall two vaulted niches were built, a larger one in the east and a smaller one in the west. The larger was 3.3 m wide, 2.8 m deep and 5 m high and its vaulted ceiling, on which traces of plaster were preserved, had an upper relieving arch (see Plan 3.33, Fig. 3.153). The smaller was 1.57 m wide, 0.8 m deep and 3.1 m high, its floor remains located over the wall’s third course at level -152.30 (Fig. 3.154). The wall’s core was built of large and medium-sized basalt stones and in its lower part it was constructed without mortar. In the upper part, the stones were held in hard gray mortar and placed in leveled courses that were adjusted to the wall’s face courses and each course was sealed with a layer of water-resistant lime, ashes and crushed pottery sherds. Wall 2194, 12.6 m long, was built of limestone masonry courses, 0.4–0.6 m high, over basalt foundation courses. Its western segment, the northeastern scalarium banister wall, 6.75 m long, was built in steps. One course was preserved in the west, gradually rising to four courses in the east, to a height of 2.27 m. In the restoration works it was reconstructed

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

to its entire height of two courses in the west and 17 in the east (Fig. 3.155). It was crowned with a banister, elements of which were found reused in W2199 of Stratum 10 (Fig. 3.156), and these were reconstructed as well. The wall’s inner core was attached to the Southern Theater’s wall (W2191) in the south. The western section of the limestone W2194 that carried a barrel vault was 12.6 m long, 4.51 m high in the west (-150.20), and 5.9 m high in the east (-148.50), where it joined W2132 (see Plan 3.33: Section 2-2). Over W2194 and W2196 a sloping barrel-vault segment was built (Fig. 3.157) with a 1.9 m wide arch over its western entrance adorned with a plain profiled cornice on both sides (Fig. 3.155). The barrel vault sprang in the west from the seventh course and further east from the tenth. Above the basalt wall segments of W2132, the passage was roofed by a basalt barrel-vault section that rose 0.4 m higher and continued the upward slope in three more stepped barrel-vault sections. The aditus maximus pavement was almost entirely robbed and only fragments survived. Due to constructional problems that occurred shortly after the theater was built, the northern wall (W2196) sank

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about 0.4 m. Pavement remains found next to W2202 under the podium base molding at level -154.25, a level that corresponds with the level of the lower step of the pulpitum staircase, may indicate the original pavement level. As W2196 sank, the renewed

Fig. 3.156. Severan Theater: banister elements reused in W2199.

Fig. 3.155. Severan Theater: Wall 2194 western segment serves as the northeastern scalarium banister, looking southeast.

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pavement adapted itself to the change. As the aditus maximus’ southern wall (W2194) did not sink, its upper foundation course, found at level -154.32, represents the original floor level. In the east, the foundation course of W2132 was found at a similar level (-153.40). The pavement’s foundation layer of large basalt stones held in hard, dark gray mortar was found next to W1296 in L1260 and L1264 (Plan 3.34). A foundation built of basalt masonry and pavement slabs, which were laid upside down in secondary use, presumably originating from the dismantled basalt-masonry foundation of the Southern Theater (Fig. 3.158) under W2196, protruded about 1.4 m to the north of W2196. Over the foundation, a layer of small basalt stones and grained travertine was laid that sealed and leveled the foundation platform at -155.00, and upon this were erected the aditus maximus walls (W2194, W2196; Plan 3.34: Section 1-1). Under this foundation, remains of Southern Theater walls (W2205, W2206) created a corner of an earlier foundation platform that was built over by the Severan Theater foundation courses (see Plan 2.3). Similar evidence for the building over of Southern Theater foundation walls was also observed in W2192, the inner wall of the cavea core.

Fig. 3.157. Severan Theater: barrel vaults over the western part of the aditus maximus, looking west.

Fig. 3.158. Severan Theater: eastern aditus maximus floor foundation utilizing the Stratum 13 foundation platform, looking southwest.

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0

4

m

1 -153.93

W2202

W2204

W2196

-152.74

T40601 L1261 L1316 L1322

-154.68

L1260 L1264

W2206

L1323 L1256

L60780 -154.32

-154.46

-154.63

W2194

1

W2191

-151

-152

W2194

W2192

W2191

W2196

-153

-154

L1256 L1316 T40601 L1322

-155

-156

W2206

1-1

Southern Theater Phase I Southern Theater Phase II Severan Theater

Plan 3.34. Severan Theater: western part of eastern aditus maximus drainage system.

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Stratum 11 In this stratum, the eastern aditus maximus still functioned as the theater’s main entrance from the east. It was paved with bitumen-stone pavers on the eastern side (Fig. 3.159) and with basalt-stone slabs on the western (see Plan 3.33; Fig. 3.160). The preserved bitumen-stone pavement (L1320) was found in eight rows across the passage, each row’s width 0.45–0.60 m. Most of the pavement had sunk, and its original level (-153.40) was determined by the protruding foundation course of W2133, to which the pavement was related.

Fig. 3.159. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, bitumen pavement of Stratum 11 in the eastern part, looking east.

In the east, the pavement was attached to three basalt steps that descended into the aditus maximus from the eastern staircase. This pavement was better preserved in its northern part, as a considerable number of the slabs in its southern part had been robbed and reused in later periods (Byzantine II to Umayyad II). In the layer that covered the bitumen-stone floor, 18 coins were found, dated from the fourth–fifth centuries to the seventh century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 553–561, 665– 667, 756, 760, 768, 784, 785, 787). The bitumen-stone floor foundation (L60626, L60781) consisted of a hard, light gray mortar mixed with brick fragments and small basalt stones. Bricks also were used to construct the walls of two drainage channels, T60629 and T60622 (-153.76), that were covered with the bitumen-stone pavement (-153.53). Drainage Channel T60629 was built along W2132 and drained into T60622. In Stratum 9, T60629 was blocked in its eastern end, while T60622 was still functional. Channel T60622 originated inside the large niche (see below) and during Umayyad II its covering slabs were replaced. The southern brick wall of Channel T60622 was 0.15–0.20 m wide, while its northern wall varied in width between 0.16 m in the east and 0.3 m in the west. It was 0.15 m deep, and its floor was also built of bricks (-153.91). On the eastern side of W2132, the floor of the wide, deep arched niche was covered by a layer of collapse

Fig. 3.160. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, basalt pavement, looking north.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

containing many tesserae, small basalt stones, and sixth–eighth-century CE pottery. Remains of the niche’s floor (L60601), built of roof tiles and bricks, were found in its western side (see Plan 3.33, Fig. 3.154). Seven rows of roof tiles (0.5 × 0.4 m) and bricks (0.20–0.33 × 0.44 × 0.21 m) were found at a level that was 7 cm lower than the floor and may have served as the floor foundation. The tile and brick floor was laid over them, with a 7 cm layer of light gray mortar in between. Layers of travertine deposits over the niche walls and floor and the channel indicated intensive water activity here, presumably the flow of a nymphaeum that was constructed in Stratum 12, in the niche. The niche was also used later in the Umayyad II pottery workshop (Bet She’an II:36–38). Stratum 10 A basalt pavement of this stratum was preserved in two sections. A small segment (1.8 × 2.0 m) was preserved 7.35 m to the east of the aditus maximus’ western end (see Plan 3.33), comprising about five rows of basalt pavement slabs, 0.20–0.25 m wide, laid across the passage (-153.67). A larger and better-preserved segment (3.0 × 8.5 m) was revealed at the western end of the aditus maximus (L1252, L1258), somewhat lower in level (see Fig. 3.160). The pavement extended

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between the western threshold that led into the orchestra and W2199 in the east, a late wall of Stratum 9 (see below), and between a masonry bench (W2203) in the south to the pulpitum staircase––where it covered the first step––and the flanking podia (W2204, W2202; see Plan 3.33). Another segment of this pavement was also found (1.60 × 1.94 m) at the northeastern end of the balteus (-153.67), which was about 0.1 m higher than the rest of the pavement level, and about 0.22 m higher than the balteus’ original pavement, preserved further south at level -153.89. Bench W2203, built along W2194, was 0.9 m wide, 0.6 m high and preserved to a length of 3.7 m. It was constructed of five limestone masonry courses and was probably originally 5.5 m long. The basalt pavement slabs of Stratum 10 were attached to W2203, and when it was dismantled (L1259), a soft-limestone foundation was revealed covering two water pipes (Fig. 3.161). Except for three rows in front of the balteus, the preserved segment of pavement was laid in 26 rows (0.25–0.40 m wide) across the passage. The pavement was mostly of basalt slabs (0.25–0.35 × 0.35–0.50 m), but incorporated several limestone slabs (0.35–0.75 × 1.10–1.50 m), all laid over a foundation layer of black soil and lime mixed with hard- and softlimestone chips (see Plan 3.34: Section 1-1). Under the pavement foundation, a fill of stones and mixed

Fig. 3.161. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, covered water pipe under Bench W2203, looking east.

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third–sixth-century CE pottery sherds was revealed (L1256, L1316, L1322, L60780, see Fig. 3.158). It also contained several statue parts, such as a torso and joining leg fragments of Aphrodite (B3381; Fig. 3.162; see Chapter 10: Fig. 10.2), and 31 coins dating from the fourth–sixth centuries to 593/4 CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 312, 349, 381, 401, 466–468, 520–528, 563, 565, 577– 580, 582–586, 614, 662, 663, 720). In the eastern part of the aditus maximus, the same foundation layer of black soil and lime was exposed with no pavers. Under the basalt pavement in the western part of the aditus maximus, two water pipes and a drainage channel extended along the passage from east to west. The water pipes ran alongside the southern walls (W2132, W2194) and continued into the orchestra (see Plan 3.34: Section 1-1). The southern pipe was about 0.15 m from the wall (-154.27/-154.63), while the northern pipe was about 0.25 m from the former (-154.32/-154.68; Fig. 3.163). At their western end, the Stratum 12 pavement foundation was taken apart when the pipes were installed. The water-pipe segments were 0.38–0.42 m long and 0.2 m in diameter. They were connected by lime mortar and covered with a mortar of lime and ashes, small basalt stones and soft-limestone slabs. The pipes were laid into a yellow travertine layer mixed with small basalt stones, which was 0.9 m wide and extended westward in the same descending slope as

that of the pipes. This yellow layer ran over the core of the early foundation walls (W2205, W2206) of Stratum 13 (see Plan 3.34: Section 1-1). The continuation of these pipes was found within the orchestra (see below). On the northern side of the passage, a drainage channel, T40601, was revealed. It originated from under the lower step of the staircase that mounted the pulpitum

Fig. 3.162. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, statue parts revealed under basalt pavement, looking west.

Fig. 3.163. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, water pipes, looking south.

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Fig. 3.164. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, T40601, looking west.

flank, where it ran southward for 0.9 m, and then turned westward. It continued for about 8 m and ran into the orchestra where it drained into the orchestra’s drainage channel, T30601 (see below). Its northern wall was attached to W2204, while its southern was built over W2205, the Stratum 13 foundation wall. The basalt covering stones were presumably dismantled from W2205 (Fig. 3.164). The channel was 0.30–0.45 m wide, 0.5–0.7 m deep and its floor was built of small basalt stones embedded in hard, dark gray mortar that was presumably plastered, although no traces were preserved. The channel was filled with soil (L1323) containing late fourth–fifth-century CE pottery sherds, glass fragments (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.1:4; 5.3:36, 37; 5.4:49), bone fragments and several coins, dated to the second–eighth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 17, 323, 378, 409, 680, 781). Stratum 9 In this stratum, the aditus maximus was paved with a mosaic floor, most of which was destroyed when the Umayyad pottery workshop reused the area. Poorly preserved remains of the mosaic floor were found in the western entrance to the versura, which was turned into an alcove by closing its northern side with W2219 (see Plan 3.33; Fig. 3.165), to which the mosaic floor

(-153.33) was attached. Wall 2219, of which just two courses were preserved (-152.47/153.40), was 3.3 m long, 0.6 m wide and its southern, inner face was plastered (see Plan 3.33: Sections 1-1, 3-3). In other areas of the aditus maximus, fragmentary dismantled tesserae of the mosaic floor were found scattered around. It seemed to have had a geometric black and white design with black and white stripes at its margins. The floor foundation layer was of small basalt stones in light gray mortar. The floor was covered by a layer of gray soil (L1283, L1340) that contained sixth–eighth-century CE pottery sherds and raw clay material. A fragment of a conical glass beaker (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.2:23) and several coins were found here as well, dated from the fourth–eighth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 258, 562, 599, 601, 625, 732, 761, 779, 783). On the eastern side of the aditus maximus, the drainage channel (T60622) ran under the mosaic floor foundation level, which was entirely destroyed here (see Plan 3.33). It began in the large niche in W2132, crossed the passage diagonally toward the northeastern corner, ran under the entrance steps and turned north to continue under the pavement of the eastern staircase. The channel walls were built of bricks and basalt stones and its covering stones (-153.58) were reused basalt and bitumen slabs, presumably of the aditus maximus’ earlier pavements (see Figs. 3.153, 3.159).

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Fig. 3.165. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, W2219 turns the western entrance to the versura into a mosaic-paved alcove, looking north.

During Stratum 9 (Byzantine II), the eastern aditus maximus was blocked at its western end by W2199, which was built across the passage. It was 3.3 m long, 0.9 m wide, preserved to a height of 0.53 m (-153.32/ -153.85), and constructed of four banister elements that were presumably removed from the northeastern scalarium (A40651) and the eastern tribunal walls (A40640, A40641, A40652). Wall 2199 was built over the basalt pavement of Stratum 10 near the aditus maximus’ western entrance. It had a well-built face on the west only. Only scanty remains of the passage’s mosaic floor were preserved in the center of the aditus maximus, at level -153.67. The aditus maximus was thus disconnected from the theater and enclosed by W2199 in the west and by the passage walls and W2219 in the north. It was paved with a mosaic floor and its walls were covered with painted plaster, of which poor remains were occasionally preserved. This seem to indicate a change of function for the eastern aditus maximus in the first half of the sixth century CE, which was now detached from the rest of the still-functioning theater, and its purpose remains obscure.

vaults had survived to a considerable height, was covered by a light gray accumulation of soil with mixed pottery. The IAA excavations revealed scanty evidence of a post-749 CE settlement over the northeastern area of the ruined theater (Stratum 4). Under the collapsed earthquake debris, remains of a large-scale Umayyad II pottery workshop were revealed (Bet She’an II). The eastern end of the aditus maximus was badly damaged by the earthquake of 749 CE. Among the fragmentary walls of the post-749 CE stratum, the central part of a life-size, headless marble statue of Tyche was found by the IAA expedition (Fig. 3.166; see Chapter 10: Fig. 10.3), presumably originating from the scaena wall niche and removed from the site during Umayyad II.

The Later Strata Excavated by Applebaum The eastern aditus maximus was not excavated by Applebaum, apart from the removal of a poor settlement layer that covered the entire upper level of the theater. This settlement was dated by him to the Late Islamic period. The eastern aditus maximus, whose walls and

Fig. 3.166. Severan Theater: the eastern aditus maximus, a statue of Tyche buried under Stratum 5 layer.

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Western Aditus Maximus

western one and a smaller eastern one. Two entrances pierced W2131, leading into the postscaenium’s eastern corridor and the itinera versurarum, their basalt masonry vaults preserved intact, a larger one in the east (Fig. 3.168) and a smaller one in the west (Fig. 3.169). A sloping, limestone barrel vault originally covered the eastern part of the passage, supported by W2088 in the north and W2255 in the south (see Fig. 3.167). The rest of the aditus maximus passage was roofed by three stepped and sloping barrel vaults built of basalt masonry. A substantial part of the limestone barrel vault was found in situ by Applebaum (1960:1, 5), although it was leaning dangerously to one side and therefore dismantled in 1960 (Fig. 3.170). Unfortunately, it was not restored after Applebaum’s work, and most of its

Stratum 12 The western aditus maximus, 32.3 m long, was excavated by Applebaum and preserved in its original Roman III plan (Stratum 12; Plan 3.35) throughout its history. It paralleled the eastern aditus maximus in shape, plan and construction, and therefore also in its various walls and vault sections. However, it appears that its western entrance was for some reason never completed (Fig. 3.167). The basalt-stone walls on either side of a 3.2 m wide passage, W2130 in the south and W2131 in the north, continued eastward and integrated with the limestone walls, W2088 and W2255. Two arched niches were integrated into W2130, a larger

10 m

0

L1156 L1159 L1163

W2114 W2131

L1146 L1147 L1055 W2129

W2088 -154.31

W2255

W2130

W19

-153.47 -153.67

T90629a

L1332 L90766 T90629 W2269 W2258

-153.74

W2114

-153.92 -153.96

-153.78

L90772 -154.03 W2259 L90825 L1333 L90788 -154.11 W2256 -154.31 L1338 T90630

T90634 W2258

-154.06

0

2

m

W2255

Plan 3.35. Severan Theater: western aditus maximus.

W2257

W2114a

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Fig. 3.167. Severan Theater: unfinished western ends of the walls of the western aditus maximus, looking northeast.

Fig. 3.168. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, the entrances in W2131, looking south.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Fig. 3.169. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, the small entrance in W2131, looking south.

Fig. 3.170. Severan Theater: eastern vault section of the western aditus maximus as revealed by Applebaum, looking west.

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masonry has since been lost (Fig. 3.171). In the upper level of the aditus maximus, the remains of a passage were found that presumably crossed over the barrel vault from south to north toward the versura. The IAA excavations in the western aditus maximus concentrated mainly on its eastern end. In the process, a preserved pavement that stretched eastward and into the orchestra was revealed over an area of about 9.0 × 3.3 m (see Plan 3.35). In the western end of the aditus maximus, a probe was conducted into the foundations of W2131 and the peripheral staircase was uncovered (see below). The western aditus maximus was originally paved with limestone slabs, the remains of which were revealed at the base of W2255. They were integrated into the wall over the protruding course of its foundation, at level -154.00. To the north they extended under the profiled base molding of W2114 and the first step of the pulpitum staircase, at level -154.05.

Fig. 3.171. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus after the vault was removed by Applebaum, looking west.

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The western part of the pulpitum was reached by a flight of six steps, 3.1 m wide and flanked by two podia located at the eastern end of W2088. The eastern podium, W2114, 4.2 m long, 1.3 m wide and 1.33 m high (-152.72/154.05), was connected to the proscaenium wall in the east, in what seems to be a secondary setting, as it partly blocked one of the proscaenium’s round niches. It protruded about 0.12 m from the proscaenium’s southern face, presumably reflecting the thickness of the marble plating on the proscaenium wall. In the west, the staircase was flanked by another podium, W2114a, which was considerably smaller (1.2 × 1.3 m). Both podia were built of three limestone blocks that included a base molding 0.35 m high, a dado 0.58 m high, and a cap molding 0.4 m high. The base-molding profiles were preserved, while the cap-molding profiles were entirely broken. These profiles decorated the sides of the podia that faced the passage in the south and the pulpitum. On their northern sides, a groove in the lower part of the podia marked the level of the pulpitum pavement slabs, where they were inserted into the podia blocks. Upon the western podium, a column drum was erected without a base. In the surface of the eastern podium, three recesses were observed, those in the south (0.12 × 0.20 m) and the north (0.12 × 0.13 m) were 4 cm deep, while that in between (7 × 4 cm) was 7 cm deep. In the lower part of the eastern podium’s southern face was a 10 × 10 cm cavity that was paralleled by one in the scaenae frons podium, perhaps indicating the existence of an iron railing. West of the staircase, the eastern limestone wall section of the aditus maximus’ northern wall (W2088) was rebuilt following the 1960–1962 excavations using several inappropriate masonry blocks. The wall, 5.25 m long and 1.5 m wide, had basalt-masonry foundation courses, while seven of its limestone courses were preserved, reaching a height of 4.21 m. Over its southeastern corner, next to the aditus maximus’ entrance arch, a cornice was carved in the limestone masonry. Its poor state of preservation left no traces of its decorating profiles, although it most certainly resembled the cornice found in the eastern aditus maximus entrance facade (see Fig. 3.151). Over the wall’s southern face and the spring course of the entrance arch, a 1.8 m long, poorly preserved segment of the same profile was found. Under the cornice, about 0.27 m west of the entrance doorpost, a cross (8 × 12 cm) over a rectangular base (7 × 9 cm) was

carved into the stone with several dots encircling it. Above it, a three-line inscription reads: PETROC EPOI TEL Petros did that (Fig. 3.172).

Fig. 3.172. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, cross and inscription carved in W2088, looking north.

About 3.4 m west of the wall’s eastern end, a recess (0.2 × 0.2 m, 0.15 m deep) was found at level -151.85, with a parallel one in W2255 on the opposite side of the aditus maximus passage. Parallel to W2088 ran W2255, the southern wall of the aditus maximus that further to the east also served as the banister wall of the northwestern scalarium (Fig. 3.173). The banister wall, 5.85 m long and 0.45 m wide, was preserved in the west to a height of six courses, to level -150.36, and in the east, its first segment was found at level -152.12. Its facade had an engaged pedestal adorned in high relief with a figure wearing a toga (see Chapter 9: A6555). Some of the masonry blocks of the wall’s southern face were integrated with the scalarium steps. The arch was preserved to a height of six courses, to level -150.60 (Fig. 3.174). In the fourth masonry course a profiled cornice, 2 m long, was found almost perfectly preserved. Over it,

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

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Fig. 3.173. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, banister pedestal, looking west.

the 1.8 m long spring course was integrated in the wall. In the wall’s fourth course, under the cornice and about 0.75 m from its western end, a similar cross (8 × 12 cm) over a rectangular base (7 × 8 cm) encircled by dots was carved (Fig. 3.175), although this one had no inscription next to it. The eastern part of W2255, west of the banister wall, 6 m long, was preserved to the height of the spring course of the sloping barrel vault, which in the east was built over the seventh masonry course at level -150.40, and further to the west over the tenth, at level -148.10. A square recess (0.2 × 0.2 m, 0.15 m deep) was roughly chiseled in the wall’s fourth course at level -151.65/-151.85, about 1.4 m from the wall’s western end. A similar, parallel one was found in the opposite wall (W2088). At the western end of W2131, the aditus maximus’ northern wall, a probe was opened (2 × 2 m), reaching the wall’s foundation (see Plan 3.35). In the upper level (L1156), a soft yellow-gray accumulation mixed with small basalt stones lay above another yellow, crumbly travertine accumulation (L1159) mixed with small basalt stones; neither contained pottery. Below these layers, a foundation trench was reached. It was 1.1 m wide in its upper part, narrowing to 0.2 m in its lower part, and was filled with clean, yellow travertine soil (L1163) with no pottery. To the west of

Fig. 3.174. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, the arch spring in W2255, looking south.

Fig. 3.175. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, cross carved in W2255, looking south.

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the wall’s end, bedrock was reached at a higher level (-151.12). The wall’s first foundation course was built into the hewn bedrock (-152.84). It was 0.42 m high and protruded some 0.2 m from the wall face. Over it, three additional courses were exposed, each 0.5–0.6 m high. Bedrock below the inner passage’s floor foundation was reached at level -151.90, although no pavement remains or foundation layer were observed in the probe and it seems that the pavement of the aditus maximus was originally laid over leveled bedrock (see below in the eastern probe at the staircase lower step -151.60). The assumed level of the pavement along the aditus maximus would have had a 6˚ slope, requiring several steps along the way. The western end of W2131 was found in unfinished protruding courses, presumably indicating that it was planned to be continued, although no foundation courses or foundation trench were observed to the west (see Fig. 3.167). The foundation courses of W2131 in the east, on the other hand, were located at a level considerably lower than in the west, indicating that here the bedrock sloped from west to east. Wall 2131, 26 m long and 2.8 m wide, was preserved at its western end up to 12 courses, to a height of 6.32 m (-146.52/-152.84). The first of two arched entrances that led into the postscaenium corridor, located 5.7 m away from the wall’s western end, was 1.8 m wide, and the top of the arch reached level -148.77 (see Fig. 3.169). The second, which led into the itinera versurarum, was 4.9 m away from the first,

3.3 m wide, and the top of its arch was at level -148.44 (see Fig. 3.168). The central part of the wall’s northern face collapsed and was rebuilt during restoration work in 1962 using modern concrete imitations of basalt slabs as wall plating, which stands in contrast to the original wall masonry that survived on either side (Fig. 3.176). Wall 2130, the basalt southern wall of the aditus maximus, was 26 m long and 2.7–3.8 m wide, narrowing toward the east. It was preserved at its western end to a height of 5.85 m (-146.11), and in the east to a height of 5.7 m (-147.30), as the passage sloped slightly downward. Its foundation courses were built into bedrock in the same manner as the foundations of W2131, although bedrock levels differed. Along the wall were two arched niches corresponding to the entrances in W2131. The first, 4.5 m from the wall’s western end, was 2.9 × 3.3 m, while the second, 5.85 m to the east, was 0.86 × 1.60 m. At its western end, W2130 formed a corner with W2129, and the spring courses of the cross-section vault were preserved on both the northern and western sides. The central part of the wall’s northern face was rebuilt in 1962 from the same imitation basalt slabs (Fig. 3.177). Over the central part of the aditus maximus, three stepped segments of a sloping vault measured from east to west, 11.5 m, 6.7 m and 5.7 m. At the western end of W2130, a staircase ascended to the theater’s upper story. The northern flight of 12 steps, 3.9 m long, ran along the western end of

Fig. 3.176. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, W2088 with Applebaum’s restoration, looking west

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

W2129 and was integrated in the wall’s masonry. The steps, built of well-dressed basalt stones, were 0.7–0.8 m wide, 0.34–0.38 m deep and 0.20–0.25 m high, beginning at level -151.60 and reaching level -148.95 (Fig. 3.178). The layer of accumulation (L1055) above the staircase contained a number of coins dating between the second and fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 57, 232, 658). A probe opened at the northern end of W2129 (L1146, L1147) did not reveal any pavement or foundation layer, although the original Stratum 12 pavement must have been

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at a level of c. -151.60. On the western side of the steps, no parallel wall to W2130 was observed, except for the partly hewn rock face, suggesting that the staircase was never completed, as the stairs were certainly planned to be wider (2.35 m) and bordered by a wall on their western side. At the southern end of the northern flight of steps, an unfinished landing, 0.8 × 2.7 m, was found at level -148.95 (assumed complete dimensions 2.4 × 2.7 m). It was paved with basalt slabs that were integrated into the semicircular circumference wall of the theater (see Plan 3.35).

Fig. 3.177. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, W2130 with Applebaum’s restoration, looking west.

Fig. 3.178. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, the western staircase’s northern flight of steps after reconstruction, looking south.

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From this landing, two more flights of steps continued to ascend, one to the south along W19, another to the east into Vomitorium 2. Of the southern flight, five steps were preserved, 1.1 m wide, 0.43–0.34 m deep and 0.22–0.28 m high. The lowest step was at level -148.65, and the uppermost at level -147.60. The steps were integrated into the theater’s wall and had no counter wall on their western side (Fig. 3.179). Of the eastern flight, six steps were

preserved, 2.3 m wide, 0.36 m deep and 0.26 m high, integrated into the walls on either side, W2130 in the north and W19 in the south. The remaining steps were presumably robbed, and only their foundation layer survived (Fig. 3.180). This was the only section of the peripheral staircase that was entirely completed. It was covered by late accumulation layers of light gray soil and yellow travertine soil containing sixth–eighthcentury CE pottery sherds.

Fig. 3.179. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, the western staircase’s southern flight of steps, looking south.

Fig. 3.180. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, the western staircase’s eastern flight of steps, looking northeast.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Stratum 9 When the eastern part of the western aditus maximus was cleared by the IAA expedition, a 0.15 m layer of gray soil was first removed, in which sixth–eighth-century CE pottery sherds were found (L1332, L90766), as well as four coins, one dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 551) and four to Umayyad II (Coin Cat. Nos. 780, 792–794). It is possible that part of this area had been excavated by Applebaum (1978:91, 92) and then covered over, as part of the accumulation layer seemed to be disturbed. Below this, a pavement was revealed that stretched from the staircase of the pulpitum to the orchestra entrance (see Plan 3.35; Fig. 3.181). It was better preserved in the north than in the south, where integrated water channels below the slabs required maintenance. The pavement was mostly of basalt slabs, with several integrated limestone slabs, masonry blocks and fragmentary limestone cornice fragments (A90636, A90637, A90638). The pavement slabs, 0.43 × 0.65 m and 0.12–0.26 m thick, were not laid in an orderly fashion, although they tended to maintain south–north lines, while their level sloped from west to east (-153.65/-154.09). They covered two of the pulpitum’s staircase steps (see Fig. 3.181) and the lower base molding of W2144. On its southern side

179

the pavement was mostly missing, apart from several slabs along W2255. In the entrance to the orchestra, a limestone threshold was found, presumably in secondary use as one of its central slabs had a hinge hole. A similar threshold in secondary use was also observed in the entrance to the orchestra from the eastern aditus maximus. The pavement’s foundation layer (-154.50/-154.80), of dark brown soil mixed with crushed yellow travertine, limestone chips and small basalt stones (L90772, L90825), contained third– fourth-century CE pottery sherds and 12 coins ranging from the third–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 170, 222, 300, 344, 443, 444, 448, 538–541, 550). The passage pavement was removed and below it were two drainage channels (T90630, T90634) and two water pipes (T90629, T90629a; L1333, L1338, L90788). The fill in them contained pottery sherds and glass fragments dated to the third–fourth centuries CE (see Chapter 5: Figs. 5.2:21, 5.4:46, 47), and 52 coins ranging from the third–eighth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 171, 215, 216, 219, 250, 269, 270, 298, 299, 301, 336, 351, 352, 439–442, 445–447, 529–537, 542–549, 589, 591, 600, 606–613, 664, 674, 694, 791). Channel T90630 ran west to east along W2255. Its exposed section was 4.5 m long, 0.2 m wide and 0.2 m deep, built of two basalt, plastered walls. The channel

Fig. 3.181. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, western pulpitum staircase and Stratum 9 pavement in the eastern part of the aditus maximus, looking northeast.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

floor was composed of small basalt stones and was also plastered. No covering stones were found, although it seems that the pavement slabs along the channel route also functioned as covers. The channel sloped from west to east (-154.31/ 154.47) and its cover level in the west must have reached -153.74 (Fig. 3.182). To the north, another section of a drainage channel (T90634) was found running from west to east, then turned south and joined T90630. The exposed section was 9.5 m long, 0.2 m wide and 0.12 m deep. Its walls were W2258 in the south and W2259 in the north. Both were about 0.15 m wide and 0.35 m high, built of basalt stones in dark gray mortar that was mixed with ashes. Its floor was composed of small basalt stones and mortar. several small-scale, white-gray marble statue fragments were integrated in the channel wall. These included a palm of a hand holding a plate and a small fragment of an Isis statue (L1338, B3429). The walls were built into a 4 cm ash layer that overlay bedrock. The drainage channel was covered with pavement slabs that were found in the west at level -153.71. A water

Fig. 3.182. Severan Theater: the western aditus maximus, Channels T90630 and T90634 under the southern side of the passage pavement, looking west.

pipe made of clay segments, 0.45 m long and 0.13 m in diameter, was found buried under the channel. Water Pipe T90629 ran from west to east (-154.33/ -154.43), north of Channel T90634. It was a clay pipe, the segments of which were 0.3 m long and 0.18 m in diameter, preserved in a 2.9 m long section. Attached to W2088 and W2114a, another water pipe (T90629a) was found, built of 0.23 m long clay sections, 0.13 m in diameter. Its exposed length was about 8 m and it ran from west to east (-154.03/-154.22). It was covered with soft-limestone slabs (0.2–0.3 × 0.3 m, 0.45 m thick) at level -154.17. Later Strata Excavated by Applebaum The excavations of the western aditus maximus in 1960–1962 found it entirely covered by accumulation layers over the post-749 CE earthquake remains. The excavation of these layers was only briefly reported by Applebaum in his preliminary reports (Applebaum 1960:1a; 1965:2c; 1978:92). Fragmentary architectural remains were observed over the collapsed debris of the earthquake, and Applebaum refers to them in these reports as being of mid-Islamic construction dating to the eighth–tenth centuries CE, which would presumably be correct. In one report (Applebaum 1965:2c), the western aditus maximus is described as being blocked by the collapsed layers of the earthquake. Applebaum dismantled the Stratum 12 barrel vault (see Fig. 3.3) in order to bring heavy equipment into the orchestra. The arch at the eastern entrance into the orchestra was also dismantled for the same purpose; its archivolt elements and some vault masonry were found by the IAA expedition in the area. In the aditus maximus, the central part of the barrel vault and its side walls (W2131, W2130) partly collapsed in the earthquake. Remains west of the western aditus maximus were only briefly described by Applebaum, with no details or dating. The area was later cleaned and regretfully the evidence obtained from that area was lost. Excavations conducted by the IAA expedition a short distance to the northwest revealed, next to the western thermae (see Plan 1.3:16), some Umayyad II walls that were clearly part of a larger complex built in this area. Although most of these walls were cut, it seemed that they once continued toward the south. It would be reasonable to assume that a large part of this complex located west of the western aditus maximus was revealed and cleared by Applebaum, although not referred to in his preliminary reports.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

Orchestra Strata 12–9 The orchestra had a horseshoe shape, as it was slightly over half a circle. It was 27.4 m wide and 17.9 m deep. It was paved with marble slabs, and separated from the cavea by the semicircular balteus. Scanty remains indicated that a three-stepped bisellia encircled it. A major drainage channel running from south to north was uncovered under its floor and continued northward under the hyposcaenium (Plan 3.36). In Stratum 12, the orchestra was paved with light gray marble slabs, 0.4–1.2 m wide, 0.6–2.0 m long

181

and 3–12 cm thick. Fragments of these pavement slabs were preserved in various places, such as in front of the curiale seat row in front of the balteus and in a segment in the center of the orchestra, next to the proscaenium wall, 6 m long and 0.7 m wide at level -154.49 (Fig. 3.183). In the northeastern corner of the orchestra, a probe revealed another segment of the marble pavement, 3.2 m long and 0.5–1.0 m wide (Plan 3.36: probe 1a) at level -154.33. Here the pavement was laid in rows of slabs of alternating width, 0.6 and 1.0 m (Fig. 3.184). The first slab in the northeastern corner (0.8 × 1.0 m) had a colloquial in its center, 0.2 m in diameter, draining into T30601 under it (see

Fig. 3.183. Severan Theater: orchestra pavement of marble slabs in front of proscaenium wall, looking north.

