Ancient Burial Patterns of the Moche Valley, Peru 9780292762442

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Ancient burial patterns of the Moche Valley, Feru

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PLATE

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i. Moche fineline drawing of a burial

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Ancient burial patterns of the Moche Valley Peru By Christopher B. Donnan and Carol J. Mackey

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS/AUSTIN

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Donnan, Christopher B Ancient burial patterns of the Moche Valley, Peru. Bibliography: p. 1. Indians of South America—Peru—Moche Valley—Antiquities. 2. Moche Valley, Peru—Antiquities. 3. Indians of South America—Peru— Moche Valley—Mortuary customs. 4. Peru—Antiquities. I. Mackey, Carol J., 1933joint author. II. Title. F3429.1M63D66 985M 77-10677 ISBN 0-292-70329-5 Copyright © 1978 by the University of Texas Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Design/Eje Wray Jean LeGwin Typesetting/Service Typesetters Printing/Malloy Lithographing Binding/Universal Bookbindery ISBN 978-0-292-76244-2 (library e-book) ISBN 978-0-292-76245-9 (individual e-book)

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To John H. Rowe

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Contents

Preface

xi

CHAPTER

Introduction 3 The Setting 9 Preceramic Period 13 Initial Period 15 Cupisnique (Chavin) 2 Salinar 5 Gallinazo 45 Moche 55 Phase I 59 Phase II 63 Phase III 65 Phase IV 86 210 Phase V 2I 3 9- Huari Chimu 10 215 2I Early Chimu 5 289 A4iddle Chimu Late Chimu 340 Chimu Inca 356 11. Colonial Period 377 12. Conclusions 379 APPENDIX

i. Textiles from a Pyramid of the Sun Burial 2. Child and Llama Burials from Huanchaco Bibliography 409

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385 399

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Illustrations

PLATES

Moche Fineline Drawing of a Burial iii Salinar Ceramics 26 Gallinazo Ceramics 47 Pyramids at Moche 57 Pyramid of the Sun at Moche 58 Pyramid of the Moon at Moche 58 Moche III Ceramics 64 Moche IV Ceramics 87 88 9 Moche IV Ceramics 10. Moche IV Ceramics 91 11. Early Chimu Ceramics 214 12. Early Chimu Ceramics 216 13. Early Chimu Ceramics 218 14. Middle Chimu Ceramics 290 15. Middle Chimu Ceramics 2 91 16. Chan Chan 292 17. Late Chimu Ceramics 3 41 MAPS

i. North Coast of Peru Moche Valley 11 Huanchaco and Pampa Gramalote 17 3 22 4 Caballo Muerto 56 5 Pyramids at Moche 70 6 Trenches D, E, and J Trench B 76 7 Moche Architecture at Huanchaco, Zone B Chan Chan 293 2

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Preface

This study focuses on the pre-Columbian burials excavated in the Moche Valley since 1969. The first set of burials was excavated between June and September 1969 in the course of a field project funded by the Ford Foundation, the Ethnic Arts Council of Los Angeles, and the Academic Senate of the University of California, Los Angeles. This research was directed by Christopher Donnan and involved the participation of Steven Craig, Leonard Foote, Linda Hasten, Susanne Konigsberg, and Nelson Leonard. The purpose of the excavation was to investigate the middens adjacent to the fishing village of Huanchaco in order to determine the nature of the prehistoric settlement there. In the course of the excavation, a number of ancient burials, representing various early time periods, were recorded. From 1969 to 1975 there was a continuing project sponsored by the National Geographic Society and the National Science Foundation. This project, called the Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project, was directed by Michael Moseley and Carol Mackey. It was an interdisciplinary investigation of prehistoric urban-rural relationships in the Moche Valley. As part of this project, a major excavation was made at the Pyramids at Moche in 1972. This yielded many burials representing distinct time periods, thus greatly augmenting the 1969 burial sample from Huanchaco. The excavations at Moche were directed by Michael Moseley, Carol Mackey, and Christopher Donnan and involved the participation of Claude Chauchat, Madeleine Fang, Robert Feldman, Charles Hastings, Dennis and Mala Heskel, Anthony Kurland, Jr., Kurt Lauenstein, Thomas and Shelia Pozorski, Theresa Topic, and Jamie Vreeland. The Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project excavated other burials while investigating specific archaeological sites in the Moche Valley. Kent Day, Anthony Kurland, and Thomas Pozorski each excavated burials at Chan Chan. Shelia Pozorski and Donald Weaver excavated burials at Pampa Gramalote, and Thomas Pozorski excavated burials at Caballo Muerto. These burials are included in this report and help expand our sample from various time periods. Some of the information on the burials included in this report has already appeared in published articles, Ph.D. dissertations, and M.A. and B.A. theses. Future reports will provide additional information on the nature of the sites from which these burials were derived as well as specifics about the strata, architecture, and associated artifacts. As these reports are completed, they will provide more information on these burials than is now available. The archaeological work in Peru was made possible with the generous cooperation of the Casa de la Cultura, the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, and the Patronato Nacional de Antropologia y Arqueologia. We are particularly grateful for the help of Duccio Bonavia, Cristobal Campana, Jose Correa, Francisco Iriarte, Arturo Jimenez Borja, Hugo Ludena, Luis Guillermo Lumbreras, Rogger Ravines, Lorenzo Sameniego, and Jorge Zevallos.

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xii Preface All the archaeological specimens discussed in this report are under the jurisdiction of the Instituto Nacional de Cultura in Trujillo and are stored in the archaeological facilities at Chan Chan and Huaca El Dragon. The preparation of this report began in the fall of 1973 at the University of California, Los Angeles, and continued intermittently over the next three years. It was supported by the American Philosophical Society, the National Science Foundation, and the Research Committee of the Academic Senate at the University of California, Los Angeles. An exceptionally fine set of burial drawings was made by Patrick Finerty, and ink copies of the pencil drawings of associated artifacts were completed by Alana Cordy-Collins, Madeleine Fang, Patrick Finerty, and Donna McClelland. Donna McClelland was of tremendous help in working out various portions of the text. She and Terence D'Altroy were instrumental in translating the original fieldnotes into the format used in this report. Donna McClelland also worked extensively on the comparative sections. In fact, nearly all parts of this report have benefited from her creativity and dedication, for which we are profoundly grateful.

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Ancient burial patterns of the Moche Valley, Peru

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Introduction The arid lands which form the coastal strip of northern Peru have yielded vast quantities of precious objects important to the study of pre-Columbian art. The riches of the ancient Peruvians have been continuously unearthed since the first European contact in the sixteenth century. Countless numbers of tombs have been plundered, and the objects recovered from these have earned great admiration because of their exquisite manufacture and esthetic appeal. As a result of the ruthless sacking of graves over the past four centuries, thousands of objects from coastal Peru have accumulated in museums and private collections throughout the world. Only with the beginning of the twentieth century has any effort been made to record the associations of ancient objects at the time they were first found, and thus much of the knowledge which could have been gained about the ancient civilizations from this area has been lost forever. In the past decade, archaeologists working in the Moche Valley have uncovered a number of tombs representing various cultures that flourished there prior to European contact. When arranged in proper sequence, the tombs demonstrate changes in the funerary practices of this area over a span of more than 3,500 years. In addition, they reflect foreign influences in the valley and provide insight into the nature of the local cultural development. It was decided that these burials might best be published as a unit, in such a way that the information about these finds would be made available to archaeologists seeking to reconstruct the cultural history of this area, art historians who have puzzled over the definition and development of the ancient styles, and nonprofessionals and collectors who appreciate the esthetic quality of the art. Since this volume provides a full description of each burial as well as an accurate illustration of each associated artifact, we anticipate that it will be useful in working out problems of ceramic chronology and style change. The age and sex data for the burials should also make them valuable for establishing the status differences which existed in the pre-Columbian past. Above all, we hope that this volume will augment the extremely scant information presently available on the burial customs of the ancient Peruvians.

