Ecology And Sustainable Development: educational-methodological manual 9786010436923

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AL-FARABI KAZAKH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

K.D. Abubakirova A.K. Tanybayeva A.A. Rysmagambetova

ECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Educational-methodological manual

Almaty «Qazaq University» 2018

UDK 502/504 BBK 20.18 А 18 Recommended for publication Academic Council of the Faculty of Geography and Environmental Sciences Al-Farabi Kazakh National University (Protocol №7 dated 08.06.2018) Reviewers: Candidate of Chemical Sciences, Assos. Pr. Minzhanova Guldana Candidate of Biological Sciences, Assos. Pr. Erubayeva Gulzhan

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Abubakirova K.D. Ecology And Sustainable Development: educational-methodological manual / K.D. Abubakirova, A.K. Tanybayeva, A.A. Rysmagambetova. – Almaty: Qazaq University, 2018. – 215 p. ISBN 978-601-04-3692-3 The educational-methodical textbook is developed in accordance with the standard program of the discipline “Ecology and sustainable development”. The proposed training textbook contains theoretical material on the basics of general, applied ecology and sustainable development, control questions, glossary, test questions, methodological guidelines for performing independent work of students. The textbook is recommended for classroom and extracurricular work of full-time and distance-learning students in all specialties and areas of bachelor’s training, undergraduates and university professors interested in environmental issues and sustainable development can use it. Published in authorial release.

UDK 502/504 BBK 20.18 ISBN 978-601-04-3692-3

© Abubakirova K.D., Tanybayeva A.K., Rysmagambetova A.A. 2018 © Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 2018

Сontents

List of abbreviations and notation..............................................4 FOREWORD................................................................................5 Chapter 1. Ecology and the problems of modern civilization................................................8 Chapter 2. Autecology – the ecology of organisms....................18 Chapter 3. Demecology – Ecology of Populations.....................26 Chapter 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit of the biosphere..................................................34 Chapter 5. Biosphere and its sustainability.................................44 Chapter 6. The concept of living substance................................53 Chapter 7. Global biogeochemical cycles...................................61 Chapter 8. Anthropogenic effects as a geological and geochemical factor of the biosphere evolution.........................................70 Chapter 9. Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development..........................................96 Chapter 10. Environmental principles of Sustainable Development......................................104 Chapter 11. Economic aspects of Sustainable Development..........................................113 Chapter 12. Global Energy-Environmental Strategy for Sustainable Development of the ХХI century.....................................................122 Chapter 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan.............................................129 Chapter 14. Social aspects of Sustainable Development..........................................139 Chapter 15. Global partnership in  Sustainable Development..........................................147 TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFENITIONS...............................152 Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items.............................................................168 The keys for test items..................................................................211 REFERENCE................................................................................213

List of abbreviations and notation CSR EIA GDP HDI ISD ISO MAE MAR MPEL PRTRs SD TLV UNEP USAID WTO

Corporate social responsibility Environmental Impact Assessment Gross domestic product Human Development Index Index of Sustainable Development The International Organization for Standardization Maximum allowable emission Maximum Allowable Reset Maximum Permissible Exposure Levels Pollutant release and transfer registers Sustainable Development The threshold limit value United Nations Environment Programme United States Agency for International Development The World Trade Organization

Сontents

Foreword

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he growth in the scale of production activity led to an increase in the negative impact of man on nature as his environment, and this, in turn, jeopardized his life and health, the interests of present and future generations of people. Increasing population pressure in the world and technological advancement has severally affected all the environmental parameters and human being are facing the consequences now. At present, the scale of the impact on nature began to exceed its recovery potential. The volume of pollutants in air, water and soil is continuously increasing. The environment is irreversibly and dangerously changing. Perfection of ecological education, formation of ecological outlook among students, obtaining of deep system knowledge and ideas about the basics of ecology and sustainable development of society and nature, strengthening and development of information space and resource support of all links and branches of continuing education is topical. The demand for a new ideology is incomparably more difficult than the tasks of protecting the environment; they are not limited to reducing the flow of contaminants. The complex of ecological knowledge should help future specialists organize human activity

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Foreword

in the conditions of a strict ecological imperative. Ecology and sustainable development is methodology to understand causes and effects of all forces operating and affecting the surroundings directly subject embracing wide variety of topics and study areas to address the upcoming environmental hazards threatening the very existence of human being. The implementation of the social order of the society in the educational system presupposes the creation and implementation of textbooks, teaching aids and educational and methodological complexes of a new generation. In the light of the above, the inclusion in the program of the discipline «Ecology and sustainable development» such topics as: green economy and sustainable development; renewable energy sources; water – a strategic resource of the 21st century, water resources management; eco-power engineering; the global energyecological strategy of sustainable development of the 21st century is indisputable, relevant. The textbook is developed in accordance with the content of the State Educational Establishment of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the standard program of the discipline «Ecology and sustainable development». The proposed training textbook contains lectures, test questions, test tasks, a glossary, and a list of recommended literature. The informative nature of the glossary accompanying each lecture will help to activate the independent work of the student. In developing this training textbook, the authors set the task not only to reflect the principles of sustainable development, but also to reflect the world trends in the concept of sustainable development, to highlight the problems and challenges facing the world community in the light of the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals. This book has been written with deep concern to fulfill the needs of Kazakhstan students, teachers and other readers. This book comprises of 15 Chapters, which present a comprehensive and compact treatment of both theoretical and applied aspects of environmental science. The textbook was developed by the authors on the basis of attracting a large volume of educational literature, scientific and technical information on the formation and development of the

Foreword

concept of sustainable development in Kazakhstan, contains an author’s interpretation of the issue under study. It should be noted that all the proposed training material was successfully tested and implemented in the educational process. This book covers scientific and the practical approaches for understanding assessing and monitoring of environmental deterioration and for conversation and sustainability, which are of immense use for the various work profiles of institutions and society. The textbook is recommended for classroom and extracurricular work of full-time and distance learning students in all specialties and areas of bachelor’s training, and can also be used by undergraduates and teachers of environmental institutions. The authors will be grateful to everyone for constructive comments and suggestions that will help improve its content in the future.

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CHAPTER 1 Ecology and the problems of modern civilization

1. Introduction. The purpose, content, objectives of the discipline. 2. The main sections and methods of modern ecology. 3. Modern environmental issues. Introduction. The purpose, content, objectives of the discipline At the turn of XX-XXIst centuries ecology has become so comprehensive phenomenon of world civilization that without the use of ecological worldview development of socio-economic and political system of any society, the state, apparently impossible. Consideration of the environment and its relationship with the concept of sustainable development will begin in the historical context. Ecology is the science of the relationship between living organisms and their habitat. The term ecology (from Greek oikos – home, abode and logos – teaching) introduced into scientific use the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866). In its interpretation ecology is the knowledge of the economy of nature, it is important for the quantitative aspects of ecology and its relationship with the human economy. After the Haeckel, various shades were introduced into the concept of ecology, which expanded the subject of this field of science. Gradually ecological regularities began to be attributed to sets of organisms-populations, species, communities, as a whole to the living nature, more

CHAPTER 1. Ecology and the problems of modern civilization

clearly, ecology acquired the status of science about the organization and functioning over biological systems of organisms of all levels. The history of ecology can be divided into three main stages: –– The first stage (up to 60-ies of the X1Xth century) – the origin and formation of ecology as a science. –– The second stage (after 60 years of 1 in.) – clearance of ecology as a separate branch of knowledge. –– The third stage – 50 years of the XXth century to the present) – the transformation of the ecology in integrated science. Before our eyes, ecology acquires the features of a comprehensive and relevant worldview; it turns into a teaching about the survival of mankind. The main objective of the course “Ecology and sustainable development” is to form an ecological outlook, obtain in-depth system knowledge and ideas about the foundations of sustainable development of society and nature, theoretical and practical knowledge about modern approaches to the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. Tasks of discipline teaching: –– To familiar students with the problems of modern civilization; –– To study the main regularities of functioning of living organisms, ecosystems, various organizations, the biosphere in General, and their sustainability; –– To generate knowledge about the environmental consequences of human activities in the conditions of intensification of the nature use; –– To form among students a comprehensive objective and creative approach to the discussion of the most acute and complex problems of ecology, environmental protection and sustainable development. In accordance with the state compulsory standard of higher education as a result of studying the discipline “Ecology and sustainable development” the student must have the following minimum of knowledge, skills and abilities:

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To know: –– The main regularities of interaction between nature and society; –– Foundations of ecosystem functioning and the development of the biosphere; –– The impact of harmful and dangerous production factors and the environment on human health; –– Concepts, strategies, sustainable development issues and practical approaches to their solution at the global, regional and local levels; –– Legal framework on the protection of the environment; –– Principles of organization of safe production processes. To possess: –– To assess the ecological state of the natural environment; –– To conduct an assessment the anthropogenic influence of production on the environment; –– To think critically about trends in the development of ecological and economic systems related to natural resource use, describe their environmental impacts. Have the skills: –– Studying components of ecosystem and the biosphere as a whole; –– Determination of optimal conditions for sustainable development of ecological and economic systems; –– Conducting a logical discussion on topics related to environmental issues; –– Possessing standard methods of environmental monitoring; –– Searching and systematizing a scientific and special literature. In the process of mastering the discipline, the following educational technologies are used: personality-oriented, problem-oriented, interactive methods are used: lecture-visualization, preparation of presentation reports, discussion of problem situations, case studies, etc.

CHAPTER 1. Ecology and the problems of modern civilization

The main sections and methods of modern ecology In recent years, when the threat of a global environmental crisis has affected the person, there has been a rapid expansion of environmental boundaries. Ecology was born as a purely biological science about the relationship of the system “organism – environment”. However, with the increase of anthropogenic and man-made pressure on the environment, the insufficiency of such an approach became apparent. These are not only sections of biology, but also disciplines related to biology – Earth sciences, physics, chemistry, as well as various engineering sciences, economics, politics, sociology, ethics. Ecology is becoming an interdisciplinary science. Eventually, today there are no phenomena, processes and territories untouched by this powerful pressure. In addition, there is no science that could be eliminated from finding a way out of the environmental crisis. The range of Sciences involved in environmental issues has grown enormously. Nowadays, along with biology, it is economic and geographical Sciences, medical and sociological research, atmospheric physics and mathematics, and many other Sciences. This process is related to the integration of sciences and globalization. It reflects the important trend of modern science – the search for synthesis (the world is one, nature does not know faculties). In this regard, introduced the term – environmental science. Environmental science is about understanding the causes and efforts of positive and negative aspects of global and local issues of immediate and long term issues and of direct and indirect efforts human activities on environment. The main sections of modern ecology: General ecology (autecology, synecology, population ecology). Outecology – section of ecology, studying the ecology of individuals of this species, the ecology of the species. The population ecology – population ecology, the focus of which is on the dynamics of populations. Synecology – section of ecology, studying the interaction of communities with the environment.

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Environmental problems of the Earth as a planet are dealt with the global ecology, the main object of which is the biosphere as a global ecosystem. At the junction of ecology with other branches of knowledge continues the development of new areas such as geo-ecology, space, mathematical, engineering ecology, etc. –– Geo-ecology (ecology of geospheres, natural areas, climatology, regions, countries, continents) –– Bio-ecology (the doctrine about the biosphere, ecology of groups of organisms, ecology, natural biological systems, evolutionary ecology). There were also special disciplines, such as social ecology, studying the interaction in the system “human society - nature”, and its part – the human ecology (Anthropo-ecology), which deals with the interaction of man as a biosocial being with the outside world. Human ecology (Bio-ecology of man, mankind) Social ecology (the ecology of individuals, families, ethnic groups and ethnogenesis, population ecology) From the scientific and practical point of view, the division of ecology into theoretical and applied ecology is quite justified. –– Theoretical ecology reveals the General laws of the organization of life. –– Applied ecology (ecological Economics of nature management, engineering ecology, agricultural ecology, bioresources and field ecology, municipal and medical ecology, etc.) – studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man, ways to prevent this process and develops the principles of rational use of natural resources.