Fig. 3.184. Severan Theater: pavement of marble slabs in northeastern corner of orchestra, looking north.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

Probe 2

Probe 1a, 1b

W2046

T30605

L1154

-154.49

T30601

L50628

L1045

T3060 3

L1044

L1042

0

4

T30604

m

-153.81

L50623

602 T30

-153.90

W2046

W2046

-154.37 W2068

-154.30 154.55

-154.95 -154.65

T30601 -153.90

-154.32 -154.59 L1063 -154.65 -154.68

L1057 -154.76

0

2

m

Probe 1a

0

L1044

-154.73

-154.34

-154.64

W2063

-154.33

-154.32 -154.62

2

-154.50 -154.49

-154.36 -154.70 -154.76

L1042 L1045

m T30603 Probe 1b

Plan 3.36. Severan Theater: orchestra pavement and drainage channels; Probes 1a and 1b.

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Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

-154

1 W2054

W2010

2

3

3

W2069 W3005

W2063

W2068

W2046

W2069 -154.47

T30601

-155

W2046

T30601 L50639 L1069 L50635W3005W2068 W2205 -154.63 L1065 L50653 L50628

T30603 W2205 L1072

-156

-154.93

-157

2

L1148 T30604

1-1

1

W2124

-154

W2124

T30604

-155

-154.73

0

2

W2068 T30601 W2069

m

Probe 2

W2205

-156

-157

W2046

-155

2-2 W2010 W2054

-156

T30604 L1145 W2123

-157

3-3 Plan 3.36 (cont.). Severan Theater: orchestra pavement and drainage channels; Probe 2.

W2046

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

below). The pavement in front of the balteus, although quite fragmentary and disturbed, was 0.42–0.45 m higher in level, perhaps indicating the existence of a three-stepped bisellium. In the entrances to the aditus maximi, the Stratum 12 pavement was found at level -154.00, that is, a 0.33 m difference in level, which required two descending steps. In the eastern aditus maximus entrance, a 3.5 m long, 0.32 m wide marble step was found at level -154.19, while the second step at level -154.00 had been replaced by a limestone slab when the entrance was narrowed to 1.4 m. It seems that the original Stratum 12 marble pavement of the orchestra was not altered during the Roman and Byzantine periods, apart from minor renovations, and was finally robbed during Umayyad II. Under the marble pavement, a drainage system was revealed that had been partly excavated by Applebaum, and was further examined by the IAA expedition in several probes (see Plan 3.36). It seems that apart from certain repair stages, the Stratum 12 drainage system served the theater throughout its entire period of use. Applebaum’s plan depicted a semicircular channel (T30602) that encircled the orchestra in front of the bisellium steps (Fig. 3.185). It was covered with stone slabs and its 0.2 m high walls were built of bricks. A parallel channel (T30603) was found next to it.

Both channels drained into Channel T30601, which crossed the orchestra along the proscaenium wall. Channel T30603 was excavated in a small probe in the northeastern corner of the orchestra (Plan 3.36:1b). The foundation of the marble floor (L1042) was cut through to install T30603. The channel’s covering stones were medium-sized basalt slabs and the channel walls were built of basalt stones and bricks, 0.2 m wide and high. The brick floor of the channel sloped as it ran into T30601, and along its route it cut two water pipes that entered the orchestra from the eastern aditus maximus and drained into the orchestra’s central drainage channel (T30604; see below). The channel’s walls and floor (L1045) were covered with brown plaster. In the center of the orchestra, a segment of a similar type of channel (T30605; L1154) ran from west to east into T30604. Its covers, of medium-sized basalt slabs, were found at level -154.73. South of it, a segment of T30602 was exposed. In the northeastern corner of the orchestra, two water pipes of Stratum 11 cut through the Stratum 12 pavement foundation (L1044, Fig. 3.186). Sections of these pipes were also found in the eastern aditus maximus, below the Stratum 11 pavement. The pipes were 0.2 m in diameter, built of 0.38–0.42 m long segments reinforced with lime mortar. Both pipes

Fig. 3.185. Severan Theater: Channel T30602 in orchestra, looking south.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

185

Fig. 3.186. Severan Theater: two pipes of Stratum 11 in northeastern corner of orchestra, looking east.

were found at the same level of -154.76, and originally drained into Channel T30604, although their eastern ends were cut by Channel T30603. They were covered by black soil containing a few sixth-century CE pottery sherds and a coin dating to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 411). They were inserted into a foundation layer of basalt stones in hard, gray mortar (L1057) and laid over a Stratum 13 wall (W2205; see Plan 2.3). Channel T30601 of Stratum 12 (Roman III), continued in use in Stratum 11. Its floor was elevated and a new wall (W3005) was built to the north of its southern original wall (W2205). It was constructed of small basalt stones in brown mortar that narrowed the channel by 0.15 m (see Plan 3.36: Probe 2, Section 1-1). Over W3005, pottery dated to the sixth century CE was found. The channel was 0.45 m wide, 0.3 m deep, and its un-plastered floor was built of small basalt stones encased in soft gray mortar. Channel T30601 was exposed in two probes along the proscaenium wall, running from east to west, when the marble pavement slabs were removed, and its foundation layer of small basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar was excavated (L1063). Its basalt covering slabs (0.20–0.35 × 0.90 m) were exposed at level -154.59 (see Plan 3.36, Fig. 3.187). In the center of the orchestra, another part of the channel was found (L50628), east of T30604. A thin, dark-colored plaster covered its walls. Its northern wall (W2069) was built along the

proscaenium wall (W2046). It was 0.4 m wide, built of small basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar. Inside the channel, light yellow soil (L1065, L1069, L50635, L50653) contained second–third- and sixth-century CE pottery sherds, glass fragments (see Chapter 5: Fig.

Fig. 3.187. Severan Theater: Channel T30601 in orchestra, looking east.

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Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash

5.3:9), and a coin, dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. No. 656). Channel T30601 was built over a fill layer between W2205 and W2046 (see Plan 3.36: Probe 2, Section 1-1) of large to medium-sized basalt stones in gray soil that was mixed with travertine chunks (L1072). Under this layer was a 0.2 m deep layer of sterile soil over bedrock, at level -156.58, into which the proscaenium foundation was built. Along the central axis of the orchestra ran T30604, which, together with two channels built along the proscaenium wall, T30601 in the east and T30605 in the west, that drained into it, composed the orchestra’s main drainage system, into which all other secondary channels and pipes drained. Over the channel covers, a light gray layer was exposed (L1148) that contained two coins dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 435, 592) and sixth-century CE pottery sherds. The basalt-slab covers, 0.2–0.4 × 1.0–1.2 m and 0.2 m thick (Fig. 3.188), were exposed in an 8.5 m long segment at level -154.61/-154.73 (see Plan 3.36: Probe 2). In the north, Channel T30604 ran through the proscaenium W2046 under an arched roof, continued

through the hyposcaenium, under the scaenae frons and postscaenium, and exited north of the theater (Fig. 3.189). In the orchestra, the channel was 0.8 m wide, 1.4 m high, its walls were plastered with a hard brown plaster, and its floor at level -156.32 was made of small to large basalt stones in hard, dark gray mortar. Channel T30604 was filled with light yellow soil (L1145) containing many third–sixth-century CE pottery sherds, as well as marble fragments, game cubes, glass fragments (see Chapter 5: Fig. 5.2:15, 16, 22), and 80 coins ranging from a Hellenistic coin of 121–96 BCE to one of the sixth century CE (Coin Cat. Nos. 3, 43, 61, 69, 77, 100, 101, 102, 116, 118–120, 130, 131, 153–164, 173, 174, 193, 217, 221, 303, 311, 379, 412, 413, 421–434, 458–462, 499–515, 618–624, 737). In the upper part of Channel T30604, under its covering stones, a water pipe was installed, presumably in Stratum 10 (Plan 3.36: Probe 2, Section 3-3). Water pipes of Stratum 10 were installed elsewhere in the theater, as in the eastern aditus maximus, under the Stratum 10 basalt-slab pavement. As pipes did not last long in Nysa-Scythopolis and rapidly clogged up with

Fig. 3.188. Severan Theater: Channel T30604, the orchestra’s main channel, with its basalt covering stones, looking north.

Fig. 3.189. Severan Theater: Channel T30604 entering the hyposcaenium through an arched entrance and steps in the proscaenium wall, looking south.

Chapter 3: The Severan Theater

sediments, they were frequently replaced. In spite of these minor pipe replacements, it seems that T30601 and T30605 remained functional in Stratum 10, like the channel in the hyposcaenium (T30604), as all channels and pipes still drained into them. The original orchestra pavement was maintained in Stratum 10, and the entrances into the orchestra from the aditus maximi were narrowed to 1.4 m by lengthening the balteus wall, making use of some curiale seats that were placed over the earlier entrance steps. In the eastern entrance, two steps were adjusted to the new, narrower entrance. The lower was a reused marble slab (-154.19), 0.33 m wide, while the second was built of two limestone slabs (-153.99) and served as the entrance threshold. It seems that the entrance was closed with a wooden door at a later stage, presumably during Stratum 9, as recesses for anchoring bars were observed in the seat next to the entrance and in the threshold. Later Strata Excavated by Applebaum The upper accumulation layers in the orchestra were excavated by Applebaum, mainly with heavy

187

equipment (see Fig. 3.105), and in a grid of 5 × 5 m squares when the floor level was approached (Applebaum 1960:1; 1965:2–3). Photographs taken at the time show accumulation layers covering the post-749 CE layers (see Fig. 3.2). In an internal report, Applebaum mentioned a disturbed Islamic stratum over the orchestra containing ninth-century CE pottery mixed with late Byzantine coins, which was excavated down to the dismantled marble floor level of the orchestra (Applebaum 1965:2–3). According to this account, next to the orchestra’s main drainage channel, fifth-century CE pottery sherds were recovered, along with many coins, of which four were of the late second to early third centuries CE, 24 of the third–fourth centuries up to 408 CE, and 15 of the sixth century up to 578 CE. On the southwestern side of the orchestra, a concentration of collapsed architectural elements from the scaenae frons had been prepared to be moved out of the theater, presumably during Umayyad II. Applebaum assumed that the systematic dismantling of the theater’s limestone masonry ceased abruptly when the orchestra was turned into a rubbish dump in the mid-Islamic period.

Notes 1 Roman-period Latin terminology is preferred for the various theater units, despite the fact that Nysa-Scythopolis was a Greek-speaking polis, as it is most commonly used by scholars of Roman theaters (Segal 1991:32–34). 2 In various locations throughout the civic center, the results of an earthquake that predated that of 749 CE and Umayyad II were discerned in the excavations. This earthquake was originally dated to the end of the Arab-Byzantine period, around 660/61 CE by Amiran (1950–1951:226), who defined it as a strong event, felt mostly along the Jordan Valley. It

was more accurately dated to June 7, 659 CE, by Ambraseys (2009:221–222). Its effects were first noticed in the ArabByzantine stratum at Pella, and dated either to that event or the following one that occurred in 717 CE (McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982:129), which was already within the Umayyad I period. In the Nysa-Scythopolis civic center, destruction from this earthquake seems to predate Umayyad I, based on the pottery finds, and should therefore be dated to 659 CE.

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R eferences Ambraseys N.N. 2009. Earthquakes in the Mediterranean and Middle East. Cambridge–New York. Amiran D.H.K. 1950–1951, 1952. A Revised Earthquake Catalogue of Palestine. IEJ 1:223–246, 2:48–65. Applebaum S. 1960. A Letter to the General Director of the Israel Antiquity Department (IAA Archive). Jerusalem. Applebaum S. 1961. A letter to the General Director of the Israel Antiquity Department (IAA Archive). Jerusalem. Applebaum S. 1965. A Letter to the General Director of the Israel Antiquity Department (IAA Archive). Jerusalem. Applebaum S. 1975. Hellenistic Cities of Judaea and its Vicinity: Some New Aspects. In B. Levick ed. The Ancient Historian and his Materials: Essays in Honour of C.E. Stevens on his Seventieth Birthday. Farnborough. Pp. 59–73. Applebaum S. 1978. The Roman Theatre of Scythopolis. SCI 4:77–103. Arubas B. 2006. Excursus: The Impact of Town Planning at Scythopolis on the Topography of Tel Beth-Shean: A New Understanding of its Fortifications and Status. In A. Mazar. Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean 1989–1966 I: From the Late Bronze Age to the Medieval Period. Jerusalem. Pp. 48–58. Bieber M. 1961. The History of the Greek and Roman Theatre. Princeton. Bowsher J.M.C. 1997. An Early Nineteenth Century Account of Jerash and the Decapolis: The Records of William John Bankes. Levant 29:227–246.

Conder C.R. and Kitchener H.H. 1882. The Survey of Western Palestine II: Memoirs of the Topography, Orography, Hydrography and Archaeology. London. Graefe R. 1979. Vela erunt, die Zelkdächer der römischer theater und ähnlicher Anlagen. Mainz am Rhein. Guérin V. 1874. Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine I–III. Paris. Irby C.L. and Mangles J. 1823. Travels in Egypt and Nubia, Syria and Asia Minor during the Years 1817–1818. London. Mazor G. and Bar-Nathan R. 1996. The Bet She’an Excavations Project 1992–1994, Israel Antiquities Expedition. ESI 17:1–36. McNicoll A.W., Smith R.H. and Hennessy J.B. 1982. Pella in Jordan I: An Interim Report on the Joint University of Sydney and the College of Wooster Excavations at Pella 1979–1981. Canberra. Robinson E. 1856. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and the Adjacent Regions: a Journal of Travels in the Year 1852. London. Segal A. 1991. Architecture and the theater in Eretz Israel during the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Haifa. Tzori N. 1962. An Archaeological Survey of the Beth Shean Valley. In N. Tzori ed. The Beth Shean Valley. Jerusalem. Pp. 135–189 (Hebrew).

G. Mazor and W. Atrash, 2015, Bet She’an III/1 (IAA Reports 58/1)

Chapter 4

The Pottery Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

Introduction

Roman III (Stratum 12)

This chapter presents an analysis of the pottery assemblages originating in the different strata of the Southern and Severan theaters in order to further define the chronology of the stages of the Severan Theater based on the ceramic repertoire, which complements the stratigraphic, architectural, numismatic and glass evidence. In-depth ceramic analyses of the assemblages of the various periods uncovered in the Bet She’an excavation project appear in other publications of the series.1 The pottery was sorted in the field, and selected loci, either sealed or of stratigraphic significance, were set aside for further study. This report therefore presents representative assemblages from the various strata illustrating the construction, reconstruction and use phases of the theater, as well as examples that illustrate the chronological phases of Nysa-Scythopolis as established by the IAA expedition (see the Bet She’an Archaeological Project Chronological chart, p. xiii and Table 7.1).

The pottery assemblage presented in Figs. 4.1 and 4.2 represents the construction phase of the Severan Theater in Roman III (130–224 CE), which was dated according to stratigraphy, coins and analysis of the architectural elements to the second–third centuries CE (see Chapters 3, 6, 9). The pottery originated in the hyposcaenium (L1124), Vomitoria 10 (L70756), 11 (L70651) and 18 (L1250), the western staircase (L1055), the eastern aditus maximus (L1249, L1253), and the orchestra channels (L1072, L1145, L50635).

The Pottery Assemblages Roman II (Stratum 13) Pottery sherds attributed to Roman II (Stratum 13; 31 BCE–130 CE) were collected from various loci that were regretfully neither sealed nor clean, although the earliest pottery included sherds of two distinct periods: the first half of the first century CE, no later than 70 CE; and the second half of the first century CE. Based on the analysis of the stratigraphy and architectural elements, construction of the Southern Theater was tentatively dated to the first half of the first century CE, while its second phase was dated to the later part of the first century CE (see Chapter 2).

Storage Jars (Fig. 4.1:1–6) A number of sherds of storage jars with a grooved rim and a ridge in the lower neck (Fig. 4.1:1, 2) are identical to an example published from the odeum in an assemblage related to Stage 2a, dated between the second half of the first century until 132/3 CE (Sandhaus 2007:120, Fig. 6.2:2). It is the most widespread type of storage jar in Galilee, where it was first dated from the mid-first to the mid-second centuries CE (DíezFernández 1983:138, T1.6; for further parallels, see Sandhaus 2007:119–120). The type continues to appear in the Decapolis at Gerasa (Clark and Falkner 1986: Fig. 20:10; Watson 1986:361, Fig. 3), in northern assemblages, as at Horbat Hazon (Bahat 1974:164, Fig. 3:1–4), Jalame (Johnson 1988: Fig. 7-51:771), Rama (Tzaferis 1980: Fig. 3:19, 24), Capernaum (Loffreda 1974:26, Class A2, Figs. 1:2, 8:20, 21) and on the coast at Caesarea (Oleson 1994: Fig. 40:A71), all attributed to the second, third and fourth centuries CE. A sherd of a storage jar with a triangular rim and a ridge at the bottom of a short, slightly convex neck (Fig. 4.1:3) is also known from the odeum, where it appears in an assemblage dated to the second half of the first century CE, no later than 132/5 CE

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Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

3

1

2

6

5

4

7

8 0

10

Fig. 4.1. Roman III pottery assemblage. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural context

1

Storage jar

1072

5126/3

Very pale brown 10YR 8/4

Orchestra, Channel T30601

2

Storage jar

1055

5078/1

Red 2.5YR 5/6

Western staircase

3

Storage jar

1072

5126/1

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6

Orchestra, Channel T30601

4

Storage jar

1253

3181/1

Dark reddish gray 5YR 4/2

Eastern aditus maximus

5

Storage jar

1145

5312/2

Dark reddish gray 5YR 4/2

Orchestra, Channel T30604

6

Storage jar

1145

5308/2

Dark reddish gray 5YR 4/2

Orchestra, Channel T30604

7

Jug

50635

506175/1

Light gray 10YR 7/2

Orchestra

8

Juglet

1124

5261/2

Reddish yellow 5YR 7/6

Hyposcaenium

(Sandhaus 2007: Fig. 6.2:5–7). It is a well-known type at sites of the mid-first–second centuries CE (Sandhaus 2007:119, see there for references). It also appears at Pella (McNicoll et al. 1992: Pl. 92:4) and Rama (Tzaferis 1980: Fig. 34:18) in complexes of the third– fourth centuries CE. Some sherds of storage jars are characterized by a slightly thickened rim and a straight or convex neck that ends in a ridge (Fig. 4.1:4–6). This type is

characteristic of the second to fourth centuries CE. At Meiron, it was found in contexts dated from the midfirst–third centuries CE (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981: Pl. 8.17:18). It is common in assemblages dated to the second–third centuries CE at Gerasa (Clark and Falkner 1986:248–249, Fig. 20:8) and Gush Halav (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:176–177, 218, Pls. F:1, AA:22), and seems to continue in use until the fourth century CE at sites such as Hammat Gader

Chapter 4: The Pottery

(Ben-Arieh 1997:358, Fig. IV:5, 6) and Caesarea (Blakely and Horton 1987:63, 89, Class 62, Figs. 20:42, 45, 68, 89, 22:63, 64, 89). Jug and Juglet (Fig. 4.1:7, 8) The jug in Fig. 4.1:7 has a trefoil mouth, a slightly convex neck, a cylindrical ribbed body, a handle that extends from the rim to the shoulder, and a ring base. A similar vessel is found in Jerusalem, where it occurred from the second–fifth centuries CE (Magness 1993:242–243, Form 2A). The stump base of a juglet in Fig. 4.1:8 is known from the second to eighth centuries CE, with variations in fabric and form. In some cases, as in the pottery workshop at Horbat ‘Uza dated to the fourth century CE, the type is associated with Antiliya vessels (Avshalom-Gorni 2009: Fig. 2.41:2). A similar juglet base was found in the synagogue at Gush Halav in a locus dated to the third century CE (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:132, 193, Pl. N:6). Cooking Ware Cooking Pots (Fig. 4.2:1, 2) The globular closed cooking pot in Fig. 4.2:1 has a flattened rim with two pronounced grooves on top, a vertical or everted neck, a smooth shoulder with a ridge below the neck, and two loop handles from rim to shoulder. It corresponds to Kfar Hananya Form 4C, dated to the early second–mid-fourth centuries CE (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:146), and to Type T10.6a in the Galilean corpus, dated to the end of the second century CE (Díez-Fernández 1983:155). At Gerasa, similar cooking pots were found in the cardo and southern decumanus of Phase II, dated to the late second–early third centuries CE (Watson 1986:359–361, Fig. 3:7). At Capernaum, such cooking pots began to appear in the Early Roman period and flourished during the Middle Roman period (Loffreda 1974:32–33, Class A5, Fig. 3:1). A sherd of another cooking pot is characterized by a short, vertical neck, a ribbed body and two loop handles extending from rim to shoulder (Fig. 4.2:2). At Capernaum, a similar vessel was dated to the end of the Middle–Late Roman periods (Loffreda 1974:32– 33, Class A6, Fig. 3:8). This type corresponds to Kfar Hananya Form 4D, dated from the late third–early fifth centuries CE (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:149). Similar

191

vessels were also found at Gush Halav in a context dated to 250–306 CE (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:170– 171, Pl. C:7), and at Meiron in a context dated to 135– 250 CE (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981: Pl. 6.1:5). Casserole (Fig. 4.2:3) This is a rounded, slightly carinated casserole with an everted rim. At Capernaum, this type was dated to the first part of the Middle Roman period (Loffreda 1974:41–42, Class A17, Fig. 6:9), and is similar to Kfar Hananya Form 3A dated to the mid-first–mid-second centuries CE (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:135, 340–341). Galilean Bowls (Fig. 4.2:4, 5) A sherd of a hemispherical bowl with one groove on the rim (Fig. 4.2:4) has a parallel from Stratum 2A in the odeum complex, dated to 132–135 CE. The form itself is dated from the first to the late third centuries CE (Sandhaus 2007: Fig. 6.2:13). A cooking bowl (Fig. 4.2:5) characterized by a thickened rim with two grooves on the exterior, flaring walls and two degenerate loop handles, has a similar parallel in Stratum 11 in the theater (see Fig. 4.5:4). This type corresponds to Kfar Hananya Form 1D, dated to the mid-third–late fourth centuries CE (AdanBayewitz 1993:100–103, Pl. 1D). At Pella, it is said to be a common third-century CE type (McNicoll et al. 1992:139, Pl. 92:2), and at Gerasa it appears in a third-century CE destruction deposit (Rasson 1986:68, Fig. 17:1). Large Bowls (Fig. 4.2:6–9) These large bowls with a thickened, rolled-out rim and thick, inwardly sloping walls (Fig. 4.2:6, 7) have parallels at Jalame, in a context dated to the second half of the fourth century CE (Johnson 1988: Fig. 7-31:488–493) and at Hammat Gader, where they are dated from the second–fourth centuries CE (Ben-Arieh 1997:348–349, Fig. I:2). Other sherds of large bowls (Fig. 4.2:8, 9) have a thickened ledge rim with two ridges, and curved walls. This type was also found elsewhere at the site in the fill inside the nymphaeum pool in the forum’s eastern temple, in an assemblage dated to the second–third centuries CE (Mazor, Atrash and Najjar, in prep.). At Gush Halav it was found in contexts dated to 250–306 CE (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:172–173, 175, Pls. D:1, E:21).

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Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

2 1

4

3

6

5

7 8

9 0

10

Fig. 4.2. Roman III pottery assemblage. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural context

1

Cooking pot

1249

3168/1

Light red 2.5YR 6/6

Eastern aditus maximus

2

Cooking pot

1250

3171/4

Red 2.5YR 5/6

Vomitorium 18

3

Casserole

70651

706117/1

Pink 7.5YR 7/4

Vomitorium 11

4

Galilean bowl

70651

706130/1

Light reddish brown 5YR 6/4

Vomitorium 11

5

Galilean bowl

1055

5078/4

Light reddish brown 5YR 6/4

Western staircase

6

Large bowl

70756

706564/1

Pink 5YR 7/4

Vomitorium 10

7

Large bowl

1055

5078/6

Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6

Western staircase

8

Large bowl

1055

5084/1

Reddish yellow 7.5YR7/6

Western staircase

9

Large bowl

1055

5078/12

Reddish yellow 5YR 5/8

Western staircase

Roman IV–Byzantine I (Strata 11–10) The Roman IV period (Stratum 11) represents a renovation stage following the earthquake of 363 CE, which was discerned mainly in the scaenae frons and the hyposcaenium, as well as in the aditus maximi, where new pavements were laid. Stratum 10

is the accumulation from the continued use of the theater during the fifth century CE up until the second renovation stage in Stratum 9 (see Chapter 3). Most of the pottery (Figs. 4.3–4.5) originated in sealed loci of Stratum 11 in the hyposcaenium and postscaenium (L1011, L1021, L1028, L1035, L1092, L1136, L1142, L1171, L1187). Although earlier pottery was

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found in these loci as well, it seems that most of the assemblage points to a late fourth-century CE date for the renovations. Stratum 10 loci originated in the hyposcaenium and postscaenium (L1087), the western aditus maximus (L1333), the eastern aditus maximus (L1316), and the pulpitum’s western flank (L1104, L1113), in which periodic maintenance works were probably conducted during the period. Storage Jars (Fig. 4.3) The storage jar in Fig. 4.3:1 has a drop rim with a triangular section, and a convex neck with a ridge at the base of the neck. This type was also found at the site in sediment that had accumulated over the floor of the nymphaeum pool in the forum’s eastern temple

(Stratum 12), dated to the second–third centuries CE, which therefore predates the example here (M. Balouka, pers. obs.). It also appears in contexts dated to the third–fourth centuries CE, as at Horbat Rodem (Covello-Paran and Avshalom-Gorni 2008: Fig. 5:1), Rama (Tzaferis 1980:72–73, Fig. 3:18) and Pella (McNicoll et al. 1992: Pl. 92:4). In the hippodrome at Caesarea it was included in Type 1a, dated from the second–fourth centuries CE (Riley 1975:26, 47, Nos. 94–96), and at Capernaum it belongs to Class B, which began to appear in the Late Roman period (300–450 CE) and flourished during the Byzantine period (450– 638 CE; Loffreda 1974:43–48, Fig. 8:3). The storage jar with a slightly thickened, squared rim, a short neck and a ridge in the lower neck (Fig.

2 1

3

4

6

5

7 0

10

Fig. 4.3. Roman IV–Byzantine I pottery assemblage: storage jars. No.

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural context

1

1316

3367/1

Pink 5YR 7/3

Eastern aditus maximus

2

1104

5188/5

Pink 5YR 7/3

Pulpitum western flank

3

1035

5046/1

Pink 5YR 7/3

Postscanenium

4

1142

5283/2

Reddish gray 5YR 5/2

Hyposcaenium

5

1316

3381/1

Reddish gray 5YR 5/2

Eastern aditus maximus

6

1142

5224/2

Light reddish brown 5YR 6/4

Hyposcaenium

7

1028

5038/3

Light reddish brown 5YR 6/4

Hyposcaenium

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Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

4.3:2) has parallels at Meiron, where it was identified as a fourth-century CE type (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:123, 178, Pl. 8.2:4, 5). At Capernaum it is attributed to Class B, which first appeared during the Late Roman period (300–450 CE) and flourished during the Byzantine period (450–638 CE; Loffreda 1974:43–48, Fig. 8:1). At Hammat Gader, it was dated from the second–fifth centuries CE (Ben-Arieh 1997:351, 358, Pl. IV:4, 6). The storage jar with a slightly thickened rim and a high, straight neck ending in a ridge at its base (Fig. 4.3:3) has parallels from a context dated to the late third–fourth centuries CE at Pella (McNicoll et al. 1992:170, Pl. 108:1) and in assemblages of the fourth– fifth centuries CE at other sites such as Jalame, where it originates in a context dated to Period 4 (383–425 CE; Johnson 1988:217, Fig. 7.53:804). At Capernaum it is attributed to Class B, which appeared during the Late Roman period (300–450 CE) and flourished during the Byzantine period (450–638 CE; Loffreda 1974:43–48, Fig. 8:1). At Caesarea it was included in Type 1a dated to the second–fourth centuries CE (Riley 1975:26, 47, Nos. 94–96). The storage jar in Fig. 4.3:4 has a thickened, ridged rim and a high neck with a ridge in the lower neck. Similar jars were found at many sites in contexts dated mainly to the third–fourth centuries CE, as at Rama (Tzaferis 1980:72–73, Fig. 3:21), Gush Halav (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:207, Pl. U:17), Meiron (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:60–68), Sumaqa (Kingsley 1999:311, Fig. 10:10, Type LR5b), H. ‘Uza (Avshalom-Gorni 2009: Fig. 2.37:11), Caesarea (Riley 1975:26, 47, Nos. 94–96) and Pella (McNicoll et al. 1992:140, Pl. 92.4). A few parallels from Khirbat Shema‘ indicate that this type may continue into the beginning of the fifth century CE as well (Meyers, Kraabel and Strange 1976: Pl. 7.21:28). The storage jar with a folded rim and a high neck with a ridge in the lower part of the neck (Fig. 4.3:5) is probably a fourth–early fifth-century CE jar. This type was found in the wastes of a pottery workshop at H. Rodem near Bet She’an that was active during the third–fourth centuries CE (Covello-Paran and Avshalom-Gorni 2008:43, Fig. 5.3). At Meiron it was identified as a fourth-century CE type (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:123, 178, Pl. 8.2:8), and at Jalame it was found in a context dated to Period 4 (383–425 CE; Johnson 1988:219, Fig. 7.54:813). In the Galilean corpus it is Type T1.10, dated to the third–

fourth and beginning of the fifth centuries CE (DíezFernández 1983:143, 188, No. 125). In the hippodrome at Caesarea it was included in Type 1a, dated to the second–fourth centuries CE (Riley 1975:26, 47, Nos. 94–96). At Pella it has been found in contexts dated to the late third–early fourth centuries CE (McNicoll et al. 1992:170, Pl. 108:2). The storage jar with a simple rim and a thick, short, slightly everted neck and a ridge in the lower neck (Fig. 4.3:6) seems to be a fourth–early fifth-century CE type. Although in the Galilean corpus it is Type T1.8, dated from the third–first half of the fourth centuries CE (Díez-Fernández 1983:140, 186, Nos. 86–87), most of the contexts in which this type has been found are dated to the fourth–early fifth centuries CE. see, for example, at Meiron, where it is attributed to the mid-fourth century CE at the earliest (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:60–68), at H. ‘Uza, where it was recovered in a kiln that was active during 350–400 CE (Avshalom-Gorni 2009: Fig. 2.37:7), at Sumaqa (Kingsley 1999:311, Type LR5b, Fig. 10:10), and at Pella in Tomb 64, where it is securely dated by a coin of 341–348 CE (McNicoll et al. 1992:140, Pl. 92:4). It is also associated with contexts dated from the fourth to the early–mid-fifth centuries CE, as at Jalame in a context dated to Period 4 (383–425 CE; Johnson 1988:216, Fig. 7-52:794), at Kh. Shema‘, where it was found in Stratum 4 (306–419 CE; Meyers, Kraabel and Strange 1976: Pl. 7.21:28) and at Capernaum, where it appeared during the Late Roman period (300–450 CE) and flourished during the Byzantine period (450–638 CE; Loffreda 1974:43–48, Class B, Fig. 8:1). The ribbed holemouth jar with a thickened, folded, everted rim (Fig. 4.3:7) has parallels in the potteryworkshop wastes at H. Rodem, dating to the third– fourth centuries CE (Covello-Paran and AvshalomGorni 2008: Fig. 5:4, 5). Similar jars have been found in Jerusalem and defined as Form 1a, which is dated from the second–fifth centuries CE (Magness 1993:231–232). Jugs and Juglets (Fig. 4.4:1–4) The jug in Fig. 4.4:1 has an everted thickened rim, a wide neck and a handle extending from rim to shoulder. A similar jug appears in the Galilean corpus as Type T.10:6c, dated from the mid-third to the end of the fourth centuries CE (Díez-Fernández 1983:157, 206). The jug with a simple, slightly everted rim, a conical neck widening toward the bottom, and a handle from

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Chapter 4: The Pottery

1 2

3 4

5

6 0

10

Fig. 4.4. Roman IV–Byzantine I pottery assemblage. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural context

