Cultural Stratigraphy in the Virú Valley Northern Peru: The Formative and Florescent Epochs 9780231880541

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Cultural Stratigraphy in the Viru Valley Northern Peru

COLUMBIA STUDIES IN ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, VOLUME IV

M A P O F N O R T H COAST O F P E R U

Cultural Stratigraphy in the Viru Valley Northern Peru The Formative and Florescent Epochs By WILLIAM DUNCAN STRONG and CLIFFORD EVANS, JR.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK 1952

Published in Great Britain, Canada, and India by Geoffrey Cumberlege Oxford University Press, London, Toronto, and Bombay P R I N T E D IN G R E A T B R I T A I N

TO M A X UHLE AND ALFRED L. KROEBER Scientific Explorers and Recorders

Extraordinary

Preface

T

HE PRESENT VOLUME presents the major results attained by only one unit of the co-operative Virú Valley Project of the Institute of Andean Research. This work of the Columbia University unit in 1946 was part of an integrated research program which will be outlined in the introduction to this report. Here, however, we wish to extend thanks to all those co-operating Peruvian and North American institutions and individual scientists that aided us in our work in the Virú Valley. Through such complete coordination of varied scientific approaches it is believed that more productive work was accomplished in one year in the Virú Valley than could have been obtained by any one expedition operating over many years. In common with all participating institutions we wish to thank the Viking Fund of New York, which, through a grant to the Institute of Andean Research, provided all expeditions with shared local transportation, excellent maps of the Virú Valley purchased from the Servicio Aereofotográfico Nacional of Peru, and admirable laboratory facilities in Trujillo. These facilities, provided for all, were far superior to those which any one of the participating institutions could have established for themselves. Our greatest personal and scientific indebtedness rests with Rafael Larco Herrera, the distinguished owner of the Hacienda Chiclin, and his three sons, Rafael Larco Hoyle, Constante Larco Hoyle, and the late Javier Larco Hoyle. From these individuals and other members of this family we received extensive and warm hospitality at the Hacienda Chiclin as well as much material assistance. Rafael Larco Hoyle, the Director of the Museo Arqueológico "Rafael Larco Herrera" at Chiclin, is one of the world's leading Peruvian archeologists. Through his publications, by study of the magnificent collections in the Chiclin Museum, and, especially, through many scientific discussions with him, we acquired much knowledge which aided greatly

in all aspects of our scientific work. The Chiclin Conference, assembled there on August 7 and 8, 1946, went far toward crystallizing several new and very important trends in Peruvian archeological research. In Trujillo, the Columbia University expedition, like the others participating in the Virú Valley Project, received both archeological guidance and extensive hospitality from Sr. Enrique Jacobs and his charming family. The faculty of the Universidad de la Libertad were both hospitable and cooperative, and we were especially aided by the Director of the Museum of the University, Sr. Máximo Díaz, and by Dr. Hans Horkheimer. Helen Richardson Strong was, during our stay, in charge of the laboratory at Trujillo, and the authors are very grateful to her for long and exacting labor with the masses of materials which had to be cleaned, catalogued, and studied. We wish to thank the officials of the Republic of Peru in Lima, who permitted us to carry on our work. Among these, the Ministry of Public Education, the Instituto de Estudios Etnológicos, and the Museo de Antropología y Arqueología were particularly helpful. Here we wish to give thanks to old friends and to scientific colleagues, including Dr. Luis E. Valcárcel, then Minister of Public Education; to the late Dr. Julio Tello, at that time Director of the Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología; to his successor, Dr. Rebeca Carrión Cachot; to Dr. Jorge C . Muelle of the University of San Marcos; to Dr. Juan Delgado of the Museo Nacional de Historia; and, most particularly, to his then Excellency, Carlos Nicholson, former Peruvian Ambassador to China, who was then in Lima. Without the active intercession of the latter in clearing official channels so that our field research could actively begin, it is possible that we might have been delayed much longer than the month actually required. In the United States, the writers wish particularly to thank Miss Rose Lilien, who as

viii

Preface

Research Assistant in the Department of Anthropology at Columbia University, 19481950, has worked tirelessly and efficiently on all aspects of the work here presented. Her special services in regard to describing and defining the pottery types more roughly formulated by the authors and the other participants of the Viru Valley Project are indicated in Appendix 1. Particularly helpful in the important field of textiles has been the continuous and freely given advice and formulations of Junius Bird of the American Museum of Natural History (Appendix 3). Despite crowding work on his own research section of the Viru Valley Project he has always been willing to help others with his experience and highly technical skills, for which the present writers are most grateful. The identification of those vegetal remains secured by the expedition which were available in the United States has been made by Margaret A. Towle (Appendix 2). This has involved long and complicated botanical comparison of very fragile and fragmentary materials, and we wish to thank her for these services. In the laboratory, the work of Mr. Robert Stigler has been most extensive in both the preparation and correction of manuscript and for general editorial super-

vision. This is highly appreciated. The field photographs included herein are mainly the work of the junior author. Mr. H. Feld of Lima took most of the individual specimen photographs. T o the artists, William Pulver, Ethne Kaplan, and Betty Meggers Evans, we express our gratitude for their graphic presentation which, in final analysis, yields far more rapid comprehension of cultural likenesses and differences than do scores of pages of descriptive writing. Finally, the senior author wishes to acknowledge his deep indebtedness to Columbia University and to the Council for Research in the Social Sciences of Columbia University for support on this as well as previous expeditions to Peru. The junior author likewise gratefully acknowledges the support he has received here and elsewhere from Columbia University. It must already be obvious that the present combined scientific operations in the Viru Valley have been both interinstitutional and international in character, and it is our belief that all the great prehistoric and historic cultural problems of the Americas can best be solved in such a thoroughly cooperative manner. W I L L I A M D U N C A N STRONG CLIFFORD E V A N S , J R .

Columbia University October, ig$o

Contents INTRODUCTION

3

O R I G I N A N D N A T U R E OF T H E V I R Ù V A L L E Y P R O J E C T THE

ROLE

OF T H E

COLUMBIA

UNIVERSITY

EXPEDITION

3 IN T H E

VIRÒ

VALLEY

PROJECT

5

B R I E F D E S C R I P T I O N OF T H E V I R Ù V A L L E Y B A C K G R O U N D OF O U R E X C A V A T I O N S IN T H E V I R Ò V A L L E Y

6 I I

TERMINOLOGY ITINERARY

I I I 3

PRESENTATION

15

HUACA N E G R A SITE ( V - 7 1 ) NEAR GUANAPE CERRO PRIETO, PRE-CERAMIC EXCAVATIONS T E S T PIT I ( P R E - C E R A M I C HOUSES)

17 I IG

T E S T PIT 2 ( P R E - C E R A M I C STRATA G U T )

20

CULTURAL AND OTHER R E M A I N S OF THE CERRO PRIETO O C C U P A T I O N

21

T H E E X C A V A T I O N S OF T H E G U A N A P E P E R I O D T E S T PITS 3 AND 4

23 23

STRATA C U T 1

23

T E S T PIT 5

27

T E M P L E OF THE L L A M A S

27

C U L T U R A L A N D O T H E R R E M A I N S OF T H E G U A N A P E P E R I O D

34

ARCHITECTURE

34

C E R A M I C S FROM STRATA C U T 1 C E R A M I C S FROM T E M P L E OF THE L L A M A S , T E S T PITS, A N D SURFACE

34 37

N O N - C E R A M I C MATERIALS FROM STRATA C U T 1 N O N - C E R A M I C MATERIALS FROM T E M P L E OF THE L L A M A S , T E S T PITS, A N D SURFACE

39 41

RÉSUMÉ

44

CEMETERY V - 6 6 NEAR PUERTO MOORIN D E S C R I P T I O N OF T H E A R E A EXCAVATIONS AT CEMETERY V - 6 6

47 47

( P U E R T O MOORIN A N D A S S O C I A T E D P E R I O D S )

H O U S E STRUCTURES DESCRIPTION OF BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED MATERIALS S U M M A R Y OF C U L T U R A L A N D O T H E R R E M A I N S OF T H E E A R L I E R P E R I O D S A T V - 6 6 ARCHITECTURE

48 48 48 56 56

BURIAL T Y P E S

57

C E R A M I C T Y P E S FROM BURIALS

57

N O N - C E R A M I C MATERIALS FROM BURIALS

58

RÉSUMÉ THE GALLINAZO SITE ( V - 5 9 ) NEAR CARMELO HACIENDA T H E S I T E A R E A A N D ITS R E L A T I O N TO T H E G A L L I N A Z O G R O U P EXCAVATIONS AT V - 5 9

59 60 6O 62

STRATA C U T I

62

R O C K T R O U G H STRUCTURES

68

BURIAL SITE AT V - 5 9 B U R I A L MOUND ( V - 1 6 3 ) IN T H E G A L L I N A Z O G R O U P DESCRIPTION OF M O U N D S U M M A R Y OF FINDS A T SITES V - 5 9 A N D V - 1 6 3

71 74 74 79

ARCHITECTURE

79

C E R A M I C S FROM STRATA C U T 1

81

Contents

X

Ceramics from the Surface, V-59 Non-ceramic Materials from Strata Cut 1 Non-ceramic Materials from Surface, V-59 Burial Types Ceramic and Other Materials from Burials RÉSUMÉ

CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L S I T E ( V - 5 1 ) DESCRIPTION OF T H E SITE EXCAVATIONS AT SITE V - 5 1

Strata Cut i Strata Cut 2 Room 1, Trench 2 and Trench 3 Test Pit 1 Test Pit 2 BURIALS AT SITE V - 5 1

Burial Site i Burial Site 2 Burial Site 3 SUMMARY OF FINDS AT CASTILLO DE TOMAVAL ( v - 5 1 )

Architecture Ceramics from Strata Cuts 1 and 2 Ceramics from Room 1 and Test Pits 1 and 2 Ceramics from the Surface of the Site Non-ceramic Materials from Strata Cuts 1 and 2 Non-ceramic Materials from Room 1 and Test Pit 1 Burial Types Ceramic and Other Materials from Burials RÉSUMÉ

T H E H U A C A DE LA C R U Z S I T E ( V - 1 6 2 ) NEAR E L P U E N T E DESCRIPTION OF T H E SITE EXCAVATIONS A T SITE V - 1 6 2

Strata Cut i Strata Cut 2 Test Pit 1 Test Pit 2

83 84 85 86 87 89

91 91 93

93 99 102 105 105 IO5

105 108 109 109

109 111 117 120 120 125 126 127 127

129 I 2Q 131

131 133 138 139

BURIALS AT V - 1 6 2 TOMB OF T H E WARRIOR-PRIEST (BURIALS I 2 - 1 6 )

139 I5O

Burial 12 : Adult Male Burials 14 and 15: T w o Adult Women T h e Cane Coffin (Burials 13 and 16) Artifacts from the Tomb (Burials 1 2 - 1 6 ) SUMMARY OF FINDS AT HUACA DE LA CRUZ (v-162) Architecture Ceramics from Strata Cuts 1 and 2 Burial Structure Types (Huancaco Period) Huancaco (Mochica) Ceramic Types in Burial Association (V-162, V-163, and V-51) Ceramics from the Surface and Test Pits Figurines, Molds, and Trumpets from All Locations (V-162) Non-ceramic Materials from Strata Cuts 1 and 2 and Burials 1-7 and 9-16 (Huancaco Period) Non-ceramic Materials from Surface and Test Pits

151 152 153 156 167 167 169 175

RÉSUMÉ AND COMPARISON

192

176 178 181 184 191

Contents

xi

C U L T U R A L C O N F I G U R A T I O N S IN T H E V I R Ú V A L L E Y IN R E L A T I O N T O T H O S E O F T H E C H I C A M A - S A N T A CATALINA VALLEYS DURING THE FORMATIVE AND F L O R E S CENT EPOCHS

204

Q U E B R A D A D E LOS FÓSILES C U L T U R E

204

CERRO PRIETO CULTURE

204

GUAÑAPE CULTURE

206

P U E R T O MOORIN CULTURE

2IO

GALLINAZO CULTURE

211

HUANCACO CULTURE

2L6

W I D E R C U L T U R A L R E L A T I O N S H I P S IN C O A S T A L P E R U D U R I N G T H E F O R M A T I V E A N D FLORESCENT EPOCHS

227

CONCLUSION A P P E N D I X I . DESCRIPTION OF P O T T E R Y T Y P E S . B Y W I L L I A M D U N C A N C L I F F O R D EVANS, J R . , AND R O S E LILIEN

247 STRONG,

253

A P P E N D I X 2 . DESCRIPTIONS AND IDENTIFICATIONS OF T H E V I R Ú P L A N T R E M A I N S . BY MARGARET A . TOWLE

352

A P P E N D I X 3 . TEXTILE NOTES. BY JUNIUS BIRD

357

LITERATURE CITED

361

PLATES INDEX

FOLLOWING 3 6 4 365

Figures M A P OF N O R T H C O A S T OF P E R U

.

.

.

.

frontispiece

1 . M A P O F V I R Ú V A L L E Y , N O R T H C O A S T OF P E R U

8

2.

M A P OF H U A C A N E G R A ( S I T E V - 7 1 )

NEAR G U A Ñ A P E

3.

P R O F I L E OF T E S T P I T 2 , S I T E V - 7 1

2 1

18

4.

P R O F I L E OF S T R A T A C U T

24

5.

G R O U N D P L A N OF T E M P L E OF T H E L L A M A S , S I T E V - 7 1

28

6.

C R O S S S E C T I O N OF W A L L , S T E P S , A N D P L A T F O R M OF T E M P L E , S I T E V - 7 1

30

7.

S T O N E A R T I F A C T S FROM T H E H U A C A N E G R A S I T E ( V - 7 1 )

42

8.

S H E L L A R T I F A C T S FROM T H E H U A C A N E G R A S I T E ( V - 7 1 )

44

9.

M A P OF G A L L I N A Z O ( S I T E V - 5 9 )

NEAR C A R M E L O HACIENDA

61

10.

P R O F I L E OF S T R A T A C U T

V-59

11.

G R O U N D P L A N O F H O U S E S T R U C T U R E S IN S T R A T A C U T

I, SITE V - 7 1

I, SITE

2.00 M E T E R D E P T H , SITE

I FROM S U R F A C E T O

V-59

1 2 . W E L L - P O L I S H E D B R O A D - L I N E M O D E L E D S H E R D FROM S T R A T A C U T

I, LEVEL

3 . 2 5 - 3 . 5 0 M E T E R S , SITE V - 5 9

66

13.

G R O U N D P L A N OF S I N K A N D R O C K T R O U G H S , S I T E V - 5 9

69

14.

G R O U N D P L A N A N D C R O S S S E C T I O N OF R O C K T R O U G H 5 , S I T E V - 5 9

7°

15.

B O N E A N D S T O N E A R T I F A C T S FROM T H E P U E R T O M O O R I N B U R I A L S I T E AND THE G A L L I N A Z O SITE ( V - 5 9 )

16.

C L A Y S P I N D L E W H O R L S A N D C O P P E R H O O K F R O M B U R I A L I IN T H E B U R I A L M O U N D (SITE V - 1 6 3 )

17.

(V-66)

OF T H E G A L L I N A Z O G R O U P

88

M A P O F C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L ( S I T E V - 5 1 )

92

18.

P R O F I L E OF S T R A T A C U T I , S I T E V - 5 1

94

19.

G R O U N D P L A N O F H O U S E S T R U C T U R E S IN S T R A T A C U T I , F R O M S U R F A C E T O 2.00 M E T E R D E P T H , SITE V - 5 1

20.

C R O S S SECTION OF D O U B L E W A L L B , S T R A T A C U T

21.

P R O F I L E OF S T R A T A C U T 2 , S I T E V - 5 1

22.

G R O U N D P L A N OF R O O M

95 I, SITE V - 5 1

96 100

I , T R E N C H E S 2 A N D 3 ON T O P OF R I D G E OF S I T E

V-51

I 0

3

23.

G R O U N D P L A N A N D C R O S S S E C T I O N OF R O O M I , S I T E V - 5 1

104

24.

P R O F I L E A N D G R O U N D P L A N OF T E S T P I T 2, S I T E V - 5 1

106

25.

G R O U N D P L A N OF B U R I A L S I T E I , S I T E V - 5 1

107

26.

N O N - C E R A M I C A R T I F A C T S FROM THE C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L SITE ( V - 5 1 )

122

27.

M A P OF H U A C A D E L A C R U Z ( S I T E V - 1 6 2 )

130

xiv

Figures

28.

P R O F I L E OF S T R A T A C O T J, S I T E V - 1 6 2

132

29.

P R O F I L E OF S T R A T A C O T 2 , S I T E V - 1 6 2

134

30.

G R O U N D P L A N O F H O U S E S T R U C T U R E S IN S T R A T A C U T 2 F R O M S U R F A C E

TO

1 . 0 0 M E T E R D E P T H , AND A T THE 2 . 5 0 - 2 . 7 5 M E T E R LEVEL, SITE V - 1 6 2 31.

T O M AVAL

(COAST

TIAHUANACO)

PERIOD

SHERDS

FROM T H E S U R F A C E

136 AT

H U A C A DE LA C R U Z , SITE V - 1 6 2 32.

180

FIGURINES A N D M O L D S FROM T H E G A L L I N A Z O S I T E ( V - 5 9 ) A N D T H E

HUACA

DE L A C R U Z SITE ( V - 1 6 2 )

182

33.

V I R Ú V A L L E Y SPINDLE W H O R L T Y P E S

34.

CORRELATION

CHART

OF

THE

194

CERAMIC

STRATIGRAPHY

OF

PLAIN

AND

D E C O R A T E D SHERDS FROM A L L T H E S T R A T A C U T S M A D E B Y T H E C O L U M B I A U N I V E R S I T Y U N I T IN V I R Ú V A L L E Y , 1 9 4 6

204

35.

G U A Ñ A P E R E D AND B L A C K P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

254

36.

A N C Ó N POLISHED B L A C K : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

257

37.

H U A C A P O N G O POLISHED P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

258

38.

S A R R A Q U E C R E A M : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

261

39.

G L O R I A POLISHED P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

263

40.

C A S T I L L O P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

264

41.

V A L L E P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

268

4 2 . V I R Ú P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

270

43.

273

Q U E N E T O POLISHED P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

4 4 . T O M A V A L P L A I N : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES 45.

GUAÑAPE

FINGER-PRESSED R I B :

VESSEL

275

SHAPES WITH R I M

PROFILES

AND

T Y P I C A L DECORATION 46.

GUAÑAPE

278

INCISED R I B : V E S S E L S H A P E S W I T H R I M PROFILES AND

TYPICAL

DECORATION 47.

GUAÑAPE

280

MODELED:

VESSEL

SHAPE

WITH

RIM

PROFILES

AND

TYPICAL

DECORATION 48.

GUAÑAPE

283

PUNCTATE:

VESSEL

SHAPE

WITH

RIM

PROFILES

AND

TYPICAL

DECORATION 49.

GUAÑAPE

284

ZONED

PUNCTATE:

VESSEL

SHAPES

WITH

RIM

PROFILES

AND

T Y P I C A L DECORATION 50.

285

A N C Ó N F I N E - L I N E INCISED : V E S S E L S H A P E S W I T H R I M P R O F I L E S A N D T Y P I C A L DECORATION

51.

ANCÓN

288

BROAD-LINE

INCISED:

VESSEL

SHAPES

WITH

RIM

PROFILES

AND

T Y P I C A L DECORATION 52.

ANCÓN

ZONED

PUNCTATE:

290 VESSEL

SHAPES

WITH

RIM

PROFILES

T Y P I C A L DECORATION

AND 292

53.

A N C Ó N BRUSHED AND A N C Ó N E N G R A V E D : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

293

54.

A N C Ó N M O D E L E D : VESSEL SHAPE AND T Y P I C A L DECORATION

295

55.

P U E R T O M O O R I N W H I T E - O N - R E D : VESSEL SHAPES AND R I M PROFILES

298

Figures

XV

56- P U E R T O M O O R I N W H I T E - O N - R E D : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

299

5 7 - G A L L I N A Z O N E G A T I V E : V E S S E L S H A P E S AND R I M PROFILES

303

58- G A L L I N A Z O N E G A T I V E : V E S S E L S H A P E S

3°4

59- G A L L I N A Z O N E G A T I V E : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

305

6O. G A L L I N A Z O N E G A T I V E : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

306

6I.

CARMELO NEGATIVE: DECORATION

VESSEL

S H A P E S WITH R I M P R O F I L E AND

TYPICAL 308

6 A . C A S T I L L O M O D E L E D : V E S S E L S H A P E S AND R I M PROFILES

313

63- CASTILLO M O D E L E D : T Y P I C A L DECORATION

3'4

64. CASTILLO MODELED : T Y P I C A L DECORATION

3«5

ES- C A S T I L L O INCISED : V E S S E L S H A P E S AND R I M PROFILES

320

S E . C A S T I L L O INCISED: T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

321

67.

322

C A S T I L L O INCISED : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

6 8 . G A L L I N A Z O B R O A D - L I N E INCISED : V E S S E L S H A P E S WITH R I M PROFILES AND T Y P I C A L DECORATION

324

69.

H U A N C A C O R E D AND W H I T E : V E S S E L S H A P E S AND R I M PROFILES

328

70.

H U A N C A C O R E D A N D W H I T E : V E S S E L S H A P E S AND R I M PROFILES

329

7 * - H U A N C A C O R E D AND W H I T E : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

330

72.

H U A N C A C O R E D AND W H I T E : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

331

73- H U A N C A C O R E D A N D W H I T E : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

332

74- H U A N C A C O R E D , W H I T E , B L A C K : V E S S E L S H A P E S AND R I M PROFILES

337

75- H U A N C A C O R E D , W H I T E , B L A C K : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

338

76.

339

HUANCACO R E D , W H I T E , B L A C K : T Y P I C A L DECORATION

7 7 - H U A N C A C O W H I T E AND B L A C K : V E S S E L S H A P E WITH R I M T Y P I C A L DECORATION

PROFILE AND

7 8 . H U A N C A C O POLISHED B L A C K : T Y P I C A L DECORATION

PROFILE

VESSEL

S H A P E S WITH

RIM

342 AND

79- H U A N C A C O M I S C E L L A N E O U S M O D E L E D : T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

343 345

8 0 . C A S T I L L O W H I T E , R E D , O R A N G E : V E S S E L S H A P E S W I T H R I M PROFILES AND T Y P I C A L DECORATION

81.

C A L L E J Ó N T H R E E - C O L O R N E G A T I V E AND C A L L E J Ó N UNCLASSIFIED: V E S S E L S H A P E S W I T H R I M PROFILES AND T Y P I C A L D E C O R A T I O N

346

350

Tables 1.

SYNCHRONIZATION

OF V I R U

VALLEY

PERIOD

TERMS

AND

THE

GENERAL

NORTH COAST CULTURE SEQUENCE

12

2.

SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , STRATA CUT

3.

S H E R D COUNTS FROM O T H E R E X C A V A T I O N S , S I T E V - 7 1 , G U A N A P E

38

4.

SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , STRATA C U T I, SITE V - 5 9 , GALLINAZO

80

5.

NON-CERAMIC REMAINS PER L E V E L , STRATA C U T I, V - 5 9 , GALLINAZO

84

6.

S H E R D COUNT PER L E V E L , S T R A T A C U T I , S I T E V - 5 1 , CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L

I I 2

7.

SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , S T R A T A C U T 2, SITE V - 5 1 , CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L

I I 4

8.

SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , ROOM I , SITE V - 5 1 , CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L

I I 6

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SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , T E S T PIT 2, SITE V - 5 1 , CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L

10.

I, SITE V - 7 1 , GUANAPE

T E X T I L E MATERIALS BY L E V E L , STRATA C U T

I AND R O O M

36

I, SITE

118

V-51,

CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L

123

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SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , S T R A T A C U T I , SITE V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z

I 70

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SHERD COUNT PER L E V E L , STRATA CUT 2, SITE V - 1 6 2 , HUACA DE LA C R U Z

172

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H USAI N OU RA C UTZY P E S P E R L E V E L , S T R A T A C U T S I A N D 2 , T EC AVC-O1 6D2 E, C H A TCEAD DCEE RL A A MCI R

174

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B U R I A L A S S O C I A T I O N OF H U A N C A C O P E R I O D C E R A M I C T Y P E S , S I T E S

V-163,

V-51, V-162 15.

