Marketing Initiatives for Sustainable Educational Development [1 ed.] 1522556737, 9781522556732

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Marketing Initiatives for Sustainable Educational Development Purnendu Tripathi Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia Siran Mukerji Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia

A volume in the Advances in Educational Marketing, Administration, and Leadership (AEMAL) Book Series

Published in the United States of America by IGI Global Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue Hershey PA, USA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com Copyright © 2018 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Tripathi, Purnendu, 1975- editor. | Mukerji, Siran, editor. Title: Marketing initiatives for sustainable educational development / Purnendu Tripathi and Siran Mukerji, editors. Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2017050339| ISBN 9781522556732 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781522556749 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Instructional systems--Social aspects. | Instructional systems--Design. | Educational technology--Social aspects. Classification: LCC LB1028.35 .M373 2018 | DDC 371.3--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn. loc.gov/2017050339

This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Educational Marketing, Administration, and Leadership (AEMAL) (ISSN: 2326-9022; eISSN: 2326-9030) British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Advances in Educational Marketing, Administration, and Leadership (AEMAL) Book Series ISSN:2326-9022 EISSN:2326-9030 Editor-in-Chief: Siran Mukerji, IGNOU, India & Purnendu Tripathi, IGNOU, India Mission

With more educational institutions entering into public, higher, and professional education, the educational environment has grown increasingly competitive. With this increase in competitiveness has come the need for a greater focus on leadership within the institutions, on administrative handling of educational matters, and on the marketing of the services offered. The Advances in Educational Marketing, Administration, & Leadership (AEMAL) Book Series strives to provide publications that address all these areas and present trending, current research to assist professionals, administrators, and others involved in the education sector in making their decisions. Coverage • Academic Pricing • Students as Consumers • Academic Administration • Educational Marketing Campaigns • Consumer Behavior • Marketing Theories within Education • Educational Management • Educational Finance • Faculty Administration and Management • Technologies and Educational Marketing

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The Advances in Educational Marketing, Administration, and Leadership (AEMAL) Book Series (ISSN 2326-9022) is published by IGI Global, 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033-1240, USA, www.igi-global.com. This series is composed of titles available for purchase individually; each title is edited to be contextually exclusive from any other title within the series. For pricing and ordering information please visit http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advanceseducational-marketing-administration-leadership/73677. Postmaster: Send all address changes to above address. ©© 2018 IGI Global. All rights, including translation in other languages reserved by the publisher. No part of this series may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphics, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information and retrieval systems – without written permission from the publisher, except for non commercial, educational use, including classroom teaching purposes. The views expressed in this series are those of the authors, but not necessarily of IGI Global.

Titles in this Series

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Cases on Global Competencies for Educational Diplomacy in International ettings Brad E. Bizzell (Radford University, USA) Rebecca Counts Kahila (Independent Researcher, USA) and Patricia A. Talbot (Radford University, USA) Information Science Reference • ©2018 • 327pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522534624) • US $195.00 The Role of Advisory Committees in Biomedical Education and Workforce Development... Argentina Ornelas (University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, USA) and Julie Neal (Independent Researcher, USA) Information Science Reference • ©2018 • 171pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522540830) • US $135.00 Engaged Scholarship and Civic Responsibility in Higher Education Sharon L. Burton (Grand Canyon University, USA) Information Science Reference • ©2018 • 233pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522536499) • US $195.00 Funding Challenges and Successes in Arts Education Siu Challons-Lipton (Queens University of Charlotte, USA) and Richard Emanuel (Alabama State University, USA) Information Science Reference • ©2018 • 211pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522525813) • US $170.00 Handbook of Research on Technology-Centric Strategies for Higher Education... Purnendu Tripathi (Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), India) and Siran Mukerji (Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), India) Information Science Reference • ©2017 • 501pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522525486) • US $260.00 The Future of Accessibility in International Higher Education Henry C. Alphin Jr. (Drexel University, USA) Roy Y. Chan (Indiana University, USA) and Jennie Lavine (University of Hull, UK) Information Science Reference • ©2017 • 321pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522525608) • US $195.00

For an entire list of titles in this series, please visit: https://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-educational-marketing-administration-leadership/73677

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Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgment..............................................................................................xviii Chapter 1 The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design.............1 Gilbert Ahamer, Graz University, Austria Chapter 2 Management Training Insights Emerging From Spiritual Concerns....................30 Matt Fairholm, The University of South Dakota, USA Chapter 3 Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests: Drupal CMS, Google Forms, Learningapps...............................................59 Svetlana Vasileva, Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Ivelina Yoveva, Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Marinela Goranova, Dimitar Talev High School, Bulgaria Chapter 4 Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development.........................................................................................................92 Gilbert Ahamer, Graz University, Austria Chapter 5 Interrelationship Between Pedagogy, Theories, Objectives, and Features: Mobile Learning Design.....................................................................................119 Mireilla Bikanga Ada, University of the West of Scotland, UK



Chapter 6 Conclusions From Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development.......................................................................................................146 Gilbert Ahamer, Graz University, Austria Chapter 7 Marketing Micro-Credentials in Global Higher Education: Innovative Disruption...........................................................................................................182 Pamela A. Lemoine, Columbus State University, USA Wendy M. Wilson, Albany State University, USA Michael D. Richardson, Columbus State University, USA Chapter 8 Learning Management System Under Digital India Program: Blended Learning Platform for Digital Governance.........................................................205 Shilohu Rao N. J. P., Digital India, India Shveta Sahal, PMU NeGD, India Chapter 9 Using Social Media to Facilitate Instruction and Increase Marketing in Global Higher Education....................................................................................226 Michael D. Richardson, Columbus State University, USA Sarah G. Brinson, Albany State University, USA Pamela A. Lemoine, Columbus State University, USA Chapter 10 Global Governance of Science: Wishful Thinking or a Life Necessity in the Context of International Relations and Their Philosophy...................................246 Yury Sayamov, Moscow State University, Russia Chapter 11 An Educational Tool for Digital Electronic System Synthesis and Optimization.......................................................................................................264 Hakduran Koc, University of Houston – Clear Lake, USA Seyit Ozturk, University of Houston – Clear Lake, USA Compilation of References............................................................................... 290 About the Contributors.................................................................................... 334 Index................................................................................................................... 338

Detailed Table of Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgment..............................................................................................xviii Chapter 1 The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design.............1 Gilbert Ahamer, Graz University, Austria This chapter conveys two key success strategies for complex, self-guided interdisciplinary learning: (1) rhythmizing as a theatrical tool (regarding organization along time) and (2) multi-perspectivism as a tool allowing the organization regarding viewpoints (in the space of perceptions). While the first can be achieved by a suitable script of the didactic process, the second can be supported by seating orders, the arrangement of tables, and allocation of roles to role-playing learners. The meaning of “roles” in game-based learning is analyzed, based on both literature and interdisciplinary teaching experience. As an example of role-based and game-based learning, this chapter analyzes the temporal dynamics of several social dimensions of learning in the case of the five-level negotiation game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC, © G. Ahamer). Chapter 2 Management Training Insights Emerging From Spiritual Concerns....................30 Matt Fairholm, The University of South Dakota, USA Traditional management training stresses what could be called the impersonal aspects of organizational life. Managers come to see people as one part of a greater overall organizational system that they can create, control, and change as needed. People become assets to allocate and control. The more personal aspects of peoples’ lives are ignored at best and dismissed at worst. By reshaping or rethinking management training to include the more personal, even spiritual, side of workers, today’s managers will see both productivity improvements as well as more engaged employees. Insights emerging from spiritual concerns can help organizations understand the content and intent of their current training programs in new ways. Such insights even suggest



new categories of issues that can drive management training efforts. With this new understanding, managers can prepare themselves to help workers be productive and useful while also helping them find meaning and personal fulfillment in the work. Chapter 3 Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests: Drupal CMS, Google Forms, Learningapps...............................................59 Svetlana Vasileva, Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Ivelina Yoveva, Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Marinela Goranova, Dimitar Talev High School, Bulgaria The implementation of information technology (IT) in the process of studying different subject areas, the realization of the possibilities of the educational information interaction, and the potential of the allocated informative resource of the local and global networks are main tasks for the contemporary lecturer. By solving these tasks, the intellectual potential of the learner can be developed and not only habits for selfacquisition of knowledge can be attained but also skills for obtaining, processing, transmition, and production of the necessary information. The authors’ purpose is to showcase the rich capabilities of some freely available web applications and platforms such as the content management system (CMS), in particular CMS Drupal for the creation of educational web sites and electronic learning materials. Some of the newest specialized applications such as Google Forms and LearningApps for creating electronic tests and integrating the educational game approach to IT training have also been explored. Chapter 4 Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development.........................................................................................................92 Gilbert Ahamer, Graz University, Austria This chapter details the basic design of the social processes involved in the five-level negotiation game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC). Through its communicational design, this web-based game elicits characteristic collaborative behavior in student groups, which is then statistically analyzed by using several sets of university students. The architecture of SGC has already been explained in other articles and gives a framework for “game-based learning” along five interactive game levels. The web-based arena of interaction induces student collaboration; the quality of which is assessed here. The statistical analyses suggest that the SGC game rules didactically enhance anticipated processes of social self-organization. Motivation for a good grade (function of collected rewards) in this sense impacts team size, attitude towards work, and individual affinity for sticking to personal convictions. The rules trigger two distinct processes: social dynamics in the class and the striving for course grades; these targets do not necessarily match.



Chapter 5 Interrelationship Between Pedagogy, Theories, Objectives, and Features: Mobile Learning Design.....................................................................................119 Mireilla Bikanga Ada, University of the West of Scotland, UK As students bring their own devices, there is a growing demand to leverage the benefits of these devices and foster the use my own device attitude. The effective inclusion and the widespread use of mobile learning practices have not yet been realized. Educational institutions still find it difficult to shift their pedagogical culture to a mobile one. Few studies have clearly shown how they underpin their mobile learning app design with learning theories. This chapter aims to provide the details of the pedagogical aspects of designing a mobile learning environment, shifting the culture to a mobile format, through the design, development, and evaluation of MyFeedBack, a mobile app for enhancing formative and summative assessment feedback. It presents the interrelationship between pedagogy, learning theories, the objectives, and features of the mobile learning platform. Chapter 6 Conclusions From Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development.......................................................................................................146 Gilbert Ahamer, Graz University, Austria The social and didactic dynamics produced by the negotiation-oriented and partly web-based game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC) were analyzed by independent experts after their observations in advanced interdisciplinary university courses. It could be empirically demonstrated that the intended didactics of SGC were successful, namely that they were grounded on “active, self-organized learning,” training of “competence to act,” and on responsibility for both practicable and sustainable solutions for the society of the future. The design of SGC succeeds in equilibrating competition vs. consensus, self-study vs. team work, sharpening the self-interest vs. readiness to compromise, reductionism vs. holism, and hence, mirrors professional realities. The conclusion is made that the game’s rules act as a boundary condition for expected processes of social self-organization. The independent expert’s opinions express the importance of self-responsibility. Hence, self-organization in SGC allows for self-responsibility. Chapter 7 Marketing Micro-Credentials in Global Higher Education: Innovative Disruption...........................................................................................................182 Pamela A. Lemoine, Columbus State University, USA Wendy M. Wilson, Albany State University, USA Michael D. Richardson, Columbus State University, USA



Now that society has assumed a global focus, supported by technology, higher education institutions are asked to offer the highest quality education, especially technology skills and competencies, to a widely diverse audience at a cost that can be supported by society. Credentialing is a new concept in higher education advocated for use in the acknowledgement of coursework typically completed online. Credentialing provides a method of accrediting content knowledge rather than course credit for specific knowledge. The award of a credential has been an accepted form of authenticating the official completion of a higher education course of study. Credentials are often used in other forms of education. Yet, credentials have not been widely accepted for use in higher education because they do not fit the traditional model of awarding degrees for program of study completion. However, credentialing is now being examined for wider applications in higher education. Chapter 8 Learning Management System Under Digital India Program: Blended Learning Platform for Digital Governance.........................................................205 Shilohu Rao N. J. P., Digital India, India Shveta Sahal, PMU NeGD, India To foster continuous learning in governance, it is imperative to use technology in such a way that learning and knowledge exchange becomes a normal engagement without external interventions (http://digitalindia.gov.in/newsletter/2016_july/index. php). Web- or computer-based learning is easy, anytime and anywhere. It has in fact become a well-established, diversely applicable practice through a software application, known as learning management system (LMS). The LMS designed for e-governance under Digital India initiative is unique and one of a kind; it takes forward the vision of competency-based learning and is a tool to deliver right knowledge and skills to right personnel. LMS deployed by National e-Governance Division serves as a tool for learning and training the government officials and other stakeholders involved in planning, developing, implementing, monitoring, and sustaining governance in Government of India. This chapter broadly discusses the significant facets of the LMS like its prominent features and framework, key benefits, services rendered, and the outcomes and impact as a consequence of its structured implementation. Chapter 9 Using Social Media to Facilitate Instruction and Increase Marketing in Global Higher Education....................................................................................226 Michael D. Richardson, Columbus State University, USA Sarah G. Brinson, Albany State University, USA Pamela A. Lemoine, Columbus State University, USA



The technological revolution of the past two decades has changed global higher education, particularly with the impact of social media. There are two primary functions of social media in higher education: instruction and marketing. Social media offers higher education students an array of options to socialize, network, stay informed, and connected, but technology proficiency may not be the same for instructors. As social media use by students becomes more established, educators in higher education pursue methods to parlay expertise in instruction into increased opportunities to advertise and market higher education institutions. Social media’s impact of instruction in higher education is undeniable. The next major focus is on social media as a robust recruiting instrument to increase enrollment in global higher education. Chapter 10 Global Governance of Science: Wishful Thinking or a Life Necessity in the Context of International Relations and Their Philosophy...................................246 Yury Sayamov, Moscow State University, Russia This chapter draws attention to the role of education technologies within the entire issue of the global governance of science considered here to be of growing importance for the present world development. Introducing the notions of the global knowledge world and the knowledge society, the author presents the vision of the management of science as of an international task and one of development goals. He analyses the relationship of science and bureaucracy establishing a kind of a systematization for the decision-making process related to science and explains his point of view that the global governance of science could be based on the activities of international bodies and structures of intergovernmental nature (IIGOs), most importantly of UN and UNESCO, and of non-governmental character (INGOs). Taking into account various aspects of internal and external management of science, the author points out that the global management of science appears to be a life necessity due to the growing need to jointly search for global scientific responses to the global problems, new risks, and challenges that mankind is facing. In conclusion, some ideas are expressed and proposals given to foster the goal of the global governance of science. Chapter 11 An Educational Tool for Digital Electronic System Synthesis and Optimization.......................................................................................................264 Hakduran Koc, University of Houston – Clear Lake, USA Seyit Ozturk, University of Houston – Clear Lake, USA Considering the complexity of today’s digital electronic systems, it is crucial to have open-source electronic design automation (EDA) tools specifically developed for educational purposes. Such tools can easily be modified to meet the demands



of the course being taught and they can be configured to expose the intermediate steps during the design process. This chapter presents an educational EDA tool to help students better understand and implement fundamental concepts in digital electronic design and synthesis courses. The tool receives an intermediate format that represents the target system behavior and a set of constraints as input, and generates the representation of the actual circuit using high-level electronic components such as functional units, memory, and steering logic components available in its technology library. It considers execution delay, area, memory space consumption, and reliability constraints. The user is able to interact with the tool during the design process and select the algorithms to perform various synthesis and optimization tasks. Compilation of References............................................................................... 290 About the Contributors.................................................................................... 334 Index................................................................................................................... 338

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Technology plays a vital role for not only bridging the digital divide but also fostering educational development which is sustainable. This is evident from the success of social media in educational development campaign and reorienting the learner interactions in the higher education (HE) primarily through tremendous success of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). It has been observed that Distance Learning Universities would appear to have a potential to address a large population of students but this potential is vulnerable to the radical changes and disruptions evident in the application of digital technologies (e.g., Massive Open Online Courses or MOOCs). Also, HE institutions face an unrelated but equally profound set of opportunities and disruptions related to innovations in the way we work, changes to the environment and the effects of globalisation (Bell et al., 2017). It has also been reported that Mobile technologies with portability, connectivity and versatility enable learning to be ubiquitous in and out of classrooms, provide potential opportunities for collaborative learning, and enrich learning experiences with the support of technologies (Looi et al., 2010). Signifying learning technology intervention towards sustainable education, a study identified nine Learning Technology Interventions (LTI) i.e. educational radio, educational television, mobile phones and applications, ubiquitous learning, school on wheels, one-laptop or tablet personal computer (PC) per child, massive open online courses (MOOCs), Internet cafés and remote online tutoring. The study presented a novel decision-making tool in the form of a two-stage model combining qualitative and quantitative techniques (the future search conference mind mapping and the analytic network process). By applying the instrument to address the problem of selecting a sustainable learning technology intervention for a developing country, we find that school on wheels is the most sustainable LTI (Raji & Zualkernan, 2016). Technology also facilitates in developing sustainable pedagogical reform for student centred learning, but its complexity perspective is also outlined in one of the studies as GPS did not achieve whole-school improvement when technology was first introduced. Instead, school improvement in terms of student and teacher change was the result of iterative innovations and reflections amongst all actors—an

Preface

attestation to how the school became a learning organisation through distributing leadership and enhancing collectivism at all levels of social interactions (Toh, 2016). The first chapter of book on the turbo principle in sustainable and developmental learning design underlies two key success strategies for complex, self-guided interdisciplinary learning. The first one being the rhythmising as a theatrical tool and second one is the multi-perspectivism as a tool allowing the organisation regarding viewpoints (in the space of perceptions). The author in chapter analyses the temporal dynamics of several social dimensions of learning in the case of the five-level negotiation game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC, © G. Ahamer). The authors in the second chapter titled “Management Training Insights Emerging From Spiritual Concerns” have expressed their considered opinion that by reshaping or rethinking management training to include the more personal, even spiritual side of workers, today’s managers will see both productivity improvements as well as more engaged employees. The authors further suggest that insights emerging from spiritual concerns can help organizations understand the content and intent of their current training programs in new ways which can help in developing new understanding wherein managers can prepare themselves to help workers to be productive and useful. The third chapter on “Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests: Drupal CMS, Google Forms, Learning Apps” emphasizes upon the realization of the possibilities of the educational information interaction and the potential of the allocated informative resource of the local and global networks for developing intellectual potential of the learner with the use of CMS Drupal for the creation of educational web sites and electronic learning materials. Designing and analysing social dynamics for sustainable educational development is the fourth chapter of the book detailing the five-level negotiation game i.e. “Surfing Global Change” (SGC) and its application on collaborative behaviour in student groups. The analysis presented in the chapter suggests that the SGC game rules didactically enhance anticipated processes of social self-organisation. In the fifth chapter of the book on “Interrelationship Between Pedagogy, Theories, Objectives, and Features: Mobile Learning Design,” the authors observe that the educational institutions still find it difficult to shift their pedagogical culture to a mobile one. In the light of this observation, this chapter presents the interrelationship between pedagogy, learning theories, the objectives, and features of the mobile learning platform with specific details on the pedagogical aspects of designing a mobile learning environment, shifting the culture to a mobile format, through the design, development and evaluation of MyFeedBack, a mobile app for enhancing formative and summative assessment feedback. The sixth chapter is concluding remarks on the discussion summarised in the fourth chapter and suggests that SGC could be successful if they were grounded on “active, xiv

Preface

self-organised learning”, training of “competence to act” and on responsibility for both practicable and sustainable solutions for the society of the future. The author of the chapter opines that the design of SGC succeeds in equilibrating competition vs. consensus, self-study vs. team work, sharpening the self-interest vs. readiness to compromise, reductionism vs. holism and hence mirrors professional realities and hence citing independent expert’s opinions, it suggests that self-organization in SGC allows for self-responsibility. “Marketing Micro-Credentials in Global Higher Education: Innovative Disruption” is the seventh chapter of the book that explores about Credentialing, a new concept in higher education advocated for use in the acknowledgement of coursework typically completed online and puts forward the arguments that credentials have not been widely accepted for use in higher education because they do not fit the traditional model of awarding degrees for completion of program of study. In the chapter, Credentialing is being examined for wider applications in higher education. The eighth chapter of the book is about “Learning Management System Digital Governance in India.” The authors in the chapter elaborate upon the LMS designed for e-Governance under Digital India initiative, launched with the vision of competency based learning and as a tool to deliver right knowledge and skills to right personnel with the core objectives of a tool for learning and training the government officials and other stake holders involved in planning, developing, implementing, monitoring and sustaining governance in Government of India The authors in the chapter broadly discuss the significant facets of the LMS including the outcomes and impact as a consequence of its structured implementation. “Using Social Media to Facilitate Instruction and Increase Marketing in Global Higher Education” is the ninth chapter of the book which focuses on two primary functions of social media in higher education: instruction and marketing and elaborates the importance of Social media in higher education students with the objective to socialize, network, stay informed and connected. The authors are of the opinion that technology proficiency may not be the same for instructors and suggest that the educators in higher education should pursue methods to parlay expertise in instruction into increased opportunities to advertise and market higher education institutions including the use of social media as a robust recruiting instrument to increase enrolment in global higher education. In the tenth chapter titled “Global Governance of Science: Wishful Thinking or a Life Necessity in the Context of International Relations and Their Philosophy,” the author draws attention to the issue of the global governance of science considered here to be of growing importance for the development of the present world. Introducing the notions of the global knowledge world and the knowledge society, the author presents the vision of the management of science as of an international task and one of development goals. He analyses the relationship of science and bureaucracy xv

Preface

establishing a kind of a systematization for the decision making process related to science and explains his point of view that the global governance of science could be based on the activities of international bodies and structures of intergovernmental nature (IIGOs), most importantly of UN and UNESCO, and of non-governmental character (INGOs).Taking into account various aspects of internal and external management of science, he points out that the global management of science appears to be a life necessity due to the growing need to jointly search for global scientific responses to the global problems, new risks and challenges that mankind is facing. By placing the topic in the context of international relations and their philosophy the author endeavors to show the scene on which the game is played of global governance, in general, and of global governance in science, in particular. Concluding the chapter, the author expresses some ideas and proposals to foster the goal of the global governance of science. The eleventh and final chapter of the book is about an “Educational Tool for Digital Electronic System Synthesis and Optimization” wherein authors deliberate upon open-source Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools specifically developed for educational purposes. The authors present an educational EDA tool to help students better understand and implement fundamental concepts in digital electronic design and synthesis courses. Elaborating further on EDA tool, the chapter discusses about an intermediate format that represents the target system behavior and a set of constraints as input; and generates the representation of the actual circuit using high-level electronic components such as functional units, memory, and steering logic components available in its technology library. According to the authors, the user is able to interact with the tool during the design process and select the algorithms to perform various synthesis and optimization tasks. It is evident from the chapters presented here that technology is being widely applied in a big way in the ongoing effort for development and promotion of sustainable education. It is playing an important role in the higher education institutions towards providing educational opportunities to the people in the developing world, through various modes such as MOOCs, social media tools and applications and other technological interventions for disseminating ideas and information of the newer means and methods of education programme design and delivery, and also taking them to the target groups for their sustainable development and enrichment.

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REFERENCES Douce, Caeiro, Teixeira, Martín-Aranda, & Otto. (2017). Sustainability and distance learning: a diverse European experience? Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 32(2), 95-102. 10.1080/02680513.2017.1319638 Looi, C.-K., Seow, P., Zhang, B. H., So, H.-J., Chen, W., & Wong, L.-H. (2010). Leveraging Mobile Technology for Sustainable Seamless Learning: A Research Agenda. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(2), 154–169. doi:10.1111/ j.1467-8535.2008.00912.x Raji, M., & Zualkernan, I. (2016). A Decision Tool for Selecting a Sustainable Learning Technology Intervention. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 19(3), 306–320. Toh, Y. (2016). Leading sustainable pedagogical reform with technology for studentcentred learning: A complexity perspective. J Educ Change, 17, 145. 10.1007/ s10833-016-9273-9

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Acknowledgment

The editors are thankful to IGI Global for providing an opportunity to conceptualise this summation volume based on select papers submitted and published earlier in the issues of the year 2014, 2015, and 2016 (V4, V5, V6) of our journal, International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing (IJTEM), and a set of few fresh submissions for publishing this book. We are particularly grateful to Jan Travers (Director of Intellectual Property and Contracts) and all those members of IGI Global who have been very helpful and supportive during the entire development process of this book. The editors express their gratitude to all the contributors who have made valuable and timely contributions for this book by revising and enhancing their ideas and thoughts which were presented earlier in their papers published in IJTEM. It is hoped that readers will be benefitted from our efforts and continue to offer their valuable suggestions for us to take this area of research to the next level. Purnendu Tripathi Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia Siran Mukerji Arab Open University, Saudi Arabia

1

Chapter 1

The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design Gilbert Ahamer Graz University, Austria

ABSTRACT This chapter conveys two key success strategies for complex, self-guided interdisciplinary learning: (1) rhythmizing as a theatrical tool (regarding organization along time) and (2) multi-perspectivism as a tool allowing the organization regarding viewpoints (in the space of perceptions). While the first can be achieved by a suitable script of the didactic process, the second can be supported by seating orders, the arrangement of tables, and allocation of roles to role-playing learners. The meaning of “roles” in game-based learning is analyzed, based on both literature and interdisciplinary teaching experience. As an example of role-based and game-based learning, this chapter analyzes the temporal dynamics of several social dimensions of learning in the case of the five-level negotiation game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC, © G. Ahamer).

1. INTRODUCTION This chapter draws conclusions from the earlier two chapters in this book (Ahamer, 2017a, b). Theoretical deliberations on pragmatism (Dewey, 2000), didactics (Illich, 1975; Stähli, 1998; Ossimitz, 2000; Ahamer & Kumpfmüller, 2013) and pedagogy DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch001 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design

(Rogers, 1974; Montessori, 1996; Wild & Quinn, 1998) reveal that it is helpful to provide learners with the opportunity to make the most of a course regardless of their previous achievements – in other words to maximise their relative learning progress when measured from the start of the course. This will be called self-adaptive individualised learning.

1.1 Divergent Learning Profiles and How to Cope With Them Learners are seen to have differing profiles in a number of dimensions (intellectual, social, self-esteem, communicational capabilities etc.) and so the learning process should be self-adaptive with regard to these profile properties (see symbolically in Figure 1). As a consequence, any learning endeavour should provide a sufficient number of “docking stations” for the learners multi-dimensional profiles. Different learning profiles exist; but these profiles are changeable through learning activities. Another key aspect is the mutual inner linkage of the “learning paths” available in the different dimensions. This relates to the usual entanglement of dimensions in life and characterises any learning situation. One can only decide – given the framework conditions – to address suitably loose, but still guiding framework conditions for learners’ social procedures. In addition to the general remarks above, the following practical conclusions can be drawn from earlier research (Ahamer, 2012b, 2013a, b, 2017a, b): the usability of any didactic structure is high if a sufficient number of adhesive “glue” points along the dramatic axis can be retrieved by a maximum of learners who show varying personal profiles and who stand at various stages of mastery. If a sufficiently structured “choreographic surface” is exhibited by the learning framework, more learners could “glue into” the process more easily, rendering learning more efficient. •

The sense of the macrostructure of any learning design is to be a driver of the overall social and psychological motion.

Figure 1. Any dimension of the learning process exhibits a frequency distribution across the given group of learners.

2

The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design

•

The sense of microstructure of any learning design is to address a higher number of student profiles according to their different resonance frequency in order to “glue” them into the process by creating resonance frequency.

1.2 The Target of This Paper: How to Design Social Learning Processes? The background of this chapter is to elaborate suitable procedures in order to train advanced students in complex interdisciplinary university courses. The main problem dealt with in this chapter is: How can an educational process be suitably designed in order to provide a series of social patterns and procedures which are characteristic for situations encountered during complex interdisciplinary university courses? Hence the issue at the core of this chapter is the: Design of Social Processes for interdisciplinary learning in sustainable educational development. The main question to be addressed and answered in this chapter is: what type of dramaturgy of social processes delivers a suitable framework of work, dialogue and consensus finding to learning students? Another accompanying question is: How can we extend the notion of design to other disciplines?

2. DIDACTIC DESIGN AND SOCIAL DESIGN The notion of design is enlarged to social design meaning the design of social procedures. Design may exist regarding these substrates: • • • • • •

Time (e.g. in theatre, or in future science: Ahamer & Mayer, 2013) Space (e.g. in architecture, or in geography: Popov, 2002; Ahamer, 2013e) Geometry (e.g. as graphics design: Ahamer & Schrei, 2006) Functionality (e.g. as design in the narrower sense of industrial design: Ahamer & Jekel, 2010) Interests (e.g. as technology assessment, and in administration: Duraković, et al. 2012; Ahamer, 2013c) Rules (e.g. in game-based learning: Ahamer, 2012b,c)

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• •

Consensus-building (e.g. in peace negotiations: Bader et al. 2013; Ahamer, 2013d) Structures (e.g. generally in arts, science and politics: Ahamer, 2008a,b). In any of these contexts, it is essential to en-act reality – this means to make consciousness real along time (time is understood as a sequencer of structures).

2.1 Design of Consensus Building The study of the necessities in creating consensus requires: • •

Processes with multiple stakeholders that are intertwining and, An iterative structure of process design which allows interim results developed to that state to be built on.

Based on the body of knowledge developed in earlier phases of the given lecture, methods and tools to enhance the quality of designed consensus can include mutual review and argumentative battles (Sivan, 2000; Pereira & Funtowicz, 2005; Perry & Sanderson, 1998). Design research, in its turn, has largely been dwelling on social processes as constituents of design. Bringing together theories, models and actual products from related design areas, including engineering, architecture, industrial design and planning seems favourable for better didactic solutions. In more detail, this can mean (compare Figure 2 and Figure 5): •

Creating and organising a team (social self-organisation),

Figure 2. A shift from one-way and mono-centred communication (teacher or trainer T only has the power to assess) to a multi-way and pluri-centred system of communication (also students have power to assess) is recommended instead of written assignments in the classical sense.

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• • • • •

Finding and reporting scientific, technical and political information (academic research), Enumerating and weighing the principal effects of a professional project (assessment), Preparing a team standpoint on the basis of collected material (argumentation), Defending a team standpoint in a discussion (implementation), Trying to create consensus between several actors based on arguments.

The design of consensus building is the larger perspective of this chapter. Again, TA has the same focus: it is an instrument for identifying societal consensus (Tschiedel, 1989; Walther, 1992; Zweck, 1993); both take the relationships between actors as elementary particles of their world view, but not as eternal truths (Huber, 1989; Inhoffen, 1993). According to the content of this volume, studying the necessities for creating consensus regarding sustainability calls for: • •

Processes with the participation of multiple stakeholders that are intertwined, and An iterative structure of process design which allows for building on interim results developed prior to the current state.

Games (sometimes also called simulation games or negotiation games) are selected as methodology for training “consensus building” because of their focus on: • • • •

The process of solving instead of the status of solution, The individual perspectives instead of the depersonalised truths, The situatedness of a case study instead of academic objectivity, Negotiable views instead of traditional “true-false” logic.

2.2 When Learning Can Be Suboptimal In traditional learning procedures, suboptimality is brought about by the necessity for all learners to stand on the same level of mastery, and hence in the same phase of learning path. In traditional learning settings, learners are supposed to acquire content. Hence, in order to be effective, the offered content has to match the limits of knowledge of the learners; the closer the better. Otherwise, suboptimal teaching results threaten the quality of the entire learning process. In reality, however, a distribution of frequency of learners’ presupposed understanding is given; consequently in many cases the 5

The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design

learner is either overstrained (overextended / overtaxed) or remains unchallenged by the new content on offer (Müller et al. 2013). To the extent that traditional learning concentrates on conveying (suitable) content, a mismatch often occurs between learners’ capabilities and offered learning environments. This is one of the basic flaws of learning as acquisition (Barrows, 2002; Burger, 2005).

3. THE TURBO ENGINE STORY 3.1 The Turbo Principle in Aviation In a symbolic manner, this section uses a comparison with aviation technology in order to highlight the relationship between a given set of framework conditions and the resulting new system state created by these framework conditions. How does a classical turbine work – as opposed to a motor with a piston? In the compressor, the air fed through the inlet to the engine is compressed and at the same time decelerated (Figure 3). In the combustion chamber, the highly compressed air is mixed with fuel and the mixture is continuously combusted. In the subsequent turbine, part of the power is removed from the flow by expansion in order to drive the compressor. The propulsion force is finally generated in the (thrust) nozzle. In order to achieve a thrust effect, the exit velocity of the air must be greater than the entrance speed and thus greater than the flight speed. The thrust corresponds – in a simplified manner – to the multiplication of the speed difference between engine input and output and mass flow. The mass flow indicates how many kilograms of air per second flow through the engine. Thus, in some aspects the operation of a turbine is fundamentally different from that of a piston engine. Although air is compacted in both cases, energy is supplied in the form of fuel and the air-fuel mixture is combusted; but during these processes the piston engine runs in one place – namely in the cylinder, while there is a separate component for the jet engine. The jet engine therefore has the advantage that the components can be optimised for their function, which is for example expressed in the emission behaviour. In the case of the turbine air jet engine, the force effect is generated by the flow forces, but on the piston motor it is generated by pressure forces on the piston. The oscillating or reciprocating movement of the piston is the main reason why the piston motor has not penetrated as a propulsion engine in aviation. At a higher power conversion rate, this movement generates considerable forces which must be absorbed by the motor

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Figure 3. How a turbine works. This image facilitates a comparison with the didactic turbo principle. Image source: BR (2007).

structure. As a result, the engine becomes too heavy to be useful in an aircraft due to the massive design necessary. On the other hand, with a gas turbine only rotating motions of the paddle wheels around an axis are practicable, so that a much greater power supply is possible.

3.2 The Turbo Principle in Didactics When generalising the above principle, it becomes clear that in a jet engine (turbine), the preceding system state serves as framework condition for the subsequent system state. Thus, the system creates a dynamic flow that is governed by the adjacent walls; i.e. the border conditions (in technology), equivalent to rules (in game-based learning) as symbolised in Figure 4. The turbo principle of social design hence combines machinery, graphic design and social dynamics in an unexpected way.

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Figure 4. The idealised jet framework condition, symbolised by lines indicating the tightness of rules (in a didactic setting).

The main issue dealt with in this chapter is: How can an educational process be suitably designed in order to provide a series of social patterns and procedures which are characteristic for situations encountered during complex interdisciplinary learning issues?

3.2 Both Turbo Principles in Comparison Table 1 combines both meanings of the innovation named turbo principle in this chapter.

4. DESIGN OF CONSENSUS BUILDING: THE CASE OF SGC The negotiation game Surfing Global Change (SGC, © G. Ahamer, see Figure 5) is a learning suite that provides ever-changing framework conditions for learners in several dimensions of the learning process – hence it is self-adaptive in the sense defined above. SGC has been described and analysed in numerous articles (Ahamer, 2012a, 2013b, 2017a, b). This chapter will not repeat this explanation but will only show the social dynamics of SGC as a case study for the above-mentioned “turbo principle in didactics”. As one of several possible dimensions occurring in learning, Figure 6 portrays the degree of differentiation into details (vertical axis) as a function of learning time (horizontal axis).

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Table 1. Comparison of the turbo principle in a technological sense (two columns at left) and in a didactic sense (two columns at right).

Figure 5. The foldable CD cover (ironically, the “unfolder”) gives way to successively deeper levels of detail after embarking on reading (© G. Ahamer).

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Figure 6. The dynamics of one cycle of learning (e.g. during one semester), pictured along the SGC game procedure.

5. THE MULTI-DIMENSIONALITY OF LEARNING PROCEDURES The resulting social dynamics run on different levels (be they in SGC or in any complex learning endeavour): • • • • • •

Knowledge level Empathy level Motivation level Level of interaction Dramaturgy level Community education level

All these levels may be pictured in the symbolic way explained in Figure 4. The additional interesting feature is that these levels are all interlinked with one another; hence the following images should be compared with each other for each point in time. Admittedly, it would be desirable to combine all dimensions into one picture, but the graphic complexity would soon be beyond the limits of easy comprehensibility. In all figures “time” is running from left to right and is “bounded”

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by the coverage material of the drain channel, representing the more-or-less tight jacket of the game rules. It is therefore the art of game design (social process design) to achieve an optimal (learning) result after the offered learning path (i.e. coupling of trajectories of single learners in each of the dimensions) for all (or at least a maximum) of learner types that are symbolically portrayed by the bell curve in Figure 1. In brief, the goal of rule design, role design and game design is to create a maximum of possible trajectories through the game setting – satisfactory to all learning types. For the case of SGC, the several dimensions of the learning process are portrayed in the following figures. These figures can be seen as describing the micro-structure of the following dimensions of learning: • • • • •

Figure 7: Temporal structure of the distance of the teams. Figure 8: Temporal structure of content versus process. Figure 9: Temporal structure of consensus & integration versus win & lose. Figure 10: Temporal structure of only one item versus holistic versus degree of differentiation and details. Figure 11: Temporal structure of the speed.

Figure 7. Temporal structure of the distance of the teams in SGC.

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Figure 8. Temporal structure of content versus process in SGC.

Figure 9. Temporal structure of consensus & integration versus win & lose in SGC.

6. WHY USING “ROLES” IS HELPFUL FOR LEARNING Learning in fact prepares for real-world action. It broadens the set of available options to act. In this sense, learners should smoothly integrate themselves (starting out from the world of mind, mindfulness, and consciousness) into reality – and for this procedure 12

The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design

Figure 10. Temporal structure of only one item versus holistic versus degree of differentiation and details in SGC.

Figure 11. Temporal structure of the speed in SGC.

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the usage of “roles” can be beneficial: without great risk, learners may experience themselves in (hypothetical or playful) situations that permit the results of their own actions to be perceived without running the risk of non-acceptance in their social group of learners (e.g. the class). The following sequence of “localisations” in various “spaces can therefore be suggested: Physical Participant → Roles → Interests → Case Study in Reality The actual underlying achievement consists in passing through different “worlds” during the learning process, namely from truth to view! What SGC (and any substantial learning sequence) tries to achieve is the perception and absorption of others’ views. Ultimately, the construction of any didactic setting boils down to the “design of distributions”, in other words the generation of structures. Actually, roles are a crutch for taking views. They are the training apparatus on which we train our (intellectual and mental) muscles. Like in a gym in which you see a bunch of machines standing around and you start to ask yourself: Which one shall I try?; the equivalent is to ask: Which role do you want to take on? What a “role” actually does is to render more easily the understanding of others’ perspectives, because there is a physical person who takes this viewpoint and this person can be perceived visually when sitting on another table, e.g. during the competitive discussion in SGC’s level 3. Later in SGC’s level 5, the participants are already trained enough to perceive that these other viewpoints exist, independently of whether the respective stakeholder is physically and visibly sitting on a table or not. Roles are pre-formed and pre-named patterns of interest and aggregates of partial world views that are preliminarily associated to each other by the relative position of the stakeholder in the landscape of interests. •

•

Similar to selecting a part of town where one buys land in order to live upon it for years: it predetermines the outlook and perspectives on your neighbours over a long period. You buy the neighbours with the house. You buy the panorama with your new house. Similar to a profession into which you drift and in which you are comfortable for decades because it predefines a sizeable number of your interests.

It is therefore of utmost importance to let the participants define the roles by themselves according to their own free will (in order to have them imagine the existing patterns of interest) but not to propose the roles to them from the side of the lecturer. This amounts to drawing a map of the new landscape and locating oneself on this map, like when wandering through new mountain scenery. 14

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It may be noted here that students often derive much joy from taking on a role they would never accept in real life. They play the (morally detested) enemy role of their actual orientation. As a comparison from another age group, picture a pair of schoolchildren playing with small figurines of knights, one saying to the other: I will play the baddies now and their friend answering: No, I want to play the baddies because the goodies are silly. As in Goethe’s Faust, Earthen themes act only as a parable.

7. ACT SIMULTANEOUSLY ON ALL LEVELS OF REALITY The key issue when designing a learning procedure is that all existing learning procedures in all dimensions run at the same time (physical time) and that they may interact. As an example, the act of having learned some content might exert an impact on the social structure of a group; it may foster social ties, or alternatively it may trigger jealousy among learners. Wisdom in learning design lies in favourably combining these effects and aftereffects in such a way that it helps to reach all targets at the same time: e.g. content is learned, social skills are improved, a group is formed, and outlook on life has expanded in all participants. Thus, the sequence in time (of single learning events) becomes crucial. In a historical British tale (of symbolic significance here), the elderly Sir Pellinor of Camelot Castle wants to hunt a mythical unicorn. At the same time, he hears a female voice in the woods crying for help. He actually wants to attend to both at the same time, but when coming back from a successful hunt he sees that the crying woman was his daughter who received no help and died. This tragic decision governs his life henceforth. By acting on one level, he (of necessity) committed (non-)action on another level of life. “The knot tapers” – as our life uncovers more and more entanglement of trajectories in diverse dimensions. Our reality means that every step has many effects – not only the one “desired” effect on the original dimension of life. This entanglement of actions (“cause and effects”: Thabarwa Centre, 2017) is made accessible to humans through the seriality of “time” as a basic facet of our existence (Ahamer, 2017c). Experiencing everything at the same time would be not digestible for humans, after all. Responsibility in life thus translates as trying to avoid situations in which actions have too many side-effects and collateral meanings. Actually, there is no “main effect” and no “side effect”, but only a lack of system knowledge. Consequently, the notion of “being guilty” loses its significance (Moser, 1999; Thabarwa Centre, 2017).

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8. ANY LEARNING NEEDS A STAGE As seen from above, any learning process needs time and place to be enacted. This is required by human nature. In the present example, SGC is the stage on which the gaming procedure can play. Any learning procedure may act as an evolutionary accelerator for the growth of the consciousness of participants. In the time-space structure of the world, a learning setting (or gaming setting) defines a hollow structure (a receptacle, in the same sense as space was a receptacle for Kant, 1781) of persons and rules so that the human processes of understanding which are ongoing therein are only to be touched with the fingertips so that they are stimulated but will not be squeezed or held in a cage. The idea is to keep the degrees of freedom so loose that (mental, conscious) growth is possible. Just as a cuff is laid loosely around a young tree trunk in an orchard so that the young tree can both grow and be kept safe at the same time. Any organisational corset should be as loose as to allow the shaping and setting-up of beneficial procedures. According to the ‘‘learning by doing’’ philosophy (Schön, 1983), in a classroom environment students work together in order to benefit from exposure to many ideas and a wide range of information from peers and instructors (Shih et al., 2006; Rauch, 2013, 2014, 2017). Bucciarelli (2002) sees design as a social process. Heaton (2002) introduces the notion of a “cultural frame”, expanding the idea of a “technological frame” and a “frame of meaning”. MacGregor (2002) proposes as core method to increase appropriate levels of “awareness” throughout the design process and to accommodate “switching” as between synchronous and asynchronous, or between individual and co-operative work. Switching takes account of the different realities or spaces that people find themselves in or switch between (MacGregor, 2002). This view coincides well with rhythmising of learning processes as proposed in this entire chapter; and with the multi-perspectivism proposed as well. Adelson (1999) proposes a theory-based framework of collaborative negotiation. Her method “1. provides a negotiation method intended to produce gain for all parties; 2. provides an efficient process for conflict resolution; 3. develops working alliances; and 4. lets parties decide quickly when they should go their separate ways.” Her framework produces the above results by: “helping parties develop wellreasoned and clearly articulated points of view; creating a context of commitment and respect; moving negotiating parties away from an adversarial stance and into a collaboration; and allowing joint construction of solutions that are more beneficial than the unilateral solutions each party initially brought to the table. “Boujout and Tiger (2002) emphasise the double-edged nature of design support tools, namely serving organisational as well as technical purposes. Perry and Sanderson (1998: 276) clarify that artefacts play a role in visualising intermediate results and enhance 16

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substrate for communication, and more generally that artefacts are the foci of much of the social interaction. Regarding social design, Heaton (2002) calls us to understand the reciprocal link between organisational practices and technologies and links the context in which design takes place with the artefacts that are produced in that context. For Heaton (2002), structure is the result of a contingent set of heterogeneous relations. Institutionalization cannot, therefore, be detached from actors’ strategies, nor can it be reduced to them, because the resources that an actor seeks to align and hold in place are drawn from a structured environment. Heaton (2002) concludes from her case study on intercultural web-based cooperation that: not only do designers’ ideals impact significantly on the design process, they are also reflected in the resulting products. In particular, Japanese culture is regularly invoked as a justification for decisions to focus on contextual awareness and nonverbal communication. The preferred Japanese approach to web-based design is to provide a channel for communication, which can be used to complement, or supplement, traditional ways of working. This channel should transmit as much information as possible (hence the widespread use of video and large displays) but should avoid specifying procedures or ways of doing things. It is not a tool, but another element in the working environment that can offer important contextual information to enable co-workers to evaluate a situation and to respond in accordance with existing social protocols. In contrast, Scandinavian web-based cooperation systems focus on providing frameworks for collaboration that will facilitate communication and decrease social distance between all those using the system, thereby improving the quality of working life. Her in-depth diagnoses add to the finding that cooperation is largely dependent on paradigms of social structures and hierarchy, as (above) in the cases of Japan and Scandinavia; in the latter case a group of ideas centring on ‘democracy’ plays an equivalent role in the frames of Scandinavian designers. Any learning situation is therefore delivered to pre-cognitive cultural rules and a “cultural frame” that in part might hamper seamless student cooperation if not reflected upon – and room for adaptation should be granted by the trainer to all participants – irrespective of their geographic home-base. Restrepo and Christiaans, (2004) emphasise that:

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design is a discursive activity. Designers propose design issues, reflect upon and discuss them and for each issue propose answers. However, problem structuring is not a clearly distinguishable phase of the design process but instead an activity that reoccurs regularly (…) and can contribute to either further structure the problem or to solve it.

8. THE IDEAL DEGREE OF FREEDOM In an excellent article, Restrepo and Christiaans (2004) state that gaming (and gamebased learning) need an under-determined system in order to function properly. In their view, problem structuring (in the beginning of a design process but also reoccurring periodically as the design activity progresses) is key for retrieving solutions (in the SGC case, this is done by establishing the matrix on level 3). Design is primarily a problem-solving activity, hence all findings from design science can be applied to didactics – albeit shifted to the social level. Restrepo and Christiaans (2004) define that any “ill-defined” problem (in practice, any problem is ill-defined!) requires problem structuring, namely a process drawing upon (pre-existing) knowledge as one step in iterative solution finding. Thus, structures are created – also social structures in the learners’ consciousness on which they dwell later. As an example, after SGC practically all classes maintained their social links and even authored one article each year in an international peerreviewed journal – having been fuelled by the integrative forces of SGC. Hence, symbolically SGC is a booster, not a final solver; SGC is a problemhandling jet. SGC channels perceptions of issues in a transitory way and lets them loose again after compression (or whatever “task” has been performed). A turbo design means imprinting a temporal structure onto the process in such a way that the earlier state (regardless of what it precisely is) acts as a generator for the consecutive system state – while fulfilling the overall didactic target. Because every student has a different starting point when entering a course (especially an interdisciplinary course), it is necessary to provide a learning setting that is independent of such a starting point – hence a dialogue-oriented learning style in which every student receives from their interaction what they optimally need. Tolerance to uncertainty is the other side of the coin: Thomas and Carroll (1979) discovered that designers tend to treat all problems as though they were ill-defined. They do so by changing the problem’s constraints and goals – even if the problem is well-defined. Designers will be designers even if they can be problem solvers. Reflecting on this (intentionally) ill-defined aspect leads directly to the advantage of game-based learning: there also, the tight grip of reality is loosened in order to allow for gaming! To play means to intentionally introduce degrees of freedom in 18

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interaction and action, in vision and perspective. To play means to learn. By gently tipping on the “deflection” of the social system’s state, the gamers look at how hard the borders – and how unmovable the limits – are. Restrepo and Christiaans (2004) notice that the more successful students changed very rapidly from gathering information to reflecting upon it and using it to ‘structure’ the problem building a representation of requirements, constraints, etc., the better their performance was. And on page 14: Problem structuring is a process of drawing upon knowledge and (external) information to give structure to the problem space. Restrepo and Christiaans (2004: 13) explain that, designers need not only precedents, but a mechanism that to provide them with strong support to satisfy their need for information about a wide range of existing solutions for sub-problems - more inspiringly, from apparently unrelated domains. (…) Inspiration may especially come from other design products. We do not subscribe to the idea that following a problem-oriented approach will necessarily lead to better results than following a solution oriented one, as literature and common educational practice seems to suggest. But more influential than this problem- or solution-oriented strategy is the information which is accessed by the designer. Spending time accessing and processing the information has a positive effect on the quality of the results while the strategy chosen does not show any clear relation… a factor is … perceived accessibility of the source and the perceived relevance of the information accessed (…) and why not, fun to use! (Restrepo & Christiaans, 2004) For the design scientist Kees Dorst (2004), the process of reasoning on a design problem is non-deductive. There are two ways in which a design problem is underdetermined: 1. A description in terms of needs, requirements and intentions can never be complete. 2. ‘Needs, requirements and intentions’ and ‘structure’ belong to different conceptual worlds. Dorst (2004) suggests that most design problems seem to have a threefold nature: 1. They are partly determined by hard needs. 2. The major part is underdetermined. 3. Another part is undetermined. 19

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He sums up two fundamentally different paradigms for the methodology of problem solving (Dorst, 2004): 1. Rational problem solving (Simon, 1979), rooting in positivistic epistemology: A person lives in an objective world which can be known through his/her senses 2. Reflective practice (Schön, 1983), based on a phenomenological paradigm: The person’s environment and history heavily influences the construction of reality. It becomes apparent that SGC puts itself into the second tradition. Dorst (2004) consider negotiation as a process of objectifying. “Objectivity” can therefore be called an artificial construction by the designer. The designer has the privilege of working both in objective and subjective mode. It is only the designer who frames the problem in a context, and this is a profoundly creative act (Dorst, 2004). In actuality, SGC channels perceptions of issues in a transitory way and sets them free again after they have been “compressed” (or whatever “task” has been performed). The turbo design facilitates a dynamic structure in the process. The effect is an array of problems, a “structured problem” (as in design literature) in the consciousness of the participants. Restrepo and Christiaans (2004) describe that “problem structuring occurs mainly in the design process but also reoccurs periodically as the design activity progresses.” Such a reoccurrence is characteristic of planning (and design) processes, even if university lectures sometime propose a clear, linear path extending from problem to solution. Consequently, the “type of required information varies along the process. “ Such observations are used as arguments for using a jet-like structure in learning. Just as each parcel of air is at a different position when streaming through, each student might be at a different stage regarding various learning criteria.

8. SELF-GUIDED LEARNING In the environment of such an “optimal degree of freedom” for learners, the criterion established by Csíkszentmihályi (2014) can be met; namely flow. It could also be called the “singing when working” criterion. Csíkszentmihályi (2014) discovered “flow” based on his personal experiences during the Second World War and was able to name six components characterising “flow” on the basis of his research (Rheinberg, 1995):

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1. Both demands to act and feedback are lived through as being clear and free from interpretation, so that one knows at any time and without thinking what there is to do in the given moment. 2. One feels under optimal demand and one has a sure feeling even under high pressure that events are still under control. 3. The course of actions is experienced as smooth. One step smoothly goes into the next, as if the events were running (or flowing), seemingly gliding out of an inner logic. 4. One need not concentrate intentionally; concentration rather comes out of itself (like when breathing). Any act of cognition that is not immediately directed to regulating the present accomplishment will be phased out. 5. The ability to be aware of “time” is strongly restricted; one forgets about time and does not know how long one has already been participating. Hours fly by like minutes. 6. One no more experiences oneself as being lifted off from one’s activity, but one rather lives entirely for – and is all wrapped up in – one’s own activity (= melting together of self and activity). Reflexivity and self-consciousness are lost. Using another analogy for comparison, the physicists’ current view of the light wave is generalised into a four-dimensional wave of social and didactic activity in learners (Ahamer, 2012b).