Modern environmental issues As usual, in the infinite universe along the orbit around the Sun constantly rotates a small planet Earth, each new round, proving the

CHAPTER 1. Ecology and the problems of modern civilization

inviolability of its existence. The face of the planet constantly reflect satellites that send space information to the Earth. But the face of this irreversible change. At the present stage of social development, humanity is looking for a response to the environmental challenge of our civilization, which is the quintessence of the results of its reckless economic and environmental activities. Environmental problems are related to the deterioration of the level and quality of life in many countries, the difficulties encountered in the development of the world economy, finally, the general systemic crisis of modern civilization. Environmental problems, which are expressed in violation of the condition’s balance and influences to the person’s environment as a result of the exploitative relationship of man to nature, the rapid growth of technology, the scale of industrialization and population growth. The development of natural resources’ use is so great that the question of their further applying has arisen. Large-scale production activity has led to strengthening of negative influence of the person to the nature as environment of the dwelling, and it in turn threatened his life and health, interests of the present and future generations of people. At present, impacts on nature have increased beyond its recovery potential, resulting in irreversible and dangerous changes in the natural environment. The human impact on terrestrial ecosystems, which together, relationships and interrelations form the earth’s ecosystem as a planet, causes changes in the complex system of the human environment. Moreover, the negative consequences of this impact are expressed as a threat to the environmental conditions of the whole existence of people, a threat to health through air, water and food, which are contaminated with substances produced by man. Environmental problems of our time on its scale can be conditionally divided into local, regional and global, and require solving different means of approaches. An example of a local environmental problem is a plant that discharges its industrial wastewater into the river without treatment, which is harmful to human health. This is a violation of the law. The nature conservation

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authorities or even the public should, through the courts, fine such a plant and, under threat of closure, compel it to build treatment facilities. For instance, regional environmental problems are the drying up of the Aral sea with a sharp deterioration of the environmental situation on all its periphery, or the high radioactivity of soils in the areas adjacent to the territory of the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. high soil radioactivity in the territory of the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. In order to solve such problems, we need a scientific study. In the first case - exact hydrological researches for development of recommendations on increase of a drain in the Aral Sea, in the second - an assessment of long-term influence of radiation’ doses on the population’ health and development of methods of soil’s decontamination. Anthropogenic impact on nature has reached such proportions those problems of a global nature. Let us move on to addressing specific global environmental issues. Problem 1. The Earth’s atmosphere receives a large amount of harmful substances with exhaust gases of vehicles, and other industrial enterprises and their share in pollution of atmospheric air is constantly growing. About 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide, which is formed because of combustion of various fuels, are annually released into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is gradually increasing and has rised by more than 10% over the past 100 years. Carbon dioxide accumulated in the atmosphere prevents thermal radiation into outer space, creating something like a film that retains the heat-greenhouse effect, which in turn leads to global climate change. Problem 2. Population explosion (over population). In 1960, World population was 3 billion by 1960 and by 2000, it became 6.0 billion, now it is 7 billion, Up to 2050, it is expected to be 10.8 billion. This will pressure one the natural resources. Ultimately, increase in population pressure lead into degradation or deterioration of environment. Problem 3. About 12 million hectares of forest are destroyed annually. If in 1950, forest space occupied 15% of the land, now only 7%. It is estimated that if the necessary measures are not taken, the planet may lose one of the main sources of oxygen in the coming decades.

CHAPTER 1. Ecology and the problems of modern civilization

Problem 4. The saturation of the atmosphere with ozone is constantly changing in any part of the planet, reaching a maximum in the spring in the circumpolar region. For the first time depletion of the ozone layer attracted the attention of the general public in 1985, when a space with a low (up to 50%) ozone content was found over Antarctica, comparable to the continental part of the United States, known as the “ozone hole”. The techno genic origin of the «ozone holes» is explained by the ingress of techno genic chlorine, fluorine and other atoms and radicals capable of actively adding atomic oxygen to the upper atmosphere, thereby competing with the reaction: О + О2= О3 Thus, «ozone holes» are attributed to the fact that the introduction of active halogens into the upper atmosphere is mediated by volatile chlorofluorocarbons such as freons. Problem 5. One in four Inhabitants of the earth is deprived of access to clean drinking water, and a large part of the world’s population is forced to settle for water of questionable quality. Problem 6. From the beginning of the VIIth century to the end of the XXth century the Earth has lost forever 63 species of mammals, 94 species of birds and 250 species of other vertebrates. Today, the process of extinction of living organisms - loss of biodiversity-has taken on a threatening scale: every day (!) 3 species of plants and animals die out. Problem 7. The number of accumulating solid wastes is constantly growing. It is estimated that if the necessary measures are not taken, then in 10-15 years the waste can cover our land with a five-meter layer. Land degradation is increasing every year, turning into a desert of 6 million hectares of cultivated land, and 20 billion hectares of land are losing their productivity. In addition, expanding the territory of deserts: the Sahara annually moves South at 30 km. The above-considered global environmental problems in a generalized form can be formulated as follows:

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1. The amount of anthropogenic impact on nature and the environment in the 21st century has become too large and has approached the limit of stability of the biosphere. The manifestations and testimonies are diverse: –– A sharp reduction in the area of undisturbed ecosystems; –– Human consumption and recovery of renewable natural resources; –– Human waste from farms pollutes the environment; –– Violation of biosphere equilibrium; –– Reduction of reserves of non-renewable mineral and fuel resources. 2. Nature responds to increasing anthropogenic pressure with unforeseen changes that create environmental hazards. 3. Man was trapped between his essence and alienation from nature. Humanity of the XXIth century has acquired the features of consumption civilization, which leads to excessive man-made stress on nature and the environment. Thus, the environmental problems of mankind are closely related to economic and social causes. A reasonable solution to environmental problems is possible only under the condition of a combination of scientific and technological progress with the multifaceted social aspects of the protection of the biosphere, which should be the basis for the development and creation of existing and new industries and energy sources. Radical solution of environmental problems is possible only with harmonious interaction of society, technology and nature. You should take into account all the valuable achievements made in this field in other countries. At the same time, it is necessary creative, critical and meaningful study and generalization of foreign experience in the organization of environmental activities, refraction through the prism of real economic reality, the practical situation in our country. Successful solution of large-scale tasks set by the Government, efficiency of reforms, achievement of the General goals set out in the strategy 2050, is possible only in conditions of sustainable development.

CHAPTER 1. Ecology and the problems of modern civilization

Sustainable development is defined as development in which present generations meet their needs without depriving future generations of the opportunity to meet their own needs, their own needs. One of the definitions of sustainable development is sustainable development in the long – term, intergenerational context. Sustainable development requires the satisfaction of the most important life needs of all people and provide all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life in equal measure, the necessity of transition of world community to sustainable long-term development. The requirement of the new ideology is incomparably more complicated than the tasks of environmental protection; they are not limited to reducing the amount of pollution. The complex of ecological knowledge should help future specialists to organize human activity in the conditions of strict ecological imperative. (I) General subjective types questions 1. Give the definition of ecology as a science. 2. What is the relationship between ecology and nature protection? 3. Formulate a strategic task of environmental science. 4. What are the global environmental issues? 5. Explain in brief historical development of ecology. 6. Write in brief account of the basic concepts of ecology. 7. What is the structure of modern ecology? 8. Discuss in brief the civilization of consumption? 9. Give an account of effect of climatic factors on plants and animals. 10. What is the relationship between environmental and socio-economic problems?

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CHAPTER 2 Autecology – the ecology of organisms

1. 2. 3. 4.

The interaction of the organism and the environment. Environmental factors, their classification. Regularities of action of biotic and abiotic factors. Limiting factor. Liebig’ Law of the minimum. The law of tolerance by V. Shelford.

The interaction of the organism and the environment Typically, there are six main levels of organization of living matter: –– Molecule; –– Cellule; –– Organism; –– Population; –– Ecosystem; –– Biosphere (ecosphere). In ecology, living matter is considered at the level of organisms. Organism – is any living creature. It differs from the inanimate nature of a certain set of properties inherent only in living matter: cell organization, metabolism with a leading role of proteins and nucleic acids, providing homeostasis of the body – self-renewal and maintaining the constancy of its internal environment. Living organisms inherent in movement, growth, irritability, reproduction, heredity and adaptability to the conditions of existence (adaptation).

CHAPTER 2. Autecology – the ecology of organisms

Living organisms have a metabolism or metabolic rate, thus there is a variety of chemical reactions, for example, breathing. Metabolic processes occur with different intensity throughout the life of the organism, the whole way of its development. His path from the origin to the end of life is called ontogenesis. Modern ontogenesis of organisms has developed over a long evolution, because of their historical development – phylogenesis. Currently, there are more than 2.2 million species of organisms on Earth, which are divided into two empires – precellular (viruses and phages) and cellular (all other organisms). Among the cell has been assigned two netcarta: prokaryotes – lowly types of cell (bacteria, blue-green algae) and eukaryotes is a highly organized nuclear, submitted the three kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi. The whole set of plant organisms of a certain area of the planet of any detail (region, district, etc.) is called flora, and the set of animal organisms – fauna. The flora and fauna of the territory form together biota. Living organisms and their environment interact inseparably with each other. Non-living organisms can survive without its environment. Inseparable interaction between living organisms and their environment its beneficial for the maintenance, development and modification of life and dynamism of environment. Under habitat in ecology, understand the whole set of bodies and forces in relation to the living organism of the world. The types of habitats: aquatic, terrestrial, air, soil, living organisms as habitat. A widely used concept of the environment refers to the part of the environment with elements of which this organism is in direct contact at the given time. In addition to the factors common to all terrestrial animals, the human’s environment includes the material and social environment created by man himself. They form a single complex system of interacting factors. In relation to human society, the environment includes natural ecosystems, natural components (air, water, soils, fauna and flora), terri-

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tory, landscapes, natural, historical, cultural and other material objects that have an impact on the quality of life, livelihoods and human health. Thus, environment is a complex of so many things, i.e. physical (light, temperature, soil, water etc.), biological (living organisms) and cultural or social components that surround and affect the life of an organism in many ways. The sum of all these living and non-living factors makes the environment of an organism. Environmental factors, their classification Environmental factors are the properties of the components of the ecosystem and its environment, which have a direct effect on individuals in a given population, as well as on the nature of their relations with each other and with individuals of other populations. Environmental factors are classified according to several criteria. External factors affect the body, the population, but do not directly reverse the effects: solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Internal factors are associated with the properties of the system itself and form its composition: number, food, concentration of substances, etc. It is essential to assess the importance of factors, highlight the main and secondary. Those, which are necessary for life of an organism – food, water, heat, light, oxygen – are defined as conditions of existence. Other factors that are not necessarily permanent are referred to as impact factors. Factors that characterize the availability of different forms of matter and energy, temporary changes which are subject to the laws of conservation called resources. The most important environmental factors are considered as resources of the biosphere. It is solar energy, light, food, water, heat, soil, i.e. all that is necessary for life on Earth. According to the nature of the sources and the nature of the environmental factors are divided into abiotic (inorganic nature) and biotic (organic nature). All biotic factors are caused by intraspecific and interspecific interactions.

CHAPTER 2. Autecology – the ecology of organisms

Nutrition is an important environmental factor. Nutrition is the process of consumption of energy and substance. There are two ways of power supply: galofity without trapping food (through absorption of dissolved nutrients through the surface structure of the body) and organisms by trapping food inside the body. Nutrients taken into the body, involved in metabolic processes. Metabolism is a set of interconnected and balanced processes, including heterogeneous chemical transformations of substances in the body. Synthesis reactions of complex substances, carried out with energy consumption, form the basis of anabolism, or assimilation. A special group consists of anthropogenic impacts caused by human activities, for example, the deforestation, the plowing of prairies, the draining of the marshes. Others are associated with pollution of the natural environment (including habitat) – air, water bodies, land production and consumption waste. Part of the anthropogenic factors associated with the use of technology, machinery, called man-made. Regularities of action of biotic and abiotic factors Each organism, each ecosystem develops at a certain combination of factors: moisture, light, heat, availability and composition of nutritional resources. All the factors act on the body at the same time. The reaction of the body depends not so much on the factor, but from its quantity (dose). For each organism, population, ecosystem there is a range of environmental conditions – the range of stability within which the vital activity of objects occurs. The scope of the quantitative values of the environmental factor, within which this species may exist, called bio-interface factor. The dose of factors, in which the body achieves the best development and maximum productivity, corresponds to the optimum conditions. With the change of this dose in the direction of reduction or increase, the depression of the body occurs and the stronger the deviation of the factors from the optimum, the lower the viability more,

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up to its death. The conditions under which life activity is maximally oppressed, but the body still exists, are called pessimistic. If we plot the dependence of environmental potency or response function on the values of the factor, then within the bio-interval graph takes the form of a dome-shaped curve, which can be called as a survival chart. Its vertex coincides with the point or region of the biological optimum. The violation of individual functions (state of stress) comes when approaching the extreme values of the factor in the body. The corresponding status of the organism in which these problems are reversible when still ability to heal itself after the cessation of negative consequences is called the critical factor. If the violations are irreversible and lead to the inevitable death of the body, then this condition is called lethal. This situation is critical and lethal values largely depends on the time of operation, exposure to extreme factors. For the environmental security standards development in experiments on specially selected test objects (it can be strains of microorganisms, tissue cultures, various plants and animals) determine different doses of exposure: minimum toxic, average lethal: LD 50 – dose at which 50% of test objects die, absolute lethal, the concept of dose refers not only to the amount of the introduced substance, but also to the effects of radiation, low and high temperatures, pressures, etc. Based on these results, regulatory indicators are calculated: maximum permissible levels of exposure (MPE), maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), maximum permissible doses (MPD). These indicators, together with others, form the basis of environmental rationing. The limiting factors, Liebig’ law of minimum. The law of tolerance by V. Shelford Factors that are stronger than others affect the state of the body or population are called limiting. For the first time the importance of the limiting factors pointed out by the German agricultural chemist Justus von Liebig (1803 – 1873). He