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T E X T I L E M A T E R I A L S BY L E V E L , SURFACE, AND S T R A T A CUTS I AND 2 , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z

188

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C O R R E L A T I O N OF S P I N D L E W H O R L T Y P E S A N D C U L T U R E P E R I O D S

195

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C O M P A R A T I V E C H A R T OF V I R Ü A N D C H I C A M A V A L L E Y C U L T U R E S

205

18.

C U L T U R E S , H O R I Z O N S T Y L E S , AND EPOCHS IN C O A S T A L P E R U E P O C H OF I N C I P I E N T A G R I C U L T U R E T O T H A T OF F U S I O N )

(FROM

THE

226

Plates The plates follow page 364. I . T H E H U A C A N E G R A SITE, V - 7 1 , NEAR G U A Ñ A P E II.

P U E R T O M O O R I N ( S A L I N A R ) PERIOD BURIALS AND ASSOCIATED P O T T E R Y , S I T E V - 6 6 CEMETERY

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A R T I F A C T S AND P O T T E R Y FROM P U E R T O M O O R I N ( S A L I N A R ) P E R I O D B U R I A L S , SITE V - 6 6 CEMETERY

IV.

P O T T E R Y FROM S I T E V - 6 6

V. VI. VII. VIII. IX.

CEMETERY

T H E GALLINAZO G R O U P NEAR CARMELO HACIENDA ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES AT SITE V - 5 9 ,

GALLINAZO

P O T T E R Y , A R T I F A C T S , A N D S K E L E T O N OF B U R I A L PERIOD

I, SITE V - 5 9 ,

GALLINAZO

G A L L I N A Z O P E R I O D B U R I A L S AND A S S O C I A T E D P O T T E R Y FROM B U R I A L M O U N D V - 1 6 3 OF T H E G A L L I N A Z O G R O U P P O T T E R Y FROM B U R I A L M O U N D V - 1 6 3

X.

S I T E V - 5 1 , C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L

XI.

SITE V - 5 1 , CASTILLO DE TOMAV A L

XII.

S I T E V - 5 1 , CASTILLO DE TOMA V A L

O F

T H E

GALLINAZO

GROUP

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P O T T E R Y FROM B U R I A L S , S I T E V - 5 1 , C A S T I L L O D E T O M A V A L

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H U A N C A C O D E C O R A T E D V E S S E L S FROM B U R I A L S , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A D E L A CRUZ

XV. XVI. XVII.

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HUANCACO (MOCHICA) PERIOD BURIAL, S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z H U A N C A C O P E R I O D P O T T E R Y FROM B U R I A L 5 , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A D E L A C R U Z HUANCACO (MOCHICA) PERIOD B U R I A L AND V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z HUANCACO (MOCHICA) PERIOD V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z

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T O M B OF W A R R I O R - P R I E S T , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A D E L A C R U Z

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T O M B OF W A R R I O R - P R I E S T , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A D E L A C R U Z

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T O M B OF W A R R I O R - P R I E S T , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A D E L A C R U Z

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T O M B OF W A R R I O R - P R I E S T , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A D E L A C R U Z

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CEREMONIAL DIGGING STICK WITH T U S K E D W A R R I O R - G O D E F F I G Y WARRIOR-PRIEST'S TOMB, SITE V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z

X X I V .

C A R V E D W O O D E N M A C E FROM W A R R I O R - P R I E S T ' S T O M B , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z

X X V .

CEREMONIAL

S T A F F A N D H E A D D R E S S FROM W A R R I O R - P R I E S T ' S T O M B ,

V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA C R U Z

FROM

SITE

XX X X V I . X X V I I .

Plates A R T I F A C T S F R O M W A R R I O R - P R I E S T ' S T O M B , S I T E V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE L A C R U Z HUANCACO

DECORATED

VESSELS

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WARRIOR-PRIEST'S

TOMB,

SITE

FROM

WARRIOR-PRIEST'S

TOMB,

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V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE L A C R U Z XXVIII.

HUANCACO

DECORATED

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V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE L A C R U Z X X I X .

M O C H I C A T A P E S T R Y F R A G M E N T FROM W A R R I O R - P R I E S T ' S T O M B , SITE V - 1 6 2 , H U A C A DE LA

CRUZ

Cultural Stratigraphy in the Viru Valley Northern Peru

Introduction

T

HE INTRODUCTION to this report on ject of 1946; second, the role of the Columbia stratigraphie, refuse-heap, and other ex- University Expedition within the Viru Valley cavations carried out by the Columbia Project of the Institute of Andean Research University Expedition in the Virù Valley in that year; and third, a very brief descripduring 1946 is divided into three sections. tion of fiie Viru Valley in 1946. First, a brief discussion of the Viru Valley Pro-

O R I G I N A N D N A T U R E OF T H E V I R Ü V A L L E Y PROJECT During the years 1941-1942, the Institute of Andean Research conducted ten anthropological expeditions, representing eight scientific institutions, operating in several little-known but important areas of Latin America, ranging from Mexico to Chile. To date, twenty-one monographs and numerous papers on this important cooperative effort have been published.* Such extensive work in key areas, in large part emphasizing stratigraphic archeology, has added greatly to our knowledge of culture sequences within, and interrelationships between, the higher native civilizations of the New World. It thus occurred to some of us concerned in this work that if cooperation of this sort in an exploratory and extensive scientific program had been so successful the time might be ripe for attempting a similar cooperative enterprise, but this time based upon a closely coordinated and intensive local program. Thus, in the summer of 1945, the idea of the Vini Valley Project was conceived. The Vini Valley Project, therefore, is an attempt to coordinate various phases of anthropological and allied research around an important central problem—the intensive study of human cultural adaptation within the confines of a small area over a long period of time. The Vini Valley, in north coastal Peru, was selected for this purpose since it was known to have been a small but important * For a brief résumé of the nature and organization of the Institute of Andean Research, as well as a preview of the scientific results and earlier publications on the 1 9 4 1 1942 project, see Strong, 1943. f A more detailed account of the organization and

component of one of the oldest and most complex native civilizations in the Americas, and because it is today a minor but representative agricultural unit in the modern economy of Peru. More specific qualifications of this particular valley for such combined scientific analysis will be outlined subsequently. What was proposed, therefore, was to determine as fully as possible the exact nature of the relationship between man, a biological and cultural being, and a favorable but definitely circumscribed environment, the Viru Valley, from man's earliest advent to the year A.D.

1946.

As plans matured later in 1945, a Viru Valley Project Committee was formed, including Dr. Wendell C. Bennett of Yale University; Dr. Julian Steward, then of the Institute of Social Anthropology; Dr. Gordon Willey of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution; and the present senior author, of Columbia University. Since these individuals were also members of the Institute of Andean Research, the program, with the consent of the other Institute members, was undertaken as an Institute activity. Later, other scientists interested in the anthropology, geography, and sociology of South America were invited to participate. They will be mentioned subsequently in relation to the general plan of attack, f In accord with general Institute of Andean methods employed in the V i r u Valley Project, including an outline of field and laboratory procedures, appears in another publication referring to this Project. See Ford and Willey, 1949.

4

Introduction

R e s e a r c h p o l i c y , e a c h p a r t i c i p a t i n g institution operated i n d e p e n d e n t l y in r e g a r d to the e x p e n d i t u r e o f its o w n funds a n d assumed the responsibility for the p u b l i c a t i o n o f its o w n results. H o w e v e r , all expeditions shared e q u a l l y in the l a b o r a t o r y a n d transportation facilities m a d e a v a i l a b l e to the entire V i r u V a l l e y Proj e c t b y the generous g r a n t o f the V i k i n g F u n d o f N e w Y o r k , w h i c h w a s administered b y the V i r u V a l l e y Project C o m m i t t e e . E a c h particip a t i n g scientist shared in the continuous dev e l o p m e n t o f the over-all p l a n for the V i r u V a l l e y Project a n d , in turn, fitted his particular research into t h a t p h a s e w h i c h t h e progressive field w o r k i n d i c a t e d as a p p a r e n t l y most logical. M o s t i m p o r t a n t of all has b e e n the c o m p l e t e sharing o f i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g the m e m b e r s o f all the a r c h e o l o g i c a l expeditions in every phase of the w o r k . I n P e r u this c a m e a b o u t t h r o u g h endless a n d e n l i g h t e n i n g c o m p a r i s o n a n d discussion in the field a n d l a b o r a t o r y , a n d , since l e a v i n g the field, t h r o u g h correspondence a n d e x c h a n g e o f d a t a . T h i s w a s a basic concept in the m a j o r p l a n , a n d its w h o l e hearted a c c e p t a n c e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e b y all c o n c e r n e d has m a d e a v a i l a b l e to t h e V i r u V a l l e y P r o j e c t a constant s t r e a m o f coordin a t e d scientific k n o w l e d g e f a r e x c e e d i n g the s u m of the i n d i v i d u a l contributions b y e a c h p a r t i c i p a t i n g scientist a n d institution. C e r tainly, t h e present authors believe, t h e simultaneous scientific attack o f six c o o p e r a t i n g expeditions on different aspects o f one m a j o r p r o b l e m has h e r e y i e l d e d far r i c h e r results than would have been attained b y even more expeditions o p e r a t i n g singly o v e r a p e r i o d o f years. T h e p l a n o f a t t a c k t o w a r d w h i c h all contributed w a s briefly as follows. T h r o u g h arc h e o l o g i c a l m e t h o d s t h e history o f t h e V i r u V a l l e y w a s to b e traced f r o m c o l o n i a l times b a c k as far as h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n c o u l d b e demonstrated. T h i s w a s to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f surface surveys, stratig r a p h i c d i g g i n g , intensive study o f culture periods, a n d a n over-all study o f settlement patterns. T h e g e o g r a p h y o f t h e v a l l e y w a s to b e studied in terms o f h u m a n e c o l o g y , starting f r o m its present-day utilization b y m a n a n d g o i n g b a c k into t h e prehistoric past. I d e a l l y , the g e o g r a p h i c - a r c h e o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h is to

b e c o m b i n e d w i t h a c o m p l e t e study of the recorded history of the north coast o f P e r u w i t h special emphasis o n the V i r u V a l l e y . F i n a l l y , the present-day culture o f t h e v a l l e y w a s to b e studied b y a c o m b i n e d t e a m o f ethnologists a n d sociologists, w i t h e q u a l emphasis on t h e I n d i a n b a c k g r o u n d , the E u r o p e a n intrusions, a n d the present-day b l e n d i n g s a n d patternings o f culture. W e w o u l d h a v e liked to supplem e n t this e t h n o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h w i t h a t h o r o u g h h u m a n biological study o f present a n d past valley populations, b u t as n o p h y s i c a l anthropologists w e r e a v a i l a b l e at the time, that aspect of the w o r k r e m a i n s for t h e future. I n terms o f p r o c e d u r e , e a c h scientific u n i t selected from the general p l a n one m o r e or less specific field o f attack. H o w e v e r , this e x a c t segment o f the g e n e r a l p r o b l e m w a s left i n a b e y a n c e until a c t u a l field results m a d e definition p r a c t i c a l rather t h a n theoretical. Since the v a r i o u s scientific units c o m m e n c e d w o r k at different times, this p r a g m a t i c a p p r o a c h p r o v e d logically sound a n d p r a c t i c a b l y workable. I n actuality, eight h e a d i n g s or units encompass the m a j o r n u c l e a r activities of the V i r u V a l l e y Project d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1 9 4 6 1948. T h e s e m a y b e briefly s u m m a r i z e d as follows: Unit 1. Geography of the V i r u Valley. F. Webster McBryde, Institute of Social Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution. Began work February, 1946, continued intermittently through I947-I948. Unit 2. Ethnology and sociology of the modern valley. Allen Holmberg, Institute of Social Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution. Began work in October, 1946, and continued intermittently through 1947-1948. Jorge C . Muelle, Instituto de Etnologla, Lima, and students. Began work October, 1946, continued intermittently through 1947-1948. Unit 3. Stratigraphy of the late prehistoric periods. Donald Collier, Chicago Museum of Natural History. Began work in June, continued until November, 1946. Unit 4. Stratigraphy of the early prehistoric periods. William Duncan Strong and Clifford Evans, Jr. Began work in March, continued until August, 1946. Unit 5. T h e pre-ceramic periods of the North Coast. Junius Bird, American Museum of

Introduction Natural History. Began work in June, continued until December, 1946. Unit 6. Intensive study of the Gallinazo period. Wendell C. Bennett, Yale University. Began work in May, continued until August, 1946. Unit 7. Cultural dating of sites by surface survey. James A . Ford, Columbia University and Guggenheim Fellow. Began work March, continued until December, 1946. Unit 8. Study of prehistoric settlement patterns. Gordon R . Willey, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Began work March, continued until October, 1946. S u c h are the units that first attacked the problems envisaged in the V i r ú V a l l e y Project. It remains for each scientific expedition, or unit, to publish its o w n report on the work already accomplished. W h e n a reasonable n u m b e r of these h a v e appeared, it is the hope of the V i r ú V a l l e y Project Committee that an outline

m a y b e prepared, on the basis of w h i c h the m a j o r conclusions o f all participating scientists m a y b e c o m b i n e d into a general symposium concerned with the relationship of m a n a n d culture throughout k n o w n time in the V i n i V a l l e y o f north coastal Peru. M e a n while, on the basis o f accomplished work, it is evident that every study, geological, paleontological, biological, social, or political w h i c h includes the V i r u V a l l e y within its scope will contribute specifically to and profit b y this localized b u t coordinated study o f man's rise from the fishing-gathering stage, through empire and colonialism into the world of today. T h e specific reasons w h y the V i n i V a l l e y has been d e e m e d particularly suitable for such a case history of culture g r o w t h will be discussed subsequently. M e a n w h i l e , w e will briefly define the segment of research w h i c h b e c a m e the particular concern o f the C o l u m b i a U n i v e r sity unit of the larger V i n i V a l l e y Project.

THE ROLE OF THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY EXPEDITION VIRÜ VALLEY PROJECT A s previously indicated, the C o l u m b i a U n i versity unit planned to attack the problem of culture sequence in the V i r u V a l l e y through methods o f refuse-heap stratigraphy. Since earlier w o r k in the valley h a d not yet revealed any such stratigraphic sequence, it remained for exploratory excavations to indicate w h a t section of this apparently long record, already suggested b y former grave excavations, might offer the most promise for beginning this type of work. Schematically, it seemed most logical to attempt to work d o w n from the historic or I n c a levels, but as no good I n c a refuse layers were k n o w n w h e n w e b e g a n our work in April, 1946, it was necessary to await exploration and testing before selecting a specific and practical point of attack. For reasons to be stated later, it h a p p e n e d that the most promising refuse-heap deposits our unit encountered ran from the M o c h i c a period d o w n through several other occupations into a hitherto u n k n o w n pre-ceramic horizon. Since these extensive overlapping deposits more than occupied all the available time w h i c h w e could spend in excavation work, that is, from A p r i l until late J u n e , 1946, w e perforce concen-

5

IN

THE

trated on the lower and older h a l f of the V i n i V a l l e y stratigraphic record. It is the w o r k in these cultural horizons, included in the Incipient A g r i c u l t u r a l , F o r m a t i v e , and Florescent epochs (see T a b l e 17), w h i c h is described in this v o l u m e . T h e m o r e limited findings in p o s t - M o c h i c a culture periods will be dealt with elsewhere. T h u s , w h e n the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m of N a t u r a l History unit with Bird, a n d the C h i c a g o N a t u r a l History M u s e u m unit with Collier, arrived in J u n e , 1946, it was possible for the former to begin work in the early preceramic horizon, traces o f w h i c h w e h a d j u s t discovered, and for the latter to concentrate on the p o s t - M o c h i c a or later prehistoric and ceramic horizons. I n this w a y , the C o l u m b i a University and the C h i c a g o N a t u r a l History M u s e u m parties, both of w h i c h desired to work stratigraphically, successfully concentrated on each end of the V i n i V a l l e y cultural sequence, w i t h i m p o r t a n t overlapping at different sites, w h i c h serves well to tie the t w o refuse-heap stratigraphic sequences together. Since it h a d been the particular plan of Bird to work intensively in the pre-ceramic horizons,

6

Introduction

he was thus able to do so at once, linking his latest pre-ceramic time sequences with the earliest ceramic horizons discovered by the Columbia University unit. Theoretically, it had been planned that the Columbia University unit would utilize the combined surface survey and settlement pattern studies of Ford and Willey (Units 7 and 8) as its guide to those mixed sites giving most promiseofdeepstratigraphicresults. Inactuality, this did not prove to be practical, since all three field parties began work at the same time. Further, the combined surface surveysettlement pattern field teams commenced their intensive site survey work in the upper Vini Valley where deep sites did not appear to be easily located. However, there was already available for the Columbia University unit the important survey and excavation report of Wendell Bennett (1939), which en-

abled us to select promising sites and begin deep cutting at once. Certain sites, located and described by Bennett, combined with others which we discovered in the course of our own work, were more than sufficient to occupy our unit fully. Collier's unit (No. 3), however, coming later, after much more survey work had been accomplished, was better able to take advantage of the intensive survey and testing results attained by Ford and Willey. As previously indicated, the progressive results of the stratigraphic working units were made continuously available for study, as well as ceramic and other analyses on the part of the surface survey, settlement pattern, and other units. In this manner, as each field unit carried forward its particular researches the results were constantly integrated with others through detailed laboratory comparison and discussion.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE V I R t f V A L L E Y The Vini Valley was selected as the locale for our combined researches for several reasons. First, its size seemed a happy compromise between either of the much larger Chicama and Santa Catalina valleys to the north and the much smaller Chao Valley to the south (see map, frontispiece). Second, the Viru Valley has long been known as a very important and promising archeological center, and third, from the standpoint of modern socio-economic studies it offered for analysis a reasonably typical, and not too large, agricultural unit of modern, coastal Peru. While the Viru Valley lacks the urban-industrial elements of the larger northern valleys, it includes a much more varied combination of hacienda (sugar and cotton growing), individual truck farming (Viru pueblo and vicinity) and isolated fishing (Guanape) economies than does the smaller Chao Valley. In tracing the continuity of culture change in one circumscribed region from its primitive beginnings into contemporary times, these combined factors of limited area, abundant

evidences of long and probably continuous occupation, and a reasonably typical but not too complex social economy in practice today, seemed promising. Further, the contemporary study by Gillin (1947) of the people of the pueblo of Moche, who are today passing over into the relatively modern, urban adjustment prevalent in Trujillo, gives promise of bridging the gap between the simpler agricultural economies of the Viru Valley and the more complex conditions existing today in the larger and richer northern valleys. Despite its small size the Viru Valley shares most of the favorable as well as the unfavorable climatic and geographic features characteristic of the larger north coast Peruvian valleys. Although the Vini Valley is only 8 degrees south of the equator it has a mild and equable climate, owing to the influence of the cold Peruvian Current coming up from the south.* The average temperature at Lima is reported to be 66.7 degrees (James, 1942, p. 171); that of the Viru Valley is slightly higher. The valley, despite valley and inter-valley

* T h e present ecological discussion concerning the V i n i Valley and the north coast of Peru is merely synoptic and based on the following sources as well as on our own observations. For general accounts of north Peruvian geography, see James, 1942; for increasingly detailed accounts of the geology and the cultural geography of the V i n i Valley,

see Adams, 1906; Garcia, 1921; Bosworth, 1922; Kroe:ber, 1930; Bennett, 1939; and, most specifically, as regards, the present V i n i Valley Project, Ford and Willey, 1949. For colored and other illustrations of the valley and the sites described herein, see Strong, 1947.

Introduction fogs during the winter seasons (June to October), is generally a sunny place, the blue Pacific bounding it on the west, the desert dunes and Cerros de las Lomas on the north, and the foothills of the Andes on the east and south. To the east these gradually climbing mountain ranges form ranks, one behind the other, until, as the light clarifies in early morning and at evening, six or more ridges can be seen, forming a gorgeous theatrical backdrop for the long human drama that has been and is being acted out in this beautiful little coastal Peruvian valley. The prevalent southwesterly winds crossing the cold Peruvian or Humboldt Current normally precipitate no rain at all upon this low coastal belt, but at irregular intervals ranging from seven to twelve years a warm oceanic overflow comes down from the north, leading to devastating rains which tear up the terrain and destroy marine and animal fife as well as the works of man. A t present the causation and periodicity of these fluvial phenomena are not clear, but with more combined physiographic and archeological study it seems possible that they may yet yield evidence which will permit exact prehistoric datings as well as future prediction. Normally, the life-giving river and other water in the Viru Valley is derived from the rains that fall upon the mountains during the summer season on the coast (November to May). These rains today are normally precipitated on the mountains only above the 3,000-meter point above sea level. However, Bird, as well as Willey and Ford, believe that this precipitation point may have been lower in earlier cultural periods, on the basis of archeological evidence to be discussed in their respective publications. The Viru has been described as a "second class" valley (Adams, 1906) because it does not head in the continental watershed, but draws its water from the altitudinal zone of regular rains. The Viru River valley is rather short and narrow, and most of its volume of water is today normally all used up by irrigation and seepage before it reaches the sea. However, in years of heavy precipitation in the mountains, of which the year 1946 was one, floods result. The run-off from the steep mountain slopes sinks underground, following the downward slope of the Viru to the lower

7

valley, where, in times of heavy precipitation, low-lying areas in the vicinity, as well as ancient artificial agricultural basins orpukios, become filled with brackish water, forming small ponds or larger lagoons. This was the case during the late southern summer season of 1946. The Viru River is technically formed by two tributaries (see map, Fig. 1), the now dry Upper Viru coming in from the northwest, and the Huacapongo, a flowing stream coming in from the east where it passes close behind the abrupt Sarraque range, turning sharply southwest below Tomaval. At present the Huacapongo carries all the normal water flow into the main Viru River, the Upper Viru branch being dry, and apparently having been so, save in times of torrential downpours, for a long time. Whereas the upper Huacapongo Valley has considerable farming land and brush land or monte in a narrow belt along the stream, the Upper Viru arroyo, or rocky channel, supports no vegetation at all. Similarly, whereas both modern farms and ancient sites occur in the Huacapongo Valley, the Upper Viru is apparently barren of both. From the point where these two upper valley channels join, to the coast, is a distance of approximately 32.5 kilometers. In 1916, Garcia (1921) estimated that the Viru Valley had a basin area of 900 square kilometers, including 5,000 hectares of irrigated land (as compared to the Chicama Valley with a basin of 4,200 square kilometers and an irrigated area of 30,000 hectares). Bennett (1939, p. 19) states that in 1936 the acreage irrigated and cultivated in the Viru Valley had been decreasing in recent years. This was also probably true in 1946, but exact figures must await geographic reports. In any event, the Viru Valley today is not very prosperous, and it is probable that the work of Willey, McBryde, and others will show that there has been a progressive decline in the areas irrigated and cultivated from well back into prehistoric times. Bennett (1939, p. 19) subdivides the Viru Valley into three parts, the upper valley (above Sarraque and the junction of the Upper Viru and the Huacapongo), the middle valley (from below this point to the present line of the Pan American Highway below Viru pueblo), and the lower valley (from the last point to the Pacific; see