9. LEVELS OF EXPERTISE To explore levels of expertise we now turn to a lecture by Hubert Dreyfus (2003, 2004), in which he pointed out that the nature of the problem that is considered in a problem-solving situation depends on the level of expertise of the problem solver. Dreyfus distinguishes seven distinct levels of expertise, corresponding with seven ways of perceiving, interpreting, structuring and solving problems (Dorst, 2005), see Table 2: (1) A novice will consider the objective features of a situation, as they are given by the experts, and will follow strict rules to deal with the problem. For an advanced beginner (2) the situational aspects are important, there is a sensitivity to exceptions to the ‘hard’ rules of the novice. Maxims are used for guidance through the problem 21

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Table 2. Seven distinct levels of expertise according to Dreyfus (2003) in the Amsterdam lecture, compared with the Three generations of web teaching according to Ahamer (2004) and the SGC game levels. Level of Expertise

Hubert Dreyfus (2003)

Three Generations of E-Learning Generation 1: “The followers of the rules”

SGC Levels

1. Novice

Consider the objective features, follow strict rules

2. Advanced Beginner

Situational aspects are important, exceptions from ‘hard’ rules

3. Competent Problem Solver

Selects the relevant elements, chooses a plan to achieve goals, seeks opportunities, emotional attachment, trial-and-error

4. Proficient Problem Solver

Immediately sees the most important issues and the appropriate plan, reasons out what to do

Level 3

5. Real Expert

Responds intuitively, performs appropriate action straightaway. No problem solving & reasoning

Level 4

6. Master

Sees standard ways as contingent, deep involvement in field as a whole, dwells on success and failures, nuanced appropriateness

Generation 3: “They view the method, no longer the issue”

Level 5

7. World Discloser

Visionary, strives to extend the domain, develops new ways, opens new worlds, operates on the margins of a domain

Generation of visionaries: “Play with rules ⇒ new rules will be developed ⇒ a new level 1 emerges”

Proficient alumni of SGC

Level 0 Level 1

Generation 2: “Professionals learn with still more empathy”

Level 2

situation. A competent problem solver (3) works in a radically different way. He selects the elements in a situation that are relevant, and chooses a plan to achieve the goals. This selection and choice can only be made on the basis of a much higher involvement in the design situation than displayed by a novice or an advanced beginner. Problem solving at this level involves the seeking of opportunities, and of building up expectations. There is an emotional attachment, a feeling of responsibility accompanied by a sense of hope, risk, threat, etc. At this level of involvement, the problem-solving process takes on a trial-and-error character, and there is a clear need for learning and reflection, that was absent in the novice and the beginner. A problem solver that then moves on to be proficient (4) immediately sees the most important issues and appropriate plan, and then reasons out what to do. The real expert (5) responds to specific situation intuitively, and performs the appropriate action, straightaway. There is no problem solving and reasoning that can be distinguished at this level of working. This is actually a very comfortable level to be functioning on, and a lot of professionals do not progress beyond this point. With the next level, the master (6), a new uneasiness creeps in. The master 22

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sees the standard ways of working that experienced professionals use not as natural but as contingent. A master displays a deeper involvement into the professional field as a whole, dwelling on success and failures. This attitude requires an acute sense of context, and an openness to subtle cues. In his/her own work the master will perform more nuanced appropriate actions than the expert. The world discloser (7) or ‘visionary’, consciously strives to extend the domain in which he/she works. The world discloser develops new ways things could be, defines the issues, opens new worlds and creates new domains. To do this a world discloser operates more on the margins of a domain, paying attention to other domains as well, and to anomalies and marginal practices that hold promises for a new vision of the domain. Everybody is at different levels regarding different life issues. There is an evolution of understanding, and SGC offers a suitable stage to all learners at all levels of expertise. In this sense, SGC is a game suite – a sequence of gaming stages. The higher levels in Table 2 are the place: where involvement and reflection come in to change the problem-solving process. This is also where there is a radical shift in the perception and interpretation of the problematic situation: we move from a detached view of an ‘objective’ reality to the involvement and active interpretation of a situation. These fundamentally different ways of looking at problematic situations can actually co-exist in a design project: nobody is an expert on all aspects of design, on some problems we might be novices, at others we might be competent, or experts. Designers display rulefollowing behaviour, as well as the interpretation and reflection that characterise higher levels of expertise at work. (Dorst, 2005)

10. CONCLUSION In addition to the above general conclusions, the following practical conclusions can be made: •

•

The usability of a didactic structure (such as SGC) is high if a sufficient number of adhesive “glue” points along the dramatic axis (horizontal axis in the in the figures) can be retrieved by a maximum of learners who exhibit a frequency distribution of personal profiles at various stages of mastery (Figure 1). It is preferable to design a dynamically self-individualising learning environment in order to become highly auto-adaptive in case of different initial levels in learners. 23

The Turbo Principle in Sustainable and Developmental Learning Design

•

•

Year-long anonymous feedback shows that the learning game “SGC” is positively accepted by the entirety of students exhibiting strongly different profiles and aptitudes (physics, chemistry, geography, economics, business administration) (USW, 2007). The main question to be addressed and answered is: Which sequence of learning framework conditions delivers an optimal learning effect independently of the learners’ initial stage of mastery? – This chapter proposes the following answer: when social structures are created among learners, when institutions and permanent working relations are growing – or if possible – a cyclic rhythm of activities in all learning dimensions is created.

The idea of this paper was to show – while including design literature – that two concepts can be helpful in educational processes: • •

Rhythmising (e.g. in the “turbo engine” concept) as a useful tool to enhance learning efficacy for all types of profile, because the focus lies on relative gain in achievement, not on absolute targets Multi-perspectivism as a necessary means to incorporate all possible views into a holistic concept (especially in interdisciplinary teaching) in order to strengthen student understanding.

The seven “levels of expertise” in section 9 allowed the perception of: Three key process aspects that appear to be common to all designers: 1) taking a broad ‘systems approach’ to a problem, rather than accepting narrow problem criteria; 2) ‘framing’ the problem in a distinctive and sometimes rather personal way; and 3) designing from ‘first principles’. May all readers reach the level of a “world discloser” at their earliest convenience.

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Chapter 2

Management Training Insights Emerging From Spiritual Concerns Matt Fairholm The University of South Dakota, USA

ABSTRACT Traditional management training stresses what could be called the impersonal aspects of organizational life. Managers come to see people as one part of a greater overall organizational system that they can create, control, and change as needed. People become assets to allocate and control. The more personal aspects of peoples’ lives are ignored at best and dismissed at worst. By reshaping or rethinking management training to include the more personal, even spiritual, side of workers, today’s managers will see both productivity improvements as well as more engaged employees. Insights emerging from spiritual concerns can help organizations understand the content and intent of their current training programs in new ways. Such insights even suggest new categories of issues that can drive management training efforts. With this new understanding, managers can prepare themselves to help workers be productive and useful while also helping them find meaning and personal fulfillment in the work.

INTRODUCTION Traditional management in the extreme focuses on making every person, system, activity, program, and policy countable, measurable, and predictable. Given the dramatic changes in the nature of the work we do today – including technological advances, the rise of knowledge workers, and the implications of a multicultural DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch002 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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workforce – managing in the “same way” is a formula for failure. Neither management theory nor the educational and training programs now in place to prepare operational managers for their tasks of control are adequate to meet existing and future demands. Simple observation supports the contention that managers do not merely plan, direct, budget, and the like. In studies of general managers, Kotter (1990) found they spend much of their time interacting personally with workers. The manager’s activities were often unplanned and the result of diversions such as unscheduled meetings and telephone calls. These conversations tended to be short, disjointed, and concerned with a variety of issues and concerns not always easily linked to the “countable” functions of the organization (Mintzberg, 1975). Management is not only about influencing the actions of others in functional, routine, systemic, or procedural ways, but managers are also in the business of influencing, even changing, the values and standards of workers and their corresponding outward behavior. Management is more than it has been made out to be; it involves the intimate and personal as much as or more than the technical and routine (see for example, Norman, 2016; Bondoc, 2016; Fairholm & Gronau, 2015; Kalagnanam & Venne, 2015; Pietersen, 2014; Fairholm, 2013; Fairholm & Fairholm, 2009; Gibbons, 1999; Herzberg, 1984; Korac-Kakabadse, N., Kouzmin, A., & Kakabadse, A., 2002; Schein, 1996; Vaill, 1989). Doing and even defining the work of managers are intensely personal activities (not to mention how workers respond to that managerial work). It engages us in incorporating our whole self, even our spiritual self, into our managerial thoughts and actions. Management training will benefit from including a mindset that accepts both the traditional call to control and the need to be responsive to the core values – the spiritual side – of both manager and employees. The goal is to introduce the reader to theoretical and practical ideas, only recently emergent in professional writings, already present in the workplace about the spiritual elements of the managerial functions and competencies needed to fit the realities of today.

THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN MANAGEMENT THOUGHT In general conversation, we use the term management in two ways stemming from past management definitions. First, management refers to what we do in terms of ensuring controlled, predictable, measurable behavior to achieve a level of productivity. Good managers get things done through the resources provided by the organization, including the people who, traditionally, have been considered only a bundle of skills useful to the organization’s success. Second, management refers to the placement of individuals within the hierarchy of an organization – those with management titles and ranks. This allows them a better view of the systems and resources at 31

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play and allows them access to others who have that enhanced perspective – in essence supervision. We often refer to them as “the management” and it is offered in comparison to those who are not “the management,” meaning in a generic sense “labor.” Therefore, much of the training for managers focuses on the nuts and bolts of getting things done through resources use (including human resources) with emphasis on direction, control, and measurement from a hierarchical position. Traditional training gives attention to the people side of the organizational equation mainly in terms of system and productivity improvements, like motivation, diversity, and group work. However, people are significant in the organization not only because of our physical and technical attributes, but also because of the unique values-sets that define our character and perspective on life (Salehzadeh, R., Pool, J. K., Lashaki, J.K., Dolati, H., & Jamkhaneh, H. B., 2015; Bindlish, Dutt & Pardasani, 2012). In a practical sense, much of the current training on the stuff of people, misses this more personal side of equation. That is what needs to be changed because business is made up of people and people are personal (Chawla, 2016; Vallabh & Singhal, 2014). It is difficult, though, to make these changes given our history of management theory. The modern manager came out of the cauldron of the Industrial Revolution and the creativity of a few pioneer thinkers about the workplace, its operations, and its control. Led by the likes of Taylor (1915) and a few acolytes, modern management practice emerged as a set of principles and practices that were predictive of success in getting other people to do the organization’s work. While the Taylorian model initially advocated increased human freedom in the workplace, that personal, human focus was quickly ignored in the enthusiasm for efficiency and top-down control, which held promise of easily coping with the expanding social, governmental, and business climate. This top-down management model quickly became the sign of American management despite the fact that it is antithetical to both the human psychological and the spiritual makeup of human beings (Wilsey, 1995). Management control of other people’s actions and behaviors is the representation of American management practice (Stoney, 2001). However, the real work of managers must involve relationships as much as rank and routine (Chawla, 2016; Fairholm, 2013). As early as the 1920s, analysts included consideration of a behavioral approach drawing on many of the social science disciplines. The most famous and significant behavioral science approach occurred in the series of so-called Hawthorne Experiments conducted by Elton Mayo (1945). Other research focused on motivation, behavioralism, and group dynamics (Cacioppe, 2000; Cavanaugh, G., Hanson, B., Hanson, K., & Hinojoso, J., 2001; Mintzberg, 1975). Their combined conclusions were to the effect that social variables were as or more important in work relationships than the physical

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or structural variables affecting productivity. The upshot is that the manager needs to be expert in a range of personal functions such as articulating values, building work cultures, and recognizing the power of individual spirit along with traditional ideas of controlling and measuring worker and system performance. Hence, the management training of today needs to keep up.

MANAGERS WORK IN RELATIONSHIP WITH PEOPLE (AND THEIR SPIRITS) As the foregoing discussion suggests, researchers have shown that managers work within relationships – relationships among people, priorities, plans, and even principles. Unless there are these relationships, there is no venue within which to do management. Kouzes and Posner (1993) argue that management is a reciprocal relationship between manager and follower based on mutual needs and interests. The key is that this relationship goes beyond mere organizational structuring. Jacobsen (1994) indicates there is a powerful inference that the manager’s values and management itself are related. Only as we take a more holistic view of the manager’s work can we recognize what makes people tick, what makes them who they are, what makes people work together (or not), what makes people self-motivated, even inspired, or what makes people eager for engagement in a cause. Such things can be embodied by adding to the literature on management the notion of spirit (Zsolnai, 2015; Bindlish, Dutt & Pardasani, 2012). Vasconcelos (2015) even suggests that a spiritually-based organization is an imperative in the emerging millennium. Spiritual management is not related to any one style or model of management but is seen across all aspects of management equally (Zwart, 2000; see also Coleman, 2015). The emphasis is on common elements exhibited over time that shape the relationships between people like values, morals, culture, inspiration, needs, wants, aspirations, hopes, humility, desires, resilience, contemplation, influence, and power (Grandy & Sliwa, 2017; Flores, 2016; Frostenson, 2016; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Burns, 1978; Covey, 1992; DePree, 1989; Greenleaf, 1977; O’Toole, 1996). Therefore, instead of merely seeking predictable, controllable and countable activity over time, spiritual managers recognize the need to integrate the values of all followers into programs and actions that facilitate enhancement of all work community members including their core character-defining spiritual values (Fairholm & Fairholm, 2009). In simple terms, a spiritual focus in “the management” of an organization aligns the personal with the organizational in very distinct ways (Roof, 2015; Brophy, 2015). Managers use their own core values to create a culture that includes the expression of the stakeholder’s whole spiritual self in the workplace (Freshman, 1999). There is a goal of nurturing the whole person at work, not just the economic 33

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self (Krishnakumar & Neck, 2002). Spiritual managers foster values that help people grow to their full potential as they create, live within, and encourage a shared culture based on such values. Managers who do this enhance organizational performance and long-term success (Herman & Gioia, 1998; Neal, J., Bergmann-Lichtenstein, B., & Banner, D., 1999). They facilitate creativity (Freshman, 1999), honesty and trust (Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999), personal fulfillment (Burack, 1999), and commitment to goals (Delbecq, 1999). Spiritual mangers, then, have to create a certain environment for it all to work. In a practical sense, spiritual managers teach values to followers who internalize and express them in their individual behaviors (Tichy & Cohen, 1997). They have a unique capacity to: (1) understand their follower’s powerful spiritual values that energize work community members and the work community itself, and; (2) communicate their own spirituality effectively. In so doing, managers help people to behave at work in ways congruent with their core beliefs, rather than simply acting because they fear hierarchical officials or are motivated by economic gains (Etzioni, 1996). Managers create a culture of trust that allows individuals to act in ways that are supportive of group values and goals while enhancing their self-led activities (Fairholm, 1994; Kouzes & Posner, 1993). The spirit of workers and their related values become the bridge that links individuals or the groups they form with the tasks that are required or expected of the group. Task accomplishment itself is redefined as it becomes dependent upon relationships and spirituality.

Defining Spirituality: How It Impacts the Work of Managers For purposes herein, spirituality is defined (at least partially) as that which draws from the essential human values present in human society around the world and across time that teach us how we humans belong within the greater pattern of events, who we truly are, and how we can realize harmony in life and work (Rockenbach, A. N., Mayhew, M. J., Davidson, J., Ofstein, J., & Bush, R. C., 2015; Heerman, 1995; see also Fairholm, 2011; Wharff, 2004; Zinnbauer, B. J., Pargament, K. I., & Scott, A. B., 1999; Jacobsen, 1994). It is about what makes people the people they are (Mohla & Aggarwal, 2014; Sheldrake, 1991). Based on Jacobsen’s (1994) Delphi study which was confirmed by Fairholm (2011; see also Wharff, 2004), we can further define spirituality in terms of the following elements listed here in order of their significance by survey respondents: •

34

The Source of Personal Meaning: Our spirituality is central in defining and delimiting the meaning of our relationships with things, others, and ourselves; it makes some things important and others not.

Management Training Insights Emerging From Spiritual Concerns

• • •

• •

The Definition of Our Humanness: Spirituality is the name given to that human dimension that separates the human race from all other creatures and is the wellspring for the human being’s creativity and morality. The Essence of Who We Are As Individuals: Spirituality is shorthand for the mature principles, qualities, and values that people implicitly exhibit in their behavior and interactions with others and defines one’s core character. The Force That Enables Human Action: Our spirit is the vital, energizing force or principle in individuals – the motivating force of life itself and is more powerful in determining individual action than company policy, procedures or vision statements The Source of Certainty in an Uncertain World: Our spirituality operationalizes values that guide our normal actions and which are the surest measure of the morality of those actions. The Link to a Higher Power: Spirituality recognizes that something beyond us is as important and apparent as our own limited views of ourselves and hence influences how we view ourselves and how we interact in the world.

Explicitly for some and implicitly for most others, today’s workers are seeking fulfillment on the job (Vaill, 1989) so they really do not separate their spiritual self from their work competencies or work hours. Workers long for their work to have more intrinsic meaning and purpose to add to the physical, mental and spiritual wellbeing for themselves and society (Norman, 2016; Marko, 2002).

MANAGERIAL ACTION AND TRAINING IS NOT WHAT IT USED TO BE These kinds of spiritual concerns have always been with our workers. Traditional management theory found them hard to measure and control (or simply hard to do) and so ignored them. However, the unseen, uncountable elements of work life are as important as the countable things we do – maybe more so. That is, courage, loyalty, commitment, creativity, and character cannot be counted like widgets, but they add more value to the work community than do budget controls, activity reports, unit cost ratios, and productivity measures (see Chawla, 2016). It is clear, then, that to really manage people as “people,” the old theories helping us manage people as “things” really are not very helpful for long-term success. The present need to reinvent management theory and practice highlights the pressing need also to reinvent management training programs. The reality is that managers are moral and spiritual but their theory, practice, and training does not always reflect this fact. Continuing to create executives imbued with a “measurement 35

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and prediction” orientation and focused myopically on honing their control techniques is to relegate managers to the backwater of the modern corporation (Vasconcelos, 2015). Managers need to realize when people engage with people there is a moral and spiritual aspect to the interaction. The following is intended to outline the parameters of this preparation for modern, twenty first-century management and constitutes a suggested outline of the education/ reeducation task facing managers, educators, and training professionals. First is a review of past practices cast within a spiritual management light. The next section is a summary of new practices and frameworks to adopt to implement a spiritual management perspective.

Redefining Past Practices With a New Spiritual Management Orientation Placing “people” towards the center of modern organizational life means changing training curricula to no longer focus on machine-like bureaucratic procedures and measurement skills to get needed work done. Replacing coordination from above with cooperation among peers is needed since we no longer rely necessarily on physical proximity to define who coworkers are and the work being done is increasingly accomplished through digital means. Changes in the nature of the workplace produce tensions and place awkward pressures on traditional structures, on past theory, on the people doing the work, and on the manager. What we did in the past may still need to be done, but done differently. The difference may have the effect of altering the tasks themselves and the training of those tasks. The management expertise today adds a new recognition of deeper issues related to worker’s needs that are to be nurtured in their spiritual and moral dimensions on the job. Among the most common traditional tasks of management practice are those listed below, along with an indication of the added skills a spiritual management orientation might encourage.

Organization This element of management deals with the formal relationships present in the organization that constitute the organization itself. Picturing the organizing function as a diagram (or organization chart) that groups activities and connects them via authority relationships may foster efficiency, but it hampers discussion of what fosters satisfaction of the whole worker (Awais, M., Malik, M. S, & Qaisar, A., 2015). In contrast, spiritual managers reinvent the patterns of formal worker-system relationships as a way to foster human freedom and rights (Pinchot & Pinchot, 1994), not just a reflection of sterile raw materials and product relationships. In traditional 36

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bureaucracies managers do little more than control efforts in their small sphere, with little need to care about what anyone else is doing (Adair, 1986). Spiritual management requires that different organizational structures and management systems are in place so that people, their ideas, and their needs are not lost in the process (Roof, 2015). The prime task of spiritual management is to organize and coordinate these interests and allocate resources in ways that will help the organization survive and prosper, and meet the needs of each stakeholder as well.

Decision-Making Spiritual managers recognize that people work less often in systems of technical routine and more in systems of decision-making and that people use their spiritual core in how (and which) decisions are made. Early general systems theory left us mainly technical and procedural systems and gave only lip service to people systems. However, it became evident a system could also be a social system and have a behavioral orientation (see Pietersen, 2014). As spiritual managers focus on studying whole work systems and the decisions that emerge from them, they inherently see situations and decisions in relationship terms (see Brophy, 2015). When we encourage people to make decisions based on sound principles that the overall system both encourages and teaches, we are involved in spiritual endeavors.

Performance Measurement The early scientific managers developed time study, motion study, and work measurement systems primarily to assess work unit performance against managerset quotas. Some scholars like Deming (1986) denounced traditional measurement systems as devastating in that they nourish short term performance, annihilate long term planning, build fear, demolish teamwork, and encourage rivalry and office politics (see also Mohrman, A., Resnick-West, S., & Lawler, E., 1989). Spiritual managers measure performance, but do so in a different manner (Salehzadeh, R., Pool, J. K., Lashaki, J.K., Dolati, H., & Jamkhaneh, H. B., 2015). Spiritual managers move from simple performance measurement to give consideration to the differences in each individual in level of creativity, depth of job-related knowledge, the level of commitment and dedication to the work and the work community (see Grandy & Sliwa, 2017). They allocate praise and tangible rewards based on improvement in the capacity of each worker during the reporting period. They are able to show each individual what they did to help (or hurt) group performance and then administer positive reinforcement as the situation dictates.

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Planning Traditional planning actions included creating strategic objectives, collecting past, present and future data about the group’s effort, markets and clientele groups, and creating necessary policies and procedures to turn plans into reality. It establishes and defines the boundaries of action and tells us how successfully to behave inside those boundaries. Spiritual managers recognize that their values shape how and what they plan for and that employees’ values shape how they respond to those plans (Brophy, 2015). The spiritual manager’s underlying values are sometimes explicit, but always implicit in planning, decision making, structural design, application of technique, human associations, and in organization theories (Badaracco & Ellsworth, 1992). Because individual and community values systems are so powerful in shaping behavior, modern managers take action (consciously or unconsciously) to frame stakeholder values – via persuasion, training, policy, advertising, symbols, conversation, procedures, sanction systems, friendships – in their plans and in almost every other interaction with stakeholders.

Control Spiritual managers are able to exert control in the work environment by helping others control themselves (Covey, 1992). Traditionally, the control process was about imposing control mechanisms externally upon workers and processes to elicit predictable results. Part of the conclusions of several early writers (see for example, Dowd, 1936; P. Drucker, 1954; Gouldner, 1954; Taylor, 1915) serve to highlight the importance of the value of control that undergirds manager actions to improve efficiency and, frankly, controllability. The modern spiritual manager, in contrast, exercises control by trying to make every person, system, activity, program, and policy serve their worker’s human needs and by encouraging workers to control their own overt behavior to be congruent with the appropriate work needed.

Direction Directing others includes ideas like guidance and decision making and is useful in delineating the managerial function (see Drucker, 1966; Price, 1965). However, direction has a top-down, even coercive, undertone. Spiritual managers concerned with the whole person of their workers share the tasks of direction with members of their work community (who traditionally have only received direction) thereby minimizing this negative component (Kalagnanam & Venne, 2015).

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Incentivization Incentivization involves the manager’s interaction with followers to offer aggregate rewards (incentives) to motivate coworkers, regardless of indivdual needs, concerns, or reward valence (Drucker, 1954; House, 1996; Kohn, 1993). Incentivizing workers is providing a spark to stimulate, move, and encourage workers to strive for work group success. Spiritual managers downgrade the importance of aggregated incentives and focus not just on tangible or monetary incentives, but include efforts to meet the values, emotional, spiritual and social needs of individual workers as part of their everyday work (Roof, 2015). They realize that control based on aggregated assumptions about what may get people to work harder may miss the more personal (and more impactful) aspects of motivation and inspiration.

FOUR OVERARCHING SPIRITUAL MANAGEMENT TRAINING CATEGORIES The needed training of new spiritual managers involves a variety of issues, all of which helps sensitize them to their personal spiritual power and that of each follower. To manage from a spirit base, managers need to learn to understand their own specific spiritual values and identify and prioritize them. They also need to learn that each employee possesses the same kinds of values, though perhaps in a different set of rankings (see Rokeach, 1979). What really motivates people in the workplace is not bombast, bonuses, or balloons, but making a meaningful contribution to self and to others through their work (see Norman, 2016; DePree, 1989; Greenleaf, 1977; Hawley, 1993). Spiritual management does not just recast old models (as described above) but also suggests new processes guiding managerial actions in work. Outlined below are four distinct technologies (or things to do well) in a spiritual management perspective that are qualitatively different from traditional management training models (see Fairholm & Gronau, 2015). These are further developed by specific skills needed to do each well. While a detailed map of implementing these ideas is not given herein, this overall review provides the foundation of training and implementation programs for the future. A summary of these training categories and tips for actual training modules is found in Table 1.

Building Community Spiritual management recognizes the simultaneous need we all have to be free to act in terms of our own individuality and to be part of a similarly-focused work community. A spirit-based reorientation of management training supports the creation 39

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Table 1. Summary of Spiritual Management Training Categories Training Category

Main Idea of Category

Training Objectives

Training Foci/ Activities

Building Community

Developing quality relationships within work groups rather than mere membership in them.

• Creating and Building Relationships • Learning to Manage via Interaction • Trusting • Inspiring • Achieving Resilience

• Common courtesy; individual concern • Management by Walking Around • Vulnerable trust • Inspiration vs motivation • Confidence / purpose in work

Maintaining Stewardship

Viewing management of a work group as held in trust like a stewardship for a temporary period without a sense of entitlement to the position.

• Training Managers to Be Knowledge Workers • Serving • Developing Task Competence • Empowering • Engaging in Self-Reflection

• Review work group, work trends; generational differences • Servant leadership • Continual life-long learning • Empowerment vs delegation • Reflection-in-action; Learning as transformation

Fostering Wholeness

A concern with the whole person, not just the specific skills a worker may have that might be useful in accomplishing the current work being done.

• Learning How to Transform Individual Workers • Becoming Comfortable in Using Intimate Spiritual Values • Learning to Focus First on the Manager’s Spirit • Learning to Contemplate

• Transactional vs transformational leadership • Authentic leadership / emotional intelligence • Personal mission statements / self-deception • Purpose, stillness, mindfulness, interconnectedness

Setting High Moral Standards

Seeing management as requiring a focus on higher-order standards of behavior, moral discernment, and corresponding examples of behavior and morality.

• Acquiring a Spiritual Mindset • Teaching • Encouraging Self Control • Visioning • Living in Humility

• Cultural awareness training • Communication and coaching • Sources of power, personal power • Meaning making through clear messages, stories, and symbols • Edification of others, cooperation

of unifying work communities that effectively counter tendencies toward worker disaffection. Membership in such a community invigorates members’ lives and provides purpose and a feeling of belonging to a work community doing something worthwhile. However, spiritual managers build work community relationship, not just membership. Building community drives out factions and factionalism (Zemke, 1999) and fully directs work community energy to goals that members share. Community is a powerful force that impacts the life of members both as individuals and in their associations with coworkers. Spiritual mangers help others be united and included which is why such results are called community. Hence, spiritual managers are mood setters as well as task givers; they bring people together. Spirit-based managing denotes the creation of harmony from often diverse, sometimes opposing,

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human, organizational, and program factors: of making one out of many. Spiritual managers realize that people are social and much of that interaction is based on a desire to unite with others.

Creating and Building Relationships Management is a reciprocal, interpersonal relationship between those who choose to direct others and those who choose to follow (Fairholm, 2013; Kouzes & Posner, 1993). Unless we have a relationship based on mutual values, there is no venue within which to practice spiritual management. Reducing things like stress (Reichel & Neumann, 1993) and enhancing things like effective communication (Hackman & Johnson, 1991), create an environment in which workers would want to help each other rather than work against each other (Deckop, J. R., Cirka, C. C., & Andersson, L. M., 2003). The bottom line is that people individually or collectively experience spiritual managers only in the way they experience the reciprocal relationship based on shared values and meaning. The focus for such training revolves around extending common courtesy and individual concern; that concern for the work product cannot be the only concern of management and that some important measures cannot be easily quantifiable.

Learning to Manage Through Interaction Management has traditionally been about controlling action. Spirit-based management is about influencing through interactions. Jacobsen 1994 encoruages interactions in which people are aware that they exist in a state of interconnectedness with all life and seek to live in a manner which nourishes and honors that relationship at all levels of activity. It is a relationship that often cannot be buttressed by tangible system or procedure. Helping individual managers come to that realization and becoming comfortable in managing in terms of emotions, human need and accommodating the inevitable biases of an increasingly diverse work force will require training most management development programs have not included in their curricula (Kalagnanam & Venne, 2015). The focus on training should be in getting managers to step out of their office and engage with the worker routinely. Management by walking around is a good start. Replacing work floor visits for an open door policy is another. Going to the workers is preferred to having the workers come to you.

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Trusting Lund’s (2002) study of transcendence depicted spirituality as work experiences that exceed everyday meaning by facilitating meaningful, interactive trust relationships. Trust is an expression of our faith in the integrity or strength of the potential behavior of another person (Batten, 1989) and cannot be coerced; it must be earned. While involving risk, trust requires the manager to rely on the essential authenticity of followers (see Lencioni, 2002). They need to trust their followers’ talent, commitment, and capacity to do work independently and, perhaps, in different ways than the manager would do the work. Trust is intimately linked to the idea of self-controlled, empowered followers who find transcendence and spirituality in cooperative relationship where work is done well. The training focus here is to differentiate transactional trust with the kind of trust that allows us to be vulnerable, where we all feel we have each other’s backs even in the face of conflict or disagreement.

Inspiring Inspiration is a complex technique managers use to re-energize followers and to link them together in joint action (Thompson, 2000). Simply put, inspiration is using symbols – words, ideas, information, and deeds – to convey a sense of connection, excitement, and commitment to goals or methods. Inspiration goes beyond motivation in appealing to a collective human spiritual need to be part of and engaged with others in lofty enterprise. It draws on something deep within the individual that strikes a responsive chord that offers what becomes eventually an intuitive direction (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978; Maccoby, 1981; Peters & Waterman, 1982). Training should suggest that motivation is not the same as inspiration. The latter focuses much more on the employee choosing to be aligned with the purposes of the work group rather than being moved upon by outside forces such as manager incentives or rewards.

Achieving Individual and Organizational Resilience Beyond the productivity issues of high turnover, stress, and low morale, management of the past focuses little on the wear and tear that stress, adversity, uncertainty and overwork place upon the organization as a whole and the individuals within them. Such are not easily quantifiable and hence not easily controllable. Looking at how people and their work communities can become resilient in the face of difficulties is a spiritual view of organizational health; it goes beyond the impact on bottomlines. Resilience, an element of the positive psychology literature, is integrally

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linked to spirituality (Vasconcelos, 2015) and helps us cope with the inevitable uncertainties and misfortunes of collective activity. Linking spirituality, resilience, and leadership Flores (2016) shows an emerging sense that a spiritual sense to organizational endeavors and transformational approaches to leadership increase people’s resilience and enhances organizational performance. Training should help managers realize that as workers find comfort and confidence in themselves and their work, their capacity to deal with difficulties increases and benefits themselves and their work communities.

Maintaining Stewardship Spiritual management frames “managing” in stewardship terms (Bradford & Cohen, 1984), a concept largely ignored in traditional training programs, but one essential in spiritual management. Stewardship involves trust, trusteeship, and accountability. Spiritual mangers see their role as stewards with responsibility for the success of others. Biblical accounts (Friedman, 2004) ascribe to stewardship the idea of using effectively each individual’s natural talents and gifts to good effect. Block (1993) describes stewardship as a behavior pattern of service by communities and individual members who come to know what needs to be done and how it is to be done and then collectively do it (Fairholm, 1997; Marcic, 1997; Senge & Carstedt, 2001). Therefore, stewardship creates powerful feelings of co-ownership. Steward-managers may propose plans, choices, and programs, but followers have an opportunity to consent before the actions taken are generally accepted. Spiritual managers recognize they are not entitled to any position of influence but rather that their influence is held in trust by others for a period of time, determined by the people more than by hierarchical authority.

Training Managers to Be Knowledge Workers Management practice has for a hundred years been things – not people – oriented. Much of the work of modern managers is to produce information, facts, and ideas as both raw material for and the product of their labor. While the traditional managerial goal is to focus workers only on the work defined in their position description, the spiritual manager recognizes that manipulation of knowledge requires flexibility, adaptability, and sometimes even waste (in a managerial sense) that is often the result of risk or creativity. In real ways, spiritual managers realize that information both forms us (as people and institutions) and informs us and the work we do (see Wheatley, 2006). The training focus needs to identify the emerging trends in the workplace and the type of employees currently prepared for the workforce. Generational differences can also be a valuable addition to training in this area. 43

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Serving A quality that sets spiritual managers apart from their more traditional counterparts is that they see themselves as “in-service-to” those they manage. This is a reversal of the conventional wisdom that employees serve the manager (Greenleaf, 1977). Managing is about choosing to serve others and making necessary resources available to them that help them attain their purposes and that give meaning to their work. Spiritual managers see themselves as servants of those engaged in the work; their efforts are more service oriented and less technically oriented. They endeavor to serve the real needs of followers, not merely superficial ones in a superficial way. Classic servant leadership training activities can form the foundation of the training experiences in this area.

Developing Task Competence Spiritual managers know the details of the work being done; they do not have to be experts in any of the details of the work, but they need to know intuitively how to do it and when it is done well. Knowing what the work entails is a part of the spiritual manager’s preparation and necessary for success in a stewardship mode. While managers often send others to training, the manager also needs to work on personal development and improvement in traditional and future-oriented work techniques.

Empowering No one is powerless, though some (either with a misunderstanding of real management or a desire to dictate) work very hard at making people think so. The obvious key to empowering coworkers is to share power with them. It is to enable rather than simply to delegate. It involves helping people feel significant, aiding them in learning, involving them in group actions, and making work exciting (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Empowering coworkers adds their combined power to that of the manager. It allows others to flourish while putting into practice other spiritual management ideas like teamwork, transformation, and trust. An important training focus is to make clear that delegating a task is not the same as empowering an employee. The empowering idea cannot be a façade for more managerial control dressed in purported job enhancements.

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Engaging in Self-Reflection Often the lure of authority focuses more on gain, raw power, and compulsion in managerial work rather than a sense of trust and service envisioned by stewardship ideas. Hence, the need for self-reflection becomes an imperative to deflect the selfish tendencies of hierarchical authority. Knapp et. al. (2017) defines self-reflection as differing from mere rumination about oneself in that it “looks at specific behaviors or experiences and leads to insight and changes in one’s behaviors or attitudes” (p. 167). Such focus requires a desire to overcome personal blind spots in an effort to deal more effectively with others (see Fairholm, 2013). As spirituality often reveals itself in the connections we feel with others and the transcendent in our lives, selfreflection is a “means of connecting with others and communities” (Rockenbach, A. N., Mayhew, M. J., Davidson, J., Ofstein, J., & Bush, R. C., 2015). The ideas of reflection-in-action (Schön, 1983) and learning as transformation (Mezirow, 2000) can shape the training of managers to overcome personal deficiencies in favor of working with others in ways that maintains the virtues of stewardship.

Fostering Wholeness Spiritual managers are concerned with the whole person, not just the specific skills a worker may have that might be useful in accomplishing the current work being done. In this context wholeness is defined as the increasing ability to discover and use all of our qualities to enhance the manager’s life and that of his or her followers. This aspect of training spiritual managers encourages them to consider what the individual coworker can now do, what they want to do, and what their capacity is to prepare for this more inclusive work. They are also concerned with each worker’s family, social, civic, and past-time skills whether or not they bear directly on current work. Wholeness is the goal of spiritual mangers; not disintegration (see Rockenbach, A. N., Mayhew, M. J., Davidson, J., Ofstein, J., & Bush, R. C., 2015). The spirit ought not to be parsed; it ought to be upheld and encouraged.

Learning How to Transform Individual Workers Traditionally, many people think the relationship between managers and followers is transactional. On the other hand, spiritual management describes a situation in which the manager needs to choose a vision grounded in his or her spirituality and recognize the followers’ values and strengths with the intent of mutual stimulation and elevation that transforms followers into co-managers and more significant moral agents (Burns, 1978). Such transforming implies changing the individual as well as the group to enable managers and followers to reach higher levels of 45

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accomplishment, ethical aspirations, and self-motivation. It releases human potential for the collective pursuit of common goals. Spiritual management focuses first on improving the manager’s own sense of self, his or her spirituality, and integrity as a precursor to elevating the spirit of others. The training emphasis here should address the differences between transactional and transforming leadership as discussed by Burns (1978) and ideas of transformational leadership as discussed by Bass and Avolio (1994).

Becoming Comfortable in Using Intimate Spiritual Values There is an especially strong tendency in Western culture to identify spirituality exclusively as an intimate individual phenomenon. People are hungry to have their whole needs considered in their on-the-job relationships yet fear offending their coworkers or causing acrimony if they try to introduce spiritual values at work (Pietersen, 2014; Bindlish, Dutt, & Pardasani, 2012). Some people are wary of using the words spirituality or soul, fearing it is inappropriate and unprofessional (Mohla & Aggarwal, 2014). However, as followers see their bosses deal with them authentically across the full range of their desires and needs, they respond. Facing up to the fact that people’s values and their corresponding spirituality influence their thoughts and actions is the foundation of doing spiritual management. Emotional intelligence and authentic leadership are both worthy topics of training in this area of focus.

Learning to Focus First on the Manager’s Spirit The transformation that takes place through spiritual managing starts as the manger focuses on his/her own spirit and allows that example to flourish in the lives he/she can influence. Kouzes & Posner (1993) found that the qualities of integrity, inspiration, and competence are the three most enduring characteristics that employees seek in a manager. These characteristics come from the integrated, spiritual manager. They are not learned, in the normal sense of that term, rather they are acquired from experience. When managers act from their spiritual core self, the act of managing has a transforming effect on them and others with whom they relate, raising the level of human conduct and ethical aspirations of both (Burns, 1978). The training here should revolve around the idea of creating a personal mission statement that encourages introspection by the manager. Another focus should be a discussion of the follies of self-deception in the workplace (Arbinger Institute, 2015).

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Learning to Contemplate Spirit-based management recognizes the need think about the managers themselves, the workers, and the interconnectedness of work and workers. Learning to contemplate about how work and life fit together is a skill of such managers. Grandy and Sliwa (2017): “consider contemplative leadership as strongly linked to organizational, broader community, and societal contexts” (p. 426). They suggest certain management training elements as they cite Nolan’s (2013) work summarizing eight areas of contemplative leadership: clear purpose; altruism; interconnectedness; balance between emotion and reason in articulation; cultivation of stillness; self and other awareness; mindfulness; and contagious joy. Recognizing these elements brings the manager out from under mere production concerns and helps them realize the whole context within which the organization and its workers operate.

Setting High Moral Standards Spiritual managers set and live by a higher moral standard and ask followers to share that standard. They have ethical “presence” and provide followers with socially valuable meanings for the work asked of them. Managing based on spiritual values requires a focus on higher-order standards of behavior, moral discernment, and corresponding examples of behavior and morality. Since each of us sets our own moral standards, the real managing task is to help coworkers use their inner spirit as managers do the same. Spiritual managers take pains to understand – and see that stakeholders also understand – the natural and logical consequences that flow from their actions. Spiritual mangers help others to define for themselves their moral standards and remind others that a spiritual focus can help in that endeavor.

Acquiring a Spiritual Mindset A key factor in successful spiritual management is our understanding that each of us filters our perceptions of work, of the manager, and of managerial practice through our personal values and our experience within our unique cultural background (Rokeach, 1979). Our sense of spirit defines us, determines our guiding values, is central to philosophy, and directs our intimate and important choices and actions (Burack, 1999). To leave it out of our thinking about management is to diminish, perhaps to irrelevance, current theory and unnecessarily constrain our potential success. Training effective spiritual managers requires that they understand that one’s personal cultural-life filter has a powerful life of its own (Rockenbach, A. N., Mayhew, M. J., Davidson, J., Ofstein, J., & Bush, R. C., 2015). Managers must be 47

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trained to see each worker as a whole person with a variety of capacities and attributes that invariably go beyond the narrow confines of job needs or position descriptions and use this knowledge as they build a unique work community prioritizing shared spiritual values. Training in this area can focus on the cultural differences and commonalities that exist in the workplace, and on the insights gained from other than western civilization orientations where the mind, body, and soul are often less ignored (see Alok, 2017).

Teaching Spiritual managers build others by teaching them the principles, values, and techniques incident to their collective effort. Teaching is communicating with someone to inform, persuade, and or to inspire them to adopt some new technique or acquire some new way of processing information that can be put into practice (see Tichy & Cohen, 1997). Spiritual managers also teach by giving voice to the work community’s shared values. They consistently teach the values by reflecting them in both oral and written contacts with stakeholders, and serve as examples of desired behavior, attitudes, and actions – all of which are fundamental teaching tasks. The ability to communicate and coach others is a training focus in this area.

Encouraging Self Control Spirit-based managing eschews the managerial mantra of total control for one that enthusiastically accepts the reality of continuous growth for diverse followers. It is hard to persuade someone to let go of control, but that is what spiritual management demands. Managers must look deeply into their inner self to engage in a process of defining and disciplining their personal values (Covey, 1992). People who undergo this self-analysis learn to become managers of others by serving them, by helping them develop the same desire to control their own action. Teaching self-control is the mainstay of spiritual managers as they help others know who they are and what they should do on their own. Training in this area can focus on the varying sources of power that a person may claim and recognize, thereby, that a sense of power and control over oneself is achievable and meaningful.

Visioning Spiritual managers see themselves and their group in terms of their present and future potential as well as their spiritual and intellectual traditions. Most often this perception is demonstrated as managers set and maintain the vision for the work

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community. The source of the manager’s vision is his or her individual spiritual sense applied to the work at hand, with or without follower input (Cober, Hacker, & Johnston, 1998). Visions heighten the level of consciousness each has about their work’s purpose, and crystallize what they want to create through work. The focus of training should be not only on the process of creating vision statements, but more importantly on the power of vision stories that create a picture in the minds of workers about the purpose and meaning of the collective work effort. A focus on the power of story, symbol, and attention to meaning is key in this training effort.

Living in Humility Setting moral standards can seem a daunting task in a world where morality is often dismissed or deemed in decline (Fairholm & Fairholm, 2000). Worse yet, setting moral standards can be dangerous if the standards are not actually moral. It is reasonable to suggest, therefore, that a certain level of humility is required to engage in leadership that intends to edify and ennoble the spirit of others. Humility is linked to business success (Collins, 2001) and to navigating the inevitably cooperative nature of business itself (Frostenson, 2016). While interdisciplinary research helps us understand the practical benefits of humility better (Wolfteich, C. E., Keefe-Perry, C., Sandage, S. & Paine, D. R., 2017), the basic idea is to recognize that many are involved in organizational success. Spirit-based mangers do not deny their role in the activities of the organization, but they do recognize that others play a part too – and sometimes are more integral part to success than the managers themselves. Tempering their own spirit to avoid the pitfalls of pride and building others up in the work they do are skills to be taught to managers with great benefit.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Modern management techniques have tried to make management measurable, controllable, precise, predictable, and repeatable. This bias of traditional management theory has given us a legacy that often dismisses the activities of social interaction which is not always done in easily measurable or predictable ways. Many researchers cited herein have provided the foundation for future research exploring the power and impact of our spirituality on group work, productivity, performance, and the like. Organizational surveys dealing with the impact of personal values of manager and employees on compliance with official policy are certainly in order. Also in order, however, are research designs that explore the inner motivations and inspirations of people whether at work or not, and whether such personal issues are altered in the public and private spheres (Norman, 2016; Roof, 2017; Chawla, 2016; Awais, 49

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M., Malik, M. S, & Qaisar, A., 2015; Salehzadeh, R., Pool, J. K., Lashaki, J.K., Dolati, H., & Jamkhaneh, H. B., 2015; Pietersen, 2014). Even further research can be conducted to investigate the capacity for organizational systems to both recognize and impact the spirit of group members (see Bondoc, 2016; Coleman, 2015; Vaill, 1989). Incorporating the ideas of spiritual management into curriculum and training agendas is also a work for researchers and practitioners. Management research can stretch itself beyond performance indicators and the human relations movement towards the variables of personal integrity and core values with much profit (Frostenson, 2016). Traditional managers have not been trained to inspire, nor are their systems and theories geared to encouraging independent follower action. Rather, traditional managers are successful if they can direct desired behavior, control deviation, and punish recalcitrance. This propensity for control through uniformity is seen in our organizational structures, operating systems, reports, and management approaches. But as the authority of management spreads itself over the organization, quality deteriorates. Management shuns excellence. It thrives on repeatable performance geared to the lowest skilled employee. Management devoid of a spiritual focus inevitably and necessarily produces work products and workers with little “genius,” and a propensity toward controllable mediocrity. However useful traditional management theory is, we must add to it a renewed focus on the person and people involved. Ensuring controllable structures, routine, and machine-like efficiency does not create – individuals do. Past management theory and training has tried to take the person out of the equation. Phrases like, “Nothing personal, just business,” still ring loud and clear. But it does not really ring true (and maybe never has), for business is about and with and for and through people who more and more are taking their work personally. Spiritual management ideas and techniques as outlined herein are a start in the mission of adding to (and supplanting some) management theory and skills. The goal continues to be able to have productive and useful organizations for collective activity, but now also includes having meaningful, personal, and fulfilling organizations as well.

REFERENCES Adair, J. (1986). Effective teambuilding. Brookfield, VT: Gower Publishing. Alok, K. (2017). Sāttvika leadership: An Indian model of positive leadership. Journal of Business Ethics, 142(1), 117–138. doi:10.100710551-015-2790-2 Arbinger Institute. (2015). Leadership and self-deception: getting out of the box (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.

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Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. New York: Paulist Press. Hackman, M. Z., & Johnson, C. E. (1991). Leadership: A communication perspective. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Hawley, J. (1993). Reawakening the spirit in work: The power of dharmic management. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Heerman, B. (1995). Spiritual core is essential to high performing teams. New Leader (New York, N.Y.), 2, 4–5. Herman, R., & Gioia, J. (1998). Making work meaningful: Secrets of the futurefocused organization. The Futurist, 32(9), 24–38. Herzberg, F. (1984). Mystery systems shape loyalties. Industry Week, 12(November), 101–104. House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: An examination of a prescriptive theory. The Leadership Quarterly, (7): 323–352. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(96)900247 Jacobsen, S. E. (1994). Spirituality and transformational leadership in secular settings: a delphi study (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Seattle University. Kalagnanam, S., & Venne, R. (2015). Management control in a spiritually–charged organisation. International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management, 10(1), 1–15. doi:10.1504/IJICBM.2015.066113 Kohn, A. (1993). Punished by rewards: the trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s praise, and other bribes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Korac-Kakabadse, N., Kouzmin, A., & Kakabadse, A. (2002). Spirituality and leadership praxis. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 165–182. doi:10.1108/02683940210423079 Kotter, J. P. (1990). What leaders really do. Harvard Business Review, 68(3), 103–111. PMID:10104518 Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1993). The credibility factor. Healthcare Forum, 36(4), 16–21. PMID:10127049 Krishnakumar, S., & Neck, C. (2002). The what, why and how of spirituality in the workplace. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(3), 1153–1184. doi:10.1108/02683940210423060

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Chapter 3

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests: Drupal CMS, Google Forms, Learningapps Svetlana Vasileva Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Ivelina Yoveva Varna University of Management, Bulgaria Marinela Goranova Dimitar Talev High School, Bulgaria

ABSTRACT The implementation of information technology (IT) in the process of studying different subject areas, the realization of the possibilities of the educational information interaction, and the potential of the allocated informative resource of the local and global networks are main tasks for the contemporary lecturer. By solving these tasks, the intellectual potential of the learner can be developed and not only habits for selfacquisition of knowledge can be attained but also skills for obtaining, processing, transmition, and production of the necessary information. The authors’ purpose is to showcase the rich capabilities of some freely available web applications and platforms such as the content management system (CMS), in particular CMS Drupal for the creation of educational web sites and electronic learning materials. Some of the newest specialized applications such as Google Forms and LearningApps for creating electronic tests and integrating the educational game approach to IT training have also been explored. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch003 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

INTRODUCTION The formation of knowledge-based information and communication environment is a basic manifestation of global computerization. In its foundation stands the man capable of studying the new and creatively presenting it to the others, the person involved in the process of creation and use of new knowledge (Robert, Panyukova, Kuznetcov, & Kravcova, 2008). Such a specialist is formed only through an educational system aimed at expanded development of individual creative abilities. This is an educational system aimed at the future and, in this sense, becoming a leading factor for the economic development of society. An educational system that prepares not only qualified staff for whom knowledge is the most important source of personality development but personnel with skills for acquiring, processing, using (implementing) and spreading knowledge as basic (formal) competences. In other words, in the basis of such an educational system is the informatization. The informatization of the society and the informatization of education become mutual and aiming. In the context of the modern information society and in the context of national educational strategies of countries, such issues as the development of e-learning materials become important for both the educational theory and for the world and national practice. In this book chapter we are guided by the statement that Education in all time ... works in an innovative regime (Knodel, 2014) and the concept that the education category is related to the concepts of “training”, “development” and “innovation” (Knodel, 2014). If 20-30 years ago, the main teaching materials were made on paper, today the training is inconceivable without developed free information systems, ensuring the use of all the information masses currently available to the public. Lately, there is almost no university, which does not open major in the distance learning form. It is a fact that many professors on their university web sites continuously publish study materials and teaching aids to help students. In most cases, published training materials are “static” - as PDF files or text files that have included pictures and charts. But the Internet provides much more options than the electronic form of printed books and supplies. Internet offers various free and easy-to-use by nonprogrammers electronic platforms for textbook creation, also platforms for creating electronic tests and educational games on a competitive principle. This book chapter looks at examples of using Content Management Systems (CMS) for creation of electronic learning tools and tests. A detailed example of how to use Drupal CMS to create eTextbook and eTest will be discussed. Since the authors’ purpose is to show free web applications (web sites), by which not only academic lecturers, but primary and secondary school teachers can diversify teaching using skillfully

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racing games, we will look at two new web applications: Google forms developed by Google (mainly used for consumer opinion surveys and statistics collection) and LearningAps developed by Pädagogische Hochschule PHBern (Learningapps.org).