1

Jug

1087

5157/3

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6

Hyposcaenium

2

Jug

1136

3270/1

Reddish brown 5YR 5/3

Hyposcaenium

3

Juglet

1021

5032/7

Pink 7YR 7/4

Hyposcaenium

4

Juglet

1035

5046/4

Gray 10YR 6/1

Postscaenium

5

Amphora

1171

5357/7

Red 10R 4/8; mica grits

Hyposcaenium

6

Amphora

1113

5226/2

Red 10R 4/8; mica grits

Pulpitum western flank

rim to shoulder (Fig. 4.4:2) is included in Type T10:6c of the Galilean corpus, dated from the mid-third to the end of the fourth centuries CE (Díez-Fernández 1983:157, 206, No. 318). The juglet with an everted rim, a high neck and a handle attached from below the rim to the shoulder (Fig. 4.4:3) is Type T9.9 in the Galilean corpus, dated to the third–fourth centuries CE (Díez-Fernández 1983:152, 200). The juglet with a swollen, stepped rim and a narrow neck that widens upward (Fig. 4.4:4) has no known parallels. Imported Amphorae (Fig. 4.4:5, 6) These belong to narrow-necked amphorae (Riley 1976: Type LRA10; Peacock and Williams 1996: Class 45) with a tapering body and a hollow foot, made of distinctive micaceous, reddish-brown fabric. This is a well-known type in the eastern Mediterranean basin, which seems to have appeared during the second

century CE and developed during the mid-fourth century CE into a two-handled amphora. The later type appears in complexes dated from the mid-fourth to mid-sixth centuries CE, when its export seems to have declined rapidly (Riley 1975:31, 32, No. 19). It was found at the site in the warehouse complex dated to the end of the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Sandhaus, in prep.). At Horbat Castra it was recovered in a welldated corpus of amphorae from the Late Roman– Byzantine periods (Peacock and Williams 1996:188– 190, Class 45; Haddad 1999:99, Pl. 15, see there for further parallels), and assigned a fourth–sixth-century CE date (Haddad 1999:36–37, Type 5.2.1.5). Cooking Ware Cooking Pots (Fig. 4.5:1–3) The cooking pot with a simple offset rim and a short neck (Fig. 4.5:1) seems to be a fourth–fifth-century CE type. At Capernaum it corresponds to Type A6,

196

Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

dated from the third–mid-fifth centuries CE (Loffreda 1974:32–33, Fig. 3:4). Similar vessels have been found at Gush Halav in complexes dated to Periods III (363– 460 CE) and IV (460–551 CE; Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:174–175, Pl. 12), while at Meiron the type has been dated no later than the fifth century CE (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:124, 184, 190, Pls. 8.5:40, 8.10:9). The cooking pot with a short neck with a ridge in the middle and two loop handles from rim to shoulder (Fig. 4.5:2) corresponds to Kfar Hananya Form 4D, dated from the late third–early fourth to the early fifth centuries CE (Adan-Bayewitz 1993: Pl. 4D:3–5). A similar cooking pot dated to the third–fourth centuries CE was found at Hammat Tiberias in the synagogue of Severus (Stratum IIa), and dated to the fourth–early fifth centuries CE (Dothan and Johnson 2000:63, Fig. 4:F). Similar vessels were also found in a complex of the third–fourth centuries CE at Rama (Tzaferis 1980:72–74, Fig. 3:27, 29), and at Gush Halav, where it was identified as a Late Roman–early Byzantine type (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990:209, Pls. A:8, V:14). At Meiron, this type has been found in Stratum IV (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:184, 201, Pls. 8.5:39, 8.20:4), and dated to the third, no later than the fifth centuries CE (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:124, 128). At Kh. Shema‘, it first appeared at the end of the third century, flourished during the fourth century and continued into the fifth century CE (Meyers, Kraabel and Strange 1976:201, Pl. 7.16:8, 22). The cooking pot with a thick inverted rim, a ridge on the neck and two loop handles attached from rim to shoulder (Fig. 4.5:3) is the same type as the previous pot (see Fig. 4.5:2) with subtle differences. It also corresponds to Kfar Hananya Form 4D, as above, dated from the late third–early fourth to the early fifth centuries CE (Adan-Bayewitz 1993: Pl. 4D:3–5) and was found in third–fourth-century CE contexts at Rama (Tzaferis 1980:72–74, Fig. 3:28). Similar vessels have also been uncovered at Gush Halav, where they were identified as early Byzantine (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990: Pl. V:15). Galilean Bowl (Fig. 4.5:4) This bowl is characterized by a thickened rim with two grooves on top, flaring walls and two degenerate loop handles. It resembles the bowls from Stratum 12 (see Fig. 4.2:4, 5) and corresponds to Kfar Hananya

Form 1D, dated from the mid-third–late fourth centuries CE (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:100–103, Pl. 1D, see there for further parallels). Casserole Lid (Fig. 4.5:5) The example illustrated here is a regular casserole lid, a type that had a long life span ranging from the fourth to the seventh–eighth centuries CE. The parallels suggest a date for this specific form from the fourth to the fifth centuries CE, as at Capernaum (Loffreda 1974:49, Fig. 11:13, Type C9), Gush Halav (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990: Pl. R:5) and Meiron (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:182, Pl. 8.4:21). At Pella it was found in assemblages dated to 500–525 CE (McNicoll et al. 1992:17, Pl. 110:8). Casserole (Fig. 4.5:6) This is the typical casserole that appeared from the fourth to eighth centuries CE, although this specific example seems to be of a Byzantine form (Sandhaus, in prep.). At Kfar Hananya it corresponds to Form C3A, dated from the mid-fourth–fifth centuries CE and even later (Adan-Bayewitz 1993:157–159, Pl. C3A), while at Rama it was found in contexts of the third–fourth centuries CE (Tzaferis 1980:72–73, Fig. 3:10), and at Meiron in Stratum V, dated to the early Byzantine period (Meyers, Strange and Meyers 1981:124, 182, Pl. 8.4:3). Lamp (Fig. 4.5:7) This is probably a local variation of a Beit Nattif lamp, with a round body, a large central filling hole surrounded by a ridge, and a curving rim decorated with a variety of geometric designs, a herringbone pattern and a row of fine dots between two ridges. The end of the nozzle is missing. Based on parallels, the nozzle was probably rounded or squared, with a narrow ridge extending around its outline, and was most likely decorated. The nozzle is pinched on its side giving the effect of volutes. The lamp has a small pyramidal handle. Beit Nattif lamps were dated by Rosenthal and Sivan (1978:105) from the second half of the third to the fourth centuries CE, with later examples continuing into the fifth century CE. At Pella, they were dated to the third–fourth centuries CE (McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982:97, Pl. 137:2). The specific variation presented here belongs to Kennedy’s Type 14, dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Kennedy 1963:80). It

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Chapter 4: The Pottery

resembles a local imitation of the Beit Nattif lamp in the corpus of lamps recovered in the IAHU excavations

1

at Tel Bet She’an (Hadad 2002:26–35, Type 17, Nos. 74–113).

2

3

4

5

6 0

10

0

4

7

Fig. 4.5. Roman IV–Byzantine I pottery assemblage. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric and color

Architectural context

1

Cooking pot

1011

5012/12

Red 2.5YR 5/6

Hyposcaenium

2

Cooking pot

1113

5226/1

Weak red 2.5YR 4/2

Pulpitum western flank

3

Cooking pot

1035

5046/3

Weak red 2.5YR 4/2

Postscaenium

4

Galilean bowl

1021

5032/18

Red 10R 4/8

Hyposcaenium

5

Casserole lid

1187

5442/2

Weak red 10R 4/2

Hyposcaenium

6

Casserole

1092

5222/1

Weak red 10R 4/2

Hyposcaenium

7

Lamp

1333

3438/1

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6

Western aditus maximus

198

Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

Byzantine II (Stratum 9) The Byzantine II period (Stratum 9) represents a period of renovation works conducted in the theater during the early sixth century (507–550 CE). Most of the pottery types (Figs. 4.6–4.9) come from sealed loci in the hyposcaenium (L1010, L1034, L1041, L1053, L1117, L1129) and the pulpitum (L1048, L1073, L1074, L1097, L1100, L1101), as well as from fills in the eastern staircase (L1189, L1224, L1228), a drainage channel (L1005), and an installation in the summa cavea (L1225). Based on the following pottery analysis, these loci should be dated to the mid-sixth century CE. Storage Jars (Fig. 4.6:1–4) These are storage jars with white-painted decoration belonging to the well-known ‘Palestinian’ ribbed, bag-shaped jars with two vertical loop handles on the shoulder (Watson 1992:238; Mazor, Najjar and Atrash, in prep.). These jars constitute the main group of storage vessels found at Nysa-Scythopolis of the Byzantine period. At Caesarea they comprise Type 3 (Riley 1975), at Carthage Type LRA6 (Riley 1976), and at Caparnaum Class B (Loffreda 1974). The storage jar with a triangular knobbed rim and a straight, vertical neck with a ridge below it (Fig. 4.6:1) seems to be a fourth–fifth-century type, as most of its parallels originate in contexts dated to these centuries. At H. ‘Uza it is Type 1.3.2, found in Stratum 8, dated to 310–330 CE, and in Stratum 7 dated to 340–410 CE (Avshalom-Gorni 2009: Fig. 2.37:5). At Gush Halav it is dated to 363–450 CE (Meyers, Meyers and Strange 1990: Pl. R:14), at Rama to the third–fourth centuries CE (Tzaferis 1980: Fig. 3:22), and at Jalame to the fourth century CE (Johnson 1988: Fig. 7-32, Pl. 6-7:789). Vessels of this type were also found at Pella in contexts dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Smith and Day 1989:102, Pls. 48:11, 52:20). A sherd of a storage jar has a folded rim and a high neck with a ridge at the bottom (Fig. 4.6:2). This type is common at Nysa-Scythopolis in the sealed shops in the forum dated to the fourth century CE (Mazor, Atrash and Najjar, in prep.). This storage-jar type developed into a jar with a thickened rim and a shorter neck during the fifth–sixth centuries CE (Sandhaus, in prep.; see also McNicoll et al. 1992:174, Pl. 110:9). At H. ‘Uza, the folded rim first appeared in Stratum 9 and continued into Stratum 8, both dated to the fourth

century CE (Avshalom-Gorni 2009: Fig. 2.37:7–11; see there for further parallels in the Galilee). Another later development of the folded-rim jar appears in this repertoire as a storage jar with a double-folded rim and a squared section, a short neck and a ridge below it (Fig. 4.6:3). This jar was very popular during the sixth century CE in the vicinity of Nysa-Scythopolis and the cities of Arabia (Landgraf 1980: Fig. 21.1; Watson 1992: Fig. 9.64; McNicoll et al. 1992: Pl. 110.9; Sandhaus, in prep.). The storage jar with a long folded rim that covers almost the entire neck (Fig. 4.6:4) is a type found mainly in the region of the Jordan Valley. It seems to appear at the end of the first quarter of the fifth century CE and remained in use until 660 CE (Smith 1973: Pl. 29:1230; McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982: Pl. 139:5; Smith and Day 1989: Pl. 48:6; Watson 1992: Fig. 9.66; Uscatescu-Barrón 1996: Fig. 93:603; Sandhaus, in prep.). Table Amphora, Jugs and Juglets (Fig. 4.6:5–9) The sherd of a table amphora with an in-turned rim, a high neck and two(?) handles attached from rim to shoulder (Fig. 4.6:5) has parallels at Nysa-Scythopolis in the northeastern city-gate complex, as well as in the bath complex at Pella, both dated to the late sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Smith and Day 1989: Pl. 52.2; Sandhaus, in prep.). The jug with a slightly everted rim, folded and pulled down, a conical neck widening toward its base, and a handle attached from mid-neck to shoulder (Fig. 4.6:6) also appeared in the macellum at Gerasa, where it was dated between the fourth and the sixth centuries CE (Uscatescu-Barrón 1996:120–121, Fig. 78:445, Group XXVI, Form 4b) The sherd of a jug with a ridged rim and a handle attached from the rim (Fig. 4.6:7) also has a parallel in the bath complex at Pella, where the type is dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Smith and Day 1989:102, Pl. 50:1). The ribbed, biconical, neckless juglet with a simple rim and a stump (Fig. 4.6:8) or concave disc base (Fig. 4.6.9) is a well-known type with a long life span. It seems to have first appeared in this region during the late second century, became common from the third century and continued until the early seventh century CE. This juglet appears in almost every geographical region in the southern Levant from the second century CE onward, differing mainly in fabric. In the Jordan

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Chapter 4: The Pottery

Valley it is very common, as at Nysa-Scythopolis in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate (Sandhaus, in prep.). Identical juglets were also found in the wastes of the pottery workshop at H. Rodem, which probably provided the pottery to NysaScythopolis during the third and fourth centuries CE (Covello-Paran and Avshalom-Gorni 2008:43:3). At Pella, juglets of this kind were found in the Byzantine strata in the western church of Area I (Smith 1973: Pl. 29:1203) and in the odeum dated to the late sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Smith and Day 1989: Pl. 48:13, 18), and at Gerasa in the macellum, dated to the sixth century CE (Uscatescu-Barrón1996:116–117, Fig. 77:428, 429, Group XIX, Forms 4, 5).

Storage-Jar Lid (Fig. 4.6:10) This small, deep bowl-shaped vessel has an everted, flaring rim with an inner groove (Fig. 4.6:10). It was a relatively common vessel during the Byzantine period and continued into the Umayyad period in a coarser variant. The specific variant illustrated here was found at Nysa-Scythopolis in additional contexts dated to the Byzantine period, such as the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate (Sandhaus, in prep.), the house of Kyrios Leontis (Tzori 1973: Figs. 7:23, 9:16), and terraces and cisterns on the tell, in contexts dated to the end of the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (FitzGerald 1931: Pls. XXX:4, 9–10, XXXI:11), as well as in the synagogue dated to the

2

1

3

4 5

6

7

8

9

11

10 0

10

Fig. 4.6. Byzantine II pottery assemblage: closed vessels. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural context

1

Storage jar

1053

5081/3

Pink 5YR 7/3

Hyposcaenium

2

Storage jar

1034

5041/4

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6

Hyposcaenium

3

Storage jar

1010

5040/2

Gray fabric 2.5YR /N5, red core

Hyposcaenium

4

Storage jar

1224

3072/3

Gray fabric 2.5YR /N5, red core

Eastern staircase

5

Table amphora

1048

5080/1

Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6

Pulpitum

6

Jug

1228

3074/6

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6

Eastern staircase W2137 foundations

7

Jug

1073

5124/1

Brown 7.5YR 5/2

Pulpitum

8

Juglet

1101

5191/1

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8

Pulpitum

9

Juglet

1189

5486/11

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8

Eastern staircase W2152 foundations

10

Storage-jar lid

1005

5004

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8

Hyposcaenium

11

Goblet

1053

5081/1

Light brown 7.5YR 6/3

Hyposcaenium

200

Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

fifth–sixth centuries CE (Tzori 1967: Fig. 10:3, 4). Among the sites with similar vessels in the vicinity of Nysa-Scythopolis, worthy of mention are Pella, in the odeum dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Smith and Day 1989: Pl. 50.12, 13) and in the Byzantine Stratum IIA in the eastern cemetery in a context dated to the fifth–seventh centuries CE (Smith 1973: Pl. 43.330), and at Gerasa in the macellum dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (UscatescuBarrón 1996: Fig. 76:417, Group XVIII, Form 7). Goblet (Fig. 4.6:11) This goblet or carinated cup stands on a high, hollow foot with a ridge in the middle and has a high, ridged base. A similar vessel was found at Gerasa in the macellum and dated to the sixth century CE (UscatescuBarrón 1996:348, Fig. 78:442).

1

Cooking Ware Cooking Pots (Fig. 4.7:1–6) The cooking pot with a straight vertical rim and a groove on the interior, with or without a neck (Fig. 4.7:1), also appeared in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis, dated to the late sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Sandhaus, in prep.), as well as at Pella in the odeum and the bath complex, both dated to the late sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Smith and Day 1989: Pls. 51:16, 53:7). Similar cooking pots were found in Byzantine levels in the hippodrome at Caesarea (Riley 1975:34, Nos. 30, 31b). The cooking pot with a thickened rim, a short neck and a globular ribbed body (Fig. 4.7:2) was also found at Pella, in complexes of Phases IIIa and IV, dated

2 3

5

6

4

7

8 0

10

Fig. 4.7. Byzantine II pottery assemblage: cooking ware. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural Context

1

Cooking pot

1048

5080/3

Reddish gray 10R 6/1

Pulpitum

2

Cooking pot

1034

5041/13

Reddish gray 10R 6/1

Hyposcaenium

3

Cooking pot

1073

5141/1

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8

Pulpitum

4

Cooking pot

1041

5058/2

Reddish gray 10R 6/1

Hyposcaenium

5

Cooking pot

1005

5004/2

Reddish brown 5YR 5/4

Hyposcaenium

6

Cooking pot

1097

5174/1

Red 2.5YR5/6

Pulpitum

7

Casserole

1073

5141/6

Red 10R 5/8; white and black grits; fired to a grayish-red color on exterior

Pulpitum

8

Casserole

1074

5174/7

Red 10R 5/8; white and black grits; fired to a grayish-red color on exterior

Pulpitum

Chapter 4: The Pottery

201

between 525 and 620 CE (Watson 1992: Fig. 2:16). At Ramat Ha-Nadiv, a similar vessel was found inside a pit together with many pottery sherds dated no earlier than the sixth century CE (Calderon 2000:119, 138– 139, Pl. XXII:33). The cooking pot with a flat, out-turned or triangular ledge rim and a ridge at the bottom of the neck (Fig. 4.7:3) also appears in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis (Sandhaus, in prep.), and in sixth–seventh-century CE complexes at several sites, such as Pella ( Smith 1973: Pl. 43.1294; Smith and Day 1989: Pl. 51.10; McNicoll et al. 1992: Pl. 109:4), Gerasa (Uscatescu-Barrón 1996: Fig. 104:720) and Hammat Gader (Ben-Arieh 1997: Pl. XII.14). The globular or biansulate, ribbed cooking pot with a knobbed, round or triangular rim and an s-profiled neck (Fig. 4.7:4), is a relatively common type during the sixth century CE in the Jordan Valley, as in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis (Sandhaus, in prep.), and at Pella (Smith 1973: Pl. 43.1326; McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982: Pl. 139:8, 9; Smith and Day 1989: Pls. 51:14, 53:4, 12; McNicoll et al. 1992: Pl. 109:5, 6; Watson 1992: Fig. 2:16), Gerasa (Rasson and Seigne 1989: Fig. 10:2, 7; Uscatescu-Barrón 1996:134–136, Figs. 82:502, 83:503, 514, 84:517, 520, Group XXXIV, Form 3). The cooking pot with a wide mouth, a simple grooved rim, a high, ribbed neck and two loop handles attached to the rim (Fig. 4.7:5) is quite an unusual type dated to the Byzantine period, and also appeared in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of NysaScythopolis in small quantities (Sandhaus, in prep.). The cooking pot with a wide mouth ending in an outturned ledge rim, with a ridge at the bottom of the neck (Fig. 4.7:6) is common in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate, dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Sandhaus, in prep.) and elsewhere in the region.

Basins (Fig. 4.8:1, 2) Sherds of v-shaped basins with either a triangular (Fig. 4.8:1), or flat rim with one ridge on the exterior surface (Fig. 4.8:2) appear in large and medium sizes. These vessels always have a thick disc base. Such vessels have been found so far only at NysaScythopolis (Avshalom-Gorni 2000:53, Fig. 82:7; Johnson 2006: Figs. 207–212; Sandhaus, in prep.) and at Pella in contexts dated to the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982: Pl. 138:12; McNicoll et al. 1992: Pl. 113:8; Watson 1992: Fig. 7:56).

Casseroles (Fig. 4.7:7, 8) Sherds of casseroles with a sharp rim, ribbed (Fig. 4.7:7) and flaring walls (Fig. 4.7:8) and horizontal ridged handles represent the most common type of casseroles elsewhere throughout Syria-Palaestina in the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Sandhaus, in prep.).

Amphorae (Fig. 4.9:1–4) An amphora characterized by a convex outer rim with a concave inner groove, and a conical neck (Fig. 4.9:1) belongs to Keay’s Type XLV, dated between the fourth–mid-sixth centuries CE (Keay 1984:259–260, Fig. 113:2).

Large Bowls (Fig. 4.8:3–8) Large burnished bowls with modeled rims and straight or carinated walls decorated with grooves on the exterior (Fig. 4.8:3–5) are Byzantine types that continued into the seventh century CE. They were also found in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis (Sandhaus, in prep.) and on Tel Bet She’an (Johnson 2006: Fig. 15.10:197–198). The type is well known at Pella (Smith 1973: Pls. 28:1208, 43:1313, 1322, 1304) and Hammat Gader (Ben-Arieh 1997: Fig. 1:15–18) in the same period. Sherds of large bowls (Fig. 4.8:6) with an incurved ledge rim were also found in the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis dated to the late sixth–mid-seventh centuries CE (Sandhaus, in prep.). In the macellum at Gerasa, similar vessels were dated to the first quarter of the sixth century CE (Uscatescu-Barrón 1996:104, Fig. 72:374, Group XV, Form 5B). Bowls with a folded, triangular-sectioned rim (Fig. 4.8:7, 8) are imitations of Hayes LRP Form 3 (Hayes 1972: Fig. 69) dated to the fifth–sixth centuries CE. A similar type was identified in the IAHU excavation on Tel Bet She’an in Stratum P-3, dated to the Roman– Byzantine periods (Johnson 2006:538, Fig. 15.6:121). Imported Pottery

202

Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

1

2

3

5

4

6

7

8 0

10

Fig. 4.8. Byzantine II pottery assemblage: open vessels (basins and bowls). No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural Context

1

Basin

1117

5258/1

Reddish yellow 10YR 6/6

Hyposcaenium

2

Basin

1053

5086/8

Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6

Hyposcaenium

3

Bowl

1073

5124/2

Reddish brown 2.5YR 5/3, outer face burnished

Pulpitum

4

Bowl

1073

5131/12

Reddish brown 7.5YR 7/6, outer face burnished

Pulpitum

5

Bowl

1073

5131/3

Reddish brown 2.5YR 5/3, outer face burnished

Pulpitum

6

Bowl

1074

5142/1

Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6

Pulpitum

7

Bowl

1189

5121/1

Reddish yellow 5YR 7/8

Eastern staircase W2152 foundations

8

Bowl

1189

5451/6

Reddish yellow 5YR 7/8

Eastern staircase W2152 foundations

203

Chapter 4: The Pottery

2

1

4

3

5

6

7

8

0

10

Fig. 4.9. Byzantine II pottery assemblage: imported vessels (amphorae and Late Roman Ware). No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Fabric

Architectural context

1

Amphora

1073

5131/9

Reddish yellow 5YR 7/8

Pulpitum

2

Amphora

1224

3050/9

Pink 5YR7/4

Eastern staircase

3

Amphora

1225

3084/3

Red 10R5/6

Installation in summa cavea

4

Amphora

1224

3072/1

Reddish yellow 7.5YR 6/8

Eastern staircase

5

LRW bowl

1129

5451/5

Light red 2.5YR 6/8; red slip

Hyposcaenium

6

LRW bowl

1100

5186/5

Light red 2.5YR 6/8 fabric; red slip

Pulpitum

7

LRW bowl

1189

5425/9

Red 10R5/8 fabric; red slip

Eastern staircase W2152 foundations

8

LRW bowl

1189

5451/10

Reddish yellow 5YR 7/6 fabric; red slip, rouletting on outer face

Eastern staircase W2152 foundations

The upper neck of an amphora characterized by a flanged, squared rim (Fig. 4.9:2) belongs to Keay’s Type LIX, dated to the fourth–sixth centuries CE (Keay 1984:297, 300–302, Figs. 130:7, 131:2). The neck of an amphora characterized by a slightly conical neck and a very pronounced rim with a rounded section (Fig. 4.9:3) can be attributed to Keay’s variants of Types III and V, dated to the late fifth–early sixth centuries CE (Keay 1984:110, 112, Fig. 42:1–3).

The amphora neck in Fig. 4.9:4 belongs to Keay’s Type LIIIa, dated from the first half of the fifth to the mid to late seventh centuries CE (Keay 1984:268–278, Figs. 116:4–7, 117:6). Late Roman Red Wares (Fig. 4.9:5–8) A large dish/bowl with a rounded, knobbed rim (Fig. 4.9:5) belongs to Hayes ARS Form 104C (Hayes 1972:160–166, Fig. 31; 1980:507–508), dated to 550–625 CE.

204

Débora Sandhaus and Marc Balouka

A shallow bowl with a heavy knobbed rim, flattened on top, and an offset at the junction with the wall (Fig. 4.9:6) belongs to Hayes PRS Form 6 (Hayes 1972:340– 341, Fig. 70), dated to the early sixth century CE. A dish/bowl with a flattened rim, rounded at the edge and concave underneath with a small offset at the junction with the sloping wall (Fig. 4.9:7) belongs to Hayes PRS Form 10, dated to the late sixth–midseventh centuries CE (Hayes 1972:343–346, Fig. 71; 1980:527). A large, thick-walled bowl with a heavy rectangular rim grooved on top and rouletting decoration over the entire outer surface (Fig. 4.9:8) belongs to Hayes CRS Form 7.1, dated to the second half of the sixth–early seventh centuries CE (Hayes 1972:377–378, Fig. 81). Later Strata No clean loci from Byzantine III or the Arab-Byzantine period (Strata 8, 7) were identified. During Umayyad II (Stratum 5), the eastern side of the theater was used as a pottery workshop, and the associated Umayyad corpus is presented separately (Bet She’an II).

Conclusions And Summary Analysis of the pottery from the Southern and Severan Theaters, together with the stratigraphic and architectural-element analyses and the numismatic study, presents a clear picture of the construction and reconstruction processes that took place in the theater. Ceramic finds belonging to the earliest Southern Theater of Roman II (Stratum 13) were detected in various mixed loci and little can be said of this assemblage. However, the pottery was processed and analyzed as the earliest loci contained sherds that can be attributed typologically to the first half of the first century CE, no later than 70 CE, and others dated to the second half of the first century CE. The analysis of the pottery corroborates the construction dates of the Southern theater as found in the stratigraphic and architectural analyses. The pottery representing the building phase of the Severan Theater in Roman III (Stratum 12) is dated on the basis of parallels to the late second–early third centuries CE, a date which corroborates the results of the stratigraphy and the architectural-element and numismatic studies. This ceramic assemblage includes several variants of the storage jar with a triangular rim

and a ridge at the base of the neck, a trefoil-mouth jug, juglets with stump bases typical of Nysa-Scythopolis globular cooking pots with two grooves on the rim, Galilean bowls, large bowls with rolled-out rims and large bowls with thickened ledge rims. The pottery from the Roman IV–Byzantine I periods (Strata 11–10) originated in loci representing the renovations conducted in various parts of the theater as the result of the earthquake in 363 CE (Stratum 11), and the continued use of the theater during the fifth century CE (Stratum 10). Although earlier pottery was recovered as well in those loci, most of the assemblage points to a late fourth-century CE (Roman IV) date for the repair works. The assemblage includes new types that appeared during the second half of the fourth century CE, such as storage jars with a thickened, squared or folded rim and a ridge on the base of the neck, variations of jugs and juglets, imported amphorae, cooking pots of the late Kfar Hananya types, Galilean bowls with degenerate loop handles and two grooves on the rim, a casserole and casserole lid, and a local imitation of a Beit Nattif lamp. The Byzantine II period (Stratum 9) reflects the renovation works conducted in the theater during the early sixth century CE, which is supported by the pottery analysis. The assemblage includes typical sixth-century CE vessels such as ‘Palestinian’ storage jars made of either gray ware with white decoration, or reddish-yellow ware, a jug with a conical neck together with other, well-known jug types of this period, ridged neckless juglets with a stump base, cooking pots with variations of out-turned or thickened rims, the regular casseroles with a sharp rim, ribbed walls, and horizontal ridged handles, v-shaped basins and large bowls, among them types imitating imported wares. The imported amphorae and Late Roman Red Wares found in the stratum function as secure dating anchors. No representative loci from Byzantine II or the Arab-Byzantine period (Strata 8 and 7; 550–659 CE) were isolated in the theater. During the Umayyad period (Stratum 5), the northeastern side of the theater functioned as a pottery workshop (Bet She’an II). In general, the pottery from the theater resembles that from the published Decapolis cities, among them Pella and Gerasa. Galilean forms are represented in the assemblages, suggesting commercial relations with Galilee, and imported amphorae and Late Roman Red Ware bowls are also present.

Chapter 4: The Pottery

205

Note The pottery research in the framework of the Bet She’an Archaeological project has two main goals. The first is to create an integrative typology of all the characteristic forms of the main periods at the site. To achieve this, architectural assemblages with significant ceramic assemblages of each period were selected. These include: the Umayyad pottery assemblage from the theater pottery workshop (see BarNathan 2011), the late Byzantine pottery from the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate (Mazor, Najjar and Atrash, in prep.), the Late Roman pottery from the sealed shops in the forum, the Early to Middle Roman pottery from the sealed vault of the Eastern Temple (Mazor and Atrash, in prep.), and the Hellenistic pottery from the Hellenistic city 1

at Tel Iztabba (Mazor et al. in prep.). In addition, the study of each of these corpuses focuses on a particular aspect of research, for example, fabrics and household archaeology are emphasized in the Hellenistic corpus, and the production of pottery in the Umayyad workshop. The second goal of the pottery research is to provide a chronological framework for the various activities that took place in specific architectural structures, for example, in the Caesareum and Odeum (Bet She’an I), the Eastern and Western Thermae (Mazor and Atrash, in prep.), the churches on Tel Iztabba (Bar-Nathan and Atrash, in prep.), and the present study of the pottery from the Southern and the Severan Theaters.

R eferences Adan-Bayewitz D. 1993. Common Pottery in Roman Galilee: A Study of Local Trade. Ramat Gan. Avshalom-Gorni D. 2000. A Burial Cave of the Byzantine Period at Bet She’an. ‘Atiqot 39:49–60* (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 198–200). Avshalom-Gorni D. 2009. Strata 9–6: The Late Roman and Byzantine Periods, the Pottery Workshops from Strata 9–6, the Pottery and the Lamps from Strata 9–6. In N. Getzov, D. Avshalom-Gorni, Y. Gorin-Rosen, E. Stern, D. Syon and A. Tatcher. Horbat ‘Uza. The 1991 Excavations II: The Late Periods (IAA Reports 42). Jerusalem. Pp. 23–77. Bahat D. 1974. A Roof Tile of the Legio VI Ferrata and Pottery Vessels from Horvat Hazon. IEJ 24:160–169. Bar-Nathan R. 2011. The Pottery Corpus. In R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash. Beth She’an II: Baysān, the Theater Pottery Workshop (IAA Reports 48). Jerusalem. Pp. 229–344. Bar-Nathan R. and Atrash W. In Preparation. NysaScythopolis: The Tel Iztabba Churches (IAA Report). Jerusalem. Ben-Arieh R. 1997. The Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad Pottery. In Y. Hirschfeld. The Roman Baths of Hammat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 347–382. Blakely J.F. and Horton F.L. 1987. Caesarea Maritima: The Pottery and Dating of Vault 1: Horreum, Mithraeum, and Later Uses (ASOR/The Joint Excavation to Caesarea Maritima Excavation Reports IV). New York. Calderon R. 2000. Horbat ‘Aqav: Roman and Byzantine Pottery. In Y. Hirschfeld. Ramat Hanadiv Excavations. Jerusalem. Pp. 91–165. Clark V.A. and Falkner R.K. 1986. The Jerash North Theater: Architecture and Archaeology 1982–1983. In F. Zayadine ed. Jerash Archaeological Project 1981–1983. Amman. Pp. 247–251. Covello-Paran K. and Avshalom-Gorni D. 2008. Pottery Production at Horbat Rodem near Bet She’an. ‘Atiqot 58:37–46.

Díez-Fernández F. 1983. Cerámica común romana de la Galilea. Madrid. Dothan M. and Johnson B. 2000. Hammat Tiberias II: Late Synagogues. Jerusalem. FitzGerald G.M. 1931. Beth-Shan Excavations 1921–1923: The Arab and Byzantine Levels. Philadelphia. Hadad S. 2002. The Oil Lamps from the Hebrew University Excavations at Beth She’an: Excavations at Bet She’an 1 (Qedem Reports 4). Jerusalem. Haddad E. 1999. Late Roman and Byzantine Storage-Jars from Horbat Castra and Their Counterparts Found off the Coast at Kfar Samir. M.A. thesis. University of Haifa. (Hebrew). Hayes J.W. 1972. Late Roman Pottery. London. Hayes J.W. 1980. Supplement to Late Roman Pottery. London. Johnson B. 1988. The Pottery. In G.D. Weinberg ed. Excavations at Jalame: Site of a Glass Factory in Late Roman Palestine. Columbia, Mo. Pp. 137–226. Johnson B. 2006. The Hellenistic to Early Islamic Pottery. In A. Mazar. Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean 1989–1996 I. Jerusalem. Pp. 523–589. Keay S. 1984. Late Roman Amphorae in the Western Mediterranean: a Typology and Economic Study: the Catalan Evidence (BAR Int. S. 196). Oxford. Kennedy C.H. 1963. The Development of the Lamp in Palestine. Berytus 14:67–115. Kingsley S.A. 1999. The Sumaqa Pottery Assemblage: Classification and Quantification. In S. Dar ed. Sumaqa: A Roman and Byzantine Jewish Village on Mount Carmel, Israel (BAR Int. S. 815). Oxford. Pp. 263–329. Landgraf J. 1980. Keisan’s Byzantine Pottery. In J. Briend and J.-B. Humbert eds. Tell Keisan (1971–1976): Une cité phénicienne en Galilée. Fribourg. Pp. 51–99. Loffreda S. 1974. Cafarnao II: La ceramica. Jerusalem.