The sample Only those burials whose chronological placement was reasonably certain were selected to constitute the sample in this report. In nearly all instances this chronological placement was based on the style of the associated artifacts. Sometimes a burial which lacked associated artifacts was included, but only if it conformed to the pattern of other burials from the same site which did contain datable artifacts. Isolated burials without associated artifacts were

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4

Introduction

omitted from the sample.1 This was done because we are primarily interested in the change of burial patterns through time and in the range of burial patterns at any given point in time. Thus a burial without good chronological placement might obscure the diachronic and synchronic patterns and increase the probability of error. Of course, this automatically skews the sample by disproportionately increasing the percentage of burials which contain associated artifacts and by excluding many of the burials which lack grave goods. The latter may have been quite common at various periods, but they are not proportionately represented in this sample. Also excluded from the present sample are those burials which were so badly disturbed prior to their excavation that the burial position and/or associated artifacts could not be reliably reconstructed. Again, it was felt that including these in the present sample would increase the chance of error in reconstructing the ancient burial patterns. We were also concerned that the inclusion of questionable associations would make suspect any subsequent analysis done on the basis of these associations. Although various pits were excavated in which associated objects closely resembling grave offerings were found, they were excluded from the present sample if there was no evidence that they had ever contained a human body. Pre-Columbian Peruvians are known to have made offerings of ceramic objects, shells, semiprecious stones, llamas, etc., which were sometimes buried on ceremonial occasions. Generally these were not related to funerary practices, and so we have chosen not to include them in the present volume. There are 103 burials in the sample. They are chronologically distributed as follows: Initial Period Salinar Gallinazo Moche Phase I Moche Phase III Moche Phase IV Early Chimu Middle Chimu Late Chimu Chimu Inca

1 5 2 1 4 28 31 15 4 12

Conventions In order to be as consistent as possible in describing the burials and their contents, a set of conventions has been followed. Although most of these will be 1. One notable exception to this is the set of graves described in appendix 2. These graves were all found in one area of a single site and, although they contained no ceramics or other artifacts which could be dated on the basis of style, they almost certainly represent a single time period. Since their chronological placement is uncertain, however, they are dealt with as an appendix in this report.

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5 self-explanatory, a few require some explanation. The burials are grouped by chronological periods and numbered sequentially within each period. The following letters and numbers are used: 11= S 1= Gl = M-11 = M-III1 = M-IV 1 = EC 1 = MC 1 = LC 1 = CI 1 =

Initial Period, burial 1 Salinar, burial 1 Gallinazo, burial 1 Moche Phase I, burial 1 Moche Phase III, burial 1 Moche Phase IV, burial 1 Early Chimu, burial 1 Middle Chimu, burial 1 Late Chimu, burial 1 Chimu Inca, burial 1

Although the burials are grouped into periods which are ordered chronologically (chart 1), the burials within each period are not in chronological order. Each human body is given a number (e.g., MC 1, MC 2, etc.). In cases of multiple burials, where there is more than one body in a single grave, the bodies are numbered in order of their interment if the order could be determined. Thus, the first body placed in the pit is given one number (e.g., CI 2) and each successive body placed in the pit is ordinally numbered (CI 3, CI 4, etc.). The burial descriptions use the following conventions: 1. Depth from present surface is measured as the vertical distance from the ground surface to the highest surface of the skull. 2. Some associated specimens were so poorly preserved that they could not be reconstructed and therefore could not be illustrated. If, however, the specimen could be identified, it was counted in the contents of the burial. Therefore, if it is stated that there are "eight ceramic vessels (1-7)," this means that only seven of the eight could be illustrated. 3. In listing the associated artifacts, arabic numbers are used for ceramic vessels, and capital letters are used for all other items. 4. Reference to "left side" or "right side" of the skeleton refers to the skeleton's left or right. 5. "Head to the south" indicates that the skull is south of the torso and does not refer to the direction the skull was facing. 6. The terminology used to describe textiles follows that of Emery in The Primary Structure of Fabrics. The burial illustrations use the following conventions: 1. N with an arrow refers to magnetic north. 2. A line of T-shaped dashes indicates the outline of the burial pit if it could be determined. 3. Many burials were intruded into structures made of mud bricks. Only

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6

Relative chronology 1

Colonial Period Late Horizon Late Intermediate Period

Moche Valley 1500

I

Colonial Period Chimu Inca

~

Late 1000

Middle Horizon 500 Eiirly Intermediate Period

Introduction

Middle

Chimu

Early V IV III

| Moche

I A.D. B.C.

Gallinazo Salinar

500

Early Horizon

1000

Cupisnique

1500 (Gramalote)

Initial Period 2000

Preceramic

2500

(La Cumbre)

15,000

CHART I

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7

when the mud bricks could be discerned were they delineated on the burial drawing. When the bricks could not be discerned, the presence of the mudbrick structure is indicated in the written burial description. 4. A dashed line on a drawing of an associated artifact indicates a probable reconstruction of the original specimen. 5. "Fire blackened" written adjacent to an illustration indicates that the ceramic object had a carbon deposit on its surface when it was found, suggesting that it had been used over an open fire. 6. "Perforation" written adjacent to an illustration indicates that the ceramic object was perforated prior to being fired, unless "post-fired perforation" is specifically stated. In the latter case, the specimen was perforated after it had been fired. 7. "As found" and "unfolded" are often written adjacent to illustrations of metal objects. The former refers to the way an object appeared when it was excavated, and the latter shows how it would appear if it were unfolded. 8. All ceramic specimens are color coded to indicate which areas are slip painted, unslipped, or painted with organic black pigment. Also, reducedfired blackware is indicated. The following color coding is used:

White slip

Red slip Red slip (Moche) Black slip (Chimu)