BACKGROUND Electronic Textbook (eTextbook) is a methodological complex designed to study the course material. It is an integrated tool containing theory, practice, tasks and other components (Iavich, 2012). When creating an eTextbook (Iavich, 2012), the authors/tutors should note that it must contain minimal text, because lengthy reading of text on the computer screen is tiring and reduces the level of perception of new information. In addition to the color scheme/range of colors (so that at reading the colors do not overstrain the student’s teachings, but even soothe it), it is very important and right to select text fonts according to the theory of fonts. The electronic textbooks should contain as many graphical images as they are much better at absorbing and perceiving information when reading illustrated textbooks (Iavich, 2012). The electronic textbook, unlike the print edition, possesses the following attributes that appeal to the teachers (Iliev & Vasileva, 2014), (Vul, 2002): • • •

• • •

•

A more detailed structure of the course in general and of the course content. The course is divided in small blocks (pages). Interactivity: The opportunity to change the presentation of the material depending on the learner’s actions and also the opportunity to change the trajectory of training by user-friendly navigation system, allowing the student easy to “move” in the course. Availability of various illustrations: Drawings, pictures, charts, graphs, photo, audio and video fragments, animation and other multimedia applications. Availability of glossary (autonomous reference material) and links to glossary developed for a course separate from its modules. Availability of subsystem and control of various practical activities to reinforce the knowledge, self-control and evaluation of the knowledge embedded in the electronic textbook (tests, exercises, creative, individual and group assignments, etc.). Developed system of links (hyperlinks): Internal hypertext structure of the theoretical material in the conceptual part of the course (links to definitions) and the logical structure of the exhibition (sequence relationship between the parts); external in the textual material of various electronic text, graphic

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educational materials and Internet sites: literary and scientific sources, electronic libraries, dictionaries, reference books and other educational and scientific resources available online, including remote databases, numerous conferences worldwide via the Internet. Creating an eTextbook is a laborious process that is very different from the traditional textbook creation process. Carefully designing and maximizing the benefits of modern IT is required to achieve the goals set by educators who are the authors of the eTextbook. Because eTextbook is mainly used for self-study, it is a self-instructor. In this regard, the eTextbook should allow for individualized learning (Iavich, 2012). Unlike the traditional textbook, eTextbook draws eLearning to a study with a lecturer. This combination of self-learning with a teacher training makes the interactive electronic self-tutor much more attractive and more effective for both schoolchildren, university students and for all who upgrade their qualifications or are simply in the “Life Long Learning” program. Another advantage of the eTextbook is that it is extremely compact and mobile: •

•

• •

•

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When Realized Through Physical Media: External memory with a small physical size (external hard drive, flash memory, CD/DVD) can store a huge amount of information (from 700MB to 1TB). On a portable media such as flash memory, a whole library of traditional textbooks can be stored. (Iavich, 2012). Every IT literate lecturer can easily set up an eTextbook on his training program, make small edits of some parts of the textbook, or combine several eTextbooks into one (Iavich, 2012) time of the day to provide the textbook to his students by sending it to eMail, Skype, Messenger or other web applications that allow sending files. When Implementing an Educational Website: Publishing the eTextbook on the Internet as an educational website makes the textbook accessible to the public - not just for the students’ teacher. Other eTextbook benefits in the form of a website are: It does not age physically with time; Creating and publishing eTextbooks, such as websites does not require financial resources, especially if they are delivered by the lecturers themselves using free CMS and posted on the educational institution website or using free sites or free web space (such as WordPress provided by CMS); eTextbooks realized as websites may have built-in tests (such as Drupal CMS for performing tests with different types of questions). This gives a natural opportunity for teachers to complete self-examination test section for students after each class/lesson (this is an opportunity for the student to check how he/

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

•

•

she has mastered the reading material) and also to assess the knowledge and skills of the students at the end of the school term/semester; The student and the teacher can instantly find what they are looking for (section, lesson, definition, test or other type of information on the website) using the search system. Additionally, it is easy to improve the readability of eTextbooks by increasing font size or by changing its color (Iavich, 2012); eTextbooks as the primary learning tool of eLearning systems solves such problems in the modern world as (Iavich, 2012): ◦◦ The Distance Problem: The most prestigious schools are located in large cities and for the people living in remote regions wishing to “receive prestigious education” or simply “attend” educational courses offered by such educational establishments (schools, colleges, universities) this is a problem; ◦◦ The Time Problem: The specialists usually have a busy work schedule and rarely have time to upgrade their skills; ◦◦ The Level of Learning Problem: In a group of trainees, a different level of learning is often observed, and for many students it is necessary to ensure an individual pace of training; ◦◦ The Money Issue: Most young people have no money to fund their university studies, or to improve their level of knowledge.

Today, distance learning (eLearning in particular) is an extremely popular tool for acquiring education around the world, and this requires not only the creation of a large number of electronic learning tools, in particular electronic textbooks, but also careful planning and designing the processes of creating educational websites and eTextbooks. Therefore, all those involved in the process of realization of eLearning system (heads of educational institutions, educators, developers of educational websites and eTextbooks), in the design and development of electronic learning materials should also take into account the following shortcomings of the electronic means (Iavich, 2012): • • •

•

Technical Problems: Need for additional equipment, mainly, computers and multimedia (speakers, microphone, etc.); Hygiene and Health Problems: Fatigue related to screen reading; Social and Psychological Problems: Children and youngsters using eTextbooks only gradually reduce the time for real/human communication with their peers; therefore, eTextbooks for children should only be used as an additional method of training (a complementary/training aid); Financial Problems: Still the prices of electronic learning tools (as a software type) are well above the prices of traditional textbooks (labor costs). 63

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Since one of the purposes of writing the book chapter is to showcase the possibilities of modern CMS to create eTextbooks by teachers themselves, who usually are not programmers and/or web developers, we will look at the core components and elements of an eTextbook as an educational website. The structure of an educational website is similar to the structure of all other websites. In the basis of the site are tacit, generally accepted standards, which create convenience for any average consumer. It is the author’s right to choose for the site to contain some element or not. The element may be mandatory or not for the different groups of visitors. But there is a group of elements and components that necessarily have a place on an educational website to ensure its appearance, its easyness to work with (so that users do not distract themselves, not worry unnecessarily and the website content to be useful in academic work) and easyness to manage. Components and Elements of Educational Websites: The component is an integral part of the website object and the element forms that integral part. For example, one page of a site is a component of the site and the title, buttons, text links on the page are its elements (Vul, 2002; Beljaev, 2012; Iliev, 2013): •

•

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Compulsory Elements for all components of an educational site are: ◦◦ Headline: Because the educational website is on the web, whether global or local, the search systems can fit on any page of the site by reading the title and/or the hyperlinks from the text with site content or otherwise; ◦◦ Link to the Main Page of the Site: By viewing the information on any page of the site, the user should be able to understand more about where he is and what he can find on the site. Based on this, the user does not need to manually enter the address of the home page; ◦◦ Other Keys and Navigation: The main options are: “Up”, “Next”, etc.; ◦◦ Make Home Page and Add to Favorites Buttons: If a user, for one reason or another, needs frequent and quick access to the page material, he/she needs to be given the opportunity so that in the future he will not have to look for the page throughout the site. Required Components for an educational website are: ◦◦ Home Page: Designed to inform the user about where they are going and what they can find on the site. The design of the main page must, unconditionally, be different from that of the other pages. Of course, all pages must be designed in one style but there are also differences. It is better if the design on the first page indicates that it is a site with an educational resource. This task has the following elements: ▪▪ Larger logo of the organization, its name and the name of the site;

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

▪▪

◦◦

Catalog with the main content of the site - list of the highest level of the hierarchy allows navigation from the first page. For the same purpose, links and a navigation system including a link to the content of the site, should be present on the first page. ▪▪ At the request of the site developer, a brief summary of the main news can be found on the first page. The first page is the only acceptable place to post news (unless, of course, they are separated on a special page) to attract the attention of all users. However, most visitors “come” on the site for a specific purpose to find information on a given topic and gain knowledge. Therefore, the news area should be limited to leave more space for the main content and navigation. ▪▪ Sitemap: List of sections of the site (articles, topics, subtopics, recommendations, addresses, forum, etc.). It can be done on a separate page of the site as well as to be included in a section. This element is a very necessary part of the easier navigation on the site. ▪▪ Dictionary: A collection of dictionaries for incomprehensible words and expressions, words that the users would encounter when reading. The list of dictionaries should be arranged in alphabetical order. In addition, each dictionary must be present as a link in every reference to it in the text. It is necessary for the user to have a quick access to the dictionary from every page of the site. To do this, it is necessary to put a button or a text link to the corresponding dictionary on each page of a section. ▪▪ Media Library: Each learning process should use visual materials and/or additional audio and video tools to improve the learning and perception of the material being studied. Similarly, any thematic material on the educational site needs to be accompanied by audio, video, and graphic additions. All multimedia additions are placed in a separate section, such as the “Multimedia Library”, providing each thematic section with textual links when reading the content. This is a good practice because placing multimedia directly on the thematic page greatly reduces the page load and creates inconvenience for the user. In addition, each section of the site dedicated to a specific topic may include: ▪▪ List of Referrals on the Subject: Learners should be given the opportunity to review material on the subject from other sites as well. Comparing information contributes to a better understanding 65

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of the material, as well as to forming a personal opinion of the learner on the specific problem, generating own questions and answers. ▪▪ List of Recommended Books on this Topic: For example the title “What else to read?”. Useful and interesting books and articles on paper, in which the learners can find information on the same subject or any further information on the topic leading to its broader discussion. Additional Components of an Educational Web Site: In addition to all required components, some optional components may also be placed on the educational site, which are desirable to be present on the site to make it more attractive and special. This, in any case, should not interfere with the site and hinder it. It is enough to add 2-3 components so that the site gains individuality. Examples of such elements: ◦◦ Site Search System: Greatly facilitates the work of a user, who does not know exactly, in which section can find interesting information. Search is done on all pages of the site. The search block should be placed on every page of the site. Search results open on a separate page and an advanced search interface is available. ◦◦ Statistics: Visitor statistics on each page of the site. By conducting such statistics, the site developer can display a list of the most visited sections on the main page or in a separate section. A list of the most popular topics can be displayed on the pages of each section. This allows the user to have a fuller picture of the site, the timeliness of the information provided on the site, and also makes it more convenient to navigate the site. ◦◦ Surveys: Various surveys, surveys on site layout and management, the introduction of new tabs/sections or the deletion of existing outdated ones. This allows the site developer to successfully upgrade his site to make it more interesting for the user. This also has its psychological side, because in this way the user, whose opinion we are interested in and counting, is more respectful to the site. Thus, the user assists in the development of the site and with great pleasure reaps the fruits of his involvement in this process. By investing in the creation of the site, it is more likely that this visitor will bring his acquaintances. ◦◦ Forum: Productive learning process is impossible without communication. The educational site is required to provide students and all those seeking education with the opportunity to communicate with each other and with the teachers, to exchange useful links and information, to ask questions on topics and to respond to them. The

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

◦◦

forum is a separate page of the site but links to its messages can also be found on other sections and tabs. The main sections of the forum may be: ▪▪ Feedback and Suggestions: Here users will be able to say “for” and “against” the site, both for its layout and structure, for its content as well; ▪▪ Sections Dedicated to Topics on the Site: Here, the learners can ask a question on the subject, receive or give an answer. Share interesting topics related to the topic and discuss articles on the site; ▪▪ Exchange of Literature: Here all participants in the education process can post links to interesting literature on the Internet, agree to exchange books, and so on. Tests: Verification tests by separate sub-sections, on a specific topic or on the entire section. The site developer can provide the reader with mixed tests on all sections posted on the educational site. Any question in the test may contain a link to the topic and allow the user to verify the response. The test result is presented as a percentage of true responses or another rating system at the discretion of the developer. It is a good practice to provide links to the topic with the correct answer to the list of wrong answers (Iliev, 2013).

The overview of the components of an educational site gives us the reasons to draw the following conclusions: 1. The electronic textbook is a technological analogue of the printed one. It is a textual work with images in electronic format and the ability to add video and sound. The electronic textbook is a single file that combines all the information available in it and allows its easy dissemination and storage 2. With the constantly improving interface and multimedia services, electronic textbooks have far more advanced functionalities than print editions, making them an extremely effective learning tool. 3. Electronic textbooks become the main tool for training, especially in higher education institutions. There is no university in the world that does not reveal distance learning in certain specialties. 4. The electronic textbook is the future of education. In the developing countries there is a need to work hard to have robust educational portals on the Internet with a variety of themes and quality-produced teaching materials, the use of which is not limited by time and place of study.

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SOME EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATING ICT IN LEARNING PROCESS Usage of Content Managament Systems There are many environments and languages for designing and programming websites. In recent years, a large number of specialized environments for the realization of electronic textbooks have emerged. Mainly used by universities are the e-learning systems. (Iliev, 2013) However, all these specialized environments for non-programmers educators are either paid or do not provide great opportunities for the teacher’s creative imagination. From our experience in developing learning and educational sites (Grosche, 2013; Nikolova, Vasileva & Iliev, 2013; Iliev & Vasileva, 2014), we can conclude on the very good opportunities that Content Management Systems provide for the design and realization of electronic textbooks. Web-based content management systems provide greater flexibility, stability, and a variety of additional modules. (Smith, 2005) The possibilities for their functionality are being extended. CMS allow creators to be independent of web design companies and be able to update and modify the content of the websites. Each CMS could be appropriate in some conditions and inappropriate in others. (How to choose a web CMS) Choosing a CMS should be dictated by the nature and needs of the site for which it is intended. Drupal Content Management System is a mature system with enormous opportunities. It is free, powerful and popular, and is also open. Drupal architecture allows creating various types of websites, including educational sites. Existing functionality by default can be increased by connecting different extensions “modules” in the terminology of Drupal. These additions provide a full range of features that make the system very robust and easy to use CMS. (Bergstedt, Wiegreffe, Wittmann & Moller, 2003). All this gives us the right to use CMS Drupal in the field of what is modern teaching activity today, namely creating and realizing e-books and using them in organizing and realizing the e-learning form of education in different degree courses. •

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Features of Content Management Systems: Many authors (Drupal Handbook, 2005; Ardourel, 2016; Mening, 2017), and others point the following features of the Content management systems: ◦◦ Creation of documents and multimedia materials; ◦◦ Identification of all key users and their roles in the content management; ◦◦ Ability to assign roles and rights of the different users of different types or categories of content;

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

Managing Workflow to Create Content: It is a process of creating cycles of sequential and parallel tasks, which have to be fulfilled in the content management system. For example, if the author of the article content adds something, it is not published until the editor checks it and approves it; ◦◦ Ability to track and manage multiple versions of the same content; ◦◦ Ability to publish content in the data mining and to access it; ◦◦ Automated Templates: They are created by the system and can be automatically applied to new or existing content. Their change affects the appearance of all pages of the site; ◦◦ Content, Which is Edited: Immediately after the separation of the content of the visual representation of the site it is generally more susceptible to manipulation and editing. Most CMS include WYSIWYG tools for editing, allowing non-technical staff to create and edit content; ◦◦ Simplified Adding New Capabilities: Most CMS have plug-ins or modules that can be installed easily and can extend the existing functionality of the site; ◦◦ Constant Updates: Most CMS usually offer such upgrades incorporating new features and support system with the latest web standards. Advantages of Content Management Systems ◦◦

•

The advantages of implementation and use of CMS according to Smith (2005), Ardourel (2016), Mening (2017), and others are: • • • • • • • • • •

Costs reduction of maintenance and site development; Well organized process of content creation; Increased creation of new pages and page updating; Better consistency; Site navigation improvement; Improvement of the flexibility of the site; Maintenance of decentralized content creation; Greater reliability of the developed web sites; Reduction of the doubling of information; Greater possibilities for the site development. ◦◦ Functions of CMS Drupal

One of the most popular content management systems is Drupal, which is a free, flexible, open source and very effective system for both the administrator and the user of the website. This allows its easy, convenient configuration and setup. Utilizing the programming language PHP and Drupal API, we can quickly and easily create 69

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a template that fulfills the criteria for our own vision of the site. To work on our own in Drupal, there are PHP functions called hooks. When we want a certain way, we implement the hook function, for which kernel checks are carried out in files installed in its own theme or module. This is how menus are built with appropriate levels (heirs), to be suitable for our template. CMS Drupal has enough power and flexibility, which allows us to create complex topics. Knowing the principles of working facilitates helps the future maintenance (Drupal, 2005; Iliev, 2013), as the system offers countless ways to deal with problems that occur. •

Advantages of Drupal CMS

The most popular free CMS with open source (Drupal, 2005; Ardourel, 2016; Mening, 2017) in many ways offer the features and functionality provided by the commercial systems. Drupal CMS features are: • •

• •

Large Number of Modules: A huge number in a wide range of applications. High Level of Personalization: Allows creation and editing of unlimited number of pages with a system of comments to them; the ability to create and administer a menu, create and manage various blocks of content. The kernel includes a user registration system as well as the ability to create user groups and access restrictions to a given content site. The entire contents of the website are indexed and searchable. Multiple access levels.

Drupal is software that is installed on the web server where the site is located. Then the web designer, the owner of the website, the registered users and visitors can communicate with the system using a web browser (Drupal, 2005). This makes it possible to edit the content of a website by sitting in the office or out of the house without special programming knowledge. In other words, unlike the classic design of websites, where the developer creates the site on the desktop and then installs it on the web server, the Drupal CMS site is created over the Internet on the server itself. The website can be managed by any computer in the world that has an Internet connection and a web browser. Drupal is a free, powerful and fully-developed system with enormous capabilities (Drupal, 2005). Besides the core group of programmers developing the system kernel, individual programmers or groups of developers have consistently created and updated thousands of free modules to provide a website with all kinds of services. That is why Drupal can build a personal website or blog, a corporate site, a large and complex corporate website, internet media, a social network, an e-shop, etc. 70

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More than 565,000 people from over 200 countries speaking over 180 languages use and support Drupal at the moment and their number is constantly growing. Drupal CMS is believed to be more complex than other content management systems, but Drupal offers unmatched abundance of options. That is why a large number of famous and official web sites were created with the help of Drupal CMS: the website of the Government of France, the site of the Government of New Zealand, the Australian Government site, the Danish Government website; the King of Belgium site, the World Bank website, the NASA site, and much. etc. All above mentioned for content management systems and in particular for Drupal CMS: 1. Content management systems contribute to data security and reliability, automate and simplify the process of adding and editing content on websites, organizing, controlling and publishing a large amount of documents and other content such as images and multi-media resources. CMS provides the ability to manage the site structure, the appearance of published pages and navigation designed for users. 2. Open source systems are created, maintained and developed by multiple developers and the source code of the systems is accessible to everyone for review and editing. This gives more flexibility and stability to the web sites developed and a variety of additional modules and site functionality extensions. Content management systems allow web site creators to be independent of web designers and be able to change and update the content of the site. Such type of site creators is the tutors. 3. The Drupal CMS features indicate that the system is suitable for designing educational websites such as electronic encyclopedias and eTextbooks and eHandbooks. There are four aspects of creating an educational site (Vul, 2002; Beljaev, 2012): 1. The design of an educational site (such as the Electronic Textbook implementation described below) is the process of selecting and organizing graphic components to achieve a certain aesthetic and/or functional purpose. 2. The technical realization of an educational site is the choice of components, the integration of technologies, software products and technical means not only for bringing and providing educational information to the consumer but also for its effective perception. 3. The exploitation of the educational site - features that inform users about the use of educational sites.

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4. The content of an educational site is subject to specific requirements (Vul, 2002): a. The content of the site must comply with the didactic principles: i. Scientific content; ii. To include individual and group work; iii. Accessibility, audience orientation; iv. Adaptability; v. Interactivity; vi. Systematicity; vii. Integration into the educational process; viii. Viewability. b. The content must be dynamic, references to additional materials are required. c. The content must be updated in a timely manner. d. The content must be specific and fully satisfying the disclosure of the topic or satisfying the user’s needs with the necessary information. e. The content must be clearly structured (depending on the form of teaching material): i. Distribution of text chapters, paragraphs, sections; ii. Modularity (possibility for in-depth study); iii. Explanation of terms; iv. Help files (if need be searched) or link to them. f. The content text must be literate and comply with all ethical standards. g. The content should not only be textual but also include graphic information and video and audio information. h. The content must be current and reflect the state of the art. i. The content should be interesting.

Electronic Textbook on Practicum of Spreadsheets The main tasks of the practicum are: • • • •

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Introduction of basic notions and the opportunities of the contemporary spreadsheets programs to the students; Acquisition of the main concepts and techniques as well as skills and their application in solving spreadsheet tasks; Development and absorption of the knowledge and skills for creating, processing, formatting and printing spreadsheet documents; Acquisition of knowledge and development of skills for acceleration and automation of separate activities during the work with spreadsheets.

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

The electronic textbook in the discipline is developed in a way similar to the described one in (Nikolova, E. N., Vasileva, S. Z. & Iliev, I. T., 2013). The “electronic” type of educative materials gives much greater opportunities for acquisition of the educative material in comparison to the traditional ones. The screen of the monitor shows simultaneously more numbers of elements than the textbook. In Figure 1 the home page of the realized site with textbook on “Spreadsheets” is shown. When choosing a menu from the left or the right panel, a new window appears of the type shown in. In the left panel there are selected educational subjects realized as submenus. The content of each theme is shown on the right panel. The presented E-textbook on Spreadsheets has 9 educational themes. These are detailed exercises that are developed according to (Guseva & Mironova, 1997). After each theme-exercise there are a number of individual tasks for the students. Figure 1. Home page of the E-textbook on Spreadsheets

Source: Iliev & Vasileva, 2014

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The template used in creating the site was developed specifically for Drupal version 7.x. and has three different views of the pages. Using the module Color in administrative part, allows the user who has chosen this theme to set the colors. In the given areas be possible making an own menu and an auxiliary placed in the left panel of the page. Large enough field allows incorporation of the teaching material and the chosen Book module because the structure makes navigation between pages easy and convenient. The module named Book comes with the core proposed by CMS Drupal for an installation and maintenance of the developed site. This module creates a set of pages bound together in a hierarchical sequence. Content may be divided into chapters, sections, sub-sections, and so on. The module may be used for textbooks, manuals, guides etc. By default, the module is not activated and becomes available after going to Administration >> Modules (Drupal 7) and check the box to activate it. Then in Administration >> Content (Drupal 7) we can start creating the tree of our new book. Before we read a book, “the paper edition”, the first thing we see is its title, author, perhaps a brief descriptive notes or a photo that suggests the content itself. Exactly the same way we organize our electronic textbook to remain almost the same feeling when reading. We put on our “cover” everything except a picture of the page. The completion of the Data has to be done in Administration >> Content (Drupal 7). What have been completed in the Title field later will be used when placing the menu in the navigation area. In the field Body we use Full HTML option to format the headers. Below the menu Book outline of the drop-down list we assign values the creation of a new book and by thus we are ready with the design of the root and the start of the electronic textbook. Any new subsequent under this title can have a link only to one subsequent and in this way it leads to the next page. At the bottom of those pages there is a link to the previous and the next page. It is possible to have a particular subsequent that has several subsequents of its own and thus to make it possible to organize a whole chapter from the book in an independent link which opens this particular unit for a quick reading. The Book module has a block for own navigation, this technique is used in developing electronic book, and a menu for fast access to individual pages of the handbook. The slogan of the textbook could be seen in Figure 1 at the top left corner of the window. The purpose of all the time presence of the slogan is to motivate the students to learn SS doing all the exercises and to show initiative in solving more tasks for individual work after each exercise. • 74

Realization of Tests with Drupal CMS

Innovative Approaches for Realization of Electronic Textbooks and Didactic Tests

Figure 2. A page-theme of the E-textbook

Source: Iliev & Vasileva, 2014

There are two tests designed for the presented textbook: Test 1 and Test 2 (Iliev, 2013; Iliev & Vasileva, 2014). Test1 is easier and it serves for check up of basic knowledge and skills on spreadsheets. Solving Test 2 requires wider knowledge. Besides, there are some tests designed for each student (to draw a variant for the task). Test 1 and Test 2 are realized by the QUIZ module. QUIZ is a very strong and well developed module for questionnaires, such as examination, sociological research and many other possibilities. Quiz is not present in the package with the core of Drupal 7, it has to be downloaded and installed separately. After adding, it becomes a very powerful tool for conducting off-site/ distance examination. The first thing we need to do is to set our questionnaire 75

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Figure 3. Page-theme of the E-textbook with Third exercise for budget schedule composing Source: Iliev & Vasileva, 2014

according to our estimation. We could make this on Administration >> Content >> Add content >> Quiz (Drupal 7). In the open standard format we configure the settings for our test. It is imperative that the Title field focuses on issues in the test. Body part is where with a few words we describe what is to be tested. Following are the various settings specifying how to create our test. For example, the menu Take options has bookmarks: - Allowing (or not allowing) an untimely leaving of the test; - Having the opportunity to skip questions; -Go back; and more. We are able to test with preliminary selected questions or those selected at random from all registered in the database issues as the system can show immediately if the student’s answer is correct, or not, or we can leave it to be checked by the teacher. 76

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The Result menu comments present the percentage of tests and evaluations and comment on the received ones. Pass / fail options menu gives us a threshold above which we give an excellent mark. The retention test now enables us to go to Administration >> Content by clicking the edit of our quiz. In the new form we open menu manage questions and add questions related to the test. After creating and adding questions, we select the type of the questions (Figure 4). It is necessary to administer and tune according to our estimation. For example, if we create Multiple choice question, a form that invites us to begin to formulate questions, which will ask opens. Title field is optional, but filling it we get help for distinguishing it from other issues in the administration. The field will not be visible in solving the test. Later we get option for the possible number of answers. Multiple Figure 4. Adding a question - Dialogue box for setting the type of the question

Source: Iliev & Vasileva, 2014

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answers checkbox allows multiple correct answers to the question formulated. Further we have the opportunity to choose the number of correct answers (Figure 5). After the test has been solved it is summarized as statistics and the student can check if he/she has given the right answer to each of the questions. For the realization of the showed site we have to use the Views module as well. It is not a part of the standard installation of Drupal 7 CMS and has to be further installed. This is the most used module in Drupal. The views are lists and views of our entire site. This module gives us opportunities to create pages that go beyond the standard configuration of the site. Everything that will be displayed later by our view is divided into parts and we must decide whether to add or ignore any of them. The presentation of the contents in this standard installation of the Views module includes a choice between: - Chart; - Grid; - HTML List; - Jump menu; - Table; Unformatted list. Figure 5. Page with a test question included in Test2 during the solving of the test Source: Iliev & Vasileva, 2014

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The addition of new modules expands the opportunities of this list. Each of these options groups the contents in a certain way and order and makes the pages interactive and dynamic, which makes the learner more interested.

Using Google Forms in the Learning Process Google Forms is a free Google application for creating questionnaires and tests over the Internet. In order to use the Google Forms app, the user must have a google or gmail account. When creating a test or poll form, Google’s Google Cloud Application Tools are being used. Figure 6 shows the start page of an 9th grade IT test that is created using the Google Forms application, part of Google’s Cloud. The results of filling in the forms are collected in spreadsheets. The forms and the results are stored in Google’s cloud. Figure 7 shows the results gathered in a Google Cloud Spreadsheet from the 9th-grade Information Technology Test using Google Forms. Figure 8 shows the summarized results of the students in percentage for each of the questions separately. Figure 6. The homepage of the 9th grade Information Technology Test, powered by Google Forms Source: Google

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Figure 7. Gathered results in an electronic spreadsheet stored in the Google Cloud from the 9th grade IT test made using Google Forms.

Source: Google

Figure 8. Summarized test results from the Information Technology test for the 9th Grade, powered by Google Forms for the question “Eight bits form:” Source: Google

Through the RESPONSES tool we see that 17 students have passed the test. There are two possibilities: to see aggregate results using the SUMMARY tool or the INDIVIDYAL tool to track responses for each student individually.

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For example, the question “Eight bits form”: there are four possible answers 1KB, 1MB, 1B, 1TB. - 16.7% responded with 1KB, 16.7% answered with 1MB, 58.8% answered with 1B and 5.9% with 1TB. There is a Flubaroo script that is Add-ons to the Google Sheets app in Cloud Google for collecting test results – it evaluates, displays true and false responses, lets you manage classes and make reports. The teacher can send personalized messages about the results by sending e-mails. There is a results summary in Google Sheets from the Information Technology Test for 9th grade using Google Forms (Figure 10). From the summary results we can see the maximum number of points, the average number of points, the number of answers and the number of unsatisfactory answers for the class. For each student there is statistics for hour of submission, e-mail, name, surname, class, number of correct answers, passed test in percentage, number of attempts and response to each question in the test. Questions below 60% true responses are highlighted in orange. The dissemination of the test or questionnaire is done through a site (for example, a hyperlink to the test page is placed on the relevant page of an electronic textbook), an e-mail (sent by the e-mail to each student), sharing the link on the teacher’s wall in a social network via QR code (as the picture is sent). It is possible with the help of a QR generator to create the QR code of the link, on which the test is located and in this way the examiners using their mobile phone Figure 9. Individual responses by Ivomir Lyubenov Gospodinov from the IT Test of 9th grade, implemented using Google Forms

Source: Google

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Figure 10. Summary of the results of the 9th grade Information Technology Test using Google Forms for each student Source: Google

Figure 11. Choose how the test will be distributed Source: Google

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can reach the test. Such a QR generator can be found on the link http://goqr.me/ (QR code, 2017) and we can create the QR code. The results of the student’s answers to the test questions can be printed directly from the platform or made available in real time immediately after the end of the exam. Figure 14 shows the results of the student Nikolay Tinev received immediately after the end of the test and in a form suitable for printing. The results include e-mail, student name, date of conduction, number of correct answers from the total number of points, percentage of the test passed. The test questions, the answer given by the student, the correct answer and the number of points received for the given question from the total number of points for the question are given in a table format.

Working with LearningApps to Raise Pupils’ Interest LearningApps.org (LearningApps, n.d.) is a Web 2.0 application containing interactive modules suitable for learning and is found at LearningApps.org. They can be used for training as they are designed and can also be changed easily and quickly in operating mode. The intent is that the interactive blocks are publicly available. These blocks (so-called apps or exercises) are not included in specific programs or scenarios but can be used appropriately in the learning process. They are especially valuable with their interactivity. The creation steps are: idea creation, template selection, content filling, saving and publishing of the module. When it is published publicly, it is categorized and easily found by other users.

Figure 12. A QR code providing access to the 9th grade Information Technology Test using Google Forms Source: QR code, 2017

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Figure 13. The results of the student Nikolay Tinev from the IT test for 9th grade, implemented using Google Forms

Source: Google

With the application, it is possible to create information boards and include short text, hyperlinks to: images, video files, Internet, pdf or text files. There is an information board that contains hints that will be discussed with students during the class. Each label may contain text, a hyperlink to a resource or image (Figure 15). We can create modules with the application tools and put them on the board as hyperlinks or use them as a self-application. In Figure 16 there are different types of fun questions/tests created with LearningApps.org: Upper left are given the basic parameters of two types of processors and two computer configurations, the students have to connect the popping parameters, for which processor they refer to or to which computer config – (Learningapps.org/display?v=ptnx27aoa16); on the bottom left - the main components of a computer system are given and the students have to link the component to the corresponding digit. If it is correctly placed it will be colored green. If it is wrong it will turn red (http://LearningApps.org/display?v = p0ga28pnv16); on the top right is a pre-specified task where you have to fill in the gaps in the text. If there are errors, they will be colored in red, suitable for subjects with text tasks such as English or Geography, History; on the bottom right is a test question that can be played in the form of “Who wants to win the horse race?”. Points are given for this player who answers first – (http://LearningApps. org/watch?v=phvuqgmfj16). All these types of questions can be used both at the 84

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Figure 14. Label panel to a specific resource https://learningapps.org/ display?v=prmuszeu516 Source: LearningApps.org

beginning of the lesson - for self-examination by the pupils and perhaps at the end of the lesson - for strengthening the knowledge. The application was translated into Bulgarian by Polly Rangelova and many Bulgarian teachers are acting as authors of interactive learning modules on different subjects. It can be embedded in sites by copying the link to the relevant page - http:// LearningApps.org/watch?v=pknmyg12v17.

QR Codes QR code is a specific matrix barcode, recognizable by special QR barcode readers or mobile phone cameras. The bar code consists of black modules arranged in a square pattern on a white background. The information in it can be text, URL or other. It is common for use in Japan, where it was created by Toyota in 1994 and is one of the most popular two-dimensional barcodes. QR is an abbreviation for Quick Response as its creators intended its content to be decrypted at high speed. The technology has been widely distributed in Japan and South Korea. With the introduction of smartphones with cameras, QR codes began to be widely used in both Europe and America. Popular smartphone models contain application-readers for these codes. Companies often use these as an easy way to take their users to a specific internet address. 85

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Figure 15. Different types of applications created at LearningApps.org Source: LearningApps.org

QR code finds application in school hours. It is a very convenient way for a teacher to set a project, homework, a link to materials which the student can use at home while preparing homework. The code can be shared through a mobile phone, shared through social networks or e-mail, thus avoiding the possibility of confusing the hyperlink when transcribing the address. An example of a resource set by the QR code can be found at: http://LearningApps. org/watch?v=p9xjxxv6316.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Quality education is one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which were adopted in 2015 at the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly (http:// en.unesco.org/sdgs). It is considered a crucial element of all 17 SDGs that are expected to have major impact on society in next 15 years. As regards the above, we may say the electronic learning materials effectively contribute to education sustainability by 86

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Figure 16. Demonstration of the ways how we can embed the application on sites via a hyperlink or QR code. Source: LearningApps.org

Figure 17. QR code providing access to the specified resource on the Internet http://LearningApps.org/watch?v=p9xjxxv6316 - an application created through LearningApps.org Source: LearningApps.org

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improving students’perceptions, material visibility and, thus improving the quality of studying. In other words, the future of sustainable education is related with: 1. The electronic textbooks, because of mentioned functionalities and adequacy towards the contemporary socio-economic processes appear a key driver to the development of holistic personality (Yoveva, 2017), i.e. the one capable of driving necessary solutions through independent information management and utilization for the optimization of each process. The last could be successfully applied when/if modern information technology be integrated in everyday studies and become a way of approaching arising issues, a way of life. 2. Because contemporary socio-economic-political-etc. environment dynamics is intensifying its pace, the electronic textbooks may appear the timely solution to complex aspects of the surrounding reality, thus motivating everybody to be involved in study processes not only in the formal educational context but anytime, everywhere. 3. The contemporary personality may individually and independently become engaged with the electronic study materials, which allow the personalized experience with the educational context, increasing the efficiency and synergistic effects in the person, encouring the self personal discovery, strenghths, talents and mission in life. 4. The electronic study materials help a systematic approach towards education to be developed in the individual, which encourages the usage of both brain hemispheres through the increased interdisciplinarity and multidisciplinarity of the electronic tasks and tools. 5. Through the electronic textbooks, creativity and divergent thinking is nourichsed as the individual is presented with numerous tasks at the same time, which requires further divergent thinking development and building of flatter semantic networks with more loose associations and decreased vertical hierarchy. 6. Creative thinking and creative approach in education are among the main components of innovation generation. Thus we may say creativity nourished through electroninc educational means contributes positively to the economic development on different levels on a local and global basis at the same time.

CONCLUSION There are a huge number of specialized programming environments and applications for creating electronic textbooks. The book chapter reviews electronic textbooks realized on Internet sites. They have the following advantages (Vul, 2002) compared to printed ones and those distributed by electronic data carriers such as discs and 88

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other media: the possibility of incorporating special fragments shaping the flow of physical and technological processes; the ability to include audio files in the textbook, in particular, to bring closer the textbook and listen to lessons/lectures by the same lecturer; the ability to include fragments of videos in the textbook to illustrate certain situations in the textbook; inclusion of interactive fragments in the composition of the textbook to provide an operational dialogue with the trainee; full-scale multimedia editing of the textbook, including natural language dialogue, organizing on request by the learner for video conferences with the textbooks authors, consultants and others. Last but not least, the ability to integrate electronic tests or just to add hyperlinks to Google forms in the textbook (to implement an evaluation test or self-assessment) and to add hyperlinks to educational games previously developed by the lecturer of a free educational site such as LearningApps.org - all of this plus the extremely broad accessibility shows the tremendous benefits of developing textbook as websites by the lecturers themselves using the Internet as a development environment and as a medium for dissemination and “carrier” of information. In addition to the “author’s” educational website of the electronic educational tool (Iliev, 2013; Nikolova, E. N., Vasileva, S. Z. & Iliev, I. T., 2013), we can also mention another author and trainer’s website (Grosche, 2010) to confirm the opinion of developers and users of Drupal CMS as a proof of Drupal ability to create web sites for learning purposes. The authors do not claim that the book chapter covers the full range of Drupal CMS capabilities and the other online applications (Google forms and LearninApps) for creating electronic textbooks, electronic tests and educational games that are used or can be used in the educational sphere. The Information and Communication Technology is developing very rapidly and the goal of the authors is to show/prove that any professor who wants to do this work can go on this ludicrous, but delightful journey to self and students’improvement. And in the context of the Initiatives for Sustainable Educational Development: Such an approach to creating eTextbooks and learning materials is, by its very nature, complex (requiring integration of different activities and participants, respectively). Thus, for the creation of teaching materials on different disciplines, the lecturers can attract students with prominent IT skills (or, if it is a secondary school, more prominent students or students from a higher course) for real participation in projects. These could be projects in which the students to solve real practical problems in order to prepare for their future realization as specialists not only in their field, but also in the efficient use of IT in their future professional activity and no less importantly - to learn to work in a team. And last but not least: in working on such a project, students acquire a sense of satisfaction, not only for the acquired knowledge and skills in their specialty, but the satisfaction they were useful and were involved in something meaningful. 89

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All presented possibilities provided by the electronic educational systems, particularly the presented ones in current chapter, point to the fact that these contemporary tools contribute to the increase of quality in education which is one of the sustainable goals of the society set by UNESCO for next 15 years (un.org, 2015). This makes it more important for everybody to reconsider the learned and look for new development opportunities through the electronic means as one of the most crucial drivers of progress today.

REFERENCES Ardourel, F. (2016). How To Choose a CMS. Retrieved September 09, 2017, from https://www.cmscritic.com/how-to-choose-a-cms-simple-guide/ Beljaev, M. (2012). The Principle of Implementation of Hypertext Structure – One of The Fundamental Principles of Creation Electronic Textbooks. Retrieved September 01, 2014, from http://imp.rudn.ru/vestnik.aspx?id=2012_3 Bergstedt, S., Wiegreffe, S., Wittmann, J., & Moller, D. (2003). Content management systems and e-learning systems -a symbiosis? In The 3rd IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, Proceedings (pp. 155–159). IEEE. Drupal handbook. (2005). Drupal documentation. Retrieved September 09, 2017, from https://www.drupal.org/documentation Google Forms. (n.d.) Retrieved September 09, 2017, from https://docs.google.com/ forms/u/0/?tgif=d Grosche, J. V. (2010). German language - day by day. Retrieved from http://www. deutsche-lernseite.com Guseva, O. L., & Mironova, N. N. (1997). Practicum on Excel. Moscow: Finance and Statistics. How to choose a web CMS. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://livestoryboard.com/CMSResources/How-to-choose-a-web-CMS.html Iavich, M. P. (2012). Electronic textbook: advantages and disadvantages. Retrieved September 01, 2017, from http://web.snauka.ru/issues/2012/10/16884 Iliev, I. (2013). Design and implementation of templates for educational web site (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Konstantin Preslavsky University of Shumen, Bulgaria.

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Iliev, I., & Vasileva, S. (2014). An Innovative Approach: Electronic Textbooks By CMS Drupal. International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing, 4(2), 18–28. doi:10.4018/ijtem.2014070102 Knodel, L. V. (2014). New Factors of Influence on World University Education. In Proceedings of Tenth International Scientific Conference on Educational Management: Effective Practices (vol. 7, pp. 51-55). Dobrich: International University College Press. LearningApps.org. (n.d.). LearningApp– interactive learning modules. Retrieved September 08, 2017, from https://learningapps.org/LearningApps.pdf Lear ningApps. (2017). Retr ieved from https://lear ningapps.org/ display?v=ptnx27aoa16 Mening, R. (2017). How to make a website WordPress vs Joomla vs Drupal. Retrieved September 08, 2017, from http://websitesetup.org/cms-comparison-wordpress-vsjoomla-drupal Nikolova, E. N., Vasileva, S. Z., & Iliev, I. T. (2013). CMS Options for Creating Electronic Textbooks for Agronomical Subjects. Science and Information Conference (SAI), 969 – 973. Code Generator, Q. R. (n.d.). Retrieved September 08, 2017, from http://goqr.me/ Robert, I. V., Panyukova, S. V., Kuznetcov, A. A., & Kravcova, A. Y. (2008). Information and communication technologies in education. Moscow: DROFA. Smith, E. (2005). A review of open source content management systems. Retrieved September 08, 2017, from http://archive.li/0rfOY#selection-415.1-415.13 UN.org. (2015). 17 Goals to Transform Our World. Retrieved September 10, 2017, from http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals Vul, V. A. (2002). Electronic editions. Retrieved September 04, 2017, from http:// www.hi-edu.ru/e-books/xbook119/01/part-010.htm WordPress.org. (2001). Retrieved September 04, 2017, from https://wordpress.org/ Yoveva, Iv. (2017). Role of Interactive Educational Content for Develipment of Holistic Personality in Social and Business Sciences. In Modern Science and Education: New Realities and Scientific Solutions (pp. 112–117). University of Cherkasy.

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Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development Gilbert Ahamer Graz University, Austria

ABSTRACT This chapter details the basic design of the social processes involved in the five-level negotiation game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC). Through its communicational design, this web-based game elicits characteristic collaborative behavior in student groups, which is then statistically analyzed by using several sets of university students. The architecture of SGC has already been explained in other articles and gives a framework for “game-based learning” along five interactive game levels. The web-based arena of interaction induces student collaboration; the quality of which is assessed here. The statistical analyses suggest that the SGC game rules didactically enhance anticipated processes of social self-organization. Motivation for a good grade (function of collected rewards) in this sense impacts team size, attitude towards work, and individual affinity for sticking to personal convictions. The rules trigger two distinct processes: social dynamics in the class and the striving for course grades; these targets do not necessarily match.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch004 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

1. PROCEDURES AND DEVELOPMENTS ALONG THE FIVE LEVELS OF SGC 1.1. A Symbolic Time Plan for the Game SGC Implementation of the game SGC (see Öttl, et al., 2014; Vogler, et al., 2013; Ahamer, 2004a, b, 2005, 2013a, b, c, d; e, 2017a, b, c; Ahamer & Schrei, 2006) in dozens of courses to date have followed the timescale of the scheme as notated in Figure 1 (Ahamer, 2019). The shape of the different symbols explained in the legend describes the dramatic characteristic of the single activities involved. Each phase starts with its preparation (triangle). The reason for the overlapping of the five phases is to enhance understanding of the interconnections between the levels and to allow students to ponder about their future tasks at an early stage.

1.2 Processes of Self-Optimisation Planned to Steer Social Dynamics in SGC This article builds upon earlier publications and reflects how the set of rules contains self-optimising subsets that are ultimately more capable of steering learning processes than mere directives. Experience derived from the game’s implementation shows that different student groups may find quite different approaches to be a function of their preferences, which are co-determined by their different curricula and hence values of behaviour. In general, SGC’s design favours the optimisation of feedback circles rather than explicit directives and interdictions for the establishing of a social structure (Ahamer, 2011a). 1. The team size for levels 3 and 4 is planned to be governed by the following antagonistic mechanisms: a. The more members a team has, the higher its potential to elaborate on profound standpoints and to incorporate actors suitable for various discussion phases. b. The fewer members a team has, the higher the individual share of the rewards won by the team, as the formula says: team points / members = player’s points. 2. Anonymous web postings in the 8-4-2 game of Level 1 encourage unconventional contributions as no damage to personal interest need be expected. 3. At Level 2, the degree of collaborative vs. confrontational behaviour when reviewing, as well as the effort required for a high-quality review, is directed by the potential rewards a reviewer can receive. 93

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Figure 1. Graph of student activities and time dynamics of SGC’s five phases (image from Ahamer, 2019). Legend: Solid symbols vs. dashed symbols = compulsory vs. optional activities. Dotted lines = students are informed about the phase Triangles of increasing thickness = preparation phases; Looped arrows up/down = feedback to trainer/students for debriefing Diamond = quiz at level 1; Stars = postings with standpoints/reviews/updates at level 2; Matrix = convene on 2 themes & develop 2 discussion matrices for level 3 Flash = controversial discussion at level 3; Sun = consensus-oriented discussion at level 4 Document = integrative interpretation of global trends

4. At Level 3, the degree to which a team retains or gives up its own standpoints in order to make a positive impression on the voting public is directed by its strategy and tactics during discussion. 5. At Level 3, the number of chips set on a square is a function of the team’s concrete insight into that matter (plus the team’s strategy). 6. At Level 4, the image of a player influences the chances of being selected as an expert in case of more than one offer. 94

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7. At Level 4, the amount of offered rewards influences the chances of hiring a strong expert (market mechanism). 8. In general: hard work versus being a free rider and merely acting strategically with a view to the rewards received; in particular: the team speaker has the right to expel a team member in cases where collaboration is non-existent 9. define your own themes / increased effort and empathy at work. 10. Points ♂ / pionts ♀ [the orthography of “pionts” was chosen to highlight the difference between an ethic of power in ♂ versus an ethic of compromise in ♀] as basic balance between content/confrontation and consensus; expressed by the formula: grade = min(♂, ♀). As a very generalized interpretation, the task of designing SGC is equivalent to finding an answer to the question: Which societal rules facilitate a desired direction of human evolution towards quality of life and sustainability? Systems thinking is present both in the content and process of SGC. • • •

Regarding the systemic view on self-organising processes, see Figure 2. Regarding the content, see Table 1 (typical courses for SGC to date were “Environmental Technology”, “Technology Assessment” and “Systems Analysis”) In its didactic approach, see Gierlinger-Czerny (2003), Gierlinger-Czerny & Peuerböck (2002), Peuerböck (2003), Prensky (2001), Rogers (1974), Rauch (2006, 2013, 2014, 2017), Klabbers (2001), Jonas (1979), Montessori (1988).

Some of the classical didactic tasks of a trainer (T) such as answering questions, grading and assessing assignments are transferred to the students (s) as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Given the increased responsibility of students (s) in a class (half circle), the role of the trainer (T) is reduced to general control of the group dynamics.

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Table 1. The increase in complexity of assessments for typical course subjects. Environmental Technology (UT) • Single facts • Still unconnected

Technology Assessment (TA) • Weighed assessment • Still linear thinking

Systems Analysis (SB) • Mutual interdependence • Systemic thinking

Because the rules of the game SGC and its didactic experiences have already been described elsewhere (Ahamer, 2012a, b; Ahamer & Jekel, 2010), this article continues with a detailed statistical analysis of student behaviour (cf. Ahamer, 2011b).

2. EXPERIENCE AND STATISTICS FROM THE TWO SGC IMPLEMENTATIONS 2.1. Facts and Statistics for Level 2 2.1.1. The Process of Mutual Review: Fundamental Figures Statistics for students of construction engineering and construction management: After one week of preparation time, all but one student had posted written standpoints of at least one page in length (only 1 team of 2 students took part). The exact timing for the starting point of Level 2 does not appear to be so critical. In the case of the first test implementation, the Level 1 quiz was not yet finished by the time Level 2 had started; this is indicated by the position of the Level 2 wedge in Figure 1. Over a 4 week period, 90 reviews were carried out by the 46 construction students (i.e. on average 1.6 per person, with a range of 0 to 6 reviews given and 0 to 5 reviews received), of which 73 were useful for the game score as the students gave points to their colleagues (numbers inside the matrix of Figure 3); the others neglected to write this information into their posting. To the trainer, a detailed analysis showed that there are 18 mutual assessments (green diagonal lines in Figure 3) which could be the result of apparent strategies; namely of students (illegally) helping each other by agreeing on mutually positive review results. This gave rise to the subsequent adaptation of rules, namely to forbid such symmetric reviews for the second game’s implementation. Six collaborating pairs of students could be identified and additionally one distinct collaborative group of five students that relied up to 80% on “symmetrics”. A detailed look shows that 12 students (26%, dark green rectangle in Figure 3 and encircled in Figure 4) would not have reached any points without such “symmetric reviews”; the students highlighted in light green +“only” increased their score. 96

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Figure 3. Matrix of level 2 review activities by the 46 students in “construction engineering” (BBM). Row heads: authors; column heads: reviewers; diagonal line in green: incidence of symmetric review activities

Figure 4. Effect of possibly strategically motivated symmetric review activities on the average grade of the 1-page “standpoint” text posted at Level 2 by students in “construction engineering.”

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The average reward given in a review was 3.7 points (ranging from 1 to 5); the sum of reward points for having reviewed papers (as a result of the 18 updated standpoints posted which amounts to 39%) was 266; the average sum of reward points received was 5.7. The sum of rewards for reviewers was 30 (collected by 14 persons = 30%, on average 2.1, ranging from 1 to 5). The 18 posted updates are marked by bold numbers in the matrix and resulted in reward points for the reviewers. Being the trainer, I have also assessed all papers in the traditional way (right box in Figure 3 and with short written feedbacks in the rightmost column) and also assessed the quality of review in order to compare the old and the new systems of grading students. 2.1.1.1. Correlations and Comparisons: Advanced Figures Could Answer Questions Of course, one main interest is to check whether the grades resulting from the system of game rules satisfactorily approximate the qualitative assessment of the papers delivered by the students that have been evaluated by the trainer to date. With this motivation, a number of comparisons and correlations were undertaken with the rich amount of material apparently provided by the quantitative approach of attributing scores and numbers. The following figures have to be understood in such a way that any clear correlation would be extremely surprising. Being a trainer for the last fifteen years I have very much kept in mind the many detriments in grading the “quality” of a paper like variations in mood, time of day, cohesion with personal opinion and sensibility. Additionally, it appears very likely that two or more trainers will arrive at very different final grades, especially in subject matters like those under discussion which have strong social components. Bearing all this in mind, it became easier for me to shift the task of grading from the one trainer to the sample of students who still – despite all their shortcomings – generally tend to make an effort. The result of this approach is – hopefully only in the first year – a tremendous increase in the time devoted to assessing and documenting authorship and reviewership.

2.1.2. Construction Students are Watched When Forming “Informal Subgroups” As mentioned, 12 students based their harvest of points on “symmetric assessments” (i.e. without such they would have received zero points at Level 2; see Figure 4 and green areas in Figure 3); three of whom belong to the distinct group of the collaborative five mentioned above. But still, it cannot be said that the quality of the paper as assessed by the trainer would be weaker with these students. Similarly, the final grades of this group were not substantially different. In the following analysis 98

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such “symmetric assessments” are not excluded, because a focused analysis has shown that the main picture and the conclusions are not altered by considering or dismissing these symmetric assessments. This incidence of “informal collaboration” gives rise to the formation of three clusters of students [colours are marked in Figure 3 and Figure 5]: • • •

Those showing no “informal collaboration”, i.e. “symmetric reviews” at all (i.e. not belonging to a subgroup that does mutual reviews at Level 2) [white]; Those showing additional “informal collaboration”, i.e. reviewing both on their own and within said subgroups [light green]; Those showing only “informal collaboration”, i.e. not being active outside the subgroups with apparently agreed mutual aid for gaining rewards [green].

Figure 5. In this bar chart the average points (here: not yet distinguished from pionts) achieved by students from three different clusters of behaviour at Level 2 are exhibited (no “informal collaboration”, in white, some “informal collaboration” in light green, exclusive “informal collaboration” in dark green and all students in black). However, lacking in significance, data shows that the best overall performance is achieved by students combining “own hard work” with “strategic action” (light green bars), especially at the negotiation-oriented and team-oriented Levels 3 & 4 (but individual-oriented levels are best mastered by students relying only on “informal collaboration”). At any rate, “informal collaboration” (i.e. building social structures) does pay off!

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The following Figure 5 shows the average score for the single levels and the two quizzes as a function of these three student clusters (Ahamer, 2008). The result suggests that “informally collaborating” students are not weaker than the average, but on the contrary, are more successful at all levels than “single warriors”. This result can be seen as counterintuitive to the classic rule “cheating is forbidden”.

2.1.3. How to Construct a “True” Measure of Student Performances as Authors? Relevant questions appear in the composition of the score (for an explanation of the rules see earlier articles on SGC): • •

Incorporate the rewards for reviews into the marking or not? This has a positive effect on the game dynamic but a still-unclear effect on the fidelity of the score (compare left with right sides in both Figure 6 and Figure 7) Take as a score the sum of received points as previously planned (in order to reward attractiveness of the theme and article to reviewers) or instead average points in order to exclude artefacts (compare both parts of Figure 6 with both parts of Figure 7).