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X

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te 1 3« O

c e P Xi

S 3

XI

Introduction m a p , Fig. i ) . T o this subdivision might b e added the slightly isolated G u a n a p e - P u e r t o M o o r i n area slightly to the north on the coast. For purposes involved in their surface and settlement pattern surveys, Ford and W i l l e y (1949) h a v e employed a sevenfold division, but for our present purpose the threefold division of Bennett seems a d e q u a t e . T h e u p p e r v a l l e y is today the scene of limited hacienda, sugar cane, and truck farming in its central and H u a c a p o n g o sections. Since the C o l u m b i a University unit did not excavate in the u p p e r valley, further description seems unnecessary here. T h e upper portion of the middle valley is m a r k e d b y a n a r r o w , gorgelike area where the H u a c a p o n g o turns sharply south around the steep terminal spur of the S a r r a q u e foothills. T h i s narrow corridor is m a r k e d b y four strategically placed hilltop ruins, evidently fortress-temples, locally designated as the castillos of S a r r a q u e , San J u a n , T o m a v a l , a n d N a p o (see m a p , Fig. 1). T h e C o l u m b i a University unit carried on stratigraphic excavations here at the impressive Castillo de T o m a v a l ( V - 5 1 ) . T h e upper portion of this "fortress v a l l e y - g o r g e " today grows sugar cane, and o n each side o f the cultivated land, the monte, composed o f algarroba, huaranga, a n d other scrub, extends to the base of the steep hills that flank both sides of the narrow valley. W h e r e the middle valley widens out, in the vicinity of V i r u pueblo, there are numerous independent truck farms, a n d this condition holds generally for all the irrigated lower portion of this middle section. T h i s is the widest area in the valley, so far as irrigated and cultivated lands are concerned (see m a p , F i g . 1 ) ; w h e r e the P a n A m e r i c a n H i g h w a y crosses the v a l l e y the area of vegetation is app r o x i m a t e l y seven kilometers in width. H e r e , centering around V i r u p u e b l o and the recently established j u n c t i o n point of El Puente, w h e r e the P a n A m e r i c a n H i g h w a y bridges the river, seems to be the present largest concentration of agricultural activity and mestizo population. This section of the valley floor is marked b y several steep residual hills like that w h i c h rises behind V i r u pueblo or the great hill of Bitin w h i c h projects into the v a l l e y f r o m the south. T h e r e are also a n u m b e r o f sand dunes in this area w h i c h are more or less stabilized, like H u a c a L a r g a , T a i t a c a n t i n ,

9

and H u a c a de la C r u z ( V - 1 6 2 ) . A t the lastn a m e d site, the C o l u m b i a University unit m a d e important discoveries. Hills and dunes here are all marked b y ancient structures, refuse, and cemeteries, w h i c h indicate that this w a s also an i m p o r t a n t section of the valley in ancient as well as recent times. I n b o t h prehistoric and colonial times the lower V i r ú V a l l e y was p r o b a b l y more important than it is at present. I n colonial times practically all coastal travel was b y sea and the little port o f Puerto M o o r i n formerly handled all c o m m e r c e for the entire valley. E v e n in 1936, w h e n Bennett explored the valley, the automobile roads led along the b e a c h from Salaverry to Puerto M o o r i n , thence u p the valley to V i r ú pueblo. T o d a y , the P a n A m e r i c a n H i g h w a y has changed all this, and except for the roads from that p a v e d artery d o w n to the S a n t a E l e n a and C a r m e l o haciendas, as well as w a n d e r i n g burro and truck tracks to Puerto M o o r i n , the lower valley is n o w isolated f r o m all b u t local traffic. Some irrigation extends d o w n to within a few kilometers o f the sea, and irrigated fields, separated b y ditches and high-growing hedges, occur in the heart o f this area. C a n e , cotton, corn, and vegetables are g r o w n here. T o w a r d the sea occur o p e n grassy areas w h i c h afford considerable pasture for cattle, whereas the w i d e stretches of a l g a r r o b a monte here are used merely for scattered g o a t and b u r r o grazing, c h a r c o a l burning, and apparently little else. M u c h of this land b a c k from the coast lies fallow or has been m a d e sterile b y salitre or other deposits, and in m a n y fields occur ancient mounds w h i c h m a y h a v e been formed b y r e m o v i n g this non-cultivable crust and depositing it in small hillocks. Also back from the b e a c h occur ancient agricultural excavations, orpukios, w h e r e the soil surface has been d u g d o w n to meet the w a t e r table that appears to rise in this section of the valley. T o d a y the residents g r o w totora, reeds for matting, in these pukios. D u r i n g the winter season numerous lagoons of brackish water are also formed in this lower area from the underg r o u n d run-off from irrigation systems higher u p the valley. I n 1946, such lagoons were b o t h numerous a n d large, attracting m a n y tree ducks, w h i t e herons, and flamingos, but m a k i n g travel extremely difficult.

IO

Introduction

Finally, from ancient times the beach itself has apparently been building out on the northern shore of the valley, until the waterless, rocky point of Cerro Prieto, formerly an island, is today connected with the mainland by a low, sandy peninsula. Still farther north is the interesting little fishing village of Guañape, and just beyond this is the decaying "port" of Puerto Moorin, now consisting of two shacks and a schoolhouse. Cultivation in this subarea does not seem to be practiced, and water is obtained from shallow wells. Even without considering its many ruins, the lower valley of the Virú River presents an appearance of long and continuing cultural disintegration. There are, however, some signs of increasing economic activity on the part of small farmers who rent from the disintegrating haciendas. What exactly these trends may be must await the results of the ethno-sociological study of modern Virú which forms an important part of the larger Virú Valley Project. In terms of archeological,thatis prehistoric, sites, the lower valley is rich in varied remains. These include great tells, or deep, stratified, town-dwelling accumulations, like the numerous great architectural middens in the Gallinazo district north of Carmelo Hacienda, the numerous burial mounds in the same vicinity (V-59 and V-163), the great pre-ceramic and beginning-ceramic site at Huaca Negra near Guañape, and the important Salinar and

later cemeteries north of Guanape as at V-66All these were in part excavated by the Columbia University unit and, like those sites previously mentioned in this regard, will be subsequently described in full detail. Numerous other sites, towns, cemeteries, agricultural areas, and other type sites excavated or mapped by other units of the Vini Valley Project in the lower valley will likewise be described elsewhere by the men who did the work. Whatever may have recently befallen modern man and his civilization in this area, it is already abundantly clear that the lower Viru Valley once supported a series of great native civilizations and that much of this terrain, now desolate and abandoned, was in pre-European times the center of a highly evolved and colorful, as well as abundant, life. These new findings will be described shortly, as soon as certain terminological and ceramic descriptive details have been presented, in order that the sequential story of the rise of the early civilizations in the Viru Valley may be told with a minimum of repetition. These technical details are essential to the acquisition of this knowledge, but in themselves are only a means to an end—the attainment of objective knowledge concerning the long and varied cultural history of the Viru Valley and its interpretation in meaningful human terms.

Background of Our Excavations in the Viru Valley

P

1946, the prehistory of the North These key variations included both local deCoast of Peru had been partially out- velopmental and temporal stage differences, lined in terms of grave-lot associations both of which are basic in tracing cultural and stylistic comparisons, without the aid of growth and movement. This need for exact that most objective method of determining local designation was most emphatically deculture sequence—refuse-heap stratigraphy. monstrated in the present work when it beWhile many valleys on the North Coast are came clear that the Mochica occupation of little known save for collector's items, this is the Virú Valley was, at least in part, late, and not true of the Chicama-Santa Catalina- was preceded by the long Gallinazo phase of Viru Valley region where, within the last half the Formative epoch. There were no indicacentury, the labors of Max Uhle, A. L. tions that the distinctive Mochica civilization Kroeber, Wendell Bennett, and Rafael Larco had developed in the Virú Valley, whereas Hoyle, among others, have yielded a rich har- there seemed a good presupposition that it vest of information. In the course of this work had done so in the Chicama-Santa Catalina a rather elaborate and changing terminology region to the north. Thus, in making finer for larger and smaller cultural units has de- comparisons, one was led to pointless misveloped. This complex problem and its con- understanding when the entire rich, though nection with present usage has been discussed as yet stratigraphically unplaced, range of elsewhere.* Likewise there are also available Mochica ceramic types in the valleys to the a number of excellent summaries outlining north were all called Mochica, while one the pre-1946 status of archeological science, specific Virú type, which was demonstrably both for Peru generally and for the North late, was also referred to by the same inCoast specifically. There is, therefore, no need clusive period term. This was equally true to present a condensed account of this rich in comparing the generalized Salinar but complicated record here. In later sections period characteristics as described for the we will draw heavily upon all comparative Chicama-Santa Catalina valleys with rematerials in relation to the present strati- lated, but slightly different, ceramic and other graphic record. cultural characteristics occurring in the adIn regard to the terminology here employed, jacent Virú Valley. For this reason a specific, it quickly became apparent that specific, that local, period-naming system, based on typical, is local, Viru Valley cultural designations or rather type, sites representing the specific would have to be used in addition to the more culture periods in the Virú Valley was set up generally accepted North Coast culture period as shown overleaf. In this manner it becomes possible to be terms. This is due to the fact that intensive excavation and study here, as on the Central general or specific according to need. If one Coast of Peru, showed minor but dynamically wishes to discuss the specific characteristics important valley or local ceramic and other of a single culture in one locale, or valley, he differences, even where the same general ar- can use the term Guañape for a Virú Valley tistic and cultural traditions were represented. manifestation and Cupisnique for its slightly RIOR TO

* Strong, 1948. Also see Kroeber, 1926c, 1927. For excellent summaries of Peruvian archeology prior to 1946, and for sources not cited here, see Kroeber, 1944a; and

Bennett, 1946. For specific summaries of North Coast archeology, see Larco, 1938, 1941, and, particularly, 1948; Bennett, 1939; and Horkheimer, 1944.

Background of Our Excavations

12 TABLE I SYNCHRONIZATION

OF V I R U

VALLEY

PERIOD TERMS

AND

THE G E N E R A L NORTH COAST C U L T U R E SEQUENCE

North Coast ( Chicama—Santa Catalina) Inca-Chimú Chimú North Coastal Tiahuanaco Mochica Virú-Negative-Gallinazo S aliñar Cupisnique (Coastal Cha vin) Pre-ceramic (Huaca Prieta)

Equivalent Viri Periods Estero L a Plata Tomaval Huancaco (late Mochica) Gallinazo Puerto Moorin Guañape Cerro Prieto

different counterpart in the C h i c a m a - S a n t a Catalina region. I f a larger manifestation in this tradition is under discussion, the term Coastal Chavin (which includes not only the North Coast Cupisnique and Guañape cultures, but also those of Early A n c ó n - S u p e and, possibly, Cavernas, to the south) may be used. Finally, if highland manifestations of the Chavin tradition and style are under discussion, here again specific site names such as Chavin de Huántar or the broader term Highland Chavin can be employed as needed. In later sections we will discuss the many problems raised by these larger and smaller cultural congeries and their coastal and highland manifestations. However, for specific descriptive purposes regarding the cultural materials handled in our V i r ú Valley excavations the above local terminology will be employed. Since ceramic remains, that is, broken pottery from the various refuse-heap strata, as well as complete pots from such graves as were excavated by our unit, furnish the most sensitive and accurate markers of culture change yet available, their importance in a stratigraphic study of this kind cannot be over-

estimated. For this reason a uniform pottery type terminology, based on field and laboratory research, has been adopted by all the units of the Viru Valley Project. T h e complex ceramic styles which characterize the Inca, Chimu, Tiahuanacoid, Mochica, Gallinazo, Salinar, and Chavin periods all break down, into a large number of pottery types. These pottery types are classificatory devices set up by the archeologist in order to measure the finer units of culture change through time as indicated by structural and decorative changes in pottery. While in actuality pottery types tend to blend one with another through time and space, locally each complex or type "comes into slight use in one period, gradually increases to the height of its vogue, and then either fades out or disappears entirely."* T h e median product of such a local type unit, however,can be clearly recognized and the general range of characteristics be agreed upon by archeologists familiar with the same materials. A s a result of excavation and surface collecting in the V i r u Valley during 1946, certain pottery types came to be recognized by all concerned. Those with which this report is concerned are described and illustrated in Appendix 1, pp. 2 5 3 - 3 5 1 . However, since they will be referred to throughout the body of this report, they are listed here with the suggestion that the professional reader refer to Appendix 1 for details as each new type is encountered in the text. For comparative purposes regarding the occurrence, percentage, and range of all pottery types at all the sites excavated by the Columbia University unit the reader is referred to Fig. 34, p. 204, and for numerical counts of all pottery types, at all sites and in every stratum, to Tables 2 - 4 , 6 - 9 , and 11-13.

List of Ceramic Types Decorated Wares Guanape Finger-pressed Rib Guanape Incised Rib Guanape Modeled Guanape Punctate Guanape Zoned Punctate Ancón Fine-line Incised Ancón Broad-line Incised

Ancón Zoned Punctate Ancón Brushed Ancón Engraved Ancón Modeled Puerto Moorin White-on-Red Gallinazo Negative Carmelo Negative

• Strong, 1925, p. 165. This quotation refers directly to "significant [pottery] traits," but applies equally well to a complex of these ceramic traits, i.e., a pottery type.

Background of Our Excavations

13

Huancaco Polished Black Huancaco Miscellaneous Modeled Castillo White, Red, Orange Callejón Three-color Negative Callejón Unclassified

Castillo Modeled Castillo Incised Gallinazo Broad-line Incised Huancaco Red and White Huancaco Red, White, Black Huancaco White and Black Plain

Wares Gloria Polished Plain Castillo Plain Valle Plain V i n i Plain Queneto Polished Plain Tomaval Plain

Guañape Black Plain Guañape Red Plain Guañape Coarse Ware Ancón Polished Black Huacapongo Polished Plain Sarraque Cream

ITINERARY Members of the Vini Valley Project first arrived in Lima on March 3, 1946. From that date until March 28 we were occupied in securing excavation permits and auto licenses, and in assembling equipment, including the three jeeps and a trailer, from the docks. On March 28, the first members of the Project arrived in Trujillo, the others following by jeep up the Pan American Highway. Headquarters were established on the fourth and top floor of the Hotel Jacobs, which furnished excellent laboratory and living space. This sunny, top-floor headquarters also afforded us a magnificent view of modern Trujillo, the ruined Chimu capital of Chan Chan, and the great Mochica Pyramid of the Sun at Moche, with the picturesque Andean foothills behind and the blue Pacific in the foreground. Whereas certain other units of the Vini Valley Project later set up field camps in that valley, the Columbia University unit operated throughout from Trujillo, driving the thirtyodd kilometers each way to and from our various sites in the Vini Valley every working day. Our workmen, usually four in number, lived in the field during the week and were brought back to their homes in Trujillo every week end. On April 5, the surface survey and settlement pattern units, under James Ford and Gordon Willey respectively, began their reconnaissance in the upper valley, accompanied by the authors. On April 8, the latter unit made a careful survey of the great Castillo de Tomaval (V-51), under the guidance of Sr. Enrique Jacobs. Stratigraphic work was

begun here by the Columbia University unit on April 10 and continued steadily until May 3. On May 4, a scouting trip was made to the great Gallinazo site (V-59) in the lower valley, seeking further deep deposits. However, floods in the lower valley led us to try to reach the Gallinazo site over the desert from the north (see map, Fig. 1). In so doing we passed through the little town of Guañape and discovered near-by the large black refiise mound, locally designated as Huaca Negra, and to our great pleasure found one fragment of a Chavin stone bowl and a few monochrome sherds on its rather barren surface. Since refuse deposits of this ancient culture had never been reported from the Vini Valley we stored this discovery away for future reference. Returning to the Pan American Highway we finally reached the Gallinazo district, which was then cut off from access via Guañape by flooded lagoons. The many great mounds at Gallinazo looked exceedingly promising, so on May 4 we arrived there with our men and began a deep stratigraphic pit. The site was very promising, but by May 9 the rising flood waters had almost cut us off from any access to or from the site. Temporary abandonment was essential, and we splashed out just in time. Here our recent discovery of the Huaca Negra mound (V-71) near Guañape stood us in good stead, for it was quite accessible by trails through the desert on the north side of the valley. We commenced work here on May 13 and continued until May 27. During this time we made some of our most important discoveries of early ceramic and pre-ceramic

14

Background of Our Excavations

horizons, as well as carrying on some excavation work at the near-by mixed burial ground at V - 6 6 . Having completed our excavations here, and the trails to Gallinazo again being open, we returned to that site on M a y 30, continuing excavation there until J u n e 7, when our major strata cut and minor burial mound excavations there were completed. Our available time in the field was now limited. W e had dug through deep deposits at Castillo de Tomaval ( V - 5 1 ) and at Gallinazo (V-59) which clearly indicated the long development of the Gallinazo culture out of the underlying Salinar horizon. Earlier than Salinar, and yet apparently linked to it by grave association finds at the cemetery V-66, was the Guanape (Coastal Chavin) horizon which at the Huaca Negra site had yielded decorated pottery in the upper levels but showed slowly decreasing numbers of decorated types at lower depths, and finally ended in a cultural deposit entirely without pottery. This, our oldest horizon, locally named the Cerro Prieto culture, lacking pottery but containing plant remains and twined cotton textiles as well as netting, was a new discovery for the Peruvian coast. W e had obviously reached one of those horizons preceding pottery-making which were the particular concern of Unit 5 (pp. 4 - 5 ) . Junius Bird, whose unit this was, arrived in J u n e to carry on this preceramic research both at Guanape and in the Chicama Valley at the site of El Brujo, working on an intensive scale. Since the present authors felt it necessary to spend J u l y and August in the Trujillo laboratory cataloguing, repairing, studying, and photographing our collections, we therefore had less than a month to establish the exact stratigraphic position of the Mochica occupation in the Viru Valley. This famous culture had previously been regarded as basic and very old in this region. However, the almost continuous early stratigraphy, just outlined, had left no place for it save as a later manifestation than the Gallinazo culture. We had secured stratigraphic hints of Mochica remains occupying this position but clear proof was still lacking. Since a pure Mochica site was known at the great temple ruin of Huancaco, on the southern edge of the Viru Valley, we had planned to excavate there. However, re-

ports from the surface survey unit indicated that this was a one-culture occupation with relatively thin refuse deposits. W e therefore turned to the badly looted site of Huaca de la Cruz in the central valley where Bennett (1939) had found both Mochica and Gallinazo refuse and burials. Directly aided by Bennett, we selected two refuse areas here for detailed investigation. Our two strata cuts clearly and quickly revealed that the Mochica dwellings and refuse overlay deeper Gallinazo dwellings and refuse, the latter occupation extending down as before into the Salinar period. Thus, we had a stratigraphically established sequence extending from Mochica times down through Gallinazo and on into Salinar deposits, as well as another earlier sequence, linked to the above by grave finds, which extended through the Guanape (Coastal Chavfn) horizon into the pre-ceramic Cerro Prieto horizon upon which Bird was now concentrating in the adjacent Chicama Valley. Our stratigraphic work at Huaca de la Cruz terminated on June 18. However, for several days thereafter we sought to enlarge our knowledge of the M o chica culture content in the Viru Valley by excavating burials of that important period. In this we were surprisingly well rewarded, and on our last day in the field, J u n e 28, we concluded our field excavations with the discovery of an old man who in himself had personified all the attributes of the great tusked god of the Mochica. This tomb of the WarriorPriest is particularly important because of the intense light it throws upon Mochica political, religious, and ceremonial life. These remarkable burials, as well as the equally important but less spectacular stratigraphic findings mentioned above, will be fully described in sequel. The Columbia University unit concluded its Peruvian laboratory work, as well as final field and photographic reconnaissance trips aimed to fill in gaps in the earlier field record, on August 2 1 , when we left Trujillo for Lima. On September 1, 1946, we departed from Lima for New York. Unfortunately, because of the death of Dr. Julio Tello and for other reasons, our study collections did not reach New York until M a y , 1948, hence there has been considerable delay in preparing the final draft of the present report.

Background of Our Excavations Now that all the sequential and other available materials can be put in logical order it seems better to describe our findings, not in the chronological order in which we happened to excavate them, but according to their own time sequence, proceeding from early to late. Therefore, we will briefly discuss the preceramic Cerro Prieto manifestation discovered for the first time at Huaca Negra near Guanape. Since this pre-ceramic horizon fell outside our allotted task, we did no more with it than to establish clearly its agricultural but pre-ceramic nature. This horizon, new for Peru, has since been worked intensively by Junius Bird. Since the Cerro Prieto culture at Huaca Negra in the Viru Valley is followed, seemingly without a break, by the Guanape (Coastal Chavin) culture, in which the local beginnings and early development of pottery and maize agriculture can be traced, we will discuss this manifestation at greater length on the basis of our more extensive excavations. Coming up in time, the manifestations of the succeeding Puerto Moorin (Salinar) period, including architectural details and burial associations revealed at and near the mixed cemetery of V-66, will then be described. This leads us up to a description of the deep strata cuts at Gallinazo (V-59) and at Castillo de Tomaval (V-51), where thin Puerto Moorin deposits were found to underlie thick deposits of the Gallinazo culture at both sites. Next, the stratigraphic work at Huaca de la Cruz (V-162), which definitely established the fact of the apparently brief Mochica (Huancaco) occupation in the Viru Valley as being later than the long Gallinazo period of occupation, will be described. This will include the remarkable series of Mochica burials encountered at this site. Since the Mochica occupation marks the latest cultural horizon which can logically be classed among "The Formative and Florescent Epochs" in the Viru Valley, the limited post-Mochica period materials which we secured from several cemeteries and surface collections will be described in a later report. The concluding sections will involve summaries of the findings here recorded as well as

*5

comparisons with printed and other materials bearing on the archeological history of the Virii Valley. These comparative studies will then be extended farther afield to include not only the North Coast but also other parts of Peru where the sequential record of human occupation may throw light upon, or be itself better understood by, the stratigraphic record in the Vini Valley. Here we deal with only one segment of this record, but it is a long and important segment, the elucidation of which will, we hope, reveal not only the sequences but also some of the processes and stages whereby simple fishermen-farmer communities in the Viru Valley evolved over the millennia into the complex civilizations and empires characteristic of late pre-Conquest Peru. The primary aim of this report being the reconstruction of a part of Peruvian culture history by the use of objective methods, we have tried therefore to present both our field and analytic data as completely as possible. The resulting descriptive sections, with all their detail and unavoidable repetition, will undoubtedly prove most boring to anyone not a specialist in this field. For him we recommend the brief cultural résumés at the end of each descriptive section, and the later comparative and concluding sections. It is felt, however, that the raw data on which the interpretations and conclusions rest should be made available for those who would interpret them differently, as well as for future workers who may find in some detail, now almost meaningless in its isolation, a key to further scientific advance. Practical difficulties, often beyond our control, have, however, made our descriptive materials uneven in quality. This in considerable part is due to the fact that, with the exception of potsherds, only a small portion of our entire collection is available in New York for intensive study, all the more complete and finer pieces having been retained in Peru. The Columbia University unit devoted one third of its very limited and precious time in Peru to cataloguing, laboratory analysis, and photography. However, this was barely adequate for the study of the more complete specimens that would expectably be retained

16

Background of ( >ur Excavations

in Peru, and could not include the entire collection. Our descriptive methods, therefore, fall into three categories: first, field observations; second, brief laboratory study of the more complete pieces in Peru; third, detailed analysis of those more fragmentary portions of the collection which, after two years, finally reached us in New York. Since considerable sections of this report were written on the basis of field and laboratory study in Peru prior to the receipt of the study collection, it has not seemed practical to indicate in every case which category of description is involved. In most cases, careful consideration by the reader should readily suggest the category of description employed. The wide range of usually perishable materials having cultural significance which are preserved on the coast of Peru is both an advantage and an acute problem to the nonomniscient field archeologist who desires to present for consideration all obtainable aspects of cultural activity without conscious selection or omission. This abundance is equally a challenge to balanced scientific presentation, and may result, as perhaps in the present report, in a paradox whereby the majority of readers may regard the descriptive sections as painfully detailed and tedious, while a critical minority may see them as cavalier and inadequate. There is, we believe, in these findings something more than a spark of what has been termed "the romance of archeology." W e hope we have not completely smothered it with data. Before passing on to the main subject matter of this study, a word about the total lack of chronological estimates in the present report is in order. Here, we are primarily concerned with establishing detailed and overlapping culture sequences, stratigraphically deter-

mined for the most part, in the Viru Valley. Secondarily, in the final sections, we present certain very tentative hypotheses regarding differential, prehistoric, cultural lag and cultural florescence in various parts of Peru (Table 18). If these latter should prove to be true, differences between exact chronological and presently accepted cultural epoch groupings will become obvious. This will establish primacy for neither. It will, we hope, lead to new and fruitful adjustments between two, complementary, synthetic and analytic, approaches—that of relative culture epochs (on a varying chronological rhythm), and that of exact chronological comparisons between progressive, or lagging, sub-culture areas through time. So far as a general temporal framework is concerned, based on estimates derived from known geological or historical correlations, our present chronological estimates would be closely similar to those presented by Bennett and Bird (1949, Fig. 19). However, since the present study is analytic, rather than synthetic, we are here searching for new correlations which only additional stratigraphic and positive chronological techniques can disclose. For this reason we offer at present no new series of estimated, or guess, dates in terms of the Christian calendar. Perhaps new techniques, like that involving Carbon 14, may soon help us, but such tests must be very exact and very inclusive if varying, local, culture lag and culture florescence situations are not to be confused by too limited, or too random, sampling. The climax and other points of direct culture growth, like those of a cultural tradition, are difficult of determination, even in historic times. There seems, as yet, no way to determine any of these save through painstaking, and objective, comparative research.*

* Sec footnote, p. 226.