• 1

Organic black

Paste Blackware

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MAP i. North coast of Peru

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2The Setting The north coast of Peru is one of the driest deserts in the world, with an average annual precipitation of 0.5 centimeters. As a result, human life is generally confined to a number of river valleys which derive their water resources from the runoff of the great Andean Cordillera and serve to channel that water in a southwesterly direction, emptying it into the Pacific Ocean (map 1). In the summer (November to May) it is hot in this area, but the dry desert heat is tempered by the sea breeze. This is the period of heaviest rainfall in the mountains and the time when the greatest amount of water flows in the coastal rivers. The remainder of the year has a moderate temperature, with a tendency toward chilly nights and mornings. The native fauna of the river valleys includes numerous sea and land birds, lizards, frogs, fox, and rodents. Deer are also present, although rarely seen today, and wild felines are said to have been seen in historic times. The cool Humboldt current sweeps northward along the coast and supports abundant sea life. Fish, mollusks, and crustaceans are available, and sea lions are still seen occasionally along the coast. Agriculture, today as in the past, is the basic means of subsistence in the valleys, and most of the area on the valley floors is presently being cultivated. The margins of cultivation on the sides of the valleys are frequently covered with scrub growth of the low algarrobo trees usually referred to as monte. In other areas, generally near the rivers, there are dense growths of cane, cattails, and marsh grass. These areas support a wide variety of freshwater crustaceans, fish, and waterfowl. Although each of the north coast valleys had a distinct history, they all shared many parallel developments and many of the same influences (chart 1). This common background has led archaeologists to treat the region as a distinct culture area. The earliest archaeological evidence of human occupation on the north coast dates prior to the end of the Pleistocene, when humans were dependent on hunting and gathering for subsistence. Archaeologists have succeeded in tracing the development of culture on the north coast from that time through the beginning of agriculture, the development of settled village farming communities, and the introduction of ceramics, loom weaving, and metallurgy. As human population grew, larger settlements developed with increasing social stratification, specialization of labor, fully developed artistic expression, and monumental architecture. By the first millennium B.C., a religious confederation had formed, with an associated art style known as Chavin. This art style has been found throughout much of Peru, suggesting that this was a major period of unification, with communication between widely separated geographical areas. North coast Chavin-style material is often referred to as Cupisnique. Chavin unification diminished during the last centuries B.C., and the

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io

The setting

various areas of Peru began to develop distinctive art styles. On the north coast, the Salinar style became dominant. This coincides with the first evidence on the north coast of large nucleated populations. The phenomena of increasing population and development of the state continued during the next few centuries, and art styles succeeded one another as the GaUinazo style replaced the Salinar style and was in turn replaced by the Moche style. Although the origin of the Moche style is not well understood, at its greatest period of influence it was dominant in all the valleys from Lambayeque to Nepeila, a distance of more than 250 kilometers north-south along the Peruvian coast (map 1). Then, about A.D. 800, the Moche style began to disappear from the north coast. The circumstances under which this took place are not well known, although it has been postulated that the end was brought about by invasion of Huari people from the southern mountain regions of Peru. Archaeological research has demonstrated that the end of the Moche Kingdom is roughly contemporary with the introduction of a derived Huari style on the north coast of Peru, but there is no good evidence that the two events are causally related. During the next seven centuries, the people of the north coast continued to develop a more complex society, with strong emphasis on large urban centers. A style known as Chimu replaced the Moche style, and many of the ancient Moche sites were abandoned. Others continued to be occupied, and Moche material was buried by refuse from these later people. By A.D. 1470, the Chimu people had developed a large political state which not only dominated the entire north coast of Peru but had also expanded to Tumbes in the north and almost to Lima in the south. This state, known as the Kingdom of Chimor, had its capital at Chan Chan in the Moche Valley - a city covering more than 20 square kilometers. This was the largest urban center in South America prior to the arrival of Europeans. The Kingdom of Chimor was conquered by the armies of the Inca Empire shortly after A.D. 1470. The area maintained much of the same culture as before but became subordinate to the Inca state. In A.D. 1528, the Spanish entered Peru and soon conquered the Inca Empire, thus placing the people of the north coast under European rule. It is only with the arrival of Europeans that we have any written accounts of the native people who lived on the north coast of Peru. Because the earlier cultures had no writing system, their story must be reconstructed entirely on the basis of archaeological research. This involves the painstaking excavation of what remains of their palaces, temples, and tombs, as well as their domestic architecture and refuse deposits. However, archaeological research in this area is particularly instructive because the arid climate has preserved perishable material, such as plant remains, basketry, and textiles, which in most other areas of the world would have long since decomposed.

The Moche Valley The Moche Valley occupies a central position on the north coast. The drainage basin is of moderate size, comprising roughly 1,500 square kilometers. The valley is narrow along most of its upper courses, but some 20 kilometers

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II

MAP 2. Moche Valley inland from the sea, at an elevation of about 300 meters, it fans out to form a wide triangle of alluvial flatlands (map 2). Much of the alluvial triangle is now under cultivation. In prehistoric times the amount of land under cultivation was appreciably greater. Beyond the irrigated lands there was little vegetation, except near the coast. Here winter fogs precipitated sufficient moisture to support seasonal lomas plants, which provided pasturage for herbivores. Some of the plants were apparently of economic importance, and lomas snails were occasionally consumed. Coastal resources are bountiful along the valley mouth. Today, as in the past, fish and intertidal invertebrates provide a steady source of protein. These resources have been heavily exploited, and they have supported a number of ancient as well as modern fishing villages. The Moche River, though seasonal in its flow, is the single most important resource within the valley. The introduction of agriculture and irrigation created a basic dependency upon the river. Along its channel are wild plants of economic importance, and in the past freshwater fish and crustaceans may have been an important food resource. A general overview of the culture history of the Moche Valley has only

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12

The setting

started to emerge within the last ten years. Although the archaeological importance of the valley was apparent at an early date, it received scant attention. In 1899 and 1900, Uhle (1913) excavated at the Pyramids at Moche on the south side of the valley (map 2). Larco (1938-39, 1941) acquired some grave materials from the valley and called attention to the location of some local Early Horizon and Early Intermediate Period sites. In 1962, Schaedel (1966) explored one of the outlying mounds north of Chan Chan. Although sites of the Moche Valley are frequently mentioned in the literature (cf. Horkheimer 1965), relatively little was known about the culture history of the area until the recent Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project. This project has resulted in a much more precise understanding of the cultural development through time and has yielded important insights into the nature of the pre-Columbian achievement.

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3.Preceramic Period The earliest cultural remains yet found in the Moche Valley belong to the La Cumbre Lithic Complex. This is a variant of the Paijan lithic industry first discovered to the north of the Moche Valley (Lanning 1967:54), and it represents the remains of hunting and gathering people established in the area at least ten thousand years ago. This period of human occupation in the Moche Valley is represented by ten sites. One is a rockshelter, the Quirihuac Shelter (map 2); the other sites are surface artifact scatters. The largest surface site is La Cumbre, where over 4,500 tools and worked artifacts were plotted in situ and then collected (Ossa and Moseley 1971). A date of ca. 8500 B.C. has been secured from mastodon remains in a "secondary" association with lithics at the La Cumbre site. The Quirihuac Shelter has a single occupation layer that has produced radiocarbon dates ranging from ca. 10,000 to 4000 B.C. and remains of two human skeletons dated at ca. 7000 B.C. (Ossa 1973). These represent the earliest burials so far recovered from the Moche Valley. Unfortunately, specific information about the nature of these burials is unavailable at the present time. The La Cumbre Complex is followed by the Cotton Preceramic Stage, represented locally by two small coastal settlements. These settlements are very similar to the occupation at Huaca Prieta in the Chicama Valley to the north (Bird 1948,1963) and represent the remains of a sedentary, marineoriented society involved in incipient agriculture.