Any of the correlations in Figure 6 and Figure 7 show an indiscernible correlation, the “average” method still being slightly better correlated than the “sum” with “the trainer’s review”. “Average” is chosen mainly because of its better theoretical Figure 6. Analysis of grading through review activities (average of received rewards) at level 2 by students in “construction engineering” with (right) and without (left) rewards for review activity. The final grading methodology was a combination of “average reward points received from colleagues plus reward points resulting from review activities” and “grading by trainer” which is shown in both axes of the dark yellow graph (right).

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Figure 7. Analysis of grading through review activities (sum of received reward points) at level 2 by students in “construction engineering” with (right) and without (left) reward points for review activity. The only difference to Figure 6 here is the taking of “sum” instead of “average.”

foundations. The same applies to the inclusion of the “(5-p)” rewards that at least motivate for increased quality of review. The choice made appears in dark yellow. In general, it becomes clearly visible that both functionalities of game rules – namely optimising the pattern of social flow and creating a true picture of the students’ competence – do not necessarily always act in the same direction; and (for the sake of formally idealizing behavioural components), both functionalities could be separated. Yet another source of data and hence assessment is offered by leaving out the actions of “symmetric review”, practically by deleting the numbers in the grid elements encircled in green in Figure 3. The resulting subset of review actions could be interpreted as inspired more by the goal of academic quality than by the paradigm of pragmatic mutual support. The statistical findings boil down to a diagnosis saying that “symmetric reviews” tend to correspond with pragmatic behaviour trying to maximise received rewards while not focusing on the option of increasing the quality of the papers as was initially intended by the SGC rules. In this respect, there is likely to be a certain tension in the result drawn from Figure 5 which might be slightly astonishing to an academically motivated person.

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2.1.4. What Can Be Said About the Act of Reviewing and Its “Quality”? The following graphs try to identify possible correlations between various students’ inclinations and parameters, like: • • • •

Offering high average scores when reviewing (this is called being “generous” in the following figures); Quantity and quality of students’ reviews as assessed by the trainer who granted 0.1 points for each good review (being a “good reviewer”); Number of reviews a student has undertaken (being an “active reviewer”); Number of points a student has distributed from reviewing.

Correlations of the mentioned type are rendered possible by the statistical material and help to answer the questions in the following sub-headlines. The available statistical material could even encourage an extensive interpretation like: There are two (principally non-matching) targets for behaviour: live up to the “rules” or live up to “ethics”.

2.1.5. Forming and Analysing Three Clusters of Student Behaviour The general impression arises that the assessment by the trainer appears to deliver results that are quite independent from the assessment by colleagues and the result stemming from the game rules. The important questions remain: how is such a discrepancy caused and how can it be explained? Figure 8 Shows the three clusters of students in green, light green and white according to their degree of participation in symmetric review activities. The observation that “white” students reject taking part in “mutual aid” is taken into account for two reasons: namely in the spirit of “single warrior and lonely heroes” or blunt tremendously low level of any activity (too lazy to cheat), the observer might discern four consecutive types of student activity: 1. The “10% very good ones” – in the understanding of the trainer – who certainly work harder and deliver more elaborate results than the rest as a result of their own skills and motivation (leftmost column, only white). 2. Two types of “fairly good ones” who either do or do not use additional help from collaborators (second and third columns, either green or white).

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Figure 8. How do the three student clusters (defined by their participation in “symmetric review activities” fall into the five categories of grades (for the Level 2 standpoint paper) distributed by the trainer? (Above: Cumulative, Below: Selective with maxima). Data for level 2 by students in “construction engineering”.

3. Pragmatically-oriented types who partly use collaboration (fourth column, mixture, with more light green ones). 4. Very pragmatically-oriented types “minimum effort” who either only rely on mutual help without elevating their own effort or who show too little initiative towards taking part in any system at all (fifth column). 103

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It is not possible to simply match teacher-driven and rule-driven categorizations. Only the 10% best ones” or “teacher’s best choice appear to fall into the nonsymmetric reviewers group. However, the vast majority of the class applies a mixed strategy towards success inside a given set of rules. This proportion of the class seems to consist of both “quick checkers of the rules” and “deliberate blenders of strategies”. It can be inferred that these last sentences are already strongly implying speculations on the basis of pre-analytical visions. The main issue here is: SGC employs a method of grading that combines various skills and therefore necessarily delivers different patterns of student grades than the traditional methods do. The most important target of SGC is to IMPROVE student capacity, not only to MONITOR them.

2.1.6. Conclusions From All Correlations: What Is the Overall Impression? Table 2 provides aggregated results for level 2 that apply to all students. Table 3 shows that: • •

Papers that are reviewed more often get significantly more points. Altogether frequent and generous reviewers collect more reviews.

Table 2. Aggregated statistical results for Level 2 that applies to all samples of students (all construction and electronics students). Result for Students of “Construction Management”

Result for Students of “Industrial Electronics”

Class Size (using only/some/no symmetric reviews)

46 (15/10/21)

26

Total of Reviews Carried Out (of which symmetric reviews)

46 (18 = 39%)

64 (3 = 0.05%)

1.6

2.5

Aggregated Value

Reviews per Student Average Points Distributed

3.7

3.9

Percentage of Papers Updated

39%

42%

Percentage of Students Receiving Rewards for Reviewing

30%

54%

Average Reviewer’s Rewards Received in Case of Review Activities

2.1

2.1

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Table 3. Aggregated correlation results for Level 2 applying for all samples of students (all construction and electronics students). Criterion

Correlated With

Number of reviews received as author

• Points received as author • Number of reviews undertaken

Points received as author

• Number of points distributed • Number of reviews received as author • NOT correlated with: Points received from trainer

In the following section, conclusions are separated into stylized facts entitled Fact 1 and Fact 2 (represented in the following two tables and more precisely in Ahamer, 2011b). Fact 2 reveals the guiding motivation for both subsets for two types of action (number of reviews made and number of points distributed), see Table 4: Fact 1 reveals the main expectation for both subsets for two types of reception (how many reviews received and how many points received), see Table 5: From Table 4 (left) it can be filtered out that “symmetric reviewers” have two potentially inciting arguments for higher levels of their own activity (in reviewing and granting points), both of which link back to what they have lived themselves so far. Systemically speaking, this constitutes a feedback circle as it could be linked back in a proportionate manner (i.e. positive feedback circle). “Non-symmetric Table 4. Guiding motivation for the two subsets (“symmetric” and “non-symmetric”) of reviewers for their actions (what they give). Symmetric Reviewers

Non-Symmetric Reviewers

How many reviews do I perform?

I definitely perform more, the more I receive

I don’t care how many I receive

How many points do I distribute?

I definitely distribute more, the more I receive

I don’t care how many I receive

Table 5. Guiding expectation for the two subsets (“symmetric” and “non-symmetric”) reviewers for their receptions (what they receive). Symmetric Reviewers

Non-Symmetric Reviewers

How many reviews do I receive?

I definitely receive more reviews, the more reviews I have distributed

I don’t know; possibly I receive more reviews, the more points I have received

How many points do I receive?

I definitely receive more points, the more points I have distributed

I don’t know; possibly I receive more points, the more reviews I have received

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reviewers” have no such feedback loop constituted by their pattern of motivation – but they appear to be more concentrated on the “real target”. This means that personalities inclined to “pragmatic behaviour” might either slip into a self-enhancing circle of ever more review activities or else slip into a loop where already-low activity is lowered still further by the mechanism of motivation, thus leading to a very poor overall performance in the Level 2 review game. This diagnosis fits quite nicely with Figure 8, in which one “green” maximum” for the “good ones” (according to the trainer’s assessment on the horizontal axis) and another smaller maximum for the “weak ones” can be seen. Similarly, from Table 4 (right) the idea that “non-symmetric reviewers” have a generally lower level of readiness to see or even accept such structural driving factors for their success can be filtered out. Their motivation is grounded elsewhere, most likely in “the (ethically sound) quality” of their contribution. The same logic structure of deliberations, only pertaining to expectations of what will happen to them, is shown in Table 5. The logical structure of the left column allows for a positive feedback circle (dynamic), the logical structure of the right column does not (static). Finally, Table 6 hints at the more dynamic structure of the “motivation engine”, which could explain that “the second-best students” in Figure 8 are exogenously motivated and helped by this feedback circle and therefore attain higher grades compared to those merely given in an assessment by the trainer. This is one of the great surprises of the game, at least to its author and trainer. It could be generalized that symmetric reviewers tend to build the picture of a “convex world” which is oriented to outside values, whereas non-symmetric reviewers tend to build a “concave world” which is oriented to inside values. It is apparent that society always constitutes a certain blend of both systems of motivation. The struggle between the “inside world” and the “outside world” has been apparent for a long time. Another conclusion from above is worth repeating: In general it becomes clear that both functionalities of game rules – namely “optimizing the pattern of social

Table 6. Logical structures for the two subsets (“symmetric” and “non-symmetric”) reviewers: What do they depend on? Symmetric Reviewers

Non-Symmetric Reviewers

Logical Structure

positive feedback circle (dynamic)

no positive feedback circle (static)

Source of Motivation

exogenous

endogenous

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flow” and “creating a true picture of the students’ competence” – do not necessarily always act in the same direction; very ideally, both functionalities should be separated. Additionally, one very basic observation can be induced from the above findings: it seems that a system of values can never completely be communicated to another human being. An intrinsic and irremovable bias seems to exist between the system of values communicated and the system of values perceived. For example, the trainer had the intention to communicate a system of mutual aid, a spirit of collaboration and orientation towards global issues; but students got caught in the dynamics of striving for personal success in points. Any game and any system attempting to reproduce “real idealism” via outside rules and external motivators will be too short to approximate proper human internal motivation.

2.2. Facts and Statistics for Level 3 The process of agreeing on a thematic matrix is emphasized here; statistics on level 3 as such are provided in Ahamer (2011c). The number of chips (= potential points in the specific language of SGC) to be distributed was used to control the length of the entire discussion event and was therefore varied in the three rounds (100, 40, 60 chips). The trainer assessed the written standpoints from the second and third rounds (rightmost column in Table 7) and gave a short feedback (positive and negative, two short items each) via the web platform after the discussion event. The procedure for level 3 is documented in the following pages (for more details see also Ahamer, 2011c) for students of electronics. Discussion occurred for 4 out of 9 grid cells (= 44%), discussion length ranged from 10 to 23 minutes (see italic text in the grid cells of Figure 9 and Figure 10). Students belonging to the other theme watched the entire discussion and had the option of using the PCs standing along the wall of the class for their feedback. This occurred 49 times, which is 31% and delivered satisfying arguments. For these explanations and substantiations of voting behaviour, students collected points (on average roughly one tenth of all Level 3 points available) that correlated slightly with Level 2 reviewer rewards.

2.3. Facts and Statistics for Level 4 Comparison of rewards from Level 4 with rewards from other skills: Regarding the comparison of overall Level 4 results with those of other levels (Figure 11) it can be said that: 107

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Table 7. Overview of all rounds of discussion games during the first implementation held for construction students (BBM). First Round on the Theme “FH Campus” With Only One Group (100 Chips) Number of Students

Points P for Team

Points p for Student

Assessment by Trainer

Construction Firm

5

154

25.7

-

Administration

6

152

30.4

-

Environmental Lobby

18

187

10.4

-

Economic Lobby

9

123

13.7

-

Team Name

Second Round on the Theme “Antennas for Mobile Phones”, One Group (40 ch.) Number of Students

Points P for Team

Points p for Student

Assessment by Trainer

Construction Firm

7

93

13.3

24

Administration

14

27

1.9

16

Team Name

Environmental Lobby

11

15

1.4

32

Economic Lobby

12

16

1.3

32

Third Round on the Theme “FH Campus” With Two Groups (60 Chips) Team - Morning Neighbours

Number of Students

Points P for Team

Points p for Student

Assessment by Trainer

7

95

13.6

32

Students

5

85

17.0

8

FH Management

6

100

16.7

8

Municipality

5

95

19.0

0

Number of Students

Points P for Team

Points p for Student

Assessment by Trainer

Neighbours

6

101.5

16.9

24

Students

8

166.5

20.8

0

Team - Afternoon

FH Management

7

98

14.0

24

Municipality

2

172

86.0

0

• •

108

For construction students (BBM) there is positive correlation with: ◦◦ SB quiz (weak negative with TA quiz) ◦◦ Level 3, level 1 (and weak with Level 2) For electronics students (IEL) there is weak positive correlation with: ◦◦ UT quiz (weak negative with SB quiz) ◦◦ Level 3 (and weak with Level 1),

Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

Figure 9. Matrix for the theme “climate change” used for Level 3 with students of electronics (IEL)

Figure 10. Matrix for the theme “alternative energy” used for Level 3 with students of electronics (IEL)

hence, this analysis is mostly well in line with that of Level 3 (see Ahamer, 2011c) but again shows very weak correlations.

2.4. Statistical Documentation Across the Entire SGC Game Comparison of points from rules or from trainer: 109

Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

Figure 11. Correlation between success in Level 4 and other different levels for students of (BBM) and electronic engineering (IEL).

Looking at the construction student class (BBM) on average, approximately 17% of the final grade is based on the rules of SGC, about 32% on the trainer’s assessment and about 51% on quizzes (Figure 12). However, looking at the electronics student class (IEL) on average, approximately 23% of the final grade is based on the rules of SGC, only about 8% on the trainer’s assessment and about 69% on quizzes (Figure 13). All in all, roughly one third of the final average score is based on the rules of SGC, which is didactically a very cautious grading strategy chosen for the first two implementations. 110

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There seems to be no (BBM) or only a very weak (IEL) correlation between points from the rules versus points from the trainer, again underlining the principal difference between the two kinds of skills monitored. The correlation with points gained from the quizzes in the same figures below does not really add to a more striking impression of substantial correlation. Therefore the three dimensions of: 1. Quizzes (fact-oriented knowledge) 2. Trainer assessment (academic writing of a standpoint) 3. Success in reviews and discussions (presenting and arguing for a standpoint) really appear as independent dimensions in a realistic world of assessment.

2.5. Web Activity and Total Success The platform WebCT allows the tracking of student activity with a simple tool. Since the earlier years of the game the trainer has been trying to find out if students with good grades show a higher frequency of web access, which has not really proved true for the past four years of lectures. Below, the same type of correlation analysis is made for both classes in the game “Surfing Global Change”. Students in construction (BBM, Figure 14 above) exhibit apparent correlations between “total success” (= total in Figure 12) and the variables provided by the platform WebCT “total hits”, “items read”, “items posted”. This underlines the assumption that the grand total of particular successes (that are combined in the game design of SGC) better mirrors the inclination towards personal activity than traditional grades from mere quizzes. The same principal assessment holds true to a lesser extent for students in electronics (IEL, Figure 14 below) with weaker correlations between “total success” and “total hits”, “items read”, “items posted”. Personal activity more weakly mirrors success in SGC in this case (R2 around 0.14) compared with BBM students (R2 around 0.35). In sharp contrast to the result for “total success”, the analogous results for success in both quizzes (Figure 15 for IEL) plainly exhibit no correlation at all (R2 about 0.0). The general picture is that correlations are stronger for BBM students than for IEL students (the latter appearing less pragmatic and more fact-oriented during class to the personal impression of the trainer).

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Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

Figure 12. Three groups of points make up the overall sum of scores for construction students (BBM): game rules, trainer’s points and quizzes; here it is shown from where they stem originally, regardless of the level.

Figure 13. Three groups of points make up the overall sum of scores for electronics students (IEL): game rules, trainer’s points and quizzes, here is shown from where they stem originally, regardless of the level.

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Figure 14. Comparison of overall success with activities in both web platforms for BBM & IEL

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Designing and Analyzing Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

Figure 15. A sharp contrast is provided by the comparison of overall success with activities in both web platforms for IEL.

3. CONCLUSION: CRITERIA AND BORDER CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESS IN SGC The very background of how the present system of rules was invented is the question: how can social feedback be organized in such a way that the fact-based quality of complex results is safeguarded or enhanced? In the personal experience of the author, the deep motivation for SGC is that in the field of climate protection, not much has improved in recent decades – at least in the case of Austria. In the relevant research institutions the same handful of employees is working on the same eternal subjects and nice little projects and still deploring the seemingly inescapable reasons for the lack of a broader success: the price of energy is too low; consequently alternative and sustainable energy sources do not pay off and not enter the market. On the other hand, as another example of extreme success during the same decades, the internet has grown by so many orders of magnitude that it seems inappropriate to write a number down because any reader would see such a number as outdated even a short period after publication. It is quite clear to the author’s mind that the structural obstacle to resolving ecological problems linked with everyday life (hence to the economy: Ahamer & Kumpfmüller, 2013; Ahamer & Mayer, 2013) is not the technological immaturity of 114

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solutions, and many claim that all the answers have already been given and spelled out hundreds of times. As an example, the spirit of a biomass energy conference held over ten years ago near Athens still hangs in the air, which could be expressed as: up to now, we have been weak and feeble; our superb strategies did not take off but starting with this week, everything will be different. Looking back from today’s perspective, the Greek ruins of idealism still contrast with ever-increasing gaps between climate protection targets and climate protection reality; in other words vastly increasing greenhouse gas emissions. In the very personal view of the author, more muscles in the mechanism of making things come true would be helpful for our consistent (some call it sustainable) future development (most recently very helpfully covered by the term transition, denoting a structural system change). Classical academic education ends with “report writing”; a publication produced is the justification for existence. On the street the truism goes that the automobile industry deliberately hinders implementation of advanced concepts of locomotion. Let us take from this common impression only that helpful concepts often suffer from unsatisfactory implementation. What are the obstacles on road to making such things a reality? Gaining broad acceptance among stakeholders and lacking feedback cycles propelling their systemic dynamics towards putting them to an effect might be a suitable answer. We of the scientific world are called to face and deal with the various forms of ‘original sin’ paving the way to what many call a sustainable future. May this game train people to overcome unexpected obstacles!

REFERENCES Ahamer, G. (2004a). Negotiate your future: web based role play. Game concept for the Game “Surfing Global Change”. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 21(1), 35-58. Ahamer, G. (2004b). Rules of the new web-supported negotiation game ‘Surfing Global Change’. Game for your Mark! In: Campus 2004, (ed.) D. Carstensen & B. Barrios, Series Medien in der Wissenschaft, Volume 29, Waxmann Verlag, Münster - New York – München – Berlin, pp. 145-156. Ahamer, G. (2005). ‘Surfing Global Change’: How didactic visions can be implemented. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 22(5), 298–319. doi:10.1108/10650740510632217 Ahamer, G. (2008). Virtual Structures for mutual review promote understanding of opposed standpoints. The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(1), 17-43. Retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/ 115

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Ahamer, G. (2011a). How technologies can localize learners in a multicultural space. International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing, 1(2), 1–24. doi:10.4018/ijtem.2011070101 Ahamer, G. (2011b). Localize Individuals in Spaces of Interaction - Analysis of Online Review Processes. International Journal of Computer Science & Emerging Technologies, 2(3), 435-454. Retrieved from http://download.excelingtech.co.uk/ Journal/IJCSET%20V2(3).pdf Ahamer, G. (2011c). IT-supported Interaction Creates Discursive Spaces. International Journal of Latest Trend in Computing, 2(2), 225-239. Retrieved from http://download.excelingtech.co.uk/Journal/IJLTC%20V2(2).pdf Ahamer, G. (2012a). Training to Bridge Multicultural Geographies of Perspectives. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 29(1), 21–44. doi:10.1108/10650741211192037 Ahamer, G. (2012b). A four-dimensional Maxwell equation for social processes in web-based learning and teaching – windrose dynamics as GIS: Games’ intrinsic spaces. International Journal of Web-Based Learning and Teaching Technologies, 7(3), 1–19. doi:10.4018/jwltt.2012070101 Ahamer, G. (2013a). Multiple cultures of doing geography facilitate global studies. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 228–250. doi:10.1108/17504971311328099 Ahamer, G. (2013b). Game, not fight: Change climate change! Simulation and Gaming –. International Journal (Toronto, Ont.), 44(2-3), 272–301. doi:10.1177/1046878112470541 Ahamer, G. (2013c). A Planet-Wide Information System. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 30(5), 369–378. doi:10.1108/CWIS-08-2013-0032 Ahamer, G. (2013d). Quality assurance in transnational education management – the developmental “Global Studies” curriculum. In Handbook of Research on Transnational Higher Education Management. IGI Global. Doi:10.4018/978-14666-4458-8.ch015 Ahamer, G. (2013e). GISS and GISP facilitate higher education and cooperative learning design. In Handbook of Research on Transnational Higher Education Management. IGI Global. DOI doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4458-8.ch001 Ahamer, G. (2017a). The turbo principle in learning design. In S. Mukerji & P. Tripathi (Eds.), Marketing Initiatives for Sustainable Educational Development. IGI Global. 116

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Ahamer, G. (2017b). Conclusions from social dynamics for sustainable educational development. In S. Mukerji & P. Tripathi (Eds.), Marketing Initiatives for Sustainable Educational Development. IGI Global. Ahamer, G. (2017c), Learning and Space Mean Communication – Theories Rooting in China, India, and Europe. In Handbook of Research on Administration, Policy, and Leadership in Higher Education. IGI Global. Doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0672-0.ch005 Ahamer, G. (2019). Mapping Global Dynamics - From Local Pollution to Global Evolution. Doordrecht: Springer. Ahamer, G., & Jekel, T. (2010). Make a Change by Exchanging Views. In S. Mukerji & P. Tripathi (Eds.), Cases on Transnational Learning and Technologically Enabled Environments (pp. 1–30). Hershey, PA: IGI Global; doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-7497.ch001 Ahamer, G., & Kumpfmüller, K. (2013). Education and literature for development in responsibility – Partnership hedges globalization. In Handbook of Research on Transnational Higher Education Management. IGI Global. Doi:10.4018/978-14666-4458-8.ch027 Ahamer, G., & Mayer, J. (2013). Forward looking: Structural change and institutions in highest-income countries and globally. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 30(5), 386–403. doi:10.1108/CWIS-08-2013-0034 Ahamer, G., & Schrei, C. (2006). Exercise ‘Technology Assessment’ through a gaming procedure. Journal of Desert Research, 5(2), 224–252. doi:10.1504/ JDR.2006.011364 Altmann, M., Eisenreich, S., Lehner, D., Moser, S., Neidl, T., Rüscher, V., & Vogeler, T. (2013). Global inequality and poverty in perspectives of geography. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 127–150. doi:10.1108/17504971311328044 Gierlinger-Czerny, E. (2003). Gutachten des Spiels “Surfing Global Change” durchgeführt in einer Vorlesung Systemtheorie im Lehrgang für Baumanagement an der FH Joanneum Graz, expert opinion. Academic Press. Gierlinger-Czerny, E., & Peuerböck, U. (2002). Auf dem Weg zur Selbstorganisation – eine Ermutigung neue Unterrichtswege zu beschreiten. Münster: Lit-Verlag. Jonas, H. (1979). Das Prinzip Verantwortung. Versuch einer Ethik für die technologische Zivilisation, Suhrkamp. Frankfurt: Main. Klabbers, J. H. G. (2001). The emerging field of simulation and gaming: Meanings of a retrospect. Simulation & Gaming, 32(4), 471–480. doi:10.1177/104687810103200404 117

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Lehner, D., & Wurzenberger, J. (2013). Global Education – an educational perspective to cope with globalisation? Campus-Wide Information Systems, 30(5), 358–368. doi:10.1108/CWIS-08-2013-0033 Montessori, M. (1988). Kosmische Erziehung. Freiburg: Herder. Ossimitz, G. (2000). Entwicklung systemischen Denkens - Theoretische Konzepte und empirische Untersuchungen. Klagenfurter Beiträge zur Didaktik der Mathematik, Profil Verlag. Öttl, U. F. J., Pichler, B., Schultze-Naumburg, J., & Wadispointner, S. (2014). Integration policies in Europe – a web-based search for consensus. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 31(2/3), 121–138. doi:10.1108/CWIS-01-2014-0002 Peuerböck, U. (2003). Versuch einer Zusammenfassung der Beobachtungen im Hinblick auf die Grundlagen in unserem Buch “Auf dem Weg zur Selbstorganisation”, expert opinion. Academic Press. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rakos, C., Braun, E., & Nentwich, M. (1988). Technikbewertung und Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung. Band 1 der Schriftenreihe des Verbundkonzernes. Rauch, H. (2006). Report about the social dynamics of the digital learning game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC). Institut für Socialanalyse. Rauch, H. (2013). Reframing for global sustainability: The “Second Manifesto” for the “Turn of the Titanic”. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 151–175. doi:10.1108/17504971311328053 Rauch, H. (2014). Naming is taming: Outlining psycho-social hypotheses with regard to the present global situation. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 31(2/3), 100–107. doi:10.1108/CWIS-12-2013-0067 Rauch, H. (2017). Outline for a “European Democratic Citizen Service” (EDC) - A five-sector crisis training for all young Europeans. International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy, 12(1-3), 69–80. doi:10.1504/IJFIP.2017.085819 Rogers, C. R. (1974). Lernen in Freiheit. München: Kösel. Vogler, R., Ahamer, G., & Jekel, T. (2010). GEOKOM-PEP. Pupil led research into the effects of geovisualization. In T. Jekel, A. Koller, K. Donert, & R. Vogler (Eds.), Learning with Geoinformation V (pp. 51–60). Heidelberg, Germany: Wichmann.

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Interrelationship Between Pedagogy, Theories, Objectives, and Features: Mobile Learning Design Mireilla Bikanga Ada University of the West of Scotland, UK

ABSTRACT As students bring their own devices, there is a growing demand to leverage the benefits of these devices and foster the use my own device attitude. The effective inclusion and the widespread use of mobile learning practices have not yet been realized. Educational institutions still find it difficult to shift their pedagogical culture to a mobile one. Few studies have clearly shown how they underpin their mobile learning app design with learning theories. This chapter aims to provide the details of the pedagogical aspects of designing a mobile learning environment, shifting the culture to a mobile format, through the design, development, and evaluation of MyFeedBack, a mobile app for enhancing formative and summative assessment feedback. It presents the interrelationship between pedagogy, learning theories, the objectives, and features of the mobile learning platform.

INTRODUCTION Mobile learning offers affordances such as flexibility of anytime, anywhere access, and portability (Andrews, Smyth, & Caladine, 2010; Dann & Allen, 2013; Fuegen, 2012; O-K & Hong-Fa, 2014). However, nearly twenty years on, mobile learning still DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch005 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Interrelationship Between Pedagogy, Theories, Objectives, and Features

seems to be in its infancy (Author, 2014b) with attitudes still being investigated by many (Al-Emran, Elsherif, & Shaalan, 2016; Tang & Hew, 2017; Volk, Cotič, Zajc, & Starcic, 2017). It is still confined to researchers, individual innovative educators and institutions around the world (Lim & Churchill, 2016). Mobile devices have been used in many areas such as aspects of measurement, estimation, and control of laboratory test-beds (Frank & Kapila, 2017), Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) (Burston, 2014; Demouy & Kukulska‐Hulme, 2010), engineering (Jou, Tennyson, Wang, & Huang, 2016), polling in the classroom (Stowell, 2015), even in primary schools where apps are considered valuable for facilitating feedback (Falloon, 2015), etc. However, their effective inclusion and the widespread of mobile learning practices have not yet been realised. For example, the vast majority of the apps are not publically accessible (Zydney & Warner, 2016). Moreover, while many lecturers think that all the hype around mobile learning will decrease, students expect to have greater openness and more digital literate lecturers (Harpur, 2016). Many lecturers see the integration of new technologies as threatening their scholarly authority because their adoption requires a re-assessment of their roles and teaching styles in a teacher-student centred framework. On the other hand, research by the National Union of Students (NUS) indicates that students want better services instead of radical pedagogic innovation in their learning experience. The use of technology should be limited to relevant learning and teaching activities that can enhance their learning experience. The lack of academic staff knowledge and teacher preparation is a barrier to the development of technology-enhanced learning (Jenkins, Walker, & Voce, 2014; Sung, Chang, & Liu, 2016). Furthermore, Cheon, Lee, Crooks, and Song (2012) observe that many universities provided apps that did not focus on instruction and as a result of that, there is not enough experience available as to how to deliver learning through mobile technology. Universities usually provide the how-to style tutorials on any new technology that is available; however, there is a need to focus more on the pedagogy behind the technologies. This paper provides all the steps undertaken to design MyFeedBack, a mobile app for enhancing formative and summative assessment feedback as an example of a detailed mobile learning design process that focuses on shifting from technology to pedagogy and theory. It does not prescribe the content and structure but rather facilitates the understanding of linking various aspects including pedagogy, context, learning theory, and objective of the learning activities. MyFeedBack was developed as part of a study that investigated whether using a mobile web application for assessment feedback could enhance student engagement, communication and motivation. The study results were positive in achieving the objectives. However, the study also showed that the move from bring your own device (BYOD) to students’ Use My Own Device attitude is still a long way to go as such opportunities require a pedagogical

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shift, which is a very slow process that requires resilience and perseverance from educators (Author, 2014b). The rest of the paper is divided as followed: Firstly, a brief literature and account of the issues that have prompted the design is presented. Secondly, the specified concepts for the context of use and processes of the mobile learning app are provided. It will also highlight the learning theory and pedagogies underpinning MyFeedBack. Finally, the last section provides a brief conclusion.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND MYFEEDBACK DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Literature Review It is important to move the focus of mobile learning research from technology to learning (Steel, 2009). The interrelationship between pedagogy and technology makes it essential to understand how they operate together to support mobile learning. For example, Hsieh, Jang, Hwang, and Chen (2011), found that an instruction method adapted to students’ learning style enhances learning and improves learning performance. However, some educators may struggle to see how technology can support their teaching and learning. They should also be able to recognise and discuss the pedagogical affordances and limitations of the technologies available, in relation to their own pedagogical beliefs, vision and context (Steel, 2009). The challenge arises with the rapid development of technology; unfortunately, there is no way to escape the digital revolution such as the physical presence of mobile devices in and outside the classroom. Instead, teachers should embrace it by rethinking the ways classes are run (Greener, 2014). Laurillard (2008), who argues that the main problem is not the use of technology but the educators and organisational aspects of learning and teaching, emphasizes that pedagogic innovation should not be left to suppliers (p. XVII) who are only providers of the tools. There is a struggle because educational institutions then have to let go the primacy, authority and boundaries of formal education (KukulskaHulme & Traxler, 2013) and recognize the centrality of learners with their personal technologies and preferences (p. 254). One way to achieve this is for educators to become designers, which can help them re-conceptualize pedagogy and teaching practice (Li, 2012). Technology has the potential to significantly enhance learning. However, there is a need for the academic teaching community to stop resisting the changes and become more specific about what they need from the technology such as how these will enable learners to learn (Laurillard, 2012). This can only be achieved by providing the learning theories that underpin these technologies and 121

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explicitly showing how they could be relevant to the teacher and students. The growing increase in learning theories and processes for the use of technology for learning, in a student-centred learning environment is being fostered by the perceived lack of impact and failure of technology-enhanced learning on the learning processes (Attwell & Hughes, 2010). Learning theories are fundamental to mobile learning because they have a direct influence on the choice of learning strategies and shape other steps during the design process (Berking, Archibald, Haag, & Birtwhistle, 2012). For effective instructional design, it is crucial to identify the theoretical basis in which it is grounded (Sandars, Patel, Goh, Kokatailo, & Lafferty, 2015; Zydney & Warner, 2016). There is the need to: make explicit connections between the principles and the design features of their mobile learning environment and then test the designs to see if the underlying theories adequately describe how students learn in that particular environment (Zydney & Warner, 2016). There are several mobile learning case studies and frameworks in the literature that explain the theories underpinning their projects (Cochrane, 2010; Motiwalla, 2007; Nordin, Embi, & Yunus, 2010; Park, 2011). Few of these studies provide detailed aspects linking learning theories, pedagogies, and the mobile learning activities and features during the mobile learning platform design (Cochrane, 2010; Motiwalla, 2007) and focus on formative and summative assessment feedback. Moreover, few studies provide in great detail the pedagogical aspects of designing a mobile learning environment and its processes. Keskin and Metcalf (2011) argue that although mobile learning has a promising future as a field of study, it would be more understandable for new researchers if the definition, approaches and theories are discussed and linked to concrete mobile learning practices (p. 207).

MyFeedBack System Context Assessment and feedback remain the weakest factor and source of dissatisfaction in National Student Surveys (Bell & Brooks, 2017), across departments and disciplines. Many institutions are taking advantage of technology including mobile handheld devices to overcome these issues identified in the literature. These include the lack of ongoing communication between tutors and students; the issue of staff availability and approachability; feedback tending to be a monologist communication which can prevent students from understanding their feedback message and disengage with the feedback provided (Author, 2014d; Author, Stansfield, & Baxter, 2017). The search for improving student experience has seen assessment feedback being provided through various technologies such as audio and video (Gould & Day, 2013; Lunt & 122

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Curran, 2010; Macgregor, Spiers, & Taylor, 2011; Munro & Hollingworth, 2014; Nortcliffe & Middleton, 2011; Rodway-Dyer, Knight, & Dunne, 2011; Rotheram, 2009; Voelkel & Mello, 2014), podcast and screencast (West & Turner, 2015). However, there are some limitations including the extra workload, the inability to provide personalised and individual feedback to large class cohorts and the lack of synchronous or asynchronous communication or dialogue. The lack of time remains the main barrier to enhancing the quality of learning and teaching (Walker, Voce, Nicholls, Swift, Ahmed, & Horrigan 2014; Walker, Voce, Swift, Ahmed, Jenkins, & Vincent, 2016). It was against this backdrop that MyFeedBack was developed as a proof of concept, a standalone mobile web application. It happened at a time when the university was going through a transition from Blackboard to Moodle, the most widely used virtual learning environment in higher education in the UK (Walker et al., 2014; Walker et al., 2016) and did not have a system that could offer the functionalities required. The purpose was to design and implement an effective mobile learning environment that has its foundations on current educational technologies, theories and practices. The platform sought to foster students’ ‘Use My Own Device’ (UMyOD) (Author, 2014a) attitude and enable an easy way for tutors to provide students formative and/or summative assessment feedback, in particular to large student cohorts. MyFeedBack application enables further activities including peer feedback activities, students can reflect on the feedback they received, participate in a group/class discussion, take the formative assessment in the form of tutor or peers’ quizzes, and create quizzes for their peers using their mobile handheld devices (Author, 2013a, 2014a). Currently, Moodle Mobile offers several similar functionalities; however, for most of them, the student seems to be more of a consumer than a creator. The table 1 below provides Table 1. Comparison of MyFeedBack and Moodle Mobile activities Moodle Mobile

MyFeedBack

Take quiz (this is a recent addition)

Take quiz and create quiz

Feed back to teachers with a survey

Feed back to teachers with a survey Create a Survey for their peers Peer feedback

Can view grades

Can view grades and feedback; can leave comments on feedback

Keep up to date with notifications

Keep up to date with notifications

Engage in chat

Discussion board

Send a private message to a course participant (can be done offline)

Send a private message to a course tutor

View all your past private messages and notifications

View all your past private messages and notifications

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a comparison of MyFeedBack and Moodle Mobile activities. As it can be seen, the MyFeedBack application is almost by definition learner-centred as its activities can be done using the students’ own devices including their Smartphones. The uniqueness of MyFeedBack application resides in its capability to incorporate several tools in one platform, responsiveness, simplicity, one platform for all users and devices with features that may dictate the theory that is appropriate for a particular learning activity (Author, 2014a).

SPECIFIED CONCEPTS FOR CONTEXT OF USE, AND PROCESSES User research techniques were applied throughout the project life cycle to better understand users’ needs because the focus should be on “collaboration, connections, emotion and communication”, and trying to figure out whether users would want to use the application (Lazar, Feng, & Hochheiser, 2010). The real need of instructors and learners (Alvarez, Alarcon, & Nussbaum, 2011) have to be identified, and the delivery of instructional material that is not just posting lecture contents has to be considered. Additionally, there must be clarity about the intended outcomes of the technology used (Cole, 2009) as it is important to create supporting environments for technology uses that have positive impacts on students (Lei & Zhao, 2007). Moreover, throughout the system development, both staff and students should be given the opportunity to input through trials and poster presentations. The gathering of relevant information enables a clear understanding of the requirements for the technology and the context where it applies with the main aim being, in this research, the provision of a new learning experience for both students and staff in relation to assessment feedback. Following the initial fact-finding studies’ results of the students’ and teachers’ perception of feedback and their views on a potential mobile learning system at the university (Author, Stansfield & Baxter, 2017) and literature review findings, the concepts that specify the context of use, user, educational and pedagogical, and technical requirements, were identified. The following sections describe these concepts.

Educational Objectives of Learning The first phase of the mobile learning system was determining the design requirements. Designing a mobile learning system for an institution or organisation requires looking deeply at the issues or objectives before engaging in any development that could prove to be costly, time-consuming, and useless if not researched properly. This can be done through surveys, interviews, literature review or a combination of any, for 124

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example. Moreover, it is very important to instigate the design of mobile learning to help solve real problems or support actual learning because it would be ‘a weak argument’ to assume that the popularity of students’ mobile handheld device alone and their familiarity with it makes mobile learning attractive (Merchant, 2012).

User Requirements Using user-centred design approach as specified in the ISO 9241-210 standard (ISO, 2010), it was crucial to get an in-depth understanding of the needs and the requirement of the people for whom the application was being designed for. This was achieved through surveys, interviews, observation and review of previous studies. User considerations for designing MyFeedBack mobile application in term of the assessment feedback feature: •

•

For students and tutors, the application should be flexible and user-friendly. This will ensure that both user groups focus on the learning material rather than learning how to use the application. Flexibility and user-friendliness are important aspects of application development. Moreover, the fact-finding studies showed the diversity of student devices and the fact that not all students own a mobile device or may be willing to use their own mobile devices for learning. Tutors should be able to monitor student activities. For instance, they want to observe student behaviour with their summative and formative feedback.

Pedagogical Considerations The next step in the design is looking into the pedagogy surrounding the issues or key objectives. In relation to the educational and pedagogical requirements, it is very important to instigate the design of mobile learning to help solve real problems or support actual learning. It would be ‘a weak argument’ to assume that, the popularity of students’ mobile handheld device alone and their familiarity with it make mobile learning attractive (Merchant, 2012). The structure of the activities should be embedded within the content of the curriculum that is taught, educators should be given a chance to change their practices by providing them opportunities to try things out in their classrooms and then receive feedback (p.27), and should deliver instructional material that is not just posting lecture content (Alvarez, Claudio, Alarcon, Rosa, & Nussbaum, Miguel., 2011). Furthermore, personalising feedback and quicker turnaround encourage student engagement and promote retention. This includes evaluating the learning goals, considering the educational objectives of the learning activities that are to be implemented and assessing the theories that 125

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help the learning activity. It could mean using one theory or combining several theories. Combining different theories will enable the integration of different kinds of tools relevant to learning activities. At this stage, the designer or educator identifies the learning activities that are relevant for the mobile learning application and cater for different learning styles. A learning environment should deliver instructional material that is not just posting lecture content (Alvarez, Claudio, Alarcon, Rosa, & Nussbaum, Miguel., 2011). Table 2 below presents the pedagogical considerations for designing MyFeedBack mobile app and the highlighted areas focus on the assessment feedback feature.

Technological Considerations This context requires that the designers/educators think of the device types, whether the learning activities would happen within or outside the classroom, within a virtual or real-world environment, and the accessibility issues. The diversity of the students’ own mobile handheld devices makes it costly and difficult to design and implement mobile learning. An alternative would be to consider the use of a hybrid or mobile web platform, for example, which would enable wide access to learning. Table 2. Pedagogical considerations of MyFeedBack application The system should include a peer assessment and peer feedback feature.

Enable learning by doing: Making student create quizzes for their peers could enable them mastering the subject or concept.

Enable students to create content.

Students should be able to test their knowledge and expertise in their module or subject matter

Student should be able to provide feedback to their tutor’s teaching.

Tutors should be able to create learning material.

Students should be able to communicate with their peers within close group (formed around the module) and a wider group (anyone on the system).

Tutor should be able to provide formative and /or summative assessment feedback to students.

Students should be able to learn on their own or collaborate with their peers.

Tutor should be able to mark and grade students’ activities as part of a summative assignment if they wish to do so.

There should be more opportunities for dialogue and communication.

The mobile learning system should enable formal and informal learning.

Attempt should be done to alter students’ fixation on marks and engage them with their feedback.

Peer feedback and rating /grading should be anonymous to protect emotions, feelings, and boost confidence.

Students should be actively involved in the process of feedback: It could help students recognise, understand, and appreciate their own feedback.

The system should support both passive and active learning as well as allowing tutors to be proactive.

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Elias (2011) suggests the focus be on accessible design material using tools that are available rather than on the next great technologies.Koole, McQuilkin, and Ally (2010) highlight the importance of ‘device-agnostic’ tools that allow students to use the device they prefer, that is accessible to them, or that is convenient. MyFeedBack was developed as a cross-platform to remove any possible barrier to access its features and activities and give users a maximum amount of freedom (Author, 2013a, 2014a).

Learning Theory and MyFeedBack Assessment Feedback Feature The pedagogy should be linked to objectives that are detailed to a greater extent. This enables the ability to have a clear idea of the next step, deciding whether to focus on a more active or passive environment, decide how interactive the mobile learning platform should be, and decide what would be the roles of the participants. This should give them an idea of what feature(s) could provide such an environment and link the feature(s) to the learning theories and pedagogy. Integrating theory into the design of technology-based learning environments has a dual purpose: to enable learners to use the latest technology but mostly, to focus on users’ requirements.

Linking the MyFeedBack to Pedagogy and Theories Seamless learning is defined as: seamless integration of the learning experiences across various dimensions including formal and informal learning contexts, individual and social learning, and physical world and cyberspace (Wong & Looi 2011). Mobile seamless learning (MSL) prescribes how to use mobile technologies to bridge formal and informal learning environments (Looi et al., 2011). The focus here is that students use their own devices. The framework which has been refined over the years has resulted in the enunciation of ten salient dimensions that can be adopted for different mobile learning design to accommodate different circumstances due to the possible differences in the subject area, the pedagogy or learning activities and resources constraint. MyFeedBack adopted six of the ten dimensions of the mobile seamless learning framework (Wong, 2012; Wong & Looi, 2011). Table 3 presents the dimensions of the mobile seamless learning and those that underpin MyFeedBack application. One important aspect of the MyFeedBack app is the fostering of communication and feedback dialogue. Laurillard (2007) recognises the impact of mobility and mobile technologies on the Conversational Framework and argues that mobile learning could 127

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Table 3. Mapping selected dimensions of MLS (Wong, 2012; Wong & Looi, 2011) to MyFeedBack requirements MLS Dimensions

MyFeedBack

MSL1

Encompassing formal and informal learning

Using their devices students can cross the boundaries of a formal classroom education using their own mobile handheld device, access formal and informal feedback on their summative/formative assignments.

MSL2

Encompassing personalised and social learning

Personalised feedback is kept private and individual. A student can maintain a feedback dialogue with their tutor. Other features in MyFeedBack can enable social learning (Discussion board, MyPeerFeedback)

MSL3

Across time

Feedback is accessible anytime. Traditional boundaries of time become non-existent. Students can pace learning at their own speed

MSL4

Across locations

Feedback is accessible anywhere as the traditional boundaries of space are being erased with current innovation in mobile technologies.

MSL5

Ubiquitous access to learning resources

MSL6

Encompassing physical and digital worlds

MSL7

Combined use of multiple device types

MSL8

Seamless switching between multiple learning tasks

MSL8

Knowledge synthesis

MSL9

Encompassing multiple pedagogical and learning activity models (facilitated by teachers)

Students need to be able to access feedback using a device of their choice including a smartphone/tablet.

MyFeedBack can allow several pedagogical and learning activities: peer feedback, formative feedback, summative feedback, the student can take quizzes created by their tutor or their peers; students can rate their class (vote) and a discussion board.

increase interaction between the learner and the environment. Furthermore, for the conversational approach, successful learning needs a constant two-way conversation and interactions between the educator and learners and between learners. Examples of MyFeedBack features include MyMessages and MyGrades. In the MyGrades feature, there is an opportunity for a two-way conversation, communication and dialogue between students and their tutor as shown in the use case and interaction flow diagrams (Figures 2, 3 and 4). The tutor uploads a summative or formative assessment feedback and grade to students who can then comment on their feedback. MyMessages feature offers further opportunity for students and tutors to maintain a conversation, communication, and dialogue.

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Description of the Main Processes on MyFeedBack A clear description of the main processes of learning activities is necessary to help the designer or educator keep track during the development process. It will guide them when creating the features that enable these learning activities. It tells the designer or educator how the learning activities are going to happen and how the learning material is going to be manipulated. The different features that compose MyFeedBack have been described in the literature (Author, 2014a). The focus of the paper is on the feedback system module used in the research study. Figure 1 illustrates the general architecture of the MyFeedBack application and shows the data transfer between the devices and the system. Figure 1. MyFeedBack application architecture

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Altering Students’ Fixation on Marks and Enabling More Feedback Dialogue Processes The feedback module on MyFeedBack is called MyGrades on the student panel and Manage assessment, Feedback and Grades on the tutor panel. This feature enables the tutor to upload individual or group results including feedback for formative or summative assessments. It allows the tutor to monitor the feedback provided by displaying previously used feedback comments on the right-hand side of the screen. On MyGrades, feedback is presented to students first. Once they click the ‘I have read feedback’ button at the end of their feedback, their grade and marks are then displayed. A log is recorded every time they access their feedback which allows the tutor to identify students who do not access their feedback. Another button at the end of student feedback is the ‘Leave Feedback’. This feature is designed to foster feedback dialogue, where students can leave feedback on the feedback they have received. They can select the options YES/NO to whether they are satisfied with their feedback and whether they would like to meet their tutor for further discussion. The form also includes a comment box to encourage them to leave their own comments on their formative or summative results. The tutor reads these comments and takes appropriate measures. Figures 2 and 3 present the tutor and learner interactions with the assessment feedback feature on MyFeedBack; figure 4 presents the use case diagram of the assessment feedback feature. Figure 2. Interaction flow diagram – Tutor interaction with the assessment feedback feature on MyFeedBack

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Figure 3. Interaction flow diagram – Learner interaction with the assessment feedback feature on MyFeedBack.

Produce the Mobile Learning System Producing the mobile learning system requires selecting the appropriate technology. Would it be a mobile web app or a native one? Consider the technology that will foster widening participation and limits the cost when designing with the purpose of encouraging students using their own mobile handheld devices for learning. Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) does not necessarily mean that students will use their personal devices for learning. Student motivation to use their devices could be achieved by providing them with appropriate opportunities and learning facilities that might encourage and could foster a sense of ownership whereby the Use My Own Device (UMyOD) attitude takes predominance (Author, 2013a). The designer or educator should consider whether going for the richest possible interactivities or going for the widest possible phone coverage; the focus should be probably on accessible design material using tools that are available than on the next great technologies. Figures 5 and 6 present the graphical views of the assessment feedback feature from the tutor and student panels.

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Figure 4. Assessment feedback feature: Use Case diagram

Evaluating the Mobile Learning System The most important levels in software development life cycle are the testing levels because they enable the identification of potential errors in the product before it is released to the public. These include unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and acceptance testing (Mathur & Malik, 2010). After the researcher/developer ensured that the first three testing levels were completed and MyFeedBack was up and running, it was presented to students and educators within the university in order to carry out the User acceptance testing level as early trials. Since ‘user tests might be designed by the users or by testers’ (Cem Kaner, 2003), participants were asked to try out any features they wanted. Therefore, the researcher had no input on what was being tested. Evaluating the mobile learning system against the 132

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Figure 5. Assignment results upload feature on MyFeedBack – Tutor panel

requirement involves testing the system based on the objectives using early trials, poster presentations with students, tutors, and other stakeholders who are going to use the platform. If it does not meet the specified requirements, the designer should start again.

MyFeedBack Evaluation Early trials were carried out between March 2013 and July 2013. At the end of the trials, participant students were also asked to take a short paper survey in an attempt to identify the issues affecting their participation in mobile learning activities. Initial results of the embedded self-reporting tool, the weekly study which is based on the study of daily life (Conner & Lehman, 2012), were disseminated along with the results of early trials (Author, 2013b). Findings from these early trials showed that 133

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Figure 6. Example summative feedback view- Student panel

ownership of the mobile device does not, in itself, influence or motivate students’ participation in mobile learning; the lack of time is a barrier to participating in mobile learning. Furthermore, to perceive its benefits, it was important to ensure that the mobile learning activities be embedded within the module curriculum (Author, 2013b). The initial weekly study had eight respondents, and it was noted that the relevance of the learning material and interaction/communication or the lack of it had influenced what a student thought of MyFeedBack. (Author, 2013b). In a further weekly study, all students used MyGrades to access their assessment results, and most of those who answered the question on usefulness found MyFeedBack useful and very useful, and none of them found it not useful or not very useful (Table 4).

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Table 4. Early trial and usefulness of features How Useful Did You Find MyFeedBack Application This Week? Week ending 22th December 2013 (pilot 1)

Undecided 24% Useful 38% Very useful 38% (n=8)

From the Following List, What Feature Did You Use the Most This Week? MyGrades 100% (n=9)

Lecturers’ Evaluation Results The trials in which lecturers from within the researcher’s university participated have been detailed in the literature (Author, 2013b). Lecturer “Ben” from another UK University trialled the application for his Mandarin language class and liked the idea that it would be accessible using any device and anywhere with internet connectivity. Figure 7 presents Mandarin language trial as seen from the student panel. Lecturers “John” and “Ali” from a further education institution in the UK where they teach various classes including a degree programme also trialled MyFeedBack. After the trial, lecturers “Ben”, “John” and “Ali” were sent a questionnaire via

Figure 7. Mandarin Mock Exam trial

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email. Their evaluation of the application was positive. Some of the questions and answers are as follow: •

•

•

•

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Question 1: What would make MyFeedBack an attractive option compared to the systems that are already in place within your institution’s virtual learning environment (VLE) or the way you provide assessment results for a module? ◦◦ Ben: Students do seem much more comfortable with devices, and I can imagine it being useful for some students. However, I do believe that feedback to academic work should be detailed and require thought. I am not sure mobile devices have the right affordance for that sort of level. However, I can see mobile devices as being useful for things like multiple choice tests. ◦◦ Ali: Monitoring students (Who Has Checked their Feedback feature and how many times). Question 2:With MyFeedBack, students can leave their comments on their assessment results immediately using the Leave Comments button and using any device. How do you feel about that feature (‘Leave comment’ button) and how would you feel about reading students’ comments on their results (What Students think of their Feedback feature)? ◦◦ Ben: I think this would be a good thing – and could be very powerful if collated across courses. It would allow “personal tutors” to pick up on issues of students not reading – or not taking on board their feedback if the same feedback is revealed many times (e.g., poor citations). ◦◦ John: It is a fantastic feature, and I think this feature sell MyFeedBack well. Reading student comments are good; it provides you more information about students’ development and achievement. ◦◦ Ali: I think this is a very good idea. Question 3: With MyFeedBack, you are able to monitor your students (Who Has Checked their Feedback feature), for example, you can see who access their feedback or not and how many times they access it. How do you feel about that? ◦◦ John: Another good feature which will ensure that if the student has read it or not. A lot of time students challenge their grade. Thus it will be worth to check if students have read feedback initially. ◦◦ Ali: I think this is an attractive feature of MyFeedBack and would be very useful. Question 4: What do you think of this statement: MyFeedBack can foster student engagement with their assessment feedback? ◦◦ Ben: I think it’s more – MyFeedBack can help some students engage more closely with their assessment feedback.