Huaca Negra Site (V-71) near Guañape

T

of Guañape is on the coast, northwest of Virú pueblo, and is separated from the valley by the Pampa de Pur Pur, a barren area of wind-blown sand and scattered algarroba bushes. Although the village itself is not a part of the valley since it is not in the Virú drainage, its proximity to the valley borders has influenced its development in the past as well as in the present. A peculiar type of beach grass growing upon the dunes covers a very irregular topography of vales, hummocks, and low marsh beds for a distance of one to two kilometers from the beach line. In an area broken up by this natural vegetation, the Huaca Negra midden rises 75 meters above sea level as a low conical mound, approximately circular around the base and measuring 300 meters in diameter. T h e mound receives its name from the local inhabitants who regard it as an "old ruin without any pottery," and it is given the adjective "Negra" becauseofits black, ashy appearance. From a distance the mound's blackness contrasts sharply against the white, wind-blown dunes and dull brown beach grass. During the wet season the base of Huaca Negra mound is washed by a series of lagoons (Plate I B) which have been formed, so we were told, by the deliberate flooding of the low areas northwest of Carmelo Hacienda in an attempt to reforest the area with its natural coverage of algarroba and spine bush. These bodies of water have caused the present water HE FISHING VILLAGE

table to rise considerably in the mound itself. However, there is indication that in the past the water table was always high in this area and that Huaca Negra was surrounded by many subterranean gardens. Today, the same gardens are used as a source of reeds for basket and mat manufacture by the people of Guanape. A careful survey of the beach contours and old beach lines, and an examination of the rocky point of Cerro Prieto de Guanape indicate that in the past the site of Huaca Negra was much nearer the shore line. In fact, Cerro Prieto de Guanape, which is now attached to the coast by a low sand flat a few kilometers south of Guanape, was once undoubtedly an island (see map, Fig. 1). A survey made by the field party to the extreme tip of Cerro Prieto de Guanape produced no evidences of camp sites or early fishing sites except one very late camp site, perhaps of modern times. This complete lack of occupation sites would tend to support the other evidences that Cerro Prieto de Guanape was formerly an island. Probably one of the reasons for this failure to use the island for extended occupation was its complete lack of a fresh water supply. Living conditions would not have been as satisfactory as those on the mainland. The fact that the present-day topographic features vary considerably from those at the time of the occupation of Huaca Negra is most important in obtaining a clearer picture of this occupation site.

CERRO PRIETO, PRE-CERAMIC T h e first few days on the Huaca Negra site were spent by scattering the five workmen over the entire midden to dig small test holes and to collect all the sherds, bones, stone, and other artifacts. By literally combing the entire surface of the mound, a collection of incised and punctate sherds, stone bowl fragments, numerous jet mirror pieces, quartz crystals, turquoise, worked shell, and a few hammer-

EXCAVATIONS

stones indicated that Huaca Negra was apparently a site characterized by the very early Coastal Chavin occupation. As soon as the surface collecting was extended beyond the base of Huaca Negra to the north, west, or east (the flooded lagoon then surrounded the south and southwest sides), a mixture of later (Chimu) sherds of pressed ware were the only things found.

FIO. 2 . MAP O F HUACA NEGRA (SITE V - 7 1 ) NEAR GUAÑAPE

Huaca Negra Site (V-71) Evidence of a large amount of grave looting by huaqueros in these late period (Chimu) cemeteries was the reason for the large amount of surface sherd material. Search for burials of the early ceramic period of the mound proved to be of no avail. Only a late period graveyard of the Chimu occupation was located on a flat low apron to the northeast of Huaca Negra (see map, Fig. 2). This material will be discussed elsewhere since it does not come within the periods dealt with in this report. While still testing the area to determine the best spot for a deep strata pit, two test excavations were commenced: Test Pit 1 on the west side of the mound near the benchmark of the site, and Test Pit 2 in a small wash on the south side (see map, Fig. 2). T h e eroded cut on the south side looked promising, as the strata appeared to present layers of ash and shell, while the test pit on the west side was placed in an area where a light soil color contrasted sharply against the blackness of the midden. T E S T P I T I ( P R E - C E R A M I C HOUSES)

Test Pit 1 was 2.0 meters square, excavated in 25-centimeter levels. All the dirt was screened. Since so little cultural material was coming out of the fill (no sherds), and the purpose of the test was to search for a good refuse deposit with pottery, the control of Pit 1 by layers was abandoned. T h e nature of the soil soon indicated that the refuse fill was inside some room or enclosure and was not a refuse mound. Black and gray ash with large amounts of shell, crab claws, bird bones, fish bones, plant fibers, fire-cracked cobblestones, and fragments of cotton thread were in the fill. A shell fishhook (Fig. 8) with fragments of a fish-net came from a depth of .75 meters. T h e hard-packed salitre deposits in the fill made the screening difficult. As the excavation reached 1.0 meter in depth a peculiar deposit of light brown, salitre-impregnated clay appeared on the north and west faces of the cut. The nature of the structure enclosing these deposits proved confusing at first, as the walls did not seem to form any regular pattern within the excavation. By abandoning the

*9 limits of the test pit the walls of a structure were uncovered. These were made of large handfuls of clay piled on top of each other with the surface plastered over with a thin ( 1 - 2 centimeters) layer of clay. This clay was so highly impregnated with salitre that it formed a rock-hard surface when dry. T h e walls were 8 - 1 5 centimeters wide. T h e north wall extended 5.75 meters to a cross wall which ran to the south at right angles for 3.0 meters, forming a rectangular room. Since the purpose of our excavation was not to excavate pre-ceramic house structures completely, only sufficient dirt was removed to give the general outlines of the structure. T h e original height of the wall was probably .50-.75 meters above the present surface of the mound, judging from the amount of clay waish and fragments in the upper levels. A hard floor was 1.72 meters below the present surface and was made of a layer of salitreimpregnated clay 1 . 0 - 2 . 5 centimeters thick. A test hole placed through the floor in one corner revealed only natural yellow-brown clay and sand with no ash or rubbish. This seems to indicate that the structures at this spot were only one layer in depth. Further sifting of the black and gray ashfilled rubbish produced an abundance of firecracked cobblestones, clam, snail, and mussel shells, fish remains, and bird bones. T h e only artifacts found were many fragments of cotton fibers and double-twist cotton string, two pieces of cloth made in a simple twined technique, one shell fishhook, and a drilled rectangular piece of coral. Pottery was absent. As the east end of the room was being excavated to floor level, a series of fourteen small wooden roof beams and five canes apparently arranged as some sort of a roof cover appeared at a depth of .75 meters below the surface. T h e exact function of these beams is still uncertain, even after thorough excavation. However, they may have served as some sort of cover over a narrow storage space. T h e beams were algarroba branches varying in diameter from 3.3 to 8.5 centimeters and from 53 to 80 centimeters in length. They were arranged side by side, supported at each end by resting upon, and slightly overhanging, a hard-packed clay wall (Plate I D). The space covered was 94 centimeters long and only

20

Huaca Negra Site (V-71)

48 centimeters wide. Below the small beams the soil contained a large amount of ash and sand with some shell refuse. A large post hole, 14 centimeters in diameter, was at the south end of the beam structure, but all the wood particles in it had decomposed. In an attempt to determine the purpose of this structure the beams were removed and a test pit, 80 centimeters wide and 2.45 meters deep, was sunk between the two walls which had supported the beams. Only ash and sand occurred in the fill until pure brown clay appeared at the lowest depth. From all indications the space between the two walls and under the beams was at one time a storage bin which was later abandoned and filled with ash refuse. Although further excavations in these house units were not undertaken at this time because Junius Bird was planning to specialize on the pre-ceramic horizons of the North Coast of Peru, study of the surface features in the area around Test Pit 1 revealed a large series of similar house units. Differences in soil color could be determined in the early morning hours when the night dampness had settled on the surface. The light brown walls of the houses could be traced by their contrast to the dark ashy-black of the fill and refuse. Spot testing in this area on the west side of Huaca Negra did not reveal a single sherd in any of the refuse of mixed ash and shell. Bird's later excavations in the area confirmed this fact and added further data on the construction of these houses. TEST PIT 2 (PRE-CERAMIC S T R A T A CUT)

While the excavation of Test Pit 1 was progressing, another group of workmen were digging Test Pit 2 in the small wash on the south side of the midden (see map, Fig. 2). Since the screen was being used in the work of Test Pit 1, this dirt was handled from two to four times, depending on the levels, to lessen the chance of missing artifacts. If this test pit had revealed ceramic deposits a controlled strata cut was to have been made beside it. However, no sherds or other distinctive artifacts appeared, even though human bones and occupation refuse of ash, shell, as well as clay floor levels indicated that the fill was artificial. Test Pit 2 was 4.0 meters long, with the

control face on the east side of the wash, and 2.0 meters wide at the surface tapering to 1.0 meter in width at the base. No controlled levels of 25-centimeter depths were kept, for the pit was dug merely to determine the presence or absence of sherds and to determine the depth of the refuse deposit. Distinct clay floor levels occurred at depths of .50, .75, and 2.0 meters (see Fig. 3). The bones of a child were found at 1.0 meter and another at 2.0 meters, with an adult burial occurring at 1.75 meters, but the poor condition of the skeletal material did not permit study. The high water table from the lagoons had decomposed all perishable material. No associated artifacts were found with either of these burials. A few chipped stone fragments, which might have been hand choppers, and one hammerstone were the only artifacts taken from the entire test pit. The identification of even these specimens as artifacts is dubious. At 4.10 meters pure greenish-yellow sand appeared without any mixture of ash. The layer just above this deposit consisted of 75 centimeters of ash, charcoal, and shell mixed with sand. A large deposit of thin layers ofshell, ash, and charcoal, with a large amount of black angular-fractured, fire-burned rock extended from 2.25 to 3.50 meters in depth. The only evidence of house structures occurred above the 2.0 meter level. The walls appeared to be made of handfuls of clay piled on top of each other and plastered with a thin layer of salitre-impregnated clay as in the structures of Test Pit 1. To eliminate the possibility that any refuse deposits lay beneath the pure sand, a hole was dug in one end of the test pit to 4.75 meters. No evidences of occupation were found. Water from the near-by artificial lagoon was drawn up at this depth and filled the lower parts of Test Pit 2. Reference to the profile of the east face of this excavation (Fig. 3) will clarify the stratigraphic features. The results of Test Pits 1 and 2 are not detailed enough to draw any definite conclusions on the pre-ceramic phase of occupancy of Huaca Negra. However, in the light of further excavations which have been carried out by Junius Bird in both the Viru Valley and Chicama Valley, the pre-ceramic phase seems to have been a period of long occupancy

Huaca Negra Site (V-71) EAST FACE

21

0M

IM

2M

3M

4M

5M FIG. 3 . PROFILE OF TEST PIT 2 , SITE V - 7 1

at Huaca Negra as well as at other points along the North Coast of Peru. The material culture is very meager, but the few items found, shell fishhooks, cotton, twined cloth, are distinctive enough to warrant their full description.

C U L T U R A L A N D O T H E R R E M A I N S OF T H E C E R R O PRIETO OCCUPATION

Considering the novelty and great importance of this very early horticultural and preceramic horizon first revealed at Huaca

22

Huaca Negr; 1 Site (V-71)

Negra, the actual cultural remains are far from impressive. In part this is due to the simplicity, not to say poverty, of the culture, and in part to the very limited extent of our own excavations. As soon as we were convinced that here was an actual pre-ceramic horizon we turned to other work, since the problem of pre-ceramic occupation was in the province of Junius Bird's unit. Later, as the result of his intensive work at El Brujo and Guanape, he secured abundant data on this fascinating period. However, in order to make the record complete the following summary of our limited finds is in order. Concerning architecture at Test Pit i we determined that what appeared to be semisubterranean houses were in use in Cerro Prieto times and that these were carefully plastered with clay and salitre, having clearly defined floors and walls as well as wooden pole beams. W e did not, however, entirely clear any of these structures, although their outlines were visible on the surface. In Test Pit 2 we observed what appeared to be clay walls extending down to a depth of 2 meters. The presence of numerous fire-cracked rocks and cobblestones, as well as ash and charcoal, testified to the general nature ofcooking during this period. Scattered human remains in Test Pit 2 indicated that the dead were buried, or possibly merely abandoned, directly in the refuse levels. N o carefully arranged burials or any grave gifts were noted. It is tempting to follow Uhle's postulation of cannibalism, as in Early Ancon and Supe, but there is no positive proof. In Test Pit 1, actually the partial excavation of a dwelling structure, the following artifacts were encountered: fire-cracked rocks; small, polished pebble (possibly an amulet); 4 quartz crystals (possibly amulets); 1 shell fishhook; pieces of two-ply yarn (all yarn and cloth apparently of cotton); 3 pieces of plainweave cloth (two-ply warp, paired weft); 1 large fragment of open mesh (half-hitch loop coiling), probably a pouch; 34 pieces of wood (some cut with stone tools) and large cane; 1 3 gourd fragments; 1 wad of chewed, unidentified fiber. This list stretches the definition of "artifact" to its outer limits, but it does reveal several interesting facts. First, that these people were farmers, growing cotton,

gourds, and possibly other plants. There is, however, no evidence of maize. They also wove and twined cotton cloth. They did not use pottery. They worked wood, used cane and gourds, and heated rocks in their cooking operations. They chewed cuds of fiber (our one case would hardly prove this, but Junius Bird, who kindly identified our materials in the laboratory, says that such cuds are very common in the pre-ceramic levels at Huaca Prieta). Finally, they gathered quartz crystals and, possibly, small, flat, smooth pebbles which may have served as charms or amulets. Test Pit 2, on the low side of the mound next to the lagoon, was damp, and none of the above perishable types of objects had survived. Artifacts of any sort from Pit 2 are very scarce. They include a definite grinding stone of sandstone with two flat faces, one of which has been ground perfectly smooth. This measures 10.3 centimeters in length, 6 centimeters in greatest width, and 1.6 centimeters in thickness. Three small cobblestones ( 7 - 1 0 centimeters in length) and one flat pebble (6 centimeters long) have battered ends or edges from use as hammerstones. There are numerous fire-cracked rocks and cobblestones and numerous smooth flat pebbles of various sizes, but these last show no signs of use. Animal bone is mainly human, representing parts of at least one adult and several infants. Bird bones, fish bones, mussel shells, and a little charcoal conclude the scant list of evidences of human occupation found in this rather large test pit. It does, however, indicate that the dead were carelessly treated, and that clay-walled houses, as well as stone cooking, were in use. Here again, there was absolutely no pottery below the surface of the ground. Important as these crude artifacts are, we have not illustrated them here, with one exception, because each of these types and many others were found in abundance in Bird's intensive excavations at Huaca Prieta and Guanape. His forthcoming publication will amply describe and illustrate all these preceramic artifacts and dwelling types. In one case, however, that of the one shell fishhook (Fig. 8), we were lucky in encountering what appears to be a rare article in the north Peruvian pre-ceramic horizons, though abundant in the earliest horizons on the north Chilean

Huaca Negra Site (V-71)

23 coast, where Bird (1943, pp. 241, 276, and some varieties of llama and deer, do not seem Fig. 18 c) describes and figures identical shell to have been secured commonly until later fishhooks. Strange to say, in all Bird's very periods. In brief, then, it appears that the extensive excavations at Guanape and in the ancient inhabitants of the North Coast of Ghicama Valley, he encountered only one Peru during Cerro Prieto times lived a somefragment of such a fishhook at Huaca Prieta. what precarious but sedentary life with a basic Apparently the early people of Cerro Prieto economy divided between gathering from the times used other methods of fishing, particu- sea and the cultivation of a number of plants. larly nets. While we, on the other hand, did The latter, interestingly enough, does not seem not find perforated stone net sinkers, they were to have included maize. We will leave the further elucidation of this and still earlier common at Huaca Prieta. A listing of the faunal remains from Pit 1 periods in the Viru and adjacent valleys to throws some further light upon the economy Junius Bird, passing on to the next or Guanape of these fishermen-farmers. Large deepwater (Coastal Chavin) occupation, which brings mussels, marine snails,pieure (a sea urchin-like with it the beginnings of maize agriculture form), rock crabs, and various types of fish and pottery making. So far as our own ex(particularly sand sharks or rays) were well cavations at V-71 gave evidence, there was no represented in Pit 1. Neither sea lion, bird, clear-cut break, but rather a gradual denor land mammal bones were found in our velopment or transition, between the Cerro very limited excavations, although the first Prieto and the Guanape cultures at the two of these are common in similar levels Huaca Negra site. worked by Bird. Land mammals, particularly

THE E X C A V A T I O N S OF THE GUANAPE PERIOD T E S T PITS 3 AND 4

With test pits on two separate sides of Huaca Negra and still no evidence of sherds in the refuse, we decided that random testing on the leeward (northeast) side of the midden might prove profitable. Two pits, Test Pits 3 and 4, just large enough to permit a workman to shovel conveniently, were placed on the flanks of the mound and dug to a depth of 1.5 meters. These excavations revealed a sufficient number of sherds, shells, as well as a stone bowl fragment, and jet mirrors, to indicate the advisability of placing a large stratigraphic pit in this area. STRATA CUT I

Strata Cut 1 was laid out 6.0 meters on the east-west side and 3.0 meters on the northsouth side in the area between Test Pits 3 and 4. Since testing at Huaca Negra had proved the scarcity of artifacts over the entire site, all the dirt from this cut was screened to eliminate the possibility of missing any of the artifacts. The advisability of this plan was quickly proved after the first two or three levels had

been excavated, because the black ash color of the lower soil made it practically impossible to see the sherds in the fill. The tailings of each level were placed on a large canvas and carefully examined, saving all artifacts, sherds, animal and human bones, vegetal refuse, and a sample collection of all types of the large number of shells. The refuse was removed in 25-centimeter levels. The first four levels of Strata Cut 1 down to 1.0 meter contained a large amount of brown earth mixed with black ash, tightly packed in thin laminations almost indistinguishable as refuse layers. These upper levels were the only ones that did not have a large amount of large mussel shells mixed with the refuse. However, small clam shells and other shell fragments were evenly distributed throughout, as if they had been pulverized or broken before being discarded. The present local inhabitants of Guanape claim that the large mussels (found in abundance in the lower levels) do not exist along the coast today. However, according to Peruvian naturalists, the type is present in deeper water where the modern fishermen do not operate. Except for large cakes of earth

Huaca Negra Site (V-71) solidified by dense salitre deposits, the refuse material was very loose and powdery, making sifting easy. Sherds of Coastal Chavin type with incised and punctate designs appeared in some quantity from the surface to 1.25 meters. Level .50-.75 meters yielded several excellent quartz crystals and two broad-lined incised sherds. (The nature and sequence of these ceramic types, as well as other artifacts, will be more fully discussed in a later section after a general description of the excavations.) T w o fragments of polished jet, quartz crystals, pieces of cotton thread, and a fragment of cotton cloth also came from this level. The appearance of pieces of cloth from these very early period levels was astonishing, in view of the general fate of perishable materials heretofore noted in northern Peru. The cause for the preservation of such ancient perishable materials at Huaca Negra is apparently the high percentage of salitre in the soil. Sherds taken out of many levels were encrusted with salitre crystals an inch long. All cloth fragments are so filled with salt crystals that careful washing in many waters is necessary to dissolve the salitre. All the cloth fragments from these levels were true weaving and not the twined technique of the cloth from the earlier pre-ceramic excavations. A hard-packed salitre layer of 5 - 1 0 centimeters in thickness appeared at 1.0 meter at the east end of the cut, gradually sloping to 1.25 meters at the west end (Fig. 4). This rocklike level was penetrated only by the use of picks. Upon observation one would think that the surface had been deliberately packed, but analysis of the soil conditions indicated that this probably marked one of the periods of heavy rain on the North Coast, causing the salt in the soil to form a more concentrated solution from the wash-off of the upper part of the midden. Upon drying and recrystallization, the ash, mud, and salitre formed this hard layer. Further indication that this level does not represent a stratigraphic or time break is found in an analysis of the pottery. Beneath the salitre layer the dirt changed to a rich brown with an increased amount of moisture in the soil. The cap had apparently preserved the moisture in the fill below it, not permitting any evaporation. Material found

25 in this level ( 1 . 5 0 - 1 . 7 5 meters) was so black and filthy that two washings were necessary to determine the surface characteristics. T h e amount of shell refuse increased considerably, with the bones of sea lion and small birds evenly distributed throughout the fill. Once again the layers were very thin, almost indistinguishable, consisting of a mixture of fine shell, fish bones, large amounts of black ash, and increasing numbers of angular-fractured, fire-burned cobblestones. A human burial occurred at 1.75 meters in the south face with an indication of the burial shaft extending from the 1.25 meter level, but not through the hard salitre layer. Because this burial appeared in the south wall of the cut, 2.0 meters from the southeast corner, it was not taken out for fear that the walls would cave in from undercutting. The body was an adult buried in no specific position, apparently just pushed into a small hole about 75 centimeters in diameter. The sherd materials from the surface to 1.75 meters show relationship to the known Coastal Chavin characteristics of design, but below this level sherd characteristics change considerably. The change was not abrupt, but one of gradual falling off of design elements and decline of ceramic technique. No clearcut break appears in the strata to indicate an abandonment of the site for a period of time between different occupations. The strata would emphasize the fact that Huaca Negra was occupied continuously from pre-ceramic levels through these levels showing Coastal Chavin characteristics (Fig. 4). From 1.75 meters the soil conditions change from the thin layers of brown earth, mixed with black ash, to a thick lens of almost pure shell refuse. This lens of shell, whose upper surface is 1.80 meters below the surface, pinches out at the ends of the cut, but in the center of the south face reaches a thickness of 50 centimeters (Fig. 4). Very little dirt is in the lens, indicating a rapid deposition of this refuse material. The constant, strong coastal winds would have blown sand into the shell deposit if it had accumulated over a very long period of time. These shells were mainly large mussels, clams, sea snails, limpets, barnacles, sea urchins, and crabs. Large numbers of sea lion bones were also present in the lens.