CHAPTER 2. Autecology – the ecology of organisms

formulated the minimum law States: plant growth depends on the element that is present in the minimum amount. Body resistance is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs. If the quantity and quality of environmental factors are close to the minimum required by the organism, it survives, if less than this minimum, the organism dies, ecosystem collapses. The minimum law is valid for both plants and animals, including a person who, in certain situations, has to consume mineral water or vitamins to compensate for the lack of any elements in the body. However, the Liebig’ law of minimum has a limited effect only on the level of chemical elements. It turned out that the factors can be limiting, being in the maximum. The most complete and total amount of the complexity of the environmental factors’ impact on the body reflects is the law of tolerance by V. Shelford (1913): lack of or inability to prosperity is determined by deficiency (qualitative or quantitative sense) or on the contrary an excess of any of a number of factors, which may be closest to the outside of the portable body. These two limits are called tolerance limits – the range between the minimum and maximum values of the ecological parameters of the existence of the organism, it is also called tolerance range – (from the Greek range (chordon) – through all (strings). The limits of tolerance for any kind are the maximum and minimum temperature. All living beings are able to live between 0 and 50°C hence the General law of biological stability, according to Maxime Lamotte (1920 – 2007): the value of the “optimal interval” characterizes the amount of resistance of the organism, i.e. the amount of its tolerance to this factor, or “environmental valence”. Organisms whose life requires conditions limited by a narrow tolerance range are called sterobionts and are able to live in a wide range of tolerance – evribionts. All animals are divided into: 1. Poikilothermic (body temperature varies with the temperature change of the environment) – reptiles, insects, etc. 2. Homoeothermic (body temperature constant) are mammals, birds, and people.

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A large number of factors affect to the organism, an ecosystem in natural conditions. Environmental constraints are never absolute; it is through the interaction of factors that the limits of life can be changed. Thus, lowering the temperature increases the endurance of fish in relation to the lack of food and oxygen. The survival chart of one factor changes under the influence of another factor. For the development and implementation of ecological potency of the species, an optimal combination of leading factors is necessary. This requirement is called the law of joint action of factors, which can be synergistic, when they seem to reinforce each other and produce a greater effect than the sum of separate actions, such as complex fertilizers. The combination can also be negative when there is a mutual weakening of the effects. For example, in cold-blooded animals low temperature increases the tolerance of hunger and lack of oxygen, and reduces warm-blooded, because reaction to the cold they can increase the need for energy and oxygen request. Multidimensional ecological space, formed by the combination of survival diagrams for essential environmental factors of a given species or population, is called the ecological niche. All species of living organisms occupy certain ecological niches, settling so as not to interfere with each other. This concept brings to total everything you need organisms, i.e. all the necessary conditions and resources (in relation to environmental factors, foods, time and ways of eating, breeding areas, shelters, etc. in the necessary quantities), and what is the role of the species in a biotic community. The ecological niche shows how organisms are adapted to environmental conditions, how they react to them. Even if the conditions and resources of this part of the environment are quite favorable for the organism of this species, its long-term existence may be hindered by individuals of other species, such as predators, parasites or competitors. Therefore, biotic interactions are also part of the concept of a niche. The same habitat can generate several niches. The forest, for instance, is able to represent ecological niches to small birds, oaks, a huge set of plants and animals.

CHAPTER 2. Autecology – the ecology of organisms

The niche of the species found in the same habitat, often differs greatly. The more species, the more ecological niches and the greater the richness of the environment. On the diversity of living organisms, ecological niches will depend on the completeness and speed of circulation of substances in a given biogeocenosis. If organisms occupy different ecological niches, they do not enter into a competitive relationship. However, in every ecosystem, there are species that are applying for the same niche. Then there is competition, struggle for possession of niches. (II) General subjective types questions 1. Regularities of action of biotic and abiotic factors. 2. What is meant by the term “environment”? Write in brief various components of environment. 3. What is the meaning of the factor called critical? 4. Explain the factors which contribute biotic environment. 5. Why the Liebig’ law can be called a special case of V. Shelford’ law? 6. With suitable examples, discuss anthropogenic impacts? 7. What is an ecological niche? 8. Is there only one limiting factor for each species or can there be several? Justify your answer. 9. Why do food belong to the environmental factor? 10. How does the light affect distribution and growth of plants? Explain with examples.

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CHAPTER 3 Demecology – Ecology of Populations

1. Static and dynamic characteristics of population 2. Curves of growth of number of population 3. Mechanisms of regulation of population number Static and dynamic characteristics of population The term “population” is derived from a Latin word “populus” meaning people. From the ecological view population is a collection of individuals of one biological species inhabiting one territory, having a common gene pool and the possibility of crossing. Populations are evolving, and are elements of the evolution of species and their formation. Distinguish static and dynamic indicators of the population. Static indices of the population are quantity, density, biomass, and age and sex composition. Abundance – the number of individuals in a population. It can vary considerably in time and depends on the biotic potential of the species and the external conditions. Density – number of the individuals or biomass of population having per unit area or volume. The population is characterized by a certain structural organization – the ratio of groups of individuals by sex, age, size, genotype, distribution

CHAPTER 3. Demecology – ecology of populations

of individuals across the territory, etc. In this regard mark out various structures of population: sexual, age, dimensional, genetic, spatial and ecological, etc. The structure of population is formed, on the one hand, on the basis of the general biological properties of a look, with another – under the influence of environment factors, i.e. has adaptive character. Sexual structure of population – according to genetic laws should be represented equal to the ratio of male and female individuals, i.e. 1: 1. But due to the specific physiology, different viability, the influence of various external, social, anthropogenic and other factors, there can be significant differences in this ratio. And these differences are not the same both in different populations and in different age groups of the same population. Age structure – the static parameter of the population that characterizes the ratio of different age groups in the population, which determines its ability to reproduce. In any population, three ecological ages can be distinguished: pre-production (before breeding), reproductive (during the breeding season), post-productive (after breeding). It is one of the characteristics of the demographic structure of the population. Ecological structure of the population – this division of population on groups of the individuals who are differently interacting with environment factors. To realize the normal structure of the population, it must have some minimum values of abundance and density. Regulation of population numbers in different animals and plants is carried out in different ways. Population density usually has a certain optimum. With any deviation from this optimum, the mechanisms of its intrapopulation regulation begin to work. Usually, the population is part of the community, and the stable existence of biocenoses is possible only with certain quantitative ratios of all components. It has also caused the necessity to regulate the population that ensures a stable state of both individual populations and biocenoses in general. Dynamic population indicators – it is birth rate, mortality, speed of immigration and emigration.

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Birth rate – is the ability of the population to increase, or the number of offspring produced by one female in one year. In human society, the birth rate is expressed as the number of births per 1000 people per year. Maximum fertility - theoretically the maximum possible number of individuals formed under ideal conditions, in the absence of limiting factors, reproduction is limited only by physiological factors. The ecological, or realized birth rate – emergence of new individuals under the actual conditions of the environment. Anthropogenic impacts on population can change birth rate. Mortality – death of individuals per unit of time in the absence of limiting factors. The ecological, or realized mortality – death of individuals for a unit of time under the actual conditions of the environment. The difference between birth rate and mortality is a certain resultant parameter which defines real dynamics of number at this population. In process of population’ growth there is a decrease in environment resources available to each individual. At resource depletion growth of population is slowed down and, eventually, stops. Population growth rate is expressed in a gain of population and growth rate of population where a population gain – a difference between birth rate and mortality. The gain can be positive, zero and negative. Rate of a gain of population is its average gain for a unit of time. Growth curves of populations’ number The survival curve can be obtained by starting to calculate a certain population of newborns and then marking the number of survivors as a function of time. On the vertical axis, usually either the absolute number of surviving individuals or their percentage of the original population is postponed:

N=

x 100%

CHAPTER 3. Demecology – ecology of populations

Each species is characterized by a special survival curve, the shape of which depends in part on the mortality of immature individuals. A survivorship curve is the graphic representation of the number of individuals in a population that can be expected to survive to any specific age (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1. Type I, II, and III survivorship curves

There are three general types of curves. The Type I curve, illustrated by the large mammals, tracks organisms that tend to live long lives (low death rate and high survivorship rate); toward the end of their life expectancies, however, there is a dramatic increase in the death rate. The Type III curve, characteristic of small mammals, fishes, and invertebrates, is the opposite: it describes organisms with a high death rate (or low survivorship rate) immediately following birth. In contrast, the Type II curve considers birds, mice, and other organisms characterized by a relatively constant mortality or survivorship rate throughout their life expectancies.

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Exponential and logistic growth of the population The gain of population is proportional to its number and therefore if growth of population is limited by no external factors, population grows in an expedited manner. We will describe this growth mathematically. The gain of population is proportional to the number of individuals in it, that is NN where N – population number, and N – its change for a certain period of time. If this period is infinitely small, it is possible to write that: = r·N, where:

– change of number of population (gain), and r – the repro-

ductive potential, the variable characterizing ability of population to increase the number. The given equation is called exponential model of growth of number of population (Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2. Exponential model of population growth

It is easy to understand that with growth of time, the number of population grows quicker and quicker, and enough directs to infinity soon. Naturally, no habitat will sustain existence of population with an infinite number. Nevertheless, there are a number of population

CHAPTER 3. Demecology – ecology of populations

growth processes that can be described in a certain time interval using an exponential model. We are talking about cases of unlimited growth, when a certain population populates the environment with an excess of free resource. Naturally, the exponential growth of the population can not be eternal. Sooner or later the resource will be depleted, and the population growth will slow down. What will this inhibition be? Practical ecology knows a wide variety of options: both a sharp rise in numbers, followed by the extinction of a population that has exhausted its resources, and a gradual inhibition of growth as it approaches a certain level. The easiest way to describe slow inhibition. The elementary model describing such dynamics, is called logistic and is offered (for the description of growth of number of a human population) by the French mathematician Ferkhyulst in 1845. In 1925 the similar regularity has been rediscovered by the American ecologist R. Perl who has assumed that it has general character. In logistic model the variable K – the environment capacity, equilibrium number of population at which she consumes all available resources is entered (Figure 3.3). The gain in logistic model is described by equation:

=r

Figure 3.3. Logistic model of population growth

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Mechanisms of regulation of population number Change of number depends on a number of environmental factors – abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic. However, it is always possible to allocate the key factor which is most strongly influencing on birth rate, mortality, migration of individuals, etc. Many types of organisms’ populations are capable to self-control of the number. There are three mechanisms of inhibition of population growth: 1. At increase of density the frequency of contacts between individuals increases, that causes in them the stressful state reducing birth rate and increasing mortality; 2. At increase of density emigration in new habitats, regional areas where conditions are less favorable amplifies and mortality increases; 3. At increase of density there are changes of genetic structure of population, for example, quickly breeding individuals are replaced with slowly breeding. Understanding the mechanisms of regulating the number of populations is extremely important for the ability to manage these processes. Human activities are often accompanied by a reduction in the number of populations of many species. The reasons for this lie in the excessive destruction of individuals. The deterioration of living conditions is due to environmental pollution, anxiety of animals, especially during breeding, reducing the range, etc. In nature, there are not and can’t be “good” and “bad” species, they are all necessary for its normal development. Now the question of the conservation of biodiversity is particularly acute. Reduction of a gene pool of wildlife can lead to tragic consequences. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) publishes “Red List” where it registers the following types: disappearing, rare, reduced, uncertain and “black list” of irrevocably disappeared types. In order to preserve species, people use various ways to regulate the population: proper management of hunting and fishing, prohibition of hunting for certain species of animals, regulation of deforestation,

CHAPTER 3. Demecology – ecology of populations

At the same time, human activity creates conditions for the emergence of new forms of organisms or the development of old species, unfortunately, often harmful to humans: pathogens, pests of crops, etc. Mechanisms of population size regulation are based on complex interspecific relationships, i.e. at the community level, which will be discussed in the next section of the training textbook. (III) General subjective types questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What belongs to ecological characteristics of population? How the habitat of population is called? What does the age structure of population of the species depend on? How does population number change if in it mortality prevails over birth rate? How does population number change if in it the birth rate prevails over mortality? 6. Population pressure and development are the main causes of environmental deterioration. Explain. 7. Give the characteristic of S-, J-shaped growth curves of population. 8. What data confirm humankind youth as species? 9. What factors of evolution have allowed the accelerating growth of number of people? 10. Discuss impacts of population growth on environment. 11. Under the influence of what reasons, there is an increase and reduction of number of populations?