Summary of Preceramic burial practices Our sample does not include any Preceramic burials from the Moche Valley, nor have there been any Preceramic burials reported from the north coast of Peru. A number of Preceramic burials have been reported from the central coast, however, and these provide some interesting data on burial practices at this early date. Most of the Preceramic burials that have been reported come from midden deposits and are found in or near domestic architecture (Lanning 1960; Engel 1963; Donnan 1964). There are, however, some areas that appear to have served exclusively as cemeteries. A few clusters of Preceramic burials contain three times as many males as females (Moseley 1975b: 75), which suggests some sexual differentiation in burial practices. Most of the burials are found in unlined pits, although a few of the pits are reported to have been lined with stones (Lanning 1960:43) or with lumps of earth (Engel 1963:71). Both flexed and extended burials have been reported, and there appears to be a tendency for contemporary burials from a single site to adhere to a set burial position and orientation toward a cardinal

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14 Preceramic Period point. The bodies are frequently found wrapped in textiles and/or matting and are often tied with rope. A variety of grave goods was placed in the Preceramic Period burials reported from the central coast. These include many kinds of textiles, pendants, beads, inlaid mirrors, gourd bowls, seeds, fishlines and hooks, spindle whorls, and bone pins. Red mineral pigments are also reported, as are earplugs, needles, burned lime, projectile points, shells, quartz crystals, and quartzite knives. These grave goods include a large percentage of the kinds of objects found in the graves from later periods. Preceramic Period graves also include examples of multiple burials and headless burials. As will be seen in subsequent chapters, these establish a precedent for the multiple burials and headless burials of later periods. In sum, the Preceramic Period burials from the central coast of Peru include examples of nearly every burial practice characteristic of the later periods of Andean culture history. The Preceramic burials of the north coast and, in particular, those of the Moche Valley probably were similar to those reported from the central coast, thus providing the local antecedent for later burial practices in this area.

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4lnitial Period The Initial Period is marked by the first appearance of pottery and by the widespread use of woven (as opposed to twined or looped) cloth. Woven cloth implies the use of the heddle loom and the ability to produce cloth rapidly. Twined textiles were still common, however, and it is clear that neither pottery making nor weaving suddenly or radically transformed the life of the people of the north coast. The most common pottery during the Initial Period was a thick, oxidized ware which contained abundant, coarse, river-sand temper. Exterior surfaces were both smoothed and polished, while the interiors were only smoothed. Vessel forms included a variety of neckless ollas and jars with short necks. Also present were long-necked jars and small globular bowls. Decorations applied to ceramics included appliqued nodes with irregular punctuations and simple incised designs. During the Initial Period in the Moche Valley there was a well-established pattern of interior valley residence, which suggests a movement away from a marine-based economy and a shift to irrigation agriculture. Three small inland sites can definitely be assigned to the Initial Period. Two are domestic in nature, while the third is characterized by a ceramic assemblage with 95% decorated wares and little or no domestic refuse. The latter site is large - there are foundations of more than twenty masonry structures and situated well away from the valley in an isolated area; it was probably ceremonial in nature (Moseley and Mackey 1973). In addition to the inland Initial Period sites, some occupation of the littoral zone continued from the earlier period. It is from one of these coastal sites, Pampa Gramalote, that we have our only Initial Period burial. The site of Pampa Gramalote is located 50 meters northeast of the small, present-day, coastal settlement of Huanchaquito, about 8 kilometers west of central Trujillo (map 2). The site consists of midden deposits on an upper (east) and a lower (west) level. It is situated on bluffs overlooking the sea, 10 to 20 meters above sea level (map 3). The midden deposit on the lower level is at least 2 meters thick and consists of very dark cultural refuse with large quantities of plant remains, animal and bird bones, shells, and other perishable materials. The lower level is divided into three natural strata which overlie a sterile stratum of yellow beach sand. The only architecture visible on the surface is on the upper level - it is a small rectangular structure made of beach cobbles (S. Pozorski 1976). Maritime resources made up the bulk of the diet at this site. Very few corncobs have been found, and thus it is assumed that agriculture played a very minor role. Those agricultural products consumed at the site were probably grown elsewhere in the Moche Valley. The burial at Pampa Gramalote was found in the deepest stratum of a pit located near the central portion of the lower level of the site.

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l

7

\\W//M\N>>1

•

500 m.

500 I

Pampa Gramalote

MAP 3. Huanchaco and Pampa Gramalote

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18 Initial Period

Burial 11 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 6 1 6 8 B - 5 . EXCAVATED: October 1973 by Shelia Pozorski. CONTEXT

Site: Pampa Gramalote. Provenience: Lower level. Depth from present surface: 1.66 m. Matrix: Habitation refuse. Tomb construction: An oval-shaped pit, approximately 100 cm. north-south by 65 cm. east-west, intruded into the upper part of the third (from the surface) natural stratum. The northern part of the pit was lined with irregularly placed stones. At the east end of the pit, near the pelvic region of the skeleton, was a semicircle of thirteen stones. Four more stones were found under the pelvic area and just south of the semicircle of thirteen stones. The body was wrapped with textiles and placed in the pit. The burial fill was relatively clean, yellow sand, similar to the sterile stratum. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male(?). Age: 30-45. Pathology: Fusion of some of the carpal bones of the left hand. CONTENTS

Two gourds. One highly polished anthracite mirror (A). Its surface was completely covered with a thick coat of red pigment. One very smooth, small, grey, flattened stone. Two types of woven textile in the area of the two gourds and the mirror. One was a finely woven 1/1 mat of noncotton vegetable fiber, which covered the two gourds and probably the mirror. The second textile, of cotton, was found under the mirror only. Woven textiles wrapped around the skeleton. There were wads of woven textiles 3 cm. to 4 cm. thick near the head. The legs appeared to have been wrapped individually. COMMENTS

The textiles near the two gourds and the mirror appeared not to have extended into the vicinity of the skeleton. Although this burial did not contain ceramic goods, there is little doubt about its chronological placement, in view of its location in the Initial Period midden. In addition, its associated burial contents were similar to the other material from this Initial Period site. Although all the textiles were woven, both woven and twined textiles were found mixed throughout the site of Pampa Gramalote (Conklinl975).

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r

9

X

^

^ V

N

e I

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54

Gallinazo

Summary of Salinar burial practices The two Gallinazo burials in our sample from the Moche Valley were in simple pits dug into sand or sandy midden. Each was in a fully extended position, lying on the back. The grave goods included one or two ceramic vessels, spindle whorls, beads, textiles, a stone mortar, and fragments of wood and matting. One of the burials had metal spangles in the mouth, and the other was missing the head. Many Gallinazo burials have previously been reported from the north coast (Larco 1945:25-28; Bennett 1950; Strong and Evans 1952:71-79; Collier 1955:59-66). Although most of these burials were in an extended position, Bennett (1950:99, 100) reports that some flexed burials do occur. Small objects of copper or copper and gold are reportedly found in the graves, as are shell beads and ornaments, gourd bowls (sometimes filled with seeds), an atlatl and a mace, textile fragments, and spindle whorls. Ceramics, however, are the most common burial offering, with one to six vessels found in each grave. There is a tendency for grave goods to be placed on the left side of the body, and most items are placed by the head and left hand. Burial G 2 is the earliest headless burial in our sample from the Moche Valley. None of the Gallinazo burials previously reported was headless, although burials without heads are reported on the central coast dating to the Preceramic Period. The latter appear to have been buried without the head rather than having the head exhumed sometime after burial. In the case of burial G 2, the ceramic vessel may have been considered a substitute for the head. With the exception of the headless burial G 2, the Gallinazo burials from the Moche Valley appear to conform to the pattern of Gallinazo burials reported elsewhere from the north coast of Peru. This suggests a consensus about burial practice shared throughout the area of distribution of the Gallinazo ceramic style.