Interrelationship Between Pedagogy, Theories, Objectives, and Features

John: There is a very good level of engagement, and it keeps students and staff connected well regarding assessment. Providing feedback is always a challenge for academic because of the nature of it. It is boring and tedious. But MyFeedBack is one step closer to make it easy for us. Question 5: What do you think of this statement: MyFeedBack can enhance feedback communication/dialogue with students? ◦◦ John: I totally agree it does; It allows both sides students and teachers to provide comments and then it also allows both sides check if it is read or not. ◦◦ Ali: I agree that MyFeedBack can enhance feedback communication/ dialogue with students as well as stretch and challenge their learning. ◦◦

•

Figure 8 presents a summary of the different stages in MyFeedBack mobile web application design. Figure 8. Designing MyFeedBack mobile learning system application: A step by step guide.

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Future of MyFeedBack After the initial trials, studies were implemented that investigated whether using a mobile web application for assessment feedback could enhance student motivation, engagement and communication. These studies ran over a period of three years. Findings were positive. Some of the outcomes have been disseminated (Author, 2014c, 2014d; Author & Stansfield, 2017). Further dissemination of the findings is under review. Following the success of the studies, some students suggested using MyFeeBack for all the modules. However, one salient point is the need to have it integrated with the institution current VLE environment. This request was made by lecturers who want to use some of the features on a regular basis. As a standalone, it is just ‘an extra thing to do’ that requires another login. In the future, a standard plug-in will be developed which will be used to connect MyFeedBack with other tools and transfer data back and forth with the institution VLE. However, as MyFeedBack was developed as a prototype, it will first need to be made more robust. It will then be released to the public as one of the issues identified that also affected the widespread of mobile learning is the inaccessibility of most of the apps (Zydney & Warner, 2016).

CONCLUSION Mobile learning design and implementation can be a complex technical and cultural challenge for educational institutions. Although mobile learning environments provide opportunities for learning anywhere and anytime, educational institutions can find it difficult to shift a pedagogical culture to a mobile format, mostly when considering students’ own mobile handheld devices in the equation. Working toward the development of a mobile learning system requires focusing on the underpinning theories and using the implications of these theories to guide the steps undertaken to carry through the mobile design strategy. By showing how the learning theories and pedagogy could be used, the relation between theories, pedagogy and the design strategies becomes more explicit. Unless the appropriate pedagogy is used, technology will not function properly as a learning environment. In other words, appropriate subject content, pedagogy, and technology must be harmonised. Moreover, focusing on theories could bring out more ideas for designing mobile learning. This paper provides an example of a detailed step by step approach taken to formulate the relationship between the theories, pedagogy, the learning activities, and the mobile learning system. It shows how to situate the instructional approaches that come from the learning theories in the appropriate instructional context based on

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the learning objectives. It provides examples of how these steps were followed using the design, development and evaluation of MyFeedBack, a mobile web application. Finally, this paper invites mobile learning system designers and educators to assess their teaching and learning goals, and direct the focus of the design from technology to learning. Furthermore, it is hoped that this will give them a starting point of reference for a deeper understanding and more detailed relationship between the pedagogies, theories, the mobile learning system they intend to design, and the learning activities they want to implement. With the pace at which technology development is advancing, there is no doubt that the popularity of mobile learning will continue to increase. However, as educators still work in isolation and miss opportunities to share their innovations and practice approaches (Steel, 2009), it is important to provide more opportunities to discuss (Keskin & Metcalf, 2011) and share practices, not only on mobile learning successes and failures but also the provision of greater details in mobile learning design processes. Sharing that information could motivate the educational stakeholders who are still resisting the changes. Furthermore, it could help transform educators from mere end-user of technology to creators of their teaching and learning processes and give them the ability to process knowledge within real processes. Creating appropriate conditions of learning would encourage students to adopt a UMyOD attitude. Mobile learning is more than just presenting the content in a mobile format. Integrating theories into the design of technology-based learning environment will enable the learners to use the latest technology, but most importantly, it will focus on the learners’ requirements. Sharing how this could be achieved may enable the effective inclusion and the widespread of mobile learning practices that, up until now, have not yet been realised and are limited to just a few.

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Motiwalla, L. F. (2007). Mobile learning: A framework and evaluation. Computers & Education, 49(3), 581–596. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.10.011 Munro, W., & Hollingworth, L. (2014). Audio feedback to physiotherapy students for viva voce: How effective is ‘the living voice’? Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 39(7), 865–878. doi:10.1080/02602938.2013.873387 Nordin, N., Embi, M. A., & Yunus, M. M. (2010). Mobile Learning Framework for Lifelong Learning. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 7, 130–138. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.10.019 Nortcliffe, A., & Middleton, A. (2011). Smartphone Feedback: Using an iPhone to Improve the Distribution of Audio Feedback. International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education, 48(3), 280–293. doi:10.7227/IJEEE.48.3.6 Park, Y. (2011). A pedagogical framework for mobile learning: Categorizing educational applications of mobile technologies into four types. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(2), 25. doi:10.19173/irrodl.v12i2.791 Rodway-Dyer, S., Knight, J., & Dunne, E. (2011). A Case Study on Audio Feedback with Geography Undergraduates. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 35(2), 217–231. doi:10.1080/03098265.2010.524197 Rotheram, B. (2009). Sounds Good: Quicker, better assessment using audio feedback’: final report. Leeds Metropolitan University: JISC. Retrieved from https://sites. google.com/site/soundsgooduk/ Sandars, J., Patel, R. S., Goh, P. S., Kokatailo, P. K., & Lafferty, N. (2015). The importance of educational theories for facilitating learning when using technology in medical education. Medical Teacher, 37(11), 1039–1042. doi:10.3109/014215 9X.2015.1019438 PMID:25776228 Soh, O.-K., & Ho, H.-F. (2014). Students’ Perceptions Towards the Use of Dialogic Feedback in Mobile Applications for Students’ Writing: A Qualitative Case Study (Vol. 10). Academic Press. Steel, C. (2009). Reconciling university teacher beliefs to create learning designs for LMS environments. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 25(3), 399–420. doi:10.14742/ajet.1142 Stowell, J. R. (2015). Use of clickers vs. mobile devices for classroom polling. Computers & Education, 82, 329–334. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.12.008

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Sung, Y.-T., Chang, K.-E., & Liu, T.-C. (2016). The effects of integrating mobile devices with teaching and learning on students’ learning performance: A metaanalysis and research synthesis. Computers & Education, 94, 252–275. doi:10.1016/j. compedu.2015.11.008 Tang, Y., & Hew, K. F. (2017). Using Twitter for education: Beneficial or simply a waste of time? Computers & Education, 106, 97–118. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.12.004 Voelkel, S., & Mello, L. V. (2014). Audio Feedback – Better Feedback? Bioscience Education, 22(1), 16–30. doi:10.11120/beej.2014.00022 Volk, M., Cotič, M., Zajc, M., & Starcic, I. (2017). Tablet-based cross-curricular maths vs. traditional maths classroom practice for higher-order learning outcomes. Computers & Education, 114, 1–23. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.06.004 Walker, R., Voce, J., Nicholls, J., Swift, E., Ahmed, J., & Horrigan, S. (2014). 2014 survey of technology enhanced learning for higher education in the UK. Oxford. Retrieved from https://www.ucisa.ac.uk/~/media/.../Tel%202014%20Final%20 18%20August.ashx Walker, R., Voce, J., Swift, E., Ahmed, J., Jenkins, M., & Vincent, P. (2016). 2016 Survey of Technology Enhanced Learning for higher education in the UK. Oxford, UK: University of Oxford; Retrieved from https://www.ucisa.ac.uk/-/media/Files/.../ surveys/TEL%20Survey%202016_Nov16 West, J., & Turner, W. (2015). Enhancing the assessment experience: Improving student perceptions, engagement and understanding using online video feedback. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 1–11. doi:10.1080/147032 97.2014.1003954 Wong, L.-H. (2012). A learner-centric view of mobile seamless learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(1), E19–E23. doi:10.1111/j.14678535.2011.01245.x Wong, L.-H., & Looi, C.-K. (2011). What seams do we remove in mobile-assisted seamless learning? A critical review of the literature. Computers & Education, 57(4), 2364–2381. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.06.007 Zydney, J. M., & Warner, Z. (2016). Mobile apps for science learning: Review of research. Computers & Education, 94, 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.001

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Conclusions From Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development Gilbert Ahamer Graz University, Austria

ABSTRACT The social and didactic dynamics produced by the negotiation-oriented and partly web-based game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC) were analyzed by independent experts after their observations in advanced interdisciplinary university courses. It could be empirically demonstrated that the intended didactics of SGC were successful, namely that they were grounded on “active, self-organized learning,” training of “competence to act,” and on responsibility for both practicable and sustainable solutions for the society of the future. The design of SGC succeeds in equilibrating competition vs. consensus, self-study vs. team work, sharpening the self-interest vs. readiness to compromise, reductionism vs. holism, and hence, mirrors professional realities. The conclusion is made that the game’s rules act as a boundary condition for expected processes of social self-organization. The independent expert’s opinions express the importance of self-responsibility. Hence, self-organization in SGC allows for self-responsibility.

1. THE ORGANIC MEANING OF THE FIVE PHASES IN SGC The overall design of the game SGC (see descriptions in Duraković, et al., 2012; Öttl et al., 2014; Vogler, Ahamer, & Jekel, 2010; Bader, et al., 2013; Lehner & Wurzenberger, 2013; Altmann, et al., 2013; Ahamer, 2004a, b, 2005, 2006, 2008a,b, 2012a, b, 2013a, b, c, d, e; 2015; Ahamer & Schrei, 2006; Ahamer & Jekel, 2010) DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch006 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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sets out to train students for the vicissitudes of professional life. Consequently, a certain rhythm of fact-based analysis versus the social striving for acceptance of one’s own convictions is what follows: • • •

The phases focusing on individual work (1, 2, 5) complement team-oriented phases (3, 4). The phases focusing on defending individual views (1, 3) alternate with phases where openness for other standpoints is a necessary attitude (2, 4). Phase 3, with its richness in differentiation and details as visualized in the matrix, is followed by phase 4 where formerly singular aspects intertwine and where details converge to a common action program.

The main dramaturgy of Surfing Global Change lies in arguments serving as tools for objectified interpersonal communication: • •

First define and foster your own precise standpoint in order to … … Then become able to make it more flexible in the interest of greater equilibrium.

SGC builds on dialogic, self-responsible and game-based didactics as proposed in (Gierlinger-Czerny, 2003; Gierlinger-Czerny & Peuerböck, 2002; Peuerböck, 2003; Prensky, 2001; Rogers, 1974; Rauch, 2013, 2014, 2017; Klabbers, 2001; Jonas, 1979; Montessori, 1988; Ahamer & Kumpfmüller, 2013; Ahamer & Mayer, 2013). In this light, SGC’s set of rules could be seen as a facilitator for social and academic evolution inside a class and has several organic functionalities (right in Figure 1). SGC sets out to allow an organic maturation of standpoints (left in Figure 1): 1. Small isolated packages of traditional content representing only one side. 2. A process of text-oriented critiques at a slow pace allowing deliberation on a one-to-one basis mediated via asynchronous virtual communication. 3. A quick process of situation-dependent need to present and defend individual arguments as a function of the adversary’s behaviour and strategy on a groupto-group basis within a team in synchronous real-time communication. 4. A consolidation process with less pressing time restrictions in real-time communication on a many-in-one-boat basis requiring consensus in synchronous real-time communication. 5. A closing activity involving the creation of a view that integrates the many standpoints heard so far by creating an analysis outside severe time restrictions on an individual or freely-chosen team “we just for us” basis in web-mediated asynchronous communication. 147

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Figure 1. Symbolic depiction of the communicative setting (left) and the consecutive social processes (right) in which the five phases develop: the evolution from dwelling upon single technical details towards a coherent view (Image source: Ahamer, 2018)

2. INTERPRETATIONS OF SGC IMPLEMENTATIONS AND EXTERNAL OPINIONS 2.1. Interpretation of the Processes in Level 1 Until the year before the first generation of web teaching (see Ahamer, 2010) student success in conventional quizzes seemed questionable, even if traditionally and commonly accepted. The author critically asked himself: are the 20+15 questions sufficient as a descriptor of student success? Given general practical evidence, quite apparently, they are insufficient! However, the still more important argument is that no dynamic social process is triggered by just “mastering a quiz”. Under the given boundary conditions of two times twenty students sitting in classrooms equipped with PCs, cheating was already the cause of an existing distortion which overrode achievable results in the classical sense. Additionally, the quizzes employed did not foresee an iterative procedure of double-checking one’s own perception of the issue as is possible, for example, in the 8-4-2-words game (Thiagi, 2001). Hence, Level 1 of SGC can be seen as an improvement of assessment quality.

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2.2. Interpretation of the Processes in Level 2 An interpretation of the differences from the traditional “small seminar work” in the first generation of web teaching immediately shows the advantage of the iterative review process for the visible advancement of academic paper quality in the eyes of the trainer. Additionally, student work is traditionally handed over to the trainer and then not even felt, noticed or even read through by fellow students. It can certainly be claimed that more reading of standpoints and hence “learning from peers” has been achieved by the SGC system of rules. In this light, it might even appear to be of secondary importance if points were sometimes felt to be “unjust”; at least the opportunity to improve one’s own quality was taken far more than in a traditional class. Basic features of conclusions from Level 2 are: •

•

•

The grading system deliberately combines different social and academic skills between which no significant correlation is visible. The author’s intention is to better approach the skills needed in the professional world when combining: ◦◦ The academic quality of written standpoints as assessed by the teacher. ◦◦ The result of peer reviews received from fellow students. ◦◦ The rewards for one’s personal review effort when reviewing fellow students. Level 2 allows quantitative analysis of the conditions and results of two basic and distinctly discernible inclinations among students: the pragmatic striving for high scores as a result of the game rules (student’s own target) and the fact-oriented striving for academic paper quality. The best overall game success comes to the moderately pragmatic group. In the eyes of the trainer, however, excellence comes only from the nonpragmatic group

From the standpoint of students, the main features of conclusions are (cf. Ahamer, 2015) that: • • •

Students inclining towards pragmatic behaviour (“symmetric reviewers”): ◦◦ Receive more reviews the more they undertake reviews themselves ◦◦ Receive higher scores the better they assess others’ papers Students declining pragmatic behaviour (“non-symmetric reviewers”): ◦◦ Receive higher scores the more often they get reviewed. Hence pragmatic students could be seen to dwell on a positive feedback loop (the more I give, the more I get: exogenous motivation) on the level of 149

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visible activity. However, non-pragmatic students have at their disposal an endogenous source of motivation. How do students in construction management behave? An interim conclusion offers itself: the moment a social process is triggered and a system of rules starts to generate an optimizing process, the direction of development is dominated by the game’s criteria – and not the criteria that were originally present. This means that a necessary offset in reaching the target will always arise which very clearly mirrors initial maladjustments in the theoretical concept: namely a mismatch in expectations that pragmatic compliance toward (artificial) game rules will create behaviours that approximate moral or ethical attitudes residing in the person of the trainer (= inventor of game). Would a theologian call it as follows? An act of creating “free beings” always includes their “misbehaviour” when judging with the creator’s initial intention (Adam & Eve thrown out of paradise). This is the very basis of any human situation. Quantum mechanics offers a helpful insight here: each process that a subject goes through also changes its system of values! So, as the famous physicist Werner Heisenberg (1969) said: the act of measuring changes the measured object. How quickly do persons go into “rule checking” after having entered a new social sphere? How quickly do persons optimize the obeying of prevalent rules in a social area like class, game, etc. (versus their own personal rules)?

2.3. Interpretation of the Processes in Level 3 The author’s teaching experience is enriched by four external written expert opinions (between 5 and 70 pages), three of which were financed and organized by the author of the game. These expert opinions commented on the process of the very first game’s implementation in 2003 and monitored only the Level 3-4 discussions for students in construction engineering (BBM): Gierlinger-Czerny (2003), GierlingerCzerny & Peuerböck (2002), Peuerböck (2003), Rauch (2006). In this section all such expert opinions are reported in profound detail in order to provide the reader the most natural and vivid impression and perception of the social processes that took place. It is emphasized that later implementations of SGC took into account these expert opinions and therefore constitute a considerably refined and improved didactic exercise. In a nutshell, the present section reports on SGC’s earliest infancy. The setting of the students in class was analogous to Figure 2: The four tables touch each other at their corners. 150

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Figure 2. Setting in the classroom for level 3 of SGC: the four tables represent the four roles under discussion; the students outside the four tables merely act as observers (image taken by the author during a different year).

2.3.1. Background of the Intervening External Experts During class, the trainer is of course occupied with speaking about the content, fixing small technical questions and providing a rough assessment of how well the originally developed game setting suits the students. During the more complex periods of parallel group work, and especially the discussions under time constraints, the multitude of social impressions cannot easily be perceived by one person alone. One person (initials IS, the author of a diploma thesis on SGC: Schinnerl, 2003) took care of (during the discussion process) the quick random choice of the grid elements (done here using pre-electronic technology with dice), measured the appropriate time (with a kitchen alarm clock) and did the book-keeping of the points reached by each team (pen and paper). An electronic version of this discussion game was considered but there is no plan as yet to program it with full features. In order not to lose the more complex details of the social dynamics resulting from the system of game rules, the three professional spectators (initials EG, UP, HR) monitored and reflected on the processes involved in various respects of the level 3&4 discussions of BBM. The orientation of these experts was a function of their earlier professional experiences: •

EG: Organizer of a social sciences curriculum in Graz, author of a book on self-organization in pedagogy and other books (Gierlinger-Czerny & Peuerböck, 2002). A theologian, psychotherapist, interdisciplinary scientist and lecturer, she gave a workshop on self-organized learning at Graz University together with UP and two other colleagues. 151

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UP: Co-author of the same book, co-organizer of the social sciences curriculum. A pedagogue, systemic family therapist and lecturer. HR: Founder of the European Forum for Sustainable Development in Vienna (ESD), multi-year manager of international development projects at UNESCO and other international institutions. A legal expert, social scientist, psychologist, psychotherapist, management consultant, founder and leader of the Vienna-based “Institut für Socialanalyse”, author of studies and lecturer on social dynamics and systems (Rauch, 2006). IS: A student of information business at the University of Applied Technology FH Eisenstadt near Vienna, internship at the Center for Multimedia in Learning at FH Joanneum Graz, author of the diploma thesis Previous Knowledge and Previous Experience as a Basis of New Learning Experience in Education.

• •

•

The book edited by EG and UP (Gierlinger-Czerny and Peuerböck, 2002) dwells on several years of personal experience and suggests four levels of education and training: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Content Process Practice Self-organization As well as six basic attitudes:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Self-organization Systemic way of thinking Co-operation and personality orientation Team work Understanding as a process.

The European Association for the Promotion of Sustainable Development (ESD) founded by HR: • • •

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Is a NGO movement, It is not bound to any political party, Its main goal is the promotion of Sustainable Development (SD) on all levels and in all realms.

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ESD draws its personnel resources especially from the academic and the artistic sphere, but also from the participative experiences of civil society and politicians. Its main tasks are to inform the public about the growing challenges of the beginning century, and to elaborate concepts and instruments for future-politics fostering true SD (ESD position, 2002). ESD - while engaged in forging the future - rests upon the tradition of ‘a political culture of well-balanced perspectives and principles’, i.e. • • • •

The balance between the personality and the public interest The balance between solidarity and subsidiarity The balance between local traditions and cosmopolitan perspectives The balance between the materialistic and the spiritual dimension.

ESD is therefore aiming to achieve real SD for all over the world, and for all generations of children in the future. The diploma thesis by IS (Schinnerl 2003) dwells on didactics in its first sections, names clearly the underlying didactic approach learning is an active process to be initiated by the learner itself, names the necessity of linking new knowledge to already existing knowledge, detects missing bases among contemporary students and culminates in two hypotheses, namely: 1. That the students’ ability in self-organized learning was not yet mature enough to allow the appropriation of knowledge necessary for the game, 2. That the framework during the courses provided too little help for students to support their abilities. The following subsections deal with the main points delivered by the external experts employing an order from more external observations to more complex deductions. It shall be emphasized here that these observations during the first two implementations of SGC helped to considerably improve the game and its rules for the subsequent implementations. All other literature on SGC refers therefore to this improved version and the critical sections of the following assessments are no longer applicable to present-day SGC.

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2.3.2. The Expert Review Focusing on the Communication Processes UP focuses her assessment of 4 pages in German (translated here) on the narrative of both discussion rounds in level 3 and level 4 and relates the details of discussion to the four levels of the book co-edited by her. For the sake of better insight into the specific procedures, the relevant discussion matrices are displayed below. 2.3.2.1. The First Discussion The entire class discussed mobile phone antennas in the four teams mentioned in Ahamer (2015) using the matrix shown in Table 1. The four teams decided to set their chips as shown in Table 2; the sum of points is displayed in Table 1 (discussion time = sum of points divided by number of teams); the teams winning the vote after the discussions are also displayed in Table 1. Table 1. Matrix used for the discussion on mobile phone antennas by the entire construction engineering class of students (BBM). Each team had to place 40 chips; the sum of chips is indicated in the grid cells in italics as is the winning team (BW = construction company: 93 points won by 7 members, B = administration: 27 points won by 14 members, W = economic lobby: 16 points won by 12 members, E = ecologists: 15 points won by 11 members; this brings 13.3 points per BW member but only 1.3 to 1.9 for all others).

Table 2. Matrix from Table 1 for the discussion on mobile phone antennas with the 40 chips as placed by the four teams of construction students: BW = construction, B = administration, company, W = economic lobby, E = ecologists.

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UP observes “with regard to the levels from their abovementioned book, namely at: 1. Content Level: a. Most content is brought by the construction company (BW). b. Hypothesis: Best identification for BW, ideal team size of about six. c. When discussing the content, the members of BW receive much attention. d. When the discussion becomes too long and all are included: much tension at first; but when not much occurs on the level of content: people drift away; hence: contents impacts attention. e. Content-related criteria for voting decisions were not clear; content-related justification, why whoever gave however many points was not foreseen at this stage. 2. Level of Self-Organization: a. Partly teams are too large for appropriate self-organization. b. Teams behave very differently (hypothesis: they identify with the respective role). c. During the 20 minutes preparation time: after external “encouragement” there is also work flow in the “irrelevant team” (= team of 12 = administration = B). d. Colleague EG stands next to them and they work with more concentration; one member of the team looks at me (UP) and tries to motivate the others e. When the trainer (GA) announces the time, the teams work with more concentration for a short time. f. When the trainer announces and clarifies rules he gets a lot of attention. g. After the first discussion on a matrix element, a student makes a proposal that each discussing team closes with a final statement, but this proposal was not accepted by the trainer. h. After the first discussion on a matrix element, discussions continue within the four teams even if the trainer advances in the schedule. i. After another matrix element: inquiry by one student about whether there could be justifications given for voting behaviour – this proposal was not implemented on the same day. j. While the trainer is speaking, not all listen, except when it refers to rules – or if something is wrong; this shows that students are paying attention even if they are talking to each other! k. Team members want to reach coherence before voting, but time is too short; before they reach a consensus they have to vote; they do not bring this aspect into the plenary. 3. Process Level:

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a. In the discussion the administration team (B) becomes clearer and clearer, the construction company (BW) more and more vehement; in this process lies challenge, hence no irrelevance observable in the administration team (B). b. During discussion most participants are attentive, only the economic lobby (W) slips away. c. After 90 minutes of discussion (at 12:30), concentration is rapidly declining; also construction company (BW) fools around, the teams split up into several conversations; when discussion goes more into detail, more come back listening; with repetitions most drift away again. d. Trainer speaks, nobody listens – but this is not true because he says that for the next matrix element all four teams are involved; tension is back again. e. The alarm clock in the hands of the trainer brings a lot of tension – good. f. The trainer intrudes in the process, steers it by announcing the time, structures it by clarifying content and by doing so renders further progression possible. 4. Practice Level: a. The construction company team (BW) take good care of relevance for practice. b. This subject apparently suits their (BW’s) formation and their future field of practice. c. In general: Much knowledge, much interest, good training for argumentation, pacts inside the teams do not work out well – hence promote and train team work. d. A break or something similar would be important because there is a low point to be overcome. e. Trainer: If you could just listen another minute – students do not want to as the end of lecture time has come. f. After the end the trainer discusses the next session with the others and proposes as subject “FH campus”: Chatter among students; trainer adds that systems-analytic approach is necessary, argues that they need their seminar work, various students talk, no attention, trainer justifies his plans and there is no more room for it because many students have already gone; but the ten minutes overtime were very important concerning the content; at 13:12: What should we do until Wednesday?, some students propose representative groups and how they think about this question; process slips away and attention decreases. Trainer announces defined tasks and team speakers (defined on a voluntary basis) for the next discussion event at the end of the week. 156

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2.3.2.2. The Second Discussion Students discussed the theme of the nearby “FH campus” during both morning (chips set as in Table 3) and afternoon (chips set as in Table 4) sessions. When comparing both sets of four tables it is interesting to note the relatively small changes in patterns of chips laid, which hints at a relatively stable perception of reality from a team perspective. However, the difference between the perceptions of different roles is quite large (inter-role > intra-role). UP: Student teams take their seats together on tables with eight places. Trainer closes the door to make it clear that the program is starting; he presents the external experts to the students, there is also a video camera running. All are listening except students from one table, who always keep talking. Trainer addresses one student in a polite way; this young man tries to informally lead the group in the plenary during discussion. Again the four levels as follows: Table 3. Matrix used for the discussion on the FH campus by half the construction engineering class of students (BBM) in the morning. Each team has to place 60 chips, the teams won as follows: neighbours: 95 points won by 7 members; students: 85 points won by 5 students; FH administration: 100 points won by 6 members; city council: 95 points won by 5 members; this works out as 13.6 to 19 points per student.

Table 4. Matrix used for the discussion on the FH campus by half the construction engineering class of students (BBM) in the afternoon. Each team has to place 60 chips, the teams won as follows: neighbours: 101.5 points won by 6 members; students: 166.5 points won by 8 students; FH administration: 98 points won by 7 members; city council: 172 points won by 2 members; this works out as 86 points per administration student, from 14 to 20.8 for other students.

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1. Content Level: a. At the outset the trainer explains the rules clearly and hence has attention. b. The new aspect of today: the newly-adapted rules are met with interest; repetitions lose attention as content is less interesting; if rules are more complicated, their attention returns. 2. Level of Self-Organization: a. One team which was announced is missing, trainer deliberates how to solve this problem, accepts proposal of one team saying that a freshlyconstituted team should take this role. b. When matrices are distributed all are eager and interested, intensive internal discussion; afterwards the young man mentioned above organizes students from each table with whom he goes to an adjacent room – selforganization in another room. c. The discussion degenerates, one student seeks support from the trainer who helps (not directly but indirectly) by explaining the rules again and leaving concrete responsibility to the students. d. After a break important questions are emerging: request for a discussion leader – trainer declines, wanting self-organization from the side of students. e. Many skirmishes, start of discussion is delayed, and not still; many talk to each other but stick to the theme!, trainer also speaks with an external expert. f. Trainer is again asked to intervene because many informal discussions run in parallel, one student says to the trainer “you seem to enjoy this”, trainer structures by means of the clock and stimulates by requiring the students to name a discussion leader from among them. g. The trainer remains on the meta level and does not immerse into the level of action; and it works: One female student takes over to lead the discussion and concentration is back again. h. The discussion becomes more interesting for all; attention is present, the trainer starts to speak with the observers in parallel because some of them are only now arriving. i. Nevertheless, much concentration remains with the students’ statements. j. The trainer says that the observers may vote, some students disagree because some observers have arrived late – here no self-organization occurs as the trainer determines the flow of action despite the objections which he dismisses. 3. Process Level: a. Three students arrive too late, the trainer again explains everything to them but they do not really listen – break – varying noise level, but they listen 158

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and are quickly present if a new subject comes up; at the start students are under pressure and say they want to play; anticipation for the game is present. b. The trainer finds the persons in the other room and accompanies them in their process; he goes with the resistance and questions, lets them explain, listens, goes into, considers and sensibly puts forth questions; the situation was touch and go now but the trainer solves the problem well: he asks which advantages this (= apparently covered pact) brings for the further game procedure; he proceeds to the meta level and does not let himself get drawn into the process! He goes on to the content level and nevertheless remains with the process. He tries to understand: “It would be meaningful for you if …” – here suddenly all four levels were present. c. Trainer remains close to the process and the students are very committed also and especially those who ‘were on strike beforehand.’ d. Students organize themselves, render the game easier for themselves, they crack the game; the trainer admits it. e. Content was also: who can talk with whom, with which fields are we familiar. f. Side of the observers in the room after the conversation: only then is it feasible for the students to work as constructively as possible – resistance is gone and is replaced by motivation. g. Students very exactly deliberate and accord their positions (“the students want to speak with the management” – “Do you want to speak with us?”), they are very eagerly involved. h. The game begins again, the trainer addresses the informal process, students acknowledge relevance to practice. i. After the long team discussion, the discussing grows less disciplined; partly students are no longer allowing each other to finish speaking, or they are talking loudly with each other in small groups, but also GA and IS talk with each other. j. Here the trainer (GA) should keep the reins in his hands, lest the process drift away; now the observers watch GA, also the team “neighbours”; then he takes up the reins again by announcing the time and silence falls. k. Now it would be time for a break, there will be one in 15 minutes. 4. Practice Level: a. One team is restless, namely the FH management who earlier have played the construction company (BW) and have been very focused. b. The trainer is also restless, going to the video camera, going to a colleague (IS) and talking to her; in the meantime the teams are keeping on discussing, 159

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c.

d. e. f. g.

h. i.

j.

k.

sticking to the theme also while the trainer stays back and does not pull the strings. The discussion round involving all four teams splits up into one loud and one low discussion; in the meantime the trainer speaks with the expert HR and does not notice this; the discussion becomes more tense and the trainer again listens – apparently he mirrors their system – or is he bored? End of morning part: feedback round is starting but many do not listen, actually two discuss with the trainer and then a third intervenes (this is not yet a round). Trainer discusses with these students and listens to their criticism; their main point is “we are allowed to criticize but the trainer does not change the rules.” Trainer is standing in the back part of the classroom with the criticizing students, in the foreground somebody wants to say something but is not heard by the trainer; but in the room, there is a lot of attention. Then it becomes more relevant towards practice as the team size is dealt with, and that the title of the game and the lecture would be misleading, from another corner in the class constructive critique regarding the content is forthcoming as well (the connection between the lecture and what is contained in it would be inconsistent). UP advises to collect the issues raised in the critique on the blackboard or on a poster in writing, so that they would be visibly accepted, need not be reiterated by students and are available for further processing UP advises to have two trainers instead of only one during this discussion day; managing both own concern and meta level simultaneously is hard; the processes already resembled ‘group dynamics’ and to stand alone here is not good Afternoon part: Trainer announces that the content level should have more weight but apparently students are not really well prepared in this respect; it is their last day at FH before concentrating purely on writing their diploma thesis. During the afternoon some teams try again to conclude a hidden pact with the target so that the game process is finished more quickly, but some do not want that – this one group is then mistreated during the voting procedures.

UP concludes by saying that the trainer did a very good job and that it is twice as difficult doing it alone. She advises to write down more text on posters and to discuss wishes for rule changes as was done in the adjacent room. For UP, structuring was very good using the kitchen alarm clock, and the paper sheets with the matrix 160

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on it which were filled in by the four teams and the architecture of the game. The practice level must be included, else students lose the point. If the trainer himself is no longer able or willing to concentrate, he should take a break, or else the process runs further off-track.

2.3.3. The Expert Review Focusing on the Criteria of Self-Organized Learning EG starts her assessment by recalling the theory laid down in her book (GierlingerCzerny & Peuerböck, 2002) and by defining the key notions “self-organization”, “self-guided learning” and “process”. 2.3.3.1. The Theory of Self-Organized Learning Self-organization initially stems from natural sciences and spread to the area of learning when computer-aided learning evolved new options. Different scenarios for future learning include completely leaving behind traditional learning (when computers and technical standards are believed to render everything feasible). In the meantime, a good combination of social and technology-based learning appears as a guiding vision. Due to technological possibilities, knowledge is disposable of quickly and anywhere, but the process remains how knowledge is transformed, arranged and configured. The laws of self-organization bring about a completely new vision of learning and teaching, which are condensed as follows: • • • • • • • • •

Each process is directed and irreversible. Man keeps on developing and is bound to changing steadily (irreversibly). There are no readily-prepared rules for solutions, many ways can lead there; this allows spaces of freedom as well as new and creative solutions. Feedback loops including own experiences become important and necessary. Given the multitude of options it is inevitable to accept gaps. One must say goodbye to linear and rigid thinking. Circularity and unpredictability determine new learning. In this sense disturbances are also not to be taken as such but grant the possibility of taking into account hints of missing, blinded out or unexpected aspects. Such disturbances can be seen as the vehicle for moving the system further and as the propulsion towards a new system state. 161

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• •

•

• • •

Disturbances trigger feedback circles which in their turn couple with forgotten, lost or ousted elements. Each human is a closed system, but open to the environment; how one reacts to it is not foreseeable. Each reaction to external impacts is influenced by experiences made to that date, by social context or also by the moment. Hence the biography of an individual strongly inluences and contributes. As a result, it is not the systems structuring the environment, but the environment structuring the systems. The individual selects from available offers what is needed in the given moment for the next step of personal evolution. Any pedagogic development is a transformation process in which a human (i.e. an autopoietic system) transforms itself, which means that the human decides on connections in a self-referenced way. All internal processes are subject to an individual time scale (‘Eigenzeit’) which is a function of preceding personal history in the system. The same contents can hence be taken up very differently at different moments in time.

The resulting answers for trainers are directly taken from the cited book: • • • • • • • • • • •

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The complexity of situations and problems calls for collecting, connecting and integrating information and consequently learning to network. Selforganization allows for better matching the needs of highly complex systems. Free spaces are important to open additional options: ‘courage for gaps’! Autonomy necessitates confidence in resources, in interest for action and learning. Not to intervene is an appropriate pedagogic attitude. Consciousness of non-linearity forces the construction of pedagogy as nonlinear which means allowing for recursive processes (= feedback circles) and accepting and respecting the unforeseeable. Disturbances are positive: they can – but need not – trigger development and learning. Disturbances promote networked learning and self-organization. The unexpected should be picked up and worked on. Biography and experiences are essential, they should be given place. The influence on the learning process of others is unpredictable. All involved have their self-responsibility that can be consciously expected.

Conclusions From Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

2.3.3.2. Measuring the Game Against the Pedagogic Theory In a next section, EG tries to relate these foundations with the game SGC, while mainly checking against the four levels of education (content, process, practice and self-organization). This reflection dwells on two days of observation during the last week of the course in levels 3 and 4. This means that the formation of groups as well as the preparation of the themes by the student groups has already taken place. Level of Practice: • • • • • •

Whether the game (and the self-organization linked to it) is successful, is certainly decided during the first sequences of the game. In the present case, the teams formed were too large (10-15 members), an ideal size being 4-6 players for functioning team work. During the initial phase a decision on the content is made: For this process of finding a theme enough time should be reserved. Contents should come from practice and be transferred back to practice; this means that students should find a process for finding suitable content which demands a lot of sensibility as students have to reach consensus. Rushing and incomplete attention in this phase is a possible reason for unengaged further collaboration by students which degenerates into fulfilling tasks for the sake of a grade. In such a case self-organization develops into “how can I make my life easy by getting a positive grade? Level of Content:

•

Enough time for finding a theme: ◦◦ Students are at the end of their curriculum and hence can link well with practice; they should be aware of the benefit they can get out of the game: which skills can they still acquire and train? ◦◦ Finding a theme must be clarified regarding practice; only their own interest and perceived sense of learning renders sustainable learning possible – this is learning to embrace the entire human condition (the fact that SGC is a game indicates that it is intended by the game’s author to touch and challenge the entire personality) ◦◦ As soon as the theme is clear, the teams can be formed –and students can develop empathy with various attitudes comparable to their future workplace contacts 163

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•

Team formation: Two important questions ◦◦ With whom do I want to collaborate? ◦◦ Which role do I want to take? Teams prepare the themes in a self-organized way ◦◦ Partly during lecture time which is coached by the trainer ◦◦ Mostly during free time, trainer available via web platform

•

Phase of discussion game (all four levels are present): • • • •

The course of action is governed by the set of rules The game serves as fictive reality The trainer is merely in the role of managing the processes Students try to win by evading the rules, taking shortcuts and making secret alliances – all this is allowed as it is part of real life.

After the game, a period of reflection is very important afterwards where all players and the trainer share their own experience of the game (what seemed advantageous and disadvantageous), using the six basic attitudes: • •

• • •

•

It is essential to reflect on the personal level (what did I experience, could I invest myself into the team as planned, could I persist, did I engage enough?) How was team work functioning (did we agree sufficiently before acting, was the distribution of work appropriate or did only a few make the most of the decisions, did all members have equal rights, how was the spokesperson chosen, were we content with the work done by the team)? (Time reserved for the group is necessary here at the end of the discussions) Co-operation: With which values did the team harmonize, which values were singled out as essential for the team? How did the process go, where were the ups and downs, who slowed down the process, where did it get stuck, where did it take off again? In a systemic view the entire class should look again at how the roles taken influenced the behaviour and action of the team: did the team slip into the role of reckless economists or did they feel the helpless anger of neighbours; which strategy was successful when playing together? How did players act in a self-organized way despite the game rules: (agreements, pacts, co-operations, party policy, manipulation, redefining rules)?

EG concludes with believing the game to be very appropriate for self-organized learning. However, she finds it important that two trainers collaborate as for one 164

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person it is impossible to take all these criteria into account, to watch and accompany students. During subsequent personal conversations, EG pointed out that the set of game rules is not essential for its success, but for the processes before and after the discussion game. She counselled that the trainer should “release and set free the process” as “the students have an offer”. “Embedding the rules in personal motivation” and “personal discovery of roles” is important. At the outset, a clear definition of the game target should be communicated to the students as well as the assessment criteria. After the game, a targeted reflection – anonymously or named and then commented by the trainer – ordered along clear criteria would be advantageous.

2.3.4. The Expert Review by IS 2.3.4.1. The Overview of the Diploma Thesis IS assisted in the practical procedures (calculating time and book-keeping of points) of the discussions for the construction engineering students and wrote her diploma thesis based on her experience of the two days. Later on, she also assisted in the same way with the discussions of electronics students, but these experiences did not enter her diploma thesis. She performed interviews by email with construction students after the test discussion on 7.3. (which was not taken into consideration for the game points and from where reports emerged about displeasure from the side of students), several long interviews after the end of the course (which gives valuable and authentic but some critical views from the side of students being the same age as the interview partner) and a long interview with the trainer concerning the game target and concept. During the preceding months, IS was engaged in discussions and work at the FH Joanneum-based Center for Multimedia and Learning (CML) about adapting part of the level 3 game for web-based implementation in the framework of the EU Minerva-funded UniGame project. However, the authorship of the present game, its idea and concept lies with the author (GA) and is based on earlier years of teaching experience. In the abstract of her interesting thesis (taking the perspective of students more than the opinions of the preceding three experts) she describes: The aim of this thesis is to investigate the influence of general conditions of teaching and learning on new learning media in classes.

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She investigated these impacts for a learning game which was created for higher education (by the author) and was first used in the University of Applied Science FH Joanneum for construction engineering and construction management in Graz. Using the technique of qualitative interviewing with 8 students, it was examined how the trainer fulfilled his task during the learning process, to what extent he provided and adjusted framework conditions, what experiences the learners had before and during the game and what knowledge could be built up. She describes her theoretical approach to this work, accompanied by M. Jelinek from FH Eisenstadt, as follows: The underlying learning theory was investigated based on a method of Martin Freudenreich and Carsten Schulte (2002) and was analysed according to the requirements of teachers and learners. As a next step the most important general conditions have been defined out of the literature and were investigated by means of qualitative interviews if they had been considered, and as a second step, which influences there had been on the learners. In this diploma thesis it is possible to make some clear statements. Many of the learners were not able to acquire enough knowledge about the game because of the self-directed learning approach which was the basis of the classes. The students ‘competences for self-directed learning are lacking in the fields of cognition and use of resources. Contrarily, the competences for social interaction are very well established. The general conditions had been provided but not to such an extent that they provided sufficient help for the learners. There was a positive correlation between the provided general conditions, the competence to act and the technical knowledge. Based on literature, IS characterizes the challenges for trainers – who are still needed in self-guided learning processes – as “a shift from teaching to learning” (Rebel, 2003; Gierlinger & Peuerböck, 2002; Rogers, 1974). The trainer co-decides with learners which modi are used, which competences were already achieved and which supporting measures are offered. This means higher demands for trainers: high scientific knowledge in the area, a lot of patience, insight into learning paths and solution methods and the ability to assess individual progress in learning.” At the end of the studies, trainers are better off taking a back seat and acting as adviser and if asked – at the beginning of the studies – trainers should support, lead and structure more, says IS based on (Gierlinger & Peuerböck, 2002). In another context (Schinnerl, 2003) she says: Framework conditions were provided but in general it

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was expected that the learners would need only minimal help. Finally, she cites Franz Schönberger (in Wolfmayr, 2002): Trainers are responsible for framework conditions of learning. This is their job. But for their formation students are responsible as well. 2.3.4.2. A First Test: Discussion and Improvements IS started out with email interviews after the first test discussion, which was not taken into consideration for the game points due to its experimental character. Students mainly reported about displeasure from their side. Rules were unclear to most of them although they had been apparently explained several times (Schinnerl, 2003: 31). Students urged a “more suitable matrix for discussion”, but the statistical analysis in section 3 has suggested that not all students took voting seriously. After the first test discussion, from the student side: critique came regarding team size, the matrix, a lack of information and facts for the discussion, the unsuitable shape of the classroom, the assessment by colleagues and that the sense of the game was not clear. IS describes that as a consequence, the trainer had collected all feedback and had performed several improvements in the game setting for the next three discussion rounds: 1. Smaller groups by dividing the class into two themes (one theme is always watching). 2. The discussion moved into a larger room without PCs on the desks (as a PC room was too noisy and lacked free visibility for all). 3. The teams had one week of preparation time. 4. The 5x5 matrix was reduced to a 3x3 matrix. 5. The teacher selected the matrix himself from the students’ suggestions. 6. The trainer wrote descriptive text into the grid elements starting with the third discussion. 7. The minimum discussion time was set to ten minutes. 8. A new option for voting students was to choose “no team has won” which introduced a sanction in the case of too low a discussion quality. 2.3.4.3. Two Didactic Hypotheses Measured Against Reality In the light of the literature scanned by her, IS states and tests (against the interview results of the students) two hypotheses:

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1. The ability of the students to self-organize learning was not yet mature enough to allow for sufficient acquisition of knowledge in the game. 2. the framework conditions during the lectures offered too little help in supporting the abilities of the learners. IS describes fact-based knowledge as complementary to process knowledge, and describes learning as an active and self-guided process for which both learners and trainers need additional skills. She names previously existing knowledge (preknowledge), social competence and relatedness to real situations (situational learning) as framework conditions. Concerning the fact-oriented knowledge base prepared for the discussion round, she concludes that: students did prepare for the discussions but that general basic knowledge was applied during discussions but no specialized knowledge. The trainer gives as a reason the very competitive character of the game whereas students had the opinion that special technical know-how simply was not needed. But it could also be concluded that students were just not able to acquire such knowledge and consequently remained on a very general level. She concludes for example concerning: relationship to real situations: Apparently the trainer has made all dispositions necessary for implementing an authentic situation. Possibly some danger lies in the students’ impression of being overcharged in cases where they are not used to this kind of situational learning. From her eight interviews with students she concludes: that from the point of view of students, their wishes for altering the game setting have not been implemented enough. In their eyes, the relationship with reality was too low; the teacher takes up this problem and sees the solution in enhancing discussions and gives them as many opportunities as possible. Altogether it can be said that there arose two opposing perceptions regarding targets of the game; closeness to reality and the needs of the students, but that in the subjective view of the students all these three criteria have been judged as too low. Regarding the utilization of the resources she concludes that:

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it was not optimal with a large share of the students. Students themselves mainly argue about the issue of brevity of time. But one could also think that they were not prepared enough to make use of the offered resources or that the working out of the learning media was not optimal. For her first hypothesis (student abilities not mature enough, see above) she gets the impression from her interviews that: the abilities of the students were only partly formed and apprenticed for self-organized learning. There occurred big problems in the area of utilization of resources and the self-reliant appropriation of knowledge. Apparently, students are used to receiving readily-tailored contents and they seem to be still very dependent on the speech given in front of a class by a teacher presenting them the facts. Apparently, students could not build up process knowledge (i.e. knowledge allowing orientation for students’ own acting) that would enable them to acquire fact knowledge (i.e. content) autonomously. In contrast to the above, they held that their competencies in social interaction were very well-developed. Here, students thought that they could deal very well with the freedom in this course and moved on in a very self-driven way. Of course, this competence is not yet ultimately matured and they would have wished for more support in some situations. (Additionally, it was interesting to see that apparently both criteria for motivation stipulate each other.) Whether students are in a position to take over targets (as their own targets) seems to strongly depend on how much their needs are met and on their perception of relevance to practice. Even if the capabilities of learners are not sufficient to acquire knowledge in a selforganized way, the trainer should set framework conditions and auxiliary equipment in such a way that ‘each learner is addressed where (s)he is standing’ with his/her knowledge and abilities. For her second hypothesis (framework offered too little help, see above): it can be said that on the one hand the various framework conditions identified as essential in literature have been taken into account but that on the other hand these framework conditions aiding the students have been rather neglected by way of the self-optimizing and very freedom-oriented claim of the course. It was more or less required that students were already able to move through the learning setting perfectly well by themselves. As mentioned earlier, the connection between process knowledge and fact knowledge could be supplemented by the framework conditions that are apparently preconditions for the build-up of process knowledge in selfdirected learning environments.

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IS concludes from the interview with the trainer (ibid.: 37) that his motto is to live out of his own personal responsibility and that he has a very radical attitude to self-directed learning which could overcharge some students who are not used to dealing with this liberty in formation. The trainer deliberately takes the receiving of very critical feedback into account” in order to trigger maximum re-orientation in the students” or in the direction of saying ‘as a technician I am responsible for what I am doing. He wants to equilibrate the mostly very traditional education system in the direction of competence to act.

2.3.5. The Expert Review Focusing on the Social Dynamics HR reports about the “Social Dynamics of the Digital Learning Game Surfing Global Change SGC” (Rauch 2003, being cited on the following pages) and divides his assessment into three sections: 1. Narrative of an SGC implementation 2. Analysis of the social processes of SGC 3. Comparison: Ecolopoly and SGC. HR sees himself as a “participant observer” during the six discussion rounds of about 20-30 min. in the course on “Technology Assessment” for construction students. He describes the students having flocked together to take on a role in teams but lacking elements like a common goal to be reached only by co-operation of all team members, but representing a segment of the population having common interests and somehow a collective function just as in real life. Taking the example of one discussion round (i.e. one matrix element in Table 1) which focused on finding a solution for an enlarged parking lot entailed by the new campus, HR recognizes the personal attachment of the students to the whereabouts of this situation in their real lives as well as the search for project data in the week preceding the discussion, mostly performed using internet sources. For concrete usability and implementation, a lot depends on the motivation of the players, namely • •

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To which degree of ambition the available information sources are used in depth. To which degree of vigour and seriousness the roles are entered during negotiations and roles.

Conclusions From Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

2.3.5.1. The Social Dynamics of SGC Concerning the social dynamics of the game SGC, HR perceives in a second section of his assessment that the SGC: setting promotes the automatic learning of detailed collateral effects and the various intertwining of a multi-dimensional case in a kind of midway point between serious work and all the fun a social role-playing situation can offer which he considers a major strength of the setting. • •

Serious work: Research, consideration, elaboration individually or in teams The fun of a social role-play: Increasing personal profile by assumption of a role, e.g. town deputy responsible for a certain domain, a student speaker articulating vehemently the interests of the young but also showing global responsibility.

In the specific situation of a course the game became serious by introducing a real-life situation: the grades to gain: they depend on one’s own performance, however this is evaluated by peers, this opens the path to Machiavellian strategies and back-room alliances and “grade cartels”. In this respect, it became a very sophisticated political game – pure reality. HR gives four reasons why SGC mirrors “pure reality”: 1. After the verbal negotiations, the “impression made by rhetoric” can “override much of the detailed knowledge accumulated in the preparations by some of the players” and the outgoing and extrovert students speak up – irrespective of the profoundness of their preparation. 2. Teams sometimes used: a little of their detailed background information, more often, however, arguments refer more to the socio-political context, insider-knowledge, local trendy ideologies and concepts. 3. As a major factor the political speculations or fantasies created by the case were also important.

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4. Since the knowledge of the players is built on a wide range of self-understood assumptions, one could gain more applause, laughter, info-tainment effects and social peer fun. Perhaps more applause than when propounding technological details” can be gained which many might like to avoid with respect to one’s overall social acceptance by classroom colleagues in order not to appear too eager. Seen from the perspective of social dynamics, for the success of a social learning game one has to take the following aspects into account: • • • •

The real situation matters most – this is the very background for any situation, especially for role-playing games. The medium- and long-term goals of the players also influence their overt behaviour. One or the other can become a winner or a loser – partly by chance or as the result of a favourable constellation. The specific kick one gets from the preparatory research per se also matters. In cases where participants have a professional interest in the area, some students might already have the necessary maturity and seriousness. However, in the case of a college course considered as less central to the curriculum, professional interests can become marginal and the other factors of social dynamics dominate. In a seminar for professionals, managers, etc. professional interests might dominate.

This game SGC has a few extra refinements, e.g. a matrix to self-determine the relative weight of the aspects to be taken into account in the negotiations and the evaluation of team-performance. This can induce an even more refined social strategy by one player or another, especially if used for specific professional groups who are interested in the domains involved and attribute professional attention to the relative weight of domains. With students, these refinements did not seem to count as much as they could or should with regard to the intention of the game designer. This consideration refers especially to the: • •

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Mentioned matrix, where chips (relative weights) are distributed and; Process of voting for the winner in a discussion round executed by the observers (who were more or less friends with the negotiators so that a kind of nepotism enters nolens volens).

Conclusions From Social Dynamics for Sustainable Educational Development

Since every player him/herself chooses the intensity of his/her involvement in the game and especially in his/her overt behaviour, there is the opportunity to be involved little and still collect a considerable number of points. And since the number of points collected over all the rounds of the game SGC determines the grade, real life and game are intertwined in an inescapable way. This is generally the game’s intention – not with regard to collateral side-effects deflecting the grade more towards Machiavellian abilities, less towards argumentation capacities. It can therefore happen that one gets a grade rather cheaply, having worked little in the preparation and the negotiation scenarios. But on the other hand, one can work a lot and still collect few points due to the impression one has given to the observers – and, foremost, by simply being in a ‘winning team’ or a ‘losing team’ several times. All the mentioned aspects of the social analysis of the game Surfing Global Change can be seen as a setting introducing ‘more than a simulation’, namely ‘a mix of real-life agendas and game agendas into the course of events’. For some this might turn out to be an advantage, for some a disadvantage. In any case, it comes very close to the socio-political processes anywhere. Much though depends on how important the grade on offer is for the individual student. They learn in at least two dimensions to argue the effects of technological projects (technology assessment) and socio-political behaviour. Therefore, much can depend on • •

How the game is introduced and; In what background setting it takes place.

A thorough prologue and an equally refined epilogue can help to make use of the many learning effects hidden in this ‘grand game’. 2.3.5.2. Comparison of SGC With the Game Ecolopoly In a third section of his assessment, HR compares SGC with the game Ecolopoly designed by F. Vester. In Ecolopoly, the player has eight sectors (policy efforts, production, revitalization, ecological burden, education, population status and growth rate as well as quality of life in general) in which activity points can be invested in the style of an event game based on sophisticated algorithms. Studying the effects can be seen as a first approach to the task of governance, as the target is to reach equilibrated success in all eight policy fields. However, playing with others is more of playing parallel and the social dimension is not really incorporated in the game which can be reduced to a learning machine.