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CHAPTER 4 Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit of the biosphere

1. Ecology of communities: the concept of biocenosis, biogeocenosis. 2. Properties of complex systems. Parameters of system. 3. Ecological pyramids. 4. B. Commoner’s Laws of ecology. Ecology of communities: the concept of biocenosis, biogeocenosis The ecological system or ecosystem – the main object of ecology, in the general system is a real or imaginable set of parts which properties are defined by interaction between parts of system. In a material world there are certain hierarchies – the ordered sequences and complications. All the diversity of our world can be represented in the form of three successive hierarchies: natural (physical and biological), social and technical (Table 4.1). Emergence is a property characterizing the degree of irreducibility of the properties of a system to the properties of individual elements of which it consists. The decisive role in this case is the interaction between the elements.

CHAPTER 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit...

Hierarchy of material systems Natural

Social

Technical

Biosphere

Humanity

Complex

Biocenosis

Community

computer

Population

Society

Device

Herd

Team

A car

Cell

Human

weapon

Table 4.1

The principle of the necessary variety of elements is that the system can’t consist of absolutely identical elements. The lower limit of diversity isn’t less than two elements (he and she), the upper limit is infinity. The heterogeneity of the system determines the variety of microscopic properties of the system’ parts, the presence in it of different phase states of matter, Stability is the predominance of internal interactions over external ones. Stability (stationary state) of the dynamic system is supported by continuously performing work (the principle of a bicycle). By the type of exchange of matter and / or energy with the environment distinguish: –– Isolated systems – exchange isn’t possible; –– Closed systems – energy exchange in any form; –– Open systems – the exchange of matter and energy. The principle of evolution – the emergence and existence of all systems is due to evolution. Self-sustaining dynamic systems evolve towards the complication of organization and the emergence of a subsystem hierarchy. The consequence of increasing complexity and diversity is the acceleration of evolution, an ever faster passage through qualitative shifts. The complexity of the system structure is determined by the number of its elements and the number of connections between them. They are classified by complexity: –– Simple systems – have up to a thousand states; –– Complex systems – have up to a million states; –– Very complex systems – over a million states.

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Depending on the relative organization of the system are divided into three groups: –– Probabilistic – capable of flexibly changing their properties; –– Deterministic – conservative, rigid; –– Quasi-deterministic – occupy an intermediate position. Most natural systems have a probabilistic or quasi-deterministic character. Ecosystem – a spatially defined set of living organisms and their habitat, combined with real-energy and information interactions. The term was introduced into the ecology by the English botanist A. Tensley (1935). There are water and terrestrial ecosystems. In each local land system there is an abiotic component – a biotope or an ecotop – the site with identical landscape, climatic, soil conditions, and a biotic component – community or a biocenosis – set of all living organisms inhabiting this biotope. Associates are closely interconnected with the habitat therefore they are united under the name a biogeocenosis. At the same time, biogeocenosis = biotope + biocenosis. The concept of a biogeosenosis was entered by V.N. Sukachyov (1942). Succession - the process of ecosystem development from its inception to death, accompanied by a change in existing species in it due to the influence of natural factors (including internal forces) or human influence. Species – a collection of individuals with a number of common morphophysiological features that inhabit a certain area, capable of crossing with the formation of healthy offspring. Each ecosystem includes groups of organisms that differ in the way they feed – autotrophs (self-feeding or producers) and heterotrophs (that feed on other or otherwise consumers) are all animals, mushrooms and most bacteria. Depending on the power source heterotrophs are divided into several types: consumers, detritophages and decomposers. Consumers are consumers of the organic matter of living organisms. These include phytophages, i.e. feeding on living plants, zoophagy – eating other animals, parasites-living at the expense of the substances of the host organism.

CHAPTER 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit...

Detritofages – the organisms feeding on dead organic substance – the remains of plants and animals. Reducents - bacteria and lower fungi complete the destructive work of consumers and detritophages, bringing the decomposition of organic matter to its full mineralization and returning to the environment portions of carbon dioxide, water and mineral elements. Their joint functioning not only supports the structure and integrity of the biotope, but also determines self-purification. Properties of complex systems. Parameters of system There are 9 types of the most important interspecific interactions (according to Eugene Odum, 1986): 1. Neutralism (the association of two species of population does not affect any of them); 2. Mutual competitive suppression; 3. Competition for resources; 4. Amensalism – one population suppresses the other, but it itself does not experience negative influence; 5. Parasitism; 6. Predation; 7. Commensalism – one population benefits from unification with another, and for another population this association is indifferent; 8. Protocol operation – both populations benefit from the association; 9. Mutualism (symbiosis) – the link is favorable for the growth and survival of both populations, and none of them can exist without the other. The main sources of biological energy for living beings on Earth are sunlight and food. The Sun radiation reaching the biosphere carries energy of about 3x1024 J in year. The solar constant is equal to 1352 W/m2. When solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, its energy spectrum changes: shortwave ultraviolet radiation is absorbed in the

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upper layers, mainly the ozone layer, and infrared radiation in the lower cloud cover. Only 0.3% of this energy is directly converted in the process of photosynthesis into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances and only 0.1% is contained in pure primary production. Photosynthesis is understood as transformation by green plants and photosynthesizing microorganisms with the participation of Sun light energy and pigments of the simple substances absorbing light (water, carbon dioxide and mineral elements) in the complex organic substances necessary for activity of all organisms. 6СО2 + 12Н2О

solar energy

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

In terms of energy, life in the biosphere kept constant influx of energy from the sun and use it in photosynthesis. Chemosynthesis is the formation of organic compounds from inorganic compounds of nitrogen, iron, and sulfur due to the energy of oxidation-reduction reactions. The role of chemosynthesis: bacteria – chemosynthetics destroy rocks, purify sewage, participate in the formation of organic minerals. Release of the energy contained in organic compounds happens also in the process of breath or fermentation. Various organisms decompose the biomass remains to inorganic components, promoting involvement in biological circulation of compounds and chemical elements that provides the next cycles of producing organic substance. The energy which is contained in food doesn’t make circulation, and gradually turns into thermal energy. As a result the solar energy absorbed by organisms in the form of chemical bonds comes back to space in the form of thermal radiation again. Therefore the biosphere needs continuous inflow of energy from the outside. In relation to this phenomenon there is a rule of one percent: energy change of natural system on average for 1% brings the last out of a condition of a homeostasis (balance). That the biosphere continued to exist and on Earth development of life didn’t stop, there have to be continuous chemical transformations

CHAPTER 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit...

of it live substance. In other words, substances after use by one organism have to pass into a form, useful for other organism. There are two main cycles: large (geological) and small (biogenic and biochemical). Big circulation lasts hundreds of millions years. Borders of geological circulation are much wider than biosphere borders; its amplitude takes crust layers. A small cycle passes within the boundaries of the inhabited biosphere. Being a part of big, small circulation is carried out at the level of a biogeocenosis. It means that soil nutrients, water, carbon accumulate in substance of plants, are spent for creation of a body and vital processes both their, and organisms – consumers. The products of the decomposition of organic matter by the soil microflora and mesofauna are again decomposed to mineral components accessible to plants and therefore reintroduced into the flow of matter. Such a cycle is called a biogeochemical cycle. Ecological pyramids. Pyramid of number To study the relationships between organisms in the ecosystem and for the graphic representation of their relationships, it is more convenient to use not the schemes of food nets, but ecological pyramids. At the same time, the number of different organisms in a given territory is first counted, grouped into trophic (nutritional) levels. After such calculations, it becomes obvious that the number of animals progressively decreases during the transition from the second trophic level to the subsequent. The number of plants of the first trophic level also often exceeds the number of animals that make up the second level; it can be displayed in the form of a pyramid. For convenience, the number of organisms at a given trophic level can be represented as a rectangle, the length (or area) of which is proportional to the number of organisms living in a given area (or in a given volume, if it is a water ecosystem).

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Figure 4.1. shows the number pyramid demonstrating the actual situation in nature. Predators located at the highest trophic level are called ultimate predators.

Figure 4.1. – Population pyramid of number

Pyramid of biomass and energy According to the law of the energy pyramid, from each level to the next, about 10% of the energy passes (the Lindemann rule). For comparison, the participation of different groups of heterotrophs in the destruction of organic matter has a similar sequence: about 90% of the energy releases microorganisms and fungi, less than 10% – invertebrates and not more than 1% – vertebrates. According to the 1% rule is formulated, in accordance with which this ratio and especially the contribution of final consumers to destruction (approximately 1%) is an important condition for stabilization of the biosphere. Of course, this is an approximate parameter; its accuracy can’t be established experimentally. B. Commoner’s Laws of ecology Modern ecology, studying the super-system “man – economy – biota – environment” has a set of rules and laws. Here are the well-

CHAPTER 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit...

known axioms – sayings of the American ecologist B. Commoner (1917 – 2012): a) Everything is connected with everything; b) Everything must go somewhere; c) Nothing is given for nothing; d) Nature knows best. a) Everything is connected with everything This is the law on ecosystems and the biosphere, drawing attention to the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature. All living things on Earth are subordinated to cosmic forces, a single stream of solar energy, to its rhythms. Nature, society is in one network of systemic interactions. It is designed to prevent a person from inconsidered impacts on certain parts of ecosystems, which can lead to unforeseen consequences (for example, draining swamps leads to shallowing of rivers). b) Everything must go somewhere (the law of conservation) The law of conservation of mass of matter is simultaneously one of the important requirements of rational nature management. For the biosphere, the quantitative balance of masses and the equality of the rates of synthesis and decay are always observed. It means high degree of isolation of circulation of substances in the biosphere. Activity of the person has led to changes of the chemical environment on the surface of the planet, to emergence of high concentrations of xenobiotics (from a Greek ksenos - the stranger). Of the total volume of substances extracted from the bowels, only a small part falls into the natural cycle; from the point of view of nature, people produces only garbage. At the same time, the closed cycle of substances is broken. Nature only opposes the function of dilution. In fact, this is the law on human economic activity, the waste from which is inevitable, and therefore it is necessary to think not only of reducing their quantity, but also of their subsequent use.

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c) Nothing is given for nothing (about the price of development) Any new acquisition in the evolution of the system is necessarily accompanied by the loss of some part of the old wealth and the emergence of new, increasingly complex problems. Hence the law of irreversibility of evolution. The global ecosystem is a single whole, within which nothing can be won or lost, and which can’t be the object of general improvement. To pay it is necessary energy for additional cleaning of waste, fertilizer – for increase of a crop, sanatoria and medicines – for deterioration of health of the person and td. d) Nature knows best (about the main criteria of evolutionary selection). The law has two interrelated aspects: bionic and evolutionary. People have created many things that are not in nature. Technological progress has reached unprecedented heights, but by the ingenuity of using the laws of nature, originality, perfection and beauty of constructive solutions, by common sense technical devices are much inferior to biological systems. Bionics – the science of applying the principles of the action of living systems to solve engineering problems. This is the law of reasonable, conscious use of nature. We must not forget that man is also a biological species, that he is a part of nature, not its ruler. This means that you can not try to conquer nature, but you need to cooperate with it. While we do not have complete information about the mechanisms and functions of nature, and without an accurate knowledge of the consequences of the transformation of nature, its “improvements” are unacceptable. The principle – nature knows best – determines first of all what can and what should not be in nature. The main criterion for this selection is the optimal entry into the global biotic cycle, the fullness of all ecological niches.

CHAPTER 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit... (IV) General subjective types questions 1. What are the main differences between biological and technical systems? 2. Why do most of the products of a person’s economic activity not be included in the natural biotic cycle? 3. Give examples of the unconditional superiority of human creations over the creatures of nature. 4. List the main B. Commoner’s laws of ecology. 5. What is the principle of the necessary diversity of elements? 6. What is the principle “nature knows best”.? 7. What levels of biological organization are the objects of environmental studies? 8. What is the importance of homeostatic processes and adaptation for the interaction of the organism with the environment? 9. What for in an alive nature autotrophs, heterotrophs, producers, consumers and decomposers are necessary? 10. Why a demographic explosion can’t last for long?

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CHAPTER 5 Biosphere and its Sustainability

1. Fundamentals of biological organization 2. Structure of the biosphere 3. Evolution of the biosphere 4. Vernadsky’s doctrine about biosphere and noosphere Fundamentals of biological organization The completeness of all natural manifestations of life is represented on ecosystem, ecosphere levels. Wildlife is a biota, in it, as in the entire material world, an almost infinite variety arises based on a combination of a few elements. Only six elements – carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus account for an average of 99% of all living things composition. These elements are called biogenic. Their compounds form several dozen bio-monomers (amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, sugars), which in turn give a huge number of biopolymers. The generality of the chemical composition and molecular-structural properties of animate and inanimate nature is reflected in the formulated V.I. Vernadsky’s law of living matter’ physic-chemical unity. The law does not exclude the biochemical specificity of species and individual organisms, but emphasizes the qualitative unity of all living things.