26

Huaca Negra Site (V-71)

Beneath the shell lens the fill contained large areas of fine, w i n d - b l o w n sand, causing the color to c h a n g e to a very light b r o w n . These layers were thick e n o u g h to be clearly distinguishable ( 8 - 1 5 centimeters), in contrast to the thin, indistinct layers in the upper levels of the cut. T h e y dipped slightly to the east, following the contour of H u a c a N e g r a . T h e deposits of w i n d - b l o w n material mixed with refuse continued to 2.60 meters where a thin layer (10-25 centimeters) of mixed shell and fish bones extended the full length of the strata cut. V e r y little soil or sand was in this deposit. W i t h the recurrent a p p e a r a n c e of these relatively pure deposits of shell without mixed sand, it appears as if extra large amounts of shell refuse were t h r o w n a w a y at one time, perhaps after some unusually large catch or festive occasion. T h i s conclusion is based not only on the fact that shell appears in these layers without a mixture of w i n d - b l o w n sand, b u t because only a m o d e r a t e a m o u n t of other shell material appears well mixed and evenly distributed throughout all the other layers. In these lower levels some chemical reaction from the large percentage of ash and fish bones has preserved the finish and luster of the shells. A l l artifacts from below 2.60 meters felt soapy to the touch. Before Strata C u t 1 could be extended below 2.75 meters in depth, a platform for dirt removal was cut on the north side of the pit. W h i l e cutting d o w n this extension, 1.50 meters wide and the full length o f the pit, the dirt was not sifted. N o unusual artifacts or sherds appeared. A child burial was found at a depth of 1.50 meters, b u t there were no associated materials, and the condition of the bones was so poor that no plan of burial could be determined. N o w that dirt h a d to be handled twice for r e m o v a l f r o m the pit, special care was taken to see that the men shoveled only the loose dirt t h r o u g h the sifter and did not mix the materials f r o m the platform. Close supervision of the w o r k prevented any mixture of artifacts or refuse f r o m different levels. L e v e l 2.75-3.0 meters contained another lens of almost p u r e shell, w i t h o u t a d m i x t u r e with earth or sand. H o w e v e r , this lens was only 20 centimeters thick, p i n c h i n g out approximately 1 meter f r o m the west end of the

cut. A n adult burial occurred at exactly 3 meters in depth, in the west end of the cut, 1.25 meters from the northwest corner. N o associated materials were found. T h e g r a v e consisted of a small shaft of irregular o v a l shape d u g in the refuse deposit. T h e body w a s lying on its right side and was tightly flexed; the knees were drawn close to the chest a n d the arms were folded around them. T h e head, badly crushed and decomposed, was facing southwest. T h e soil conditions of the midden are not conducive to good preservation of bone, as compared to other perishable materials, and, therefore, features of the b o d y were difficult to determine in situ. T h e skeletal remains were those of a man approximately 50 to 60 years old, with unusually large prominences on all the bones, especially the mastoid processes and the greater trochanters of the femurs. T h e bones of the skull were extremely thick. Physical anthropometric data are lacking because a detailed study has not yet been m a d e b y physical anthropologists. However, the bones were deposited, along with other skeletal material found b y the C o l u m b i a University Expedition, at the Museo A r q u e o lógico " R a f a e l L a r c o H e r r e r a , " Chiclín Hacienda. A n o t h e r male adult burial was discovered at 3.25 meters in depth in the south wall, 3.0 meters from the west wall, buried in exactly the same position, resting on the right side with the head to the south. A g a i n , no associated material was found. T h e skeleton was not completely removed, because part of it was embedded in the south face and could not be disturbed for fear of weakening and undermining the walls of the strata cut. U n usually heavy bones were also characteristic of this burial. T h e particular occupation period represented b y the strata from levels 2.75 to 3.50 meters m a y have been severe, for another burial occurred within the small area represented b y Strata C u t 1. T h e b o d y of a child, age about 5 years, lay at 3.30 meters in depth, 1.1 o meters from the southwest corner, near the south face of the cut. N o particular position could be determined, for the bones were in a very poor state of preservation and the skull was crushed. A g a i n no associated

Huaca Negr; Site (V-71) materials were placed with the burial. The diameter of the burial hole was less than 50 centimeters. From the three burials encountered in Strata Cut 1, one could conclude that the people who deposited this refuse at Huaca Negra did not bury their dead with associated artifacts, but placed them in irregular pits or holes usually in a flexed position lying on the right side. However, these may represent poor people, and there may be undiscovered cemeteries for upper class persons in the vicinity. Soil conditions of the strata changed considerably in level 3.25-3.50 meters, passing from refuse filled with many shells to that with practically no shell. A large number of small, fire-burned, angular-fractured cobblestones occurred in this refuse with only a few sherds. All the upper levels had 600-800 sherds per 25centimeter level, whereas this level contained only 147 sherds. The same soil conditions as the previous level characterized level 3.50-3.7 5 meters, with the amount of fire-burned, angularfractured cobblestones increasing considerably. Sherds had practically disappeared— only seven were present. The shell content of the fill had dropped considerably, but more ash and burned charcoal appeared. The skeleton of an infant of premature birth was scattered in the trash of this level of the north end of the cut, with no associated materials. Exactly the same soil conditions occurred in the next level, 3.75-4.0 meters, with only six sherds. Fractured rocks were again very abundant, with small, white clay globules appearing throughout the refuse of ash and charcoal. Careful handling of the tailings from the sifter at these lower levels did not produce any artifacts with the exception of one probable stone chopper. Although sherds disappeared at 4.0 meters, the strata cut was continued by levels through mixed refuse to 4.75 meters. This material contained an abundance of ash, charcoal, fire-burned, angular-fractured cobblestones, and fish and bird bones, but only a small amount of shell. The refuse was stratified, but the layers were very indistinct and large amounts of yellow sand and globules of white clay appeared scattered throughout the material. At 4.75 meters, charcoal, ash, and shell disappeared,

27

and the refuse deposits stopped, passing abruptly into yellow sand. T o prove the sterility of this material the strata cut was dug to 5 meters, with clear evidence that this was pure yellow sand, unmixed with any occupation refuse. The presence of sand at this level (about 1.5 meters above the lowest flanks of Huaca Negra) would indicate that when occupation began here, Huaca Negra was probably a small dune of beach and windblown sand. TEST PIT 5

While the lower levels of Strata Cut 1 were being excavated, one man was taken from this work to sink a test pit into a small knoll, 45.5 meters northeast of Strata Cut 1 (Fig. 2). The purpose was to determine if this small mound (5.0 meters long and 3.0 meters wide, rising 2.0 meters above the surrounding land) was natural, a burial mound, or a result of the accumulation of refuse. A hole measuring 1 by 4 meters was dug in the center of the mound. The material was not controlled by layers, but was analyzed as it came out to determine the nature of the deposits. If the evidence had proved satisfactory another larger strata cut was to have been placed in the mound. The deposit, however, proved to be mostly wind-blown sand with a large amount of dune grass roots extending deep beneath the surface. Mixed with this sand were a few sherds of the types found in the upper 1.25 meters of Strata Cut 1. The test pit was carried to 2 meters and then terminated, because the nature of the soil indicated that it was largely natural, wind-blown sand with occasional sherds scattered throughout the deposits. The mound was not an architectural structure or a refuse mound as had originally been thought. Since no additional data on refuse stratigraphy could be gained here, Test Pit 5 was terminated and the material from the entire pit catalogued as a single unit to be used for design study in the ceramic analysis. T E M P L E OF T H E L L A M A S

The geological formations of Huaca Negra and its immediate environs do not present any natural outcroppings of rock; however, on a

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CROSS SECTION OF D O U B L E W A L L B , S T R A T A CUT I , SITE V - 5 1

adobes in clay mortar. T h e function of several of the walls was not clear, for they were related to features outside the limits of the strata cut. Wall A , a wall of uncut rocks,

varying in size and placed in a clay mortar with the faces fairly regular, occurred in the south end of the cut, extending diagonally from the west to the east face. T h e top of the wall was 1.60 meters below the surface, with the base resting on a clay floor at 2.80 meters. A n unusual wall, Wall B , was made of rocks laid in clay mortar surmounted by two rows of these adobe blocks with rubble in between and capped by flat adobes. Wall B was in the center of the west face extending diagonally across to the east face (Fig. 19). T h e top of the wall was 1.50 meters below the surface with the base at 3.0 meters. Wall B appears to be one of the main features of several house structures. Most of the floor levels connect with its sides. Except for the 50-centimeter high upper capping of adobe and rubble, Wall B was made of irregular uncut rocks laid in clay mortar with the wall faces relatively straight and regular (Plate X I I A). Both faces were coated with a thin clay plaster. T h e rocks varied from hand size to large rocks 57 by 30 centimeters. This combination of two types of construction in the same wall was associated with a later building phase to heighten the original wall. T h e thick (2 centimeters) clay floor extending from Wall A to Wall B and from Wall B to the north end of the cut, at a depth of 1.80 meters, was another indication of this later stage of building. This floor joined Wall B on both sides at exactly the point where the adobes and rubble had been laid on top of the plastered rock wall. Undoubtedly, Walls A and B were once much higher than the present excavation indicated. Loose rocks and adobes occurred on both sides of these walls, as though they had toppled over and weathered for a few years before sufficient refuse had accumulated to cover them. T h e trash on top of the 1.80 meter floor contained a large amount of fine, yellowish dirt and broken rock, suggesting that one of the periodic heavy rains had washed from the steep ridge across the area now represented by Strata Cut 1. T h e adobe and rubble capping of Wall B is worthy of detailed description. Upon the top of the 30-centimeter wide rock wall two rows of thin, cane-marked adobes were placed along each edge, leaving a center space 1 1 centimeters wide. This central core was

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51) filled with loose rubble consisting of hunks of broken adobes, a few potsherds, small rocks, and dirt (Fig. 20). T h e thin, cane-marked adobes of the double wall averaged 10 centimeters thick, 40 centimeters high, and 30 centimeters wide. They were chinked with small rocks and laid in heavy clay mortar (Plate X I I A). Upon these upright adobes and rubble core, cane-marked adobes of approximately the same size served as capping, They were laid in thick mortar. In places the mortar appeared as if it had been on top of the flat adobe still in place, further proof that the scattered adobes on the north side of Wall B had undoubtedly toppled from this wall. At the west end of the double adobe and rubble wall, two layers of adobes were laid to form the capping; the east end had only one layer, The difference in the thickness of the layers was due to the irregularities of height of the stone wall and upright adobes. A rock wall, Wall F, laid in clay mortar, joined Wall B at right angles at a point adjacent to the west face of the strata cut and extended the length of the cut to the north end (Fig. 19). This wall was the same height as Wall B, terminated at the same depth of 3.0 meters, and adjoined the same floor at the bottom of Walls B, C, D, and E. The wall surfaces were regular and unplastered. The wall averaged 26 centimeters in width. Walls C, D, and E adjoined the west side of rock Wall F and disappeared into the unexcavated section outside the strata cut (Figs. 18,19). They formed small rooms filled with ash and refuse. These rooms were probably small storage rooms that had been abandoned and used as places for refuse disposal. The profile of the west face of the strata cut, Fig. 18, clearly indicates the mixture of refuse in these rooms. The same comments about the heavy accumulation of refuse will apply to the rooms formed by Walls G, H, and I, adjoining Wall F. The unusual features of this mass of small rooms were the types of wall construction. Usually either rock or adobe, or a consistent mixture of the two, typifies a building phase. Walls A through I in Strata Cut 1 from a depth of 1.50-3.0 meters utilized a mixture of adobe and rock in many different ways: Wall A, rock in clay mortar; Wall B, rock in clay mortar with

97

plastered sides capped with a rubble-filled double wall of thin, cane-marked adobes; Wall C, rock in clay mortar; Wall D, rock in clay mortar with one side plastered; Wall E, rock and adobe blocks laid in clay mortar with plastered walls; Wall F, rock in clay mortar; Wall G, rock wall without mortar; Wall H, rock in clay mortar; Wall I, canemarked adobe block wall. The fill in all these rooms outlined by these various walls contained a large number of sherds with a sufficient number of negative decorated type to clearly define the building phases as belonging to the Gallinazo period. After this mass of walls and rooms had been recorded and photographed, they were all removed to facilitate excavation. The fill conditions below the floor at 3.0 meters to a depth of4.o meters were similar to those of the upper levels, with large amounts of fibrous and vegetal refuse in which lenses of shell, charcoal, and ash were scattered throughout, Sherds were very abundant, averaging 500 to 1,000 per level. Several textile fragments, a woven bag, and cotton thread were in these levels. Beans (see Appendix 2) and corn were scattered throughout this refuse. A dog burial was in the central portion of the strata cut, 4.10 meters from the south end and .60 meters from the east wall of the cut at a depth of 3.25 meters. T h e small dog with yellow hair was wrapped in several pieces of cloth into a bundle 60 centimeters long. This bundle was lying on a plaited fiber mat along with two small gourd bowls, a piece of copper, two small sections of wood, a few sherds, and some fish bones. The burial lay directly on refuse and was covered with dirt and refuse. A thick (3 centimeters) clay floor extended the full length of the west face at a depth of 4.0-4.40 meters. This floor was level in the south end of the cut to a point where it joined a fragmentary rock wall laid in clay mortar 2 meters from the south end. From this wall to the north end of the cut, the thick clay floor dipped gradually to a depth of 4.40 meters, approximately 2 meters from the north end of the strata cut (Fig. 18). The cause of the sinking appeared to be the result of an accumulation of rock and clay wash on top of the floor, The deposits underneath the sunken floor

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51) 98 consisted of gravel and refuse that were the strata cut was lower than the bottom of probably unconsolidated at the time of the the wash, and further cutting away of the north wall was not feasible. The dirt platform laying of the clay floor. The fill conditions beneath the sloping clay was 1 meter square in the northeast corner of floor to another floor at 4.90 meters changed the cut. The full west face was thus still exconsiderably. Very little refuse was mixed posed so that the strata profiles could be with the fine gravel and broken rock, although studied. 500 to 1,000 sherds were in each level. A The fill of levels 5.0-5.25 and 5.25-5.50 prominent layer of loose broken rock mixed meters contained a little vegetal refuse but with yellow sand extended from a depth of was mixed with a large amount of loose brown 4.40 meters at the south end to a thin deposit dirt. The center of the west face had two large of fine gravel and yellow sand at 4.90 meters ash pits separated from each other by hard at the north end. This deposit appears as if it clay and each filled with fine gray ash. A thin had been laid down by one of the periodic layer of loose broken rock and gravel sloped floods as fine talus wash from the rock ridge from 5.50 meters in the south end to 5.75 to the south of the strata cut (Fig. 17). The meters in the center of the cut. This deposit only unusual finds in these deposits between looked very similar to the talus wash found at 4.0 and 4.90 meters were two large utility 4.50 meters. jars. A large plain ware olla (Castillo InThe mouth of a large olla, measuring 72 cised), with a short narrow neck and round centimeters in diameter, appeared in the bulbous base, was broken and flattened by southwest end of the strata cut at 5.50 meters. earth pressure. It was 4.50 meters from the A portion of the large utility jar was imbedded surface lying in the southeast corner of the in the west face of the cut. The olla rested on strata cut. No associated objects were with it. sterile brown sand at a depth of 7.10 meters. The utility jar was restored in the laboratory It was enormous, measuring 1.64 meters high, and is described with the ceramic types from 1.10 meters in diameter, with the body walls only 1 centimeter thick. This olla will be v-s1described in detail in the ceramic section, Another utility jar was resting 4.75 centipp. 114-115. As the fill inside the olla was remeters below the surface in the northwest end moved, it was clear that it had been used for a of the strata cut. It was a long ovoid jar with burial, but not in a conventional manner. a long, collared neck and was still intact, The upper part of the olla was filled with a although cracked from earth pressure. large amount of rocks and adobe fragments. The thin (i centimeter) clay floor, extend- An irregular jagged hole, measuring 40 centiing from one end of the strata cut to the other meters in diameter, occurred 43 centimeters at a depth of 4.90-5.0 meters (Fig. 18) marked below the rim of the vessel in the side adjacent a distinct point of cultural change in the to the west face of the cut. Into this hole the strata. Below this level there were no sherds lower body of a woman had been thrust, with decorated with negative painting and the her head and torso extending out into the plain wares changed considerably. The full west face of the strata cut. Her pelvis and legs significance of these ceramic changes will be were in the olla. The bottom of the olla had discussed later. Besides artifact changes the been filled with rocks and large adobe fragstrata changed from horizontal layers of well- ments up to the level of the jagged hole, mixed rubbish to irregular deposits of clay, possibly to serve as a platform for the pelvis dirt, refuse, and rocks. In spite of the change in and legs. The fully extended body was lying the fill, sherds were numerous down to level due east and west with the head to the west, 6.50-6.75 meters. facing upward. It lay 6.20 meters below the At 5.0 meters a platform for the removal of surface. The adult female skeleton showed no dirt had to be left in the strata cut (Plate physical abnormalities except for medium X I I E) . U p to this point the unexcavated part occipital flattening. No artifacts appeared to of the north end of the strata cut had been dug have been associated with the body; however, down and the dirt thrown into the adjoining a peculiarly modeled cat face (Fig. 63 Q.) wash. However, at this depth the bottom of

Castillo de and a spindle whorl were in the fill near the head. A large lens of big charcoal fragments and black ash occurred in the center of the strata cut at a depth of 6.0-6.25 meters. Fine powdery brown earth filled with sparse vegetal refuse surrounded the lens. In this loose brown earth the fragments of a skeleton were uncovered at 6.0 meters in the middle of the strata cut. The grave pit was shallow. Most of the body extended into the east wall of the cut; therefore, no details could be determined. The possibility of weakening the side walls of the strata cut to outline the burial could not be risked a second time at this depth. T h e body of a child appeared at a depth of 6.25 meters in the center of the west face. The head and torso were in the strata cut, with the pelvis and legs in the west wall. The skull was upside down with a fragment of the mandible resting on the occiput as though the grave had been disturbed after burial. The skull had prominent mastoids and supraorbitals, and pronounced occipital flattening. No grave goods were with the child burial. Another burial of a young male adult was just a few centimeters south of the child. All of the body was in the west face (Fig. 18) except the skull, which showed marked occipital flattening. No other details could be determined. As the excavation continued, level 6.506.75 meters produced only twenty-six sherds and the amount of refuse was very limited. Most of the deposits of these strata were either sand or rock. A large mass of rock wash with no cultural refuse and very little sand was in the center of the cut. Although the cut was continued down in 25-centimeter levels no artifacts nor refuse occurred after the 6.75 meter depth. The cut was excavated to a depth of 7.50 meters in the south end to establish proof of the sterility of the deposits (Fig. 18). These sterile layers were irregular and composed of large amounts of sand, clay, and rock. They were evidently the original rock wash and talus materials from the rocky ridge to the south and west. The same drainage pattern that had washed out the arroyo exposing the cultural deposits had also laid down these rocks and sand before anyone had settled the area.

Site (V-51)

99

STRATA CUT 2

Although Strata Cut 1 presented a good sequence from the Puerto Moorin period up through the Gallinazo period, the deposits had revealed only a few sherds of the Huancaco period (5 sherds between 1.0 and 1.50 meters). Sherds from this period were scattered in various places on the surface of the site. With hope of finding more definite evidence to place this period, as well as further artifact evidence to corroborate the sequence in Strata Cut 1, a second large stratigraphic excavation was started. However, this cut produced only further materials of the Gallinazo period. Strata Cut 2 was placed on the west side and near the base of the Castillo, in back of a large rock retaining wall (Fig. 17). The fill behind this wall formed a flat shelf at the foot of the natural rock ridge which extended westward from El Castillo. Strata Cut 2 was oriented 4 meters north to south, and 2 meters east to west. As in the other stratigraphic excavations, the levels were to be 25 centimeters deep. O f necessity, however, the first level was 50 centimeters because material from the rooms along the ridge had washed down and covered the area with a superficial covering of adobe fragments and gravel. Discussion of the deposits in Cut 2 will be made with reference to the strata, distinct floor levels, and architectural features rather than the arbitrary 25-centimeter levels. Constant reference to the profile of the east face of the cut (Fig. 21) will clarify the descriptive details. A thick (2 centimeters) floor extended the full length of the east face of the strata cut at a depth of .50 meters. Upon this floor a heavy deposit of adobe fragments and gravel had washed down as talus from the ridge. A thin veneer of wind-blown dirt was on top of the gravel and adobes. In spite of the washed condition of the deposits, eighty-eight sherds were in the first level. Beneath the .50 meter floor level, refuse was deposited in a large mass to a depth of .95 meters, where a thin clay wash formed a distinct layer. The refuse material consisted of shells, vegetal refuse, ash, a few large charcoal fragments mixed with loose rock, and fine adobe fragments; however, the sherds were not as abundant as in Strata Cut 1.

EAST

FACE

A O í

GRAVEL a CD

ADOBE F R A G M E N T S O o c j o ^ c r i o P O O O g=3

REFUSE IM CLAY

ROCKS

8

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2M

REFUSE

3M

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FI B R O U S REFUSE

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PERIOD

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ROCKS

a

REFUSE

REFUSE

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m

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ROCK

SHELL ADOBES CLAY

FLOOR

STERILE

ASH a

CHARCOAL

FIBER

MATTING

BURNT

FIBER

grävet SAND

MATTING

FIG. 2 I . PROFILE OF S T R A T A CUT 2 , SITE V - 5 1

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51) T h e top of a large (diameter 8 centimeters) cane post, slanting d o w n at a slight angle, was encountered in the south end o f the cut 10 centimeters f r o m the south face. A t this point its significance was not clear. A slightly irregular clay floor extended across the cut, ranging in d e p t h from 1.60 meters in the north end to 2.0 meters in the south end. C a n e - m a r k e d adobes measuring 35 centimeters long, 26 centimeters wide, and 13 centimeters thick, formed a wall resting u p o n this clay floor (Fig. 21). T h e strata cut was here passing directly through house units that had burned. L a r g e hunks of red clay and burned b u i l d i n g material were scattered in the refuse. A l l the refuse deposits on top of the clay floor contained a large a m o u n t of clay wash and fine gravel along with large lenses of ash, charcoal, and fiber matting. A l t h o u g h no accumulation of sherds was on top o f the floor, it is significant to note that negative decorated w a r e began to appear at 1.75 meters and continued to a d e p t h of 2.50 meters. T h e large cane that had appeared in the south end o f the cut ended at 1.50 meters, m a r k i n g a child burial. T h e burial was p r o b a b l y a later introduction into the strata from the T o m a v a l or L a Plata periods. T h e child rested 1.65 meters below the surface in a simple burial hole whose sides had been lightly smeared with clay plaster. T h e b o d y was w r a p p e d in a coarse cotton cloth, tied with a simple-twist, double-strand fiber rope. I t w a s completely flexed and tied into a bundle 40 centimeters wide and 50 centimeters high. T w o canes had been tied to the outside of the bundle from the sides of the face d o w n the side o f the b o d y in order to strengthen the bundle. A small gourd b o w l was inverted on top of the head. T h r e e copper amulets of thin sheets tied together into a bundle 5 by 3 centimeters were tied to the outside of the m u m m y . A plain ware j a r (Castillo Plain) was outside the bundle b y the right side. T h e child was from 4 to 6 years old, w i t h prominent occipital flattening. A 2.0 meters the previously mentioned clay floor and rooms rested on a thick (5-40 centimeters) deposit of fine broken rock and gravel that p r o b a b l y represented a h e a v y talus wash f r o m the ridge. A deposit (20 centi-

101

meters thick) of fine unstratified dirt mixed with ash and c h a r c o a l was underneath this rock layer. A n o t h e r small pocket of g r a v e l appeared in the north end of the c u t ; but, in general, stratified deposits of fibrous refuse w i t h large quantities of vegetal matter and loose earth continued to a depth of 3.0 meters. A clay floor appeared at this depth in the south part of the cut, marked on both sides b y cane-marked a d o b e walls. T h e adobes averaged 34 centimeters long, 26 centimeters wide, and 13 centimeters thick. T h e w a l l was plastered on both sides with a thick clay plaster, m a k i n g the w a l l 28 centimeters wide. T h e floor o f this r o o m h a d been laid directly u p o n fine layers o f stratified rubbish o f charcoal, vegetal refuse, shell, adobe fragments, a n d loose rock. T h e refuse deposits, uninterrupted except for a large deposit of black a n d gray ash in the south end o f the cut, continued to a depth of 3.75 meters. A n o t h e r cane-marked a d o b e w a l l of a r o o m with a thin layer of clay plaster was in the north end o f the cut, resting on a thin clay floor at 3.75 meters (Fig. 2 1 ) . T h e adobes in this wall were the same size as those previously mentioned. N o more distinct floor levels occurred beneath the 3.75 meter floor. T h i n layers of hard-packed fill o f fibrous refuse mixed with a large a m o u n t of dirt extended from 3.75 meters to 4.20 meters. A thick (10 centimeters) layer of clay wash and adobe fragments separated the fibrous refuse deposits from stratified rubbish mixed w i t h rocks and a shell lens. T h i s clay layer did not resemble a floor and a p p e a r e d as t h o u g h it might have been the result of run-off from the ridge caused b y periodic h e a v y rains. A small dirt r e m o v a l platform had to b e left inside the strata cut, beginning at a depth o f 4 . 7 5 meters. F r o m 5.0 to 5.50 meters a layer ofloose rock and gravel w i t h refuse thoroughly mixed throughout appeared to be the result o f h e a v y talus wash. T h e r e were only seventyeight and eighty sherds, respectively, in each o f these 25-centimeter levels. T h e condition o f the deposits w o u l d indicate that they h a d been washed d o w n f r o m the ridge and not laid d o w n in situ as an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f refuse and trash. A dog burial w a s found at 5.50 meters in the southeast end of the cut with no associated

102

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

grave goods. From 5.50 to 6.0 meters the strata were all thin, hard-packed layers of clay earth with vegetal refuse, ash, and a few sherds. The last sherds came from level 5.50-5.75 meters. Beneath the refuse layers a thin layer of gravel lay on top of sterile sand and clay. The strata cut was excavated to a depth of 6.15 meters and terminated because of the sterile nature of the consolidated sand, clay, and rocks.