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Magness J. 1993. Jerusalem Ceramic Chronology: Circa 200–800 CE (AASOR Monograph Series). Sheffield. Mazor G. and Atrash W. In Preparation. Nysa-Scythopolis: The Forum and Forum Temples (IAA Reports). Jerusalem. Mazor G. and Atrash W. In Preparation. Nysa-Scythopolis: The Western and Eastern Thermae (IAA Reports). Jerusalem. Mazor G., Atrash W., Sandhaus W. and Finkielsztejn G. In Preparation. Nysa-Scythopolis: The Hellenistic City (IAA Reports). Jerusalem. Mazor G., Najjar A. and Atrash W. In Preparation. NysaScythopolis: The City Gates and the Northern Entrances of the City (IAA Reports). Jerusalem. McNicoll A.W., Edwards P.C., Hanbury-Tenison J., Hennessy J.B., Potts T.F., Smith R.H., Walmsley A. and Watson P. 1992. Pella in Jordan 2: The Second Interim Report of the Joint University of Sydney and College of Wooster Excavations at Pella 1982–1985 (Mediterranean Archaeology Suppl. 2). Sydney. McNicoll A.W., Smith R.H and Hennessy J.B. 1982. Pella in Jordan 1: An Interim Report of the Joint University of Sydney and College of Wooster Excavations at Pella 1979–1981. Canberra. Meyers E.M., Kraabel A.T. and Strange J.F. 1976. Ancient Synagogue Excavations at Khirbet Shema‘, Upper Galilee, Israel 1970–1972 (AASOR 42). Durham. Meyers E.M., Meyers C.L. and Strange J.F. 1990. Excavations at the Ancient Synagogue of Gush Halav (Meiron Excavation Project 5). Winona Lake. Meyers E.M., Strange J.F. and Meyers C.L. 1981. Excavations at Ancient Meiron, Upper Galilee, Israel 1971–72, 1974–75, 1977 (Meiron Excavation Project 3). Cambridge, Mass. Oleson P. 1994. The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima II: Results of Caesarea Ancient Harbour Excavations Project, 1980–1985 (BAR Int. S. 594). Oxford. Peacock D.P. and Williams D.F. 1996. Amphorae and the Roman Economy: An Introductory Guide. London–New York. Rasson A.M. 1986. Matériel céramique de la deuxième moitié du IIIème siècle ap. J.-C. In F. Zayadine ed. Jerash Archaeological Project 1981–1983. Amman. Pp. 67–69.

Rasson A.M. and and Seigne J. 1989. Une citerne byzantinoomeyadde sur le sanctuaire de Zeus. Syria 66:117–151. Riley J.A. 1975. The Pottery from the First Session of Excavations in the Caesarea Hippodrome. BASOR 218:25–63. Riley J.A. 1976. Late Amphoras. In J.H. Humphrey ed. Excavations at Carthage 1975–1978: Conducted by the University of Michigan I. Ann Arbor. Pp. 114–120. Sandhaus D. 2007. The Pottery. In G. Mazor and A. Najjar Bet She’an I (IAA Reports 33). Jerusalem. Pp. 115–122. Sandhaus D. In Preparation. The Pottery from the Warehouse near the Northeastern Gate of the City. In Mazor G., A. Najjar and W. Atrash. Nysa-Scythopolis: The City Gates and the Northern Entrances of the City (IAA Reports). Jerusalem. Smith R.H. 1973. Pella of the Decapolis I: The 1967 Season of the College of Wooster Expedition to Pella. Wooster. Smith R.H. and Day L.P. 1989. Pella of the Decapolis II: Final Report on the College of Wooster Excavations in Area IX, the Civic Complex, 1979–1985. Wooster. Tzaferis V. 1980. A Roman Bath at Rama. ‘Atiqot 14:66–75. Tzori (Zori) N. 1967. The Ancient Synagogue at Bet She’an. Eretz Israel 8:149–167 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 77*). Tzori (Zori) N. 1973. The House of Kyrios Leontis at Bet She’an. Eretz Israel 11:229–247 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 30*). Uscatescu-Barrón A. 1996. La cerámica del macellum de Gerasa (Ŷaraš, Jordania). Madrid. Watson P. 1986. Area B: The Cardo-Decumanus Corner. A Report on Seven Centuries of Occupation. In W. Ball, J. Bowsher, I. Kehrberg, A. Walmsley and P. Watson. The North Decumanus and North Tetrapylon at Jerash. An Archaeological and Architecture Report. In F. Zayadine ed. Jerash Archaeological Project 1981–1983. Amman. Pp. 359–367. Watson P. 1992. Change in Foreign and Regional Economic Links with Pella in the Seventh Century AD: The Ceramic Evidence. In P. Canivet and J.P. Rey-Coquais eds. La Syrie de Byzance à l’Islam (Publications de l’Institut de Damas 137). Damascus. Pp. 233–248.

G. Mazor and W. Atrash, 2015, Bet She’an III/1 (IAA Reports 58/1)

Chapter 5

The Glass Finds Tamar Winter

Introduction The excavations in the area of the Nysa-Scythopolis theater yielded some 700 glass fragments, about half of them non-diagnostic body fragments.1 Most of the pieces date from the fourth through the seventh centuries CE, a few from the first through the third centuries CE, and several are associated with the Umayyad period. Dating of the glass vessels was based on their quality, fabric, shape, color and comparisons with other glass corpora, and further aided by the archaeological context. Preference in citing analogous examples was given to those retrieved from other excavations at NysaScythopolis, and from sites in the surrounding region (e.g., Capernaum, Khirbat al-Karak, Hammat Gader, Kursi-Gergesa). Specimens from the glass assemblage excavated at Khirbat el-Ni‘ana were cited when relevant, as this comprehensive publication (GorinRosen and Katsnelson 2007) includes references to numerous examples in Syria-Palaestina. Many of the vessels are assigned a date different from that attributed by the excavators to the stratum in which they were found. These discrepancies may be settled for some of the loci, for example L1003, L1004 and L1171, which were disturbed and therefore contained later material. In loci associated by the excavators with the Arab-Byzantine period, for example L50612 attributed to Stratum 7 (634/635–659 CE), it is expected that they would contain earlier material, since the theater collapsed on top of the structures of the period during the earthquake in 749 CE (see Bet She’an II: Chapter 2). The identifiable glass specimens include bowls, beakers, bottles, wineglasses and lamps. Most of the vessels were free-blown, and very few were moldblown. Some fragments were decorated in various techniques, including incisions, applied trails and moldblown patterns. The vessels were made of translucent glass, mostly light blue and light green, colorless, and colorless with tinges of blue or green. Most of the glass

contained small, round and oval bubbles and bore a silvery weathering, and some were pitted to various degrees. In addition to glass vessels, the theater area also yielded fragments of windowpanes, particularly from the scaena foundations (L80655, L90609), and glass tesserae. Fifty-five identifiable representative fragments were studied and drawn (Figs. 5.1–5.5). As the stratigraphic context is not always relevant to the dating of the vessels, they are arranged in the figures typologically, according to the following categories: bowls, beakers, bottles, wineglasses, lamps and glass miscellanea. The catalogue contains the following details: catalogue number, provenance, locus and basket numbers, the stratum and its attribution according to the excavators, figure number, other datable finds (mostly other glass vessels and coins) discovered in the same basket or the same locus, description of the fragment, dimensions (when available), color, preservation condition and tooling marks, as well as scars and glass traces from the pontil.

The Glass Finds Bowls Large Bowl with a Thin Rounded Rim (Fig. 5.1:1) This bowl may be attributed to the first–third centuries CE based on its shape, fabric and analogous examples. Similar rims were excavated in the shops in the Street of Monuments at Nysa-Scythopolis (Agady et al. 2002:485, Nos. 3, 4). A similar green bowl with a ring base was unearthed in Tomb 13 at Pella, dated from the second–third centuries CE (McNicoll, Smith and Hennessy 1982:84–85, Pl. 133:1). 1. Wall 2238 dismantling, L50612, B506055, Stratum 7 attributed by the excavators to the Arab-Byzantine period, Fig. 5.1:1.

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Rounded rim (D at least 180 mm). Light green. Tiny round and oval bubbles.

2007:80–81, Fig. 2:5, and see therein discussion and examples from, e.g., Jalame and Hanita).

Large Bowl with a Rounded Rim and a Horizontal Ridge (Fig. 5.1:2) Deep and shallow bowls with a horizontal ridge below the rim were widespread in the northern part of the country, particularly in the fourth century CE. Bowls of this type were excavated on the grounds of the Bet She’an youth hostel (Katsnelson 2014:24*, Fig. 1:2–4). Many similar bowls were discovered at Jalame, most of them in the factory dump that was in use in the second half of the fourth century CE, and they were probably produced at the site (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:45–47, Fig. 4-6). Several bowls of this type were uncovered at Kh. el-Ni‘ana, within a glass assemblage dated from the fourth–early fifth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:78– 79, Fig. 1:6–9, and see therein discussion and many examples, particularly from Mount Carmel and Western Galilee).

4. Channel in eastern aditus maximus, L1323, B506093, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.1:4. In the same basket: glass vessels (Figs. 5.3:36, 37, 5.4:49) and coins of the early second century CE, and the late fourth century CE (Chapter 6: Nos. 17, 378, respectively). Rounded, hollow, outfolded rim (D at least 200 mm). Light blue. Silvery iridescence. Pitting.

2. Scaena foundations, L80655, B806201, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.1:2. Rounded rim (D at least 180 mm). Slanted walls with horizontal ridge 8 mm below the rim. Light blue. Slight pitting. Small Bowl with an Outfolded Rim (Fig. 5.1:3) Bowls of this type were prevalent throughout the Roman and Byzantine periods. Similar, although larger, bowls were unearthed in a burial cave about 1 km southeast of the theater at Nysa-Scythopolis, together with other vessels dated from the fourth–fifth centuries CE (GorinRosen 2000b:61*, Fig. 1:1, 2, and see therein examples from Jalame). Bowls of this type were also discovered in the fourth-century CE fill of a settling pool at Ras el‘Ein, Shekhem (Magen 2005: Pl. 15:4, 5). 3. Scaena foundations, L80655, B806330, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.1:3. Rounded, outfolded, incurved rim (D 80–90 mm). Light green. Pitting. Large Bowl with an Outfolded Collar Rim (Fig. 5.1:4) Bowls of this type were characteristic of the fourth century CE. A similar bowl was uncovered at Kh. el-Ni‘ana, within a glass assemblage dated from the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson

Large Bowl with a Thick Rounded Rim (Fig. 5.1:5) This bowl is typical of the Late Roman period. Similar large bowls were excavated in Tomb XV at Hanita, dated from the third–early fourth centuries CE (Barag 1978:13–17, Fig. 7:10, 11; and see therein discussion and other examples). A bowl of this type was also discovered at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:400, Pl. 1:13). 5. Probe in postscaenium, L1185, B5407, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.1:5. Thickened rounded rim (D 250 mm). Polishing marks on exterior wall. Light blue. Small oval bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Deep Bowls or Beakers with a Rounded Rim (Fig. 5.1:6, 7) Rim and wall fragments Nos. 6 and 7 belonged to either deep bowls or beakers, as it is impossible to reconstruct their bottoms/bases. They may have resembled similar vessels from Jalame (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:40–41, 62–63, Figs. 4-2:6–8, 4-24:187), from a well at Khirbet Ibreiktas (Gorin-Rosen 1998a:56, Fig. 7:4), and from Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:409–410, Pl. 3:9). 6. postscaenium foundations, L90609, B906109, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.1:6. Thickened rounded rim (D 100 mm) and conical body with polishing marks below rim. Colorless. Tiny round bubbles. White iridescence. 7. Scaena foundations, L90609, B906263, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.1:7. Thickened rounded rim (D 120 mm) and slanted walls with polishing traces. A shallow band was abraded

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1

2

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7 6

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Fig. 5.1. Glass vessels.

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40 mm below the rim. Light blue. Small and mediumsized, round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Bowl or Beaker with a Cut-Off Rim (Fig. 5.1:8) This thin colorless fragment belonged to a bowl or beaker, probably from the fourth century CE. Similar colorless, thin-walled vessels dated from the fourth century CE were excavated on the grounds of the Bet She’an youth hostel (Katsnelson 2014:24*–28*, Fig. 2:3, 4). 8. Wall 2252, L70612, B706616, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.1:8. Thin, cut-off, flaring rim (D at least 100 mm). The upper part of an indent is intact on the exterior below the rim. Colorless. Silvery iridescence. Severe pitting. Small Bowls with a Flaring Rim (Fig. 5.1:9, 10) Small bowls of this type, generally with a concave bottom, were commonplace in the Byzantine period. A complete bowl of this type, kept in the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, was excavated by FitzGerald in Tomb 295 in the northern cemetery of Nysa-Scythopolis, and dated from the midto late fourth century CE (Fleming 1997:31, Fig. 14). A similar rim, erroneously described as a bottle, was excavated in the shops of the city’s Street of Monuments (Agady et al. 2002:486, No. 24). A bowl of this type was also found at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:401, Pl. 2:4), and similar bowls were discovered at Jalame, most of them in the factory dump that was in use in the second half of the fourth century CE (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:40, Fig. 4-1:2, 3). 9. Scaena foundations, L90609, B906080, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.1:9. Rounded flaring rim (D 120 mm) and thin slanted walls. Light blue. 10. Sealed locus in pulpitum, L1073, B5124, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.1:10. In the same basket: a coin of the third century CE, and another of the mid-fourth century CE (Chapter 6: Nos. 189, 264, respectively). In the same locus: coins dated 218/219 CE, 498–518 CE, and possibly from the seventh century CE (Chapter 6: Nos. 66, 679, 751, respectively). Rounded flaring rim (D at least 120 mm) and convex walls. Light green. Silvery iridescence. Slight pitting.

Bowl with a Cut-Off, Ground Rim (Fig. 5.1:11) This fragment belonged to a Late Roman bowl of a type that usually had a plain rounded bottom and occasionally horizontal incisions or abraded lines. Bowls of this type were excavated on the grounds of the Bet She’an youth hostel, within a glass assemblage of the fourth century CE (Katsnelson 2014:24*–28*, Fig. 2:1, 2). Similar bowls were excavated at Kh. el-Ni‘ana, in a glass assemblage dated from the fourth–early fifth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:83– 84, 132, Figs. 4:1; 29, and see therein discussion and numerous examples, including from Hammat Gader). 11. Collapse over eastern staircase, L1188, B5430, Strata 7/5 attributed by the excavators to the ArabByzantine period and Umayyad II, Fig. 5.1:11. Thick, cut-off rim (D 120–130 mm). Abraded, horizontal band, c. 23 mm below the rim, and another on the exterior wall. Light olive-green. Silvery iridescence. Bowl with a Flat Oval Bottom (Fig. 5.2:12) The flat oval bottom is of poor quality and has no traces of the pontil. An exact analogous example has not been found. Oval bowls and dishes are known in the region from the Late Roman period. Oval bowls were discovered near Kabri in tombs dated from the third–early fourth centuries CE: an oval bowl with an oval ring base (not a flat bottom as in Fig. 5.2:12) in Tomb 8, and an oval rim in Tomb 9 (Stern and Getzov 2006:92–96, Figs. 2:2; 5:11). An oval dish with an oval base, assigned to the Roman period, is on display at the Rockefeller Museum, its provenance not recorded (Case S, No. 1302). Oval dishes on an oval ‘pad base’ or ring base were excavated at Karanis, Egypt (Harden 1936:52–60, Pl. 1). 12. Probe in postscaenium, L1185, B5429, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.2:12. Oval, flat and shallow bottom (D 50–57 mm), walls spreading out to an open form. Colorless. Small round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Pitting. The fabric is very thin and of poor quality. Bowl with a Low Ring Base (Fig. 5.2:13) Low ring bases of this type were among the most common bases in the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. Small bowls with a similar base were discovered in several burial caves in Western Galilee

Chapter 5: The Glass Finds

(e.g., Barag 1978:21–23, Fig. 11:41, 42; Gorin-Rosen 1997b:41–43, Fig. 3:1; 1997a:72–73, Fig. 3:1; and see additional examples cited in all). Two similar bases dated from the Late Roman period were excavated at Nahal Haggit (Winter 2010:162, Fig. 5.4:32, 33). 13. Probe in postscaenium, L1185, B5391, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.2:13. Low, pushed-in, hollow ring base (D 50 mm) with concave bottom, thickened at the center. Traces of glass from the pontil on base. Thin walls. Light green. Tiny round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Bowl with a Wide Ring Base (Fig. 5.2:14) Wide ring bases were widespread during the second– third centuries CE, and continued to support bowls in the fourth–early fifth centuries CE. The fabric and archaeological context of the base from NysaScythopolis allow its dating to the second–third centuries CE. A similar base was excavated on the grounds of the Bet She’an youth hostel, within a glass assemblage characteristic of the fourth century CE (Katsnelson 2014:24*, Fig. 1:8). Bowls with a base of this type were discovered in assemblages dated from the mid-first to the mid-second centuries CE, as at ‘Ein ez-Zeituna (Winter 2006:77, Fig. 1:1–13, and see therein additional examples, including from Capernaum). 14. Wall 2252, L70612, B706505, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.2:14. In the same basket: a coin dated 217/218 CE (Chapter 6: No. 65). Wide, low, hollow ring base (D 110 mm). Thin walls. Light blue. Brown and silvery iridescence. Pitting. Bowl with a High, Hollow Ring Base (Fig. 5.2:15) High, hollow ring bases were among the most prevalent bases in the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. A large hollow ring base of a bowl from the fourth–fifth centuries CE was recovered in the excavations of the theater pottery workshop in the city2 (Winter 2011:356– 357, Fig. 12.4:2). Similar bases from the late Byzantine period were discovered in the city’s ancient synagogue (Tzori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:7), in the church at Kh. al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960:49, Pls. 59:18), and six examples were found at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:401–402, Pl. 2:7, 8). Numerous high ring bases were excavated at Kh. el-Ni‘ana, within a glass

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assemblage dated from the fourth–early fifth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:86–88, Fig. 6). 15. Channel in orchestra, L1145, B5308, Stratum 12 attributed by the excavators to Roman III, Fig. 5.2:4. In the same locus: many coins, most of them dating from the third–fourth centuries CE, a few from the first–second centuries CE, and some possibly from the fifth–sixth centuries CE (see Chapter 6). High, pushed-in, hollow, uneven ring base (D 90 mm), sloppily made. Light blue. Large round bubbles. Bowls with a Tooled Solid Ring Base (Fig. 5.2:16–18) The theater site yielded at least seven tooled solid ring bases, three of which are discussed here. Tooled solid bases known as ‘pad bases’ were commonplace in Syria-Palaestina from the late third to the fifth centuries CE. They served various types of vessels: shallow and deep bowls, beakers, jars, wineglasses and jugs. Occasionally tooling marks, usually diagonal, appear on the bases, evidence of the handling of the vessel. A deep bowl with a similar base, kept in the Franciscan Museum at Nazareth, is said to have come from Bet She’an (Bagatti 1967:234, Figs. 6:157, 7:157). A complete jug with a similar solid base, kept in the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, was excavated by FitzGerald in Tomb 295 in the northern cemetery of Nysa-Scythopolis and attributed to the late fourth century CE (UPM: No. 32-15-56). A solid base of this type was discovered in the house of Kyrios Leontis in the city, built in the fifth century CE and deserted in the early seventh century CE (Tzori 1973: Fig. 11:11). Similar bases were also excavated on the grounds of the Bet She’an youth hostel (Katsnelson 2014:30*– 31*, Fig. 4:2). Eight green bases of this type were unearthed at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:402, Pl. 2:9–12), and several others at Bab el-Hawa in the northern Golan Heights (Hartal 2005:230, Fig. 160:5–7) and at Jalame (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:58, Fig. 4-20:145–150, and see discussion therein). Some pieces were found in Western Galilee, for example in Tomb XV at Hanita dated from the third–mid-fourth centuries CE (Bowl 40 probably dates from the late third century CE to the first third of the fourth century CE; Barag 1978:15– 17, 21–23, Figs. 8:27, 11:40, 43; and see discussion therein), in Burial Cave 3 at Kisra dated to the fourth–

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early fifth centuries CE (Stern 1997:109–110, Fig 3:13–15), and in a winepress at Akhziv that was in use mostly in the fourth century CE (Syon 1998:94, Fig. 14:4). A wide range of vessels with a ‘pad base’ were discovered at Karanis, Egypt, including plates and shallow bowls (Harden 1936:52–55, 70–76, Pls. 11:15, 17, 12:89, 90, 101, 107, 108, 116), deep bowls (Harden 1936:106–108, Pl. 14:228, 235), beakers (Harden 1936:143, Pl. 15:362–364) and jars (Harden 1936:180– 183, Pl. 17:494, 498, 508, 509). They were dated “probably” from the fourth century CE, but since the date of the occupation of Karanis has been challenged, they may be later in date (Whitehouse 1999). As the vessels with a ‘pad base’ from Karanis were discovered early in the research of glass vessels in the Middle East and in large quantities, when other vessels with such a base appeared in Western Galilee and southern Phoenicia, they were attributed to an Egyptian influence, “perhaps through migrating artisans” (Barag 1978:17). However, today, following the study of glass vessels from numerous excavations in Israel, it is clear that this base-tooling technique was widespread and practiced in local workshops in Syria-Palaestina, Egypt and adjacent regions (Gorin-Rosen 2002:292). 16. Channel in orchestra, L1145, B5291, Stratum 12 attributed by the excavators to Roman III, Fig. 5.2:16. In the same locus: many coins, most of them dating from the third–fourth centuries CE, a few from the first–second centuries CE, and some possibly from the fifth–sixth centuries CE (see Chapter 6). Convex walls. Thick solid base (estimated D 60 mm). Colorless. Silvery iridescence. 17. Hyposcaenium, L1003, B5002, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.2:17. Applied, thick, irregular, solid, out-splayed base (D 60–65 mm) with deep tooling marks on the exterior and traces of glass from the pontil on the bottom. The bottom of the bowl is thickened and flat. Light green. Small round bubbles. 18. Postscaenium foundations, L90609, B906109, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.2:18. Convex walls. Applied, thick, irregular, solid, outsplayed base (D 50–52 mm) with traces of glass from the pontil. The bottom of the bowl is thickened and

flat. Body: colorless; base: light olive-green; both with yellowish-brown streaks. Small round bubbles. Beakers Pushed-In Bases (Fig. 5.2:19, 20) Base No. 19 probably belonged to a beaker of the Early to Middle Roman periods; exact analogous examples have not been located. A complete beaker with a somewhat similar but thinner base, kept in the Royal Ontario Museum, is allegedly from Syria-Palaestina and is dated from 150–250 CE (Hayes 1975:65, Fig. 6:192). Base No. 20 could have supported a Late Roman beaker or a jug. A jug with a similar base, in the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, was excavated by FitzGerald in Tomb 1 in the northern cemetery of Nysa-Scythopolis and dated to the late fourth century CE (Fleming 1999:98, Fig. E.45). Base No. 20 also resembles a “somewhat irregular” base found in a pre-351 CE context at Jalame (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:77, Fig. 4-37:333). 19. Probe in northern postscaenium, L1185, B5391, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.2:19. Flattened, pinched-out ring base (D 53–55 mm) with a scar and traces of glass from the pontil. Light blue. Small round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. 20. Accumulation in hyposcaenium, L1180, B5392 and B5422, Stratum 11 attributed by the excavators to Roman IV, Fig. 5.2:20. In the same locus: a thirdcentury CE coin (Chapter 6: No. 177). Pushed-in, hollow ring base (D 50 mm). Walls probably forming an ovoid body. The traces from the pontil were probably blurred. Light green. Small round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. The fabric is similar to that of the oval bottom (Fig. 5.2:12) and both lack traces of the pontil. Small Hollow Ring Base (Fig. 5.2:21) The small size of the fragment prevents reconstruction of the complete vessel shape; nevertheless, it seems to have belonged to a beaker or jug of the Late Roman– early Byzantine periods. 21. Channel in western aditus maximus, L90788, B906881, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.2:21. In the same locus: four coins

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Fig. 5.2. Glass vessels.

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(Chapter 6: Nos. 250, 298, 299, 301) dated from the mid-fourth century CE, and many others possibly of the fourth−fifth centuries CE. Small, uneven, hollow ring base (D 30 mm) with a flat bottom. Light blue. Brown and silvery iridescence. Slight pitting. Beaker with a Solid Base (Fig. 5.2:22) About thirty solid beaker bases of this type of various colors were collected from the theater site. Beakers with a solid base generally had a rounded rim and thin, slightly concave walls, often decorated with a horizontal trail. These beakers, also known in glass research as ‘cups with a solid base’, were very popular in Syria-Palaestina during the fourth–early fifth centuries CE, and were a major product of the Jalame glass factory, which functioned in the second half of the fourth century CE (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:60−61, Fig. 4-23, and see extensive discussion therein). The beakers with a solid base provide firm dating to the fourth century CE, and have been discovered at numerous sites in Israel that incorporate a phase from this period (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:93). Two such beakers with a horizontal trail on the body were unearthed on the grounds of the Bet She’an youth hostel (Katsnelson 2014:28*, Fig. 2:8–11). Similar solid bases were unearthed in the Umayyad theater pottery workshop in the city3 (Winter 2011:356, Fig. 12.4:1), and in a burial cave about 1 km southeast of the theater, together with other vessels dated from the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:61*, Fig. 1:4). The upper part of such a vessel and several solid bases were unearthed at Kh. el-Ni‘ana (Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:93, Fig. 8:3–9, and see therein discussion and numerous excavated specimens from sites in Israel and Jordan, including Hammat Gader). 22. Channel in orchestra, L1145, B5308, Stratum 12 attributed by the excavators to Roman III, Fig. 5.2:22. In the same locus: many coins, most of them dating from the third–fourth centuries CE, a few from the first–second centuries CE, and some possibly from the fifth–sixth centuries CE (see Chapter 6). Convex walls. Thick, flat, solid base (D 37–39 mm) with traces of glass from the pontil on the bottom. Light olive-green. Small and medium bubbles.

Conical Beakers (Fig. 5.2:23, 24) Conical beakers with a rounded or flat bottom of this type generally had a cracked-off and wheel-polished rim. Blobs of cobalt blue glass were often applied to the exterior wall, in either clusters or horizontal rows (Roll and Ayalon 1989:174, Fig. 110). These beakers, widespread during the fourth century CE throughout the Roman Empire, were particularly commonplace in Syria-Palaestina and Egypt. They were used both as drinking vessels and as lamps (Barag 1970:180–181, Type 13:1, Pl. 40:1, and see discussion therein; Stern 2001:267, 293–294, Cat. Nos. 157, 158; Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:90–93, see therein an extensive discussion about the various uses of the conical beakers and their production, as well as numerous excavated specimens encompassing a wide area in Israel and Jordan). Bottoms of conical beakers were unearthed at Jalame, where these vessels were produced during the second half of the fourth century CE (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:87–94, Fig. 4-47:455, 456, and see the extensive discussion therein). A similar bottom was discovered at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:408, Pl. 3:7), and a well-dated example comes from Stratum II of Field II at Araq al-Amir in Jordan, dated from c. 335–365 CE (Lapp 1983:52–53, Fig. 22:5). 23. Mosaic floor in eastern aditus maximus, L1283, B3277, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.2:23. In the same basket: a coin dated from 650–690 CE, and another possibly of the sixth century CE (Chapter 6: Nos. 761, 732, respectively). Conical body ending in a flat bottom (D 16 mm). Light green. Small round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. 24. Foundations of W2002 in hyposcaenium, L1053, B5076, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.2:24. Conical body, diagonally cut at the bottom (D 10 mm). Light blue. Small round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Bases with a Trail of a Different Color than the Vessel Applied around the Perimeter (Fig. 5.2:25, 26) Bases with a trail of a different, often darker, color than the vessel applied around the perimeter are characteristic of various vessels from the third–fourth centuries CE. Base No. 25 probably belonged to a

Chapter 5: The Glass Finds

juglet of the third century CE, perhaps resembling a vessel with “a tiny base with applied flattened coil forming resting-surface,” dated from the third or early fourth century CE (Hayes 1975:79, Pl. 19:286). Base No. 26 may have belonged to a small bowl, a beaker or a juglet. Its fabric and color combination (see below) are characteristic of the Late Roman period. A similar greenish-blue vessel with a turquoise trail applied around the base perimeter was discovered in a winepress at Akhziv, which was in use mainly in the fourth century CE (Syon 1998:95, Fig. 15:10). Bases of this type were also excavated at Khirbet Badd ‘Isa (Qiryat Sefer; Magen, Tzionit and Sirkis 2004:216, Pl. 9:21), and at ‘En Gedi (Jackson-Tal 2007:489, Pl. 11:6). 25. Postscaenium foundations, L80655, B806377, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.2:25. Base and small portion of body. Flat, cobalt-blue bottom with a colorless trail applied around it to create a hollow ring base (D 16–18 mm). Many small and medium-sized bubbles in both bottom and base. 26. Probe in the postscaenium, L1185, B5426, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.2:26. Convex walls. Applied trail creating a ring base (D 35 mm) with a scar from the pontil. Body: colorless with greenish tinge; trail: light purple. Tiny round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Bottles Bottle with an Infolded Rim (Fig. 5.3:27) This rim and neck fragment probably belonged to a candlestick-type bottle, a type that was widespread in the region from the late first to the mid-third centuries CE. The bottle illustrated in Fig. 5.3:32 (below) also belonged to this type, and see the discussion there. 27. Accumulation in hyposcaenium, L1171, B5349, Stratum 12 attributed by the excavators to Roman III, Fig. 5.3:27. In the same locus: a coin (Chapter 6: No. 249) of the mid-fourth century CE. Thick, unevenly infolded rim (D 34 mm). Light green. Small round bubbles.

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Bottle with a Thin Flaring Rim (Fig. 5.3:28) This rim and neck fragment probably belonged to a globular bottle. Bottles of this type were unearthed in a Late Roman–Byzantine-period bathhouse at NysaScythopolis (Peleg 2004:74*–77*, Fig. 32:1, 2), and at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:419, Fig. VI:1, 2). Similar bottles were excavated, for example, at SamariaSebaste (Crowfoot 1957: Fig. 94:4), in a context dated from the third–fourth centuries CE (Barag 1970:46– 47), and at Dominus Flevit on the Mount of Olives, in Tomb 230 that was in use in the late third century CE and particularly in the first half of the fourth century CE (Bagatti and Milik 1958:143, Fig. 33:15, 16, 18; Barag 1970:29–30). 28. Channel in hyposcaenium, L1083, B5156, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.3:28. Uneven flaring rim (D 23–25 mm) and thin cylindrical neck. Light blue. Silvery iridescence. Pitting. Vessels with an Applied Trail Decoration around the Mouth (Fig. 5.3:29, 30) Fragment No. 29 was part of a bottle, while fragment No. 30 belonged to a juglet or a small two-handled flask. Applied wound trails and zigzag decoration were commonplace in the Late Roman and Byzantine periods (Barag 1970:194–196, Pl. 43: Types 15:22– 29). The decoration, consisting of a thin trail wound several times around the vessel, precedes the type with a single, thick wavy trail, which was particularly characteristic of the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods (see Fig. 5.3:38 below). Bottles with an applied trail wound around the mouth or neck resemble in shape their plain counterparts. They usually have a globular or pear-shaped body and a flat or concave bottom. The neck and mouth come in many variations: tall or short, cylindrical or funnelshaped, with or without a constriction at the base of the neck. Complete bottles in various shapes, as well as neck and mouth fragments, were unearthed in Byzantine and Umayyad contexts in the city (FitzGerald 1931:42–43, Pl. 39:22, 25; Peleg 1994:145, Fig. 15:8, 9; Agady et al. 2002:486, No. 28; Hadad 2005:24–25, Pl. 12:232– 234). Many trail-decorated neck and mouth pieces were discovered in the region, as at Kh. al-Karak

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(Delougaz and Haines 1960:49, Pls. 59:1–6, 30, 60:5, 6, 13), Kursi (Barag 1983:37, Fig. 9:2), and Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:424–427, Pls. VI:10–13, VII:4, 5, 7–14, VIII:11–15). A vessel, probably a juglet, with a turquoise trail decoration on the mouth resembling that of Fig. 5.3:30, was unearthed in a burial cave about 1 km southeast of the Nysa-Scythopolis theater and dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen 2000b:64*, Fig. 2:20). 29. Wall 2252, L70612, B706616, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.3:29. Rounded rim (D 50–55 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. A thin trail, the same color as the vessel, is wound around the mouth; eleven windings are intact. Light blue. Silvery iridescence. 30. Postscaenium foundations, L80655, B806330, Stratum 5 attributed to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.3:30. Rounded rim (D 45 mm) and funnel-shaped mouth. A thick turquoise trail is fused-in around the rim in a wavy pattern. A thin turquoise trail is wound around the mouth; four windings are intact. Light blue. Small round bubbles. Bottle with an Indented Body (Fig. 5.3:31) This bottle is characteristic of the Late Roman period. A close example, unearthed in Tomb E220-I at SamariaSebaste (Crowfoot 1957:410, Fig. 94:11), was dated from the mid-third to the mid-fourth centuries CE (Barag 1970:46–47, 191), and a similar contemporary bottle, although with no indents, was discovered in the same tomb (Crowfoot 1957:409, Fig. 94:7). An indented bottle was also excavated at Shekhem (Nablus), in a burial cave that was in use during the second half of the third century or the early fourth century CE (Hizmi 1997: Fig. 6:17). Several bottles of this type, one of them bearing indents, were discovered in a Roman–Byzantine mausoleum at Khirbet Sabiya (Ayalon 1994: Figs. 4:2, 5:2–5). 31. Wall 2018 in hyposcaenium, L1121, B5230, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.3:31. In the same basket: a glass bottle (Fig. 5.3:32) and a piece of glass production debris. Complete bottle (H 100–102 mm). Rounded rim (D 35–37 mm). Conical neck. Unevenly indented, thick-

walled body. Concave bottom (D 35 mm). Light blue. Small and medium-sized, round and oval bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Candlestick-Type Bottle (Fig. 5.3:32) Candlestick-type bottles were commonplace in the region from the late first to the mid-third centuries CE (Winter 1996:96–98, Figs. 5.3, 5.4, and see extensive discussion therein). The fragment illustrated in Fig. 5.3:27 (above) most likely belonged to this type as well. Similar candlesticktype bottles were excavated, for example, at Capernaum, together with glass vessels dated from the late first to the mid-second centuries CE (Loffreda 1984: Fig. 6:1, 2). 32. Wall 2018 in hyposcaenium, L1121, B5230, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.3:32. basket contents as in bottle No. 31 (Fig. 5.3:31). Cylindrical neck, constricted at its base. Squat body. Concave bottom (D 30 mm). Thin-walled. Light blue. Small bubbles. Silvery and brown iridescence. Globular Bottle with a Cut-Off Rim and Horizontal Incisions (Fig. 5.3:33) This bottle with its cut-off rim and wheel-incised decoration on the neck belongs to a group of bottles that prevailed in both the eastern and western provinces of the Roman Empire during the third and early fourth centuries CE. The globular bodies of these bottles were decorated with wheel-engraved landscapes or geometric patterns. A rim and neck fragment of a bottle of this type bearing shallow horizontal grooves in several places along the neck was excavated in a fill at Caesarea Maritima (Israeli 2008:390, 418, No. 250). A complete bottle, dated from the third or fourth century CE, was discovered near Ankara (Lightfoot and Arslan 1992:162, No. 100). Another complete bottle with concentric circles adorning its body, kept in the Yale University Art Gallery, was found at Tell el-Hoson in Syria, and dated from the third–fourth centuries CE (Matheson 1980:77–78, Fig. 203, and see discussion therein). Several rim and neck fragments from the Middle Imperial period (second to mid-third centuries CE) were unearthed at Dura Europos (Clairmont 1963:113–114, Pl. 12:543, 548, 553).