CHAPTER 5. Biosphere and its Sustainability

Structure of the biosphere The biosphere is a collection of the earth’s shells parts (litho-, hydro-, and atmosphere), which living organisms inhabit, is under their influence and is occupied with the products of their vital activity. In a literal translation, the term “biosphere” denotes the sphere of life and in this sense it was first introduced into science in 1875 by Austrian geologist and paleontologist Eduard Süss (1831-1914). However, long before that, under other names, in particular the “space of life”, the “picture of nature”, the “living shell of the Earth”, etc., its content was considered by many other natural scientists. Ge.B. Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first of biologists who has clearly pointed to a huge role of live organisms in crust formation. He emphasized that all substances, which are on the surface of the globe and forming his bark, were created thanks to activity of live organisms. The facts and regulations on the biosphere collected gradually in connection with development of phytology, soil science, geography of plants and other mainly biological sciences and geological disciplines. Those elements of knowledge, which became necessary for understanding of the biosphere in general, were connected with emergence of ecology, science that studies relationship of organisms and the environment. The biosphere is a certain natural system, and it existence first is expressed in circulation of energy and substances with the participation of living organisms. The biosphere is in limits of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and a part of a lithosphere. Total length of the biosphere on the Earth radius is about 40 km. It stretches from the lower part of the ozone screen of the atmosphere located at the height of 20-25 km above sea level in the top part of rocks of land and a bottom of the World Ocean. The biosphere covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere. Atmosphere – the lightest shell of the Earth, which borders on outer space, through the atmosphere is the exchange of matter and energy with the cosmos.

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The atmosphere has several layers: –– The troposphere – the lower layer adjoining the Earth’s surface (height of 9-17 km.), about 80% of gas composition of the atmosphere and all water vapor are concentrated in it; –– The stratosphere is characterized by the smaller density of air, there is no water vapor. In the lower part of a stratosphere at the heights about 25 km, “the ozone screen” – an atmosphere layer with the increased concentration of ozone which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, disastrous for organisms is located; –– The mesosphere stretches at the height of 50 up to 80-90 km. With increase in height temperature goes down with an average vertical gradient (0,25 – 0,3) °С/100 m, and density of air decreases. The main power process is radiant heat exchange. –– The thermosphere settles down at the height of 80-90 up to 800 km. Air density here minimum, extent of ionization of air very much bike. Temperature changes depending on activity of the Sun. The polar light and magnetic storms are observed here due to a large amount of charged particles. In it, two parts differ. However, the ionosphere stretching from the mesosphere to heights about one thousand kilometers, and lying over it an external part – the exosphere passing into a terrestrial crown. Air in an ionosphere is extremely rarefied. The ionosphere as tells the name is characterized by very strong extent of air ionization. The maintenance of ions is many times more here, than in underlying layers, despite strong general sparseness of air. These ions represent generally loaded atoms of oxygen, a molecule of oxide of nitrogen and free electrons. The prevailing elements of the atmospheric chemical composition are N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar2 (0.9%), CO2 (0.03%). The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth. Due to high mobility, water penetrates everywhere into various natural formations, even the cleanest atmospheric waters contain 10 to 50 mg / l of soluble substances. The predominant elements of the chemical composition of the hy2drosphere: Na+, Mg2 +, Ca2 +, Cl-, SО4 , ИСО3 . The concentration of an

CHAPTER 5. Biosphere and its Sustainability

element in the water still does n’t say anything about how important it’s to the plant and animal organisms that live in it. The leading role belongs to N, P, Si, which are assimilated by living organisms. The main feature of oceanic water is that the main ions are characterized by a constant ratio throughout the entire world ocean. The lithosphere is the outer hard shell of the Earth, consisting of sedimentary and magmatic rocks. At present, the earth’s crust is considered the upper layer of the solid body of the planet. The surface layer of the lithosphere, in which the interaction of living matter with a mineral (inorganic) is a soil. The remains of organisms after decomposition pass into humus (the fertile part of the soil). Components of the soil are minerals, organic substances, living organisms, water, gases. Unlike other resources, the soil is less dynamic. Properties of the soil as ecological environment – physical structure, the mechanical and chemical composition, рН, oxidation-reduction conditions, etc. Based on prevalence, four types of soils are distinguished: 1. Wet tropics and subtropics. 2. Fertile soils of savannas and steppes. 3. Quad. 4. Extremely unstable soils of deserts and semi-deserts. The soil is under threat of disturbance – erosion under the influence of the air flow, water, human economic activity, the rate of erosion greatly increases, which ultimately leads to desertification. The prevailing elements of the lithosphere chemical composition: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K. The leading role is carried out by oxygen to which share a half of mass of crust and 92% of its volume falls, however oxygen is strongly connected with other elements in the main rock-forming minerals. Thus, in a quantitative sense crust is “kingdom” of oxygen, chemically connected during geological development of crust. Gradually, the idea of a close relationship between animate and inanimate nature, the reverse effect of living organisms and their systems on the physical, chemical and geological factors surrounding

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their increasingly penetrated the consciousness of scientists and found implementation in their specific studies. It was promoted also by the changes, which have happened in the general approach of scientists to studying of the nature. All of them were more convinced that the isolated research of the phenomena and processes of the nature from positions of separate scientific disciplines is inadequate. The doctrine of the biosphere is a natural stage in the development of Earth sciences. Therefore, at the turn of the ХIХ - ХХth centuries, the ideas of a holistic approach to the study of nature are increasingly penetrating into science, which in our time have evolved into a systematic method of studying it. The results of this approach immediately affected the study of common problems of the impact of biotic, or living, factors on abiotic or physical conditions. It turned out, for example, that the composition of seawater is determined largely by the activity of marine organisms. Plants, living on sandy soil, significantly change its structure. Living organisms control even the composition of our atmosphere. The number of such examples is easy to increase, and all of them indicate a feedback between animate and inanimate nature, as a result of which living matter significantly changes the face of our Earth. Thus, the biosphere can’t be considered in isolation from the inanimate nature, on which it depends, on the one hand, and on the other hand it itself affects it. Therefore, there is a task for scientists - to investigate specifically how and in what measure live substance influences the physical, chemical, and geological processes happening on the Earth’s surface and in crust. Only such an approach can give a clear and profound understanding of the concept of the biosphere. This task was set by the outstanding Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945). Evolution of the biosphere The modern biosphere was formed as a result of long evolution under the influence of set of space, geophysical and geochemical factors.

CHAPTER 5. Biosphere and its Sustainability

The Sun was an initial source of all processes proceeding on Earth, but the leading role in formation and the subsequent development of the biosphere was played by photosynthesis. The biological basis of the biosphere genesis is connected with emergence of the organisms capable to use an external power source, in this case energy of the Sun, for formation from the simplest compounds of the organic substances necessary for life. Evolution of the biosphere should be considered as a coevolution (joint, interfaced) the atmospheres, lithospheres, hydrospheres and biospheres. The most important engine of evolution is a continuous, cyclically reproduced contradiction between the boundless capacity for reproduction, organized by the flows of solar energy and the limited material resources. The evolution of the biosphere consists of a pre-biotic phase, during which chemical evolution prepared the emergence of life, and biological evolution. According to the prevailing ideas (Calvin, 1971, Kashmilov 1979, Grant 1980), the sequence of the main stages is as follows: • Preobiological Evolution 1. The formation of the planet and its atmosphere (about 4.5 billion years ago) 2. The appearance of abiotic circulation of substances in the atmosphere due to its gradual cooling. Liquid water appears, hydrosphere is formed, the water cycle, water migration of elements and multiphase chemical reactions in solutions. Due to the phenomenon of autocatalysis, the selection and growth of molecules takes place. 3.�������������������������������������������������������������� Formation of organic substances in the processes of condensation and polymerization of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen simple compounds. 4. The appearance of the cycle of organic carbon compounds, including reactions of accumulation of solar energy and redox reactions – the embryo of the ecosphere biotic cycle. Further complication of organic substances and the emergence of the macromolecules stable complexes, the emergence of self-reproduction molecular systems.

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• Biotic evolution 1. The emergence of life (about 3.5 billion years ago), the structuring of proteins and nucleic acids involving bio membranes. At this stage, a biotic cycle arises and ecosphere functions are formed. 2. Development of photosynthesis and changes in the composition of the environment. The appearance of multicellular organisms leads to further complication of the biotic cycle. 3. Increase in biological diversity and complexity of structure and functional organization. Organisms are occupied by all ecological niches. 4. The emergence of man – the leader of evolution. The emergence and development of human society, the involvement in the techno genesis of disproportionately large flows of matter and energy disrupts the closure of the biotic cycle, causes anthropogenic ecological crises and becomes a negative factor in the evolution of the ecosphere. The Vernadsky’s doctrine about biosphere and noosphere The developed theory of the biosphere belongs to V.Vernadsky. In the lectures given in 1924 in Sorbonne (France), he has stated fundamentals of theory of the biosphere. The biosphere, according to Vernadsky’s doctrine, is complete unity, planetary system that all elements are interconnected and interact. In this system, the central role is played by live substance as with it all structural parts of the biosphere thanks to last or real activity of living organisms are genetically connected and formed of it. The physical and chemical environment surrounding live substance is changed owing to it functioning to such an extent that biotic and abiotic processes were inseparable. As a result of their interference living organisms will transform the environment of the dwelling or support it in such state which meets conditions of their existence. According to V.Vernadsky, the biosphere substance consists of: Living matter – biomass of living organisms. The mass of living matter is relatively small; this film of life (in the words of V.Vernadsky)

CHAPTER 5. Biosphere and its Sustainability

is less than 10-6 of the mass of the Earth other shells. The rule of maximum pressure of life acts in nature. This means that the living matter’s total amount of planet’s all organisms changes relatively little within the limits of large time intervals. V.I. Vernadsky formulated this pattern firstly. Therefore, a significant increase in the number and mass of any organisms on a global scale occurs only at the expense of a decrease in the number and mass of other organisms; –– Biogenic substance – all forms of detritus, peat, coal, oil and gas; –– Bio mineral substance – a mixture of biogenic substances with mineral rocks (soils, or natural waters, bituminous); –– Mineral substance – ocks, minerals, sedimentary rocks; –– Radioactive, dispersed atoms and substances of cosmic origin. The amount of living matter in the biosphere (for a certain geological time) is constant. V.I.Vernadsky formulated this law, which called the law of constancy. In accordance with it, any change in the amount of living matter in one of the regions of the biosphere will inevitably lead to the same change in matter in another region, only with the opposite sign. The consequence of this law is the rule of mandatory filling of ecological niches. Extremely important value in Vernadsky’s works have ideas of the person’s role in evolution of Earth nature, these views is later than steel as the doctrine about a noosphere – the sphere of mind – a human cover of Earth. Vernadsky noted that the biosphere, which arose as a result of natural evolution and existed for more than one billion years, gradually turns into a noosphere (“noos” – the mind), a reasonable shell). The doctrine of the biosphere allows us to work out a set of ecological and economic measures that increase biological productivity and avoid environmental catastrophes. In this case, the 4th- component system of the biosphere (mineral, liquid, gaseous and living) should be supplemented with a new, 5th component – a man with his inexhaustible mind. One of the key ideas underlying Vernadsky’s theory of the noosphere is that man coexists within nature and is a part of it. This unity

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is due primarily to the functional continuity of the environment and man. Humanity in itself is a natural phenomenon and it’s natural that the influence of the biosphere affects not only the environment of life, but also the image of thought. (V) General subjective types questions 1. What is the structure of biosphere? 2. What does the co-evolution of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere mean? 3. Define the main properties of the biosphere. 4. Discuss in brief the main trends in the evolution of the biosphere. 5. Name the main biogenic elements. 6. Define biosphere resource. 7. Explain with examples the maximum life pressure rule. 8. Name the first of biologists, pointed to the huge role of living organisms in the formation of the earth’s crust. 9. Whose ideas of the person’s role in evolution of Earth nature? 10. What is the structure of the Earth’s atmosphere?

CHAPTER 6. The concept of living substance

CHAPTER 6 The concept of living substance

1. 2. 3. 4.

The concept and functions of living matter in the biosphere. Distribution of living matter in the biosphere. Man in terms of the laws of evolution. Ecological niches of man Co-evolutionary character of the development of society and nature at the present stage of the biosphere development

The concept and functions of living matter in the biosphere Modern biosphere, in which the combined activity of living organisms and humans is manifested as a geochemical factor of a planetary scale, has been developed in the works of a major Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky. One of the central links in the concept of the biosphere is the doctrine of living matter. Investigating the migration of atoms in the biosphere, V.I. Vernadsky approached the question of the genesis (origin, occurrence) of chemical elements in the earth’s crust, and after that and the need to explain the stability of the compounds from which organisms are composed. The mass of living matter is only 0.01% of the mass of the entire biosphere. Nevertheless, the living matter of the biosphere is its main component.