the west side, but as the excavation deepened the cut had to be shifted slightly to the east in order to stay within the limits of the room. The small wall had been a later construction placed on top of a much wider and more massive adobe wall. Below 2.0 meters all the strata layers were confined within the walls of Room 1. The neck of a large olla appeared at a depth of 2.25 meters, but was left in place, for it apparently rested on the floor. At a depth of 2.90 meters a thick (2 centimeters) hard-packed clay floor appeared with ROOM I , TRENCH 2 AND TRENCH 3 a large olla, fragments of three vessels, and On top of the flat ridge running west from three hammerstones resting upon it. A test El Castillo along a spur of the foothills, large hole was dug in the center of the room through deposits of adobe indicated that this area had the clay floor. This room had been built at one time been covered with rooms. Refer- directly upon the natural rock of the ridge. ence to the map of site V-51 (Fig. 17) will Now that the room had been cleared out, clearly define the location of these rooms, the features of construction could be studied. including the one excavated by the Columbia The room was 4.30 meters long east to west University unit. Room 1 was directly above and 1.95 meters wide north to south. The Strata Cut 2 and had been partially cut into walls were originally 1.80 meters high. The by huaqueros and by erosion. Before excavation north, west, and south walls were all 1.60 the room appeared as if it had been used as meters thick, constructed of cane molda depository for refuse and therefore would marked adobes laid in a thick clay mortar; present stratified rubbish. Deposition planes however, the west wall was only 1.0 meter were not obvious. The layers were controlled wide. The adobes averaged 31 centimeters in 25-centimeter horizontal levels, and the long, 25 centimeters wide, and 14 centimeters excavation was continued to floor level. A thick. All the interior wall surfaces were discussion of the ceramic material from the plastered with a thin (1 centimeter) clay room will be given later. At this point it is plaster. Both the cross section and plan views pertinent to mention that the mixture of (Fig. 23) show how the wide adobe wall on ceramic styles and types seems to indicate that the west side had been cut down slightly and the fill in this small room had been thrown in a narrower wall built on top, leaving a shelf at such an angle that horizontal strata were .75 meters wide. Into this wall a large hole not formed. Hence our horizontal strata and 56 centimeters deep, 72 centimeters high, and the angular bedding planes of the refuse did 54 centimeters in diameter had been cut out not always agree. To further test the area, (marked " G " in the ground plan, Fig. 23). Trenches 2 and 3 were excavated near The hole was filled with guinea pig droppings Room 1. The exact location and relationship and bones, and undoubtedly had been used of these excavations to each other are shown as an animal pen. A large neck broken from in a ground plan (Fig. 22). an olla rested on top of the large wall near the animal pen. Since a portion of the north wall The first level, 0-.25 meters, in Room 1 did had been removed when part of the room had not contain any sherds, but consisted solely been looted, evidence of a door, if any, had of broken adobe blocks. Beneath this sterile been destroyed. Nevertheless, the smooth cap the refuse strata dipped from the wall on surface of the east wall at the end where it the west and from the east into the center of should have joined the north wall is a good the room. This apparent dipping of the strata indication that a door had been left in this is indicated in the profile diagram of the south portion of the room. wall of the completed excavation (Fig. 23). Originally the excavation had followed a Trench 2 was placed on the south side of small adobe wall with thick mud plaster on a small passageway (1.20 meters wide) that

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51) separated the wall structures of Room i from another group of adobe walls (Fig. 22). This excavation was made in order to discover if another room of construction similar to Room 1 existed in the same complex. The NORTH

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FACE

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103

The dirt and ash strata were relatively horizontal, with many lenses of pure gray ash streaked throughout the deposits. The room floor was 1.75 meters from the surface and made of thick (2 centimeters) hard-packed ROGE

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ADOBE

WALL

UNEXCAVATED

ADOBE

WALL

TRENCH

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»««nifiri F I G . 2 2 . G R O U N D P L A N O F R O O M I , T R E N C H E S 2 A N D 3 ON T O P O F R I D G E O F SITE V - 5 1

trench was made i meter deep, i meter wide, and 3.50 meters long north to south. No refuse was encountered, but only solid construction of cane mold-marked adobes of the same size as those found in Room i and Cuts i and 2 was uncovered. No ceramic or other cultural remains were found in this small trench. Trench 3 was made to the west of Room 1 and Trench 2 in search of more refuse-filled rooms (Fig. 22). The trench was excavated 1 meter wide, 3 meters long east to west, and carried downward to a floor. Although large amounts of dirt, ash, and refuse were in the room, comparatively few sherds were found.

clay. After the surface was cleared, the refuse fill was removed in three levels, the upper two of 50 centimeters each, the lowest of 30 centimeters. A small test pit was dug through the floor into solid rock 40 centimeters below. The area covered by Trench 3 was too limited to define the dimensions of the room. The limited cultural materials from Trench 3 are not at hand and cannot be analyzed here. Superficially they seemed similar to those from House 1. Although the excavations on the ridge were limited in scope, nevertheless they indicated that the ridge had at one time been covered

I 0

I I

I 2M

F I G . 2 3 . GROUND PLAN AND CROSS SECTION O F ROOM I , SITE V - 5 1 A is to t h e east, B to the west.

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51) with a rather extensive series of walls, rooms, and passageways, all made of extremely thick adobe walls composed of cane mold-marked adobes. As to the probable period when these structures were made and occupied, we will discuss this after all architectural and ceramic materials have been analyzed. TEST PIT I

Following a lead given by the workmen, one day was spent digging Test Pit 1 looking for a so-called "tomb." A large living unit of ruined adobe houses was in the area south of Strata Cut 1 and west of the stone quadrangle on a natural rock and dirt platform (Fig. 17). The area had been badly looted. Huancaco Decorated sherds were scattered over the surface. The test pit was dug 4.50 meters long on the north-south face, 2.75 meters wide on the east-west face, and 2.50 meters deep. A large number of both cane-marked and plain adobe blocks were scattered in the fill. At the termination of the excavation, only eighteen sherds had been found and no signs of a tomb. These sherds were catalogued as a single unit for laboratory analysis. The structures through which Test Pit 1 had been dug were nothing more than a series of old adobe-walled rooms without refuse materials. TEST PIT 2

While the excavations of both Strata Cut 2 and Room 1 were in progress, a test pit was dug in the southeast corner of the large rockwalled quadrangle on the flat northwest of El Castillo (Plate X I A). The general location and structure of this feature has already been mentioned in the description of the site, and its relationship to other areas of V-51 is clearly shown on the site map (Fig. 17). Lack of time prevented the clearing of the entire structure; therefore a small L-shaped test pit was dug in a corner to determine if further testing of

105

the quadrangle would be worth while. The excavation was controlled in 50-centimeter levels. The ceramic materials from this excavation will be discussed in the ceramic section. Test Pit 2 was laid out 3 meters to a side and 1 meter wide on the inside of the southeast corner of the quadrangle (Fig. 24). The width of the wall varied from 40 to 55 centimeters. It was constructed of irregular uncut stones laid in clay mortar with a relatively regular exterior and interior wall face. The irregularities between the two rows of stones forming the exterior and interior were filled with a rubble consisting of small rocks, gravel, and loose earth (Fig. 24). The corner of the structure was not bonded, and in general the masonry of the entire wall was mediocre. As the test pit passed from the first level to the second, the stone wall disappeared at a depth of .50-.55 meters below the surface. The wall was purely a superficial structure lying on thin layers of brown earth mixed with shell, ash, charcoal, and a few sherds. No distinct floor or paving could be determined at the base of the rock wall. From the scarcity of loose stones in the fill and on the surface near the structure, the wall was probably never over .75 meters high. As the excavation continued, it became apparent that the scant strata deposits would probably duplicate the evidence from both Strata Cuts 1 and 2. The area, before the construction of the rock quadrangle, received the wash from the high areas both to the south and west of the quadrangle. An accumulation of rock, clay, and yellow sand below 1.0 meter confirmed this point. Test Pit 2 was terminated at a depth of 1.30 meters even though scant cultural materials were still being encountered. In addition to indicating the rather superficial nature of the rock quadrangle this test pit also indicated that cultural materials were scant on the flat as compared to the higher ground to the west.

B U R I A L S A T SITE V-51 BURIAL SITE I

While the excavation of Strata Cut 1 was still in progress, a burial was found in the ruined house structures south of the strata cut

(Fig. 17). Because of the proximity of the burial site to the strata cut, the burial features could be worked out without interfering with the main excavation of Strata Cut 1. Four large plain ware utility ollas were uncovered. They

PROFILE

VIEW

REFUSE ROCK /

UNEXCAVATED

F I G . 2 4 . P R O F I L E A N D G R O U N D P L A N OF T E S T P I T 2 , SITE V - 5

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51) had been placed outside a stone-walled structure and the body of an old woman had been crammed into one of them. Although the house structure was not completely outlined, enough of the fill was removed to determine the relation of the ollas to these structures. T h e fill consisted of loose earth mixed with large amounts of vegetal fibers, cane, dung, ash, loose rock, and large quantities of plain ware sherds. The rims of the large ollas were only 20 centimeters below the surface. A rock wall set in clay mortar was on the south and west sides of the excavation. The corner formed by these walls was only 9.20 meters from the southeast corner of Strata Cut 1. The plan view and photograph of Burial Site 1 (Fig. 25 and Plate X I I B) indicate the relationship of the upper stone wall to the lower adobe wall and to the ollas. The rock wall was part of one of the house structures built by the later occupants of site V - 5 1 . The wall was only 67 centimeters deep and lay directly upon layers of rubbish. It was made of uncut, irregular rocks laid in a thick adobe mortar, forming a wall 25-30 centimeters wide. The rock wall on the south side extended for 7 meters where it joined another wall of similar construction; however, only 2.40 meters of this wall were exposed in the excavation. The adjoining west wall extended northward from the southwest corner for only 2.0 meters. At this point the rock wall terminated. It was resting on top of a cane-marked adobe wall that formed a corner of a lower rubbish-filled room. The top of the adobe wall was .80 meters below the surface. Reference to the plan view of Burial Site 1 (Fig. 25) will clarify these details. The significant point is that the stone wall was purely a superficial structure added at a later time on top of ruined, adobe-walled structures. The adobe walls were parallel and in line with those encountered in Strata Cut r which have been described in detail and are diagrammed in Fig. 19. The vessels appear to have been placed outside the structures outlined by the rock walls. They were not resting on a floor. Their arrangement is shown both in Fig. 25 and Plate X I I B. The two large ollas were arranged in a line north and south with the other smaller ones on each side. Vessel C was a large olla

107

with nothing inside it but loose fill of ash, sherds, and dirt. Vessel D was on the east side of the large olla with an inverted gourd bowl over the mouth. O n the other side, between the two large ollas, Vessel A was resting at the same level as the other vessels with a smaller

FIG. 2 5 . GROUND PLAN OF BURIAL SITE I, SITE V - 5 1 S k e l e t o n in O l l a E .

jar, Vessel B, inside its mouth. Vessel B had a single Huancaco Decorated sherd inside it, otherwise no decorated sherds were found in direct association with the burial. Vessel E, the other large olla, contained the mummy bundle. The rim of this vessel had been broken to enlarge the opening for the mummy. The mummy bundle was wrapped in coarse cotton cloth and tied with a simpletwist, double-strand fiber cord. An inverted bowl was on top of the head. The mummy faced west and was sitting in a semiflexed position with the knees wide apart and the arms drawn up to the sides. The burial was a woman of 40-45 years with no physical abnormalities. No artifacts were either with the woman in the olla or around the various vessels. In the following descriptions of the vessels

108

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

no separate specimen photographs are used because the photograph of the vessels in situ is clear and is marked with the respective vessel numbers A through E (Plate X I I B). V a l l e Plain (Vessel A , Plate X I I B) : L a r g e , elongated, ovoid j a r with a constricted collar a n d a long bulbous neck (height 60 centimeters, b o d y diameter 40 centimeters, neck diameter 30 centimeters, neck height 18 centimeters, rim diameter 24 centimeters, rim thickness 1.8 centimeters) . T h e coarse plain j a r has a very rough, gritty surface w i t h a n original grayish-red color, fire-blackened with large quantities o f soot. T h e bottom is round. T h e rim is flat on t o p and slightly inverted toward the orifice. Castillo Plain (Vessel B, Plate X I I B) : R o u n d j a r with a short outslanting rim (height 21 centimeters, body diameter 21 centimeters, neck diameter 16 centimeters, neck height 4 centimeters, rim diameter 18 centimeters, rim thickness .9 centimeters). T h e coarse plain j a r has a gritty surface texture w h i c h is red and fireblackened from usage. T h e base a n d lip are rounded. V a l l e Plain (Vessel C , Plate X I I B) : L a r g e , egg-shaped olla (height 94 centimeters, body diameter 79 centimeters, rim diameter 37 centimeters, rim thickness 2.3 centimeters). T h e very coarse, h e a v y ware is tempered with a large amount of coarse sand. T h e red surface is very coarse and rough, ending in a lip that is rounded a n d curves slightly i n w a r d t o w a r d the orifice. Castillo Plain (Vessel D , Plate X I I B) : Elongated, ovoid j a r with a long, flaring neck (height 66 centimeters, b o d y diameter 38 centimeters, neck height 10 centimeters, rim diameter 8 centimeters, rim thickness 1 centimeter). T h e smoothed red surface is splotched w i t h several gray fire-clouds. T h e body of the vessel is slightly flattened on one side, w i t h a long, elongated body ending in a round bottom. T h e neck flares outward gracefully to a slightly rounded lip. V a l l e Plain (Vessel E, Plate X I I B) : L a r g e , egg-shaped olla (height 92 centimeters, body diameter 68 centimeters, diameter o f broken rim 43 centimeters, rim thickness 2.2 centimeters). In all details this vessel is identical to Vessel C except that the rim h a d been broken off to permit entry of the m u m m y bundle. BURIAL SITE 2

A burial was discovered in a rock area 100 meters north of Strata Cut 1 at the foot of a rocky spur, leading down from the high

ridge to the west. T h e exact location of the burial site is not shown on the map of site V-51 for it runs off the north margin; however, the direction and distance of the find from Strata Cut 1 is indicated (Fig. 17). A large amount of rocks had washed down, forming a rocky talus deposit over the grave. The body and six vessels were in an oval grave basin 1.40 meters deep, 1.12 meters long north to south, and .90 meters wide, dug in earth and rock without cultural refuse. The skeletal material was badly decomposed and only a few fragments of the skull, pelvis, and long bones were intact; however, sufficient bones were still present to outline the position of burial. T h e adult male was seated in a flexed position with the knees folded close up to the body and with both arms lying at his sides with the hands resting on the bottom of the grave basin. T h e head was turned to the west, but the body faced north. Six vessels were closely bunched together on the left side of the body. A mass of gourd vessels, too decomposed to determine their features, rested near the left side of the head. No other grave goods accompanied the burial. H u a n c a c o R e d , White, Black (Plate X I I I A) : R o u n d j a r with an effigy face and a long, slightly expanding neck (height 21 centimeters, body diameter 16 centimeters, neck height 5 centimeters, rim diameter 5 centimeters). T h e smoothly polished surface is covered with an orange-red slip and a series of white and black designs. T h e face of an adult male, m a d e in a mold, was applied to the side of the neck of the j a r . T h e face and a collar around the shoulders of the j a r are painted white, bordered with black. T h e base is flat. T h e lip of the rim is slightly thickened and rounded. T w o vessels in the grave were identical in size, modeling, and decoration to this one. H u a n c a c o R e d , White, Black (Plate X I I I B) : W o m a n effigy j a r with a short, slightly expanding neck (height 18 centimeters, body diameter 12 centimeters, neck height 3.5 centimeters, rim diameter 5 centimeters). T h e vessel is modeled in the shape of a w o m a n carrying a water j a r on her back by means of a tumpline, which is represented by white paint upon a slightly raised portion of the vessel. T h e entire surface is rough and the modeling is crude and asymmetrical. A n orange slip covers the entire surface and underlies the white paint around the base of

Castillo de Toma val Site (V-51) the vessel and on the front of the woman's body. Black lines accentuate the facial features. The lip is rounded. Huancaco Red, White, Black (Plate XIII c): Effigy owl jar with a long expanding neck (height 23 centimeters, body diameter 18 centimeters, neck height 5 centimeters, rim diameter 9 centimeters). The surface is smoothly polished and covered with an orange-red slip upon which white and black paint accentuate the owl's features. The nose is a small triangle modeled of clay, while the eyes are round beads in slight depressions. Large white circles accentuate the eyes, and white spots and lines over the round body represent the feathers of an owl. The base is flattened. The neck is painted white and ends in a rounded lip. Huancaco Red and White (Plate X I I I D) : Florero (height 9 centimeters, base diameter 8 centimeters, rim diameter 18 centimeters). The rough, dull orange-red slip is covered with a thin white paint on both the exterior and interior except for a band 3 centimeters wide around the inner lip. Upon this orange-red band fourteen crude white crosses are painted. The orange paste is tempered with fine sand and fired in an oxidizing atmosphere. Huancaco Red, White, Black (Plate X I I I E) : Round bottle with a flat base and a long expanding neck (height 17 centimeters, body dia-

meter 12 centimeters, neck height 6 centimeters, rim diameter 6 centimeters). The body is partially polished, and the striations are still visible. The base is flat and rectangular, with four small projections at each corner. An orange-red slip covers the entire surface, and a white band encircles the waist of the body and the base of the neck. A vertical white band extending from the collar to the waist band is filled with black dots and wavy lines. Vertical black lines extend from the rounded lip to the base of the neck.

BURIAL SITE 3

While the work was in progress on Strata Cut 2 a few burials were excavated in a cemetery at the foot of the retaining wall on the north side of this cut (Fig. 17). This area had been badly looted and disturbed. T h e burial site was on the same level as the rockwalled quadrangle from which it was separated by a small wash from the ridge to the northwest. W e excavated four burials here. T h e material associated with these burials indicated that they belonged to the Tomaval and L a Plata periods rather than to the early periods with which this monograph is primarily concerned, hence will be described elsewhere.

S U M M A R Y OF FINDS A T C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L ARCHITECTURE

Since El Castillo de Tomaval has been briefly described and illustrated by Kroeber, Bennett, and Horkheimer (see p. 91) and will be treated by Willey in his study of settlement patterns in the Viru Valley, we need only mention its major characteristics and such details of architecture as were revealed by our own excavations. The dominant feature is, of course, the large stepped adobe structure which rises 35 meters above the level of the modern road at its foot. As can be seen from the map (Fig. 17), this pyramid rises in three main rectangular platforms which crown the end of the rocky natural ridge. T h e westward extension of this ridge was also walled and in part was covered with adobe house structures. Despite the great cut in the northeast side of the structure, made by modern peoples seeking

109

(V-51)

adobes, the surface features of El Castillo are quite well preserved. T h e most impressive view of the site is from the northeast, looking south (Plate X A) ; this not only gives a good impression of the magnitude of the adobe structure but also of the adjoining rooms along the rock ridge. Although these upper rooms are badly eroded today, they at one time formed an important part of the prominent structure. Excavations in R o o m 1 and Trenches 1 and 2 showed that they were thickwalled, well plastered, and composed of cane mold-marked adobes. El Castillo was built in several stages, as is indicated by painted, plastered walls inside the heart of the stepped structure. T h e close-up photograph of the southeast side clearly shows certain of these building phases (Plate X I I D). T h e plastered wall surfaces are painted red, white, or yellow, and all the visible adobes are rectangular and

IIO

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

cane mold-marked. Algarroba beams placed in both horizontal and vertical rows are laid in the adobes near the summit. Erosion has exposed the outward ends of many of these beams (Plate X I I c). Kroeber suggests that they served as binders, and Horkheimer that they supported scaffolding during structural work on these high, sheer faces. Similar algarroba beams occur in the one solid adobe structure at the Gallinazo site (V-59). Twenty-five meters below the summit, on the south side of El Castillo, is a flat which suggests a plaza or ceremonial area. It is separated from the northern slope of the main structure by a straight stone wall. T o prevent the base of the main stepped adobe structure from eroding, a wall of uncut rocks, laid without mortar, faces the adobes both on the sheer southeast side of the ruin and on the south side of the flat or plaza (Fig. 17). Where this rock wall is in contact with the adobe structure it merely forms a facing, but it also continues to the west and east where it forms a double rock wall, which entirely surrounds El Castillo and the house units along the ridge (Fig. 17). This double-faced wall is made of large, uncut rocks, laid without mortar, with a fine rock fill forming the core of the wall. It varies in width from 40 to 85 centimeters and today stands from 1 to 2 meters high. Originally, it was probably much higher and would have served as a defense wall around and below the main structures (Fig. 17). In its irregular outline and rough stone construction this enclosure at El Castillo is somewhat similar to the "Temple Enclosure" wall which surrounds the old Temple of Pachacamac and runs under the corners of the later Inca Temple of the Sim at that site (Strong and Corbett, Fig. 1, in Strong, Willey, and Corbett, 1943). Out on the flat, north of the main structure, is a large, rock-walled quadrangle measuring approximately 45 meters on each side. The northeast corner of this quadrangle was designated as Point A , the site benchmark. A 100meter base line extends southwest to Point B (Fig. 17); all measurements and locations in mapping were controlled from this base line. Aside from the projecting tops of the rocks forming this quadrangle no other structural features appeared on the surface. As previously indicated, Test Pit 2 revealed that the quad-

rangle walls varied from 40 to 55 centimeters in width and were between 50 and 55 centimeters in total height or depth. No definite floor was present. The walls were made by two rows of irregular, uncut stones laid in clay mortar, with a rubble fill and more or less regular interior and exterior faces. The corners were not bonded and the entire structure seemed both superficial and mediocre in constructive technique. Limited ceramic materials from the quadrangle fill suggest a general correlation with the upper levels in Strata Cut 1, which is Gallinazo in period. However, it would not be safe to date this structure on the basis of such a limited testing. While the northern flat itself shows little evidence of intensive occupation, this is not true of the higher ground, particularly to the west of a tumbled rock wall which bounds the western edge of the flat (Fig. 17). This higher ground, some 20 meters above the flat, reveals intensive occupation both in the superficial remains of the rock-walled and adobe house units and in the large amounts of refuse on the surface and in the walls of a wash that occurs here. Evidences ofintensive occupation extend between the 120-meter and 140-meter contour lines (Fig. 17) and from the stone enclosure wall of El Castillo to some point farther north than the map extends or than we were able to test. This is apparently the area where the ancient people lived, and it was here that we sank Strata Cut 1 and excavated Burial Site 1. These excavations, particularly that at Burial Site 1 (Fig. 25), showed that the uppermost houses here were made of uncut rocks laid in clay mortar and that they were above other house units made of both rocks and cane mold-marked adobe blocks. The upper rockwalled units, to judge by those outlined at Burial Site 1 as well as those just adjacent outlined by Willey (see map, Fig. 17), are irregular in size. We cannot say positively what peoples occupied these latest, most superficial, houses, but the ceramics in Burial Site 1 suggest Mochica or later peoples. However, Strata Cut 1 indicates that during the major period of occupation, from 4.75 meters to the surface, both uncut rock and cane mold-marked adobe brick construction

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51) occurred in association with ceramics characteristic of the Gallinazo period. These features have already been described in detail (pp. 93-98 and Figs. 18, 19, 20), and only a few general characteristics need be noted here. First, the cut, from the surface to 4.75 meters in depth, passed through a continuous series of floors and walls which had been constructed of either rocks set in clay mortar, rectangular cane mold-marked adobes, or, as was often the case, a combination of both. The cross section at level 1.752.0 meters (Fig. 19) strikingly illustrates the varied sizes of rooms represented and, particularly, the great mixture of types of construction employed. This includes uncut rock with or without clay mortar and plastered sides; double walls of cane-marked adobe with a rubble fill resting on rock walls; and walls made entirely of cane-marked adobes. This mixture of construction materials and techniques is quite unusual, especially since the abundant ceramic and other accumulated refuse clearly indicates that all were made in Gallinazo times. At Strata Cut 2 and in Room i on top of the Castillo ridge, the same period is represented by structures composed entirely of cane-marked adobe blocks, averaging 35 by 26 by 13 centimeters in dimensions (Figs. 21, 22, 23). This was also the case at Gallinazo (V-59), where in Strata Cut 1 similar cane-marked adobe blocks were used in all structures to a depth of 2.60 meters and tapia walls below this. It may well be that at site V-51, where suitable stone literally covers the surface of the ground, the people used mixed materials in house construction, whereas at Gallinazo (V-59) > where rock would have to be transported a long distance, they were more consistent in their use of adobe. In any event, the use of cane mold-marked adobes is particularly characteristic of the Gallinazo period at both sites, and links these people up with the great structures, like El Castillo de Tomaval, where cane-marked adobe construction is vastly predominant, although uncut rock retaining and enclosing walls are also employed. Cemeteries occur at V-51, but most of them appear to have been thoroughly looted. Just below El Castillo on the north side is a late cemetery of the Tomaval and L a Plata

III

periods, and interspersed throughout the intensively occupied higher region west of the flat are numerous looted graves ranging from Gallinazo to late Puerto Moorin times. Graves of the Gallinazo period are reported to have been particularly numerous here. However, since our few grave excavations at this site yielded no evidence on grave architecture they do not need to be discussed at this point. In the final resume concerning El Castillo de Tomaval (V-51) we will review some of the foregoing architectural and other evidence in an effort to determine the most probable functional significance of this great site as a whole. C E R A M I C S FROM S T R A T A C U T S I AND 2

Strata Cut 1 was sunk in an area of long habitation. There was no indication that the strata had been disturbed, and of the five burials encountered one was very superficial and the others were very deep. In no case were they culturally intrusive from later periods than the strata in which they occurred, nor had they disturbed large areas (Fig. 18). As at Gallinazo (V-59), Cut 1 at El Castillo passed through a long succession of structural and occupational debris layers. In ceramics this excavation yielded three whole or restorable vessels and 29,163 sherds. O f the latter, 365 (1.2 per cent) were decorated and 28,798 (98.8 per cent) were plain. Eight plain ware types and ten decorated types were present (Table 6 and Fig. 34). Among the plain wares, Castillo Plain predominates from the lowest level (654percent) to the top level (72.79 per cent), with similar or slightly higher percentages in between. In the abundance of this type there is no visible trend within the cut. T w o other plain wares, however, do show decided and opposing trends. These are Valle Plain which comes in in small amounts (.55 per cent in level 6.256.50 meters), gradually increases (19.12 per cent in level 3.0-3.25 meters), and continues in similar amounts to the uppermost level (23.47 P e r cent). Representing an opposite trend is Huacapongo Polished Plain, which comes in strong (34.6 per cent in the lowest stratum) and then gradually decreases in each stratum above to the top level (.54 per cent). The other plain wares show no marked trends

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51 )

112

represented by Cut 1 Castillo Plain is the dominant type. Huacapongo Polished Plain (a Puerto Moorin type) is important early but fades out. It is replaced in about the same pro-

(Table 6 and Fig. 34). Queneto Polished Plain is represented by less than 1 per cent in all levels between 2.50 and .50 meters. Tomaval Plain is similar, with .80 per cent at level

TABLE 6 S H E R D C O U N T PER L E V E L , S T R A T A C U T i, S I T E V - 5 i , C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L DECORATED WARES

PLAIN WARES

LEVELS IN METERS

I

I

2

I

M Ct

3

S *

•e £

?3 s!