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Ecolopoly is based on an abstract version of very generalized hypotheses about the interconnection of political decisions, especially with regard to environmental and ecological issues. One has to accept the theories behind the mathematical calculations to accept the visualized effects of the game, too (these are in many cases plausible to common sense, not in all). In short, Ecolopoly goes for the general overview, crude and abstract, SGC goes for detailed discussion of (empirical or fictional) cases. Ecolopoly can bring satisfaction by gaining points and good final evaluations; SGC brings satisfaction only if the social setting and the social process turned out to be favourably composed with regard to the dynamics of the game. However, one can argue that partly frustrating social processes also have high learning effects: they are realistic and bring the intricacies of power versus environmental intelligence into the open. HR additionally makes a comparison with two experiments: the well-known Milgram Experiment (where participants were manipulated) which led to shocking results. The Team Experiment (where advertising films had to be produced and mutually assessed in teams of four) left no room for individual competition as participants were perceived as teams all the way. The ‘real game’ was to perform well in the competition among teams and the possible personal ‘hidden agenda’ was also to impress others. So the hidden agenda moved in the same direction as the intended and official team production. The production was not to simulate other people but to be a smart amateur team. 2.3.5.3. Assessment of the Dynamics and Usability of SGC “Surfing Global Change”, in comparison to Ecolopoly, involves the social dimension fully. This makes it a game of higher complexity. While Ecolopoly is played repeatedly on one’s own computer, SGC needs a social setting and a social evaluation process. Discussion and teamwork become a necessary part of the realization of a game performance. SGC carries therefore all the pros and cons of social settings: 1. The learning effects in the field of Technology Assessment and the environmental consequences depend not only on one’s own efforts in studying the information pertinent to the case, but also to the level of discussion brought to the setting by the others involved, like team workers, negotiation partners, contracting parties or opponents, and as evaluators. 2. Furthermore, SGC is based on detailed concrete and realistic information in a specific case, be it on any geographical level.

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Regarding the parallelism of open and hidden agendas mentioned above, HS sees that in the case of SGC the participants moved within a peer group dynamic which induced to some degree a fairly different behaviour from that of the intended official game setting. So, the participants had to move – nolens volens – on two levels: 1. First, it was important to obtain a reasonably good grade – as an individual, 2. Second, the simulation of a kind of environmental political decision-making process was demanded. As an evaluator one could determine the grades of the peers, as a game player one had to perform like an actor – possibly along an expected line of argumentation (which could impress the teacher by demonstrating knowledge, but at the same time could turn one’s peers against you– by showing too much ambition and knowledge, therefore eventually spoiling the comfort of many). In the given empirical case, the participants ended up cruising along a middle line: don’t endanger one’s peer connections, but still try to get a reasonable grade by investing a minimum of preparation time. Concluding, HR says: One could eventually enlarge the double-level line of the SGC game, seeing it as a setting for socio-political training, where the issue at hand is easily exchangeable. Or, one could try to abolish the two-level dynamics involved: impressing the peers should then also mean moving well in the game. Now, in the case of a conflict of interest the game remains the game (since the subject matter is not one of the vital issues in the curriculum and therefore the grades are helpful but not crucial), but the peers and one’s standing in the classroom is for real, and lasts far beyond the duration of the specific course. Furthermore, the game can turn into a competition between moderator = trainer and participants: the moderator wants to induce a serious argumentative discourse and negotiations, the participants are trying to cruise through the exercise with a minimum of effort and a maximum of overt result (the grade obtained) and covert result (no harm to social contacts with colleagues). Consciously or not, this dominates the SGC game in the present version.

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3. CONCLUSION: WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO DESIGN A SET OF RULES? Analyses in section 2.2 show that there can be a discrepancy between the two following functionalities of rules: •

•

Rules in a course with high fidelity student activities should translate into appropriate grades (according to a set of previously defined and hopefully generally accepted criteria for good work, like depth of research and analysis, clear understanding of the issue, appropriate argument fostering one’s own standpoint and quality of presentation). Rules in a game should optimally enable suitable dynamics of the activities and the social processes by maximizing the number of events that enable students to actively learn.

All in all, the above dilemma is equivalent to the tension between attempted justice and attempted pragmatic functioning of a society. Therefore, the process of inventing and implementing SGC is a nice example in a nutshell of how boundary conditions for the positive development of a society can be defined. Results of assessments suggest that there is no correlation between the qualityoriented behaviour and the pragmatic behaviour of students; in particular it cannot be said that the lazy students are more inclined to cheat / collaborate informally. The set of game rules acts as a boundary condition for expected processes of social self-organization. Interest in a good grade (= function of collected rewards) in this sense steers team size, work attitude and individual affinity for sticking to one’s own convictions. Rules trigger two distinct processes: social dynamics in the class and the striving for course grades; these targets do not necessarily match. One of the game targets is to develop the skill of consensus generation instead of relying on majority votes; this basic difference in decision making has thoroughly been analysed quantitatively for groups of pupils from regular and alternative students in (cf. Fischer-Kowalski, 1995; Ahamer et al., 2011). The above article is the first to report and combine external experts’ views about the performance of SGC at its infancy state in 2003. In the meantime, SGC has been considerably improved.

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REFERENCES Ahamer, G. (2004a). Negotiate your future: web based role play. Game concept for the Game “Surfing Global Change”. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 21(1), 35-58. Ahamer, G. (2004b). Rules of the new web-supported negotiation game ‘Surfing Global Change’. Game for your Mark! In Campus 2004. Waxmann Verlag. Ahamer, G. (2005). ‘Surfing Global Change’: How didactic visions can be implemented. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 22(5), 298–319. doi:10.1108/10650740510632217 Ahamer, G. (2006). Surfing global change: Negotiating sustainable solutions. Simulation & Gaming - An International Journal, 37(3), 380-397. DOI: 10.1177/1046878106287772 Ahamer, G. (2008a). Virtual Structures for mutual review promote understanding of opposed standpoints. The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(1), 17-43. Retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/ Ahamer, G. (2008b). Im Spiegelkabinett unterschiedlicher Entwicklungsvorstellungen. Journal für Entwicklungspolitik, 24(3), 56-76. Ahamer, G. (2010). A short history of web based learning including GIS. International Journal of Computer Science & Emerging Technologies, 1(4), 101-111. Retrieved from http://ijcset.excelingtech.co.uk/vol1issue4/17-vol1issue4.pdf Ahamer, G. (2011a). How technologies can localize learners in a multicultural space. International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing, 1(2), 1–24. doi:10.4018/ijtem.2011070101 Ahamer, G. (2011b). Localize Individuals in Spaces of Interaction - Analysis of Online Review Processes. International Journal of Computer Science & Emerging Technologies, 2(3), 435-454. Retrieved from http://download.excelingtech.co.uk/ Journal/IJCSET%20V2(3).pdf Ahamer, G. (2011c). IT-supported Interaction Creates Discursive Spaces. International Journal of Latest Trend in Computing, 2(2), 225-239. Retrieved from http://download.excelingtech.co.uk/Journal/IJLTC%20V2(2).pdf Ahamer, G. (2012a). Training to Bridge Multicultural Geographies of Perspectives. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 29(1), 21–44. doi:10.1108/10650741211192037

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Ahamer, G., & Jekel, T. (2010). Make a Change by Exchanging Views. In S. Mukerji & P. Tripathi (Eds.), Cases on Transnational Learning and Technologically Enabled Environments (pp. 1–30). Hershey, PA: IGI Global; doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-7497.ch001 Ahamer, G., & Kumpfmüller, K. (2013). Education and literature for development in responsibility – Partnership hedges globalization. In Handbook of Research on Transnational Higher Education Management. IGI Global. Doi:10.4018/978-14666-4458-8.ch027 Ahamer, G., Kumpfmüller, K. A., & Hohenwarter, M. (2011). Web-based exchange of views enhances ‘Global Studies’. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 28(1), 16–40. doi:10.1108/10650741111097278 Ahamer, G., & Mayer, J. (2013). Forward looking: Structural change and institutions in highest-income countries and globally. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 30(5), 386–403. doi:10.1108/CWIS-08-2013-0034 Ahamer, G., & Schrei, C. (2006). Exercise ‘Technology Assessment’ through a gaming procedure. Journal of Design Research, 5(2), 224–252. doi:10.1504/ JDR.2006.011364 Altmann, M., Eisenreich, S., Lehner, D., Moser, S., Neidl, T., Rüscher, V., & Vogeler, T. (2013). Global inequality and poverty in perspectives of geography. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 127–150. doi:10.1108/17504971311328044 Bader, L., Bereuther, T., Deutsch, E., Edlinger, J., Füreder, S., Kaspar, E., ... Ahamer, G. (2013). Quality Improvements in Curricula for Global Studies. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 113–126. doi:10.1108/17504971311328035 Duraković, E., Feigl, B., Fischer, B., Fleck, C., Galler, L.-M., Heinrich, J., ... Ahamer, G. (2012). Dialogic Global Studies for Multicultural Technology Assessment. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 6(4), 261–286. doi:10.1108/17504971211279527 Fischer-Kowalski, M., Pelikan, J. M., & Schandl, H. (1995). Große Freiheit für kleine Monster? Kinder an Alternativschulen und Regelschulen. Vienna: Verlag für Gesellschaftskritik. Freudenreich, M., & Schulte, C. (2002). Von der Evaluation von Lernsoftware zur Gestaltung von Unterricht. Retrieved from http://www.medienpaed.com/02-1/ freudenreich_schulte1.pdf

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Gierlinger-Czerny, E. (2003). Gutachten des Spiels “Surfing Global Change” durchgeführt in einer Vorlesung Systemtheorie im Lehrgang für Baumanagement an der FH Joanneum Graz. Academic Press. Gierlinger-Czerny, E., & Peuerböck, U. (2002). Auf dem Weg zur Selbstorganisation – eine Ermutigung neue Unterrichtswege zu beschreiten. Münster: Lit-Verlag. Heisenberg, W. (1969). Der Teil und das Ganze. Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik. München: Piper. Jonas, H. (1979). Das Prinzip Verantwortung. Versuch einer Ethik für die technologische Zivilisation, Suhrkamp. Frankfurt: Main. Klabbers, J. H. G. (2001). The emerging field of simulation and gaming: Meanings of a retrospect. Simulation & Gaming, 32(4), 471–480. doi:10.1177/104687810103200404 Lehner, D., & Wurzenberger, J. (2013). Global Education – an educational perspective to cope with globalisation? Campus-Wide Information Systems, 30(5), 358–368. doi:10.1108/CWIS-08-2013-0033 Montessori, M. (1988). Kosmische Erziehung. Freiburg: Herder. Ossimitz, G. (2000). Entwicklung systemischen Denkens - Theoretische Konzepte und empirische Untersuchungen. Klagenfurter Beiträge zur Didaktik der Mathematik, Profil Verlag. Öttl, U. F. J., Pichler, B., Schultze-Naumburg, J., & Wadispointner, S. (2014). Integration policies in Europe – a web-based search for consensus. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 31(2/3), 121–138. doi:10.1108/CWIS-01-2014-0002 Peuerböck, U. (2003). Versuch einer Zusammenfassung der Beobachtungen im Hinblick auf die Grundlagen in unserem Buch “Auf dem Weg zur Selbstorganisation”. Academic Press. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Game Based Learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rakos, C., Braun, E., & Nentwich, M. (1988). Technikbewertung und Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung. Band 1 der Schriftenreihe des Verbundkonzernes. Rauch, H. (2006). Report about the social dynamics of the digital learning game “Surfing Global Change” (SGC). Institut für Socialanalyse. Rauch, H. (2013). Reframing for global sustainability: The “Second Manifesto” for the “Turn of the Titanic”. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 151–175. doi:10.1108/17504971311328053

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Rauch, H. (2014). Naming is taming: Outlining psycho-social hypotheses with regard to the present global situation. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 31(2/3), 100–107. doi:10.1108/CWIS-12-2013-0067 Rauch, H. (2017). Outline for a “European Democratic Citizen Service” (EDC) - A five-sector crisis training for all young Europeans. International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy, 12(1-3), 69–80. doi:10.1504/IJFIP.2017.085819 Rebel, K. (2003). Selbstgesteuertes Lernen. Eine Real-Utopie mit Augenmaß. Retrieved from http://www.zfu.de/Texte/sl.html Rogers, C. R. (1974). Lernen in Freiheit. München: Kösel. Schinnerl, I. (2003). Vorwissen und Vorerfahrung als als Grundlage neuer Lernerfahrungen im Unterricht [Previous knowledge and previous experience as a basis of new learning experience in education] (Master Thesis). FH Eisenstadt/Austria. Thiagi. (2001). 8-4-2-game. Retrieved from http://www.thiagi.com/products-andservices.html Vogler, R., Ahamer, G., & Jekel, T. (2010). GEOKOM-PEP. Pupil led research into the effects of geovisualization. In T. Jekel, A. Koller, K. Donert, & R. Vogler (Eds.), Learning with Geoinformation V (pp. 51–60). Heidelberg, Germany: Wichmann. Wolfmayr, I. (2002). Selbstorganisation braucht Kooperation. In Auf dem Weg zur Selbstorganisation. Eine Ermutigung neue Unterrichtswege zu beschreiten. Münster: LIT Verlag.

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Marketing Micro-Credentials in Global Higher Education: Innovative Disruption Pamela A. Lemoine Columbus State University, USA Wendy M. Wilson Albany State University, USA Michael D. Richardson Columbus State University, USA

ABSTRACT Now that society has assumed a global focus, supported by technology, higher education institutions are asked to offer the highest quality education, especially technology skills and competencies, to a widely diverse audience at a cost that can be supported by society. Credentialing is a new concept in higher education advocated for use in the acknowledgement of coursework typically completed online. Credentialing provides a method of accrediting content knowledge rather than course credit for specific knowledge. The award of a credential has been an accepted form of authenticating the official completion of a higher education course of study. Credentials are often used in other forms of education. Yet, credentials have not been widely accepted for use in higher education because they do not fit the traditional model of awarding degrees for program of study completion. However, credentialing is now being examined for wider applications in higher education.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch007 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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BACKGROUND Although digital technologies offer myriad access to learning; entree to education is still a necessity for economic success (DiStasio, Bol & Van de Werfhorst, 2016). As new technologies and traditional education paradigms have collided, credentialing paradigms have provided new options (Crotty, 2012; Halavais, 2012). Traditionally, academic credentials and professional certifications were awarded as students emerged from education and vocational/technical programs (Ledesma, 2011). However, validation of knowledge from online learning coursework does not have a common, broad-based credentialing platform (LeBlanc, 2012). Accreditation for online learning or Massive Open Online Coursework provides challenges for universities to accept and acknowledge as credited coursework (Lucas, 2013). To give credit for non-traditional credentials disrupts higher education’s traditional, formal educational processes for financial and educational accountability (Bass, 2012; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2016). The challenge for post-secondary institutions is to look at online learning opportunities through the lens of reform or innovation, or as a marketing opportunity (Daniel, Kanwar, & Uvalic-Trumbic, 2009; Young, 2012a). Glazer’s (2009) prediction that 80 percent of new jobs created in the global driven economy will require advanced education, clearly necessitates that job applicants will need to have workforce ready skills (Eisenberg, 2011). Additionally, at each career change, further education, lifelong learning, will be required (US Department of Education, 2012). Online learning permits job seekers to determine the structure of their learning processes, choosing where, when, and how to learn (Gerstein & Friedman, 2016; Montford & Brown, 2012). Credentialing forces most post-secondary institutions to deal with governing bodies and accreditation agencies in different methods (Hickey, 2012; Sullivan, 2013; Werquin, 2010). Online learning presents new challenges: demonstration and evaluation of acquired skills (Goligoski, 2012). Online accomplished personal learning is an acknowledgement of participatory experience and a recognition of newly learned skills (Baker, 2011). The Mozilla Open Badges Project presents digital badges for recognition of learning that provide new methods for tracking online learning experiences (Carey, 2012b; Casilli, 2012b; Chow, Willis & Hickey, 2016). An i-credential has become both more important for work-related attainment and economic rewards, but an aberration to traditional higher education credentialing (Ellis, Nunn & Avella, 2016). Santos, Charleer, Parra, Klerks, Duval, and Verbert (2013) suggest use of digital badges is a motivating factor to encourage online learners. So questions surface in a period of credential evaluation: What are micro-credentials and what is their future?

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What are the real benefits of micro-credentials? Can they only acknowledge skills acquired or can they revolutionize the way education is defined and determined (Collins, 2011; Olneck, 2012; Rath, 2013)?

Micro-Credentials Micro-credentials are typically provided in the form of digital credentials (Eisenberg, 2011; Knight, 2012). Micro-credentials are “summative” awards in the sense, they indicate competency and compliance; in contrast, a digital badge is, awarded to indicate progress being made or activities undertaken (Elliott, Clayton & Iwata, 2014). Micro-credentials go by various names including ‘nano-degrees,’ ‘micromasters credentials,’ ‘certificates,’ ‘badges,’ ‘ratings’, ‘licenses’, ‘endorsements,’ or ‘memberships’ that are emerging as a means of certifying attainment of smaller elements of learning than are attested to by a degree (Glover, 2013; Lewin, 2012). Micro-credentialing strategies are in an evolutionary phase including credentialing by higher education institutions, for-profit and non-profit education, business, as well as individuals (Devedzic & Jovanovic, 2015; Maney, 2012; Rath, 2013). Credentials that offer convenience and flexibility and recognize all forms of learning, are designed to encourage and motivate individuals to take control of their own learning (Graves, 2013; Hurst, 2015). Micro-credentials provide a method to electronically certify job proficiencies earned through e-Learning mediums, professional development, military training, industry training, as well as gaming (Ifenthaler, Bellin-Mularaki & Mah, 2016). In fact, major businesses such as Google demonstrate a preference to hire individuals who demonstrate practical, technical competencies instead of college graduates with high GPAs (Hays Worldwide, 2014). Such hiring practices explain why short-term, work-related certificates, which constitute a simple way to demonstrate a skill, are increasingly popular (Mangan, 2015). Competency-based credentials measure what was actually learned, not how much time was spent in a classroom. In addition, credentials focus on the individual student and are not a “one-size fits all” approach to education (Andersson, 2012). Globalization, the shift towards a knowledge economy including the sudden pace of technological changes, are among the factors affecting business and evolving employee skills (Bowden, 2011). Technological shifts place an exceptional demand on an employee’s ability to learn and respond to their employer’s and the market’s changing demands (Arena, 2013). As such, employers want people who can adapt and learn new skills and demonstrate their competence (Hays Worldwide, 2014). Such is the role for micro-credentials (Crotty, 2012). Micro-credentials function between the educational and workforce environments where they can be rapidly created, earned, and distributed (Carey, 2013). Learners

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may mix and remix their credentials to show individual interests, talents, and accomplishments, and have greater choices to conform to existing curricula or to piece together a variety of micro-credentials (de Botton, 2015; Parks & Taylor, 2016).

Badges A digital badge represents an accomplishment, interest or affiliation that can be documented, typically electronically, as one form of credentials (Goligoski, 2012). Digital badging increasingly appear in marketing and promotion strategies to encourage acquisition of desired skills (Carey, 2012a; Ostashewski & Reid, 2015). Badges showing these connections can serve to communicate and translate learning across peers, interests, and learning contexts of one’s life. Electronic badges allow specific details of training, assessment of learning, and performance that are portable and supportive of critical elements of information documenting skills demonstrated (Crotty, 2012; Diaz, 2013; Egloffstein & Ifenthaler, 2017). Digital badges provide portals that lead to large amounts of information about their bearers (Abramovich, Schunn, & Higashi, 2013). Disney-Pixar, Peer2Peer University, and the U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs were early adopters and supporters of electronic badging systems (Fain, 2012; Finkelstein, Knight & Manning, 2013). Consideration for the use of badges is not confined to informal learning (Brown, Lauder, & Ashton, 2008; Marquis, 2011; Walsh, 2011; West & Lockley, 2016). Some higher education professors are using badges to recognize learning in higher education classes (Casilli, 2012a, 2012b; Hickey, 2012). Olneck’s 2012 presentation at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study referred to such use as insurgent credentials suggesting badges could be used to reframe current credentialing structures in higher education. Diaz (2013) suggested badges are useful for professionals to earn recognition of continuing education learning at conferences or workshops by providing a digital transcript or micro-credential to demonstrate acquisition of new learning. Carey (2012a) noted such credentialing would be useful and carry prestige for completion of learning projects in non-traditional colleges and universities. The U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs uses digital badges to document expertise acquired by soldiers for specific military job competencies (Fain, 2012). The U. S. Naval Academy has also endorsed digital badging as a method to specify a level of accomplishment tagging electronic badge labels to acknowledge knowledge, proficiency, and mastery (Diaz, 2013). Digital badges are emerging as a new way to capture and communicate the skills and knowledge of individuals. The characteristics of these badges, including their ability to acknowledge very specific skills and their portability, offer a number of potential 185

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benefits for the recipient, the issuer, and the observer. These benefits align with the adult education field’s interests by using badges to recognize lifelong learning and achievement, and by recognizing both overall and incremental progress. For adult learners, badges may also help motivate them to persist if the students understand and embrace what the badges represent: a specific skill that is valued in different types of work and thus offers potentially greater employment opportunities. It is important to consider how to convey the value of digital badges not only to the learner, but also to their instructors and potential employers (Finkelstein, J., Knight, E., & Manning, S., 2013). With a cloud-based storage system, badges can be accessed and displayed by the earner with the badge earner choosing to permit access by others or potential employers (Bixler & Layng, 2013). Infrastructure to support access to badges is an issue, as are concerns about privacy (Casilli & Hickey, 2016; Wildevsky, 2012)). While a university degree certifies that a student has completed a course of study, recognition of digital credentialing is more specific to a skill set or competency established by an organization or an individual providing the learning (Halavais, 2012; Watters, 2011). Digital badges represent an opportunity to reevaluate learning and assessment and to re-focus formal higher education to professional, informal and lifelong learning, with an emphasis on building the individual capabilities of each learner (Wright, 2013). Therefore, the learner will no longer be a passive recipient of knowledge because the choice to learn is dependent on the educational desires of the learner and not the institution (Shields & Chugh, 2017; World Bank, 2011).

Opposition to Badges Digital badges also have critics suggesting a “McDonaldizing” of education and a lack of professional standards that substantiate knowledge (Carey, 2013a). One view is that accreditation and standardization have no meaning; noting that badges can be issued by anyone (Mehta, Hull, Young, & Stoller, 2013). Credibility, validity, and reliability have raised issues based on the validation of credentials needed to obtain a job in the 21st Century market (Bixler & Layng, 2013; Casilli, 2012a; Lewin, 2012). Traditional credentialing institutes have established processes for warranting a credential (Abramovich, 2016; Stokes, 2011). Validation of badges then, relies on an authority to issue a badge, explanation of what the badge represents, assessment of the skills represented, and consideration for whom the badge will have meaning (Lewis & Lodge, 2016). Butler (2012) contends a college degree is a basic credential to obtain economic success, as the income advantaged offered by a college degree is nearly double 186

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what it was a generation ago (p. 23). With higher education costs rising, college is perceived by many, as unaffordable (Lucas, 2013), thus students wishing to demonstrate 21st Century workforce ready skills acquired in e-Learning platforms, view digital badges as a viable alternative to prove their worth as job applicants (O’Shaughnessy, 2011). Non-traditional credentials do not carry the same trust in all areas of the world; European digital credentialing systems are small, but growing (Conrad, 2013; Santos, Charleer, Parra, Klerks, Duval, & Verbert, 2013). Finland, France, the Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal are using limited digital credential systems (Eaton, 2016). Several researchers also echoed concerns with validity, credibility, and reliability, noting that some countries are validating credentials obtained from post-secondary institutions (Arum, Cannon, Goligoski, & Katzman, 2013; Bagley & Portnoi, 2014; Bossu, Brown & Bull, 2011). Australia is using e-portfolios, which McAllister, Hallam, and Harper (2008) offered as a method to present credentials used for personal learning experiences as well as work-related external training (p. 250). Australian post-secondary institutions (Bossu, Brown, & Bull, 2011) such as the Carrick Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher Education and the Queensland University of Technology are collaborating with other higher education universities to position Australian in the international e-Portfolio scene (McAllister, Hallam, & Harper, 2008).

Use of Technology for Learning The impact of online learning, Graves (2010) argues, is comparable to the impact of the printing press on literacy. Today’s higher education students are Net Generation (Net Gens), Millenials, and Generation Z students, born after 1982, digitally connected, with expectations that learning experiences will be interactive, online, and available when they are ready to learn (Levine & Dean, 2012; Li & Irby, 2008; Young, 2012b, 2012c). Casares, Dickson, Hannigan, Hinton, and Phelps (2012) suggest today’s students have constructivist “learning needs and strengths” (p. 16), in that learners prefer to acquire knowledge and construct meaning for themselves rather than knowledge being doled out in classroom sessions (Arum & Roksa, 2011). Thus, the instructor becomes the facilitator of knowledge acquisition rather than the transmitter of knowledge (Dziuban & Moskal, 2010; Schalin, 2012; Shell & Janicki, 2013).

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E-Learning E-learning tools are changing the world and in particular, education (Kirschner, 2012; Rich, 2011; Richter & McPherson, 2012; Schalin, 2012). Digital learning is experiencing rapid growth due to recent economic shifts that increased demand for more flexible options to achieve educational attainment for more students (Britsch, Manolovitz, Shen, & Turney, 2011; Schalin, 2012). Higher education leaders attribute economic concerns as a contributing factor to the increased demand for online programs (Kirschner, 2012). Additionally, institutions discovered online offerings utilized declining resources more effectively (Bass, 2012; Njenga & Fourie, 2010). Technology affects how people work together, how they communicate, how they lead organizations, and how they learn (Rich, 2011). The shift is from a world of fragmentation to one of connectivity and integrated networks (Portnoi, Rust & Bagley, 2010). This alteration is fueled by the trend toward a global economy and by the increased use of technology and mass communications in everyday lives, and specifically, in the use of e-Learning as an educational tool (Jarvis, 2007; LeBlanc, 2012; Stokes, 2011; Watters, 2011; Werquin, 2010). E-Learning, by definition, provides potential tools for acquisition of knowledge (Wildavsky, 2012; Wright, 2013). Students engaged in the process of learning become more self-directed in their own learning and are more likely to develop a deeper understanding of the knowledge and skills expected (Dougherty, 2012; Everhart & Seymour, 2017). Kelm (2011) suggested the benefits of collaborative learning facilitated through Web 2.0 technologies could be applied to many contexts and subjects; therefore, e-Learning tools used for instructional purposes provide new methods to facilitate and expand students’ knowledge (Hew, 2011; Mah, 2016) as another way to demonstrate their competence and skill.

Credit for Learning The push to give recognition for e-Learning provides competition for degree granting higher education institutions (Aguilera-Baraket, 2012). Bacow, Bowen, Gutherie, Lack and Long (2012) report outcomes of online learning as comparable to classes taught face-to-face. With research supporting e-Learning, digital credentialing or digital badges are proposed for recognition of e-Learning (Childs & Wagner, 2016; Cormier & Siemens, 2010; Gibson, Coleman & Irving, 2016; Moore, 2013). Micro-credentials are establishing recognition that not all learning is bounded by time or location, but is interest driven (Jovanoric & Devedzie, 2015; Knight, 2012). Recognition for formal and informal learning, validated by micro-credentials, is

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recognized by state departments of education, the U.S. Department of Education, the U. S. Department of Veterans Affairs, national and transnational organizations, professional groups, and businesses, demonstrating there is a need to promote acquisition of workforce ready skills (Aguilera-Barchet, 2012; Carey, 2012a; Dougherty, 2012; Fain, 2012; Finkelstein, Knight, & Manning, 2013; Halavais, 2012; Young, 2012a). Finkelstein et al. (2013) posits, The ability to give formal recognition no longer needs to be solely the prerogative of degree-granting institutions or established certifying bodies or programs. Individuals or organizations with expertise and a willingness to put their reputation or brand on the line, for example, can give badges to those who obtain skills, knowledge, or achievement they value. (p. 11)

Micro-Credentials as Innovative Disruption As technological-based learning has flourished, evolving digital learning mediums are providing learners with 21st Century workforce ready skill sets not traditionally offered in college and university formal education certification programs (Bjerede, Atlins & Dede; Graves, 2013; Hemmi, Bayne & Land, 2009; LeBlanc, 2012). Recognition of online personal learning has exploited demands for different types of credentialing, which have been viewed in the past as inferior to standardized credentials from universities and colleges (Diamond & Gonzales, 2016). Such demands have created a disruption to traditional higher education (Brennan, 2008; Bush & Hunt, 2011) Christensen and Eyring (2011) refer to online learning as a “disruptive innovation”, a process that allows as simple, affordable, and accessible product to replace a product that is complex, expensive, and inaccessible, even if the initial quality of the new product is inferior (Casares, Dickson, Hannigan, Hinton, & Phelps, 2013). Further, Christensen, Horn, Caldera, and Soares (2011) contend that most of the elements of e-Learning and even micro-credentials are innovative disruptors that create times and conditions of uncertainty for higher education, particularly in this age of globalization. Certifications have been traditionally tied to credentialing authorities for recognition through degrees or academic credentials, which were then accepted as formal qualifications for professional practice (Bagley & Portnoi, 2014; DavisBeckner & Buckendahl, 2017; Goliogoski, 2012; Halavais, 2012). Rather, microcredentialing acknowledges proficiency in skills acquired through e-Learning, life 189

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experiences, internships, community service, online class work, and participation in professional organizations, in the form of competency-based learning (Arena, 2013; Fedock, Kebritchi, Sanders & Holland, 2016; O’Sshaughessy; 2011). Millenials and today’s Generation Z students are expressing interest in alternative credentials such as digital credentials or badges rather than formal degrees that allow them to be more competitive in today’s job market (Egloffstein & Ifenthaler, 2017; Levine & Dean, 2012; O’Byrne, Schenke, Willis & Hickey, 2015). Challenges for higher education such as e-Learning allows credentialing of any time/anywhere learning that is an innovative disruption to traditional higher education institutions (Hall-Ellis & Hall-Ellis, 2016; Lindstrom & Dyjur, 2017). Higher education degrees are frequently used to measure of skill supply, both at the individual and at the societal level. However, focusing on higher education degrees does not account for skills and experience gained after the degree (Bass, 2012; Berry, Airhart & Byrd, 2016). The two primary sites for skill development and acquisition in modern societies are schools and firms; individuals may develop their skills through formal education or through on-the job training and work experience (Moodie, 2016). Giving credit for work experience is another innovative disruption to traditional higher education. However, as more of formal higher education is influenced by innovative disruption, more emphasis is being placed on skills for the workplace (Hays Worldwide, 2014). Micro-credentials are being used in a variety of venues that are forcing tertiary educational institutions to think carefully about the value of credentialing and, indeed, how they can participate in this practice or risk further disruption (Lemoine & Richardson, 2015). Governments across the world have steadily minimized their support for public higher education, and costs associated with gaining a degree have increased constantly over the last decade, thereby creating more disruption. As the costs of a traditional university degree have increased dramatically, traditional higher education institutions have increased tuition and passed the costs for a degree to the consumer, either student or parent. Micro-credentialing could help. The use of e-Learning to decrease costs has been met with resistance from faculty and has not been the success that global higher education leaders had hoped.

Integration of Marketing and Micro-Credentials The marketing and selling of education at the international level has had both positive and negative effects on the future of global education because stakeholders are increasingly asking whether students are learning and whether institutions are providing a quality of service that justifies their cost. In addition to learners being on a personal learning journey to fulfill their aspirations for professional growth, higher education institutions worldwide are also on expeditions to modernize and 190

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respond to these changes, which have the potential for disruption and transformation of the university’s business marketing model and role in society. Today’s college graduates will change careers multiple times, each change requiring access to lifelong learning with additional education being required at each career change (Graves, 2010). Access to global higher education is viewed as a necessity for job mobility and economic success (Andersson, 2012). However, tapping into expanding needs for lifelong learning will be a challenge for traditional universities whose concentration historically has been on the production knowledge in the form of human capital, research, and scholarship (Chen, 2017). Universities are now battling borderless, global competitors moving into the business of education (Bagley & Portnoi, 2014). Recognizing that traditional college degrees are not the only means for demonstrating competence is a bitter experience for conservative academe, particularly in relation to marketing higher education (Judson & Taylor, 2014). To stay viable in the knowledge economy, post-secondary institutions must be business-like entrepreneurs by marketing themselves, building collaborative alliances, and preparing for newer, emerging disruptive technologies (Hudgins & Holland, 2016; Verger, Steiner-Khamsi & Lubienski, 2017). Globally, students find technology and e-Learning as an opportunity to participate in a changing higher education environment. Often reluctantly, higher education institutions must market new programs and services to different clientele (Reushle, Antonio & Keppell, 2016). Students can determine the structure of their learning process with online learning technology, choosing where, when, and how to learn as well as how to verify their acquisition of skills (Bowden, 2011; Muilenburg & Berge, 2016). Micro-credentials are only one example of this new approach to learning and competency verification and the need to market differently in a constantly changing environment (Zappala, 2016). Many global market competitors for higher education students lack geographic constraints and do not face governance issues or formalized structures as traditional universities do (Bagley & Portnoi, 2014; Brown, Lauder & Ashton; Christensen & Eyring, 2011; Christensen, Horn, Caldera, & Soares, 2011). Open market competitors, unlike colleges and universities, can change quickly to meet market needs and competitors are increasing both nationally and globally (Brainard & Richards, 2010: Eaton, 2016; Gibson, Ostashewski, Flintoff, Grant & Graves, 2013; Knight, 2013).

CONCLUSION The authors speculate on four trends influencing this global, innovative and disruptive environment of higher education. First, higher education institutions are increasingly turbulent, disconnected and fragmented. Second, higher education institutions are 191

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increasingly less autonomous and more data-driven in a milieu where education is a qualitative endeavor mandated by quantitative measures. Third, higher education is increasingly seen as a societal means to reach financial goals. Most students are enrolled to get a better job, not learn about history. Fourth, higher education is increasingly global, driven by technology. Traditional acquisition of knowledge and learning has been fragmented by the impact of technology. Knowledge implies the effective management of information and the conversion of it into capital, while learning is redefined by the delivery of “content.” Consequently, e-Learning is combined as a new marketable innovation labeled education. Given the dramatic restructuring of the work enterprise, there is a new sense of urgency and a concern for growing obsolescence of information and skill of individuals, workforce outputs, and societal economies. Digital learning includes expansive integration of communication technologies, rapid integration and interdependence of a highly skilled workforce who need new and different skills delivered in new and different methodologies. Higher education has grown to such an extent that it has become commoditized with many reformers calling for competency-based education to verify and validate learning experiences in colleges and universities. There is also increasing attention and enthusiasm for credentialing in learning contexts. Credentials can be used to reward and/or monitor the accomplishment or achievement of users and providers. A credentialing system can summarize the skills and achievements of the individuals who receive them. The focus of credentialing concerns the implied importance of recognizing demonstrated achievement and accomplishment in the modern, digital society where almost everything is quantified and documented. With credentials, learning becomes part of the global digital society with implications for higher education, both public and for-profit institutions. By using micro-credentials, high education institutions can market themselves as comprehensive providers of education, not just tradition-bound providers of face-to-face instruction.

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Wright, C. (2013, January 6). The future of achievement: Digital badges. Grades are so last century. A guide to the credentials that matter now. The Boston Globe. Retrieved from. http://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2013/01/06/the-future-achievementdigital-badges/H2CbQpl1TwjddBybqKqv7M/story.html Young, J. R. (2012a, January 8). Badges earned online pose challenges to traditional college diplomas. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle. com/article/Badges-Earned-Online-Pose/130241/ Young, J. R. (2012b, January 21-22). Merit badges for the job market. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from: http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB10001424052970 204301404577170912221516638.html? Young, J. R. (2012c, October 14). Grades out, badges in. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Grades-Out-BadgesIn/135056/ Zappala, A. (2016). Competency-based education and the adult learner: New perspectives in a competitive landscape. In Proceedings of Global Learn-Global Conference on Learning and Technology (pp. 283-288). Limerick, Ireland: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).

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Learning Management System Under Digital India Program: Blended Learning Platform for Digital Governance Shilohu Rao N. J. P. Digital India, India Shveta Sahal PMU NeGD, India

ABSTRACT To foster continuous learning in governance, it is imperative to use technology in such a way that learning and knowledge exchange becomes a normal engagement without external interventions (http://digitalindia.gov.in/newsletter/2016_july/index. php). Web- or computer-based learning is easy, anytime and anywhere. It has in fact become a well-established, diversely applicable practice through a software application, known as learning management system (LMS). The LMS designed for e-governance under Digital India initiative is unique and one of a kind; it takes forward the vision of competency-based learning and is a tool to deliver right knowledge and skills to right personnel. LMS deployed by National e-Governance Division serves as a tool for learning and training the government officials and other stakeholders involved in planning, developing, implementing, monitoring, and sustaining governance in Government of India. This chapter broadly discusses the significant facets of the LMS like its prominent features and framework, key benefits, services rendered, and the outcomes and impact as a consequence of its structured implementation.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch008 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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1. INTRODUCTION Learning Management System (LMS) is a software application that automates the administration, tracking and reporting of training events (Ellis, Ryann K., 2009). LMS in e-Governance is a pioneering project under e-Kranti (e-Kranti is an e-Governance plan initiated by the Government of India) as part of Digital India Program initiated by the Government of India in 2015, with a vision of transforming India into a digitally empowered society (Digital India) and knowledge economy by leveraging IT as a growth engine. In consonance with this vision, it is widely recognized that there is a tremendous need to enhance the skill sets and to develop adequate number of appropriately trained resources to handle a variety of tasks (NeGD LMS) including those who are expected to design and deliver e-Governance projects. National e-Governance Division (NeGD) is responsible for implementing Capacity Building Scheme intended at strengthening capacities within the government departments. The officials engaged in delivering e-Governance projects face a major challenge in terms of human resources equipped with specific skills and competencies in the relevant areas to deliver the e-Governance projects successfully. To overcome this challenge e-Governance Competency Framework (eGCF) has been designed by NeGD to act as a baseline for developing required training programs with the objective as ‘Deploy Right and Develop Right’ (Issue of Governance Now, 2015). These training programs under CB scheme identify the right kind of training course for the right person that enables the structuring of e-Governance project teams as per pre-defined e-Governance job roles. The e-GCF identifies and outlines competencies which are measurable Knowledge, Skills and Behaviors (KSBs) essential for e-Governance job roles. The objective of moving towards the competency based capacity building approach is to ensure that each e-Governance job role is delivered by an official who has the required KSBs for that role. To take this approach a step forward, a web based Learning Management System in e-Governance is being developed to enable continuous learning, driven by role based knowledge and skills. This LMS in e-Governance is a tool that allows efficient administration of training for various officials by bringing together learners/ trainees and content in an environment which allows flexible learning and regular content update at a lesser cost than traditional form of imparting training. The purpose of this chapter is to share the insights of development and implementation of LMS for Governance purpose. Further this chapter delves into the interesting journey of implementing LMS in a digital government system, various challenges faced during the implementation and the myriad benefits offered to the government officials across PAN India post its implementation.

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2. BACKGROUND TO E-GOVERNANCE PLAN e-Governance initiatives got a major thrust in mid 90s with emphasis on citizencentric services for wider sectoral applications. With time many Provinces/Union Territories joined hands in various e-Governance projects. Although being citizencentric, yet they could not make the desired impact. Consequently Government of India launched National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) in 2006 under which thirty one (31) Mission Mode Projects covering various domains were flagged off. It was realised that a lot more thrust was required to ensure e-Governance in the country to promote inclusive growth that covers electronic services, products, devices and job opportunities. In order to transform the entire ecosystem of public services through the use of information technology, the Government of India has launched the Digital India program.

2.1 Digital India The vision of Digital India program is to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy. The Digital India program is centred on three key vision areas:

2.2 NeGD and Capacity Building The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) was approved by the Government in May 2006, with the following vision, Make all Government Services accessible to the common man in his locality, through common service delivery outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency and reliability of such services at affordable costs to realise the basic needs of the common man. As part of NeGP approval Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MeitY) was entrusted with the responsibilities including arrangements for monitoring and coordinating implementation of NeGP, evolving standards and policy guidelines, providing technical and handholding support, undertaking Capacity Building, R&D, etc. The Capacity Building Scheme under the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) envisioned establishment of an institutional framework for province-level decisionmaking including setting-up of State e-Mission Teams (SeMTs) having relevant expertise and experience to provide technical and professional support to Provinces and Union Territories. As part of institutional mechanism National e-Governance Division (NeGD) was accordingly created by MeitY in 2009 as an Independent Business Division (IBD) within Digital India Corporation (a Section 8 Company under Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology). NeGD acts as one of 207

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Figure 1. Vision Areas of Digital India program

the key catalysts and integrators for initiatives under Mission Mode Projects and support components under NeGP 2.0 across the country. NeGD is also expected to proactively support Federal ministries / departments / provincial governments in propagation of their e-Governance initiatives.

3 LMS IN DIGITAL INDIA e-Kranti is a significant component of the Digital India program that transforms the manner in which governance is conducted and public services are delivered. In order to implement the projects under e-Governance favorably, need was felt for a structured framework based on which e-Governance related competencies of the officials could be developed. This led to the designing of e-Governance Competency Framework which is a major initiative that leverages in invigorating capacities and providing relevant training to the targeted government officials. These identified and mapped trainings aim at pro-generating and leveraging competencies optimally as per the requirement. This competency-based training approach simultaneously provides a platform to e-Governance practitioners to understand the optimum skills and knowledge required for their job and determine their learning path. By providing germane training programs and optimally deploying resources, the program achieves its ultimate goal of advancing digital skills to government officials all over India. 208

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Figure 2. Functions of NeGD

The LMS under Digital India is designed to build the capacities of government officials employing not only traditional but also innovative methods. This LMS is a classic example that integrates four forms of learning namely classroom, e-learning, social and blended.

3.1 Features and Framework According to several schools of thoughts, the focal point of e-learning rests with the design and structure of its platform. This contemporary LMS has a host of features including reporting, provision of support tools, and integration with other portals that makes it compendious. Keeping the ease and convenience of the users in mind, it provides an Intuitive system of learning through a user interface that provides access to learning elements simply with a few clicks. Apart from that, it also aims at providing access and ensuring the stability and reach of learning for government officials, considering diverse training needs, methods of learning, cultures and priorities. The main components of the LMS are as follows: 1. Digital India LMS Portal: Supporting single-sign-on (SSO), this amalgamated portal provides access to various learning materials and threaded discussion 209

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Figure 3. Features of LMS

2. 3. 4.

5.

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groups to all government official across PAN India involved in implementing e-Governance projects. Training Management: The system supports the management of all types of learning events, i.e. standard instructor led courses, e-learning courses, seminars and webinars. Content Management: The system supports all types of customizable and deliverable content such as audios and videos, which can be accessed on a multitude of modern platforms and devices. Authoring: The authoring module facilitates addition of content by various trainers and provides off line rapid authoring as well. The content generated is supported across most modern web browsers and operating systems. The other features of authoring tool include: a. Rich Environment: Visually customize every element on the screen; b. Task Management: Streamline content development process; c. Rapid Development: Rapid course authoring; d. Reusability: Maintain reusable assets, learning objects, widgets, etc.; e. Interactivity: E-learning exercises and interactions and create Assessments, f. Dynamic Navigation: Simple page turners to sophisticated navigation schemes, g. PowerPoint Integration: Convert PowerPoint into e-Learning course. Other Functionalities (Including Registration, Nomination, and Certifications): The LMS allows Users to register and nominate for a course online. There are in-built certifications of completion which are provided after the successful completion of a said course.

Learning Management System Under Digital India Program

6. Virtual Assessment: Apart from providing all popular assessment types (multiple choice, true/false, etc.) and secure processing of assessments, it also has other features such as supporting randomized testing and maintenance of question banks. This too is supported over multitude of platforms and devices.

3.2 LMS Ecosystem The LMS Ecosystem is envisioned in such a way that roles are clearly defined for the decision-makers, teams and committees. For instance, NeGD has the responsibility to provide vision & strategy for implementation of LMS, define its comprehensive scope, give internal approvals, get periodical audits conducted and provide overall guidance to the other stakeholders during the entire process of LMS implementation. Similarly, roles are dubbed to other establishments such as the LMS Advisory Committee, Content Task Force, System Integrator (SI), Content Development Agency, Training Delivery Agency and PMU.

4 METHODOLOGY The project was envisaged with identification of the value proposition leading to visioning exercise for framing the objectives and expected outcomes of LMS implementation in NeGD, aligned with their strategic objectives. Detailed discussions were held with key stakeholders to capture the broad requirements for LMS. Based Figure 4. LMS Ecosystem

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on the broad level requirements and work flows an implementation partner was selected through an open tendering process. Further, the implementation schedule was formulated which describes activity wise timeframe for implementation of LMS. The requirements were further elaborated based on good features scanning across various organization (i.e. national as well as international). Since the LMS is based on e-GCF, the team worked towards decrypting the e-GCF. Three step process was followed including Knowledge area grouping, Training identification and Skill-Training mapping to design a Skill-Training Matrix.

5. LMS FRAMEWORK The LMS Framework consists of distinct five phases: • • • • •

Initiate: During this phase the need for LM is established and a vision for the same is developed in line with the NeGD objectives. Assess: Detailed assessment of NeGD is carried out in the context of Policy, People, Process, Content, and Technology with respect to LM. Plan: In this phase Strategy, Governance Structure, Policy and Roadmap including Budgetary Estimates are finalized. Design: This phase includes standardizing of LM flows, roles & responsibilities, ICT design and Operational plans. Implement and Evolve: This is the phase where implementation takes place in accordance with the plan and defined design, Monitoring and Evaluation activities are carried out and the LM evolves with continuous feedback and learnings.

5.1 Initiate Phase This is the first phase of the LMS Framework wherein key stakeholder discussions are undertaken on a wide variety of issues related to Planning, design and implementation of LMS. Based on such discussions a vision document is established aligned with the organisation’s objectives.

5.2 Assess Phase In this phase a detailed assessment of the organization is carried out in the context of Policy, People, Process, Content, and Technology with respect to LM. ‘Assessment tool kits’ for structured assessment are developed during this phase. The assessment 212

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Figure 5. LMS Framework

Figure 6. Initiate Phase

provides a thorough understanding of the present state with respect to LM – the same is documented as part of the ‘Current State Assessment Report’. This Assessment Report then can be used for reference for appropriate planning and designing of LM system for NeGD.

Policy In this step assessment of various policies available in NeGD needs to be done. During this exercise effort is made to identify provisions that are not in sync with the LMS vision and fill in those gaps as per requirement. Some of the policies to be scrutinized are: 213

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Figure 7. Assess Phase

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

HR Policy Training and Development Policy Content Management Policy Finance related Policy ICT Policy

People LMS is strongly people driven. There are certain aspects of people that are to be thoroughly assessed including the following: Capabilities: Aspects of skills, knowledge, experience, projects and networks. Behaviors: Aspect of capturing and disseminating learning. Motivators: Available rewards/ incentives (monetary as well as nonmonetary) to motivate the workforce to learn. Training/ Orientation: Availability of adequate training/ workshops for creating awareness and highlighting benefits, hands-on on its usage, taking participants’ feedback, etc.

• • • •

As a next step to this, ‘Current State Assessment Report’ needs to be drafted.

Processes LM processes are the defined methods for Learning and Development. NeGD will be required to assess the following in respect to the processes: • • 214

Current structure and norms being followed for Learning and Development related activities. Level of standardization being followed in respect to learning activities/ processes.

Learning Management System Under Digital India Program

•

Linkage of current processes (with respect to learning and development capital) to NeGD’s priorities.

This will enable to understand how learning and development activities are being facilitated through processes followed in NeGD.

Content Along with the personnel learning and development also takes place through content dissemination. Hence the availability and form of the content is of great significance in respect to learning activities. The following aspects need to be assessed in respect to content: • • • •

Availability of learning objects. Extent of coverage by these learning objects of identified priority areas. Form in which the learning objects are available – what portion of content is electronic; in what form is it available- documents/ synopses, abstracts/ articles, audios, videos etc. Quality of Content – Issues of archival, duplicity, weeding of old/ nonapplicable content, quality checks, expert check/ endorsement, rating etc.

These aspects provide a good understanding of the quality and accessibility of content for training specific issues in NeGD.

Technology Effective LM requires an ICT platform aligned with the NeGD requirements and culture. The organizational assessment on technology in respect to LM include the following aspects and more: • • •

Tools Structure Integrated IT for LM

5.3 Plan Phase Assess phase is followed by Plan phase that includes detailed Strategy, Governance Structure, Policy and LM Roadmap along with Budgetary Estimates with respect to LM. This phase broadly provides for a plan enabling the design of the LM for NeGD.

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LM Strategy The LM strategy captures the key needs and issues within NeGD with respect to Learning and Development and provides a framework for addressing the same. LM Strategy necessarily focusses on (a) the required changes and the desired future state for LM in NeGD (b) the strategic options/ choices for NeGD. The strategy clearly mentions the modes of implementing it and the changes required to successfully execute it. Strategy also defines the financials involved in the complete process of implementation of the plan.

LM Governance Structure A well-defined governance structure is required for providing adequate leadership support for detailed planning, implementation and oversight of LMS agenda. NeGD has the following governance structure (Ecosystem):

6. LMS IMPLEMENTATION The LMS project initiated with mapping of all nineteen roles as per e-GCF with their knowledge areas and skill sets. This has been undertaken to identify specific training needs. A well-defined approach has been followed to –decrypt the e-GCF for LMS. The entire e-Governance project involves a host of activities, tasks and deliverables that need to be accomplished as per the stage of the life cycle. These are unique to the stage of the project. Each activity is to be performed by identified individuals who play pre-defined roles during the entire project. The life-cycle of e-Governance project can be divided into various six stages. The first stage of an e-Governance project is development of e-Governance strategy. During this stage there are certain resources who play a domineering role. These major players include Leader, Chief Information Officer, Chief Technology Officer and Project Manager. Similarly for Figure 8. Plan Phase

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Figure 9. LMS Governance Structure

every other phase there are unique roles identified that deliver unique tasks and activities. In order to deliver the planned outcomes these resources are expected to be proficient in certain Knowledge areas and equipped with skills and certain behavioural norms. The e-GCF clearly mentions these Knowledge areas, skills and behavioural expectations for each of the identified nineteen roles. It may be clearly mentioned that there may be roles beyond these identified nineteen that may be required for implementing e-Governance projects. But for the ease and convenience of creating teams these have been earmarked.

6.1 Knowledge Areas, Skills and Behaviours Each of the nineteen roles requires certain knowledge areas, skills and behaviours/ attitudes that enable in efficient delivery of activities/ tasks during the project. These KSAs play a crucial role at the time of hiring of the team NPMU/ SPMU/ PMU. After the resources have been inducted into the NPMU/ SPMU/ PMU a Training Needs Analysis (TNA) is conducted that assists in fixing Gap Analysis. This further creates a scope for training/ capacity building of the resources. Example: Project Manager is required to have expertise in knowledge areas including- PMI/Prince 2, CIMM, PERT, CPM etc. These competencies are considered while hiring the resources for this position. This is followed by detailed TNA exercise before commencement of the project during which if the resources are found to be lacking in any of the required Knowledge areas then capacity building/ training is recommended for them. 217

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Figure 10. Approach to the e-GCF Document

Capacity Building/ Training can be done either through classroom, online or blended form. For a holistic approach and convenience of the Users all three forms of capacity building have been undertaken. One major initiative in this direction is the conceptualisation of an online learning portal – Digital India Learning Management System by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.

6.2 Overall Approach for Mapping e-GCF to LMS Keeping the overall CB-II training content scope, a holistic approach has been adopted so that there is an alignment between Classroom training and LMS under CB-II: • • • •

Modules identified and clubbed together under each course for obtaining the certification. Nomenclature for all courses. Content mapping for all the roles. Course catalogue of each role.