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Living matter provides a biogeochemical cycle of substances and the transformation of energy in the biosphere. The following basic geochemical functions of living matter are distinguished: 1.Energetic (biochemical) - binding and storage of solar energy in organic matter and the subsequent dissipation of energy when consuming and mineralizing organic matter. This function is related to nutrition, respiration, reproduction and other processes of vital activity of organisms. What are the characteristic features of a living substance? First of all, it’s a huge free energy.  During the evolution of species, the biogenic migration of atoms, i.e., the energy of the biosphere living matter, has increased many times and continues to grow, for the living matter processes the energy of solar radiation, the atomic energy of radioactive decay and the cosmic energy of the scattered elements coming from our Galaxy. Living matter also has a high rate of chemical reactions in comparison with non-living matter, where similar processes go thousands and millions of times slower. For example, some caterpillars per day can process food 200 times more than they weigh themselves, and one titmouse eats as many caterpillars per day as it weighs itself. For living matter, it is characteristic that the chemical compounds that make up it, the main ones being proteins, are stable only in living organisms. After the completion of the process of vital activity, the living organics decompose to chemical constituents. Living matter exists on the planet in the form of continuous alternation of generations, due to which, the newly formed substance is genetically related to the living substance of past epochs. This is the main structural unit of the biosphere, which determines all other processes of the surface of the earth’s crust. 2. Gasous – the ability of living organisms to change and maintain a certain gas composition of the environment and the atmosphere as a whole. With the gas function, two critical periods (points) are associated in the development of the biosphere. The first of these dates back to the time when the oxygen content in the atmosphere reached about 1% of the current level. This caused the appearance of the first aerobic organisms (able to live only in an environment containing oxygen).

CHAPTER 6. The concept of living substance

From this time, the regenerative processes in the biosphere began to be supplemented with oxidative processes. This happened about 1.2 billion years ago. The second critical period is associated with a time when the oxygen concentration reached about 10% of the current. This created conditions for the synthesis of ozone and the formation of the ozone layer in the upper layers of the atmosphere, which led to the possibility of developing terrestrial organisms (before that, the function of protecting organisms from harmful cosmic radiations was filled with water). 3. Concentration – “capture” from the environment by living organisms and the accumulation in them of atoms of biogenic chemical elements. Concentration ability of living matter increases the content of chemical elements atoms in organisms in comparison with the environment by several orders of magnitude. Carbon content in plants is 200 times, and nitrogen is 30 times higher than their level in the earth’s crust. The content of manganese in some bacteria can be millions of times greater than in the environment. The result of the concentration activity of living matter is the formation of deposits of minerals, limestones, ore deposits, etc. 4. Oxidation-reductional – oxidation and reduction of various substances with the participation of living organisms. Under the influence of living organisms, there is an intensive migration of atoms of elements with variable valence (Fe, Mn, S, P, N, etc.), their new compounds are formed, deposits of sulfides and mineral sulfur, formation of hydrogen sulphide, etc. occur. 5. Destructive – destruction by organisms and products of their vital activity, including after their death, as the remains of organic matter, and inert substances. The most significant role in this respect is performed by decomposers (destructors) – saprotrophic fungi and bacteria. 6. Transport – transfer of substance and energy as a result of organisms active form motion. Such transfer can be carried out on huge distances, for example, at migrations and movements of animals. The concentration role of organisms communities, for example, in places of their congestion (bird’s markets and other colonial settlements) is considerably connected with transport function.

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7. Environmentl-forming – transformation of physical and chemical parameters of the environment. This function is considerably integrated – represents result of joint action of other functions. It has different scales of manifestation. Both all biosphere and the soil as one of habitats, and more local structures is result of environment-forming function. 8. Disseminating – the function opposite concentration – dispersion of substances in the environment. It is shown through trophic and transport activity of organisms. For example, dispersion of substance at allocation by organisms of excrement, change of covers, etc. The level of hemoglobin of blood dissipates blood-sicking insects. 9. Informational – accumulation by living organisms of certain information, fixing it in hereditary structures and transferring it to subsequent generations. This is one of the manifestations of adaptation mechanisms. The presence of an evolutionary process is characteristic of living matter. The genetic information of any organism is encrypted in each of its cells. 10. Biogeochemical activity of a person – transformation and transfer of biosphere substances as a result of human activity for the economic and domestic needs of a person. For example, the use of carbon concentrators – oil, coal, gas, etc. Thus, the modern biosphere is a complex dynamic system that captures, accumulates and transfers energy through the exchange of substances between living matter and the environment. Distribution of living matter in the biosphere The most important property of live substance is the ability to reproduction and distribution on the planet. Live substance is spread in the biosphere unevenly: the areas space which are densely occupied by organisms alternate with less populated territories. The highest concentration of life in the biosphere is observed on borders of contact of terrestrial covers: the atmospheres and lithospheres (land surface), the atmospheres and hydrospheres (the surface of the ocean), hydrospheres and lithospheres (ocean bottom), and es-

CHAPTER 6. The concept of living substance

pecially on border of three covers – the atmospheres, lithospheres and hydrospheres (coastal zones). Vernadsky called these places of the highest concentration of life “life films”. Up and down from these surfaces concentration of live matter decreases. At present, according to the species composition, animals (over 2.0 million species) (0.5 million) predominate over plants on the Earth. At the same time, phytomass reserves account for 99% of the living biomass of the Earth. The biomass of land is 1000 times greater than the biomass of the ocean. On land, biomass and the number of species of organisms as a whole increase from the poles to the equator. An important feature of the biosphere is its interconnection with other geospheres of the Earth. The main mass of living matter, the presence of which distinguishes the biosphere from other geospheres, is concentrated in a relatively small layer of the biosphere, located at a depth of 23 km deep into the land and 1-2 km below the ocean bottom. Man in terms of the evolution laws. Ecological niches of man The influence of humankind on geochemical processes differs from the impact of other living beings, firstly, by its intensity, increasing with the course of geological time; secondly, the impact that the activities of people have on other living organisms. This impact affects, above all, the creation of numerous new species of cultivated plants and domestic animals. Such species did not exist before and without the help of man either die or turn into wild breeds. Therefore, Vernadsky considers the geochemical work of living matter in the indissoluble connection of the animal, plant kingdom and cultural humanity as a single whole. The place of the person in the system of the nature is defined first by the fact that the person in view of considerable alienation from other wildlife, thanks to the big number and huge above biological consumption became the main cause of infringement of balance in the nature.

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By consideration of the human relationship and the nature it is not enough to state only quantitative expansion and scales of anthropogenic influences, it is necessary to understand why the humankind has appeared in such situation to what it conducts and what exit from it can be. Evolution of the human had a number of the features important for understanding of biology and ecology of the person. 1. Apelike ancestors of the human had no significant morphological, physiological and ecological specialization that means the increased adaptability in evolution. 2. Evolution of the human confirms the rule of acceleration of evolution, People – the youngest species of large animals on Earth. 3. The high adaptability, lack of complete set of conservative instincts have caused extraordinary development of the highest forms of behavior, his intelligence at ancestors of the human. 4. The final stages of anthropogenesis are marked by emergence of culture – sets of tools for material values, speech and sign information transfer and training at a basis of imitation of alarm memory. Culture becomes the dominating factor of evolution of the human, emergence of society and a civilization, weakening pressure of natural selection. 5. Rates of social progress and development of material culture not only advances biological evolution of the human, but also slow down it. Unlike ecological niches of animals, ecological human niches constantly changed, increasing with increasing speed along with the stages of the historical development of humankind. Early archanthropines occupied a niche of gatherers. The beginning of the use of fire and increased consumption of animal food has expanded the ecological niches to the niche of primitive hunters and fishermen. Transition to agriculture, settled life, creation of constant settlements and division of labor were meant by emergence of steady material culture – emergence of a civilization. Distribution of agriculture was followed by development of cattle breeding and economy, and development of nomadic cattle breeding. It has led to development of considerable territories of subtropics and a moderate belt and to increase in number of people. It has territorially defined ecological

CHAPTER 6. The concept of living substance

niches of big populations of people, in them there were conditions of development of crafts, trade and concentration of people in the cities. The use of machines made it possible to significantly increase the yield of agricultural production, to develop new territories. By the end of the twentieth century, the average energy consumption per inhabitant of the planet was 25 times greater than its need for food energy. For the bulk of humankind is characterized by a steady increase in energy density per unit area. These trends correspond to the law of maximization of energy and information, which largely determines the evolution of biosystems. Co-evolutionary character of the development of society and nature at the present stage of the development of the biosphere The conditions of human survival require more active development and implementation of a single global strategy for safe social development, guaranteeing the transition to a society where the interests of the economy, politics and social life with the opportunities of nature will be purposefully coordinated. This can be considered the discovery of our time and the main reason for the development of the strategy of co-evolution of society and nature. The concept of co-evolution in its modern form is more a rational idea than a model of the future of social development. It has become an alternative to the contradictory processes taking place in society, when the economic, political, intellectual inequality between individuals, social groups, regions and countries, between individual states has reached its culmination. There was a question of fundamental change of reference points, in development of society that has been caused by social, economic and ecological changes and is aimed at finding new alternative models and ideals of the future. People are united in communities. The composition of these communities also includes the surrounding plants and animals, which are a source of food and other necessary materials for people. Consequent-

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ly, taking into account abiotic factors, the ecological system in which a person functions is composed of communities of people and their habitat. Ecological systems in which a person occupies an important place are extremely diverse in size, content and organization, which make the classification of these systems extremely difficult. Nevertheless, they are ecological systems in which the centers are villages, cities and other settlements. All elements of ecological systems form a single set, and this is determined by the fact that they are united among themselves by so-called food chains, by which is meant the transfer from the consuming organisms of the energy source (the Sun) through the consuming organisms (in a number of supply chains to the final link is a person) to the organisms-destroyers. (VI) General subjective types questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Define the modern biosphere. Explain the boundaries of the biosphere. Name the functions of living matter in the biosphere. What evidence shows the youth of mankind as a biological species? Explain the photosynthesis. Define is the biotic cycle. How we the name of the process of synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic due to the energy of light? 8. Define the co-evolution of society and nature. 9. What features of the ecological niches of a human? 10. What is man in terms of the laws of evolution?

CHAPTER 7. Global biogeochemical cycles

CHAPTER 7 Global biogeochemical cycles 1. Biogeochemical processes in the biosphere 2. The water cycle 3. The cycle of biogenic elements and their anthropogenic modification 4. Energy flows in the biosphere. Energy exchange. Ecological consequences of using traditional energy sources Biogeochemical processes in the biosphere The flow of solar energy forms the global physical cycles of air and water on Earth. The motion of air masses, in addition to mechanical effects, causes an aero genic migration of substances, primarily water vapor and dust particles, aerosols of different composition. The most common chemical compound on the surface of the Earth is water. The overwhelming majority of living organisms need fresh water, the reserves of which constitute only 0,013% of the total water reserve on the planet. The water content in actively functioning cells and tissues ranges from 70 to 98%. The global water cycle is the most significant cycle in terms of the mass carried and the energy costs cycle on Earth. During the year, only 0.04% of the mass of the hydrosphere is involved, but this corresponds to 18.3 million m3 of water per second and more than 40 Megawatt of Solar energy. The duration of a large water cycle is about 2 million years.