I ?

il SI II

c

s2

II Ü

II

F

% 72-79 73.1 57-74 80.28

No. 304 278 219 116

% 23.47 22.72 38.84 15.16

No. 7 17 4 8

% -54 2.13 .7 1.0

No. 4 5 3 5

% 309 -41 53 -65

No.

.17 -13

No. 942 895 324 589

3 3 5

-24 -53 .65

5

.65

-75 .87 .37 .15

3.459 I,ol6 1,786 493

83.62 80.16 84.6 7702

445 »71 200 45

>0-76 13-49 9.48 7-24

40 20 22 28

.97 1.58 1.4 4.1

16 4 17 7

.38 -3" .80 109

22 7 10 12

.53 -55 .47 I.87

2 3 10 3

.04 -23 .47 .46

.16 .09 -»4

1.046 846 523 852

84.71 81.58 60.05 71.1

117 139 297 296

9.36 13.27 34.07 24.9

21 16 18 15

1.69 1.07 2.07

.97 .38 .92 .49

1 2

.08 .19 I.26

4 2

-32 .19

I.10

12 4 8 6

6

.49

4

32

1.063 341 480 464

74-95 7I-05 85.95 82.93

271 69 29 37

19.12 14.34 5.2 6.6

14 33

33 19 10 15

2.12 3-96 1.79 2.68

9 I

.63 .20

37

.99 6.89 4-12 6.6

4 10 3 4

.28 2.08 -53 -71

874 504 '.437 1,579

86.97 87.16 90.28 84.15

57 19 34 10

5-68 3.28 2.12 .53

44 39 107 273

4-38 6.73 6.71 1456

10 8 3

5.00-5.25 5.25-5.50 5-50-5-75 5.75-6.00

879 850 923 42s

7^-75 74.89 76.9 80.33

4 10 10 4

-35 .23 .83 -75

227 264 258 93

6.00-6.25 6.25-6.50 6.50-6.75

132 464 17

69.35 86.05 65.4

3 3

1-53 -55

52 68 9

0-0.15 0.25-0.50 0.50-0.75 0.75-1.00 I.00-I.25 1.25-1.50 J.50-1.75 I.7S-2.0C 2.00-2.25 2.25-2.50 2.50-2.75 2.75-3.00

No.

i

%

.13

No. 28 20 7 14

% 2.18 1.63 1-24 1.84

No. i I

80

1.93

18

1.44

45 35

213 5.46

31 11 8 I

30 10 7

2.42 .96 .80

2 I I

%

3.00-3.25 325-3.5° 3.50-3-75 3.75-4.00

7 2

-49 .41

I

.17

4.00-4.25 4.25-4.50 450-4.75 4.75-5-00

5 2 I

-49 -34 -63

2.50-2.75 meters and 2.18 per cent in the top level. Gloria Polished Plain comes in with .16 per cent (level 4.75-5.0 meters), increases to 3.96 per cent (level 3.25-3.50 meters) and then decreases very slightly to the top level (3.09 per cent). Sarraque Cream comes in with .20 per cent (level 3.25-3.50 meters), increases to 1.87 per cent (level 1.75-2.0 meters), and terminates with .24 per cent (level .25-.50 meters). Viru Plain is represented by one sherd (.13 per cent, level .75-1.0 meters). From these findings it is obvious that throughout the period of time

23

II

%

No.

%

i

.17

.95

i

.09

-5' .16

i 6

.06 .32

19.83 23.3 21.48 >748

1

.08

i

.18

26.3 12.61 34-6

i

.51

No. 6 i

I I

% .38 .08

.17 .06

portions by the increase in Valle Plain. The other plain types seem to be "middle" to "upper" in their placement in Cut i. Considering the decorated wares in tabular sequence (Table 6), it can be seen that Puerto Moorin White-on-Red occurs sparsely in the lower third of the excavation (6.0-3.50 meters) in amounts of less than 1 per cent. Gallinazo Negative comes in in level 4.504.75 meters (.06 per cent), increases to 2.08 per cent in level 3.25-3.50 meters, and persists in amounts of less than 1 per cent into the top level (.38 per cent). Carmelo Negative is

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51)

113 occurs in amounts of less than 1 per cent in nine layers between 4.0 and .75 meters. Callejón Three-color Negative is represented by two sherds in levels 3.75-4.0 and 2.75-3.0

very scarce, .14 per cent in level 1.50-1.75 meters and .07 per cent in level 0-.25 meters. Castillo Modeled occurs from the next to the bottom to the top layer, usually in amounts of

TABLE 6 (cont.) SHERD C O U N T PER LEVEL, S T R A T A C U T I, SITE V-51, CASTILLO DE T O M A V A L

D E C O R A T E D W A R E S (COTlt.)

5

•o

•5

o

si Hi

J No. 1

3

% .07

.14

N c

No. 2 1 1 7

% .15 .08 .17 -91

A'«. 1 3 6

% .07 24 .17 .78

'9 5 4 6

-47 -39 .18 .93

20 11 11 9

.48 .87 .52 i-4

.08 -29 -49 -24

4 13

I

if

|Q

Ü

No.

%

No. i

% .07

I

-13

i

.13

2

.04

2 2

.04 .15

No.

%

3

-39

I

-3 3 I I 3 '7 11

c5 *¿ «2 5 ss £ No. %

i

.21

'

-43

2

.30

•59 .29 •43 •73 2-54 i-97

4

Plain types have far less diagnostic value for the time periods represented by Cuts 1 and 2 than do the Huacapongo Polished Plain and Valle types, for which the percentages are much larger and the behavior entirely consistent. Virú Plain is absent save in the uppermost level (4.79 per cent). Decorated ware distribution in Cut 2 is generally similar to that in Cut 1 but several types are lacking—Gallinazo Broad-line Incised; Huancaco Decorated; Castillo White, Red, Orange; and Callejón Three-color Negative. Gallinazo Negative is strongest in the lowest level (3.57 per cent), but persists to level 1.75-2.0 meters (.19 per cent). Carmelo Negative occurs on levels 1.75-2.0 meters (.38 per cent), which is about the same position as in Cut 1. Castillo Modeled and Castillo Incised reach their small peaks (1.58 and 1.19 per cent, respectively) in the same level (2.0-2.25 meters). This distribution is similar to Cut 1. Puerto Moorin White-on-Red occurs

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51) in amounts of less than 1 per cent in four levels between 5.0 and 2.50 meters. In Cut 2 this type is more "middle" in distribution, whereas it is "lower" in Cut 1. Callejon Unclassified is

are slightly less markedly so in Cut 2. Again, as at Gallinazo, Huancaco (Mochica) evidence is either lacking or very scantily represented in the uppermost levels.

TABLE 8 SHERD C O U N T PER LEVEL, R O O M

117

(cont.)

i, S I T E V - 5 1 , C A S T I L L O D E T O M A V A L

.22

I

.12

2 1 2

-43 .19 .58

1 • 2

.24 >5 -35

%

1 2

.24 .25

i

.17

No.

No.

I i i

.19 .29

I

-43

3 4

i I

%

.21

No. i

4

% .22

No. i

% .22

i

.12

.86

.19 .29 i

-45 -7°

.24 i

441 405 789

4 i 4

445 406 793

.19

564 456 5°' 337

4 8 4 4

568 464 SOS 341

97 104

227 404 656 54°

2 6 13 7

229 410 669 547

5.320

57

5,377

98.9

1.1

100

Callejon Unclassified

Castillo White, Red, Orange

Huancaco Decorated

Broad-line Incised

Gallinazo %

i Grand Totals

I

No.

Total Decorated Ware

%

Total Plain Ware

No.

Castillo Incised

Gallinazo Negative

Castillo Modeled

D E C O R A T E D W A R E S (COTlt.)

No. i

% .22

3

-52

:

4 7 .17

Percentage:

represented by two sherds (1.9 per cent, level 5 . 2 5 - 5 . 5 0 meters and . 1 8 per cent, 2 . 7 5 - 3 . 0 meters). This is also similar to its "middle" position in Cut 1. With the exception o f V i r ú Plain there is no marked "upper" typeinCut2, nor is the Puerto Moorin White-on-Red as marked a "lower" associate with Huacapongo Polished Plain as it is in Cut 1. In general, from ceramic distributions, Cut 2 appears as a smaller, less well-represented version of Cut 1, perhaps lacking both the uppermost (latest) level and deepest (earliest) levels which characterize the larger excavation. Its pottery content, however, leaves no doubt as to the periods which are represented. Certainly the major terrace through which Strata Cut 2 was sunk is Gallinazo in culture period, as was proved to be the case in regard to the middle and upper levels in Cut 1. The lower levels in Cut 1 are distinctly Salinar but

CERAMICS FROM R O O M I A N D T E S T PITS I AND 2

As previously indicated, we cannot be sure that the refuse fill in Room 1, on the high spur of El Castillo, was deposited in horizontal strata. Therefore, the ceramic contents here may be more important than the so-called strata from which the various types come (Table 8). This small room yielded more potsherds ( 5 , 3 7 7 ) than did Strata Cut 2 ( 5 , 2 7 1 ) , indicating that the high ridge was intensively occupied. Despite the warning that the strata lines were obscure in Room 1, there are only two major features in which type distributions do not agree quite closely with those in Cuts 1 and 2. These are first, the deeper occurrence of very fine Huancaco Decorated sherds (one, or . 2 4 per cent, at 2 . 2 5 - 2 . 5 0 meters; four, or .86 per cent, at 1.25-1.50 meters; and one,

118

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

or .22 per cent, at 0-.25 meters), and second, the complete absence of Huacapongo Polished Plain sherds. We will suggest the probable significance of these occurrences after outlining the other distributions. Here, as in Strata Cuts 1 and 2, Castillo Plain dominates (71.6 per cent in lowest level and 73.8 per cent in the top level), and Valle

and 2.0 meters. The distribution of six Huancaco Decorated sherds is mentioned above. Castillo White, Red, Orange occurs in the lowest level (.17 per cent), level .75-1.0 meters (.12 per cent), and the top level (.22 per cent). Callejón Unclassified is sparingly scattered from level 2.50-2.75 meters (1.04 per cent), through four other levels including the upper-

TABLE 9 SHERD C O U N T PER LEVEL, TEST PIT 2, SITE V-51, C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L PLAIN WARES

a, 3 £ a

LEVELS IN

E £

METERS 0-0.50 0.50-1.00 1.00-1.30

a. •o •3 •a § •2 a

% 1.10

No. I

% •36

No. 162

% 59-3

No. 92

0/ /O 33-7

No. 10

% 3-66

9

1.02

I

.11

733

81.6

9'

IO.I

37

4'3

I

•13

5-8

7'-5

109

15.04

52

7'7

No. 2

% •73

No.

I

.11

3

Plain runs from 20 to 30 per cent in all levels. However, the third most numerous type in Cuts 1 and 2, Huacapongo Polished Plain, where it comes in strong early and then fades out, is not present here at all. V i m Plain, a late type, is represented by one sherd (.12 per cent) in level .75-1.0 meters. Tomaval Plain runs a low percentage (.35 per cent lowest and 1.12 per cent highest levels, respectively) throughout. Queneto Polished Plain, slightly less common, does the same. Gloria Polished Plain reaches its highest percentage (2.81) in level 1.25-1.50 meters, decreasing slightly in almost all levels above and below. Among the decorated types, Puerto Moorin White-on-Red occurs in small percentages in level 1.25-1.50 meters (.21 per cent), 2.0-2.25 meters (.43 per cent), and 2.50-2.75 meters (.3 per cent). The Castillo Modeled type occurs in small percentages, all less than 1 per cent, in eight levels from top to bottom. Gallinazo Negative does much the same. Castillo Incised occurs only twice (.19 and .29 per cent) in the two levels between 1.50

most (.22 per cent). Concerning these decorated type distributions, those of Puerto Moorin White-on-Red, Castillo Modeled, Castillo Incised, and Gallinazo Negative in Room 1 conform rather well to the "middle" to "upper" sections of Cuts 1 and 2. The scattered occurrence of both Callejón Unclassified, Castillo White, Red, Orange, and Huancaco Decorated, however, is not in general conformity with Cut 1, where the first occurs grouped in the middle strata, the second is "middle" to "upper," and the third is definitely "upper." Further, while fits cannot be made, there is a strong suspicion that several of these three type pieces are from the same vessels which have rolled down a steep, short deposition slope. Hence their scattered occurrence suggests either a major disturbance in the refuse planes or, more likely, an inaccurate horizontal method of cutting slanting strata lines in such a small place as this room. However this may be, the general conformity in percentages and position which

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51) exists between the dominant plain ware types in this room fill and the other cuts, plus the absence of Huacapongo Polished Plain, suggests that, whereas the horizontal approach may have missed finer lines of deposition due to refuse slope, it did distinguish between the major superimposed sections of the deposit. Furthermore, the absence of Huacapongo

119

11 Huancaco Decorated. The latter are all of the Red and White sub-type. Test Pit 2, as previously indicated, was made in order to determine the nature of the stone-walled rectangle on the flat below El Castillo (Fig. 24). It was carried down in three levels of 0-.50, .50-1.0, and 1.0-1.30 meters, and yielded 1,895 sherds of which 21

T A B L E 9 (cont.) SHERD C O U N T PER LEVEL, T E S T PIT 2, SITE V-51, C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L PLAIN WARES (COTlt.)

DECORATED WARES

a,

T3

-o •S

•a

I I

1

-3 I

O 3

% •73

No.

/o

No.

11

1.22

3

•33

35

4.8

1

•'3

a £

r

o8

No. 2

3a I

-2

C| O 3

%

No. 1

% •36

4

•44

6

.66

2

•27

6

.82

No.

/o

a £

No.

•13

272

i

273

886

11

897

716

9

725

1,874 Percentage:

Polished Plain, as well as the scarcity of Puerto Moorin White-on-Red, strongly suggests that the occupation which deposited the refuse in Room 1 should be equated with the middle and upper strata in Cut 1 (Gallinazo period) rather than with its lower or Puerto Moorin levels. An overwhelming proportion of both plain and decorated types in Room 1 pertains to this Gallinazo period as it has been revealed in strata cuts both at Gallinazo (V-59) and El Castillo (V-51).

Test Pit i was merely a probing "gravedigging" operation which did not yield a burial or much of anything else. It has some interest because this portion of the site (see map, Fig. 17) seems to have been a center for Mochica occupation. The small sherd sample saved from this pit includes 29 sherds of which 16 are plain and 13 decorated. There are 10 Castillo Plain, 5 Gloria Polished Plain, 1 Sarraque Cream, 2 Gallinazo Negative, and

•a a

98.9

>.895 1.1

100

(1.1 per cent) were decorated and 1,874 (98.9 per cent) were plain. Plain ware distributions were generally similar to those in Cuts 1 and 2, with Castillo Plain dominant (71.5, 81.6, 59.3 per cent) in each level from bottom to top. Huacapongo Polished Plain comes in with 4.8 per cent in the lowest level, fading to .73 per cent in the top level. Valle Plain, as elsewhere, has the opposite trend, with 15 per cent in the bottom and 33.7 per cent in the upper level. Other plain wares, Gloria Polished Plain and Tomaval Plain, mark a small percentage in all three levels, while Queneto Polished and Viru Plain appear in less than 1 per cent amounts, only in the upper two layers. Decorated ware types are not very well represented in Test Pit 2, no single type reaching 1 per cent in any level. Castillo Modeled is thus represented in the lower two levels; Castillo Incised appears in all three levels'

120

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

Castillo White, Red, Orange (one sherd in lowest level) and Huancaco Decorated (one sherd in middle level) are also present. Many of the usual Gallinazo period decorated types, most notably the negative types, are totally lacking. Here again, the much more abundant plain ware types seem to tell the more consistent story. This, in general, is similar to the upper levels in Cut 1 and would seem to be primarily Gallinazo in period. Whether this, which would seem to be a sample of the upper levels in the flat rather than of the specific structure, can serve to date the rectangular rock structure is dubious. This would require more extensive excavations than were attempted in Test Pit 2. For present purposes, however, this small sampling has value in showing the wide spread of the Gallinazo occupation in the vicinity as well as upon the great structure of El Castillo. CERAMICS FROM THE SURFACE OF THE SITE

Only a small and selected collection of twenty-eight sherds was gathered from the surface of site V-51. For some reason sherds were not at all abundant on the surface here, save where several late cemeteries had been looted and the plain vessels broken and scattered. However, we were so busy with our excavations that we made no particular effort to cover the surface of this large, torn-up site. The surface sherds fall into the following type classifications: Sarraque Cream, 2; Gloria Polished Plain, 3; Queneto Polished Plain, 2; Castillo Incised, 2; Castillo Modeled, 2; Callejón Unclassified, 9 (probably from the same vessel); Gallinazo Negative, 1; Castillo White, Red, Orange, 4; Huancaco Decorated, 2; unclassified, 1 (a thin, highly polished, dark brown sherd of almost stonelike hardness). The Callejón Unclassified sherds, all of which came from a single, low, rounded bowl with insloping rim, are unusual in that they have a bright orangeyellow slip on both surfaces, but a dark gray, reduced cross section (Fig. 81 1). There are crude red designs of crosses and wiggly lines on the inner surface. The slip color and designs are found on other Callejón Unclassified examples (see Callejón Unclassified in Appendix 1), but the majority of sherds

thus grouped tend toward oxidized rather than reduced firing. While these surface examples add little to our knowledge of the site, they are quite representative and have value as part of our limited sample of decorated type sherds. NON-CERAMIC MATERIALS FROM S T R A T A CUTS I AND 2

Conditions for preservation of non-ceramic and perishable remains were somewhat better at El Castillo (V-51) than they were at Gallinazo (V-59). This is mainly attributable to the lower water table at El Castillo, and is most clearly indicated by the fact that fragments of cloth were removed in Strata Cut 1 at V-51 in all levels between the 4.25 and 1.0 meter marks, as well as traces of vegetal remains in various levels between the 6.50 meter mark and the surface. However, even so, the non-ceramic materials are sparse at best. Finally, the non-ceramic materials from levels . 7 5 - 1 . 0 meters, 5.0-5.25 meters, and

6.0-6.25 meters in Strata Cut 1 and those from all but three levels in Strata Cut 2 were not sent to us from Peru, hence cannot be discussed here. Nevertheless, the available nonceramic materials present a reasonable sample of what may be obtained in this category, and interpretations based upon them are of importance in both the technological and economic fields. In summarizing these limited but highly varied non-ceramic remains from Cut 1 at V-51, we will first discuss the stratigraphic distribution of definite artifact types (in order of materials used, whether metal, stone, bone, or textile) and then the biological remains (bone, shell, wood, and other vegetal materials) in that general order. Definite artifact types, as we learned at Gallinazo (V-59), ARE quite limited. In metal, we secured a minute, hollow gold bead and one piece of copper oxide in level 3.25-3.50 meters. The gold bead is round and tiny (.5 centimeters in diameter), being about the size of BB shot. It is of a bright, whitish gold, hollow, and slightly crushed in on one end. There is a small perforation in each end. The copper oxide piece is a small, green, hollow object, slightly over one centimeter in length and thickness. It is

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site (V-51) quite light and suggests a natural rather than an artificial origin. Ground stonework from Cut i is almost unbelievably poor and limited, and definitely chipped stonework does not occur. A good ground stone piece is a tiny, brown disc (1.5 centimeters in diameter and .7 centimeters high, from level 4.75-5.0 meters), which is highly polished and cylindrical (Fig. 26 G) . It could be a lip or ear plug but seems too small. From level .75-1.0 meters comes a small, flat, perforated pebble (Fig. 26 F) which is otherwise unworked. As indicated earlier this is a characteristic pendant type in the early periods and was apparently still in vogue when the latest refuse at Cut 1 was laid down. A very good piece is a large, circular, flat, perforated mace or club head of basalt, from level 2.75-3.0 meters (Fig. 26 B) . It is highly polished and patinated with an outer diameter of 12.3 centimeters, a central perforation of 4 centimeters, and a thickness of 2 centimeters. Its edge is battered from hard usage. Half of an incompletely perforated stone of this sort or, perhaps, a hammerstone with two deep (1.4 centimeters) finger holes in the center comes from level 2.25-3.0 meters (Fig. 26 A). It measures 9 centimeters in diameter and is 3 centimeters thick in the center. A hammerstone from level 6.25-6.50 meters is a large (10 centimeters long by 5 centimeters thick) quartzite cobblestone which has battered ends and a faint, pecked, longitudinal marking. A unique ground stone object is small (28 centimeters basal diameter and 5 centimeters high) and bullet-shaped, and possibly grooved around the central diameter (Fig. 26 D). The large end is flat and polished. T h e object may have been used as a pottery or other polishing stone. A triangular, flat, basalt fragment (9.5 centimeters long by 2 centimeters thick) is highly polished on one slightly convex surface and may be part of a metate. It comes from level 3.75-4.0 meters. A small, thin, rectangular (7 by 2.5 by .5 centimeters) slab of slate has been polished on both faces and one end. A similar but larger rectangular piece, highly polished on both faces and four edges, comes from the surface of the site. It is 9.3 centimeters long, 5.3 centimeters wide, and only .3 centimeters thick. Since this one piece

121

is the only non-ceramic artifact collected from the surface of V-51 it may be mentioned here. The artifact type suggests a polishing tool; both its surfaces and four edges may have been employed for grinding purposes. Three small, round to ovoid, sandstone pebbles, from levels 1.75-2.0 meters and 3.0-3.25 meters, respectively, have apparently been used for polishing. With the possible exception of a few fractured basalt pebbles with sharp edges there is no chipped stonework. Bone work is even more limited. It consists of three pieces of land mammal bone, probably llama. One of these, the head of a metacarpal, has been cut oifand another bone shows tool marks. A third metacarpal, from level 4.50-4.75 meters, has been split and may have been used as a gouge or flesher since the broken edge is somewhat smoothed from use. This piece is similar to an interesting artifact type (Fig. 15 E) from Gallinazo and Test Pit 1, V-51. Shell working is represented by one cut fragment (5 centimeters long) with ten horizontal lines incised across it (Fig. 26 E) . This piece comes from level 4.75-5.0 meters. Worked vegetal remains are more numerous. Fragments of cloth come from each level between the r .0 and 4.25 meter marks. The types of weaving represented and their distribution in Cut 1 and Room 1 are shown in Table 10. While spindle whorls are usually made of pottery, we will again describe them here in the non-ceramic section since their function in spinning links them with textiles rather than ceramics. In all, fourteen spindle whorls came from nine levels between 6.50 and .75 meters. The lowest of these (Fig. 33, type 8) was in the huge olla which came from the bottom of Cut 1 (Fig. 18), the polished brown spindle whorl actually being in level 6.25-6.50 meters. It is 1.8 centimeters in diameter, rounded on the base, and slightly conoidal in the decorated upper half. Decoration, in three zones, is achieved by three units of three concentric lines, enclosing two to three dots, above a wavy line which encircles the greatest diameter. These incised lines are dentate, as though they had been made by using a small mollusc shell. The perforation is .5 centimeters in diameter on both ends. From level 6.0-6.25 meters comes a smaller (1.2 centimeters in diameter) spindle whorl, or bead, of

H F I G . 2 6 . N O N - C E R A M I C A R T I F A C T S F R O M T H E C A S T I L L O D E T O M A V A L SITE

(v-51)

A, Stone ring, incomplete. B, Stone mace or club head. C, Wooden plug. D, Polishing stone (?). E, Carved shell, possibly part of a pendant. F, Perforated pebble. G, Small stone disk. H , Copper wire ring.