Knowledge (K) Core 1There are 4 Knowledge Levels according to eGCF. The content on LMS has been divided in 2 levels:

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Figure 11. Overall Approach for mapping e-GCF to LMS

• •

Awareness and Familiarity - Knowledge Level 1 Expertise and Proficiency - Knowledge Level 2 and 3 Core 2- Best practices and other essential readings are under this category

Skill (S) End user skill (basic computers) and: • • •

e-Office Certification (C) Technical Certifications Behaviour (B) - Behavioural skills as per the DoPT Competency Dictionary

6.3 Learning Path For obtaining certification for each role, the participant learning path is as follows (see Figure 12).

6.4 Role Classification The Team translated the e-GCF for designing the Skill-Training Matrix by following a three pronged process. Step one focused on grouping of Knowledge Areas. This included identifying the Knowledge Areas for all the listed nineteen e-GCF roles. These knowledge areas were tagged together into ‘Knowledge Groups’ with the aim of identifying trainings which would facilitate in bridging the knowledge area gaps for LMS users. In step two unique ‘Trainings’ have been identified and listed based 219

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Figure 12. Learning Path

on Knowledge Areas and Groups. In case there are trainings which are recommended in e-GCF and have not been identified in step two, are also included in the overall list of unique trainings. These unique trainings are the ones for which e-Contents need to be created or procured by NeGD. During the entire exercise sixteen trainings have been grouped exclusively as the process of development of their e-Contents is already being initiated by NeGD. In step three these identified unique trainings have been mapped with the various skills as mentioned in e-GCF. This has been undertaken to design a comprehensive ‘Skill-Training matrix’. However, few challenges have been encountered like organizing all the Knowledge areas into Knowledge groups, listing all the trainings based on Knowledge groups and mapping all the skills to the identified training. Subsequently several deliberations are being conducted with concerned stakeholders in this regard. New ideas and inputs are being solicited following participative and all-inclusive approach. Consequently, National Awareness Workshops are being planned to hold in various locations across India. During these workshops the LMS will be explained to the participants and their feedback and inputs taken regarding mapping of roles with their specific knowledge areas and skill sets. The participants for this workshop will include NeGD officials, State e-Mission Teams, representatives of various Administrative Training Institutes and Central Training Institutes. Apart from this, the integration of LMS and Knowledge Management System (KMS) is underway where the fraternizing of both the systems is being conceptualized including single-sign-on (SSO) feature. 220

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Table 1. Role Classification Role Classification

Managerial

Technical

SN

Role Name

M1

Leader

M2

Chief information officer

M3

Chief Technology officer

M4

Project Management

M5

Domain expert

M6

Change and training management

M7

Finance/commercial management

M8

Citizen engagement management

T1

Information security management

T2

Technical architecture

T3

Service management

T4

Technical support management

T5

Testing and quality management

T6

Programming role

T7

Knowledge and content management

T8

Network support engineer

T9

Database administration

T10

Security administration

T11

Project support coordination

Figure 13. Approach for Decrypting e-GCF for LMS

6.5 Post Implementation Activities-Webinars After the successful launch of Portals on ‘Digital India-Learning Management System’ and ‘Digital India-Knowledge Management System’ on 27 March 2017, National e-Governance Division (NeGD) LMS Team brainstormed to diversify the capacity building activities. The compelling need to reach out to lakhs of government employees and build their capacities for e-Governance projects impelled the LMS 221

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Team at NeGD to think out of the box. The team was aware that traditional methods weren’t going to produce the desired outcome in this scenario. The daily brainstorming sessions propelled the members to think exceptional. And finally after much taxing discussions sprouted the innovative idea of ‘Webinars’. Webinar is an initiative for capacity building initiated in 2015. It has been widely recognized that there is a tremendous scope to create awareness and enhance the knowledge of citizens and professionals with regards to IT/e-Governance related issues. Webinars provide a platform where experts can share their knowledge and experience for the benefit of wider audience. To promote a culture of learning and spreading knowledge, the initiative of conducting Webinars through its Digital India-Learning Management System (DI-LMS) Portal was undertaken. Since the viewership of the webinars was more on Wednesdays, this initiative was named as ‘WEBNESDAY’. Webinars offer convenience of anywhere learning to the participants along with the facility to refer to the learning in future as well. Each webinar is recorded live and is uploaded on Digital India Learning Management System (LMS), Digital India Knowledge Management System (KMS) and Digital India YouTube Channel, My Gov for easy access for everyone across all geographies and any given point of time. Organizing ‘WEBNESDAY’ each week under Digital India Program ushers a new beginning of easy knowledge sharing and creating awareness of e-Learning. For the said purpose LMS team contacted several Government Organisations to collaborate for conducting Training Sessions through Webinars. Amongst them one of the Government Organisations was ‘Goods and Services Tax Network’ (GSTN). The three organizations viz; MyGov, NeGD LMS team and GSTN Team came together to make the online sessions available to the Tax payers at the click of mouse.

6.5.1 Objectives for Promoting Webinars In line with the vision for Digital India Program and the mandate of the Capacity Building division at National e-Governance Division; Webinars fulfil the following objectives: 1. Promote a self-learning culture as part of change management initiatives for capacity building each week by conducting webinars on topics of e-Governance with national and international standing. 2. Upscale and formalise the process of organising webinars through Digital India Learning Management System. To create a cost effective way of providing variety of learning irrespective of User location through web-based/mobile platform. 222

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6.5.2 Webinar Life Cycle Each webinar activity is categorized under any of the three stages – Pre, during and Post Webinar. Every Webinar follows a fixed cycle of 7 (seven) days. The webinar marks the process of learning and continues to build a relationship with the attendees, albeit virtually. It’s a chance to provide one’s thought leadership, and impact their thinking and hopefully stimulate their curiosity to learn. If one is able to conduct high performing and high impact webinar that meets organisational goals and meets or exceeds audience’s expectations then the success rate of future events is also increased. The webinars received an overwhelming response from the viewers. These webinars are being conducted in various regional languages apart from English and Hindi. To reach out to the citizens across the boundaries webinars have been attempted in Bengali, Marathi, Tamil, Telugu, Kanada, Oriya and other Indian Regional Languages. The Webinar has been attended live by 43,782 participants and 628218 views have been recorded over YouTube till 21 December 2017. Figure 14. Webinar Life Cycle

Table 3. Webinar Cycle

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7. KEY OUTCOMES THROUGH LMS The implementation team has been working diligently for the deployment of LMS in the targeted government set up – with activities such as conducting internal requirement gathering, taking feedback and reviews from stakeholders, intelligentsia, academia, and private agencies at multiple levels. The following outcomes have flowed after implementing and operationalizing LMS for e-Governance over a period of one and a half years. The LMS has provided accessibility of quality standard e-Governance learning modules anytime, anywhere for all Government officials. One of the key defining elements is to ensure continual learning. For this purpose LMS has defined the Learning path for the government officials based on integration with e-Governance Competency Framework (e-GCF). This integration and mapping will assist to achieve competency based training. The LMS is a one-stop shop for all kinds of contents related to self e-learning, instructor-led training and blended learning on e-Governance related topics. It is providing content to learners in a variety of exciting packages including e-reading material, presentations, assessments, videos, games and quizzes. Learners are able to participate in live webinar sessions using the integrated virtual training feature from any location, over the Internet. It is acting as a multi-user platform for learners/trainees, mentors, teachers and administrators. It is also providing a wide variety of periodic reports for the purpose of analysis and supporting management in decision making. The LMS is an evolving system which is still in its evolving stage, and over a period of time it is expected to reap copious benefits to the government officials in terms of providing right kind of training for the right person at optimum cost.

8. CONCLUSION LMS in e-Governance being a pioneering project under e-Kranti as part of Digital India Program is a system envisaged to facilitate and enable continuous learning driven by role-based knowledge and skills as outlined in the e-Governance Competency Framework. It is an effort towards efficient administration of training by bringing together learners and content in an environment where flexible learning and regular content updates are available at an affordable cost. Initially, LMS is targeted to roll out to fifteen hundred thousand government officials across PAN India but has provisions for further scaling up in future as per the increase in number of users.

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Once fully functional all learnings in terms of e-Governance will be managed more effectively. Centralized approach for imparting and managing trainings will reduce efforts and costs significantly, while also create greater scope for learning opportunities. It improves compliance reporting since it can track the courses taken by various government officials and the scores they receive or modules they complete. This aids in better management of identifying training needs and the delivery of requisite training modules. Ultimately this LMS is expected to achieve the larger objective highlighted in the beginning of paper to enhance the capacities and hone the skills of government officials for favorably implementing e-Governance projects. This leads to efficient delivery of services to the citizens and thus supporting the vision of Digital India program.

REFERENCES Digital India. (n.d.). Vision and vision areas. Retrieved from http://www.digitalindia. gov.in/content/about-program Ellis, R. K. (2009). Field Guide to Learning Management System. ASTD Learning Circuits. Governance Now. (2015). Retrieved from http://egovreach.in/social/content/deployright-develop-right NeGD LMS. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://negd.gov.in/learning-management-system Vincenti, G., Bucciero, A., Helfert, M., & Glowatz, M. (2016). E-Learning. E-Education and Online Training.

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Using Social Media to Facilitate Instruction and Increase Marketing in Global Higher Education Michael D. Richardson Columbus State University, USA Sarah G. Brinson Albany State University, USA Pamela A. Lemoine Columbus State University, USA

ABSTRACT The technological revolution of the past two decades has changed global higher education, particularly with the impact of social media. There are two primary functions of social media in higher education: instruction and marketing. Social media offers higher education students an array of options to socialize, network, stay informed, and connected, but technology proficiency may not be the same for instructors. As social media use by students becomes more established, educators in higher education pursue methods to parlay expertise in instruction into increased opportunities to advertise and market higher education institutions. Social media’s impact of instruction in higher education is undeniable. The next major focus is on social media as a robust recruiting instrument to increase enrollment in global higher education.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch009 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Using Social Media to Facilitate Instruction and Increase Marketing in Global Higher Education

INTRODUCTION Educators in global higher education are exploring alternative means of instruction including social media tools designed for ease of use, convenience, instructional freedom, and constant online discussions (Bartosik-Purgat, Filimon & Calli, 2017; Yu, Tian, Vogel & Kwok, 2010). Social media is commonly defined as any medium used to integrate technology into the lives of people to facilitate communication (DeAndrea, Ellison, LaRose, Steinfield, & Fiore, 2012; Ituman, 2011; Veletsianos, 2011). As social media has proliferated in society, more higher education institutions are using social media tools such as social networking, wikis, blogs, or video, to interact with or engage students for instructional purposes (Elmannai, Odeh & Bach, 2013; Veletsianos, 2010). Increased engagement has been advocated as a critical component in increasing student learning and retention (Gupta, 2015). Therefore, social media has the potential to enhance student participation and improve academic performance (Buzzetto-More, 2012; Chen & Bryer, 2012; Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Mastrodicasa & Metellus, 2013). Although social networks have increased exponentially in recent years there is some controversy over the imbedded nature of social media in educational settings (Chang, Yu & Lu, 2015; Ferguson & Tryjankowski, 2009; Greaves, Hayes, Wilson, Gielniak & Peterson, 2010). Social media sites enable users to link to others, to send messages, to connect with friends and colleagues, to send mail and instant messages, to meet new people, to share pictures and information, and to post personal information profiles (Gikas & Grant; 2013; Greenhow, Robelia & Hughes, 2009; Junco, 2011; Junco, Heibergert, & Loken, 2010). However, some researchers speculate that such openness of communication could lead to security problems when used in higher education (Lemoine, Hackett & Richardson, 2016).

Technology’s Transformation of Higher Education During the past 15 years methods of communicating and sharing have changed drastically (Bjerede, Atlins & Dede, 2012; Griesemer, 2012). Today higher education professors facilitate the acquisition of knowledge through technologies that necessitates a paradigm shift --teaching students how to think (Greenhow, 2011). Instead of imparting knowledge the focus is on teaching students to understand where and how to find knowledge and information (Hoffman & Novak, 2011; Kezar, 2014; Lemoine & Richardson, 2013; Records, Pritchard & Behling, 2011). Students must be able to find the information they need, analyze it appropriately, and not just regurgitate facts (Junco, 2014; Lane, Kehr & Richardson, 2010). Changing traditional higher education approaches to education from the acquisition of short-term skills to proactive life-long learning attitudes are of paramount importance as colleges and 227

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universities prepare students for the 21st century’s global society (Hemmi, Bayne & Land, 2009; Lederer, 2012). Technology, like all innovations, is only as efficient and effective as the persons who use it (Evans, 2014; Wamba & Carter, 2014). Technology can give the instructor the ability to function more efficiently and effectively; however, professors must understand the capabilities and limitations inherent in the technology (Tadros, 2011; Tess, 2013). Technology can be the means to improving the curriculum, the delivery system and student achievement (Ferguson & Tryjankowski, 2009; Smith & Kukulaks-Hulme, 2012). The use of social networking and other forms of technology illustrate the global reach of wireless technology for everyone, and is especially critical for those teaching in today’s changing global educational environment (Hussain, Guliez & Tahirkheli, 2012; Shih & Waugh, 2011; Teclehaimanot & Hickman, 2011). Online higher education avenues expand daily (Clark & Wagner, 2017). Some researchers have suggested that students using online learning resources outperform students in traditional face-to-face teaching settings (Allen & Seaman, 2010; Lemoine, Hackett & Richardson, 2016). They have also speculated that online learning experiences meet individual student learning needs (Baran, Correia & Thompson, 2011). With the requirement that 21st century student skills include the necessity to access and use information effectively, social media provides higher education faculty access to different methods for teaching and learning (Dede, 2011; Lumauag, 2017).

Social Media for Instruction One of the largest technology developments over the past few years has been the global rise in online social networking (Booth & Esposito, 2011; Khanna, Jacob & Yadav, 2014). Typically, students are very familiar with social media and how they use it to learn on their own, but can social media be incorporated into formal instruction (Hemmi, Bayne & Land, 2009)? Higher education faculty can use social media to customize their teaching methods to meet the individual needs of students thus allowing students to learn at their own speed at their own time (Baran, Correia & Thompson, 2011; Bart, 2010). Social media can be a catalyst for the 21st century educator to increase instructional presentation and learning activities that can directly influence student productivity (Arnold & Paulus, 2010). The increasing use of social networking in higher education demonstrates a generational shift now permeating global higher education institutions (Allen & Seaman, 2010; Hung &Yuen, 2010; Mahmud, Ramachandiran & Ismail, 2016). Integrating social media in instruction at the post-secondary level allows for many significant benefits in student learning (Anagnostopoulou, Parmar & PriegoHernandez, 2009; Barnes & Lescault, 2011; Benson, 2014). Social media provides a 228

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method to increase the level of interactivity and engagement among learners because it is essentially a hands-on enterprise (Booth & Esposito, 2011). Social media also provides students with realistic preparation for their careers as it is now, and will continue to be, an integral tool in the future (Mathieson & Leafman, 2014). With the requirement that 21st century student skills include the necessity to access and use information effectively, social media provides higher education faculty access to different methods for teaching and learning and empowers learners to take more responsibility for their own learning (Dede, 2011; Nafukho, 2015). Twenty-four/seven access to digital technologies can facilitate new media for professional learning through interactive technology (Benson, 2014). The use of social media as educational tools presents professors with the possibilities of using technology means with students to facilitate access to information for research, creativity and collaboration (Smith & Kukulska-Hulme, 2012). However, adding social media tools to instruction requires professors to restructure 20th century pedagogies to leverage 21st century opportunities for learning (Pechenkna & Aeschliman, 2017). For professors and students, once isolated to their own individual classrooms with limited print resources, social media promotes access, communication, tools for collaboration and analysis, and the ability to interactively share their knowledge (Blacher-Wilson, Mense & Richardson, 2011; Junco, 2011). Social media allow professors to expand their messages and listen to what students want (Taylor, Mulligan & Ishida, 2012). Not only is it important that professors communicate to students, but it is important that the students transmit their needs to professors and administrators (Teclehaimanot & Hickman, 2011; Waters, 2011). Access to social media for higher education instructors has also resulted in a change for education delivery systems (Moran, Seaman, & Tinti-Kane, 2011, 2012). Social media permit students to become more active participants in their learning and explore new learning opportunities (Bullen, Morgan & Qayyum, 2011; Piotrowski, 2015; Rambe, 2012). Social media permit students and teachers to have instant access to news, information, and interactive experiences through computers, tablets, and smartphones (Toole, Khetaguri & Zangaladze, 2015). The key concept behind utilizing social media in higher education instruction is the ability to improve communication within the class, and the voice of each individual student (Hemmi, Bayne, & Land, 2009; Reid, 2014). Social media also provides the benefit of increased collaboration, which can be applied in many contexts and subjects (Hrastinski & Aghaee, 2012). Technology for learning in a digital age is not going to go away; therefore, higher education is adapting to the changing culture (Dabbah & Kitsantas, 2012). The challenge for higher education is to move beyond traditional teaching methods and provide students with social media skills and strategies in take charge of their own learning (Kukulska-Hulme, 2012). The use of social media may not be a 229

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panacea, but it is a technique that can change learning in global higher education institutions (Toyin & Harerimana, 2017; Gulbahar & Center, 2014). Professors and administrators are challenged to use social media as one technique for increasing cyberlearning (Lemoine & Richardson, 2013) and to collaboratively ensure the best learning opportunities for 21st century students (George & Dellasega, 2011). Cyber learning is the key to current and future learning but social media is often the force driving the innovation (Barbour & Plough, 2009; Kukulska-Hulme, 2012; Lemoine & Richardson, 2013; Moran, Seaman & Tinti-Kane, 2012; Neier & Zayer, 2015; Tinti-Kane, 2013).

Focus on Student Learning Social media allows professors to expand their messages and listen to what students want (Taylor, Mulligan & Ishida, 2012). Not only is it important that professors communicate with students, but it is important that the students transmit their needs to professors and administrators (Teclehaimanot & Hickman, 2011; Westerman, Daniel & Bowman, 2016). Access to social media for higher education instructors has also resulted in a change for education delivery systems (Moran, Seaman & Tinti-Kane, 2011, 2012). Social media permit students to become more active participants in their learning and explore new learning opportunities (Chen & Bryer, 2012; Evans, 2014; Koseoglu & Mercan, 2016; Leafman & Mathieson, 2013; Rambe, 2012). Differentiating instruction may also describe faculty attempts to use social media for instruction (Turner, Solis & Kincade, 2017). The differentiation of instruction has many benefits both to the learner and to the instructor and social media is a key tool (Dosch & Zidon, 2014). When used by faculty, social media promotes engagement, facilitates motivation, and helps students make the connection between the formal instruction to the things they value outside of class (Purvis, Rodgers & Beckingham, 2016). When such connections are made explicit by the faculty, students tend to improve in their retention of the learning (Logan, 2011). In addition, differentiation using social media can encourage students to discover new interests both in formal instruction and also outside the class (Kahenya, 2017). Turner, Solis and Kincade (2017) posited the following additional advantages: students recognize that they are the focal point of the instructional process; it provides faculty flexibility in assigning learning tasks while giving students flexibility in how to report their learning; it encourages faculty to respect the differences between student needs and preferred learning modalities; and, it levels the field for students to demonstrate their learning. Diversity is another concept in student learning that deserves attention, meaning that the traditional one-size-fits all, teacher-centered model of lecture-style teaching sets students up for failure (Balakrishnan, Teoh, Pourshafie & Liew, 2017; Dosch & Zidon, 2014). Social media can help faculty creatively differentiate the instruction 230

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to meet the individual and collective needs of students (Wandera, James-Waldon, Bromley & Henry, 2016). Some instructors assume their job is to tell students the information or provide it online without explanation. Telling or presenting is not effective pedagogy for students in higher education (Lemoine, Hackett & Richardson, 2016). The more proficient faculty teach in such a manner that students find both the learning and skills meaningful (Wang, Scown, Urquhart & Hardman, 2014)). Social media can help faculty make the connections in the learning for current and later application. The use of social media provides greater student engagement and greater student interest while also allowing students to take more control and more responsibility of their individual learning (Al-Mukhini, Al-Qayoudhi & Al-Badi, 2014). Higher education faculty are being forced to adopt and to rethink their teaching approaches while using the new technologies and taking into consideration the challenges of the knowledge society (Dore-Natteh & Ussiph, 2017). Learners are likely to reject higher education institutions that do not integrate technology into the curriculum because of the perceived negative impact on their employability after graduation if they are not exposed to the use of technology (Ituma, 2011). An institution that deliberately shuns technology and places great emphasis on small group teaching, with a low student-teacher ratio, is likely to be a very expensive and hence highly exclusive institution (Kirwin & McGuckin, 2013). Universities face major challenges in providing access and devices for every student and educator (Groeger & Buttle, 2014; Woodard, Shepherd, Crain-Dorough & Richardson, 2011). Three current challenges are evident for higher education: (1) the struggle to keep up with the latest technology (Pucciarelli & Kaplan, 2016); (2) the fight to find enough money for the technology (Woodard, Shepherd, CrainDorough & Richardson, 2011); and (3) the difficulty in getting faculty to adopt new technology (Kahenya, 2017; Leafman & Mathieson, 2015; Tinti-Kane, 2013). Social media advocates would argue that learning and learning opportunities are fluid; not confined to the classroom or to the university setting (Kirwan & McGukin, 2013). They propose that learning can manifest itself across settings, and informal or formal techniques, such as social media, can enhance learning (McEwan, 2012; Qureshi & Nair, 2015). Faculty must understand that learning is truly a life-long process, for them just as much as for their students (Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman, & Witty, 2010; Seaman & Tinti-Kane, 2013). To establish effective instruction that uses social media, professors must listen and learn from current conversations with students and participate in the use of social media to become familiar with students’ needs (Bullen, Morgan & Qayyum, 2011; Hrastinski & Aghaee, 2012; Waters, 2011). Communication forms the basic framework of social media (Nafukho, 2015). In fact, because its usage has reached such epic proportions in people’s daily lives, global society has entered the age of 231

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social media (Hall, Delello & McWhorter, 2017; Rambe, 2012; Schroeder, Minocha & Schneider, 2010). As a result, many faculty in higher education institutions are now commonly adopting and integrating social media in their instructional design strategies (Hagler, 2015; Pham, 2012).

Social Media for Marketing Social media is the current instrument of choice for building relationships between people and organizations (Wadhwa, 2017). Social media has revolutionized modern communication by creating a totally new culture based on the open movement of information. People engage in social media to express themselves and socialize with their friends and networks. Higher education institutions that insert themselves into these conversations are perceived as more personal, concurrently allowing potential students and parents to learn about the institution and to share their interests and opinions (Vuori, 2015). Higher education marketing is focused on putting the right message in front of the right target group at the right time, instead of striving to generate general awareness like traditional marketing strategies (Trefzger & Dunfelder, 2016). The social media platform has become the new trend for marketing especially to the younger generation. Higher education is rapidly becoming more aware of this trend in order to use the right social media tool to market and compete for local and international students at a minimal cost (Assintakopooulos, Antoniadis, Kayas & Dvizac, 2017). Social media is an instant medium that can reach millions of people all around the world through likes and sharing links. Higher education is tapping into social media that allows them to reach a global audience and increase their enrollments (Biczysko & Jablonska, 2016). Student recruitment has become very competitive among universities, forcing them to find efficient and effective means of providing information to its potential students, reduce recruitment costs and increase student retention (Clark, Fine & Scheuer, 2017). Competition for top student talent has changed marketing strategies and the global environment has been revolutionized by social media (Constantinide & Zinck-Stagno, 2011). Today’s potential students, and to a certain extent their parents, require immediate access to information at their convenience (Faubet & Thomas, 2017)). Potential students or their parents are looking to have a conversation with someone online about a particular university. They will be increasingly unforgiving of institutions that seem out of touch with developments in the real world (Kuznetsov, Yugay, Muslimova, Dami & Nasridinov, 2016). University brand is the identity of the higher education institution as a potential destination for students. A positive brand helps higher education institutions to be seen as a school of choice while a negative brand one will substantially reduce the 232

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opportunity for reaching the right candidates in the fight for talent. (Hope, 2015) To be competitive the institution should reflect reality as accurately as possible. Accuracy will help prospects to better understand the institution, its culture, values and programs (Bolat & O’Sullivan, 2017). Social media has become the “always on” operational environment for communicating the university brand to all those concerned (Iosub, Ivanov & Smedescu, 2016). Social media now radically changed the game, as it is where the potential students increasingly spend their time and energy searching for an institutional fit for them and their future education (de Haan, 2015). Now that social media has become a linchpin channel for not only social networking, but searching for information and sharing referrals and reviews, it is causing most institutions to significantly change their approach to recruitment. Consequently, institutions are adapting every part of their marketing strategy, and for some institutions even changing the product itself, to make them more relevant and to connect with more potential clients (Jan, 2016; Tuten, 2014). There are basically two marketing strategies used by higher education institutions. Some delegate marketing decisions to their departments, especially when university is a large structure and departments are financially quasi-independent. Other universities unite departments under one coherent marketing strategic, which is typical for smaller universities. Marketing promotions by universities to students are almost identical to marketing promotions in any customer service environment (Akar & Topcu, 2011). However, academics face revolutionary changes in technology, financing and student recruitment (Bienkowska & Klofsten, 2012)). Additionally, universities are moving away from traditional marketing and demonstrating a strategic approach to their online communications using various platforms of social media (Tantivorakulchia, 2015). Regardless of the strategy, higher education institutions are forced to adopt marketing in order to differentiate their offering from competitors (Melchiorre & Johnson, 2017). The use of social media content as “advertising” is based on the accepted view that word-of-mouth communications are the most persuasive and create the strongest of all consumer triggers – the personal recommendation (Taecharungroj, 2017).

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS FOR CONSIDERATION Since 2010, technical innovations have altered the skills and knowledge needed to succeed in the workplace and society (Bjerede, Atlins & Dede, 2012). Preparing technically educated and skilled individuals is of great economic importance to most counties and requires significant attention from both educators and employers (AlMukhaini, Al-Qayoudhi & Al-Bade, 2014). As a direct result, universities are using

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social media platforms to share their missions, market, and engage in conversations with future and current students (Barnes & Lescault, 2011). However, higher education institutions may be missing a great opportunity to use their prowess using social media applications in instruction to convince potential students of their desirability as a university of choice for technologically savvy students (Akar & Topcu, 2011; Blacher-Wilson, Mense & Richardson, 2011). Higher education institutions face with a quandary: a rational need to become more dependent on market–oriented status driven by purely financial motivation (Bienkouska & Klofsten, 2012; Constantinides & Zinck-Stagno, 2011; Vuori, 2015). However they also want to become independent of market requirements to preserve their “pedagogical purity” (de Haan, 2015). As a result, colleges and universities are rapidly redefining their interaction with all of their stakeholders (Benson & Morgan, 2015; Hope, 2015), particularly through social media which defines the dual realities of improving instruction and increasing enrollments (Iosub, Ivanov & Smedescu, 2016; Junco, 2014).

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Global Governance of Science: Wishful Thinking or a Life Necessity in the Context of International Relations and Their Philosophy Yury Sayamov Moscow State University, Russia

ABSTRACT This chapter draws attention to the role of education technologies within the entire issue of the global governance of science considered here to be of growing importance for the present world development. Introducing the notions of the global knowledge world and the knowledge society, the author presents the vision of the management of science as of an international task and one of development goals. He analyses the relationship of science and bureaucracy establishing a kind of a systematization for the decision-making process related to science and explains his point of view that the global governance of science could be based on the activities of international bodies and structures of intergovernmental nature (IIGOs), most importantly of UN and UNESCO, and of non-governmental character (INGOs). Taking into account various aspects of internal and external management of science, the author points out that the global management of science appears to be a life necessity due to the growing need to jointly search for global scientific responses to the global problems, new risks, and challenges that mankind is facing. In conclusion, some ideas are expressed and proposals given to foster the goal of the global governance of science.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch010 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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INTRODUCTION The idea of governing the world is most probably as old as humanity itself. At the beginning of its history the world of the human being was small consisting of separate areas people were living in. The first river civilizations in Ancient Egypt along the Nile River, in Mesopotamia called the Fertile Crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, in Ancient China and India along the Yellow River and the Indus not to mention the Mexican and Peruvian civilizations on the yet-to-be discovered American continent existed isolated and lacking in knowledge about the others. The end of the isolated existence of peoples and the opening of a new page in the common global history of mankind came approximately 37 centuries ago when the Egyptian pharaoh Tutmes of the XVIIIth dynasty undertook the subjugation of Syria and reached Mesopotamia thus bridging the gap between two great civilizations for the first time. According to the known French scientist Gaston Camille Charles Maspero, it was the beginning of the common world historical drama that has been played since that time on the global scene, merely changing its contents, actors and outside appearance. With Great Geographic Discoveries paving the ways between civilizations, the exchange of knowledge acquired important dimensions. Perhaps it was this which made Sir Francis Bacon declare his famous, Scientia potentia est (knowledge is power). However, what is knowledge and what is science has remained to the present day debatable, as well as notions of science governance and the governance of science. According to the Report of the Expert Group on Global Governance of Science of the European Commission ((EC, 2009, p. 8), science is broadly conceived as a special kind of knowledge along with a distinctive set of practices and cultures for producing it. In the Latin language “science” means “knowledge”. Science, being a human enterprise, produces and forms knowledge. People engaged in science are what we call scientists whereas science itself, on the other hand, can be considered in a sense as what scientists are doing. Today it is widely recognized that science belonging to the whole of mankind represents the major driving force of globalization. It caused the emergence of the notion of global knowledge. Global processes and the emergence of the information society gave rise to the notion of the Global Knowledge World and subsequently the so-called “knowledge society (Ilyin & Ursul. 2012).

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The knowledge society meant the increase and the acceleration of the exchange of knowledge, of transfer and integration leading to the globalization of the cognitive activity. The management of science has ever been more acquiring the characteristics of an international task crossing national boundaries. The feeling that there is a growing necessity for a kind of global management of science has increased as a result of its changing geography. Historically, science was concentrated around a limited number of countries. Now, more science is being done and greater knowledge produced by more people in a greater number of places. Traditional centers of science – France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia – found themselves in the XXth century facing a changed global arrangement with new, rapidly developing science powers: the United States of America, which attracted and accumulated scientists from all over the world, and the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics which absorbed Russia and its scientific patrimony. They formed two poles of the bipolar world order established after the end of the Great War in 1945. The collapse of the bipolar system after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 coincided in time with the emergence of new world scientific centers and powers. In the foreword to the UNESCO Science Report 2010, the UNESCO Director-General Mrs. Irina Bokova pointed out that the Triad made up of the European Union, Japan and the United States globally dominating science and technology (S&T): is gradually giving way to a multipolar world, with an increasing number of public and private research hubs spreading across North and South. Early and more recent newcomers to the S&T arena, including the Republic of Korea, Brazil, China or India, are creating a more competitive global environment by developing their capacities in the industrial, scientific and technological spheres (UNESCO, 2010). The example of power support and the promotion of science were set in the Soviet Union in the period between the two world wars, when the ongoing and accelerated scientific development was made a state priority and enjoyed all the financial, material and moral assistance together with the permanent attention and supervision of the top-level party, state and government leaders. It resulted in advanced technologies which helped defeat Hitler, create the A-bomb, and send up the first Earth satellite, and soon after the first man into space. The scientific achievements of their counterpart made the United States urgently mobilize their own potential in order to raise the level and prestige of American science. The scientific development of the “Moon race” program finally provided the United States with the leadership in S&T when the Soviet Union experienced a tremendous setback resulting from the “perestroika” destruction. 248

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More recently China has gained the title of the next science superpower. In research study two British fellows analyzed the Chinese science development program which foresees investments in the S&T national sphere of the unprecedented sum of over 87 billion euros (about 122 billion US dollars) by 2020 (Wilsdon & Keely, 2007). Another rising science giant is India. American and English laboratories and scientific centers are full of scientists of Indian origin. Many researchers are going back home. Both China and India are creating conditions to reverse the brain-drain process and to get scientists to return from their occupations abroad. The growth of S&T world-wide presents new challenges and develops new needs for the global governance of this process. High level science emerging in new places partly not yet prepared for it makes the management of science ever more necessary both internally within the countries and externally in the global community.

Global Government Issue in the Context of International Relations and Their Philosophy The international scientific conference in February 2017 at the Link University in Rome marked the beginning of a significant discussion on the global governance and formats of the international cooperation thus extending the topic to the philosophy of international relations. The attempts to consider international relations in terms of a philosophic approach go back to Ancient times. Athenian historian and general Thucydides (460–411 B.C.E.), who’s monuments one can see today at the entrance to Bavarian State Library in Munich and in front of the Austrian Parliament Building in Vienna, has been called the father of the international relations theory dubbed later as “political realism”. It views the international relations as ultimately mediated by and constructed upon the emotions of fear and self-interest. In the famous “History of the Peloponnesian War”, which is described as the only acknowledged classical text in international relations still inspiring theorists and scholars, a philosophical approach is clearly felt and can be extrapolated from it. International politics are seen as a competitive and conflictual field, in which power and security become the main issues leaving quite a little place for morality and ethics. Constraints imposed on international relations are by the very nature of human beings, responsible for their conflict-based paradigm. Power therefore plays an overriding role in shaping interstate relations. According to Thucydides, the independent states survive only when they are powerful and not so much has been changed since that time till present as far, as the content of this statement is concerned, both practically and theoretically. Generally, international relations are contending various theories presenting their expectations and perspectives. There is a view of international relations that 249

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regards their field as states in their capacity of principal actors in the international arena amended today by many other participants: cities, local powers, transnational corporations, non-governmental organizations, political movements, unions of civil society. Political realism in international relations is often contrasted with idealism or liberalism which ostensibly tends to emphasize cooperation. When nowadays national interests are stressed, it is no more as blunt, as the Machiavellian doctrine that anything is justified by reason of state. Negative side of the emphasis on power is that a kind of skepticism is generated regarding the relevance of ethical and moral norms to the relations among states. However, the presence of ethics in international relations could be hardly denied. It makes an inseparable part of the contemporary philosophy of international relations, which reaffirms the importance of the possibility of moral judgment in international politics. It does not imply, of course, any abstract moral discourse that does not take into account political realities. A supreme value could be rather assigned to successful political action based on prudence, which means on the ability to judge the rightness of a given action from among possible alternatives on the basis of its likely political consequences. The Ancient hard construct that: the decisions about justice are made in human discussions only when both sides are under equal compulsion, but when one side is stronger, it gets as much as it can, and the weak must accept that… has been ameliorated by the means of international law and limited world governance by the UN and its system. At the same time enough space is still left to states pursuing elusive dreams of their superiority to claim the right of the stronger to dominate the weaker. A state bent on domination tends to explicitly equate right with might and to exclude considerations of justice from foreign affairs. In this respect security of states acquires a central place. To attain security, states try to increase their power and engage in power-balancing for the purpose of deterring potential aggressors. A variety of approaches within the scope of what is called political realism in international relations is claimed to be replaced today by neorealism, which is presented as an attempt to establish more science-based attitudes to politics on the world arena. Judgments proceeding from realist and neorealist views and conceptions are being criticized by theorists representing ideal, liberal, critical and post-modern perspectives and vice versa. A system of views that is called idealism can claim to have a long tradition in international relations, too. The representatives of it like Plato, Aristotle and Socrates in classical Greek philosophy and later Cicero in Rome – they all felt dissatisfied 250

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with the world as they have found it, trying to answer the eternal question of what ought to be in international politics and insisting that there should be some universal moral values on which political life could be based. Building on the work of his predecessors, Cicero developed the concept of a natural moral law that was applicable to both domestic and international politics. The idea that politics, including the relations among states, should be virtuous, and that the methods of warfare, which for ages used to be the most applied form of international relations, should remain subordinated to ethical standards, was gaining ground. Contrary to that, a Florentine Renaissance diplomat, historian and philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) introduced in the 15th century a concept of the admissibility of immoral actions in politics. It is a doctrine which denies the relevance of morality in politics and claims that all moral and immoral means are justified to achieve certain political ends. Although Machiavelli never uses the expression “ragione di stato” in his native Italian, or its more known French equivalent “raison d’état”, what ultimately counts for him is precisely whatever is good for the state and not any ethical scruples or norms. This type of political thinking is called “machiavellianism” and is associated with the unscrupulous behavior, dishonesty and betrayal considered to be normal and acceptable in the pursuit of what is understood as goals of the actor. Though no one uses now in a positive sense the term “machiavellianism” which has a clear negative connotation, it has become in international relations a part of the present philosophy striving often for one sided preferences on the cost of other participants as the result of the loss of global balance after the end of the bipolar era. If there was an end to the “cold war” and a victory in it, it should be considered definitely a Pyrric victory, since the world has not become more safe and predictable than before. On the contrary, today multiplying conflicts almost everywhere around the globe are witnessed, as well as flows of refugees invading and making suffer states which used to be safe and successful. A scientist of the 17th century Thomas Hobbes (1588–1683) has seen the relations among states as based on the quest and struggle for power. The same would be true later for the model of international relations developed by Hans Morgenthau who was deeply influenced by Hobbes and adopted the same view of human nature which is driven by a perpetual and restless desire of power after power that ceases only in death. German philosopher Georg Hegel in the 19th century by asserting that the state has no higher duty than of maintaining itself gave a kind of an ethical sanction to the promotion by a state of its own interest and advantage against other states thus turning over the traditional morality. The good of the state was interpreted as the highest moral value with the extension of power of nation regarded as its right and duty. At the end of the same 19th century German historian Heinrich von Treitschke declared that the state was power and that the supreme moral duty of the state was 251

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to foster this power. He considered international agreements to be binding only insofar as it was expedient for the state. The idea of an autonomous ethics of state behavior and the concept of what was called “Realpolitik” were thus introduced. Traditional ethics was denied and power politics was associated with a “higher” type of morality. These concepts along with the belief in the superiority of German culture and nation served till the end of the Second World War as instruments to justify policies of conquest and extermination. The concept of a double ethics, private and public, that created a further damage to traditional, customary ethics was invented. The doctrine of “raison d’état” has led in its final consequence to the politics of “Lebensraum”, two world wars, and the Holocaust. After the horror of the First World War the philosophy of international relations was dominated by the peacekeeping desire to prevent another global catastrophe by establishing a system of international law to be promoted by a universal organization. The League of Nations created in 1920 and the Briand-Kellogg Pact of 1928 which outlawed war both contributed to cherished hopes for a peaceful solution of aggravating problems in the relations among states. In the illusory philosophy of international relations of that period the origin of war was seen rather in bad social conditions and wrong political arrangements which could be improved. The League of Nations did not become a truly universal organization due to it obvious dependence on France and Great Britain which made even the United States not to join it. At a certain stage the outbreak of the Second World War became inevitable. The United Nations founded in 1945 as the first in the world’s history real universal organization changed basically the philosophy of international relations by introducing a new format of states interaction and interdependence paving way to global governance with some elements of it like the Security Council with the veto right of its permanent members and resolutions obligatory for member states. Among new philosophers of international relations it should be mentioned Edward Carr who contributed in the 20th century largely to the concept of conflict of interests which is fundamental to emerging challenges and wars. He showed that the language of justice could be used just to achieve the particular interests of a state, or to create negative images of other countries to justify acts of aggression. The existence of morally discrediting a potential enemy or morally justifying one’s own position shows, in his opinion, that moral values are derived from actual policies. Respectively, policies are not based on universal norms and scientifically developed approaches independent of interests of the parties involved. International relations philosophy by a prominent post war scientist Hans Morgenthau placed such human qualities as selfishness and lust for power in the center of his vision of the contemporary world. This insatiable lust for power, timeless and universal, which he identifies as “animus dominandi”, the desire to dominate, is for him the main cause of conflicts. His concept of power implies the assumption 252

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that political leaders think and act in terms of interest defined as power. It appears as a universally valid category and an essential element of politics, since various things can be associated with interest or power at different times and in different circumstances. Its content and the manner of its use are determined by the political and cultural environment. However, the philosophy of international relations is not just an intellectual enterprise. It has practical consequences and influences our thinking and political practice. As Raymond Aron and other scholars have noticed, power, the fundamental concept of Morgenthau’s theory, is ambiguous. It can be either a means or an end in politics. But if power is only a means for gaining something else, it does not define the nature of international politics in the way Morgenthau claims. It does not allow to understand the actions of states independently from the motives and ideological preferences of their political identity. Accordingly, it is useless to define actions of states by exclusive reference to power, security or national interest. International politics cannot be studied independently of the wider historical and cultural context. At the same time, a new vision of international relations and their philosophy has been developed reflecting changes in the world. Following the détente of the 1970s, the growing importance of international and non-governmental organizations, as well as of transnational corporations and new formats of multilateral cooperation was witnessed. This development led to the consolidation of thinking which became known as neo-liberalist or pluralist one. The leading pluralists, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, have proposed the concept of “complex interdependence” to describe their more sophisticated picture of global politics. They would argue that there can be progress in international relations and that the future does not need to look like the past. Another scientist, Kenneth Waltz, made an effort to amend the philosophical discussion about the human nature by his theory of international politics analogous to microeconomics. He argued that states in the international system are like firms in a domestic economy and have the same fundamental interest to survive. As a practical expression of international society international organizations could be seen that uphold the rule of law in international relations, especially the UN. Their philosophy, as well as the philosophy of existing G7and new formats of international cooperation of states like G20 and BRICS on the world level, like Shanghai Organization of Cooperation and others on the regional level are subject to future studies and assessments which poses to scientists an important and responsible task to be accomplished.

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Science and Bureaucracy If to take bureaucracy as just a way of organizing work without the usual opprobrious connotation, it could be clearly seen that bureaucracy has many national and international applications to science. Nationally, science is subjected to bureaucracy and decision making at the levels of: •

The president of the country (prime minister, federal chancellor, king or another supreme governor) and his administration; The state government (federal government).

•

They Establish Rules and Regulations for the Whole of the Country and Initiate Laws Affecting Science: •

The national (federal) parliament. It Adopts National (Federal) Laws Affecting Science:

•

The national (federal) ministry of science and other related ministries, national (federal) agencies and other institutions of the governmental nature.

They Supervise the Execution of Law and Establish under Law Acts, Instructions and Regulations Affecting Science: • •

The governor at the local level (head of the region) and his administration; The local government (government of the region).

They Establish Rules and Regulations for the Region and Initiate Laws Affecting Science: •

The regional parliament. It Adopts Local (Regional) Laws Affecting Science:

•

The local (regional) ministry of science and other related ministries, local (regional) agencies and other local institutions of a governmental nature.

They Supervise the National and Regional Execution of Law and Establish under Law Regional Acts, Instructions and Regulations Affecting Science:

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•

The city government.

It Establishes Rules and Regulations for the City and Initiates Laws Affecting Science: •

The city parliament. It Adopts City Laws Affecting Science:

•

District and other territorial authorities. They Establish Rules and Regulations for the Territory:

•

Municipalities They Take Decisions Organizing Life for the Respective Territory: Besides this, science has its internal bureaucracy:

• • •

National bodies, academies, unions with their administrative structures, decisions, prescriptions, regulations; Directorates of scientific research bodies (institutes, laboratories, centers); Rectors, deans, heads of chairs and departments and their staff in universities and other higher educational establishments doing science.

There are often contradictions with regard to the management of science among the above, as well as between them and the state and governmental bureaucracy. Relations between science and national bureaucracy are almost always quite complicated and ambivalent. As far as scientists are concerned: on the one hand, they need recognition, moral and financial support. On the other, they often do not accept bureaucratic interference in science and attempts to teach how to practice it. As for bureaucracy: its representatives and structures, on the one hand, need creative science able to produce valid and valuable results and in order to justify state and government policies. On the other, they try to subordinate science and shape it into the form they think it should be. Huge bureaucratic machinery, even when striving to advance science, may sometimes suffocate it. To escape, some see the increase in the international governance of science as desirable, presuming that national states would accept the supremacy of international regulations.

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International Management of Science Internationally the management of world science is represented in the activities of international bodies and structures of intergovernmental nature (IIGOs) and of non-governmental character (INGOs). Among the first, the backbone of its present system makes the United Nations Organization established after the World War II to guarantee peace and to foster social and economic development including science. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) created barely before the ink on the UN charter had dried became directly responsible for science and herewith the most important organization for its international management in practical sense. Recently the importance of the UN and its specialized agency UNESCO for world science has been confirmed by the forming in 2013 of the UN Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board to strengthen the connection between science and policy. Twenty-six eminent scientists, representing natural, social and human sciences and engineering, have been appointed to a Scientific Advisory Board announced by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. The Board was to provide advice on science, technology and innovation (STI) for sustainable development to the UN Secretary-General and to Executive Heads of UN organizations. UNESCO hosted the Secretariat for the Board. The creation of the Scientific Advisory Board follows on from a wide-ranging consultation work entrusted to UNESCO by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, said UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova. It brings together scientists of international stature, and will serve as a global reference point to improve links between science and public policies. The Board became the first such body set up by the UN Secretary-General to influence and shape action by the international community to advance science and sustainable development. The initiative derived from the report of the UN SecretaryGeneral’s High-level Panel on Global Sustainability “Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A Future Worth Choosing” (January, 2012). This report recommended the launch of a major global scientific initiative to strengthen the interface between policy and science. The fields covered by the Board ranged from the basic sciences, through engineering and technology, social sciences and humanities, ethics, health, economic, behavioral, and agricultural sciences, in addition to the environmental sciences. It aimed to ensure that up-to-date and rigorous science is appropriately reflected in high-level policy discussions within the UN system, offering recommendations on 256

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priorities related to science for sustainable development that should be supported or encouraged; providing advice on up-to-date scientific issues relevant to sustainable development; identifying knowledge gaps that could be addressed outside the UN system by either national or international research programs; identifying specific needs that could be addressed by ongoing assessments and advising on issues related to the management, public visibility and understanding of science. The creation of the Board and the results of its work can be seen as practical steps towards the establishment of a system for the international management of science in the interests of its advanced development for peace and sustainable development. The idea of the international management of science under the aegis of UNESCO has been pioneered by Russia and other scientifically developed states since the 90s of the previous century. The initiative continued gaining ground in the international scientific community and resulted in advanced activities by the Science Sector of UNESCO to examine the situation science finds itself in and to make a kind of inventory of scientific potential and establishments in various countries the world over, leading to the elaboration of the approach and an understanding of how the international management of science could be organized. The notion of the international management of science involves a whole web of activities, attitudes and policies to support and regulate scientific processes and products. The governance of science can be global in two senses: 1) as applied to all of science and 2) as traversing national borders all over the world.

Global Governance and International Governance Some make a distinction between terms of “global governance” and “international governance”: In contrast to international governance, global governance is characterized by the decreased salience of states and the increased involvement of none-state actors in the norm- and rule- setting process and in compliance monitoring. In addition, global governance is equated with multilevel governance, meaning that governance takes place not only at the national and international level…, but also at the subnational, national and local levels. Whereas, in international governance, the addressees and the makers of norms and rules are states and other intergovernmental institutions, non-state actors… are both the addressees and the makers of rules in global governance (UN, 2001). In this way the global governance of science implies the involvement of none-state actors and points out the character of science as of a none-state transnational social institution. As a matter of fact, international organizations from the non-governmental 257

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sector are increasingly becoming active actors in world affairs including science. The systems of relations and cooperation that UN and UNESCO share with international non-governmental organizations promote and facilitate their involvement. The list of INGOs in official relationship with UN (categories I, II and Roster) and with UNESCO (categories A, B and C) embraces hundreds of organizations. Among them the most important, mainly so-called “umbrella structures” that represent unions of unions, are concentrated in the upper category I or A. Of special significance for science and its management on the global level are: • • • • • •

The International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU); International Social Science Council (ISSC); World Federation of Scientific Workers (WFSW); Council of International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS); International Association of Universities(IAU); International Council for Adult Education

All of them have category A status with UNESCO, and among their declared aims - development and management of science on an international level (UIA, 2013).

Internal and External Management of Science When doing science, the scientists themselves apply the variety of ways and methods of managing their production of knowledge, among them such as simulation, systemic modeling, structural analysis, research and experimentation and many others. People of science effectuate their own supervision of the quality of knowledge produced through peer review and replication, as well as by means of scientific discussions, conferences, presentations and professional publications. They themselves are in a better position to make judgments about scientific and research funding priorities, to influence grant panels and decisions regarding the support and promotion of gifted colleagues. At the same time cases of rivalry, related blackmail and other disgusting revelations are common in the scientific community aimed at the promotion of scientists and their schools “by all means”, sometimes making the internal self-management of science dubious and unreliable. The term external management of science in the country here means its governance by non-scientists, mainly bureaucrats on various levels. Such external governance of science in the country includes: •

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Establishing rules, standards and regulations for the work of scientists and their organizations;

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•

• •

Supporting and funding of research with priority for some pre-selected directions in accordance with national interests and preferences as they are seen by the respective bureaucratic structures. In some countries there exists the so-called state order to undertake scientific research of themes and the development of technologies the state is interested in; Patenting scientific discoveries and attributing to scientists the certificates and property rights to produced scientific knowledge and elaborated innovations, as well as scientific degrees, titles and state awards; Channeling scientific activities in the desired directions, thus often restricting the freedom of a scientist and of his research work.

Between the internal and the external government there might occur contradictions resulting in tensions and conflict. People doing science are usually sensitive to external interference, especially when they harbor a feeling of injustice, unfairness or humiliation on the part of those making them subordinate. Taking into account the power that science might have in and over society, the necessity for social control of science and innovations should be acknowledged. Civil society, however, is not to limit the production of knowledge, but to participate in steering its use to appropriate ends. There is a notion of the linear model of science tracing its results through technological application to social benefits and advantages. According to this, the government provides scientists with all that is necessary in financing, materials and organization and gives them the opportunity to decide themselves how to achieve the best results, restricting state interference in science to a minimum. At present, the linear model of scientific development, in contrast to Roosevelt’s and Stalin’s time, is increasingly substituted by regulatory regimes often revealing their incompetence to govern science. A revelation of the potential to use science for destruction culminated in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki A-bomb tragedy and made the governance of science a global public issue, inspiring the world’s outstanding scientists Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell to appeal to all those doing science in their famous manifesto of 1955 that they should take their responsibilities seriously for the results of their scientific work and tell society the truth about the dangers of the nuclear age. Technological catastrophes attaining the size of the globally dangerous nuclear disaster of Chernobyl highlighted the issue of risk-avoiding and prevention management of science. New concerns came into being with regard to bioethics and genetic engineering in food-producing plants and animals that potentially could be reformed into human beings by biotechnology. Reflections about the management of science along with its globalization are increasingly acquiring their own global character. Societies are constantly moving 259

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towards a greater dependence on science. Politics, economics and science are becoming ever more intertwined. Belief in science is growing in society. With this, overstated hopes that undermine public trust in science occur that by scientific means (such as that of genetic modification or nanotechnologies application) global problems of poverty or hunger could be resolved. In particular, science concerning the most important branches such as defense, energy, security, electronics and information technologies sometimes called “mandated science” needs a kind of global management in order to prevent eventual conflict development which, under some circumstances, might be globally dangerous. In fact, the global management of science appears to be a life necessity (i.e., of paramount necessity) due to the growing need to jointly search for global scientific responses to the global problems, new risks and challenges that mankind is facing.