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In this large water cycle, appreciable participation made by living organisms, ecosystems. Plants intercept some of the precipitation and contribute to the evaporation of moisture before it enters the soil. Soil moisture is absorb by plant roots, participates in the metabolism and then evaporates from the leaves (transpiration). Transpiration is total evaporation. In addition to the physical cycles of water and air, physicochemical cycles of many chemical elements and their compounds are also involved in their. The water cycle The main source of water supply is atmospheric precipitation, and the main source of consumption is evaporation. Duration of the circuit: the ocean (3000 years), groundwater (5000 years), polar glaciers (8500 years), lakes (17 years), rivers (10 days), water in living organisms – several hours. Oceans occupies 70% of the Earth’s surface, water enters the air, mainly by evaporating from the surface of the ocean. During evaporation, only water molecules rise into the air, and salts and other substances remain on the ground. When water vapor condenses, only water is formed from it, the earth and the atmosphere work as a giant desalted and purifier. Evaporation also comes from the surface of lakes, rivers, soils, etc. When the air, which is saturated with water vapor as much as possible, is cooled, the water condenses: its molecules merge into droplets. The amount of water vapor in the air is determined as moisture, usually in percentage (%). In the atmosphere, water condenses on dust particles, results in fog and clouds. When these drops or ice crystals become large enough, it’s raining or snowing. Water that gets to the ground, or absorbed into the soil or flows down it. On the surface, water drains into streams, rivers, further into the ocean, where evaporation occurs. Water absorbed into the soil,

CHAPTER 7. Global biogeochemical cycles

or retained in the soil in an amount that depends on the water-holding capacity of the soil, and returns to the atmosphere during evaporation, or seeps down the cracks by gravity, reaching an impenetrable layer of rock, accumulates and called groundwater. Further, water flows to the surface and forms springs, and springs feed streams, etc. The cycle of biogenic elements and their anthropogenic modification The cycle of biogenic elements, caused by the synthesis and decomposition of organic substances in the ecosystem is call the biotic cycle. In addition to biogenic elements, biota – important mineral elements and many different compounds for biota are involved in the biotic cycle. In general, the entire cyclic process of chemical transformations, caused by the biota, calls the biogeochemical cycle. Human interference disturbs the processes of circulation, for example, deforestation and burning of fuel affects the carbon cycle. Oxygen on Earth is the first element in its abundance: its content (in percent) in the atmosphere is 21, in the biosphere (in dry organics) – 44.8, in the lithosphere – 47.2, in the hydrosphere – 86.9. However, aquatic organisms are need oxygen dissolved in water. Its average content in the upper layer of the hydrosphere is 4.5 mg/l and it undergoes considerable fluctuations. The oxygen content in the atmosphere is – 288 mg/l and over a long geological era is constant. For most organisms, oxygen has great physiological significance. The concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is 21 % constant, its decrease by 2-3% does not have a noticeable physiological effect, but a significant defect leads to a physiological disturbance and includes an acclimatization mechanism. The formation of ozone is closely connected with the oxygen cycle. In the high layers of the atmosphere, under the influence of the hard ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum, some oxygen molecules are

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ionized and dissociated, atomic oxygen is formed, which immediately joins the excited oxygen molecules forming ozone-triatomic oxygen. Ozone absorbing a significant part of the hard ultraviolet rays at its formation, and plays a protective role for the entire ecosphere. This is due to one of the most critical circumstances of the current environmental situation, since the formation and content of ozone in the atmosphere is uneven, there are areas of significant ozone screen weakening, the so-called ozone holes. The chemical element «carbon» determines the complex mechanism of evolution on the Earth. Carbon is an integral part of rock and in the form of carbon monoxide (CO) – a part of atmospheric air. CO sources – volcanoes, respiration, forest fires, fuel combustion, industry, etc. The atmosphere is intensely exchanging CO with the World Ocean, where it is 60 times larger than in the atmosphere, because CO is readily soluble in water (the lower the temperature, the higher the solubility; CO is greater in low latitudes). The ocean acts like a giant pump: it absorbs CO in cold regions and partially blows out in the tropics. The excess amount of CO in the ocean combines with water, forming carbonic acid. Connecting with Ca, K, Na, forms stable compounds in the form of carbonates, which settle on the bottom. Phytoplankton in the ocean absorbs CO in the process of photosynthesis. Dying, the organisms become part of the sedimentary rocks. This shows the interaction of a large and small circulation of substances. Atom C from the molecule of CO2 in the course of photosynthesis is included in the composition of glucose, and then in the composition of more complex compounds, of which plants are built. Later they are transported along food chains, form the tissues of all other living organisms in the ecosystem, and return to the environment as part of CO2. In addition, carbon is present in oil and coal. Burning fuel, a human also completes the cycle of carbon contained in fuel – so there is a biological carbon cycle. The remaining mass of carbon is founded in carbonate sediments of the ocean bottom (1.3-10 tons), in crystalline rocks (1-10 tons), in coal and oil (3.4-10 tons). This carbon takes part in the ecological cycle. Life on Earth and the gas balance of the atmosphere is supported by a relatively small amount of carbon (5-10 tons).

CHAPTER 7. Global biogeochemical cycles

Nitrogen is part of the structure of all proteins and nucleic acids and at the same time is the most limiting substance from biogenic elements. The colossal amount of free nitrogen in the atmosphere is only negligible affected by the biotic cycle. Nitrogen is a part of proteins. Circulation of nitrogen is somewhat complicated, because it includes a gaseous and a mineral phase. The bulk of nitrogen is in the air (78%). However, plants cannot assimilate nitrogen directly from the atmosphere, but only in the form of NH4+ and NO3- ions. There are bacteria and blue-green algae that can turn gaseous nitrogen into ions. Bacteria living on the nodules of leguminous plants play the most important role among nitrogen-fixing organisms. Plants provide bacteria with habitat and food (sugars), getting from them an accessible form of nitrogen in return. On food chains, organic nitrogen is transferred from beans to other organisms of the ecosystem. Organic nitrogen compounds after the death of organisms with the help of bacteria decompose to ammonia and nitrates (HNO3 ). Nitrates are partially re-absorbed by the plants, partially restored to N2, again entering the atmosphere. Almost 80% of the global cycle of nitrogen is provided by the bacterial cycle. Phosphorus also refers to limiting elements. It is a part of the vital compounds of all organisms’ cellular structures. In soil, phosphorus founds in the form of acid calcium orthophosphates, as well as complex compounds with other metals. Plants that absorb phosphate from the soil include a biotic cycle that is mediated by all groups of organisms. Among them decomposers – mineralizers, closing the cycle and returning phosphorus to the soil, play an important role. This element is a part of genes and molecules that transport energy within cells to bone tissue. In various minerals, phosphorus is contained in the form of PO43- ions. Phosphates are soluble in water, but not volatile. Plants absorb PO43- ions from an aqueous solution and are included in various organ compounds. By food chains, it passes from plants to other organisms. At each stage, phosphorus can be removed from the body as part of urine. Difference with the carbon cycle - there is a gaseous phase (CO2) in the carbon cycle, there is no gas phase in the phospho-

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rus. Phosphates circulate in the ecosystem only if phosphorus-containing waste of life is deposited at the site of absorption of this element. In natural ecosystems, this is what happens. Phosphorus can also come with detergents and fertilizers. Phosphorus is considered the weakest link in the biotic cycle; the phosphorus cycle is opened because a significant part of the continental runoff of phosphorus falls into deep oceanic sediments and is turned off from the cycle. This open loop is enhance by anthropogenic interference. Approximately the same relationships are observed in the global sulfur cycle. The demand for biota in sulfur is relatively low, and the natural sulfur reservoirs are huge. The biotic cycle of sulfur is included in the general, largely abiogenic process of the gradual conversion of reduced forms of sulfur (mainly sulphide ores) into oxidized forms. The biotic cycle of biogenic cations K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+ and microelements on land is limited by their consumption from the soil, subsequent migration by trophic chains and return to the soil with the help of mineralizing decomposers. Flows of energy in the biosphere. Energy exchange Global processes of formation and movement of living matter in the biosphere are connected and accompanied by a cycle of matter and energy. Unlike purely geological processes, biogeochemical cycles involving living matter have a much higher intensity, speed and quantity of matter involved in the circulation. With the emergence and development of humankind, the process of evolution has noticeably changed. In the early stages of civilization, deforestation and burning of forests for agriculture, grazing, hunting and hunting for wild animals, wars, devastated entire regions, led to the destruction of plant communities, the destruction of certain species of animals. As civilization developed, especially after the industrial revolution of the end of the Middle Ages, humankind was gaining more and more energy, an ever increasing ability to involve and use to meet its growing needs huge masses of mat-

CHAPTER 7. Global biogeochemical cycles

ter – both organic, living, and mineral, inert. The real shifts in the biosphere processes began in the 20th century because of another industrial revolution. The rapid development of energy, engineering, chemistry, transport, has led to the fact that human activity has become comparable in scale with the natural energy and material processes occurring in the biosphere. The intensity of consumption of energy and material resources by humankind grows in proportion to the population and even outstrips its growth. V.I. Vernadsky wrote: «Man becomes a geological force capable of changing the face of the Earth». This warning was prophetically justified. The consequences of anthropogenic (humaninduced) activities are manifested in the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the biosphere with production waste, destruction of natural ecosystems, changes in the structure of the Earth’s surface, and climate change. Anthropogenic impacts lead to a disruption of almost all natural biogeochemical cycles Ecological consequences of using traditional energy sources The traditional sources include, firstly: thermal, nuclear power and water flow energy. Thermal power plant (TPP), a power plant that generates electricity as a result of conversion of thermal energy released by burning fossil fuels. The first TPPs appeared at the end of the 19th century and gained a predominant distribution. In the middle 1970s, TPPs were the main type of power plants. The share of electricity they produced was in Russia and the United States over 80% (1975), in the world about 76% (1973). Hydroelectric power station (HPP), a complex of facilities and equipment, through which the energy of the water flow is converted into electrical energy. The hydropower plant consists of a series of hydraulic structures that provide the necessary concentration of water flow and the creation of pressure, and energy equipment that converts energy moving under the pressure of water into mechanical energy of rotation, which, in turn, is converted into electrical energy.

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The nuclear power plant (NPP) is a power plant in which nuclear (nuclear) energy is converted into electrical energy. The nuclear power plant is an atomic reactor. The heat that is released in the reactor as a result of the chain reaction of nuclear fission of some heavy elements, then in the same way as in conventional thermal power plants (TPPs), is converted into electricity. Unlike TPPs operating on fossil fuels, the NPP operates on nuclear fuels (at the base of 233U, 235U, 239Pu). It is established that the world energy resources of nuclear fuel (uranium, plutonium, etc.) significantly exceed the energy resources of natural reserves of organic fuel (oil, coal, natural gas, etc.). This opens up broad prospects for meeting the rapidly growing demand for fuel. Significant deficiencies in nuclear power plants under normal operating conditions have practically no effect. However, one cann’t fail to notice the danger of nuclear power plants under possible force majeure circumstances: earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. – here old models of power units represent a potential danger of radiation contamination of territories due to uncontrolled overheating of the reactor. Non-traditional renewable sources of energy (NRSE) – these include wind, Solar, geothermal energy, biomass and energy of the Oceans. The main advantage of renewable energy sources is their inexhaustibility and environmental cleanliness. Their use does not change the energy balance of the planet. However, these energy sources also have negative properties. This is a low flux density (specific power) and the variability in time of most NRSE. The first circumstance makes it necessary to create large areas of power plants that intercept the flow of energy used (the receiving surfaces of solar installations, the area of​​ the wind wheel, the long dams of tidal power plants, etc.). This leads to a large material intensity of such devices, and, consequently, to an increase in specific investments in comparison with traditional power installations. Nevertheless, increased capital investment subsequently pays off due to low operating costs. For example, a normal solar battery does not need repair a few dozen (!) years. These qualities also have caused the rapid development of renewable energy in the whole world and very optimistic forecasts of their development in the next decade.

CHAPTER 7. Global biogeochemical cycles (VII) General subjective types questions 1. Define restrictions that ecology impose on human use of land, water and biological resources of the planet. 2. Explain the inefficiency using of the non-renewable fuel and mineral resources. 3. What does environmental damage mean? 4. Is ozone useful or harmful to living things? Discuss the threat of its depletion in atmosphere. 5. How does the light affect distribution and growth of plants? Explain with examples. 6. What does biotic cycle mean? Explain with examples. 7. Define water cycle. 8. Explain carbon cycle. 9. Why global cycle of nitrogen is named as bacterial cycle? 10. Define future of non-renewable sources of energy use.

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CHAPTER 8 Anthropogenic effects as ageological and geochemical factor of the biosphere evolution 1. Withdrawal of natural resources. The origins of the environmental crisis 2. Contamination of the environment 3. Environmental crisis, at the global, regional and local levels 4. The impact of harmful and dangerous factors of production and the environment on human health Withdrawal of natural resources. The origins of the environmental crisis Since nature is the basis of human life, its exhaustion and degradation under existing economic relations adversely affects social relations, the growth of poverty and the structures of production and consumption. On the other hand, it turned out that many renewable natural goods do not have the proper value, which is the source of their exhaustion and degradation. The satisfaction of human needs is inconceivable without the exploitation of natural resources. Any production, in

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fact, is based on their use. Humanity consumes minerals, coal, oil and wood, harvests, transforming natural capital into economic (industrial production, buildings, transport, goods and services). At the same time, natural systems are destroyed and polluted, and if this damage exceeds their ability to recover – we begin to take credit from nature to the account of future generations who will also need this natural capital. The model used by developing countries in the 1950s and 1960s of the last century, it focused on achieving economic efficiency. It was believed that only the effectiveness of the economic system is able to pave the way to universal prosperity and end inequality both within a single country and on a global scale. However, it has been repeatedly pointed out that the economic system of industrially developed countries is extremely inefficient, based on disproportionately high expenditures of natural resources. By the early 70’s in the twentieth century, the increasing number of poor people in developing countries and the lack of economic development benefits led to an increase in the number of attempts to directly rectifying the distribution of income. The development paradigm shifted towards balanced growth, which explicitly took into account social goals and attached them the same importance as economic efficiency. With the development of industry accompanied by an increase in the population and the growth of large cities, the destruction of the biosphere increases from local to large regional dimensions. The increased intensity and scale of human activity leads to a violation of the ecological balance. It became obvious: the only thing that can fix the situation is concrete actions, undertaken on a large scale and coordinated at the world level. In the 70s of the 20th century, when environmental problems sharply escalated throughout the world, economic science is faced the task of comprehending the current trends in environmental and economic development and create fundamentally new concepts of development. One of the main tasks of development was the protection of the environment.