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8.Moche Just after the beginning of the Christian era, the Moche style developed on the north coast. Although the origin of this art style is not well understood, at its greatest period of influence it was dominant in all the valleys from Lambayeque to Nepena, a distance of more than 250 kilometers north-south (map 1). The oxidized-ware tradition continued during Moche times, although approximately 5 % of the vessels were reduced-fired. Stirrup spout bottles were very common. Other vessel forms included spout and handle bottles, jars, flaring bowls, and dippers. Domestic pottery included bowls, ollas, and large urns. The culture of the Moche people was in many respects a continuation of Gallinazo culture. Their subsistence was based primarily on agriculture and was supplemented extensively by marine resources. To a lesser degree, hunting of land mammals, birds, and snails added to the diet. Muscovy duck and guinea pig were domesticated and used for food. Metal casting techniques (including lost wax casting) were added by Moche artisans to the already highly developed gold and copper metallurgy known to earlier artisans. Silver was also used. Moche potters added the use of molds to an extensive list of techniques for producing fine ceramic objects. Loom weaving of cotton and wool fibers was practiced, utilizing a great variety of techniques to produce elaborate textiles. Moche artistic expression was amazingly varied. Animals, plants, anthropomorphized demons and deities, and a wide range of life scenes were shown, including the hunting of animals, fishing, combat, the punishment of prisoners and criminals, sexual acts, and the pomp of rulers seated on thrones or carried on litters. Temples, pyramids, and houses were depicted in Moche art, as were features of clothing and ornament. The degree of realism with which Moche art was expressed and the wide spectrum of subject matter make it one of the most appealing of all pre-Columbian art styles. The representations, both painted and modeled, are detailed and comprehensible, with a tendency toward realism leading to the production of what may be genuine portraits on some of the modeled pieces. Moche sites were numerous and dispersed throughout the Moche Valley. There were four very extensive Moche settlements. One was Cerro Orejas, where the occupation was basically a carryover from Gallinazo with something of a reduction in population. Huanchaco continued to be occupied, although the domestic settlement shifted somewhat from the earlier occupations; the Moche settlement was located south of the modern fishing village, along the beach and the edge of the bluffs that extend parallel to the shore (map 3, Zone B). The settlement consisted of numerous agglutinated rooms built with beach cobbles set in mud mortar.

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v^ Trench J Trench C Pyramid of the Sun

Trench B

Trench E

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100 m.

MAP 5. Pyramids at Moche

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57 The largest Moche occupation was on the south side of the valley, at the Pyramids at Moche (maps 2 and 5). This site is located about 5.75 kilometers from the sea. Archaeological remains are spread over an area of more than 1 square kilometer, and in some locations stratified refuse exceeds 6 meters in depth. Throughout the site there are remains of compact domestic structures of either mud-brick or masonry construction (T. Topic ms.). The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest pyramidal mound in the valley and one of the largest man-made structures in South America. It measures 228 by 136 meters at the base and rises to a height of 41 meters above the plain. In the seventeenth century, looters diverted waters from the Moche River to mine the structure hydraulically. Two-thirds or more of the platform was destroyed, and the western side of the site was washed away. Thus the original size of the Pyramid of the Sun is conjectural. This structure was

PLATE 4 .

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Pyramid of the Moon (foreground) and Pyramid of the Sun (background) at Moche

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252

Early Chimu

Burial EC IS ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 5 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Madeleine Fang. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. A niche for the head extended into the side of the pit. The fill was mainly sand. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: Under 3. CONTENTS

One ceramic vessel (1). One piece of copper in the right hand.

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2

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254 Early Chimu

Burial EC 16 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 9 . EXCAVATED: June 1972 by Claude Chauchat. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: 4-6. CONTENTS

Three ceramic vessels (1-3). One skull and four lower legs from a large llama.

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255

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256 Early Chimu

Burial EC 11 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 3 8 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Robert Feldman. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. The north side was undercut one-half a mud brick. A step, 13 cm. higher than the floor, extended across the east side. The fill was compact silty sand. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Female. Age: 35-45. CONTENTS

One ceramic vessel (1). Three spindle whorls: two of black stone (A, B) and one of unfired clay (C). Two small flakes of gold (?). Three llama vertebrae with unfused epiphyses in front of the feet. One sea lion canine tooth in front of the feet. Remains of a small animal by the feet.

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257

i

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cm.

i

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258 Early Chimu

Burial EC 18 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 7 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Thomas Pozorski. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: 4-6. CONTENTS

One ceramic vessel (1). Copper fragments near the ceramic vessel.

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2

59

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cm.

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260 Early Chimu

Burial EC 19 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 4 1 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Shelia Pozorski. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The burial pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: 3-6. CONTENTS

Three ceramic vessels (1-3). Adult human foot bones in the southeast corner. COMMENTS

The skeleton of a very young infant, EC 20, was in this burial pit. It was not possible to draw the exact position of the infant skeleton. The position of the left arm of EC 19 could not be determined.

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cm.

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263

Burial EC 20 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 4 1 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Shelia Pozorski. CONTEXT

See burial EC 19. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: Very young infant. CONTENTS

See burial EC 19. COMMENTS

This fragile skeleton was in the same burial pit as EC 19. It appeared to be positioned with the head to the northwest and the feet to the southeast.

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264 Early Chimu

Burial EC 21 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 4 5 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Dennis Heskel CONTEXT

and Mala Heskel.

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Depth from present surface: 1.9 m. Matrix: Mud brick and compact soil. Tomb construction: The pit was cut through a mud-brick structure 39 cm. into the compact soil beneath. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Female. Age: 55-65. CONTENTS

Six ceramic vessels (1-6). One red ceramic bead on the east side of the feet (A). Two copper spindle whorls (B, C), one in each hand. One had purplish surface corrosion; the other had green corrosion. One copper "pouch" on the east side of the feet, with numerous stone beads inside (D). Four incised, black stone spindle whorls (E-H) on the east side of the feet. COMMENTS

Objects A and D - H on the east side of the feet may have been the contents of a sewing kit, although no trace of one existed at the time of excavation. Because the skull disintegrated during excavation, it was impossible to determine its exact position, although it appeared to have been facing north.

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265

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268 Early Chimu

Burial EC 22 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 3 . EXCAVATED: June 1972 by Robert Feldman. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Depth from present surface: 1 m. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. The fill consisted of sand and broken mud bricks. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male (?). Age: 6-9. CONTENTS

Two ceramic vessels (1-2) and miscellaneous sherds. One soft, white stone spindle whorl (A). One guinea pig mandible. COMMENTS

The position of the spindle whorl is not known. The upper part of the skeleton was disturbed prior to excavation.

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269

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10 cm.

Fire blackened 0 cm.

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270 Early Chimu

Burial EC 23 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 3 0 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Thomas Pozorski. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: Infant. CONTENTS

One ceramic vessel (1). One llama skull and the lower legs of a llama. One guinea pig skeleton.

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271

cm.

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272

Early Chimu

Burial EC 24 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 4 3 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Kurt Lauenstein. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Depth from present surface: 30 cm. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut 40 cm. into a mud-brick structure. The fill consisted of loose sand. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: Under 4. CONTENTS

Two ceramic vessels (1-2). Six ceramic objects, 5 cm. to 15 cm. below the mandible: three molded figurines (A-C), one spindle whorl (D), and two beads (E, F ) .