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33. Foundations of W2002 in hyposcaenium, L1053, B5076, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.3:33. In the same basket: a glass lamp stem (Fig. 5.4:48); and two coins (Chapter 6: Nos. 11, 35) dated from the mid-first and second centuries CE. Broken, unpolished, cut-off rim (D 17 mm). Cylindrical neck leading to nearly-horizontal shoulders. Thin, horizontal incisions on and below rim. Light green. Small round and oval bubbles. Silvery iridescence.

were excavated in the city, one in a Byzantine context (Agady et al. 2002:487, No. 29), others in an Umayyad context (Hadad 2005:27, Pl. 16:317, 319). Similar pieces were discovered at Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997: Pl. 6:19, 20) and Tel Yoqne‘am (Gorin-Rosen 2005:105–106, Fig. 7.2:7). Many fragments of ribbed mold-blown bottles were collected at Bab el-Hawa in the Golan Heights (Hartal 2005:236–237, Fig. 163:1–6), and two examples, dated from the fifth– sixth centuries CE, were discovered in the church at Shavé Ziyyon (Barag 1967:66–67, Fig. 16:6, 10). Other variations of bottle shapes and of mold-blown ribbing were unearthed in various Byzantine contexts, for example at Caesarea Maritima (Peleg and Reich 1992:155, Fig. 18:6; Israeli 2008:387, 414, Nos. 217, 218), and in the Byzantine-period fill of a tomb at Ashqelon (Katsnelson 1999:75*–76*, Fig. 4:7–16).

Bottle with Mold-Blown Decoration (Fig. 5.3:34) This fragment probably belonged to a globular bottle with a cylindrical neck, typical of the Byzantine period. Bottles with mold-blown ribbing appeared quite frequently in this period. Specimens with a similar funnel-shaped mouth and mold-blown ribbing

30

27 28

29

35 33

34 31

36

32

39 38 37

0

4

40

Fig. 5.3. Glass vessels.

41

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34. Collapse over eastern staircase, L1188, B5424, Strata 7/5 attributed by the excavators to the ArabByzantine period and Umayyad II, Fig. 5.3:34. Rounded rim (D 50 mm). Funnel-shaped mouth with shallow mold-blown ribbing. Light green. Small oval bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Bottle with a Thick, Flaring, Cut-Off Rim (Fig. 5.3:35) This fragment belonged to a bottle characteristic of the Umayyad period. A similar thick, cut-off rim was excavated in an Umayyad context at Baysān (Hadad 2005:23–24, Pl. 7:106). 35. Channel in orchestra, L1069, B5113, Stratum 12 attributed by the excavators to Roman III, Fig. 5.3:35. Thick, flaring, cut-off rim (D 29 mm) and cylindrical neck. Light green. Tiny round bubbles. Pitting. Bottle with an Infolded, Flattened Rim (Fig. 5.3:36) This infolded, flattened rim was part of a bottle with a squat body and a flat or concave bottom, of a type that was characteristic of the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods. Another rim and neck fragment of a similar bottle was discovered in L90788. Several rim and neck fragments of similar bottles were excavated in the Umayyad theater pottery workshop (Winter 2011:347–348, Fig. 12.1:10, 11) and in other Umayyad contexts in the city (Hadad 2005:23– 24, Pls. 10:188–190, 11:193–195). Examples from the vicinity were discovered in various late Byzantine and Umayyad complexes, as at Kursi (Barag 1983:38, Fig. 9:5, 6), Capernaum (Bagatti 1964:270–271, Figs. 4:6; 5: second on the left) and Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:427–428, Pl. IX:1–4). Examples from Mount Berenice were dated from the Umayyad period until the early ninth century CE (Lester 2004:182–185, Fig. 7.7, and see discussion therein). Two complete bottles of this type were unearthed in the complex of Saint Stephan’s church at Umm al-Rasas, in a tomb that was in use until the eighth century CE (Alliata 1994:287, Nos. 7, 8). 36. Channel in eastern aditus maximus, L1323, B506093, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.3:36. Basket contents as in bowl No. 4 (Fig. 5.1:4). Thick, unevenly infolded, flattened rim (D 17–19 mm) and thick cylindrical neck. Light blue. Small oval bubbles. Pitting.

Bottle with a Conical Mouth (Fig. 5.3:37) Bottles with a conical mouth appeared in the fourth century CE and continued with minor variations until the Umayyad period. Similar bottles were unearthed at Nysa-Scythopolis, for example in Section C of the sixth-century CE paved street (Peleg 1994:144, Fig. 15:6, 7), and in an Umayyad context (Hadad 2005:23– 24, Pl. 8:145). 37. Channel in eastern aditus maximus, L1323, B506093, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.3:37. Basket contents as in bowl No. 4 (Fig. 5.1:4). Rounded rim (D 45 mm) and conical mouth. Light blue. Silvery iridescence. Pitting. Bottle with a Thick, Wavy Trail Decoration (Fig. 5.3:38) The thick, wavy trail decoration was commonplace during the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods. Similar bottles in various shapes, as well as neck and mouth fragments, were unearthed in Byzantine and Umayyad strata in the city (Peleg 1994:145, Fig. 15:10; Hadad 2005:24–25, Pls. 13:261–268, 14:270–277; Winter 2011:349, Fig. 12.1:18–20). Many neck and mouth pieces decorated with a thick wavy trail were discovered in the region, as at Kh. al-Karak (Delougaz and Haines 1960:49, Pl. 59:27, 29) and Hammat Gader (Cohen 1997:424–427, Pls. VII:1, VIII:16, 17). At Pella, similar bottles were dated from the first quarter of the eighth century CE (Smith and Day 1989:114– 115, Pls. 54:5, 56:3). 38. Eastern versura, L1300, B3305, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.3:38. In the same locus: a wineglass (Fig. 5.4:43). Neck fragment (D 30 mm) of a bottle with a thick, horizontally applied, wavy trail of the same color as the vessel. Light blue with darker streaks. Elongated small and medium-sized, round and oval bubbles, apparent more on the trail. Bottles with a Thick Concave Bottom (Fig. 5.3:39, 40) These thick bottoms with their pronounced pontil scars are characteristic of the late Byzantine and Umayyad periods. A similar thick concave bottom was excavated in the Umayyad theater pottery workshop (Winter 2011:349, Fig. 12.1:21). A thick concave bottom was unearthed in a late Byzantine to early Umayyad context

Chapter 5: The Glass Finds

(c. 630–670 CE) in the North Theater Church at GerasaJerash (Meyer 1988:206, Fig 10:X).4 39. Probe in northern corridor of the postscaenium, L1039, B5055, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.3:39. In the same locus: two coins of the third–mid-fourth centuries CE (Chapter 6: Nos. 166, 304). Thick, concave bottom (D 30 mm) with a scar and traces of glass from the pontil. Convex walls. Light blue. Tiny and small, round and oval bubbles. Slight pitting. 40. Wall 2252, L1312, B3356, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.3:40. In the same locus: coins from the second and third centuries CE (see Chapter 6). Thick, concave bottom (D 40 mm) with a large scar and traces of glass from the pontil. Light blue. Small round bubbles. Bottle with a Pushed-In, Concave Bottom (Fig. 5.3:41) This bottom probably belonged to a cylindrical bottle with a short neck and a flaring, infolded rim, characteristic of the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. A similar bottle, kept in the Franciscan Museum in Nazareth, is said to have come from Bet She’an (Bagatti 1967:225, Fig. 1:30). Other similar fourthcentury CE bottles were found, for example, in tombs in Western Galilee (Tzaferis 1969:76, Fig. 5:4, and see n. 21; Barag 1978:26–28, Fig. 13:59). Byzantine-dated bottles of this type were unearthed in the fill of a tomb at Ashqelon (Katsnelson 1999:73*–74*, Fig. 3:16, 17). 41. Wall 2054 in hyposcaenium, L1181, B5385, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.3:41. Pushed-in bottom (D 50 mm) with pointed concavity and traces of glass from the pontil. Vertical walls. Light blue. Silvery iridescence. Wineglasses Stem-Footed Wineglasses (Fig. 5.4:42–44) The theater site yielded at least 25 wineglass bases, three of which are discussed here. The typical stemfooted wineglass had a rounded or infolded rim, convex or flaring walls, and a stem ending in a hollow (Fig. 5.4:42) or solid (Fig. 5.4:43, 44) ring base. The

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wineglasses with a hollow ring base were the most widespread wineglass type in Syria-Palaestina and the eastern Mediterranean basin in the Byzantine period. During the sixth and seventh centuries CE, the hollow bases were gradually replaced by the solid bases, and both types coexisted in many sites (e.g., Barag 1967:67–68, 70, Fig. 16:15–17; Gorin-Rosen 2006: Fig. 1:6–10). The glass corpus from the North Theater Church at Gerasa-Jerash also suggests that wineglasses with hollow bases “tend to be earlier, i.e., Late Byzantine, rather than later, Umayyad” (Meyer 1988:199, Figs. 8:Y–cc, 9:A–D). At Bet She’an, stem-footed wineglasses occurred during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, gradually grew scarce, and then disappeared during the Abbasid period. Wineglasses with both hollow and solid bases were recovered in the 1920s in the Byzantine-dated Cisterns I and II in the city (FitzGerald 1931:42–43, Pl. 39:9, 16, 23), and in the Umayyad theater pottery workshop (Winter 2011:346–348, Fig. 12.1:4–9). Hollow, concave, wineglass bases were discovered in the Byzantine-dated House of Kyrios Leontis (Tzori 1973:161–162, Fig. 11:7–10). Examples with a solid base were unearthed in Section C of the city’s paved street, together with a coin of the late sixth century CE (Peleg 1994:144, Fig. 15:5), and in Umayyad contexts in the city (Hadad 2005:28, Pl. 21:401–409). Wineglasses with both hollow and solid bases were discovered on Mount Berenice, alas not in situ (AmitaiPreiss 2004:179, Fig. 11.1:7–10). Wineglasses with a solid base were also retrieved from the late synagogues at Hammat Tiberias5 (Johnson 2000: Fig. 23:30–33), and in both Tomb 4 and the church at Kh. al-Karak, dated to the sixth–seventh centuries CE (Delougaz and Haines 1960:49, Pl. 60:15–18, 23). 42. Collapse over the eastern staircase, L1172, B5386, Stratum 7 attributed by the excavators to the ArabByzantine period, Fig. 5.4:42. Short stem. High, pushed-in, hollow ring base (D 50 mm). Light blue. Tiny round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. 43. Eastern versura, L1300, B3305, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.4:43. In the same basket: a glass bottle (Fig. 5.3:38). Convex walls, cylindrical stem, uneven, concave solid base (D 35–36 mm) with a pontil scar. Light blue.

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44. Postscaenium foundations, L1033, B5040, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.4:44. In the same basket: a coin dated from 685–705 CE (Chapter 6: No. 767). Short cylindrical stem ending in a flat, solid base (D 40 mm). Light blue. Small oval bubbles. Lamps Several major types of glass oil lamps were prevalent during the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, two of which are represented in this corpus: the bowl- or beaker-shaped lamp with three handles (Fig. 5.4:45), and the stemmed, bowl-shaped lamp. Although some of these lamp types were more commonplace during certain time spans within the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, they occasionally occurred contemporaneously, as, for example, the dozens of lamps of several types that were unearthed in a pile within the ashes of Room 4 of the ancient synagogue at Nysa-Scythopolis (Tzori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11), and assigned to the first third of the seventh century CE (Barag 1970:116–117). Beaker-Shaped Lamp with a Rounded, Flaring Rim (Fig. 5.4:45) This lighting device with its unfolded, rounded, flaring rim and its narrow cylindrical body is a relatively scarce version of the much more commonplace contemporary bowl-shaped lamp, which has an outfolded rim and slanted walls (see Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:172– 173, Fig. 5:1). The bowl- or beaker-shaped lamp with three handles generally had a pushed-in bottom, and occasionally a wick tube at the center of the bowl floor (L1290, B3288, not illustrated). These three-handled lamps were suspended by their handles, as demonstrated by finds excavated at various sites in the region (Smith and Day 1989:115, Fig. 32; Israeli 2000:106). The handled lamps probably first appeared in the region in the late fourth century CE, continued throughout the Byzantine and Umayyad periods, and later developed into the mosque lamps of medieval times (Crowfoot and Harden 1931:205, Pl. 30:40, 41; Isings 1957:162, Form 134; Barag 1970:184–185, Pl. 40:12–14). A fragment of a lamp with an unfolded rounded rim was discovered in an unpublished context at NysaScythopolis.6 Other lamps, all with a hollow outfolded rim, were discovered in the city, in Byzantine, Umayyad

and Abbasid–Fatimid strata, and appeared to be “much more common in Umayyad deposits than in Byzantine contexts” (Hadad 1998:64–65, 68, Type 1, Fig. 1; and see therein additional examples from the city and from other sites). A beaker-shaped lamp with a rounded, slightly flaring rim and a wick tube was unearthed at Dominus Flevit on the Mount of Olives, in Tomb 217 that was in use in the fifth–sixth centuries CE, mainly in the second half of the fifth century CE (Bagatti and Milik 1958:148, Fig. 35:11; Barag 1970:185, Type 13.15, Pl. 40:15). A variant of the handled beaker-shaped lamp with a wick tube, from Tomb 156 at Gezer, has a folded rim; it was dated by Macalister from the fifth or sixth century CE, and by Barag to “the Early Islamic period,” i.e., the second half of the seventh century CE (Macalister 1912:362–363, Fig. 189; Crowfoot and Harden 1931:201; Barag 1970:11, 12). In Az-Zantur at Petra, the three-handled, bowlshaped lamps with an unfolded, rounded rim are among the earliest examples of this lighting device, as they appeared in a sealed context destroyed by the 363 CE earthquake (Kolb and Keller 2000:366, Fig. 15:1). Additional examples from Jordan were recovered at Jabal Hārūn and Gerasa-Jerash (see Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:172–173). 45. Praecinctio, L50637, B506192, Stratum 4 attributed by the excavators to the Abbasid–Fatimid periods, Fig. 5.4:45. Rounded, flaring rim (D 85 mm) and vertical wall. A handle twisted and drawn from wall to rim. Light green. Handle bears large, elongated bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Ten small handles belonging to lamps were found at the site, but no other rim––either rounded or folded–– could positively be associated with a lamp rather than a plain bowl. Lamp with a Flaring Rim (Fig. 5.4:46) This rim and wall fragment belonged either to a threehandled lamp resembling that in Fig. 5.4:45 (see above), or to the bowl of a stemmed lamp such as those in Fig. 5.4:48–51 (see below). Stemmed lamps with a similar bowl-profile were discovered, for example, in the ancient synagogue at Nysa-Scythopolis, where the glass vessels were dated from the first third of the seventh century CE

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(Tzori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:1; Barag 1970:116– 117), and in the Byzantine-dated Church of St. John the Baptist at Samaria-Sebaste (Crowfoot 1957:418– 419, Fig. 99:4). A complete stemmed lamp with an identical bowl profile was recorded at Bab el-Hawa in the Golan Heights (Hartal 2005:237–238, Fig. 163:13). 46. Channel in western aditus maximus, L1338, B3431, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.4:46. In the same locus: a glass lamp (Fig. 5.4:47) and coins dated from 364–375 CE and 498–518 CE (Chapter 6: Nos. 352, 674, respectively). Rounded flaring rim (D at least 120 mm) and convex wall. Colorless. Small oval bubbles.

42

Lamp with an Exterior Hollow Fold (Fig. 5.4:47) This piece most likely belonged to a stemmed lamp (see Fig. 5.4:48–51, below), and the exterior hollow fold probably served to support the lamp while suspended in its holder. A beaded-stemmed lamp with a similar exterior, tooled-out, hollow fold was discovered in Catacomb 15 at Bet She‘arim, together with other glass vessels “which apparently cannot be dated later than the destruction of Bet She‘arim (352 CE). Therefore, this vessel is the earliest example of its kind known up to now” (Barag 1976:204–206, No. 42, Fig. 98:15). However, it is now clear that the Bet She‘arim catacombs continued in use after the year 352 CE as well, and therefore some of the finds may be attributed to the Byzantine period (see Vitto 1996).

43 44

45

47

46

48

49

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Fig. 5.4. Glass vessels.

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A beaker-shaped lamp with a hollow ridge was unearthed in a tomb at Khirbet Tabaliya, midway between Jerusalem and Bethlehem. It was assigned a date contemporary with beaker-shaped lamps from Gerasa-Jerash, i.e., the late Byzantine or early Umayyad period (Gorin-Rosen 1998b; Kogan-Zehavi 1998: Fig. 12:3). Although they were not widespread in SyriaPalaestina, several examples bearing this feature were discovered at Jalame (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:52–53, Fig. 4-14, and see discussion therein). An exterior hollow fold also appeared on various other vessel types: shallow bowls, deep bowls, beakers and jars; however, “the tooled-out fold alone is not adequate for determining either the date or origin of these vessels” (Weinberg and Goldstein 1988:52). 47. Channel in western aditus maximus, L1338, B3431, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.4:47. Locus contents as lamp No. 46 (Fig 5.4:46). Rounded, convex, incurved rim (D 80 mm). Below the rim is an exterior, tooled-out, hollow fold. Colorless. Small oval bubbles. Stemmed Lamps (Fig. 5.4:48–51) The theater area yielded over thirty hollow stems and six solid stems that belonged to lamps with a small bowl- or beaker-shaped receptacle and a plain rounded rim. These stemmed lamps were suspended by a metal hanging device, generally a bronze polycandelon (Israeli 2000:108–109). Stemmed lamps were widespread in the eastern Mediterranean basin throughout the Byzantine period, particularly during the sixth–seventh centuries CE, and continued into the Umayyad period and later (Crowfoot and Harden 1931:198, Pl. 29:21–25; Barag 1970:182–183, Types 13:3–9, Pl. 40:3–9; Peleg and Reich 1992:155, 158– 159, 165, Fig. 20). Three variations of stems are discussed here: a hollow cylindrical or conical stem (Fig. 5.4:48, 49), a solid stem (Fig. 5.4:50), and a solid beaded stem (Fig. 5.4:51). The hollow cylindrical or conical type first appeared during the late fifth century and continued through the sixth century CE, the solid stem was commonplace during the Byzantine period, and the

beaded type was widespread in the seventh century CE and onward. Various contexts in excavations at NysaScythopolis–Baysān have yielded all variants of stems. Hollow stems were widespread in the Byzantine and Umayyad periods (Tzori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:5; Hadad 1998:69, 72, Type 4, Fig. 4; 2005:28–29, Pl. 22:436–441; Winter 2011:351–352, Fig. 12.2:30), the solid stem was less common and appeared in the Byzantine, Umayyad and Abbasid–Fatimid periods (Hadad 1998:69, Type 3, Fig. 3), while beaded and knobbed stems were found in all strata, from the Byzantine to the Ayyubid–Mamluk periods (Tzori 1967:161–162, Fig. 11:1–3; Hadad 1998:68–69, Type 2, Fig. 2; and see therein additional examples from the city and from other sites; 2005:28–29, Pl. 22:425–432; Winter 2011:351–352, Fig. 12.2:31, 32). The Church of St. Theodore’s at Gerasa-Jerash yielded hollow stems (Baur 1938:524, Fig. 17:14[237], as well as a complete stemmed bowl-shaped lamp with a beaded stem dated from the fifth–sixth centuries CE, and an additional beaded stem (Baur 1938:519–521, Fig. 17:1[368], 3[369], and see therein references to some 250 fragments of the same type from GerasaJerash, as well as examples from other sites). 48. Wall 2025 in hyposcaenium, L1117, B5228, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.4:48. Hollow, cylindrical stem. Light blue. Small oval bubbles. Silvery iridescence. 49. Channel in eastern aditus maximus, L1323, B506093, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.4:49. Basket contents as bowl No. 4 (Fig. 5.1:4). Hollow stem, cut-off at the bottom. Light green. Small and oval bubbles. 50. Collapse over eastern staircase, L1188, B5424, Strata 7/5 attributed by the excavators to the ArabByzantine period and Umayyad II, Fig. 5.4:50. Solid stem. Light blue. Few small oval bubbles. 51. Postscaenium foundations, L1033, B5040, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.4:51. Solid beaded stem, diagonally cut-off at the bottom. Light blue. Small and medium-sized, oval bubbles.

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Miscellanea Pushed-In Ring Base (Fig. 5.5:52) This base is very crude and was possibly made locally. It probably belonged to a single-tube vessel typical of the Late Roman period, such as the ones recovered from various burial complexes, as at ‘Ar‘ara dated to the third–fourth centuries CE (Gorin-Rosen 2007: Fig. 8:8), Karm al-Shaikh in Jerusalem (Baramki 1932: Pls. 7:14, 8:2, 4, 10:5), at the foot of Tel Halif dated to the mid-third century CE (Gophna and Sussman 1974:75, Pl. 24:4), and Horbat Qastra dated to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Castra 1999:58: first on the left). 52. Wall 2252 in ambulacrum, L70612, B706149, Stratum 10 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine I, Fig. 5.5:52. Stem broken. Thick, coarse, pushed-in ring base (D 38 mm). Light green. Small and medium-sized, round bubbles. Silvery iridescence. White crust. Double-Tube Vessel (Fig. 5.5:53) Double-tube vessels appeared in the fourth century CE, and continued in elaborately ornamented versions well into the Byzantine period (for an extensive discussion of double-tube vessels and numerous examples, see Gorin-Rosen and Katsnelson 2007:108–115, Figs. 17– 21). The fragment from the theater is too small to allow reconstruction of the complete vessel or the decoration, if any, and therefore cannot be accurately dated.

53. Fill in hyposcaenium, L1004, B5003, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.5:53. Lower part of an uneven, double-tube vessel. Light green. Small and medium-sized, round and oval bubbles. Silvery iridescence. Spiral Rod (Fig. 5.5:54) The rod was discovered in Stratum 5, attributed by the excavators to the late seventh to the mid-eighth centuries CE, and may be dated accordingly. Several such rods were unearthed in other Umayyad contexts at Baysān (Hadad 2005:30, Pl. 24:465–467). Spiral rods occurred in both the western Roman Empire and the eastern Mediterranean basin, and are usually assigned to the Early or Middle Roman periods. However, rods of this type were recurrent, particularly during the Umayyad period. Three rods, two of them spiral, were discovered at the Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo (Saller 1941:321, Nos. 430–432), with numerous glass vessels, clay lamps and coins dated to the late Byzantine–Umayyad periods (Barag 1970:122–123). 54. Postscaenium foundations, L80655, B806330, Stratum 5 attributed by the excavators to Umayyad II, Fig. 5.5:54. Small fragment of spirally twisted rod, broken at both ends. Light blue. Quadrangular Windowpane (Fig. 5.5:55) Quadrangular windowpanes are characteristic particularly of the Byzantine period in the region.

54

52

53

55 0

4

Fig. 5.5. Glass vessels and artifacts.

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Thick quadrangular windowpanes were uncovered among the remains of the late Byzantine glass workshop, discovered east of the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis (Gorin-Rosen 2000a), and in Umayyad contexts excavated in the city (Hadad 2005:30, Pl. 24:468– 474). Fragments of quadrangular windowpanes with a rounded rim were discovered, for example, on Mount Berenice (Amitai-Preiss 2004:183–184, Fig. 11.3:27). Several pieces were excavated at Tel Tanninim together with Byzantine-period glass vessels (Pollak 2006:187–188, Fig. 144:191–196), and at Kh. Tabaliya south of Jerusalem (Gorin-Rosen 2000c:92*, Fig. 3:38, 39, and see therein discussion and additional examples). Large quantities of window glass were found in the Byzantine shops and in the areas adjacent to the synagogue and the gymnasium at Sardis; the panes recorded there were made between the early fifth and the early seventh centuries CE (von Saldern 1980:91– 92, Pl. 16:680–699, and see therein discussion of window-glass technique, types, etc., and additional examples from Syria-Palaestina, e.g., Shavé Ziyyon, Gerasa-Jerash and Mount Nebo). 55. Wall 2030 in hyposcaenium, L1118, B5220, Stratum 9 attributed by the excavators to Byzantine II, Fig. 5.5:55. Corner of quadrangular windowpane (W 1–1.5 mm) with rounded, slightly curved rim. Colorless with bluish tinge. Silvery iridescence. Pitting. Additional fragments of windowpanes were discovered in the theater area, particularly in the postscaenium foundations (L80655, L90609). Tesserae Three tesserae (not illustrated) were unearthed within the postscaenium foundations (L80655): one green (B806503) and two greenish-blue (B806377, B806503).

Summary and Discussion The glass finds from the area of the Severan theater of Nysa-Scythopolis comprise a typologically rich and diverse corpus from a methodological and welldocumented excavation of a Roman theater in the capital city of the Decapolis and the province of Palaestina Secunda. The glass corpus includes a small group of vessels dated from the second–third centuries CE (Roman III), which comprises mostly plain bowls and bottles that were commonplace in the region. Among these are vessels dated from the first–third centuries CE (Figs. 5.1:1, 5.3:27, 5.3:32), from the second–third centuries CE (Fig. 5.2:14), and from the third century CE (Fig. 5.2:25). However, the vast majority of the glass finds dates from the fourth through the seventh centuries CE (Roman IV–Umayyad I), comprising a wide range of domestic, largely undecorated vessels, including bowls, beakers, bottles, a double-tube vessel, wineglasses and lamps. This diverse group enriches our knowledge of the glass corpus from these periods at Nysa-Scythopolis. Several glass finds suggest local production. A piece of vessel-making debris discovered in the hyposcaenium (L1121, B5230) probably reflects an unsuccessful attempt at applying a glass trail to the body of a vessel, and a glass chunk and two scraps from the production of either raw glass or glass vessels were recovered from the postscaenium foundations (L90609, B906004). Remains of vessel production were also unearthed in the excavations of the Umayyad theater pottery workshop in the city (Winter 2011:358–360, Fig. 12.6). Various bowls, bottles, wineglasses, stemmed lamps and other types of vessels and windowpanes were all unearthed among the remains of the late Byzantine, glass-vessel workshop discovered east of the storage facilities near the northeastern city gate of Nysa-Scythopolis (Mazor and Bar-Nathan 1998:27–29; Gorin-Rosen 2000a:59–60).7 It is therefore reasonable to assume that the vessels and the windowpanes discovered in the theater area were produced in that or a similar workshop in the city (see also Gorin-Rosen and Winter 2010:177–178).

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Notes 1 This paper was written in 2001 and partially updated in 2008. The bibliographical details of some recently published articles were updated in 2014. I wish to thank the excavators Gabriel Mazor and Walid Atrash for the opportunity to study the glass finds. I am also grateful to Yael Gorin-Rosen for her invaluable advice. The finds were mended by Olga Shorr, and drawn by Alina Pikovsky and the late Michael Miles, with minor alterations by Carmen Hersch. 2 A few of the glass vessels from the excavation of the Umayyad theater pottery workshop date from the fourth–fifth centuries CE. They probably originated from the collapsed walls of the Roman–Byzantine theater and from its eastern

wing, into which the workshop kilns were installed in the Umayyad period (see Winter 2011). 3 See n. 2. 4 Figure 10 in Meyer 1988 is erroneously labeled Fig. 11. 5 The historical and archaeological contexts of the finds are problematic (see Dothan 2000:93–94). 6 This fragment originated in L90611, B906431, and was examined by the author. 7 The workshop and its glass products are being studied by Yael Gorin-Rosen and are scheduled to be published in a future volume of the Bet She’an Archaeological Project 1986–2002 in the IAA Reports series.

R eferences Agady S., Arazi M., Arubas B., Hadad S., Khamis E. and Tsafrir Y. 2002. Byzantine Shops in the Street of the Monuments at Bet Shean (Scythopolis). In L.V. Rutgers ed. What Athens Has To Do with Jerusalem: Essays on Classical, Jewish, and Early Christian Art and Archaeology in Honor of Gideon Foerster. Leuven. Pp. 423–506. Alliata E. 1994. Ceramica Romana, Bizantina, Araba. In M. Piccirillo and E. Alliata. Umm al-Rasas, Mayfa‘ah I: Gli scavi del complesso di Santo Stefano. Jerusalem. Pp. 278–289. Amitai-Preiss N. 2004. Glass and Metal Finds. In Y. Hirschfeld. Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994 (IAA Reports 22). Jerusalem. Pp. 177–190. Ayalon E. 1994. A Roman–Byzantine Mausoleum at Kh. Sabiya, Kefar Sava. ‘Atiqot 25:27−39 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 189*−190*). Bagatti B. 1964. Oggetti inediti di Cafarnao. LA 14:261−272. Bagatti B. 1967. I vetri del Museo francescano di Nazaret. LA 7:222−240. Bagatti B. and Milik J.T. 1958. Gli scavi del “Dominus Flevit” (Monte Oliveto-Gerusalemme) I: La necropoli del periodo romano (Publications of the SBF 13). Jerusalem. Barag D. 1967. The Glass. In M.W. Prausnitz. Excavations at Shavei Zion. Rome. Pp. 65−70. Barag D. 1970. Glass Vessels of the Roman and Byzantine Periods in Palestine. Ph.D. diss. the Hebrew University, Jerusalem (Hebrew; English abstract).

Barag D. 1976. Glass Vessels. In N. Avigad ed. Beth She’arim III: Report on the Excavations during 1953−1958; Catacombs 12−23. Jerusalem. Pp. 198−209. Barag D. 1978. Hanita, Tomb XV: A Tomb of the Third and Early Fourth Centuries CE (‘Atiqot [ES] 13). Jerusalem. Barag D. 1983. Glass Vessels. In V. Tzaferis. The Excavations of Kursi-Gergesa. ‘Atiqot (ES) 16:37−38. Baramki D.C. 1932. Note on a Cemetery at Karm al-Shaikh, Jerusalem. QDAP 1:3−5. Baur P.V.C. 1938. Glassware. In C.H. Kraeling ed. Gerasa: City of the Decapolis. New Haven. Pp. 505–546. Castra 1999. Castra at the Foot of Mount Carmel, the City and its Secrets (Haifa Museum, The National Maritime Museum, Exhibition Catalogue). Haifa. Clairmont C.W. 1963. Dura-Europos IV, V: The Glass Vessels. New Haven. Cohen E. 1997. Roman, Byzantine and Umayyad Glass. In Y. Hirschfeld. The Roman Baths of Hammat Gader: Final Report. Jerusalem. Pp. 396−431. Crowfoot G.M. 1957. Glass. In J.W. Crowfoot, G.M. Crowfoot and K.M. Kenyon. Samaria–Sebastia III: The Objects from Samaria. London. Pp. 403−422. Crowfoot G.M. and Harden D.B. 1931. Early Byzantine and Later Glass Lamps. JEA 17:196−208. Delougaz P. and Haines R.C. 1960. A Byzantine Church at Khirbat al-Karak (OIP LXXXV). Chicago. Dothan M. 2000. Hammath Tiberias 2: Late Synagogues. Jerusalem.