A Vision of the Action for the Global Governance of Science In any case, there is a question about what could be done to approach the global governance of science. Certainly, there could be a variety of suggestions, but in the logic of this article it appears justified to consider an option based on UNESCO as the main international intergovernmental organization responsible for science in the UN system, with the large involvement and participation of the non-governmental sector represented by international scientific organizations from the UNESCO list and by other relevant scientific structures wishing to contribute to the achievement of the global governance of science on UN and UNESCO principles. For this purpose an international structure under the aegis of UNESCO could be considered as a newly to-be-established body based on the positive and productive experience of the above mentioned Scientific Advisory Board at the UN SecretaryGeneral. The action for the global governance of science should be developed into a movement of concerned scientists and their organization based on a kind of foundation. The UNESCO potential which could be used for this purpose includes about 700 UNESCO Chairs working in some 130 countries and embracing with their activities hundreds of universities and scientific research bodies. The conference of scientific UNESCO Chairs in Geneva in July 2017 confirmed their large and to a great extent not fully engaged scientific potential and capabilities to be used as an effective instrument promoting the idea of the global governance of science and facilitating its implementation. They could be entrusted with the elaborations of proposals on the subject under consideration. A road map towards the global governance of science under the universal principles of the UN and UNESCO Charter could be elaborated, discussed among scientists on the most open and wide basis and approved at a world conference. 260

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Such a forum could be organized as a UNESCO World Conference if member states, the UNESCO Executive Council and the UNESCO General Conference approve its holding. A world conference on the global governance of science could be convoked, as well, by an international preparatory board under the auspices of UN and UNESCO. UNESCO, having UNESCO Chairs as an effective instrument of global application, can use their world-wide network to advance the idea and to contribute to the elaboration of the principles of the global governance of science. A global mobilization for the idea of the global governance of science can be effectuated through the involvement of scientific unions on the local, regional, national and international levels. The scale of the task is in response to its global importance.

REFERENCES Ahamer, G. (2005). ‘Surfing Global Change’: How didactic visions can be implemented. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 22(5), 298–319. doi:10.1108/10650740510632217 Ahamer, G. (2012). The jet principle: Technologies provide border conditions for global learning. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 6(3), 177–210. doi:10.1108/17504971211254010 Ahamer, G. (2013a). Multiple cultures of doing geography facilitate global studies. Multicultural Education & Technology Journal, 7(2/3), 228–250. doi:10.1108/17504971311328099 Ahamer, G. (2013b). Game, not fight: change climate change! Simulation and Gaming – An International Journal, 44(2-3), 272-301. DOI: 10.1177/1046878112470541 Bush, V. (1945). Science: the Endless Frontier. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. EC. (2009). Global Governance of Science. Report EUR 23616 EN of the Expert Group on Global Governance of Science to the Science, Economy and Society Directorate, Directorate-General for Research, European Commission, Brussels. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_library/ pdf_06/global-governance-020609_en.pdf Guston, D. H. (2000). Between Politics and Science. New York: Cambridge University Press; doi:10.1017/CBO9780511571480

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Ilyin, I. V., & Ursul, A. D. (2012). Globalistics: New Investigative Trends in Science. In Globalistics and Globalization Studies. Volgograd: Uchitel’ Publishing House. PCAIC. (1998). Documents of the Project Center of the Association of International Cooperation (Vol. 3). Moscow, Russian Federation. Sayamov, Y. (1976). Presentation at the World Conference to End the Arms Race, for Disarmament and Détente. Proceedings of the Continuing Liaison Council of the World Congress of Peace Forces, 62. Retrieved from http://books.google.at/ books?id=-AQ_AQAAIAAJ Sayamov, Y. N. (1980). Presentation at the World Conference Against Apartheid. Racism and Colonialism, Portuguese National Committee Against Apartheid, Racism and Colonialism in Southern Africa. Retrieved from http://books.google. at/books?id=WXIQAAAAIAAJ Sayamov, Y. N. (1990). Presentation at the conference: Preserving The Global Environment - The Challenge Of Shared Leadership. Harriman, NY: Arden House. Retrieved from http://books.google.at/books?id=SsCqjpnvtiUC Sayamov, Y. N. (1991). Presentation at the conference American economic power: redefining national security for the 1990’s. Hearings before the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States. Retrieved from http://books.google.at/ books?id=WXIQAAAAIAAJ Sayamov, Y. N. (2005). Presentation of Moscow’s concept & vision for the Olympic Games by the Deputy Head of the International Relations Department of Moscow City Government. Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://www.hkolympic.org/articles_detail.php?cid=21&id=2007 Sayamov, Y. N. (2012). Approaches to the Resolution of Conflict The Role of the Global Civil Society in Constructing a Peaceful Community. Presentation at the November 2 Seminar, The Asia Institute. Retrieved from http://www.asia-institute. org/2012/11/02/november-2-seminar-approaches-to-the-resolution-of-conflict-therole-of-the-global-civil-society-in-constructing-a-peaceful-community/ Sayamov, Y. N. (2013). Education as a global “soft power” for sustainable development. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 30(5), 346–357. doi:10.1108/ CWIS-08-2013-0040 UIA. (2013). Directory of International Nongovernmental Organizations (INGO’s) in Official Relationship with UNESCO (Vol. 1). Union of International Associations. Retrieved from http://www.uia.org/yearbook

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UN. (2001). Global Governance and the United Nations System. New York: United Nations University Press. UNESCO. (2010). UNESCO Science Report. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/ new/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/prospective-studies/unesco-sciencereport/ UNESCO. (2014). UN Secretary-General’s Scientific Advisory Board to strengthen connection between science and policy. Retrieved from http://en.unesco.org/post2015/ news/un-secretary-general%E2%80%99s-scientific-advisory-board-strengthenconnection-between-science-and#sthash.6nMKD9jY.dpuf Wilsdon, J., & Keely, J. (2007). China - The Next Science Superpower. Demos. Retrieved from http://www.demos.co.uk/files/China_Final.pdf

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Chapter 11

An Educational Tool for Digital Electronic System Synthesis and Optimization Hakduran Koc University of Houston – Clear Lake, USA Seyit Ozturk University of Houston – Clear Lake, USA

ABSTRACT Considering the complexity of today’s digital electronic systems, it is crucial to have open-source electronic design automation (EDA) tools specifically developed for educational purposes. Such tools can easily be modified to meet the demands of the course being taught and they can be configured to expose the intermediate steps during the design process. This chapter presents an educational EDA tool to help students better understand and implement fundamental concepts in digital electronic design and synthesis courses. The tool receives an intermediate format that represents the target system behavior and a set of constraints as input, and generates the representation of the actual circuit using high-level electronic components such as functional units, memory, and steering logic components available in its technology library. It considers execution delay, area, memory space consumption, and reliability constraints. The user is able to interact with the tool during the design process and select the algorithms to perform various synthesis and optimization tasks.

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5673-2.ch011 Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

An Educational Tool for Digital Electronic System Synthesis and Optimization

INTRODUCTION Electronics systems are indispensable part of our daily life; ranging from simple circuits in kid toys to smart phones to mission-critical avionics systems that manage hundreds of sub-systems to perform complex tasks. Digital electronic systems combine particular logic and circuit design techniques required to implement Integrated Circuits (ICs). Such circuits consist of miniaturized electronic components built into an electrical network on a semiconductor board. Digital IC design produces components such as microprocessors, Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), memories (RAM, ROM, and flash), Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) (Coussy, & Takach, 2009). Digital system design puts emphasis on maximizing performance, reducing power/energy consumption, minimizing memory space consumption, improving reliability, verifying logical/functional correctness, and maximizing circuit density. Digital system synthesis is a process in which an abstract form of desired circuit behavior is turned into a design implementation in terms of the components available in a technology library at a given abstraction level (Makris, & Orailoglu, 1999). Circuit behavior is typically given using a Hardware Description Language (HDL) such as VHDL, Verilog, or SystemC (Sun, 1994). After analyzing the behavioral source code, it is translated into an intermediate format such as netlist, state diagram, dataflow and sequencing graphs. Various Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools use this intermediate format as input in order to generate the final circuit that meets all design constraints (Martin, & Smith, 2009). Among others, performance, area, power/energy consumption, reliability, and memory efficiency are important design optimization metrics. An EDA tool not only has to meet all design constraints but also aims at improving design metrics as much as possible. Raising the abstraction level (hiding unnecessary details) in the synthesis process brings many advantages including reduced design time, less probability of design errors, and reduced complexity (Sarkar, S., Dabral, S., Tiwari, PK., & Mitra, RS., 2009). Due to these advantages, High Level Synthesis (HLS) has become increasingly popular in EDA field. In addition, HLS tools can reduce the verification time (which is a major contributor in overall design cycle) and can optimize the final circuit and create opportunities for extensive design space exploration (Duranton, M., Yehia, S., De Sutter, B., De Bosschere, K., Cohen, A., Falsafi, B., Gaydadjiev, G., Katevenis, M., Maebe, J., Munk, H., Navarro, N., Ramirez, A., Temam, O., & Valero, M., 2009). The followings are examples of electronic components utilized to generate the final circuit in HLS: ALU and multiplier as functional units, registers as memory components, and multiplexer and bus as steering logic components. Three main tasks in High Level Synthesis are resource allocation, operation scheduling, and resource sharing/binding. In resource allocation phase, the number and type of resources that 265

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are utilized to implement the final circuit are determined. This information can also be given as a design constraint (i.e., the number and type of resources are specifically given). In scheduling phase, the start times of the operations are determined using various algorithms. Given that the time (or the number of clock cycles) needed to execute each operation is known; the clock cycles in which each operation should execute are determined. In resource sharing/binding phase, the operations are assigned to available functional units. In addition, register allocation (or memory mapping) is done in this phase. After that, in interface synthesis, the required data and control signals are generated. In order to generate a system with the optimum values of design parameters, synthesis and optimization should be done concurrently. In many cases, this is the only possible way to meet the tight design constraints. Considering the complexity of today’s digital electronic systems, automating the synthesis process is very crucial. Various EDA vendors such as Mentor Graphics, Xilinx, Synopsis, and Cadence provide elegant and complex tools that perform digital system synthesis (Meeus, W., Beeck, K. V., Goedemé, T., Meel J., & Stroobandt D., 2012; Tosun, S., Mansouri, N., Arvas, E., Kandemir, M., Xie, Y., & Hung, L., 2005). HLS optimization techniques deliver high quality results for digital designers while enabling rapid exploration of performance, throughput, power, reliability, and area tradeoffs. HLS tools aim at helping industry improve quality of results, simplify design flows, establish interoperability, and improve embedded processing flows. Therefore, designers could significantly increase their productivity by using high level synthesis tools during the design process. On the other hand, many educators in the areas of computer engineering/science and electrical/ electronic engineering fields find it quite challenging to teach how to operate these complex tools, and then, use them in a one-semester course. The instructor sometimes needs to spend a lot of time to teach the details of complex tools instead of focusing on and teaching fundamental concepts in class. Also, as the source codes of those tools are not provided, it is impossible to modify the tools to meet the demands of the course being taught. In addition, these tools may not be very suitable to expose the intermediate steps during the synthesis process. They typically target at the best design practices. Hence, showing the examples of different possible implementations may not be possible. As a result, even though the elegant and complex electronic design tools are good at generating the best design alternatives for the industrial applications, they may not be the best for teaching purposes. Considering the above-mentioned facts, the authors present an educational Electronic Design Automation tool to help undergraduate and graduate students better understand and implement fundamental concepts in digital design and synthesis courses. The tool receives an intermediate format that represents the system behavior and a set of constraints as input; and generates the representation of the circuit using 266

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the functional units available in a component library as output. Data Flow Graph (DFG) is used as the intermediate format for input. A DFG consists of vertices and edges where vertices represent operations and edges represent dependencies between the operations. The area and timing constraints are considered during the implementation. If the final circuit is not possible with given constraints, the tool warns the user. The functional units available in the component library are Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), multiplier, adder, subtracter, comparator, and divider. The tool generates its final output by utilizing various digital synthesis algorithms that perform three main synthesis tasks, namely resource allocation, operation scheduling, and resource binding/sharing. The algorithms implemented in the tool in order to perform synthesis include ASAP (As Soon As Possible), ALAP (As Late as Possible), Hu’s Algorithm, List Scheduling Algorithms (LIST_L and LIST_R), FDS (Force Directed Scheduling), Dijkstra, and Left Edge Algorithm as presented in (Micheli, 1994) as well as reliability algorithms presented in (Nimer, & Koc, 2013).

RELATED WORK Most HLS tools provide a resourceful path from algorithmic design concepts to actual circuits and enable effective design and test bench generation to increase simulation productivity. Some tools include advanced timing and device-specific optimizations for a broad range of FPGA families from Actel, Altera, Lattice, and Xilinx. This includes optimized mapping to hardware multipliers, memories, shift registers and other advanced hardware resources in today’s FPGA devices. In line with Moore’s Law stating that an increasing number of functionality can be placed on a single chip (Gajski, D. D., Dutt, N. D., Wu, C. H., & Lin, Y. L., 1992), computational power and complexity of computing systems rapidly increased in recent years. As a result, various EDA tools performing digital system synthesis are currently available in the market (Feldbusch, & Kumar, 1991). Majority of those tools are complex electronic design automation tools which have sub-modules for HLS (Meeus, W., Beeck, K. V., Goedemé, T., Meel J., & Stroobandt D., 2012; Tosun, S., Mansouri, N., Arvas, E., Kandemir, M., Xie, Y., & Hung, L., 2005). Using high level synthesis before final circuit realization has become vital and advantageous in the area of electronic design (Duranton, M., Yehia, S., De Sutter, B., De Bosschere, K., Cohen, A., Falsafi, B., Gaydadjiev, G., Katevenis, M., Maebe, J., Munk, H., Navarro, N., Ramirez, A., Temam, O., & Valero, M., 2009). As an HLS tool raises the abstraction level of integrated systems, designing and handling the increasing complexity of integrated systems can be realized easily (Sarkar, S., Dabral, S., Tiwari, PK., & Mitra, RS., 2009). Guzel et al. (2016) use HLS for rapid design of video processing pipes and compare their results with Vivado HLS. 267

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Most commonly used synthesis tools in the market include GAUT: Génération Automatic d’Unité de Traitement (Philippe, 2010), Ugh: User Guided High Level Synthesis (Augé, & Pétrot, 2008), Synphony, AutoPilot, FalconML, PowerOpt, PICO ExpressExtrem, High2, and RapidPath. These tools are fairly complicated and require extra time for students to learn and utilize them in digital system design and optimization courses. Even though the evaluation of commercial HLS tools can be found in the literature, there is still no solid knowledge base about learning curve of HLS tools or amount of effort to write source code in any hardware description language (Palkovic, M., Cappelle, H., Glassee, M., Bougard, B., & Van der Perre, L., 2009; Meeus, W., Beeck, K. V., Goedemé, T., Meel J., & Stroobandt D., 2012). Having limited knowledge makes the decision of using HLS tool harder for students and educators (Meeus, W., Beeck, K. V., Goedemé, T., Meel J., & Stroobandt D., 2012). By utilizing today’s advanced high-level synthesis tools, design teams can rapidly create a pre-silicon prototype of their design and start high-performance algorithm validation and embedded software development much earlier in the design cycle. Some of the HLS tools can complement C/C++ implementation, verification and embedded software development flows by making C-model creation a natural byproduct of the development flow. For instance, Synphony HLS can generate fixed-point ANSI-C models that can be used in a variety of system simulation environments and virtual prototypes including Synopsys’ Virtual Prototyping solution, System Studio, VCS and SystemC flows. Synphony HLS also enables C-based verification and validation to start far earlier in the design cycle. Verification models are another important deliverables of HLS tools. The Synphony C Compiler produces verification models at various levels in HLS flow, including PV (Programmer’s view) and PVT (Programmer’s view + timing) and TLM wrappers for the RTL to be confirmed in the original C/C++ model. This delivers a much more automated and reliable verification flow that eliminates important risk, effort, and time associated with re-coding and re-verification done in traditional flows. Majority of the commercial HLS tools provide verification models. Berkeley Design Technology Inc. (BDTI) launched the BDTI High-Level Synthesis Tool Certification Program™ to evaluate HLS tools for Field Programmable Gates Arrays (FPGAs) in 2009. BDTI’s evaluation tool realizes its ranking by using two example applications: a video motion analysis application and a wireless receiver. BDTI’s tool ranks HLS tools on a number of quantitative and qualitative metrics by looking at the result of their example analysis. One of the following scores is assigned by BDTI in a qualitative manner: excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor. From their analysis, it is clear that resource utilization levels of circuit design can be increased drastically by using HLS tools.

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EDA tools accept inputs and generate outputs in various forms. For example, FalconML by Axilica Limited accepts UML, SystemC as input and produces synthesizable RTL output in the form of VHDL and Verilog (Madariaga, A., Jimenez, J., Martín, J.L., Bidarte, U., & Zuloaga, A., 2010). AutoPilot by AutoESL Design Technology accepts C/C++/SystemC as input and produces synthesizable RTL output in the form of Verilog, SystemC, and VHDL (AutoPilot Datasheet. AutoESL Design Technologies, Inc. 2013). AutoESL has also support for floating-point formats with Floating Point Unit mapping and fixed-point signed and unsigned data types can be defined by using C++ or SystemC languages (AutoPilot Datasheet. AutoESL Design Technologies, Inc. 2013). We can categorize the available HLS tools in the market in two groups: commercial ones and open source tools. Both types accept high level languages or hardware description languages which represent the behavioral description of a given circuit as input and they produce structural representation of the given circuit at Register Transfer Level (RTL). Nane, R. et al. (2016) present a survey of FPGA HLS tools. They compare several tools (commercial and academic) using a common set of C benchmarks to perform an in-depth evaluation for performance and the use of resources. Due to complex structures of HLS tools, open source alternatives are not updated, and unfortunately, most of them are not well-maintained. After reliability became one of the most important design optimization metrics in recent years, researchers proposed several hardware and software based solutions at different abstraction levels in order to improve the reliability of next generation electronic systems (Wattanapongsakorn, & Levitan, 2004; Nicolaidis, 2005). Nimer and Koc (2013) propose a reliability improvement techniques based on task recomputation. Their approach utilizes idle time frames of computational resources in order to iteratively recompute tasks to increase reliability of overall design without incurring any additional execution latency, area, or memory space. Tambara et al. (2017) investigate the trade-offs of various HLS-based designs in terms of reliability, resource utilization, and performance by analyzing their behavior under soft errors. In addition, Sayadi et al., (2014) propose a technique to correct a value whenever an error is detected without any area overhead or hardware modification in scratchpad memories.

HIGH LEVEL SYNTHESIS High Level Synthesis can be described as the process of translating the behavioral description into a structural implementation that consists of a set of connected components called datapath and controller (Marzouki, M., Castro Alves, V., & Antunes, A.R., 1995). In other words, HLS generates register-transfer level designs 269

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from behavioral specifications in an automatic manner (Parker, A. C., Tirat-Gefen, Y., & Wadekar,S. A., 2007). Digital system synthesis starts at the system level and continues downwards to the register transfer level, logic level, and finally, circuit level. HLS fills the gap between the high level behavioral specification of a digital circuit and its structure (Walker, & Camposano, 1991). The main advantage of HLS process is that it allows designers to describe the system using a behavioral description rather than a structural description (Fingeroff, 2010). This makes the job of the designer easier since behavioral descriptions are shorter and easier to understand (Martens & Gielen, 2008). However, the lack of structural detail makes the synthesis task more difficult. Obviously, there is a tradeoff between time, cost, and area. The design cycle may be shortened with HLS, but the design produced may be slower and use more hardware than one produced by a skilled human designer (Micheli, 1994). An HLS tool aims at accomplishing two main goals: the first one is creating register transfer level design and the second one is optimizing it in terms of the given design metrics (Coussy, P., Gajski, D. D., Meredith, M., & Takach, A., 2009) such as performance (execution time), area, memory space consumption, and reliability. In order to achieve these two main goals, the tool needs to perform three main tasks, namely, resource allocation, operation scheduling, and resource binding/sharing (Chen, C. T., & Kucukcakar, K., 2011). Depending on the given design problem and the constraints, these tasks can be executed one after another in the given order or concurrently (Chen & Kucukcakar, 1997). In addition, if partial binding information is given, the designer needs to consider it during the scheduling phase. The block diagram illustrating the main steps in digital system synthesis process is shown in Figure 1. First, the behavioral description of the target digital systems is converted to an intermediate representation using a compiler (Corre, G., Senn, E., Julien, N., & Martin, E., 2004). This intermediate representation (i.e., Data Flow Graph in our case) is given to the tool as an input along with design constraints (Ellervee, Ivask, & Kruus, 2006). The constraints currently considered by our tool include performance, area, memory space consumption, power/energy utilization, and reliability. Our tool also uses a component library while generating RTL realization of the final digital system. It allows the execution of an operation using multiple resources (e.g., an addition operation can be performed by an adder or ALU). After performing the main HLS tasks, the tool may generate a netlist representation of the digital circuit and checks if the given design constraints are satisfied (Elliott, 1999). If not, the tool does some optimizations for the constraints that are not satisfied and performs the synthesis task again. After finding the desired circuit implementation, the tool outputs the netlist representation of the RTL design and displays the output with its GUI. Now, let us discuss the details of the main HLS tasks. 270

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Figure 1. Block Diagram illustrating the main steps in High Level Synthesis

Resource Allocation Resource allocation can be defined as determining the number and type of resources utilized in the final circuit implementation. These resources include functional units such as adders and multipliers, storage units such as registers, and steering logic components such as multiplexers and buses. The goal of this phase is to optimize the amount of hardware needed. In order to optimize overall hardware, our tool 271

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performs allocation for all three kinds of resources concurrently. In cases where resource allocation information is given partially or fully as a constraint, our tool considers this in the process and generates the final circuit accordingly.

Operation Scheduling Execution start times of the operations are determined in the scheduling phase (Koc, H., Tosun, S., Ozturk, O., & Kandemir, M., 2006). Given the execution latency (the number of clock cycles needed to execute an operation) and the start time, each operation is mapped to a control step (clock cycle) in which it is executed in the final circuit. The goal of scheduling phase is to optimize the number of control steps needed to complete the desired function while satisfying the given design constraints on hardware resources and execution time. Therefore, scheduling affects both performance and area of the final circuit (Grimal, & Martin, 1994). Our tool is capable of carrying out this synthesis phase for various scheduling problems given below.

Unconstrained Scheduling Problem An unconstrained scheduling problem tries to find the minimum (optimum) value for the execution latency (Wong, Potkonjak, & Dey, 2004) (i.e., the minimum number of clock cycles to perform all the operations in a given behavioral description). Note that the execution latency of the entire circuit is equal to the sum of the execution delays of the operations in the longest path from source vertex to sink vertex in a given DFG (Varma, Vishakantaiah, & Abraham, 1993). This longest path is called as critical path in the graph. As there is no design constraint given, unconstrained scheduling gives the lower bounds on execution latency and the start times of the operations. Our tool implements As-Soon-As-Possible (ASAP) scheduling algorithm to solve an unconstrained scheduling problem. ASAP algorithm assumes that a dedicated resource is available for each operation in DFG and the algorithm tries to schedule the operations at the earliest control steps. IN resource dominated circuits, the cost of functional resources is higher compared to the cost of steering logic, registers, and control circuitry. ASAP is classified as the most basic unconstraint scheduling algorithm. The start times determined by ASAP algorithm for each operation is the smallest one allowed by the operation dependencies. ASAP algorithm can be used to derive lower bounds on execution latency since the minimum latency of a schedule under some constraints is at least as large as the latency computed by unconstraint scheduling (Micheli, 1994). The outcome of this algorithm is utilized in some other scheduling algorithms to determine the lower bound on scheduling. 272

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Time-Constrained Scheduling Problem In a case where an upper limit on the execution latency is given as a time constraint, the scheduling problem turns into a time-constrained scheduling problem (Marzouki, M., Castro Alves, V., & Antunes, A.R., 1995). It is also called as fixed-control-step approach (Teich, 2012) and requires the completion of all operations within the given time frame. The first algorithm our tool implements to solve time-constrained scheduling problem is As-Late-As-Possible (ALAP) scheduling algorithm. This algorithm, as its name suggests, schedules the operations as late as possible. In other words, it determines the latest start time of each operation for a given time constraint (Alvarez, A.M., Reyneri, L.M., & Valle, F.J.P., 2006). The given time constraint must satisfy a lower bound on the execution latency. This lower bound can be found by executing ASAP algorithm. If a schedule is not possible with the given constraint, our tool warns the user. Like ASAP algorithm, ALAP achieves the minimum execution latency assuming that unlimited resources are available. The second algorithm our tool implements to solve time-constrained problem is List Scheduling-Resource (List-R) algorithm (Aslan, S., Oruklu, E., & Saniie, J., 2012). The main difference between ALAP and List-R is the resource constraint (i.e., ALAP assumes that unlimited number of resources are available while List-R tries to meet the timing constraint with the given resources). List-R algorithm schedules operations based on their priorities. The algorithm realizes that by using heuristic urgency measures. List-R labels each vertex in DFG with its longest distance to sink vertex and orders the vertices in decreasing order. The vertex that has the longest path to the sink vertex (highest weight) must be scheduled first.

Resource-Constrained Scheduling Problem If there is a resource constraint over unconstrained-scheduling problem in order to limit the circuit area, then the problem becomes a resource-constrained scheduling problem. List Scheduling Algorithm under Latency Constraint (List-L) is implemented to find the minimum latency under given resource constraints. The algorithm tries to achieve the minimum latency with the available resources (Fuhrman, 1991). As the algorithm is a heuristic algorithm, the computed schedule may not have the minimum latency; however, it can deal with multiple operation types and multiplecycle operation delays.

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Time and Resource-Constrained Scheduling Problem When there is a limit on both design constraints (time and resource constraints), the problem becomes a time and resource-constrained scheduling problem. Our tool uses Force-Directed Scheduling (FDS) algorithm in order to solve this scheduling problem. The purpose of FDS is to minimize the total number of functional units that are needed to implement the final circuit. FDS achieves its goal by spreading out operations of the same type over all available control steps unvaryingly (Sanguinetti, & Zhang, 2010). This unvarying distribution makes sure that functional units allocated to perform operations in one control step are used efficiently in all control steps. Making such allocation of resources leads to a high resource-utilization rate.

Resource Binding/Sharing After determining the start times of operations in scheduling phase, operations are mapped to the functional units in binding phase of synthesis. When a functional unit executes different operations in different control steps, it is said that the resource is shared by multiple operations. In traditional binding, HLS assigns appropriate datapath component to the relevant operation (Doncev, G., Leeser, M., & Tarafdar, S., 1998). For instance, adders are assigned to addition operations. In our tool, we have more complicated yet optimized binding method. Our tool implements its optimized binding by using its component library. Basically, during the scheduling phase, it tries more than one resource (that can perform the same operation) from the library and selects the best fitted one for the scheduling requirements. Therefore, it is able to bind the most optimum resources to the operations by utilizing additional methods at the scheduling step. Our tool uses well-known Left-Edge algorithm for resource binding/sharing. As the first step, the algorithm sorts the time intervals based on their left edges. Then, the algorithm picks one color at a control step and assigns as many intervals as possible to the selected color by looking a list of intervals in ascending order of the left edge values before increasing the color counter. In our case, a time interval represents the execution latency of an operation and a color represents one resource (Makhijani, & Meier, 1994). The operations that have the same color are executed by the same resource. Note that, binding of operations may vary based on the given design properties such as chaining and multi-cycling. In addition, the Left-Edge algorithm is used for register binding/sharing as well in order to optimize the memory space consumption (i.e., finding the minimum number of registers in the final design). Instead of assigning each variable to a

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register which may be very costly in terms of memory space consumption, the tool performs life-time analysis of the variables (internal variables and circuit inputs/ outputs) for the system and creates an interval graph. Each interval in the graph represents the life-time of a variable. Then, non-overlapping intervals are colored using minimum number of colors, each color representing a register, in a similar way explained in the previous paragraph for functional resources.

TOOL WORK FLOW AND UTILITIES USED High Level View of the Tool The tool receives two main inputs: the intermediate format representing the circuit behavior (i.e., DFG in our case) and a set of design constraints. DFG can be entered to the tool either by using its GUI as nodes and edges or by loading from an existing XML or text file. As detailed in the next section, a DFG consists of vertices (each representing an operation) and directed edges (each representing a data dependence). If there are any design constraints, they need to be made available to the tool before running any algorithm. Possible design constraints can be area, latency, memory space consumption, and reliability of the system. When the behavioral description of the design is entered using a text file, an error-check algorithm runs to check whether the desired DFG has any logical error during the compilation of the source code. Also, when the user chooses to enter the DFG using GUI, the tool consistently checks for improper actions. In both cases, if there is an error, the user is warned; otherwise, the input is converted to a DFG structure and is displayed on the screen. Then, it is saved into the corresponding XML file. The design constraints are entered into the system using dialog boxes. When user selects any individual synthesis algorithm from the menu options to see its result, DFG is created and loaded into memory from XML file in order to run the desired algorithm. User can run any algorithm which meets the given design constraints. In addition, the user may let the tool select the algorithms that give the optimum results in terms of design metrics. When the second option is selected, the tool runs allocation module, scheduling module, and resource sharing/binding module. Finally, the representation of the final circuit is displayed on the screen as two main components, namely data path and control unit which are communicating through control signals. The resources (functional units, memory and steering logic components) in the component library are used to generate the data path. Note that, the user can see the output of each phase in the design process during the execution.

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Data Flow Graph The behavioral description of a circuit is usually given in a sequential or procedural language similar to C or VHDL (Cong, J., Liu, B., Neuendorffer, S., Noguera, J., Vissers, K., & Zhang, Z., 2011). As an example, the behavioral description of Differential Equation Solver (which tries to numerically solve the differential equation, y’’ + 3xy’ + 3y = 0) is given in Figure 2. Then, this behavioral description is converted to an intermediate format such as Data Flow Graph (DFG). DFG is a directed acyclic graph, Gs(V, E), which consists of two sets of components, namely, vertices and edges. Each vertex node, V = {vi; i = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n} represents an independent arithmetic and logical operation. The intercommunication and dependence between tasks are denoted by edges, E = {(vi, vj); i, j = 0, 1, …, n}. Figure 3 shows the corresponding DFG of the behavioral circuit description given in Figure 2. An operation can start executing only after all its predecessors complete Figure 2. Behavioral description of Differential Equation Solver

Figure 3. DFG representation of Differential Equation Solver

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their executions. That is, the activity of each vertex in the chain depends on the input of the previous vertices. Therefore, there are precedence rules between the vertices. For example, operation 3 cannot start executing before operations 1 and 2 finish their executions. The result of a predecessor operation is passed to its successors upon completion. In addition, a DFG has two special vertices: source and sink. These nodes do not represent any operation, but are used as synchronization points. Now let us look at the behavioral description given in Figure 2. The first three statements make assignments to the variables (x1, u1, and y1) and the last three statements (the last line of the while loop) assign the values to other variables (x, y, u) to pass those values into the next iteration of the loop. When converting the behavioral information into a DFG, operations are represented by vertices and dependences are represented by edges. For example, the addition operation in the first statement (x1:= x + dx;) is represented by operation 10 in the DFG; the operations in the second statement (–, *, *, *, –, *, * (from left to right)) are represented by the vertices 4, 1, 3, 2, 5, 6, 7, respectively. As the operations with parentheses have higher precedence than the ones outside, operation 5 needs to execute after operations 6 and 7; hence, there is an edge from operation 7 to operation 5. It is worth to mention here that a different DFG representing the same circuit behavior may also be generated. Please note that DFG does not carry the external input and output information which is needed in the register binding phase. For example, operation 6 may perform (3*y), (y*dx) or (3*dx); and this information is not available in DFG which is essential for register binding. The user also provides this information to the tool.

Component Library Component library is another module in the tool. In this module, we implement each electronic component as a resource. The library currently has six functional units (adder, subtractor, multiplier, divider, comparator, and ALU), various multiplexers with different number of inputs, and registers. There are two implementations/types for each functional unit with different specifications (e.g., there are two types of ALU with different area, execution delay, etc.). In the component library, each resource has the following properties: execution delay, area, energy/power consumption, memory space consumption, and reliability as shown in Figure 4. During the synthesis process, the tool can use each component of the same type to see its effect in the final circuit. For instance, it may use different types of adders or ALU at run time to identify the most efficient solution in synthesis process. The tool allows the execution of an operation using multiple resources (e.g., an addition operation can be performed by an adder or an ALU). Another important characteristic of the tool is that the user can create new components and edit them. These new components

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Figure 4. Component Library with various resources

are saved in the corresponding XML file. However, the user is not allowed to modify the predefined components. When an operation is assigned to a functional unit in the binding phase of synthesis, the properties of the functional unit are assigned to the operation. In order words, the execution delay, area, energy consumption, memory space consumption, and reliability of an operation is determined by the resource the operation is assigned to. As a result, these values are used when calculating the overall system performance.

Representing DFG in the Tool We create the data structure by utilizing XML (eXtendable Markup Language) in order to import DFG representation into our tool. This data structure allows us to read and write more than one DFG and synthesize them at run-time. Figure 5 shows a sample input of the tool representing DFG in Figure 3. There are 16 edges in the figure. As presented, each edge has two vertices, one ‘from’ vertex which represents source vertex and one ‘to’ vertex which represents destination vertex of the edge. In addition, our tool uses weight of an edge to represent the execution delay of its source vertex. The information for edge 1 (the edge between operations 0 and 1 in Figure 3) is shown in the figure along with the information for the corresponding operations.

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Figure 5. Sample input of the tool representing DFG in Figure 3

Graphical User Interface The GUI is specifically designed to be simple and straightforward so that an instructor does not need to spend much time to teach how to use the tool. This also makes the tool appealing and let the students focus more on fundamental concepts (rather than details of a complex EDA tool). The GUI has 4 main parts: top level menu, left tool panel, work panel and properties tool panel as shown in Figure 6. A user can create the nodes representing operations by selecting node option at the tool panel. When user clicks any location at the work panel, one node is created. The edges representing the dependences between operations are created by selecting two nodes, and then, clicking the edge option at the tool panel. User can also modify a previously created graph by adding a new node, deleting a previously created node, adding a new edge or deleting a previously created edge. The source and sink nodes are default nodes and user cannot delete or edit those nodes. Then, the graph is saved in an XML file inside project folder after error checking. The errors are displayed on the screen pointing out the faulty node or edge. Top level menu provides the opportunity for the user to run various simulations. Any specific algorithm can be executed independently even though it does not generate the most efficient result. This functionality helps students to compare the results of different algorithms. User can also debug the input source to identify the logical input errors which prevent the synthesis process. Debug and Run options 279

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Figure 6. Graphical User Interface of the tool displaying the DFG in Figure 3

are located under related menus. In addition, the results are displayed at the work panel visually and are saved into the project folder in various format such as XML, text, image, and pdf. This helps students to use the output in their reports. There are four main drop-down menus, namely, Allocation, Scheduling, Binding, and Data path. Each menu has the related algorithms. In addition to default ones, custom resources and operations can be added by using Resource and Operations menu which are located under Allocation. User can import any XML or text file by using load option which is located under File menu. User can edit the properties of the nodes by using Property Panel which is located on the right side of the tool. When a node is selected, the current properties of the node are displayed and user can modify the name, operation type, and resource of the node. Depending on the operation and resource type selected, the default values for execution delay, area, energy/power consumption, memory space consumption, and reliability are assigned to the node. These default values of the properties are updated with the actual values after the binding phase of synthesis. The actual values are used when determining the specification of the overall system. User can also see the properties of the selected node. Name of the node is displayed at the top of each vertex and the operation of a node is displayed inside the vertex. After creating a new project, the default XML data files are put under the project folder. A student can carry this folder to any other computer to run his project.

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Illustrative Example In this section, let us show how our tool performs synthesis with an illustrative example. Given the behavioral description of Differential Equation Solver in Figure 2, the DFG shown in Figure 6 can be entered using a text file, XML file, or GUI as explained earlier. With the load option, the user needs to be careful about resource and operation types. That is, if there is any custom resource or operation type, the tool generates an error message. If any custom resource or operation is needed, it needs to be created before compiling the source code. Custom resources and operations are added to the XML file (Component Library) shown in Figure 4. Then, the user runs the debug module to see if there are any logical errors with the input. If any error exists, the user is warned with an error message by a dialog box. After running the project, the input source is compiled and converted into DFG representation. Then, this DFG structure is saved into an XML file (as shown in Figure 5) in the project folder in order to use when executing various synthesis algorithms. This DFG is the input to the synthesis process. The DFG has multiplication, addition, subtraction, and comparison operations. Let us assume that, for the sake of simplicity, each operation takes one clock cycle; a multiplication operation is executed by multiplier; and, other operations are executed by ALU. Considering the fact that ASAP and ALAP algorithms are used by many scheduling algorithms as an intermediate step, let us run ALAP scheduling algorithm by selecting ALAP under Scheduling menu of the tool. Note that ASAP scheduling (which is an intermediate step in ALAP algorithm) is also displayed on the screen. The resulting schedule is shown in Figure 7. The tool schedules operations 1, 2, 6, 8, and 10 to clock cycle 1; operations 3, 7, 9, and 11 to clock cycle 2; operation 4 to clock cycle 3; and, operation 5 to clock cycle 4 for ASAP algorithm. On the other hand, it schedules operations 1 and 2 to clock cycle 1; operations 3 and 6 to clock cycle 2; operations 4, 7, 8, and 10 to clock cycle 3; and, operations 5, 9, and 11 to clock cycle 4 for ALAP algorithm. This scheduling information is saved into a file (XML or text file) under project folder. Now let us run the tool using the same DFG for LIST_L algorithm. Given the resource constraints, LIST_L algorithm finds the schedule with the minimum latency. Assume that two ALUs and two multipliers are available, each requires one clock cycle to execute. When we click Scheduling -> Resource-Constrained Scheduling -> List Scheduling Latency -> Run, using the drop-down menus, the schedule is displayed as shown in Figure 8. The number of available ALUs and multipliers can be updated using Quantity drop-down menu. After pressing the refresh button, the schedule is updated and shown in the work panel. As shown in the figure, the tool schedules operations 1, 2, and 10 to clock cycle 1; operations 3, 6, and 11 to clock

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Figure 7. ALAP Scheduling and its intermediate step ASAP scheduling

Figure 8. LIST_L Scheduling with two ALUs and two multipliers

cycle 2; operations 4, 7, and 8 to clock cycle 3; and, operations 5 and 9 to clock cycle 4 for LIST_L algorithm. The next step in synthesis is the binding phase. Our tool carries out binding in two steps: Functional Unit Binding and Register Binding. Left-edge algorithm is used for both. The functional unit binding can be carried out by clicking Binding 282

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-> Functional Unit Binding -> Run. This is shown in Figure 9. It is also possible to see the functional unit binding information as interval graph as shown in Figure 10. The operations colored with the same color are assigned to the same resource. As shown in both figures, operations 1, 3, and 7 are executed by Multiplier 1-01; operations 2, 6, and 8 are executed by Multiplier 1-02; operations 4, 5, 10, and 11 are executed by ALU 2-01; and, operation 9 is executed by ALU 2-02. Figure 9. Resource Binding along with scheduling information

Figure 10. Resource Binding information as interval graph

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The register binding can be carried out by clicking Binding -> Register Binding -> Run. Please note that the information regarding the external inputs and outputs is provided by the user. More specifically, the input variables of each operation should be given by the user. The output of register binding is shown in Figure 11. The signals z1, z3, and z5 are assigned to Register 1 (R1); z2, z4, and z6 are assigned to R2; u and z7 are assigned to R3; y is assigned to R4; and x is assigned to R5. The final circuit generated by the tool can be seen by clicking Datapath -> Run. This brings everything presented so far together. As shown in Figure 12, the circuit has two ALUs and two multipliers. The multiplexers are added to the circuit at the inputs of functional units and registers in order to select the correct input in each clock cycle. The control unit generates the control signals for the datapath components.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK In this work, we presented the details of an educational Electronic Design Automation tool that performs high level synthesis. The tool receives a data flow graph representing the behavior of the circuit as input and generates the final circuit using high-level components such as multiplier, ALU, register and multiplexer. The tool can used in Electrical and Computer Engineering fields in undergraduate or graduate digital system design, synthesis, and optimization courses. Its GUI is specifically designed to be simple and straightforward so that the students and instructor focus Figure 11. Register Binding

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Figure 12. Final circuit with datapath and control unit

on fundamental concepts in class rather than spending extra time to learn complex EDA tools. It also allows the students to experiment various design implementation options (not only the best one). As future work, we plan to expand the tool for task graphs and add some features to handle hardware/software co-synthesis. In addition, as the smart phones and tablet computers are widely used by college students, we plan to develop a tablet version (app) of our tool.

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About the Contributors

Purnendu Tripathi, an International Research Fellow (2009) of Open University Business School (OUBS) at Open University (UK), has a Ph.D in Management. At Arab Open University (AOU) Saudi Arabia, as a faculty member in Business Administration, he was faculty mentor, programme and course coordinator entrusted with the responsibility of training and development of the faculty members teaching in open and distance learning (ODL) environment, besides his own teaching and research in ODL. Currently, he is serving as one of the Editors-in-Chief of International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing (IJTEM). He has authored/edited five Teaching Case books on Innovations in Educational Marketing, Interactive Technology Environments, Technology Enhanced Learning, Transnational Learning & Technologically enabled Environments, and Technological Adaptability and Transnational Learning. His current research interests include Higher Education Management, Higher Education Marketing, and Academic Program Life Cycle (APLC). In his parent institution, IGNOU (India), he is Deputy Director, looking after academic management and student support services in open and distance learning. Siran Mukerji, a Jawahar Lal Nehru scholar for Doctoral studies in Human Resource Development, has Masters in Distance Education and Public Administration. She has been International Research Fellow of Open University Business School (2009), Open University (UK). At Arab Open University Saudi Arabia, she was a faculty member in Business Administration. She is one of the Editors-in-Chief of International Journal of Technology and Educational Marketing and Author/Editor of Teaching Case books on Innovations in Educational Marketing, Interactive Technology Environments, Technology Enhanced Learning, Transnational Learning & Technologically enabled Environments, and Technological Adaptability and Transnational Learning. She has contributed articles in standard national and international journals and presented papers in national and international conferences. Dr. Mukerji is a member of review committees for numerous international conferences

About the Contributors

and journals. Her research interests include Performance Management and HRM in Open and Distance Learning institutions. As Deputy Director in IGNOU (India), she is responsible for student recruitment and related support services management. *** Gilbert Ahamer, after having invented simulation games (as the one presented here, for training consensus building), embarked on real-life consensus building in international cooperation: Slovakia, Slovenia, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Vietnam - and he presently works in the largest European environmental project in Central Asia - fostering the political dialogue. Mireilla Bikanga Ada recently graduated from the University of the West of Scotland where she investigated whether using a mobile we application applications for feedback and assessment could enhance student motivation, engagement and communication in tertiary education. She is also a lecturer in Computing at Glasgow Clyde College. Sarah Godwin Brinson, Ed.D. is an Associate Professor for the Physical Therapist Assistant Program at Albany State University in Albany, Georgia. She currently serves as the Interim Assistant Vice President of Academic Affairs and the Chair of the Health Sciences Division. Dr. Brinson has experience in physical therapy practice, health care management, adult and career education, and online learning. Her research interests include nontraditional learners, educational program retention, and the implementation of online learning in health care career programs. Matt Fairholm is Professor of Public Administration with a joint appointment in the Department of Political Science and the W. O. Farber Center for Civic Leadership at The University of South Dakota. His academic and professional interests focus on public administration, leadership theory and practice, and constitutional governance. He has received a number of teaching and research awards. Prior to coming to USD, Dr. Fairholm was the Director of Leadership Studies and Development at the Center for Excellence in Municipal Management (currently the Center for Excellence in Public Leadership) and Instructor of Public Administration at The George Washington University, where he continues to serve as a Senior Fellow. His teaching and training experience spans the public, private, non-profit, and university settings and has trained and consulted in a number of organizations. Dr. Fairholm

335

About the Contributors

worked in the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), entering the federal service as a Presidential Management Intern. He received his Ph.D. in Public Administration from The George Washington University, with an emphasis in leadership theory and practice. He received both his B.A. and M.A. in Public Policy from Brigham Young University. His published articles appear in several public administration and leadership journals and is the author, with his father, of the book Understanding Leadership Perspectives: Theoretical and Practical Applications (Springer 2009). He most recently wrote Putting Your Values to Work: Becoming the Leader Others Want to Follow (Praeger 2013). Hakduran Koc is currently chair and associate professor of Computer Engineering at University of Houston - Clear Lake. After receiving his B.S. degree in Electronics Engineering from Ankara University, he worked in the industry for two years. Then, he joined Syracuse University where he received his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Computer Engineering. During his graduate study, Dr. Koc was at The Pennsylvania State University as visiting scholar. His research and teaching are in the areas of digital design, embedded systems, and computer architecture. He is the recipient of several teaching and leadership awards including UHCL Piper Nominee, IEEE Outstanding Student Branch Counselor Award and IEEE MGA Outstanding Small Section Award. Pamela A. Lemoine has a doctorate in Educational Leadership from the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, a Master’s Degree in Educational Technology, and a Bachelor’s Degree in English, and teaches in the doctoral program at Columbus State University in Columbus, Georgia. Prior to 2014 she was a classroom teacher, media specialist, assistant principal and principal, Supervisor of Elementary and Middle Schools, and Director of Federal Programs in Louisiana, as well with Department of Defense Schools in Okinawa, Japan, Germany, and Canada. Her primary interests educational technology and student achievement with particular emphasis on educational leadership. Seyit Ozturk received his B.S. degree in the Department of Computer Engineering at Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey in 2004. After working in the educational field as software developer and administrator, he joined University of Houston - Clear Lake, Houston, TX, USA where he is currently pursuing his M.S. degree in Computer Engineering Program. His research interests include high level synthesis, STEM education and embedded systems.

336

About the Contributors

Shilohu Rao carries over 19 years of experience in Governance, IT and Telecom. Currently working as General Manager at National e-Governance Division (NeGD)- Digital India, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Government of India, he is heading the projects on Learning Management and Knowledge Management. Shilohu has been recognised among top 50 Knowledge Management Professionals by World Educational Congress. Michael D. Richardson is Professor of Educational Leadership at Columbus State University. He previously held faculty and administrative appointments at Western Kentucky University, Clemson University, Georgia Southern University, Mercer University and Southeastern Louisiana University. He completed a B.S. and M.A. in Education at Tennessee Technological University and was awarded the Ed.D. in Educational Administration from the University of Tennessee. Dr. Richardson served as Founding Editor of the Journal of School Leadership an internationally refereed journal of educational leadership and as Editor of The Journal of At-Risk Issues. He has authored or edited 17 books, published more than 135 articles in professional journals, authored more than 45 book chapters and made more than 250 presentations to state, regional, national and international professional organizations. He has chaired more than ninety dissertations and actively collaborates in conducting research and writing for publication. His current research areas are organizational theory, resiliency of leaders, and phenomenology. Shveta Sahal is Project Manager of the PMU of the Capacity Building Team, Digital India Corporation and Project Management with Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, India LLP. She has more than 16 years of experience in Governance and Capacity Building both at the Federal and Provincial levels. She is a Post Graduate in Management. She is a freelance writer who has contributed towards several articles with blogging as one of her cherished passions. Wendy M. Wilson, Ed.D. is the executive director of Albany State University’s Cordele Center. She has dedicated much of her professional career to higher education administration, strategic communications and human resource management. Prior to Dr. Wilson’s executive director appointment, she served as special assistant to presidents at both Albany State University and former Darton State College, Albany, Georgia. Wilson is noted in the Albany community as the host of Realizing Potential, a television show highlighting the accomplishments of Albany State alumni and community leadership. Wilson’s research interests include the retention and graduation of first generation students.

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338

Index

A academic 60, 64, 101, 115, 120-121, 147, 149, 153, 183, 189, 227, 269 Assessment feedback 119-120, 122-128, 130-132, 138 Automation 264-267, 284

B badges 183-190 behavioral 32, 37, 256, 265, 270, 272, 275-277, 281 bipolar 248, 251 BYOD 120, 131

C Capacity Building 206-207, 217-218, 221-222 Cheating 100, 148 Competency-based 184, 190, 192, 205, 208 Consensus Building 4-5, 8 Content Management Systems 60, 68-69, 71

D Data Flow Graph 267, 270, 276, 284 Didactics 1, 7-8, 18, 146-147, 153 Digital India 205-209, 218, 222, 224-225 digital learning 170, 188-189, 192 disruptive innovation 189 dissemination 81, 89, 138, 215 Drupal 59-60, 68-71, 74-76, 78, 89

dynamics 1, 7-8, 10, 32, 92-95, 107, 115, 146, 151, 170-172, 174-176

E economic 33-34, 60, 183, 186, 188, 191, 233, 256 Education Technologies 246 Educational Games 60, 89 Educational Tool 89, 188, 264 e-Governance 205-208, 216-217, 221-222, 224-225 E-learning 60, 68, 184, 187-192, 209, 222, 224 Electronic Design Automation 264-267, 284 eTextbook 60-62, 64 European 152, 187, 247-248

F fact-based 114, 147, 168 feedback 93-94, 105-107, 114-115, 119120, 122-132, 134, 138, 167, 170, 220, 224 for-profit 184, 192

G Game-Based Learning 1, 7, 18, 92 Gaming 16, 18, 23, 184 Global Governance of Science 246-247, 257, 260-261

Index

global higher education 182, 190-191, 226-228, 230 Google Forms 59, 61, 79-84, 89

Mobile web 120, 123, 126, 131, 137-139 multimedia 89, 165 MyFeedBack 119-135, 137-139

H

N

High Level Synthesis 265-269, 271, 284

National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) 207 Negotiation Game 1, 8, 92 Non-Governmental Character (INGOs) 246, 256 non-programmers 60, 68

I Instruction 120-121, 192, 226-231, 234 integrated 46, 61, 138, 188, 224, 265, 267 interdisciplinary 1, 3, 8, 18, 49, 146 Intergovernmental Nature (IIGOs) 246, 256 International Cooperation 249, 253

O Operation Scheduling 265, 267, 270, 272

L

P

Leadership 43-44, 46-47, 49, 216, 223, 248 learning design 1, 15, 119-120, 127, 138139 Learning Management System (LMS) 205-206, 222 learning profiles 2 Learning theories 119, 121-122, 127, 138 Learningapps 59, 61, 83-87, 89 Life Long Learning 62 literature 1, 19-20, 24, 33, 42, 121-122, 124, 129, 135, 153, 166-167, 169, 268

pedagogy 1, 119-121, 125, 127, 138, 231 platforms 59-60, 113-114, 187, 233-234 post-secondary 183, 187, 191, 228 Productivity 30-33, 35, 42, 49, 228, 266-267

M Management 30-33, 35-37, 39, 41-50, 59-60, 68-69, 71, 96, 150, 166, 192, 205-206, 218, 220-222, 224-225, 246, 248-249, 255-260 Management of Science 246, 248-249, 255-260 marketing 182-183, 185, 190-191, 226, 232-233 Micro-credentials 182-185, 188-192 Mobile app 119-120, 126 Mobile learning design 119-120, 127, 138-139 Mobile platform 222 Mobile seamless learning 127

R Recruiting 226 Register Binding 274, 277, 282, 284 representation 19, 32, 264, 266, 269-270, 275-276, 278, 281 Resource Binding 267, 270, 274, 283 Rewards 37, 39, 42, 92, 98, 100-101, 107, 176, 183

S self-adaptive 2, 8 social dynamics 7-8, 10, 92-93, 146, 151, 170-172, 176 Social Media 226-230, 232, 234 Spiritual Management 33, 36-37, 39, 41, 43-48, 50 statistics 61, 78, 81, 96, 107 Surfing Global Change 1, 8, 92, 111, 146147, 170, 173-174 Sustainable Education 88

339

Index

T

U

theories 4, 35, 38, 50, 119, 121-123, 125127, 138-139, 174, 249 Training 5, 14, 30-33, 35-36, 38-39, 41-50, 59-60, 62, 83, 146, 152, 175, 184-185, 187, 190, 205-206, 208-209, 211-212, 215-218, 220, 222, 224-225 turbo principle 1, 6-8

Use my own device 119-120, 123, 131

340

V Virtual Learning 123