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273

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Fire blackened

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5 cm.

Perforation

cm.

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274 Early Chimu

Burial EC 25 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 1 1 . EXCAVATED: June 1972 by Mala Heskel CONTEXT

and Kurt Lauenstein.

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Test pit north of Trench B. Depth from present surface: 2.3 m. Matrix: Fine white sand. Tomb construction: The burial pit was indistinguishable from the surrounding matrix. The burial was 55 cm. below a layer of hard, compact, brown soil. A layer of hard grey sand was under the burial. Three mud bricks were found above the burial fill. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: Over 60. CONTENTS

Four ceramic vessels (1-4) and miscellaneous sherds. Two folded copper sheets: one in the mouth and the other in the right hand. Three pieces of lime that possibly had been placed in gourds: one in front of the mouth, one to the west of the body, and one to the north of the body. COMMENTS

A large grey sherd, vessel 5, 40 cm. above the skeleton and scatters of human bones suggested that this burial pit was cut through another burial in the same location. The skeletal remains were very fragile and tended to decompose as they were excavated. As a result, the exact position of the body could not be determined, and no burial drawing is possible. It is clear, however, that the body was in a tightly flexed, seated position.

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275

0 I

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cm.

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276 Early Chimu

Burial EC 26 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 4 6 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Thomas Pozorski. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Depth from present surface: 90 cm. Matrix: Compacted sand and mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into compacted sand and mud bricks. The fill was compacted sand. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: 35-45. Pathology: Acute arthritis, indicated by the condition of the vertebrae and the fusion of the last two phalanges of the left index finger. Broken first rib and incipient osteomyelitis. CONTENTS

One folded copper object (A) in the pelvic region. COMMENTS

The copper object probably lay in the body's lap at the time of interment. The skull was disturbed prior to excavation. It was not clear whether it had been removed in modern times or whether it had been removed centuries ago.

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277

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278 Early Chimu

Burial EC 21 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 1 6 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Thomas Pozorski. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The burial pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: 20-24. CONTENTS

None.

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279

N

10 cm.

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280 Early Chimu

Burial EC 28 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 0 . EXCAVATED: June 1972 by Kurt Lauenstein. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Depth from present surface: Approximately 1 m. Matrix: Mud brick and sand. Tomb construction: The burial pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. The west wall and the base were sandy. A niche was cut for the head in the southeast corner of the tomb, with mud bricks lying on top of and around the calvarium. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: 41-50. Pathology: Occipital flattening, acute arthritis, and marked bowing of the fibulae. CONTENTS

Five copper objects: two pieces between the tips of the right and left metatarsals, one piece by each hand, and one piece in the mouth.

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282

Early Chimu

Burial EC 29 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 8 . EXCAVATED: June 1972 by Dennis Heskel CONTEXT

and Kurt Lauenstein.

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: 0-1. CONTENTS

Three small folded copper sheets: one in the left hand and one by each foot.

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283

10 cm.

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284 Early Chimu

Burial EC 30 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 2 1 . EXCAVATED: June 1972 by Dennis Heskel. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench B. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The burial pit was cut into a mud-brick structure. A niche was cut into the side of the pit for the head. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: 30-35. CONTENTS

One ceramic vessel (1). COMMENTS

The bowl in this grave is a type found in both Early Chimu and Middle Chimu. Therefore, on the basis of the ceramic seriation, this burial could be either Early Chimu or Middle Chimu.

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328 Middle Chimu

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3 3 o Middle Chimu

Burial MC 14 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 6 5 B . EXCAVATED: September 1972 by Carol Mackey CONTEXT

and Madeleine Fang.

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: East of Trench B. Matrix: Hard compact silt. Tomb construction: The pit was a smooth-sided deep shaft cut into the matrix. The body was seated on 8 cm. of sand fill. A niche was hollowed out at the bottom of the tomb to accommodate a large ceramic vessel. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: 45-50. Pathology: A slightly bowed right radius indicating some type of nutritional deficiency. CONTENTS

Five ceramic vessels (1-5). Two pieces of copper wrapped in textile near the feet. Copper oxide stains on the left talus and first metatarsal. Guinea pig bones to the left of the skeleton. One bird skeleton to the left of the skeleton. Rodent bones inside vessel 2. COMMENTS

Burial MC 15 was placed directly above MC 14. The two were separated by 4 cm. of loose silt fill.

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331

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332

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336 Middle Chimu

Burial MC 15 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B-65 A . EXCAVATED: September 1972 by Carol Mackey CONTEXT

and Madeleine Fang.

See burial MC 14. Tomb construction: The skeleton was at the top of the deep shaft of MC 14. It was seated on 4 cm. of loose silt fill under which burial MC 14 began. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Male. Age: Over 30. CONTENTS

Eleven ceramic vessels (1-11) and miscellaneous sherds around the burial. One copper object in the fill. Copper oxide stains on the phalanges. COMMENTS

See burial MC 14. Many of the bones were stained bluish green.

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337 Prefired incision

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338 Middle Chimu

Prefired incision

8

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339

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34° Late Chimu

Summary of Middle Chimu burial practices The Middle Chimu burials in our sample from the Moche Valley are from only two cemeteries: the Banderas site and the Pyramids at Moche. Each of these sites also yielded Early Chimu burials. Middle Chimu graves were dug in sterile sand, in sand mixed with mud bricks, and in a solid, mud-brick platform built during the Moche occupation of the valley. Middle Chimu burial position is exclusively flexed and seated. There appears to be no standard orientation relative to the cardinal points and no standardization in the direction the skull is facing. There is a slight increase in the number of ceramic objects placed in Middle Chimu graves compared to Early Chimu graves. There is also a reduction in the frequency of cooking ollas and an increase in the frequency of large jars placed in Middle Chimu graves compared to Early Chimu graves. It is curious that several Middle Chimu vessels from the Banderas site had postfired perforations, but these did not occur on the vessels from the Pyramids at Moche. The same was true for the Early Chimu vessels from these two sites. As pointed out in the discussion of the Early Chimu vessels, grave robbers are known to use steel rods to probe for graves, and ceramic vessels are frequently perforated as a result. Thus, it is quite possible that the postfired perforations on the vessels from the Banderas site were all made by modern grave robbers. There is considerably less metal in the Middle Chimu graves relative to the Early Chimu graves. Quite possibly this is merely a reflection of our sample. The metal is copper or an alloy with a high percentage of copper. Bennett (1939:87-89) described sixteen burials from the cemetery of Pata de Burro in Chicama, which had been excavated by Larco. It is difficult, without illustrations of the grave lots, to determine their exact Chimu phase but, because of the large percentage of blackware and the corresponding infrequency of red-white-black decorated vessels, they may be considered Middle Chimu. They are nearly identical to the Middle Chimu burials in our sample from the Moche Valley.