Castillo de Toma val Site (V-51) TABLE

123

10

T E X T I L E MATERIALS* BY LEVEL, STRATA CUT i AND R O O M

i, S I T E

V-51,

C A S T I L L O DE T O M A V A L

MATERIALS Textiles Plaimeeaves 1 single-ply warp X 1 single-ply weft, S-spun 1 single-ply warp X 1 single-ply weft, Z-spun Paired single-ply warp X paired single-ply weft, S-spun Paired single-ply warp X paired single-ply weft, Z - and S-spun Gingham, 1 single-ply warp X 1 single-ply weft, S-spun Warp Stripes 1 SINGLE-PLY WARP X 1 SINGLE-PLY weft, S-spun 2-ply warp X 2-ply weft, S-spun

1 0 »•
0 O H fj .3 0 X-, a V-, t^. tv 0 0 N

3

95

4

2

i

4

2

I

39

I

1 1

1

I

1

Structural Warp Stripe S - s p u n . . . . .

1

1

Lino (Gauze) Single-ply warp and single-ply weft, S-spun

Ic

Tapestry Single-ply S-spun cotton warp, single-ply S-spun and 2-ply S-spun wool weft Kelim, 2-ply S-spun warp, 2-ply S-spun weft Twill Paired warp and weft, single-ply, S-spun . . . .

1

1 I

2

Coiling Multiple-row loop coiling (fiber) single-ply S-spun

3

I

I

I

9

2

I

Matting Woven reed (junto)

1

2

1

I

I

1

Netting Fine mesh 2-ply Z-doubled yam Netted pouch, multiple-ply S spun . . . . . Cord Multiple-strand 2-tone and white) cord .

1 1

(blue

1

1

Yarn 2-ply S-spun wool . Cotton fiber a

.

9

X .

.

.

X X

X

X

1 1

b All fabrics are cotton except when differently noted. One of these 4 items is from a dog burial. c This item is from a dog burial.

X X

124

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

gray-green pottery. Its shape is similar to the foregoing. From level 5.75-6.0 meters comes a brown pottery spindle whorl similar in color but rounder than the first described above. It is 1.6 centimeters in diameter and is decorated with a simple incised equatorial line with three circles and dots above it (Fig. 33, type 8). A similar spindle whorl comes from level 5.50-5.75 meters. A line encircles the top and another the greatest circumference, and between are three vertical panels of four lines each. These lines are dentate as in the first example described above. Above this level the spindle whorl changes from a slightly flattened globular form to a definitely biconoidal form. Three pottery whorls, or two whorls and a bead, and a pendant come from level 4.75-5.0 meters. One of these whorls is large (2.7 centimeters diameter, 2.3 centimeters high), coarse black, and definitely biconoidal. It is decorated in the upper half with incised geometrical designs and circles filled with white paint. A second whorl is much smaller (1.5 centimeters in diameter), is polished gray, and is decorated with three circles and dots on each conoidal half. The third perforated, pottery object from this level (Fig. 33, type 9) is brown and ovoid (1 centimeter in diameter and height) with a spiral design encircling it from end to end. This line incising is dentate and the type suggests that described from below 5.75 meters. There is also an oval, perforated, pottery pendant (4.5 centimeters long) from this level. T w o spindle whorls come from level 3.0-3.25 meters. One (Fig. 33, type 10) is brown and conoidal, with a rounded base (2 centimeters in diameter). The conoidal upper portion is decorated by dentate line panels and circles and dots. The other (Fig. 33, type 12) is about the same size, but is black and biconoidal. It is decorated with incised lines, concentric circles, and dots, the incising being filled with white pigment. From level 1.75-2.0 meters there are three spindle whorls. One is biconoidal and two are conoidal with rounded bases. All three are decorated with incised vertical lines and circles and dots, and two retain traces of white paint in the incisions. T w o brown spindle whorls come from level . 7 5 - 1 . 0 meters. Both are conoidal with rounded bases and are decorated with deli-

cately incised triangles, circles, and concentric circles, and dots (Fig. 33, type 1 1 ) . In this same level was found an unusual bead of red pottery, which looked as though it might represent a stirrup spout vessel in miniature. Considering the spindle whorls as a series there seems to be a progression in type from the round, dentate-marked whorls in the lower levels up to the conoidal, round-based type with paint-filled incisions which came from the middle and upper strata in Cut 1. This will be discussed later in terms of more comparative material (pp. 1 9 3 - 1 9 5 and Fig. 33). In regard to woodworking, the finds from Cut 1 are not impressive. In level 2.75-3.0 meters were found the remains of four wooden artifacts, cut wood and post fragments, small branches, two reed artifacts, knotted fiber, and a number of adobe block fragments with the impression of totora reed mats upon them. Some of these seem to represent the more perishable materials used in structures at this level. The five wooden artifacts include two split pieces of decaying wood (52 centimeters long) with squarely cut ends, one round peg with cut butt and tapering point (25 centimeters long), one small fragment of an algarroba digging stick blade, and a small (2 centimeters in diameter, 3.8 centimeters long) wooden "bottle stopper." The two reed artifacts include a broken reed with a neatly cut stem (1 centimeter in diameter and 28 centimeters long) and a round drilled hole 2 centimeters from the cut end, and another round stem (.6 centimeters in diameter and 21 centimeters long) which has a short (1.3 centimeters) sharp cactus thorn set in each end. The first of these is probably from a heavy reed mat, but the second is obscure. It might be a tattooing or surgical instrument, although its use may have been more prosaic. From level 3.0-3.25 meters come three of the cut pegs with rounded points, ranging from 14.2 to 19.3 centimeters in length. On two of these the points have been broken off, but the longest has a very rounded blunt point. In a predominantly hunting culture these pegs would probably be hide stretchers; here we can only guess. T w o other conoidal wooden artifacts are evidently "bottle stoppers," probably for gourds. The largest is 3.5 centimeters in basal diameter and 5.5 centimeters long,

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51) the second about one-third as large. The large end is squarely cut and the body tapers to a small rounded point. Such plugs, as well as corn cobs, are used today for gourd bottle stoppers by Indians and other Peruvians. From this level there are also other fragments of wood, bark, and cane, but they show no clear workmanship. Gourd fragments are quite frequent in the refuse from bottom to top, though most abundant between the 3.75 and 1.0 meter marks. The largest number of fragments are 12 in level 3.50-3.75 meters, and definitely cut fragments of lips and rims occur in various levels. From level 3.0-3.25 meters come two rim fragments with perforations just below the lip. In level 2.75-3.0 meters there are about a dozen fragments of a bowl with black but obscure pyrographic designs, as well as a carefully cut and perforated rounded end from a gourd. This artifact which, except for a hole in the base, suggests a cup, is 6 centimeters in mouth diameter and in height. From level 2.50-2.75 meters comes one gourd fragment with a curvilinear, pyrographic design faintly suggesting a face or headdress, and another small fragment from level 1.75-2.0 meters has an intricate rectilinear but obscure incised design. It is apparent that gourds were important containers throughout all the period represented by the Cut 1 strata. It is unfortunate that the decorative motifs used upon them are so incompletely represented. A discussion of the generic nature of plants occurs elsewhere (Appendix 2), but it may be pointed out here that corn cobs occurred in levels .50-.75 meters (1), 1.75-2.0 meters (5), and 2.75-3.0 meters (4). Lucuma seeds occurred in levels 2.75-3.0 meters (2) and 3.75-4.0 meters (3). Avocado seed fragments come from levels 2.50-4.0 meters, and guayaba occurs in the 1.75-3.0 meter levels. Squash fragments are found in the 1.0-1.25 and 1.75-2.0 meter levels. In regard to animal remains it is interesting to note that no fragments of human bone were found save in the two burials previously described. Llama or deer bones occur in nearly every level from bottom to top and are far more abundant than are large sea mammal bones such as sea lion or porpoise. Bones of this last type occur only in the upper 1.25 meters

!25 with one occurrence in level 3.0-3.25 meters. Bird bones seem to be rare or lacking and fish bones are present in four levels between 4.0 meters and the surface, but are not common. Mollusca, including land snails, marine snails, mussels, beach clams, and others occur sporadically but show no marked zones of concentration and are much scarcer than at Gallinazo (V-59) or Huaca Negra (V-71). Judging from this floral and faunal evidence one gathers that the people at V-51 were mainly farmers, hunting and probably domesticating the llama and depending only to a minor degree on sea food, either sea lions, fish, or shell fish. In regard to non-ceramic materials from Strata Cut 2 at V-51 we can be very brief. Not only was the cut smaller than Cut 1 and poorer in materials, but also what little we did get was not sent up from Peru, with the exception of the materials from three levels. From level 2.50-2.75 meters comes a fragment of a polished basalt ring with a rounded perforation and an edge sharpened by polishing. The projected diameter of the ring is 10 centimeters, the central perforation about 3 centimeters, with a greatest thickness of 1.6 centimeters. The sharpened edge is somewhat battered as though from use. From level 2.75-3.0 meters comes a wad of short brown hair entangled with tiny fragments of simple brown cloth. From level 3.25-3.50 meters there is present a lunate plano-convex flake of basalt which has a very slight use-retouch on the curved, sharp edge. Its greatest length is 7.5 centimeters.

N O N - C E R A M I C M A T E R I A L S FROM R O O M I A N D TEST PIT I

Since the stratification obtained in Room 1 is open to some doubt because of the methods of deposition and excavation, it has more composite than sequential value. In regard to artifacts, three wooden gourd stoppers came from three levels above the 1.25 meter mark. Five pointed wooden pegs come from four levels above the 3.0 meter mark. The crudely polished tip of a llama bone "fleshing tool" comes from level 1.50-1.75 meters. Clay fragments with impressions of cane matting or wattle and daub come from two levels between 2.0

126

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

and 1.50 meters. Two rings of fine copper wire come from levels 2.25-2.50 and 2.50-2.75 meters, respectively (Fig. 26 H) . The first is approximately 1.8 centimeters and the second 2 centimeters in diameter, the wire ranges between .1 and .2 centimeters in diameter. Fragments of gourd containers come from nearly all levels. From level 2.25-2.50 meters five pieces from the same gourd are covered with fine scratches or incisions but no clear design is evident. Cloth occurs in five of the seven layers between 2 meters and the surface (see Table 10). Animal bones from all levels are of land mammals, usually llama. In one level, 2.02.25 meters, llama wool occurs with the broken bone fragments. Sea lion bone occurs only once and in the same level. Shell remains occur in various levels but are not abundant. Three fragments of a lucuma seed occur in the 0-.50 meter level, squash in the 1.75-2.0 meter level, fragments of avocado seeds come from levels .50-3.0 meters, a peanut shell comes from level 2.50-2.75 meters, and fragments of large cane from level 2.50-2.75 meters. We have already mentioned the distribution of cotton cloth and gourds. The nonceramic distributions here, while limited, are generally similar to those from Strata Cut 1. Little non-ceramic material comes from Test Pit 1 where no levels were kept. There are present, however, one "fleshing" tool of llama metacarpal bone, a small round pebble with edges abraded by pounding, and a number of fragmentary llama bones. BURIAL TYPES

From the standpoint of distribution of ceramic types we have seen that the sequential refuse strata in Strata Cuts 1 and 2 are generally the same, extending from a "lower" (Puerto Moorin period) to a "middle" (Gallinazo period) and, in Cut 1, faint traces of an "upper" (Huancaco period) occur. We will discuss the general characteristics of the five burials from these two cuts together. The superficial burial in Cut 1 was in a small pit (.5 meters in diameter and .75 meters deep), was disturbed, and was unaccompanied by artifacts. However, the small size of the grave shaft suggests a bundle or flexed burial. This was probably

late and may have been similar to the polemarked late burial in Cut 2 at 1.50 meters depth described elsewhere. The three "lower" burials in Cut 1 were extended, with the possible exception of a disturbed infant's burial; one of these, an adult female had been buried with her pelvis and lower body projected into a hole in the huge olla found at a depth of 6.20 meters (Fig. 18). Since no artifacts occurred definitely associated with any of these burials, all that can be said here is that the uppermost (latest) burial was apparently flexed and the lower burials extended. The burial with its feet in the olla would seem not to have been a true urn burial but to have been intruded into that position. All three of these lower burials occurred in strata of the Puerto Moorin period. The burial of a yellowhaired dog, wrapped in a cloth bundle 60 centimeters in length, at a depth of 3.25 meters, is of interest (Table 1 o). Offerings had apparently been made to this animal, which was buried in the rubbish. In Cut 2, a dog was also found, apparently buried in the refuse at a depth of 5.50 meters, but there were no grave goods. The bones in both cases were in very bad condition; they came from strata of the Gallinazo period. Burial Site 1 (Plate X I I B and Fig. 25) was in levels superficial to Cut 1, and from the ceramic association appears to belong to the Huancaco period. Whether these Huancaco period ollas were all grave gifts to the woman in one of them is uncertain but seems probable. This was a flexed burial, wrapped in coarse cotton cloth and tied in a bundle with fiber cord. Since it was definitely seated in a large olla this can be designated an urn burial. As Bennett has pointed out, this type of burial is not characteristic of the wider Peruvian culture area or co-tradition (Bennett, 1948, p. 3). The urn burial here was outside a rough, stone-walled structure and above a series of cane mold-marked adobe structures. Burial Site 2 was a flexed burial of a male in a small grave pit only 1.40 meters in depth. The badly decomposed body, which lay on its side with knees drawn up, was apparently that of an adult male. The six vessels with this body are all of Huancaco Decorated type. This decorative type, as well as the flexed rather than extended body, suggests that the burial is of

Castillo de T o m a v a l Site ( V - 5 1 ) a late rather than an early, general, Mochica provenience. Burial Site 3 pertained to the still later Tomaval and La Plata periods with which this report is not directly concerned, hence these burials and their contents will be described in a later report. In passing, however, we may note that they were flexed, tied in mummy bundles, and had copper in their mouths, as is characteristic of the late prehistoric periods. C E R A M I C AND O T H E R M A T E R I A L S FROM BURIALS

Strange to say, the only definitely associated grave gifts from the burials in Cuts 1 and 2 came with the dog burial. Accompanying it were a number of cloth and woven fiber fragments (see Table 1 o). However, a typical Salinar (Puerto Moorin) type modeled cat face (Fig. 63 Q) and a spindle whorl were in the fill near the head of the burial of the woman partly intruded into the large olla in Strata Cut 1. The spindle whorl is rounded, polished brown, with delicate dentate incisions (Fig. 33, type 8), and is also a Puerto Moorin type. The vessels from Burial Site 1 (Plate X I I B) have already been described in detail. Here

127

we can note that three are of the Valle Plain ceramic type and two are Castillo Plain in type. Valle Plain as a type tends to increase in the upper sections of the Gallinazo-Huancaco sequence and the form (Plate X I I B, front center, and Fig. 41, form 3) is definitely Huancaco (Mochica) as is the one decorated sherd found associated here (Huancaco Decorated). The Castillo Plain type vessels are not so indicative as to stratigraphic placement but the one with the narrow flaring rim (Plate X I I B, center rear) also seems to be a late form. Thus, the burial and associated large vessels here would seem to pertain to the Huancaco period. Burial Site 2 yielded six decomposed gourd vessels and six pottery vessels. All of the latter are of Huancaco Decorated types, five are of the Huancaco Red, White, Black type (Plate X I I I A, B, C, E) and one (Plate X I I I D) of the Huancaco Red and White type. There is no doubt that this burial pertains to the Huancaco period. Later discussion of the Huancaco Red, White, Black type will indicate that this is apparently late in the general Mochica period. There were no other artifacts with this burial. The limited findings from Burial Site 3 are discussed elsewhere.

RÉSUMÉ The most outstanding result of the present the Puerto Moorin (Salinar), culture type. excavations at site V-51 is the determination Thus, we know that there were occupations that the largest and apparently strongest of site V-51 both later and earlier than the occupation at this site was by people of the Gallinazo culture, but the latter, so far as presGallinazo culture. The ceramic complex, par- ent evidence is concerned, shows the largest ticularly the occurrence of negative painted and most intensive occupation and an archiand associated types of pottery and the archi- tectural type of construction which correlates tectural use ofrectangular, cane mold-marked perfectly with that of El Castillo itself. Obadobes is similar to Gallinazo (V-59). This is viously, much more work is needed at this demonstrated at site V-51 in the middle to great site before we can speak in detail of the upper levels of Strata Cut 1, in Strata Cut 2, range and contribution of each of the demonand in Room 1 on the ridge of El Castillo. strable Puerto Moorin, Gallinazo, and MoSince the cane-marked adobe construction of chica occupations, as well as the later Tomaval the great Castillo de Tomaval conforms ex- and La Plata peoples who at least buried their actly to this Gallinazo structural type there dead here. However, unlike earlier authoriseems, to say the least, a high probability that ties who referred to this site as Mochica this great monument was built by the people (Huancaco) we, as the result of the excavaof this culture. Strata Cuts 1 and 2 indicate tions herein discussed, would now refer to it that the Huancaco (Mochica) ceramic types as a Gallinazo site with traces of both earlier are late and almost superficial at V-51. In the and later occupations. Whether this is also lower levels of Cut 1, the Gallinazo culture true of its three companion temple-fortresses, materials are underlain by those of an earlier, Napo, Sarraque, and San Juan, we will know

128

Castillo de Tomaval Site (V-51)

better when the results of Ford's surface survey and Willey's settlement pattern study are at hand, and especially when adequate stratigraphic work has been carried on at one or all of these places. Finally, there is the question as to the functional nature of El Castillo de Tomaval, whether it was fortress, temple, both, or neither. In Kroeber's opinion the site "looks like a castle: but its area seems too insignificant for a fortress, and it is probably a good Chimu [Mochica] huaca, unusual only for its eminent placement" (Kroeber, 1930, pp. 7 7 78). Bennett (1939) has nothing to say as to its functional significance, but Horkheimer (1944, p. 78) states that probably "these castles were the residences of the local lords." T o amplify these opinions, which are eminently reasonable, the recent work of theViru Valley Project adds the following. First there are four of these great structures on the middle Viru River gorge in what would seem to be very strategic positions to control the only source ofwater to the lower valley; one of these,

El Castillo de Tomaval, is primarily of Gallinazo culture construction, and surface surveys suggest that the others are also; the vicinity of El Castillo de Tomaval has been demonstrated as densely occupied for a long period; it is also surrounded by a wall of circumvallation, and, finally, there were occupied rooms on the ridge of the Castillo itself. It is too early to generalize until more evidence on all sites in the vicinity is at hand. However, on the basis of the present evidence, we would tentatively suggest that El Castillo de Tomaval and its three associate ruins were both templefortresses and towns, built during the Gallinazo culture period and occupied by priestleaders and their followers who regarded the sites as sacred places, lookouts, and strong points controlling major sources of irrigation. It is also believed, subject to more adequate demonstration, that at one time all four formed a strategic unit, and that when they fell the Gallinazo domination of the valley was terminated. This, however, until more data are at hand, is speculation.

The Huaca de la Cruz Site (V-162) near El Puente DESCRIPTION OF T H E

A

L A R G E , B A R R E N , S A N D Y MOUND

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spicuously from the green cultivated L fields in the center of the Viru Valley. It is one kilometer south of E l Puente (a small collection of native huts and stores around the bridge crossing the V i r u River) and 150 meters from the P a n American Highway on the east side of the road (see map, Fig. 1). T h e southern limits of the mound are bordered by a large, modern, irrigation ditch. Locally, the mound is called H u a c a de la Cruz for the wooden cross standing on its highest portion. T h e name is not particularly definitive, for most high places in the area, especially ruins, have similar crosses. However, this large mound is not easily confused with any of the others and is well known by all the local huaqueros. H u a c a de la Cruz is also the highest mound in the central part of the valley. From it all parts of the valley can be viewed with astonishing ease and clarity— Castillo de T o m a v a l to the east, Pur Pur to the north, Cerro Prieto de Guanape and Gallinazo to the west, and Huancaco and Bitin to the south. Huaca de la Cruz can be divided into three regions. T h e map (Fig. 27) which shows these divisions, as well as all the excavations, is based on Bennett's original map in his 1939 publication (Fig. 2, p. 22), to which our 1946 excavations have been added. A long, oval, high ridge extends from northwest to southeast, measuring 150 meters long and from 25 to 55 meters wide. T h e cross at the northern end is on the highest part, which according to Bennett's plane table mapping (Bennett, 1939, p. 29) is 1 5 . 7 5 meters above the general ground level. T h e southern end of this oval ridge is from 1 to 3 meters lower than the northern end. A lower level, forming a platform extension approximately 4 meters below the ridge, extends to the west for almost 100 meters. A t

SITE

a similar level, but on the east side, a smaller extension forms a small circular knoll 1 5 meters in diameter. A sandy slope surrounds the entire mound, stretching from 50 to 100 meters in all directions and marking the limits of the mound. T o d a y , a brush fence of spine bush and algarroba branches separates the mound from the cultivated area and roughly conforms to the outermost extensions of H u a c a de la Cruz. A first impression of the surface features would classify Huaca de la Cruz as a target area of a bombing squadron. Gaping holes with scattered debris of textiles, bones, and pottery cover the entire mound. T h e middle platform has been intensively looted, but only sporadic pitting occurs along the southern portions of the mound. Approximately half of the western part of the middle platform and the northern end of the ridge have been badly burned. T h e bright red and ashy black surface contrasts sharply with the sandy features of the rest of the mound. T h e soil has been burned to a depth of .50-2.0 meters as a result of the conflagration of combustible materials in the refuse from the heat of surface fires. Although the cause of these fires is not definitely known, it is probable that H u a c a de la Cruz had been used as an area to burn brush for charcoal. T h e burning is entirely a post-occupational feature and is not a factor of archeological significance except for its destructiveness. T h e stratigraphic work in the other sites had clearly defined the cultures from the Guañape through the Gallinazo periods, but the contact with Huancaco (Mochica) occupations had not been found in the valley except superficially at sites V - 5 1 and V - 5 9 . Previously postulated chronology of the North Coast of Peru had placed the H u a n c a c o period (Mochica) as earlier than the Gallinazo period. However, the deep stratigraphic

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