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FitzGerald G.M. 1931. Beth-Shan Excavations 1921–1923 III: The Arab and Byzantine Levels (Publications of the Palestine Section of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania III). Philadelphia. Fleming S.J. 1997. Late Roman Glass at the University of Pennsylvania Museum: A Photo Essay. Expedition 39/2:25–41. Fleming S.J. 1999. Roman Glass: Reflections on Cultural Change. Warminster, Penn. Gophna R. and Sussman V. 1974. A Jewish Burial Cave of the Roman Period at the Foot of Tel Halif. ‘Atiqot (HS) 7:69−76 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 11*−12*). Gorin-Rosen Y. 1997a. A Burial Cave at Kafr Yasif. ‘Atiqot 33:71−77 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 13*−14*). Gorin-Rosen Y. 1997b. The Glass Vessels. In H. Abu Uqsa. A Burial Cave from the Roman Period East of Giv‘at Yasaf. ‘Atiqot 33:40−43 (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 10*−11*). Gorin-Rosen Y. 1998a. The Glass Vessels. In R. Kletter and Y. Rapuano. A Roman Well at Khirbet Ibreiktas. ‘Atiqot 35:54−56. Gorin-Rosen Y. 1998b. The Glass Vessel from the Kh. Tabaliya Tomb. ‘Atiqot 35:148−149. Gorin-Rosen Y. 2000a. The Ancient Glass Industry in Israel: Summary of the Finds and New Discoveries. In M-D. Nenna ed. La route du verre: Ateliers primaires et secondaires du second millénaire av. J.-C. au Moyen Âge (Travaux de la Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen 33). Lyon. Pp. 49−63. Gorin-Rosen Y. 2000b. Glass Vessels from a Burial Cave at Bet She’an. ‘Atiqot 39:61*−67* (Hebrew; English summary, p. 200). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2000c. The Glass Vessels from Khirbet Tabaliya (Giv‘at Hamatos). ‘Atiqot 40:81*−94* (Hebrew; English summary, pp. 165−166). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2002. The Glass Vessels. In D. AvshalomGorni and A. Tacher. Excavations at Khirbet el-Shubeika 1991, 1993. In Z. Gal ed. Eretz Zafon: Studies in Galilean Archaeology. Haifa. Pp. 288−322 (Hebrew). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2005. The Glass Vessels. In M. Avissar. Tel Yoqne‘am: Excavations on the Acropolis (IAA Reports 25). Jerusalem. Pp. 103–109. Gorin-Rosen Y. 2006. The Glass Finds from Khirbat elBatiya (Triangulation Spot 819). ‘Atiqot 53:29*–36* (Hebrew; English summary, p. 198). Gorin-Rosen Y. 2007. The Glass Finds. In M. Masarwa. ‘Ar‘ara. HA–ESI 119 (December 24). http://www. hadashot-esi.org.il/report_detail_eng.asp?id=684&mag_ id=112. Gorin-Rosen Y. and Katsnelson N. 2007. Local Glass Production in the Late Roman–Early Byzantine Periods in Light of the Glass Finds from Khirbat el-Ni‘ana. ‘Atiqot 57:73–154. Gorin-Rosen Y. and Winter T. 2010. Selected Insights into Byzantine Glass in the Holy Land. In J. Drauschke and D. Keller eds. Glass in Byzantium: Production, Usage, Analyses (Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseums Tagungen 8). Mainz. Pp. 165–181.

Hadad S. 1998. Glass Lamps from the Byzantine through Mamluk Periods at Bet Shean, Israel. JGS 40:63−76. Hadad S. 2005. Islamic Glass Vessels from the Hebrew University Excavations at Bet Shean (Qedem Reports 8). Jerusalem. Harden D.B. 1936. Roman Glass from Karanis. Ann Arbor. Hartal M. 2005. Land of the Ituraeans: Archaeology and History of Northern Golan in the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Periods (Golan Studies 2). Qazrin (Hebrew). Hayes J.W. 1975. Roman and Pre-Roman Glass in the Royal Ontario Museum: A Catalogue. Toronto. Hizmi H. 1997. Two Burial Caves in Rafidiya (Shechem). ‘Atiqot 32:125–130 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 45*). Isings C. 1957. Roman Glass from Dated Finds (Archaeologica Traiectina 2). Groningen. Israeli Y. 2000. Lighting and Suspended Ornaments. In Y. Israeli and D. Mevorah eds. Cradle of Christianity (The Israel Museum). Jerusalem. Pp. 104–109. Israeli Y. 2008. The Glass Vessels. In J. Patrich. Archaeological Excavations at Caesarea Maritima, Areas CC, KK, and NN; Final Reports I: The Objects. Jerusalem. Pp. 367–418. Jackson-Tal R.E. 2007. Glass Vessels from En-Gedi. In Y. Hirschfeld. En-Gedi Excavations II: Final Report (1996−2002). Jerusalem. Pp. 474−506. Johnson B.L. 2000. Small Finds. In M. Dothan. Hammath Tiberias 2: Late Synagogues. Jerusalem. Pp. 84–92. Katsnelson N. 1999. Glass Vessels from the Painted Tomb at Migdal Ashqelon. ‘Atiqot 37:67*−82*. Katsnelson N. 2014. The Glass Finds from Bet She’an (Youth Hostel). ‘Atiqot 77:23*−57*. Kogan-Zehavi E. 1998. The Tomb and Memorial of a ChainWearing Anchorite at Kh. Tabaliya, near Jerusalem. ‘Atiqot 35:135−148. Kolb B. and Keller D. 2000. Swiss-Liechtenstein Excavations at Az-Zantur / Petra: The Tenth Season. ADAJ 44:355–372. Lapp N.L. 1983. The Excavations at Araq el-Emir I (AASOR 47). Winona Lake. Lester A. 2004. The Glass. In D. Stacey. Excavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods (IAA Reports 21). Jerusalem. Pp. 167–220. Lightfoot C.S. and Arslan M. 1992. Ancient Glass of Asia Minor: The Yüksel Erimtan Collection. Ankara. Loffreda S. 1984. Vasi in Vetro e in Argilla Trovati a Cafarnao nel 1984. LA 34:385−408. Macalister R.A.S. 1912. The Excavation of Gezer 1902−1905 and 1907−1909 1. London. Magen Y. 2005. Flavia Neapolis: Shechem in the Roman Period (JSP 5). Jerusalem. Magen Y., Tzionit Y. and Sirkis O. 2004. Khirbet Badd ‘Isa―Qiryat Sefer. In Y. Magen, D.T. Ariel, G. Bijovsky, Y. Tzionit and O. Sirkis. The Land of Benjamin (JSP 3). Jerusalem. Pp. 179–241. Matheson S.B. 1980. Ancient Glass in the Yale University Art Gallery. New Haven.

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Mazor G. and Bar-Nathan R. 1998. The Bet She’an Excavation Project 1992−1994. IAA Expedition. ESI 17:7−36. McNicoll A., Smith R.H. and Hennessy B. 1982. Pella in Jordan 1: An Interim Report of the Joint University of Sydney and the College of Wooster Excavations at Pella 1979−1981. Canberra. Meyer C. 1988. Glass from the North Theater Byzantine Church, and Soundings at Jerash, Jordan, 1982−1983. BASOR Supplement 25:175−222. Peleg M. 1994. Bet She’an: A Paved Street and Adjacent Remains. ‘Atiqot 25:139−155. Peleg M. 2004. A Late Roman−Byzantine Bathhouse at Bet She’an. ‘Atiqot 46:55*−81*. Peleg M. and Reich R. 1992. Excavations of a Segment of the Byzantine City Wall of Caesarea Maritima. ‘Atiqot 21:137−170. Pollak R. 2006. The Glass. In R.R. Stieglitz. Tel Tanninim: Excavations at Krokodeilon Polis 1996–1999. Boston. Pp. 155–193. Roll I. and Ayalon E. 1989. Apollonia and the Southern Sharon: Model of a Coastal City and its Hinterland. Tel Aviv (Hebrew). von Saldern A. 1980. Ancient and Byzantine Glass from Sardis (Archaeological Exploration of Sardis, Monograph 6). Cambridge, Mass. Saller S.J. 1941. The Memorial of Moses on Mount Nebo (Publications of the SBF 1). Jerusalem. Smith R.H. and Day L.P. 1989. Pella of the Decapolis 2: Final Report on the College of Wooster Excavations in Area IX, The Civic Complex, 1979−1985. Sydney. Stern E.J. 1997. Burial Caves at Kisra. ‘Atiqot 33:103−135 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 17*). Stern E.J. and Getzov N. 2006. Aspects of Phoenician Burial Customs in the Roman Period in Light of an Excavation near El-Kabri (Kabri). ‘Atiqot 51:91–123.

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Stern E.M. 2001. Roman, Byzantine, and Early Medieval Glass (10 BCE–700 CE): Ernesto Wolf Collection. Ostfildern–Ruit. Syon D. 1998. A Winepress at Akhziv. ‘Atiqot 34:85−99 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 7*). Tzaferis V. 1969. Tombs in Western Galilee. ‘Atiqot (HS) 5:72−79 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 9*). Tzori (Zori) N. 1967. The Ancient Synagogue at Beth-Shean. Eretz Israel 8:149–167 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 73*). Tzori N. 1973. The House of Kyrios Leontis at Beth-Shean. Eretz Israel 11:229−247 (Hebrew; English summary, p. 30*). UPM: Penn Museum Online Collection. The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. http://www.penn.museum/collections/object/241586 (accessed November 24, 2014). Vitto F. 1996. Byzantine Mosaics at Bet She’arim: New Evidence for the History of the Site. ‘Atiqot 28:115−146. Weinberg G.D. and Goldstein S.M. 1988. The Glass Vessels. In G.D. Weinberg ed. Excavations at Jalame. Columbia, Mo. Pp. 38−102. Whitehouse D. 1999. The Date of the Glass from Karanis. JGS 41:168−170. Winter T. 1996. The Glass Vessels. In G. Avni and Z. Greenhut. The Akeldama Tombs: Three Burial Caves in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem (IAA Reports 1). Jerusalem. Pp. 95–103. Winter T. 2006. The Glass Vessels from ‘Ein ez-Zeituna. ‘Atiqot 51:77−84. Winter T. 2010. The Glass Vessels. In J. Seligman. Nahal Haggit: A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel (IAA Reports 43). Jerusalem. Pp. 155–168. Winter T. 2011. The Glass Finds. In R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash. Bet She’an II: Baysān: The Theater Pottery Workshop (IAA Reports 48). Jerusalem. Pp. 345–362.

G. Mazor and W. Atrash, 2015, Bet She’an III/1 (IAA Reports 58/1)

Chapter 6

The Coins Ariel Berman

The numismatic finds unearthed during the excavations of the theater include a total of 902 coins. Analysis of the 837 legible coins presents a picture of the activities and the development of the theater, from its construction to its destruction, and corresponds with the chronological stages of the theater determined by the excavators (see The Bet Shean Archaeological Project, Chronological Chart, p. xiii).1

The Pre-Roman Period Three Seleucid coins issued under Antiochus VIII (Cat. Nos. 1–3), and four Hasmonean coins issued under Alexander Jannaeus (Cat. Nos. 4–7), were surface finds that have no relevance to the dating of any preRoman phase of the theater.

The Early Roman Period (Roman II) Ten isolated coins (Cat. Nos. 8–17), representing the Early Roman period prior to the construction of the Severan Theater, were found at the theater site. The earliest was minted at Nysa-Scythopolis by Gabinius, the Roman Proconsul in Syria, 57–55 BCE (Cat. No. 8) and another under Tiberius in honor of Divus Augustus, minted at Rome c. 22–30 CE (Cat. No. 9). Following in chronological order are one coin minted at Nysa-Scythopolis under Claudius from the year 51/2 CE (Cat. No. 10), one minted by Antonius Felix, the Roman procurator in Judea under Claudius, from the year 54 CE (Cat. No. 11), and a provincial coin issued under Nero, from 54–68 CE, minted at NysaScythopolis (Cat. No. 12). Three anonymous coins were issued by the quasi-autonomous Phoenician mints, one at Tyre, dated to the first century CE (Cat. No. 13), and two issued at Sidon, one dated to 117/18 CE (Cat. No. 14), the other probably to the end of the first century CE (Cat. No. 15). Two isolated provincial coins issued under Hadrian, one minted at Tiberias in

the year 119/20 CE (Cat. No. 17), the other at Gaba in the year 120/1 CE (Cat. No. 16), come from the time of the reconstruction of the Nysa-Scythopolis civic center during the early second century CE.

The Late Roman Period (Roman III–IV) The Antonine Dynasty (138–192 CE; Roman III) After a short chronological gap, there is a remarkable continuity of provincial coins over half a century issued under the Antonines, indicating a peak of activity corresponding with the construction of the Severan Theater (Roman III). The finds include coins minted at Gadara, under Antoninus Pius, dated to 159/60 CE (Cat. Nos. 19, 20), three undated coins depicting Faustina Junior, two minted at Nysa-Scythopolis (Cat. Nos. 21, 22), and one at Caesarea (Cat. No. 23). Marcus Aurelius is represented by two issues, two undated coins minted at Nysa-Scythopolis (Cat. Nos. 24, 25), and one coin from the year 160/1 CE minted at Gadara (Cat. No. 26). Lucius Verus is represented by five coins, three minted at Nysa-Scythopolis dated to the year 163/4 CE (Cat. Nos. 27–29), one minted at Gadara from the year 161/2 CE (Cat. No. 30), and one undated coin minted at Gerasa (Cat. No. 31). Lucilla is represented by five dated coins, all from the year 177/8 CE and minted at Pella (Cat. Nos. 32–36). Commodus is represented by an Imperial sestertius minted at Rome (Cat. No. 38), and seventeen provincial coins that include three coins minted at Nysa-Scythopolis in the year 182/3 CE (Cat. Nos. 39–41) and five coins in the year 185/6 CE (Cat. Nos. 42–46), two minted at Gadara in the year 179/80 CE (Cat. Nos. 47, 48), two undated coins minted at Gerasa (Cat. Nos. 49, 50), one dated coin from the year 183/4 CE minted at Pella (Cat. No. 51), and two undated coins from Caesarea (Cat. Nos. 52, 53). In addition, there are also two coins of uncertain mints (Cat. Nos. 54, 55).

230

Ariel Berman

The Severan Dynasty (193–218 CE; Roman III) The time of the early Severan emperors is represented by a relatively small quantity of provincial coins in comparison with the larger number of finds from the later Severan emperors, which remains unexplained. Under Septimus Severus, one coin dated to the year 203/4 CE was minted at Nysa-Scythopolis (Cat. No. 56). A single undated coin depicts Julia Domna, the mint of which is illegible (Cat. No. 57). Geta is represented by two coins, one dated to the year 206/7 CE and minted at Nysa-Scythopolis (Cat. No. 58), and an undated coin minted at Tyre (Cat. No. 59). Under Caracalla, one coin dated to the year 206/7 CE was minted at Nysa-Scythopolis (Cat. No. 60), and an undated coin was minted at Hippum (Cat. No. 61). A single coin issued under Macrinus dates to the year 216/7 CE and was minted at Capitolias (Cat. No. 62). The later Severan emperors Elagabal and Severus Alexander are represented by 39 coins (Cat. Nos. 63–101). Almost all the 22 provincial coins issued by Elagabal are undated, except for three. Two undated coins were minted at Nysa-Scythopolis (Cat. Nos. 63, 64), two dated coins were minted at Gadara in the years 217/8 and 218/9 CE (Cat. Nos. 65, 66), two coins were minted at Hippum, one dates to the year 218/9 CE (Cat. No. 68), the other is undated (Cat. No. 67). All the rest are undated coins. Two were minted at Caesarea (Cat. Nos. 69, 70), one at ‘Akko-Ptolemais (Cat. No. 71), six at Tyre (Cat. Nos. 72–77), and six coins are of illegible mints (Cat. Nos. 79–84). Severus Alexander is represented by 11 provincial coins, seven undated coins from the mint of Caesarea (Cat. Nos. 86–92), one undated coin from the mint of Tyre (Cat. No. 93) and one Imperial sestertius that was minted at Rome (Cat. No. 85). The discovery of four undated coins depicting Julia Mamaea, minted at Bostra (Cat. Nos. 97–100), points to an interesting trade connection with Provincia Arabia. The Late Roman Period after the Severans (Roman IV) A notable decrease of numismatic finds from the second part of the third century CE attests to the economic and political collapse of the Roman state in Palestine. There is an increasing number of Imperial coins among the currency of the provinces, and the mints of the local cities gradually ceased to function, and were

dramatically shut down by the authorities around the middle of the third century CE. This phenomenon is represented by several sestertii minted at Rome under Maximinus I (Cat. No. 102) and Gordianus III (Cat. No. 103), alongside three provincial coins dated to the year 240/1 CE minted at Gadara (Cat. Nos. 104– 106). Three later sestertii were minted at Rome under Philip I, one in the year 248 CE (Cat. No. 107) and two of uncertain dates (Cat. Nos. 108, 109). A single undated coin was minted at Caesarea under Philip II (Cat. No. 110), as was an undated coin under Trajan Decius (Cat. No. 111). One sestertius was minted at Rome under Trebonianus Gallus (Cat. No. 113) and one provincial undated coin was issued under Volusian at Neapolis (Cat. No. 115). Silver coinage at that time became scarce and debased, which brought about the introduction of the new antoninianus coin type, the first of which found at the site having been issued by Trebonianus Gallus in the year 253 CE (Cat. No. 114). Later, antoniniani became the dominant denomination (Cat. Nos. 194–217). The House of Constantine (Roman IV) A total of 105 coins, issued under Constantine I and his house, represents a significant find beginning in the fourth century, attesting to the considerable activities that took place in the theater during these decades (Cat. Nos. 218–337). The Second Part of the Fourth Century CE (Roman IV) In comparison to the quantity of coins from the first part of this century, there are only 63 coins of this period following the earthquake of 363 CE, evidence of a probable decline in the use of the theater (Cat. Nos. 338–401).

The Byzantine Period (Byzantine I–III) The Fifth Century CE (Byzantine I) The coin assemblages from several units of the theater contain mixed collections of debased and illegible coins, among them 266 small-sized coins that are tentatively dated to the fifth century CE (Cat. Nos. 402–667).

231

Chapter 6: The Coins

The Sixth Century and First Two-Thirds of the Seventh Century CE (Byzantine II and III)

time part of the theater had already been destroyed. The coin finds from this period may supply some evidence of this phenomenon. The coins were issued during the reign of Anastasius I (Cat. Nos. 668–679), Justin I (Cat. Nos. 680–685), Justinian I (Cat. Nos. 686–694), Justin II (Cat. Nos. 695–710), Tiberius II (Cat. Nos. 711–712) and Maurice (Cat. Nos. 713–725). During the first half of the seventh century (Byzantine III), a period of decline, a small number of coins was found, issued by Phocas (Cat. Nos. 738–740) and Heraclius (Cat. Nos. 741–747). The coins dating after the Arab conquest apparently belong to the period after the theater ceased to function.

This period is represented by a total of 81 coin finds, almost all of them unearthed in uncertain loci; however, the assemblage attests to a certain amount of activity. During the first half of the sixth century (Byzantine II) the civic center was renovated and the theater was reduced in size. The date of the deterioration and abandonment of the valuable architectural elements and marble probably occurred during the course of the seventh century, prior to the Arab conquest, at which

9

12

49

32

52 62

87

198

202

0

200

2

Fig. 6.1. Coins.

212

232

Ariel Berman

218

229

246

234

248

267

264

358

346

398 715 720

742

758

766

767

805 0

2

Fig. 6.2. Coins.

233

Chapter 6: The Coins

The Coin Catalogue All the coins are bronze unless otherwise noted. Coins bearing an asterisk are illustrated in Figs. 6.1 and 6.2.2 No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

Antioch

Cf. SNG Israel I:328, Nos. 2501–2511

Same

Cf. SNG Israel I:330, Nos. 2527–2529

Seleucids Antiochus VIII (121–96 BCE) 1

Radiate and diademed head r.

2–3

Same

[ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ] ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ [ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΣ] Eagle stg. l. on thunderbolt

Dilepton [ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ ΕΠΙΦΑΝΟΣ] Apollo stg. l. Hasmonean Alexander Jannaeus (104–76 BCE), Prutah 4–5

Anchor within circle

Star with six rays

Jerusalem

AJC 1:122, Ce 4

6–7

Within wreath, illegible inscription

Pomegranate within double cornucopias

Same

AJC 1:124, Ea 24

NysaScythopolis

Barkay 1999:55, No. 3

c. 22–30

Rome

CRE I:141, No. 146

51/2

NysaScythopolis

Barkay 2003:199, No. 9

Year 14 (=54)

[Caesarea]

AJC 2:284, No. 29

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:188, No. 4–1a

Roman (Republican) Government Gabinius (57–55 BCE) 8

Head bareheaded r.

Nike stg. l.

Augustus Divus Commemorative minted by Tiberius 9*

Large altar between SC; in ex.: PROVIDENT

[DIVVS AVGVSTVS PATER] Head of Augustus l.

Roman Provincial 10

Claudius (41–54 CE)

Nike stg. l.

Roman Procurator under Claudius Antonius Felix, Prutah 11

Two shields and two spears crossed

Palm tree, above legend: BPIT Roman Provincial Nero (54–68 CE)

12*

Bust r., oblong countermark: NYΣA

Tyche l.

Autonomous 1st c. CE 13

Bust of Tyche r., turreted, veiled and draped

Galley l.

14

Same

Galley l., legend above: ΣΙΔΩΝΟΣ / ΘΕΑΣ Below: Phoenician legend

15

Same

Same

Tyre Year 44/5 (=117/8)

Sidon

Same

BMC Phoen.:171–174, Nos. 171–191

234

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

Provincial Hadrian (117–138 CE) 16

Bust r.

Tetrastyle temple

120/1

Gaba

Cf. Rosenberger 1975:45, No. 12

17

Same

Male figure, stg. l.

Year 101 (=119/20)

Tiberias

Rosenberger 1977:65, No. 12

18

Same

Illegible

19–20

Same

Year 223 (=159/60)

Gadara

Spijkerman 1978:136, No. 31

21–22

Bust of Faustina. Hair in chignon, draped

NVCA CKO ICV PAC Bust of Tyche l.

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:190, No. 11

23

Same. Hair in knot, draped

[- - -]CAESA[- - -] Tyche stg. l., holding bust

Caesarea

Kadman 1957:106, No. 48

Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE) Tetrastyle temple, within Zeus seated; in ex.: ПО ΓΑΔ Faustina I (138–141 CE)

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

1

15600

-

-

24226

4.07

18

2

15653

-

-

24171

2.54

13

3

8218

1145

5295/23

2.45

15

4

15740

-

-

24334

1.41

14

5

15573

-

-

24198

1.51

13 ´ 15

6

15572

-

-

24197

1.00

13 ´ 15

7

15501

Surf.

-

7508

1.20

13

8

3128

1113

5215/2

114709

5.00

18 ´ 21

9*

22634

90779

906982

114710

6.06

27

10

3119

1103

5197/2

114711

7.62

23

11

3009

1053

5076/2

114712

1.23

17

12*

3224

1041

5058/2

114713

6.15

20

13

3039

1053

5085

114714

5.20

20

14

15683

-

-

24275

2.61

17

15

17991

90614

906101

114715

2.60

15

16

5039

1219

3122

114716

14.56

26

17

976

1323

506093/9

114717

6.2

20

18

15793

-

-

24390

4.06

19

19

3223

1041

5058

114718

11.00

26 ´ 30

20

8181

1080

5144

114719

7.62

28

21

15621

-

-

24287

7.04

21

22

15801

-

-

25449

7.40

20

23

3116

1102

5195

114720

4.08

24

235

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:190, No. 6

Year 224 (=160/1)

Gadara

Spijkerman 1978:136, No. 38

Marcus Aurelius (161–180 CE) 24–25

Bust r.

NVCA [EKOI CVPIAC] Dionysus stg. l.

26

Bust r., laureate

ΓΑΔΑ[PEWN ΔΚC] Bust of Heracles r., laur., lion skin knotted round neck Lucius Verus (161–167 CE)

27–28

[AVTKAICΛOV] AVPH OVHPOC KAICAP Bust r. bareheaded wearing paludamentum

[- - -]NYCN CVP Dionysus nude standing l.

Year 227 (=163/4)

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:190, No. 12

29

AVTKAIC LOV[- - -] Bust r., laureate, bearded

Tetrastyle temple with central arch and pediment, within Zeus, seated l.

Same

Same

Spijkerman 1978:192, No. 13

30

Bust r.

Bust of Heracles r., laur., lion skin knotted round neck, in front thunderbolt

Year 225 (=161/2)

Gadara

Spijkerman 1978:142, No. 55

31

Bust l., laureate

Tyche seated on rock

Gerasa

Spijkerman 1978:160, No. 17

Pella

Spijkerman 1978:212, No. 5

Lucilla (161–163 CE) 32*–36

LOKILLA [AΓOVCTA] Bust r., draped, hair in chignon.

PELLA IWN Tyche seated r. on rock r. extended, at r., half figure of river god; in ex.: MC

37

Bust r.

Stg. figure l.

Year 240 (=177/8)

Imperial Commodus (180–192 CE), Sestertius 38

Same

Uncertain figure stg. l., in field: SC

Rome

39–41

AVK K[OMO]ΔOV ANTWNIN[C] Bust r.

NY CK IE AYC [ςMC] Dionysus stg. l.

Year 246 (=182/3)

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:192, No. 17

42–44

Same

Dionysus, nude, advancing l.

Year 249 (=185/6)

Same

Spijkerman 1978:194, No. 20

45–46

Same

Same, advancing r.

Same

Same

Spijkerman 1978:194, No. 21

47–48

AVT KL[- - -] Bust r. laureate, undraped

ΓAΔP Bust of Heracles r., laureate

Year 243 (=179/80)

Gadara

Spijkerman 1978:144, No. 62

49*

Bust r.

[- - -]XTWПP Γ Tyche, seated l. on rock

Gerasa

Spijkerman 1978:162, No. 22

50

AVP [- - -]OMO Bust r., laureate, draped

APTI VXI Bust of Artemis-Tyche r.

Gerasa

Spijkerman 1978:164, No. 25

51

Bust r.

Tyche seated on rock, r.

Pella

Spijkerman 1978:212, No. 7

52*–53

Bust r., laureate, draped

COL PRIMA F AVG CAESAREA Bust of Serapis r.

Caesarea

Kadman 1957:108, No. 59

54

Same

Tetrastyle temple, within an uncertain figure

55

Same

Illegible

Provincial

Year 246 (=183/4)

236

Ariel Berman

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

24

4024

50647

506251/2

114721

5.03

21

25

4338

1169

5347

114722

6.95

22

26

4025

50647

506251/3

114723

11.00

25

27

520

1219

3045

114724

9.92

23

28

3050

1027

5088/2

114725

7.94

21

29

8094

1125

5287

114726

16.70

29 ´ 32

30

3205

1017

5019

114727

8.95

24

31

8002

1123

5289

114728

7.00

20

32*

3157

1041

5057

114729

9.08

24

33

3123

1108

5206

114730

7.22

23

34

3066

1066

5112/2

114731

9.43

24

35

3008

1053

5076

114732

8.40

24

36

15791

-

-

24388

8.11

23

37

15792

-

-

24389

6.31

19

38

8091

1092

5301

114733

17.62

28

39

3121

1104

5198

114734

8.27

24

40

4023

50647

506251

114735

9.80

24

41

8095

1134

5278

114736

7.85

26

42

3174

1026

5042

114737

8.13

21 ´ 23

43

8205

1145

5295/10

114738

5.43

20

44

3051

1027

5088/3

114739

8.80

20

45

3019

1053

5081/4

114740

7.96

21

46

3049

1027

5088

114741

4.45

27

47

3158

1041

5057/2

114742

8.90

23 ´ 25

48

3159

1041

5057/3

114743

7.74

23

49*

7999

1133

5271

114744

4.59

18 ´ 20

50

8183

1080

5144/3

114745

2.63

10

51

15762

-

-

24359

8.62

20

52*

15627

-

-

7569

8.50

24

53

4005

50647

506234

114746

11.59

24

54

15617

-

-

24243

7.53

22

55

15601

-

-

24227

7.59

23

No.

Obverse

Reverse

56

Bust r.

57

Bust r.

58

Bare-headed bust r.

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

203/4

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:194, No. 23

Year 270 (= 206/7)

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:208, No. 38b

Septimius Severus (193–211 CE) Tyche stg. resting on scepter holding infant Dionysus; opposite her, Zeus stg. Julia Domna (193–211 CE) Uncertain Geta (198–209 CE) Dionysus stg. l., holding thyrsos and oinochoae over panther in r.

237

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

59

Same

Tyche stg. facing, between Victory r. and trophy l.

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

Tyre

BMC Phoen.:269, No. 369

NysaScythopolis

Cf. Spijkerman 1978:198, No. 33

Hippum

Spijkerman 1978:176, No. 28

Capitolias

Spijkerman 1978:104, No. 21 (variant)

Caracalla (198–217 CE) 60

Bust r., laureate

Tetrastyle temple with central arch and pediment; within, Tyche stg.

Year 270 (= 206/7)

61

Same

Pegasus stg. l.

62*

Bust r. bare-headed, wearing paludamentum and cuirass, shown from the rear

63

Bust r.

Dionysus advancing r., behind him panther jumping r.

NysaScythopolis

Spijkerman 1978:202, No. 45

64

Bust r., laureate

Tyche, seated r. on throne with high back, feeding the infant Dionysus

Same

Cf. Spijkerman 1978:202, No. 47

65

Same

Tetrastyle temple with pediment, within Zeus seated

Year 281 (=217/8)

Gadara

Spijkerman 1978:148, No. 77

66

Same

Galley sailing l.

Year 282 (=218/9)

Same

Spijkerman 1978:152, No. 88

67

Same

Tyche stg. holding horse l.

Hippum

Spijkerman 1978:176, No. 32

68

[AVT KM ANTWNEINOC] Bust r.

[ANTIOX PR IP TIER AKCUL] Pegasus, stg. l., head turned back, wings open and enclosing a wreath between their tips

Same

Spijkerman 1978:178, No. 36

69

Bust r.

Tetrastyle temple with central arch, within Tyche stg. l.

Caesarea

Kadman 1957:114. 81

70

Same

Bust of Serapis r.

Same

Kadman 1957:114. 84

71

Same

COLO [PTOLEMAIS] Perseus stg. l., holding r. head of Medusa, l. harpa

‛AkkoPtolemais

Kadman 1961:124, No. 161

72

IMP CAES M AVR [ANTO] NINVS AVG Laureate, cuirassed bust r., with paludamentum

SEPT[IM T]VRO Tyche stg., facing r., crowned by Victory l. crowning trophy; in ex.: [CO]LO[N]

Tyre

BMC Phoen.:273–274, Nos. 388–392

73

Same; round countermark on r. side below

Same

Same

74

[IMP CAES MAVR AN- - -] NINVS AVG Bust r., laureate

TVRI ORVM Ovoid baetyl, snake around, l. palm tree, r. murex shell

Same

Macrinus (217–218 CE) Temple with eight columns, broad architrave and pediment, over which square structure ornamented with pilasters supporting altar; on either side (remains of) crenellated tower over outer columns; within, Zeus seated l.

Year 120 (=216/7)

Elagabal (218–222 CE)

Year 282 (=218/9)

75

Bust r.

Hexastyle temple

Same

76–77

Same

Uncertain

Same

BMC Phoen.:278, No. 413

238

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

78

Same

Tetrastyle temple, within Tyche stg.

79–84

Same

Uncertain

No.

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

56

15619

-

-

24245

14.49

29 ´ 31

57

3035

1055

5084

114747

5.47

23

58

8081

1123

5234

114748

5.68

24

59

15525

-

-

7533

9.23

25

60

8134

1080

5147

114749

12.77

29

61

8222

1145

5295

114750

7.86

24

62*

15512

-

-

7519

15.32

32

63

3216

1021

5031

114751

9.76

21

64

8139

1080

5147/6

114752

10.09

21 ´ 22

65

14858

70612

706505/2

114753

7.85

22

66

3080

1073

5135

114754

21.52

33

67

2447

1074

5142

114755

3.89

20

68

15677

-

-

24269

11.98

24

69

8245

1145

5295/50

114756

4.89

18

70

17055

80655

806296

114757

4.14

18

71

15560

-

-

24183

4.23

22

72

15678

-

-

24270

11.83

30

73

15556

-

-

24178

10.54

29

74

15704

-

-

24296

13.84

28

75

3011

1048

5077

114758

11.55

26

76

3083

1077

5140

114759

15.25

29

77

8109

1145

5291/13

114760

8.04

28

78

15547

-

-

7558

9.21

25

79

15558

-

-

24180

9.17

22 ´ 25

80

15659

-

-

24177

5.36

19

81

3012

1048

5077/2

114761

13.67

26

82

3175

1026

5042/2

114762

5.75

15 ´ 19

83

3219

1025

5033/2

114763

4.67

16

84

10975

70614

706179

114764

4.43

20

Obverse

Reverse

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

Imperial Severus Alexander (222–235 CE), Sestertius 85

Bust r. laureate

Uncertain

Rome

86

Bust r. laureate, draped

Bust of Serapis r.

Caesarea

Kadman 1957:114, No. 89 (variant)

87*–89

Same

Eagle displayed supporting wreath, within: SPQR

Same

Kadman 1957:116, No. 96

Provincial

239

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Mint

Reference

90

Same

CIF A [FC CAES] METROPOLIS Eagle displayed supporting wreath, within: SPQR

Date (CE)

Same

Kadman 1957:116, No. 97

91

Same

Same

Same

Kadman 1957:116, No. 100

92

Same

Illegible

Same

93

ATV SEV AL[EXANDER] Bust r.

Tyche stg. facing, r. palm tree, l. trophy

Tyre

Cf. BMC Phoen.:279, No. 419

94–96

Same

Uncertain

97–100

Bust r., draped wearing stephane

COLONIA B–OSTRA Bust of Zeus Amon r.

Bostra

Spijkerman 1978:80, No. 52

101

Same

Uncertain

Julia Mamea (222–235 CE)

Imperial Maximinus I (235–238 CE), Sestertius 102

Bust r.

Uncertain

Rome

Gordianus III (238–244 CE), Sestertius 103

IMP GORDIANVS PIVS FEL AVG Bust r.

PM TRP III COS II PP The emperor standing r., in field: SC

240/41

Rome

RIC IV/III:349, No. 305a

Year 303 (=240/1)

Gadara

Spijkerman 1978:152, No. 93

Provincial 104–106

Bust r.