Late Chimu Industry was well developed on the north coast of Peru during the Late Chimu phase. Superb tapestries, metal objects, and feather cloth were created. Ceramic manufacture involved mass-production technology. As mentioned earlier, techniques of mass-producing ceramics using molds and stamps began with the Moche style. These techniques continued to evolve through the subsequent styles and reached their fullest development during the Late Chimu and Chimu Inca phases. The emphasis on mold-made, reduced-fired blackware that began in Middle Chimu continued. However, oxidized redware vessels are also common, especially in domestic wares. Middle Chimu vessel forms, such as tripod bowls, ring base bowls, and football- and barrel-shaped jars, were no longer present. Oval-shaped blackware jars continued from Middle Chimu but often had a new decorative addition in the form of a separately modeled head

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341

LC3:5

PLATE

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17. Late Chimu ceramics

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attached just below the neck. Jar and handle bottles persisted and were generally decorated either with stippling or with a face on the jar neck. Stirrup spout bottles also continued from Middle Chimu. One form which persisted throughout Chimu times was the ovalchambered olla. In Early and Middle Chimu, these ollas usually had an incurved or slightly flared rim. Starting in Middle Chimu and continuing into the colonial period, the rim had a sharp angle or camber. During the Late Chimu phase, water management or the total amount of land under reclamation may have fallen off somewhat. New lands on the north side of the valley were laid out in regular, symmetrical field plots with standardized furrow patterns. The well-ordered field systems extended over many square kilometers, and there is little question that these were stateadministered lands (Moseley ms.). The settlement pattern data imply that during Late Chimu times there were more large settlements in the valley and fewer small ones. At the valley neck, Cerro Orejas (map 2) continued to be occupied and, although the population was large, it was not of urban proportions. A second large center was present near Caballo Muerto, and there were comparable, if not larger, population centers on both the north and the south sides of the valley. All these seemed to be agriculturally based settlements, and their distribution is such that most of the valley could be farmed from one or another center. The site dispersal implies that the agricultural lands within the valley were worked without drawing significantly on the population centered at Chan Chan. A11 example of such a rural farming community is the village of Cerro La Virgen (map 2), located approximately 5 kilometers northwest of Chan Chan (Keatinge 1975). Pronounced differences in status within Late Chimu society are reflected in mortuary practices. The highest status personage, the king, received the most elaborate funerary goods. Each king was interred in a specially built platform within the ciudadela, and accompanying him were lavish goods, including textiles, fine pottery, metal objects of gold, silver, and copper, carved wooden sculpture, and precious shells. Although all the burial platforms at Chan Chan that contained these elite burials have been looted, a few of the original structures are sufficiently well preserved to give some idea of their form and, to some extent, their original contents. Although most of the major burial platforms are contained within the compounds, the best preserved of the major platforms — Las Avispas — is to the east of the compound Laberinto. Excavation of this structure indicated that it contained at least twenty-five cells, and these held the skeletons of more than ninety young women. There was no evidence of females over thirty years of age, and the ages of 67% of the women ranged from seventeen to twenty-four. These burials are considered to be retainers sacrificed to accompany the deceased ruler (T. Pozorski 1971; Conrad 1974). Two of the Late Chimu burials in our sample come from Chan Chan. They were found during the excavation of an exterior court area north of the Las Avispas burial platform (map 9).

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344 Late Chimu

Burial LC 1 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 7 5 U . EXCAVATED: July 1970 by Thomas CONTEXT

Pozorski.

Site: Chan Chan. Provenience: Exterior court area north of the Las Avispas burial platform. Depth from present surface: 1 m. to 1.6 m. Matrix: Compact soil. Tomb construction: The pit was cut through the exterior court floor. The west half of the pit cut through a northeast-southeast trough 75 cm. in diameter which was constructed prior to Las Avispas. The trough contained several layers of sand sediments. The west half of the floor of the pit was slightly higher than the east half. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Female. Age: 30. CONTENTS

Six ceramic vessels (1-4) and miscellaneous sherds. One copper needle. Thread wrapped once around a wooden spindle (?). One chili pepper. One small-animal rib. One vertebra of a grunt, Paralonchurus peruanus. Eleven shells: two Thais delessertiana, three Tegula corvus, two Tegula atra, and four Donax peruvianus. One crab, Platyanthus orbiquii, claw. One mishpingo seed, Nectandra. Red, yellow, and brown Z-twist thread. One yellow S-twist tassel. Seeds. Cotton. Grey organic stain on the floors. Textile fragments under the skeleton. COMMENTS

This burial and burial LC 2 were disturbed prior to excavation. However, four vessels (1-4) 20 cm. above this skeleton were undisturbed. An impression in the tomb indicated that this individual was buried in a seated position facing the west or southwest. Another impression in the tomb showed that the individual in burial LC 2 was buried in a seated position facing the east or northeast, indicating that the two skeletons faced each other. Some of the bones were uncovered, exposed, and bleached before being covered again by back dirt from other looted graves and mudbrick melt from the adjacent wall. Since Chimu walls were constructed from mud mixed with sherds, some of the sherds found with this burial may have eroded out of the adjacent wall. Vessels 5 (plain blackware plate) and 6 (plain blackware jar) were too broken to be reconstructed. The trough which the burial pit cut through was in existence before the superstructure and the floor of Las Avispas were built.

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Late Chimu

Burial LC 2 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 7 5 U . EXCAVATED: July 1970 by Thomas CONTEXT

Pozorski.

See burial LC 1. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Female. Age: 15. CONTENTS

See burial LC 1. COMMENTS

See burial LC 1.

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cm.

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349

Two other Late Chimu burials were excavated at the Pyramids at Moche. They were found in Trench J, located at the northeast corner of the Pyramid of the Sun (maps 5 and 6). The trench was cut into a deep deposit of windblown sand mixed with mud-brick rubble that had apparently fallen from the adjacent pyramid structure.

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350 Late Chimu

Burial LC 3 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 9 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Robert Feldman. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench J. Matrix: Loose windblown sand mixed with mud-brick rubble from the Pyramid of the Sun. Tomb construction: The burial pit was indistinguishable from the surrounding matrix. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Female. Age: 20-21. CONTENTS

Five ceramic vessels (1-5). Two pieces of copper: one with traces of ocher on both sides and one with textile impressions on one side. Textile fragments around the right forearm. Two strings of beads, one around each wrist. The beads were made of shell (A), stone (B), gourd (C), and copper (D). One gourd bowl over the mouth of vessel 4. Guinea pig skeleton inside vessel 3. COMMENTS

Because the skull was disturbed prior to excavation, it was not possible to determine its position.

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3 54 Late Chimu

Burial LC 4 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 8 0 0 0 B - 8 . EXCAVATED: July 1972 by Robert Feldman. CONTEXT

Site: Pyramids at Moche. Provenience: Trench J. Matrix: Loose windblown sand mixed with mud-brick rubble from the Pyramid of the Sun. Tomb construction: The burial pit was indistinguishable from the surrounding matrix. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: ? Age: Adult. CONTENTS

Three copper needles (A-C) with some thread by the left side of the mandible. The thread is white cotton, mostly single ply, S-spun (approximately 0.2 mm. thick). Some thread is two ply Z, S-spun. Three pieces of copper in the mouth. One was a folded copper object (D) with a vitreous coating on both sides, and two were amorphous corroded lumps, one of which had an S-spun yarn remnant attached. Six copper pieces in the hands. Three were folded sheets, one of which had a textile remnant attached. One was a lump with a thin vitreous coating over part of one side. Another consisted of two pieces of copper tied together with textile fragments. The sixth piece was a sheet with impressed markings, with yarn fragments tied around it. One copper spindle whorl adjacent to the neck (E). One decorated gourd bowl, approximately 15 cm. in diameter, inverted over the skull (F). Fragments of textile around the skeleton. COMMENTS

It appeared that the hands and the whole body were wrapped in textile. This burial was found at the same level as burial LC 3.