Galley, with captain, row of oarsman and steersman on deck, sailing r., above in three lines: ПОΜП/ΓΑΔΑ/PΕΩΝ; below: ΓT

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

85

437

1210

3012

114765

15.64

26

86

8283

1008

5008/15

114766

5.40

20

87*

3013

1048

5078

114767

12.49

24

88

15582

-

-

24207

7.12

20

89

8152

1123

5288

114768

8.33

21

90

15662

-

-

24254

11.61

22

91

3100

1077

5140

114769

9.45

18

92

5048

1225

3048

114770

6.52

20

93

15780

-

-

24377

11.86

28

94

3048

1054

5087

114771

13.55

28

95

3108

1097

5171

114772

7.38

20

96

4301

1176

5364

114773

5.93

24

97

3015

1048

5080

114774

2.84

20

98

977

50615

506089

114775

3.60

18

240

Ariel Berman

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

99

3114

1097

5182

-

1.50

18

100

8106

1145

5291/10

114776

3.60

21

101

8228

1145

5295/33

114777

8.20

26

102

8097

1145

5291

114778

15.30

32

103

15800

-

-

25450

18.21

30

104

15794

-

-

24391

12.37

24

105

15638

-

-

24152

9.59

28

106

8128

1123

5235

114779

10.90

27

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

248

Rome

RIC IV/III:89, No. 161

Imperial Philip I (244–249 CE), Sestertius 107

[IMP] M IVS P[HILIPPVS AVG] Bust r.

[SAECVLARES AVG] S.C. Antelope l.

108

Same

Uncertain

Same

109

Same

Uncertain figure stg., in field: SC

Same

Provincial Philip II (244–248 CE) 110

Bust r.

111

Bust r.

COL PRI FL AVG Dionysus lying on the back of a panther

Caesarea

Kadman 1957:120, No. 120

Same

Kadman 1957:126, No. 150

Rome

Cf. RIC IV/III:170– 173, Nos. 100, 114a, 115a

Neapolis

Cf. Rosenberger 1977:24, No. 119

Trajan Decius (249–251 CE) Emperor riding r.

Imperial Trebonianus Gallus (251–254 CE), Sestertius 112

IMP CAES CVIBIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVG Bust r.

Figure stg. l. holding scepter, in field: SC

Provincial 113

Bust r

Mount Gerizim, supported by eagle, stg. with spread wings, head l. Imperial Trebonianus Gallus (251–253 CE), Antoninianus

114

IMP [- - -]EN GALLVS PF AVG Bust r. radiated crown

VICTO RI[A AVG] Victoria stg. l.

Cf. RIC IV/III:163, No. 48a

253

Provincial Volusian (251–253 CE) 115

Bust r.

Mount Gerizim, supported by eagle, stg. with spread wings, head l.

Neapolis

Rosenberger 1977:25, No. 122

241

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

1st–2nd c. CE 116

Head r.

Uncertain 2nd–3rd c. CE

117–121

Bust r.

Uncertain

122

Same

Two figures stg. the right side figure holds cornucopiae

123

Bust r., round countermark on neck of a small bust r.

Uncertain

124–127

Bust r.

Same

128

Same

Bust r.

129

Bust l.

Bust of Tyche (?) l. 3rd c. CE

130

Unidentified bust r.

Dionysus stg. l.

NysaScythopolis

131

Same

[- - -] MET Bust of Heracles r.

Tyre

132

Same

Tyche stg. facing, between Victory r. and trophy l.

Same

133

Same

Mount Gerizim

Neapolis

134

Unidentified bust r.

Eagle displayed, with head l. supporting Mount Gerizim

Neapolis

Cf. BMC Pal.:69, No. 140

135

Same

Eagle displayed, with head l. supporting wreath, within: S[PQR]

Caesarea

Cf. Kadman 1957:116, No. 100

136

Same

Galley

Gadara

Cf. Spijkerman: 1978:146, No. 69

137

Same

Bust r.

Bostra (?)

138

Same

Bust r. of Serapis (?)

Caesarea (?)

139–142

Same

Same

Cf. BMC Phoen.: 273, No. 308

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

107

15513

-

-

7520

9.22

19

108

15581

-

-

24206

15.81

30

109

15584

-

-

24209

18.31

31

110

3112

1098

5177

114780

10.30

23

111

3065

1066

5112

114781

10.28

23

112

15705

-

-

24297

16.43

28

113

8135

1080

5147/2

114782

12.01

24

114

3102

1077

5140/3

114783

3.29

21

115

15527

-

-

7535

9.23

24

116

8227

1145

5295/32

-

1.65

15

117

8096

1134

5278/2

114784

8.80

23

118

8214

1145

5295/19

-

8.60

25

119

8207

1145

5295/12

114785

10.55

25

242

Ariel Berman

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

120

8208

1145

5295/13

-

5.84

19

121

9886

1312

3380

-

4.70

22

122

15679

-

-

24271

5.19

21

123

15773

-

-

24370

7.84

21

124

15709

-

-

24301

6.68

23

125

15656

-

-

24174

6.51

22

126

15610

-

-

24236

4.80

22

127

15797

-

-

24394

13.22

25

128

15599

-

-

24225

6.81

23

129

15557

-

-

24179

5.75

20

130

8224

1145

5295C

-

15.08

25

131

8230

1145

5295C

114786

14.00

28

132

15774

-

-

24371

10.00

28

133

15620

-

-

24246

8.95

22

134

15721

-

-

24313

12.95

25

135

15724

-

-

24318

3.48

19

136

15783

-

-

24380

24

46

137

15757

-

-

24354

2.19

19

138

15759

-

-

24356

5.19

18

139

15799

-

-

25451

4.80

18

140

15744

-

-

24338

8.77

22

141

15567

-

-

24191

3.97

20

142

15586

-

-

24211

4.87

18

Obverse

Reverse

Date (CE)

Mint

Reference

Uncertain provincial civic issue 3rd c. CE 143–193

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

143

15717

-

-

24309

2.63

19

144

15564

-

-

24188

5.69

20

145

15566

-

-

24190

8.70

22

146

15571

-

-

24195

6.90

22

147

15587

-

-

24212

9.46

28

148

15596

-

-

24221

7.83

24

149

15790

-

-

24387

3.80

20

150

15758

-

-

24355

7.72

29

151

15680

-

-

24272

5.88

22

152

15590

-

-

24215

4.48

19

243

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

153

8223

1145

5295/28

-

9.12

29

154

8219

1145

5295/24

-

7.90

25

155

8217

1145

5295/22

-

4.96

16

156

7861

1145

5293/9

-

5.82

22

157

8216

1145

5295/21

-

9.69

24

158

8211

1145

5295/16

-

9.35

25

159

8226

1145

5295/31

114787

3.90

20

160

8231

1145

5295/36

-

5.87

19

161

8234

1145

5295/39

-

4.30

24

162

8235

1145

5295/40

-

2.88

19

163

8244

1145

5295/49

114788

5.25

18

164

8247

1145

5295/52

114789

5.10

20

165

11592

70614

706363

-

5.45

20

166

3208

1039

5059

-

5.06

21

167

3207

1026

5036

114790

12.04

21

168

3110

1098

5172

-

7.23

22

169

3032

1053

5082

-

11.18

24

170

20423

90772

906828/2

114791

5.53

21

171

21760

90788

906952/2

114792

5.98

20

172

3001

1048

5074

-

7.80

18

173

8206

1145

5295/11

114793

2.70

18

174

8196

1145

5295/9

-

6.60

20

175

5032

1219

3134

114794

6.35

17

176

5025

1235

3125

114795

8.30

22

177

4313

1180

5397

114796

10.10

22

178

4300

1187

5442

-

6.12

19

179

3260

1022

5027/2

114797

1.95

22

180

3248

1011

5021/2

-

6.50

28

181

3218

1025

5033

114798

7.20

20

182

3214

1024

5030/2

-

5.16

21

183

3213

1024

5030

-

8.40

23

184

3206

1017

5019/2

114799

5.60

22

185

3154

1096

5221

114800

7.14

24

186

3126

1100

5181

114801

5.87

18

187

3120

1103

5197/3

114802

6.54

19

188

3113

1099

5180

-

4.25

25

189

3096

1073

5124

-

9.88

26

190

3017

1053

5081/4

-

4.47

20

191

3000

1026

5072

-

12.50

25

192

3002

1048

5074/2

-

3.55

20

193

8225

1145

5295/30

114803

1.93

17

244

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

256

Moesia

RIC V/I:55, No. 221

Same

RIC V/I:55, No. 227

Valerian (253–259 CE), Antoninianus 194

[IMP CP LIC VAL] ERIANVS [AVG] Bust r.

ROMA[E AETERNAE] Roma seated l., round shield, holding Victoria

195

Same

VIR[TVS AVG]GG Stg. figure of soldier l. holding spear and shield

196

Bust r.

Illegible Gallienus (253–268 CE), Antoninianus

197

GALLIENVS AVG Bust r.

IOVI CONSERVAT[ORI] Jupiter stg. l.

254–260

198*

Same

VIRTVS AVG Virtus stg. l.; in ex.: [PX]V

267

Cf. RIC V/I:74, No. 76 Asia

RIC V/I:185, No. 612

Claudius II (268–270 CE), Antoninianus RIC V/I:230, No. 225

199

[- - -]CLAVDIVS AVG Bust r. rad.

200*

IMP C] AVRE–LIANV AVG Bust r.

201

IMP C MAVR NVMERIANVS PF AVG Bust r.

VIRTVS A[V]G[G] The emperor receiving Victory from Jupiter, in field: A; in ex.: XXI

Antioch

RIC V/II:202, No. 466

202*

Same

CLEMENTIA TEMP The emperor r. receiving Victory from Jupiter, in field: Γ; in ex.: XXI

Cyzicus

RIC V/II: 201, No. 463

203

IMP] C AVRE–LIANVS PF AVG Bust r.

Same

RIC V/II:177, No. 327

204

IMP C DIOCLETIA [NVS P]F AVG Bust r.

296–297

Rome

RIC VI:358, No. 64a

295–299

Cyzicus

RIC VI:581, No. 15b–16b

VIRTVS [AVG] Minerva stg. r. holding spear, resting on shield

Aurelian (270–275 CE), Antoninianus RIC V/I:308, No. 384

CONSERVAT AVG Sol advancing l., r. foot on captive; in ex.: Γ

Numerian (283–284 CE), Antoninianus

Carinus (283–285 CE), Antoninianus The emperor receiving Victory from Jupiter, in field: EΔ; in ex.: XXI

Diocletian (284–304 CE), Follis Genius stg. l., holding in his l. cornucopia, in field: R; in ex.: Δ

Maximian (286–305 CE), Antoninianus 205

IMP CMA MAXIMIANVS PF AVG Bust r.

CONCORDIA MILITVM The emperor receiving Victory from Jupiter, in field: KΔ

245

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

206

Same

Same. In field: B

296–297

207–211

Bust r.

CONCORDIA MI[L]ITVM The emperor receiving Victory from Jupiter

296–308

212*

GAL VAL MAXIMIANVS NOB CAES Bust r., laureate

[GEN]IO POPVLI ROMANI Genius stg. l.; holding cornucopiae and patera, in field: K/S/V; in ex. ANT

213

GAL VAL MAXIMIANVS NOB CAES Radiate bust r.

CONCOR[DIA MILITVM] The emperor receiving Victory from Jupiter, in field: A

214

Same

CONCORDIA MIL[ITVM] The emperor receiving Victory from Jupiter

Mint

Reference Cf. RIC VI:667, No. 46b

Galerius Maximian, Caesar (293–305 CE), Follis 300–303

Antioch

RIC VI:620, Nos. 55b, 57b

Alexandria

RIC VI:667, No. 48b

Cf. RIC VI:667, No. 33b

305–308

Uncertain Antoninianus 215–217

Unidentified bust r.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

194

15616

-

-

24242

7.39

27

195

15664

-

-

24256

2.63

22

196

15727

-

-

24321

2.96

22

197

15634

-

-

24148

1.45

21

198*

15544

-

-

7554

2.80

21

199

8021

1122

5238

114804

2.40

21

200*

15553

-

-

7564

3.02

23

201

15708

-

-

24300

4.12

20

202*

15548

-

-

7559

3.08

22

203

15588

-

-

24213

3.38

20 ´ 23

204

15538

-

-

7548

9.21

27

205

15769

-

-

24366

3.06

21

206

15703

-

-

24295

2.26

20

207

3062

1061

5104/2

114805

2.63

20

208

15602

-

-

24228

2.59

21

209

5098

1296

3299

114806

1.77

20

210

15649

-

-

24167

1.24

20

211

3018

1053

5081/3

-

4.65

23

212*

15542

-

-

7552

10.48

25

213

15707

-

-

24299

1.87

20

214

15743

-

-

24337

2.51

21

215

22609

90788

906973/5

-

4.02

22

216

22619

90788

906973/15

-

5.25

23

217

559

1145

5308

114807

3.75

24

246

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

313–317

Rome

317/18

Thessalonica

RIC VII:502, No. 20

Constantine I (306–337 CE) 218*

IMP COSTA[NTINVS PF AVG] Bust r., laureate

[SOLI INVICTO COMITI] Sol stg. front, holding globe and raising r. in field: R–S

219–222

Same

Same (no letters in field) Crispus (317–326 CE)

223

CRISPVS NOBILISSIMVS CAES Bust r.

224

CONSTANTINVS AVG Head laureate l.

[DN CONSTANTINVS MAX AVG] Within wreath: VOT/XXX

324–327

Ticinum

Cf. LRBC I:13, No. 476

225–226

[CONSTAN]TINVS AVG Bust r.

[PROVIDENTIAE AVGG] Camp gate, with two towers

326–330

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC I:24, No. 969

227

FLIVLCONSTANTIVS NOBC Bust l.

[PROVIDEN]TIAE AVGG Camp gate, with two towers; in ex.: SMHΓ

324–330

Heraclea

Cf. LRBC I:22, No. 872

228

Same

Same

326–330

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC I: 24, No. 974

229*

CONSTANTINVS NOB C Bust r. laureate, cuirassed

GLOR–IA EXERCI–TVS Two soldiers stg. facing, between them two standards; in ex.: SMKΔ

330–335

Cyzicus

LRBC I:28, No. 1214

230

Same

Same; in ex.: ALE

Same

Alexandria

LRBC I:32, No. 1429

231

[CONSTANTI]NVS MAX AVG Bust r.

GLOR–IA EXERCI–TVS Two soldiers stg. facing, between them two standards; in ex.: SMKΔ

330–335

Cyzicus

LRBC I:28, No. 1222

232

Same

Same; in ex.: ALA

Same

Alexandria

LRBC I:32, No. 1428

330–335

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC I:24, 1022

PRIN[CIPIA IVEN]TVTIS Stg. figure r. holding spear and shield; in ex.: TSΓ

Constantine I (306–337 CE)

Constantius II, Caesar (324–330 CE)

Constantine II, Caesar (317–337 CE)

Constantine I (307–337 CE)

Urbs Roma 233–234*

Wolf suckling Romulus and Remus, above two stars; in ex.: [- - -]

VRBS ROMA Bust of Roma l.

Constantinopolis 235

CONSTAN[TINOPOLIS] Bust r. helmeted

Victory on prow l.; in ex.: SMKΓ

330–335

Cyzicus

LRBC I:28, No. 1233

236–238

CONSTANTINVS MAX AVG Bust r.

GLORIA EXERC[ITVS] Two soldiers stg. facing, between them one standard; in ex.: CONSΔ

335–337

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC I:24, No. 1024

247

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

337–339

Cyzicus

LRBC I:29, No. 1273

Constantine I (307–337 CE), Posthumous 239–240

[DVCONSTANTINVS PT AVGG] Bust r.

Quadriga r.; in ex.: SMKA

241–242

DN CONSTANTINVS PF AVG Bust r.

[GLORIA EXERC ITVS] Two soldiers stg. facing, between them one standard; in ex.: SM[KA]

337–339

Cyzicus

LRBC I:29, No. 1274

243–244

CONSTANTI–NVS PF AVG Bust r.

Same; in ex.: SMTSA

337–341

Thessalonica

LRBC I:21, No. 854

245

Same

Same; in ex.: SMNA

Same

Nicomedia

LRBC I:27, No. 1133

246*–247

CONSTANTINVS AVG Bust r.

Same; in ex.: [SMA]NA

Same

Antioch

LRBC I:31, No. 1375

248*–251

DN CONSTANTI VS PF AVG] Bust r.

Wreath within; legend: VOT/XX/MVLT/XXX In ex.: SMAN

341–346

Antioch

LRBC I:31, No. 1398

252–255

Same

Same; in ex.: CONSA

Same

Constantinople

LRBC I:25, No. 1064

256–259

Illegible

Same (mint missing)

Same

Same

LRBC I:25, No. 1063

Constantine II (337–340) CE

Constantius II (337–361 CE)

Constantine I (307–337 CE), Posthumous 260–261

[DN CONSTANTI NVS PT AVGG] Bust r., veiled

Veiled figure r., in field: VN–MR; in ex.: CONS[A]

262

[DN CONSTANS PF AVG] Bust r.

VICT AVGG Victory advancing l. holding wreath and palm; in ex.: [CON] SΔ

341–346

Constantinople

LRBC I:25, No. 1061

263

Same, bust l.

FEL TEMP REPARATIO Virtus, head turned back l., holding spear in l. hand leading barbarian to r., from hut beneath tree; in ex.: SMKA

346–350

Cyzicus

LRBC II:96, No. 1061

264*

Same

Same; in ex.: ANTA

Same

Antioch

LRBC II:99, No. 2615

Constans I (337–350 CE)

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

218*

3045

1052

5086/6

114808

2.45

20

219

1169

1333

3439/4

114809

2.45

21

220

3023

1053

5081/8

114810

1.84

20

221

8241

1145

5295/46

-

1.20

20

222

20414

90772

906818/2

114811

2.55

18

248

Ariel Berman

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

223

15763

-

-

24360

1.95

21

224

15775

-

-

24372

1.43

18

225

15749

-

-

24346

1.19

17

226

8145

1115

5228/3

114812

3.00

20

227

15700

-

-

24292

3.08

18

228

15742

-

-

24336

1.71

18

229*

8089

1129

5252

114813

2.30

18

230

3004

1052

5075

114814

1.92

17

231

15686

-

-

24278

1.97

18

232

3036

1055

5084/2

114815

2.08

19

233

15804

-

-

5957

1.38

16

234*

3204

1041

5057/4

114816

1.44

14

235

15761

-

-

24358

1.73

17

236

15685

-

-

24277

1.33

16

237

15684

-

-

24276

1.46

18

238

879

50615

506114

114817

0.74

13

239

15524

-

-

7532

1.25

15

240

8322

1008

5008/54

114818

0.55

13

241

15738

-

-

24332

1.05

14

242

15545

-

-

7555

1.47

15

243

15693

-

-

24285

1.58

16

244

15688

-

-

24280

1.29

15

245

5099

1296

3299/2

114819

1.96

17

246*

3003

1052

5075

114820

1.77

14

247

15714

-

-

24306

0.78

16

248*

15516

-

-

7524

1.34

14

249

588

1171

5351/2

114821

1.15

15

250

20435

90788

906843/3

114822

1.06

15

251

3041

1052

5086/2

114823

2.25

14 ´ 17

252

15713

-

-

24305

0.90

16

253

15681

-

-

24273

1.01

15

254

15609

-

-

24235

1.36

13

255

15701

-

-

24293

0.92

13

256

3020

1053

5081/5

-

0.90

15

257

3028

1053

5081/13

114824

1.42

15

258

5149

1255

3201/6

114825

0.94

12

259

4310

1182

5379/3

114826

0.92

13

260

15687

-

-

24279

1.86

14

261

15728

-

-

24322

0.57

15

262

15510

-

-

7517

1.52

17

263

15670

-

-

24262

3.93

23

264*

3097

1073

5124/2

114827

4.38

21

249

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Constantius II (337–361 CE) 265

DN CONSTANTIVS PF AVG Bust l., dr., pd.

FEL TEMP REPARATIO Emperor facing, head r. holding labarum in r. and resting l. on shield; in ex.: SMKE

346–350

Cyzicus

LRBC II:96, No. 2485

266– 267*

Same, bust r., diad.

FEL TEMP REPARATIO Virtus l. with shield on arm, spearing fallen horseman, in field: S; in ex.: ANA

351–354

Antioch

Cf. LRBC II: 100, No. 2631

268

Same

Same; in ex.: CONSA

351–361

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC II: 86, No. 2028

269–322

Same

Same

Same

[Antioch]

Cf. LRBC II: 100, No. 2627

Uncertain 4th c. CE 323–333

Illegible

Illegible

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

265

5007

1007

5007/5

-

3.60

20

266

8304

1008

5008/36

114828

3.55

24

267*

8180

1119

5218/2

114829

4.54

18

268

15583

-

-

24208

1.23

18

269

1167

1333

3439/2

114830

3.90

17

270

1129

1333

3416/2

114831

0.74

14

271

8321

1008

5008/53

114832

1.02

16

272

8284

1008

5008/16

114833

1.35

16

273

15735

-

-

24329

1.43

16

274

15644

-

-

24162

2.68

14

275

14423

-

-

7531

1.72

15

276

15551

-

-

7562

3.11

19

277

15519

-

-

7527

1.54

17

278

15549

-

-

7560

1.52

17

279

15550

-

-

7561

1.72

17

280

15576

-

-

24201

1.30

12

281

15594

-

-

24219

1.50

15

282

15606

-

-

24232

2.86

19

283

15643

-

-

24158

1.59

13

284

15667

-

-

24259

1.94

16

285

15674

-

-

24266

4.11

22

286

15694

-

-

24286

2.50

18

287

15715

-

-

24307

3.62

19

288

15754

-

-

24351

2.23

20

289

15765

-

-

24362

0.08

15 ´ 19

290

15767

-

-

24364

0.85

15

291

15777

-

-

24374

0.90

15

250

Ariel Berman

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

292

15778

-

-

24375

0.92

15

293

15781

-

-

24378

0.75

14

294

15509

-

-

7516

1.24

17

295

15541

-

-

7551

3.72

23

296

15555

-

-

7566

0.53

13

297

15760

-

-

24357

1.61

14

298

21762

90788

906952/4

114834

2.59

17

299

21759

90788

906952

114835

2.61

17

300

20413

90772

906818

114836

3.79

21

301

22630

90788

906990

114837

1.59

15

302

8274

1008

5008/6

114838

3.05

21

303

8232

1145

5295/37

114839

2.61

22

304

3209

1039

5059/2

114840

1.58

17

305

3165

1041

5057/9

114841

3.50

19

306

3117

1102

5195/2

114842

1.96

16

307

3067

1066

5112/3

114843

2.10

18

308

15696

-

-

24288

2.03

16

309

8275

1008

5008/7

114844

3.48

22

310

8276

1008

5008/8

114845

1.32

16

311

7857

1145

5293/5

114846

1.93

15

312

9856

1316

3397/2

-

1.78

18

313

15719

-

-

24310

1.89

16

314

15787

-

-

24384

1.11

16

315

15623

-

-

24250

1.14

11 ´ 21

316

15695

-

-

24287

1.31

19

317

15593

-

-

24218

1.12

16

318

15607

-

-

24233

1.05

17

319

15611

-

-

24237

1.76

17

320

15673

-

-

24265

1.40

17

321

15698

-

-

24290

1.07

15

322

15697

-

-

24289

1.48

16

323

952

1323

506090/14

-

1.20

13

324

3029

1053

5081/14

-

0.78

14

325

17045

80655

806341

-

1.02

14

326

15776

-

-

24373

0.74

15

327

15782

-

-

24374

0.57

13

328

15766

-

-

24363

0.33

11

329

15755

-

-

24352

0.97

14

330

15725

-

-

24319

1.43

12

331

15731

-

-

24325

0.88

14

332

15723

-

-

24315

0.91

10

333

15706

-

-

24298

0.97

13

251

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Julian, Augustus (361–363 CE), Majorina 334–335

DN FL CL IVLIANVS PF AVG Bust r.

SECVRITAS REIPVB Bull r.; above two stars; in ex.: ANTΔ

361–363

Antioch

LRBC II:100, No. 2640

336

Same

Same; in ex.: ANTB

Same

Same

LRBC II:100, Nos. 2640–2641 (variant)

337

DN FL CL IVLIANVS NOB CAES Bust r. cuirassed, helmeted

Wreath, within: VOT/X/MVLT/XX; in ex.: [ANTA]

Same

Antioch (?)

Cf. LRBC II:100, No. 2642 (variant)

Valentinian I (364–375 CE) 338–341

DN VALENTINIANVS PF AVG Bust r., dr. pd.

[SECVRITAS]– REIPVBLICAE Victory l., holding wreath and palm

364–365

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC II:87, No. 2073

342–345

Same

GLORIA R[OMANORVM] Emperor draped, with r. hand dragging captive r. and holds labarum in l.; in ex.: TESΘ

364–367

Thessalonica

Cf. LRBC II:79, No. 1704

346*

Same

Same; in ex.: A[LEA]

Same

Alexandria

Cf. LRBC II:104, No. 2858

347–348

Same

[SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE] Victory l. holding wreath and palm

367–375

349–353

Same

Uncertain

364–375

Cf. LRBC II:56, No. 527

Valentinian II, Theodosius I and Arcadius 354–356

[DN VALENTINIANVS PF AVG] Bust r.

Wreath, within: VOT/V/MVLT/X; in ex.: [CONA]

378–383

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC II:88, No. 2116

383 CE 357

Same

Wreath, within: VOT/X/MVLT/XX; in ex.: [CONA]

383

Same

Cf. LRBC II:89, No. 2158

358*

Bust r.

Wreath, within: VOT/XX/MVLT/XXX; in ex.: ANT

Same

Antioch

Cf. LRBC II:101, No. 2731

359–360

DN ARCADIVS PF AVG Bust r.

Wreath, within: VOT/V/MVLT/X; in ex.: SMA[QP]

Aquileia

Cf. LRBC II:68, No. 1111

361–362

Uncertain

Same (mint missing)

363

Bust r.

Thessalonica

Cf. LRBC II:82, No. 1871

383–387 CE

383–392 CE [VICTORIA AVG] Two Victories facing one another, each holding wreath

252

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

364–372

Same

[SALVS REI–PVBLICAE] Victory l., trophy on shoulder, dragging captive, in field l., christogram

Date

373

[DN AR]CADIVS [PF AVG] Bust r.

Same, in field, cross; in ex.: ANTΓ

374

Same

Mint

Reference Cf. LRBC II:89, No. 2183

Antioch

Cf. LRBC II:102, No. 2771

Aquileia

Cf. LRBC II:68, No. 1105

[Cyzicus]

Cf. LRBC II:98, No. 2580

388–392 CE Same

379–395 CE 375–379

Uncertain

[DN THEODOSIVS PF AVG] Bust r.

395–408 CE 380–382

Same

VIRTVS–EXERCITI Emperor facing, head r., in r. hand spear, l. rests on shield. Victory to l. crowns him with wreath and holds palm in l. hand

383–389

[DN ARCADIVS PF AVG] Bust r.

Uncertain

Honorius and Theodosius II (400 CE) 390–394

[DN HONORIVS PF AVG] Bust r.

[GLORIA ROMANORVM] Three emperors stg. facing

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC II:90, Nos. 2215–2216

395

Same

CONCORDIA AVGGG In center, cross

Antioch

Cf. LRBC II:102, No. 2807

396

Same

[GLORIA ROMANORVM] Two emperors stg. facing, each holding shields and spear

Constantinople

Cf. LRBC II:90, No. 2223

397

Same (small star behind head)

Same

Same

Same

398*–401

Bust r.

Same

Cf. LRBC II:90, No. 2234

408–423 CE

425–450 CE Within wreath, cross

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

334

15722

-

-

24314

7.15

27

335

15737

-

-

24331

6.89

27

336

1128

1333

3416

114847

6.60

27

337

525

1225

3062/3

-

0.93

16

338

15528

-

-

7537

1.38

15

253

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

339

15648

-

-

24166

1.21

14

340

15689

-

-

24281

2.90

18

341

15716

-

-

24308

1.85

14

342

15691

-

-

24283

1.30

15 ´ 19

343

15639

-

-

24153

0.99

14

344

20424

90772

906828/3

114848

2.05

14

345

15692

-

-

24284

1.87

17

346*

15518

-

-

7526

1.92

17

347

8168

1117

5219

114849

2.30

17

348

582

1189

5412

114850

2.86

16

349

9839

1316

3395/15

114851

1.17

15

350

8310

1008

5008/42

-

0.63

16

351

1168

1333

3439/3

114852

6.36

28

352

1227

1338

3430/12

114853

1.17

15

353

3043

1052

5086/4

114854

6.56

28

354

15554

-

-

7565

0.69

14

355

15785

-

-

24382

0.79

14

356

523

1225

3062

-

1.33

14

357

15608

-

-

24234

1.30

12

358*

8138

1080

5147

114855

1.08

13

359

15666

-

-

24258

1.62

18

360

15506

-

-

7513

0.47

20

361

3160

1041

5057/4

114856

1.42

12

362

3162

1041

5057/6

114857

0.67

13

363

404

1189

5425

114858

1.05

13

364

15637

-

-

24151

0.49

14

365

15559

-

-

24182

1.01

13

366

15589

-

-

24214

0.61

13

367

15629

-

-

24142

1.09

12

368

15784

-

-

24381

0.69

11

369

15598

-

-

24223

1.03

13

370

15660

-

-

24252

0.65

14

371

15652

-

-

24170

1.05

12

372

15798

-

-

25452

0.58

12

373

15672

-

-

24264

1.15

14

374

4341

1189

5451

114859

1.18

13

375

3234

1031

5048/2

114860

1.15

13

376

15633

-

-

24146

0.65

13

377

8313

1008

5008/45

-

0.83

13

378

983

1323

506093/6

-

0.80

12

379

7858

1145

5293/6

114861

1.38

16

380

8166

1117

5219

-

1.70

18

381

9860

1316

3382/3

114862

1.05

16

382

15618

-

-

24244

1.73

15

383

3168

1041

5057/12

114863

0.72

12

384

4340

1169

5342

114864

0.84

12

254

Ariel Berman

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

385

3255

1041

5058/3

114865

0.60

11

386

3235

1034

5041

114866

0.98

13

387

3225

1041

5058/3

114867

1.91

17

388

15529

-

-

7538

0.86

12

389

8329

1008

5008/61

114868

1.35

14

390

15603

-

-

24229

1.14

16

391

15647

-

-

24165

0.59

12

392

15786

-

-

24383

1.53

15

393

15552

-

-

7563

1.39

13

394

15578

-

-

24203

1.19

11

395

15779

-

-

24376

0.55

11

396

3254

1041

5058/2

114869

3.13

22

397

15631

-

-

24144

1.16

15

398*

15546

-

-

7556

0.72

12

399

10983

70612

706149/3

-

0.75

12

400

15650

-

-

24168

0.82

10

401

9821

1316

3395/4

-

0.48

9

Date

Mint

Obverse

Reverse Uncertain 4th–5th c. CE

402–667

Illegible

Illegible

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

402

15641

-

-

24155

1.19

18

403

15640

-

-

24154

0.89

12 ´ 17

404

15595

-

-

24220

0.56

14

405

17775

-

-

24200

0.68

16

406

15690

-

-

24282

1.76

16

407

15500

-

-

7507

0.73

15

408

15699

-

-

24291

1.51

15

409

974

1323

506093/5

-

0.50

12

410

882

50615

506114/4

-

1.20

12

411

878

50623

506103

-

1.40

15

412

561

1145

5308/3

-

2.25

20

413

560

1145

5308/2

-

0.95

17

414

8303

1008

5008/35

-

1.15

15

415

8296

1008

5008/28

-

1.52

20

416

8294

1008

5008/26

-

1.05

16

417

8293

1008

5008/25

-

1.32

17

418

8289

1008

5008/21

-

0.95

14

Reference

255

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

419

8282

1008

5008/14

-

1.11

13

420

8277

1008

5008/9

-

1.12

14

421

8258

1145

5295/63

-

1.17

17

422

8251

1145

5295/56

-

1.35

15

423

8246

1145

5295/51

-

0.92

18

424

8210

1145

5295/15

-

2.40

20

425

8209

1145

5295/14

-

0.50

15

426

8112

1145

5291/16

-

1.32

18

427

8111

1145

5291/15

-

1.10

16

428

8110

1145

5291/14

-

2.05

16

429

7863

1145

5293/11

-

0.97

14

430

7859

1145

5293/7

-

1.06

14

431

7856

1145

5293/4

-

4.00

24

432

7855

1145

5293/3

-

2.50

22

433

7854

1145

5293/2

-

1.00

15

434

7853

1145

5293

-

1.60

17

435

5237

1148

5305

-

0.75

14

436

9829

1316

3395/5

-

2.41

16

437

9825

1316

3395

-

1.49

15

438

9820

1316

3395/2

-

1.71

16

439

22605

90788

906973

-

1.30

16

440

20438

90788

906843/6

-

1.21

15

441

20436

90788

906843/4

-

1.45

15

442

20433

90788

906843

-

1.40

16

443

20427

90772

906828/6

-

1.78

18

444

20416

90772

906818/4

-

0.65

11

445

22615

90788

906973/11

-

4.28

20

446

22610

90788

906973/6

-

1.52

15

447

22608

90788

906973/4

-

1.25

16

448

21731

90825

906915

-

0.70

15

449

15668

-

-

24260

1.17

16

450

15636

-

-

24150

1.44

14

451

15568

-

-

24142

1.10

14

452

15658

-

-

24176

1.13

12

453

15635

-

-

24149

0.49

12

454

15604

-

-

24230

1.19

13

455

15565

-

-

24189

0.39

12

456

15655

-

-

24173

0.24

7 ´ 11

457

15642

-

-

24157

0.74

13

458

567

1145

5308/9

-

1.00

10

459

566

1145

5308/8

-

0.70

16

460

565

1145

5308/7

-

0.51

15

461

564

1145

5308/6

-

0.80

15

462

562

1145

5308/4

-

0.47

14

463

524

1225

3062/2

-

0.42

11

464

517

1224

3059

-

0.76

14

256

Ariel Berman

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

465

515

1166

5335/2

-

0.53

10

466

9819

1316

3395/2

-

1.00

12

467

9812

1322

3383/2

-

0.80

12

468

9811

1322

3383

-

0.60

13

469

8327

1008

5008/59

-

0.85

13

470

8326

1008

5008/58

-

1.06

12

471

8325

1008

5008/57

-

0.74

12

472

8324

1008

5008/56

-

1.32

14

473

8323

1008

5008/55

-

1.22

15

474

8320

1008

5008/52

-

0.82

12

475

8319

1008

5008/51

-

0.82

13

476

8318

1008

5008/50

-

1.24

15

477

8317

1008

5008/49

-

0.65

12

478

8314

1008

5008/46

-

1.65

15

479

8311

1008

5008/43

-

0.59

11

480

8309

1008

5008/41

-

0.63

14

481

8308

1008

5008/40

-

0.75

12

482

8306

1008

5008/2

-

2.00

16

483

8307

1008

5008/38

-

0.80

15

484

8301

1008

5008/33

-

0.55

11

485

8299

1008

5008/31

-

1.40

12

486

8298

1008

5008/30

-

0.83

12

487

8297

1008

5008/29

-

0.64

12

488

8291

1008

5008/23

-

1.23

14

489

8290

1008

5008/22

-

0.95

13

490

8288

1008

5008/20

-

1.20

11

491

8286

1008

5008/18

-

1.38

12

492

8281

1008

5008/13

-

1.05

12

493

8280

1008

5008/12

-

0.63

11

494

8278

1008

5008/10

-

0.85

12

495

8273

1008

5008/5

-

0.88

15

496

8272

1008

5008/4

-

0.75

16

497

8271

1008

5008/3

-

1.13

15

498

8269

1008

5008

-

1.75

14

499

8264

1145

5295/70

-

0.95

11

500

8261

1145

5295/66

-

0.68

10

501

8260

1145

5295/67

-

-

Broken

502

8240

1145

5295/45

-

1.15

15

503

8239

1145

5295/44

-

1.20

15

504

8238

1145

5295/43

-

0.80

16

505

8213

1145

5295/18

-

2.15

16

506

8212

1145

5295/17

-

0.40

12

507

8203

1145

5295/8

-

0.88

12

508

8199

1145

5295/4

-

1.20

12

509

8198

1145

5295/3

-

0.73

15

257

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

510

8197

1145

5295/2

-

1.04

13

511

8104

1145

5291/8

-

1.06

14

512

8103

1145

5291/7

-

1.28

15

513

8101

1145

5291/5

-

1.26

13

514

8099

1145

5291/3

-

0.77

13

515

8098

1145

5291/3

-

1.49

13

516

12945

70612

706596

-

0.25

10

517

17049

80655

806312

-

0.60

10

518

14859

70612

706505/3

-

0.93

14

519

12946

70612

706596/2

-

0.36

12

520

9882

1316

3384/2

-

0.90

13

521

9843

1316

339519

-

1.05

15

522

9841

1316

3395/17

-

0.90

14

523

9838

1316

3395/14

-

1.32

14

524

9835

1316

3395/11

-

2.15

13

525

9831

1316

3395/7

-

1.78

16

526

9830

1316

3395/6

-

2.10

16

527

9828

1316

3395/4

-

1.59

12

528

9826

1316

3395/2

-

1.48

14

529

22607

90788

906973/3

-

0.67

12

530

21764

90788

906952/6

-

1.30

16

531

21761

90788

906922/3

-

1.40

13

532

21730

90788

906906/3

-

0.93

12

533

21729

90788

906906/2

-

1.54

13

534

20486

90788

906881/2

-

1.71

15

535

20485

90788

906881

-

1.56

13

536

20440

90788

906843/8

-

1.32

13

537

20437

90788

906843/5

-

1.05

12

538

20426

90772

906828/5

-

1.08

15

539

20425

90772

906828/4

-

0.91

13

540

20422

90772

906828

-

1.95

16

541

20415

90772

906818/3

-

0.37

11

542

22631

90788

906990/2

-

0.82

14

543

22620

90788

906973/16

-

1.80

16

544

22618

90788

906973/14

-

1.26

16

545

22617

90788

906973/13

-

1.50

13

546

22616

90788

906973/12

-

1.60

13

547

22614

90788

906973/11

-

1.04

15

548

22613

90788

906973/9

-

1.30

15

549

22612

90788

906973/8

-

0.85

14

550

21732

90825

906915/2

-

0.03

10

551

20448

90766

906747

-

1.02

14

552

5030

1238

3132/5

-

0.15

8

553

1380

1320

3375/4

-

0.13

8

554

1381

1320

3375/5

-

0.44

7

258

Ariel Berman

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

555

1322

1320

3421/2

-

0.67

7

556

2149

1320

3399/3

-

0.54

9

557

3127

1320

3399/4

-

0.30

9

558

9876

1320

3377

-

1.45

13

559

401

1320

3406/5

-

0.80

12

560

402

1320

3406/6

-

0.36

9

561

999

1320

3399

-

0.45

7

562

1331

1340

506002/3

-

0.68

9

563

9859

1316

3382/2

-

0.50

13

564

17459

80694

806457/2

-

0.80

12

565

9606

1316

3371

-

0.53

8

566

8270

1008

5008/2

-

0.62

11

567

8285

1008

5008/17

-

0.74

12

568

8287

1008

5008/19

-

0.49

10

569

8300

1008

5008/32

-

0.83

12

570

8331

1008

5008/63

-

0.88

10

571

17138

80655

806356

-

0.61

11

572

11068

70612

706614

-

0.65

14

573

11067

70754

706607

-

0.90

13

574

11008

70734

706576

-

0.35

8

575

10981

70612

706149

-

0.44

8

576

10982

70612

706149/2

-

0.45

12

577

9881

1316

3384

-

0.08

6

578

9873

1316

3400

-

2.35

16

579

9858

1316

3382

-

1.15

11

580

9855

1316

3397

-

2.10

17

581

9853

1320

3404

-

3.50

16

582

9832

1316

3395/8

-

1.33

13

583

9836

1316

3395/12

-

0.90

12

584

9842

1316

3395/18

-

0.42

11

585

9844

1316

3395/20

-

1.00

14

586

9845

1316

3395/21

-

0.42

11

587

3026

1053

5081/11

-

0.30

10

588

3226

1041

5058/4

-

0.55

13

589

1170

1333

3439/5

-

1.60

16

590

587

1171

5351

-

4.06

18

591

1229

1338

3430/14

-

1.50

15

592

5222

1148

5306

-

2.35

18

593

4347

1179

5368/2

-

1.32

15

594

3231

1039

5062

-

2.00

15

595

3163

1041

5057/7

-

0.83

15

596

3161

1041

5057/5

-

1.02

13

597

3022

1053

5081/7

-

1.29

15

598

3111

1097

5176

-

0.82

15

599

1107

1255

3201

-

1.90

14

259

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

600

1177

1333

3439/12

-

0.80

12

601

5172

1255

3186

-

2.19

14

602

4346

1179

5368

-

2.50

20

603

3014

1048

5078/2

-

1.79

16

604

3010

1053

5076/3

-

0.50

12

605

3007

1052

5075/3

-

0.70

15

606

1235

1338

3430/20

-

0.80

10

607

1234

1338

3430/19

-

1.00

12

608

1233

1338

3430/18

-

1.40

13

609

1231

1338

3430/16

-

0.60

13

610

1221

1338

3430/6

-

2.00

15

611

1175

1333

3439/10

-

0.80

17

612

1139

1333

3416/12

-

0.80

13

613

1131

1333

3416/4

-

1.50

16

614

9818

1316

3395

-

2.20

16

615

8330

1008

5008/62

-

0.50

12

616

8305

1008

5008/37

-

1.95

16

617

8292

1008

5008/24

-

1.10

13

618

8236

1145

5295/41

-

0.90

14

619

8221

1145

5295/26

-

2.15

Broken

620

8215

1145

5295/20

-

2.05

18

621

8204

1145

5295/9

-

0.49

12

622

8201

1145

5295/6

-

1.16

Broken

623

8100

1145

5291/4

-

2.40

20

624

7864

1145

5293/12

-

-

Broken

625

5144

1255

3201

-

0.80

14

626

4309

1182

5379/2

-

0.98

13

627

4308

1182

5379

-

2.35

17

628

4304

1168

5345

-

1.35

15

629

4299

1178

5367

-

0.75

13

630

4099

50637

506224

-

1.04

12

631

3261

1022

5027/3

-

3.22

21

632

3259

1022

5027

-

4.22

17

633

3249

1011

5021/3

-

0.95

13

634

3238

1046

5060/3

-

2.80

20

635

3233

1031

5048

-

1.02

12

636

3232

1039

5062/2

-

1.05

12

637

3230

1041

5058/8

-

0.45

11

638

3229

1041

5058/7

-

0.75

13

639

3228

1041

5058/6

-

0.40

12

640

3227

1041

5058/5

-

0.90

12

641

3212

1039

5059/5

-

0.91

11

642

3211

1039

5059/4

-

1.65

12

643

3189

1026

5036

-

0.47

10

644

3187

1023

5028

-

2.30

18

260

Ariel Berman

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

645

3176

1026

5042/3

-

-

Broken

646

3167

1041

5057/11

-

1.45

14

647

3166

1041

5057/10

-

0.72

13

648

3124

1108

5206/2

-

1.40

18

649

3106

1096

5170

-

1.45

14

650

3089

1095

5168

-

0.89

13

651

3084

1077

5140/2

-

2.33

16

652

3079

1073

5128

-

1.95

16

653

3074

1073

5121/2

-

1.04

13

654

3072

1066

5115

-

0.54

12

655

3071

1066

5115

-

4.96

21

656

3070

1069

5113

-

0.63

11

657

3063

1066

5109

-

1.30

14

658

3038

1055

5084/4

-

0.83

9

659

3030

1053

5081/15

-

1.13

14

660

15175

80605

806005

-

0.90

13

661

12948

70612

706596/4

-

1.06

12

662

9837

1316

3395/13

-

2.15

13

663

9827

1316

3395/3

-

1.55

15

664

22611

90788

906973/7

-

0.80

15

665

1879

1320

3399/2

-

0.31

9

666

9874

1320

3398

-

2.46

15

667

1321

1320

3421

-

5.30

23

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Byzantine Anastasius I (491–518 CE), Follis DN ANASTASIVS PP AVG Bust r.

M, between two stars above

498–518

Constantinople

DOC 1:18–22, Nos. 23a–k

669–670

Same

Same, officina Γ

Same

Same

Same

671

Same

Same

Same

DOC 1:12, No. 1

672–674

Bust r. DN ANASTASIVS PP AVG

M, between two stars,

Same

Same

DOC 1:15, No. 20a–d

675

Bust r.

M, between star l.

Same

Antioch

DOC 1:32, No. 46

668

cross, beneath B; in ex.: CON

Follis (Small module) Same, officina E Follis beneath E; in ex.: CON

and crescent r.; in ex.: ANTX

Half Follis [DN ANASTASIVS] PP AVG Bust r.

K, l. cross,

Same

Same

DOC 1:16, No. 21

678

Same

Same, officina B

Same

Same

Cf. DOC 1:23–24, No. 24d

679

Same

K,

Same

Nicomedia

DOC 1:29, No. 35

676–677

r. officina E

l. cross; between N and I

261

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Justin I (518–527 CE), Follis 680

DN IVSTINVS PP AVG Bust r.

M, between two stars; in

Same

DOC 1:39, No. 8

681

Same

Same, beneath officina E; in ex.: CON

Same

DOC 1:41, No. 12

682

Same

Same, beneath officina A; in ex. NIKM

Nicomedia

MIB I:105, No. 36

683

Bust r.

K, l. long cross

Constantinople

DOC 1:42, No. 15

E, r. officina B

Same

DOC 1:44, No. 18

Same

DOC 1:46, No. 22

ex.: CON

Half Follis

Pentanummium 684

Same

685

Same

No.

Large christogram, r. E, l. officina Δ

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

668

15530

-

-

7539

12.88

30

669

15612

-

-

24238

12.54

34

670

15712

-

-

24304

9.69

29

671

15661

-

-

24253

6.26

24

672

15669

-

-

24261

12.95

31

673

15676

-

-

24268

6.54

24

674

1217

1338

3430/2

114870

8.50

25

675

15733

-

-

24327

13.44

32

676

15805

-

# 9879?

-

3.06

18

677

15561

-

-

24184

3.86

19

678

15720

-

-

24312

5.96

26

679

3073

1073

5121

114871

3.00

20

680

951

1323

506090/13

114872

12.5

35

681

15732

-

-

24326

16.10

30

682

15507

-

-

7514

13.52

32

683

15563

-

-

24186

5.90

24

684

15592

-

-

24217

1.60

13

685

15517

-

-

7525

1.01

13

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Justinian I (527–565 CE), Follis 686

687–690

DN IVSTINIANVS PP AVG Bust r.

M, between two stars, above

527–538

Constantinople

Cf. DOC 1:80, No. 30

Same

M, between star and cross,

527–538

Same

DOC 1:78, No. 28a

M, beneath officina A; in

527/8

Antioch

DOC 1:134, No. 202

cross, (the mint and officina missing)

above cross, beneath officina A; in ex.: [CO]N

691

Same

ex.: ANTIX

262

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

692

Same

Date

M, between two stars, above

Mint

Reference

Theoupolis

DOC 1:138–139, Nos. 210–212

552/3

Same

Cf. DOC 1:149–150, Nos. 237–244

534–539

Carthage

DOC 1:170, No. 309

cross, beneath officina G; in ex.: [Θ]ΠOΛ

Half Follis 693

DN IVSTINIANVS PP AVG Bust facing, helmeted and cuirassed

K, l. A/N/N/O, above cross,

r. numerals of the twenty-sixth regnal year, beneath Ο/Π

Nummus 694

A

Bust r.

Justin II (565–578 CE), Follis Justin and Sophia seated facing DN IVSTINVS PP AVG

M, between A/N/N/O and

571/2

Constantinople

DOC 1:204–214, Nos. 22–43

696–697

Same

Same, the eighth regnal year, beneath officina A

572/3

Same

DOC 1:209, No. 34a

698

Same

Same, the ninth regnal year

573/4

Same

DOC 1:210, No. 36a

699

Same

Same, the twelfth regnal year, beneath officina E

576/7

Same

DOC 1:213, No. 42d

700

Same

Same, the second regnal year, beneath officina B; in ex.: NIKO

566/7

Nicomedia

DOC 1:227, No. 93

701

Same

Same, the third regnal year

567/8

Same

DOC 1:227, No. 94

702

Same

Same, the eighth regnal year, beneath officina A

572/3

Same

DOC 1:229, No. 98a

703

Same

Same, the tenth regnal year (officina obscure)

574/5

Same

DOC 1:229, No. 100b

704

Same

Same, the eighth regnal year, beneath officina A; in ex.: KYZ

573/4

Cyzicus

DOC 1:235, No. 121d

705

Same

K, l. A/N/N/O, r. the sixth

570/1

Cyzicus

DOC 1:238–239, Nos. 127–135

706

Same

M, between A/N/N/O and r.

571/2

Theoupolis

Cf. DOC 1:243, No. 152

Same, the thirteenth regnal year, beneath officina Γ; in ex.: tHE[UP]

577/8

Same

Cf. DOC 1:245, No. 160

695

numerals of the seventh regnal year, beneath officina D; in ex.: CON

regnal year, beneath KYZ

numerals of the seventh regnal years

707

Same

708–710

Same

565–578 CE

M, l. A/N/N/O,

beneath officina A (mint obscure)

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

686

15505

-

-

-

12.31

31

687

15626

-

-

-

12.24

32

263

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

688

15736

-

-

-

14.49

29

689

15739

-

-

-

11.63

28

690

15536

-

-

-

12.13

32

691

15502

-

-

-

14.07

32

692

15504

-

-

-

12.73

30

693

15526

-

-

-

5.20

25

694

1176

1333

3439/11

-

0.60

8

695

15718

-

-

-

12.05

31

696

15741

-

-

-

12.01

28

697

15770

-

-

-

13.65

25 ´ 28

698

15730

-

-

-

4.75

28

699

15764

-

-

-

10.30

29

700

15521

-

-

-

9.81

31

701

15788

-

-

-

6.07

30

702

15535

-

-

-

10.46

30

703

15675

-

-

-

13.05

30

704

15543

-

-

-

10.01

29

705

15625

-

-

7567

4.35

23

706

15751

-

-

24348

9.10

32

707

15614

-

-

24340

8.81

26

708

15613

-

-

24239

9.12

30

709

15579

-

-

24204

11.60

27

710

15534

-

-

7544

8.08

26

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

m

587/9

Constantinople

DOC 1:270–271, Nos. 11–12

Same, the sixth regnal year; in ex.: tHEUPO

579/80

Theoupolis

DOC 1:282–283, Nos. 40–42

Constantinople

Cf. DOC 1:320, Nos. 44–45

Tiberius II (578–582 CE), Follis 711

mTIB CON[ST PP AV] Bust facing

712

Same

713

[dN mAVRCI TIb PPAVG] Bust facing, helm and cuirassed

, above cross l. A/N/N/O, r. the fourth regnal year; in ex.: CON

Maurice (582–602 CE), Follis

M; in ex.: CON

(officina and date missing)

Half Follis 714

Same

K, between A/N/N/O and the

589/90

Same

Cf. DOC 1:313, No. 53

715*

Same

Same, the tenth regnal year, beneath officina B

591/2

Same

DOC 1:314, No. 55

582/3

Nicomedia

DOC 1:323, No. 91b

eighth regnal year

Follis 716

Same

M, between A/N/N/O and the first regnal year, below officina B; in ex.: [NI]KO

264

Ariel Berman

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

717

Same

Same, the second regnal year

583/4

Same

DOC 1:324, No. 92b

718

Same

M, between A/N/N/O and

584/5

Thessalonica

DOC 1:321, No. 74

719

Same

Same, the fourth regnal year; in ex.: TES

585/6

Same

DOC 1:321, No. 76

720*

Same

Same, the twelfth regnal year, below officina B; in ex.: KYZ

593/4

Cyzicus

DOC 1:330, No. 120

721

Same

Same, the thirteen regnal year, below officina A

594/5

-

DOC 1:311–315, Nos. 47–63

722–723

Same

Same (illegible, obscure)

578–602

Half Follis the third regnal year

Decanummium 724

Same

725

Illegible

I, l. A/N/N/O, r. numerals of

601/2

Thessalonica (?)

I, between two stars; in ex.:

582–602

Nicomedia

the twentieth regnal year NIK

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

711

15520

-

-

7528

7.21

26 ´ 31

712

15615

-

-

24241

8.87

31

713

15657

-

-

24175

10.82

28

714

15734

-

-

24328

5.71

24

715*

15537

-

-

7547

3.38

20

716

15624

-

-

24251

10.18

30

717

15539

-

-

7549

8.95

24

718

15515

-

-

7523

3.92

24

719

15605

-

-

24231

4.51

22

720*

16168

60780

607134

114873

9.29

28

721

5060

1226

3071

114874

3.90

21

722

15726

-

-

24320

3.09

22

723

15753

-

-

24350

7.78

28

724

15752

-

-

24349

4.03

20

725

15771

-

-

24368

2.33

15

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Uncertain 6th c. CE, Follis 726

Uncertain

M, l. A/N/N/O, beneath officina B; in ex.: CON

Half Follis 727–729

Same

K

Nummus (?) 730–737

Cf. DOC I:329, No. 117

Illegible

Illegible

Constantinople

Reference

265

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Phocas (602–610 CE), Half Follis 738–739

DM FOCA [PER AVG] Bust facing

XX, r. the second

603/4

Nicomedia

Cf. DOC 2:1, No. 63a

740

Same

Same, star above; in ex.: KY[ZA]

(Undated)

Cyzicus

DOC 2:186, No. 82

regnal year; in ex.: NIKO

Heraclius (610–641 CE), Follis Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine stg. facing

M, above star, below officina

613–618

Constantinople

Cf. DOC 2:278– 286, Nos. 76–84

Heraclius, Heraclius Constantine and the empress Martina, all stg. facing

M, l. monogram of Heraclius

620/21

Same

DOC 2:292–294, Nos. 99–103

Heraclius and Heraclius Constantine stg. facing

M, between A/N/N/O and

630/31

Same

744

[IMPER] CONSt Bust facing

Large M; in ex.: [NEOS]

643/4

Same

745

Same

K, l. A/N/N/O,

619/20

Same

DOC 2:302–305, Nos. 118–124

741

742*

743

E; in ex.: CON (date uncertain)

above ANNO, r. the eleventh regnal year, below officina A, beneath CON

the twentieth regnal year, below officina A; in ex.: CON

Half Follis The tenth regnal year r. below officina Γ

746

Same

Same, the eleventh regnal year

620/21

Same

Same

747

Same

Same, the twentieth regnal year, below officina B

629/30

Same

Same

748

Same

Same

DOC 2:450–451, Nos. 70–73

Constans II (641–668 CE), Follis

M

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

726

15585

-

-

24210

8.71

27 ´ 30

727

15574

-

-

24199

4.57

22 ´ 25

728

15747

-

-

24343

3.90

23

729

15597

-

-

24222

2.75

13 ´ 21

730

11053

70612

706614

-

0.53

8

731

17458

80694

806457

-

1.90

12

732

1297

1283

3277/2

-

1.28

10

733

3215

1024

5030/3

114875

1.33

12

734

4007

50648

506228/2

-

0.25

9

735

12947

70612

706596/3

-

0.55

10

736

17046

80655

806341/2

-

0.24

9

737

8220

1145

5295/25

-

2.25

16

738

15729

-

-

24323

5.03

23

739

15654

-

-

24172

4.40

22 ´ 24

266

Ariel Berman

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

740

15745

-

-

24339

3.17

24

741

15750

-

-

24341

4.04

22 ´ 24

742*

15533

-

-

7543

3.82

23

743

15591

-

-

24216

9.15

30

744

15630

-

-

24143

4.55

26

745

15772

-

-

24369

4.95

22

746

15671

-

-

24263

3.49

21

747

15622

-

-

24249

4.24

21

748

15176

80606

806012

114876

1.91

16 ´ 18

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Arab-Byzantine (Transitional Period) Anonymous (7th c. CE)

m

749

Imperial figure stg., facing

750

Same

751

Same

Same, r. A/C

752

Same

Same, l. [ANNO; in ex.: illegible legend

753–754

Same

755–756

Same

757

Same

758*

Imperial figure stg., facing, holding long cross and globus cruciger legend: OZ[- - -]

, l., A/N/N/O

Same, r. [- - -]E[- - -]

m Same

Dimashq (?)

m

Foss 2008:27, No. 8

l. ONO Same

Foss 2008:27, No. 8

Umayyad (Pre-Reform) Anonymous 759 760–761

Three imperial figures stg. facing

M, around:

Same

M (clockwise remains of

650–690

[Tabariya]

SNAT:30, No. 283

Same

Tabariya

SNAT:30, No. 283

Dimashq

Walker 1956:37, No. 121

Tabariya

SNAT:32, Nos. 339–344

‫محمد \ رسول \ هللا‬

illegible Arabic legend)

‘Abd al-Malik (AH 66–86/685–705 CE) 762

The caliph stg. facing wearing long robe holding ceremonial sword r. legend around (illegible)

763

In field:

Pole above four steps, bisecting a circle, inscr. r. downward (illegible)

Anonymous ‫هللا ا \ حد هللا \ الصمد‬

Margin: ‫الاله اال هللا وحده ال شريك له‬

In field:

‫محمد\ رسول\ هللا‬

Palm tree to right Margin: ‫بسم هللا ضرب هذا الفلس بطبرية‬

c. 116 AH (=734)

267

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

764–765

766*

767*

Reverse

Date

‫الاله \ اال هللا \ وحده‬

In field:

Within triple circles: ‫ال اله \ اال هللا \ وحده‬

In field:

Within a double circle with striations: ‫ال اله \ اال هللا \ وحده‬

Within a circle:

‫محمد\ رسول\ هللا‬ Palm branch on double step right Margin: ‫ضرب هذا الفلس بطبرية‬

Margin:

‫محمد\ رسول\ هللا‬

Mint

Reference

Same

Walker 1956:269, No. 896

‘Akka

SNAT:36, No. 403

Al-Ramla

Walker 1956:255, No. 848

‫بسم هللا ضرب هذا الفلس بعكا‬

‫محمد\ رسول\ هللا‬ Palm branch to right Margin: ‫بسم هللا ضرب هذا الفلس بالرملة‬

Silver, Dirham (worn and broken) 768

Illegible

Illegible Fals

769 770

Illegible

‫محمد \ رسول \ هللا‬

In the field: ‫هللا احد هللا \ الصمد لم يلد \ ولم يولد‬ ‫ ال اله اال \ هللا وحده \ ال شريك له‬Margin: Margin: ‫بسم هللا ضرب هذا الفلس سنة ست عشر ومئة‬ ‫محمد رسول هللا ارسله بالهدى ودين الحق‬

771

In the field:

772–796

In the field:

‫ال اله \ اال هللا \ وحده‬

‫ال اله \ اال هللا \ وحده‬

AH 116 (=734/5)

Cf. Walker 1956:293, No. 954

In the field a pomegranate, around: ‫محمد رسول هللا‬

Walker 1956:203, No. 595

In the field:

Walker 1956:209, Nos. 633–638

‫محمد \ رسول \ هللا‬

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

749

15651

-

-

24169

2.97

22

750

15577

-

-

24202

2.31

11 ´ 14

751

3082

1073

5138/2

114877

2.64

16 ´ 18

752

15540

-

-

7550

3.00

19 ´ 23

753

15532

-

-

7542

3.85

20 ´ 23

754

15531

-

-

7541

1.80

17 ´ 22

755

15522

-

-

7530

2.18

17

756

399

1320

3406/3

114878

4.66

20

757

15514

-

-

7522

2.87

20 ´ 25

758*

15503

-

-

7510

2.80

15 ´ 19

759

4026

50648

506253

506253

2.70

17

760

398

1320

3406

114879

2.20

17

761

1296

1283

3277

114880

3.80

24

762

15768

-

-

24365

2.55

19

763

15580

-

-

24205

2.91

19

764

11024

70734

706561

114881

3.62

18

765

11025

70734

706561/2

114882

3.33

18

766*

880

50615

506114/2

114883

3.70

21

767*

3250

1033

5040

114884

2.23

20 ´ 22

268

Ariel Berman

No.

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

768

9877

1320

3377/2

-

3.40

28

769

824

50635

506174

-

4.20

18

770

8172

1124

5243/2

114885

3.64

17

771

15702

-

-

24294

3.52

17

772

435

1189

5486

114886

3.75

18

773

15562

-

-

24185

2.49

18

774

15815

-

-

7540

1.60

21

775

15813

-

-

7557

1.82

14

776

15746

-

-

24346

3.74

22

777

15665

-

-

24257

3.90

17

778

15653

-

-

24255

2.82

23

779

1329

1340

506002

114887

3.30

23

780

1314

1332

3425C

114888

3.68

18

781

982

1323

506093/7

114889

2.60

15

782

3257

1039

5055

-

1.65

16

783

1330

1340

506002/2

-

4.00

24

784

9823

1320

3404

-

2.07

18

785

1378

1320

3375/2

-

0.93

13

786

814

50639

506194/3

-

1.13

15

787

1377

1320

3375

-

2.03

14

788

841

50628

506135

-

2.04

17

789

871

50625

506110

114890

3.60

18

790

881

50615

506114/3

114891

3.00

20

791

1130

1333

3416/3

-

1.80

14

792

1315

1332

3425/2

114892

2.22

21

793

1316

1332

3425/3

114893

1.28

17

794

1317

1332

3425/4

114894

2.00

17

795

3256

1041

5058/4

-

1.70

14

796

5179

1261

3200/5

-

1.80

15

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

9th c.

[Tabariya]?

Reference

Abbasid Uncertain Governor (9th c. CE) 797

Illegible

Effaced

Zangid—Atabeg of Halab Al-‘Ādil Nūr al-Dīn Mahmūd (AH 541–569/1146–1174 CE) 798–799

Center:

‫الملك العادل‬

Center:

‫محمود بن زنكى‬

Dimashq

BMCO III:602, No. 212

Dimashq

Balog 1980:113, No. 223

Ayyūbid Al-‘Azīz ‘Imād al-Dīn ‘Uthmān (AH 592–595/1195–1198 CE) 800

‫عثمان \ الملك العزيز‬

Illegible

269

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Same

Balog 1980:135, No. 319

Dimashq

Cf. Balog 1980:169, No. 465

Halab

Cf. Balog 1980:215, No. 670

Al-‘Ādil I Sayf al-Dīn Abū Bakr (AH 592–615/ 1199–1218 CE) 801

‫الدين \ الملك العادل \ سيف‬

‫ابو بكر ايوب \ بن‬

Al-Kāmil I Nāsir al-Dīn Muhammad (AH 615–635/1218–1238 CE) 802

‫الملك الكا \مل ناصر الدين‬

‫محمد بن ابى \ بكر بن ايوب‬

Al-Zāhir Ghiyāth al-Dīn Ghāzī (AH 582–613/1186–1216 CE) 803

‫الملك \ الظاهر‬

‫االمام \ الناصر‬

Ayyūbid Uncertain 12th–13th c. CE 804

No.

Illegible

Illegible

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

797

15646

-

-

24163

1.17

15

798

15511

-

-

7518

4.19

25

799

15806

-

-

24159

4.26

25

800

15807

-

-

24156

2.09

22

801

15808

-

-

24160

4.89

24

802

15810

-

-

24196

3.67

22

803

9814

1219

3106/2

114895

3.78

21

804

15814

-

-

7536

1.26

16

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

[Halab]

Cf. Balog 1964:143, No. 199

Dimashq

Balog 1964:146, No. 212

Mamlūks Al-Nāsir Nāsir Muhammad, 3rd Reign (AH 709–741/1310– 1341 CE), Silver Dirham 805*

‫قالون \ السلطان الملك \ الناصر ناصر‬ ‫الدين محمد بن الملك \ المنصور‬

\ ‫ال اله اال هللا \ محمد رسول هللا‬ ‫ارسله بالهدى‬

Fraction of Dirham 806

Illegible

Illegible Fals

807

‫هللا \ وما النصر اال من عند \ السلطان الملك‬ ‫الناصر \ ناصر الدنيا والدين محمد \ بن‬ ‫الملك المنصور \ قالون‬

‫هللا \ وما النصر اال من عند \ ال اله اال‬ ‫هللا \ محمد رسول هللا \ ارسله بالهدى‬ ‫\ ودين الحق‬

Cf. Balog 1964:149, No. 219

808

Within a circle:

Illegible

Cf. Balog 1964:152, No. 232

809

Illegible

‫محمد‬

Illegible

Dimashq

Cf. Balog 1964:158, No. 248

270 No.

Ariel Berman

Obverse

Reverse

Date

Mint

Reference

Dimashq

Cf. Balog 1964:179, No. 303

Dimashq

Cf. Balog 1964:164, No. 267

Venice

Papadopoli 1893:251, No. 1

Misr al Mahrūsa (alQahirah)

Valentine 1911:30, No. 14

Al-Kamil Sayf al-Dīn Sha’ban I (AH 746–747 / 1345–1346 CE), Fals 810

Illegible

Illegible

Uncertain 13th–14th c. CE, Fals 811

Illegible

Illegible

812–813

Within hexagram (illegible)

Within hexagram: ‫ضرب \ مشق \ بد‬

814–835

Illegible

Illegible

14th c. CE, Fals

Venice Thommaso Mocenigo (1414–1423 CE), Gold Ducat 836

SM VENETI MMOCCENIGO Saint Marco stg. facing between stars

SITT XPE DAEQTV REGIS ISTE DVCAT The doge kneeling before saint, blessed by him

Ottoman Uncertain 16th–17th c. CE, Mangir 837

[---] ‫مصر \ المحروسه \ سنة‬

Arabesque ornament

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

805*

15508

-

-

7515

2.65

20

806

1114

1276

3252

114896

1.30

12

807

15628

-

-

24141

2.45

18

808

3037

1055

5084/3

-

2.48

16

809

5027

1238

3132/2

114897

2.60

21

810

5031

1238

3149

114898

3.17

18

811

15569

-

-

24193

1.12

16 ´ 19

812

15796

-

-

24393

1.06

17

813

15811

-

-

24181

2.16

18

814

15632

-

-

24145

1.44

18

815

15645

-

-

24164

3.31

18

816

15710

-

-

24302

1.82

19

817

15711

-

-

24303

3.85

13 ´ 19

818

15570

-

-

24194

2.74

17

819

5026

1238

3132

-

4.83

21 ´ 24

820

5028

1238

3132/3

-

1.90

16

821

5029

1238

3132/4

-

0.67

14

822

5195

1238

3149/2

-

0.59

15

823

5167

1238

3161

-

1.45

17

824

9813

1219

3106

-

2.90

17

271

Chapter 6: The Coins

No.

Inventory

Locus

Basket

IAA No.

Wt. (g)

Diam. (mm)

825

11594

70614

706388

-

2.40

21

826

14857

70612

706505

-

1.70

18

827

15748

-

-

24345

2.43

19

828

15803

-

-

24370

1.55

18

829

15809

-

-

24161

2.32

19

830

15756

-

-

24353

3.92

21

831

15789

-

-

24386

2.76

20

832

15795

-

-

24392

2.87

17

833

15812

-

-

24187

2.58

18

834

5120

1219

3099

-

2.04

19

835

4076

50647

506238

-

4.25

20

836

15802

-

-

23439

3.41

21

837

563

1145

5308/5

-

-

Broken

Notes 1 We would like to thank Donald T. Ariel, head of the IAA Coin Department, for his assistance in preparing this chapter.

2 The coins were cleaned in the IAA laboratories under the direction of Ella Altmark and were photographed by Clara Amit of the IAA.

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