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Chimu Inca

Summary of Late Chimu burial practices With only four Late Chimu burials in our sample from the Moche Valley, it is not possible to discern the pattern of burial practice at this time. The flexed and seated burial position, however, does seem to endure from Middle Chimu. Both ceramic and metal objects continue to be appropriate burial goods, and metal objects continue to be placed in the mouth and hands of the deceased. A copper object found in the mouth of one of the burials (LC 4) had yarn attached to it. The practice of wrapping the metal object prior to placing it in the mouth of the deceased is found in the Moche I burial in our sample (M-I 1) and is a common feature of the burials of subsequent periods. Some food products are also reported from Late Chimu burials, although they still do not appear to be a major part of the burial inventory; in no instance do they constitute a significant quantity of food. One of the burials (LC 4) had a gourd bowl inverted over the skull. This may represent a survival of the practice of placing inverted ceramic bowls over the skulls of the deceased in Early Chimu burials (EC 10, 11, and 14). Chimu burials have been reported from the Lambayeque Valley (Bennett 1939:106-107) and the Viru Valley (Strong and Evans 1952:146; Collier 1955:46-48). Although these appear to be late in the Chimu sequence, it is not possible to determine whether they are Late Chimu or Chimu Inca. They are predominantly flexed burials, although Bennett reports that twelve of the twenty-eight burials from a Lambayeque cemetery were extended (Bennett 1939:107). One of the burials (Strong and Evans 1952:146) is reported to have had a gourd bowl inverted over the head, while another (Bennett 1939: 107) had a stick as a grave marker. In general, the Chimu burials from Viru and Lambayeque appear to be quite similar to those in our sample from the Moche Valley, both in terms of features of the grave and the quantity and type of grave goods.

Chimu Inca Some sixty to seventy years before the arrival of the Spanish, the expanding Inca Empire began to threaten the Kingdom of Chimor. The Chimu Kingdom fell to the Inca armies, and Inca administrators assumed control of the north coast. The Chimu tradition continued after the Inca conquest with surprisingly little evidence of Inca occupation. Uhle (1913) was able to identify some Inca sherds in association with the Chimu style, but he noticed that Inca sherds were present only in small quantities, thus indicating that there was no mass importation of Inca culture to the Moche Valley as there had been in other areas. The highland conquerers appear to have been content to secure the Moche Valley by extending strong control over adjacent valleys, at the same time leaving the heartland of the old Chimu Kingdom fairly intact. Some features of the local Chimu Inca pottery were a continuation from

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357 Late Chimu. These included stirrups with square cross sections, jar and handle bottles, redware and blackware oval jars, incurving bowls with double handles, paddle stamping, and stippling. Revived from Early Chimu were spout and handle bottles and such decorative elements as press molded wave and spiral motifs. New features, presumably introduced through Inca influence, included plates with squared rims and angled bases, aryballoid forms, Inca designs on various vessel forms, a pronounced flaring lip on stirrup spout bottles, and narrow-necked jars. During this phase settlements were widely dispersed throughout the valley. There is some question whether Chan Chan continued to flourish during Inca rule and whether it continued to be the major population center within the valley. However, all evidence now indicates that the Chimu nobility had abandoned Chan Chan. Cerro Orejas continued to be occupied, though the population was not urban in size. One of the Chimu Inca burials in our sample comes from Chan Chan. It was found in the rear section or canchone of ciudadela Rivero (map 9).

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Chimulnca

Burial CI 1 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 5 7 F 4 . EXCAVATED: June 1970 by Kent Day. CONTEXT

Site: Chan Chan. Provenience: Inside the Rivero Compound, 14 m. south of the north wall of the canchone. Matrix: Compact soil. Tomb construction: The pit was dug at a time when the midden was at a depth of less than 12 cm. The circularly outlined pit, 80 cm. to 90 cm. in diameter, was intruded through the midden and a hard surface of compact soil, possibly a floor, to a total depth of 40 cm. to 50 cm. INDIVIDUAL

Sex: Female (?). Age: 16-18. CONTENTS

Four ceramic vessels (1-4). One pair of silver-copper alloy ear ornaments on each side of the skull. These appeared to have been tied to the hair and probably were not put in the ears. Fragments of cotton were tied around one of the ornaments. One bundle of partially rotted spindles, two with stone spindle whorls in place, and reeds located between the body and vessel 3. One large gourd vessel in front of the skeleton. One small gourd vessel, containing chili peppers and large flat seeds, in front of the skeleton. One small gourd vessel in front of the skeleton. Tiny Oliva peruviana (?) shells, some of them woven into or sewn on a fragile cotton fabric, were in and around this vessel. One fish in a bundle of textiles on the lap. A mass of seeds (Lucuma sp.) located in a shallow oval pit at the northwest edge of the burial pit. This pit was about 35 cm. to 45 cm. in diameter and was 40 cm. deep. Small fragments of a finely plaited reed mat beneath the body. Textiles around and beneath the body. COMMENTS

Since the top of the head was barely covered, it is likely that the burial was put in place when the canchone was last occupied. The matting may have constituted part of a coffin. The skull faced downward and the mouth was over the top of vessel 1.

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In the northeast sector of the first section of the ciudadela Velarde at Chan Chan (map 9), a multiple Chimu Inca burial was excavated.

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362

Chimulnca

Burial CI 2 to CI 8 ORIGINAL FIELD NUMBER: H 7 5 J - 1 1 , # 1 - 7 . EXCAVATED: January 1974 by Anthony Kurland. CONTEXT

Site: Chan Chan. Provenience: Northeast sector of the Velarde Compound. Matrix: Mud brick. Tomb construction: The burial pit was cut into a mud-brick floor from a level no more than 10 cm. above the floor. The pit was 27 cm. deep and was undercut on the north side. Seven bodies were placed in the pit. The fill was harder at the bottom than at the top of the pit. The lower fill was hard compact silt, incorporating moderate amounts of the following refuse material: Donax shells, chunks of hard charcoal, stones, chunks of mud bricks, and sherds. INDIVIDUAL (CI 2)

Sex: ? Age: Adult. INDIVIDUAL (CI 3)

Sex: ? Age: Adult.

INDIVIDUAL (CI 4)

Sex: ? Age: Late adolescent. INDIVIDUAL (CI 5)

Sex: ? Age: Late adolescent. INDIVIDUAL (CI 6)

Sex: ? Age: Adult.

INDIVIDUAL (CI 7)

Sex: ? Age: Adult.

INDIVIDUAL (CI 8)

Sex: ? Age: Adult. CONTENTS

Miscellaneous sherds, including the upper hemisphere of one ceramic vessel, in the fill. White shell beads near the neck of CI 7 and near the right wrist of CI 8. One water-polished green stone, about 10 cm. long, lying over the burial fill in the east central portion of the pit. COMMENTS

The frontal bones of CI 4 and CI 8 were tinted red. The tomb was undisturbed. The original (lower) burial fill, which contained very little refuse, settled at least 15 cm. during decomposition of the bodies. A sparse refuse deposit lay over the burial and the floor. On top of this

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3