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By the early 80’s in the last century, a large amount of information was accumulated that indicates that environmental degradation is a serious barrier to economic development. It was pointed out that disregard for environmental problems cann’t be justified by the need to solve other seemingly more urgent tasks. Excessive consumption of natural resources leads to imbalance in the environment. Economic activity of humankind during the last century has led to serious pollution of our planet with a variety of production wastes. The air pool, water and soil in areas of large industrial centers often contain toxic substances whose concentration exceeds the maximum permissible concentration (MPC). Since the cases of a significant excess of the MPC are quite frequent and the incidence of pollution associated with environmental pollution has increased, in the last decades specialists and the media, and after them the population began to use the term – environmental crisis (EC). The environmental crisis is the current state of the relationship between human society and the environment in which a human lives. There are the contradictions between the economic interests of society in the consumption and use of the natural environment and the environmental requirements for ensuring the preservation, the quality of this environment for the survival of the very society. One of the reasons for the tension in the interactions between society and nature is the consumer attitude towards nature that has taken root in the minds of people. From the moment of appearance on Earth, a human has become accustomed to continuously taking from nature its resources. It was not one millennium that he cut down forests, hunted animals, caught fish, and used the fertility of soils created by nature. Until relatively recently, nature could itself restore the equilibrium disturbed in ecosystems, and this gave rise to a false belief in the person about the immensity of natural resources, about the possibility of taking them from nature, not returning anything to it. Thus, uncontrolled economic growth and consumption of natural resources exacerbated the EC.

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In the structure of EC, there are two sides – natural and social. The natural side of the EC combines the signs of degradation, destruction of the natural environment (for more details, see the next section): –– Global warming of the climate, greenhouse effect; –– General weakening of the Earth’s ozone layer; the appearance of ozone holes; –– Atmospheric pollution, the formation of acid rain, photochemical reactions with the formation of ozone; –– Pollution of the world’s oceans, disposal of highly toxic and radioactive wastes, pollution with oil, oil products, pesticides, surfactants, heavy metals, thermal pollution; –– Pollution and depletion of surface water, imbalance between surface and groundwater; –– Surface contamination of the entire complex of pollutants: solid waste, heavy and radioactive elements, change in geochemistry of land and groundwater; –– Reduction of forest areas as a result of fires, industrial felling, losses of already harvested wood, acid rain, illegal cutting, harmful insects and diseases, industrial emissions (including nuclear accidents); –– Degradation of soils, desertification as a result of deforestation, irrational land use, drought, overgrazing, irrational irrigation (bogging, salinization); –– Violations of ecological balance at global and regional scales, general overpopulation of the planet and high population density in different regions, deterioration of the quality of life in cities. The social side of EC is manifested in the following social phenomena: –– Ineffectiveness of the work of special bodies for the protection of the environment, protection and use of forests, fish resources, wildlife, subsoil; –– Confrontation of representative and executive authorities, local self-government, which exacerbates the inefficiency of work;

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–– Failure to comply with legislation and unfair enforcement of orders by business enterprises; –– The inability of law enforcement agencies to ensure control and supervision over the implementation of laws on environmental protection; –– In the mass disrespect of environmental legal requirements, violation and non-fulfillment of them. Contamination of the environment The volume of anthropogenic impact on nature and environment in the twentieth century became too large and approached the limit of stability of the biosphere. The vast majority of anthropogenic influences is purposeful, that is, carried out by man consciously in order to achieve their goals. There are human-made impacts spontaneous, involuntary, having the nature of the consequences. Thus, anthropogenic transformation of landscapes and pollution often leads to the emergence of areas of increased environmental risk, disasters. Man was trapped between his essence and alienation from nature. Humanity of the twentieth century in the conditions of industrial society has acquired the features of consumption civilization, which leads to excessive human-made stress on nature and the environment. Humanity’s environmental problems are closely link to economic and social ones. Well-known ecologist Barry Commoner (1917 – 2012) identified five main types of human interventions in environmental processes: –– Simplification of ecosystems and the biotic gap relationships, a sharp reduction in the area of undisturbed ecosystems, resulting in violation of the biosphere equilibrium; –– Concentration of dispersed energy in the form of thermal pollution due to uncontrolled consumption and withdrawal of renewable and non-renewable natural resources; –– Introduction to the ecosystem of new species; –– Increase in the number of toxic wastes from chemical industries;

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–– The emergence of genetic modifications of organisms of plants and animals. The main and most common type of negative human impact on the biosphere is environmental pollution – the entry into the environment of any solid, liquid and gaseous substances, microorganisms or energies (in the form of sounds, noises, radiation) in quantities harmful to the normal state of ecosystems. The types of classifications of pollution

Table 8.1

By origin: Natural

Examples − It is pollution that occurs without human intervention or as a result of his distant indirect impact on nature; − Spontaneous, �������������������������������������������������������������� catastrophic natural processes: mudslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, fires.

Anthropogenic

− It is any pollution caused by human activity.

By the objects of pollution: Examples Water − Discharges: industrial wastewater, agricultural, household Atmosphere

− Emissions: metals, oxides, soot, dioxins

Soil

− Pesticides

Landscape

− Rivers, lakes, mountains, forests

By duration and scale of distribution Temporary

Examples

Permanent

− At functioning enterprises (transmission lines, CHP)

Local

− In a separate enterprise

Regional

− Across the country

Transboundary

− Pollution of the air basin, rivers, seas at the border of countries.

Global

− Factors ������������������������������������������������������������� of global environmental problems (freons, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT))

− Accidental or sporadic emissions, spills

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Ecology and sustainable development By the Examples sources and types of pollutants Physical − ���������������������������������������������������������������� Pollution manifested in deviations from the norm of its temperature-energy, wave, radiation and other physical properties; − Thermal: emissions/discharges of heated gases and wastewater; − Lighting: artificial lighting in industrial centers, cities; − Noise: technical devices transport (airfields, industrial objects.); − Radioactive (chemical): nuclear installations, tests, accidents. Chemical − Sources: industry, transport, agricultural. Biological − Bringing in ecosystems uncharacteristic for their species of living organisms that affect human health and economic activity; − Random natural or more often associated with human activity skid of alien organisms as a result of mechanical introduction of nonnative species and creation of biotechnological products. Biological pollution is promoted by change of natural conditions of habitats as a result of physical, chemical influences; − Microbiological - mass reproduction of microorganisms. Biotic − Undesirable from the point of view of a person exceeding in the environment (soil, water, air) the content of certain species of biogenesis or the emergence of new species; − ������������������������������������������������������������������ Sources: flushing into reservoirs of mineral and organic fertilizers, accumulation of sewage, dead organisms, pesticides. Mechanical − ���������������������������������������������������������������� Pollution of the environment with respect to physical and chemical inert household and industrial waste: construction and household waste, packaging materials). Soil and water bodies are the most affected; − ������������������������������������������������������������������ Deterioration of aesthetic and recreational qualities of the environment; − Clogging around outer space (about 3,000 tons of debris).

Pollution objects are distinguished by pollution of surface and groundwater, air pollution, soil pollution, near-earth space, etc. (table 8.1). Pollutant – a substance or a mixture of substances that exceed the established standards and have a negative impact on the environment. In this case, the surface of the earth is experiencing the greatest load. For compare: 1 billion tons of garbage is released into the atmosphere, 15 billion tons – into the hydrosphere, 85 billion tons – into the earth. For each unit of production accounts for up to 10 pieces of garbage. The main sources of pollution:

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–– Solid and liquid waste from extracting, processing and chemical industries; –– Consumption waste; –– Agricultural waste; –– Pesticides; –– Accidental releases; –– Atmospheric deposition of toxic substances. The most dangerous are those that penetrate into the water, plants, such as heavy metal compounds, derivatives of petroleum products. For types of dirt release chemicals (such as carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in urban areas), physical (heat, noise, radioactive elements) and biological contamination (bacteria, viruses). The scale and distribution of the pollution may be local, regional and global. The number of pollutants in the world is huge and constantly growing with the development of new technologies, but the largest number falls on the following pollutants: sulfur dioxide, heavy metals, some carcinogens, in particular benzapyrene, petroleum products in the seas and oceans, organochlorine pesticides (in rural areas), radionuclides, dioxins, etc. Currently, the main contribution to the pollution of the atmosphere give the following sectors: thermal power plants (TTP), enterprises of ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, oil production and petrochemistry, transport, production of construction materials. The most important environmental impacts of global atmospheric pollution include: –– Ozone layer disturbance; –– Acid rain fallout; –– Possible warming of the climate (greenhouse effect). The main types of pollution of the hydrosphere are chemical (oil and oil products, synthetic surfactants, pesticides, heavy metals, dioxins, etc.), bacterial (pathogenic microbes and viruses), physical (radioactive substances, heat, etc.). The main sources of pollution of surface and groundwater include: discharge of untreated wastewater into reservoirs, washing off of tox-

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ic chemicals by storm precipitation, gas-smoke emissions, oil and oil product leaks. The main environmental consequence of pollution of the hydrosphere is anthropogenic eutrophication. It is a sharp increase in the phytoplankton biomass due to mass reproduction of blue-green algae, which cause algal blooms, worsening its quality and living conditions of hydro-bionts. Water depletion is an unacceptable reduction in their stocks within a certain area or a decrease in the minimum permissible flow (for surface waters). The main anthropogenic impacts on soils are as follows: Erosion (wind, water) – destruction and demolition of the upper fertile horizons and underlying rocks by wind or water flows, pollution, secondary salinization and waterlogging, desertification, alienation of land for industrial and municipal construction. Desertification is a process of irreversible change in soil and vegetation and a decrease in biological productivity, which can lead to the complete destruction of the biosphere potential and the transformation of the territory into a desert. At the anthropogenic impact on rocks there are static, dynamic, thermal, electrical effects. At the same time, dangerous processes develop landslides, karst, flooding, subsidence processes, etc. Environmental crisis at the global, regional and local levels Environmental damage refers to a significant regional violation of environmental conditions, which seriously threatens the health, lives of people, and causes economic damage. The lesions can be: –– sudden, catastrophic, related to emergencies, they are divided into natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mudslides, etc.), man-made disasters (industrial and communication accidents, explosions, collapses, etc.) –– extended in time, when the defeat is a long, gradually fading consequence of emergency, disaster.

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The greatest environmental danger is represented by man-made disasters, which are accompanied by the release of harmful chemical and radiation substances into the environment. The largest radiation accident in Chernobyl will remind the world of the nuclear threat for a long time. Even greater release of radionuclides occurred in 1957 in an accident at the production Association “Mayak” (Chelyabinsk-65). Common to them: uncontrolled events that caused death and injury to a large number of people. Between some of natural and anthropogenic environmental lesions there are no clear boundaries. Thus, it is impossible clearly establish the cause of the fire, landslides and floods can be the result of a technical accident. Areas of territory where because of economic or other activity there is a steady negative change in the environment are designated as zones of environmental emergency situation (ZEES). Areas of the territory where, as a result of economic or other activities, there have been profound irreversible changes in the environment, which have caused a significant deterioration in the health of the population, disturbance of natural equilibrium, destruction of natural ecosystems, degradation of flora and fauna are declared zones of environmental disaster (ZED). • The issue of climate change The problem of climate change is extremely urgent today. The thermophysical processes caused by the solar energy flow in the atmosphere are realized in the form of various climate manifestations. The ecological and climatic characteristics of the area include average annual values and seasonal temperature fluctuations, absolute lows and highs. Based on it, for any site determine the macroclimate, and build charts – climogramas. Individual landscapes are characterize by mesoclimate. Some habitats may have its own microclimate, quite different from the microclimate (microclimate of tree crowns, holes, spaces). Of all the climatic factors associated with the energy of the biosphere, the

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greatest environmental importance is temperature. The air temperature on Earth ranges from -88.3 °C to + 58.7 °C. The climate on our planet is changing, and changing quickly enough that no scientist denies. However, fears are on the agenda that human-induced warming has been added to natural climate change. In recent decades, there has been increasing talk of the impact of humanity on climate change. Climate change does not mean a simple rise in temperature. The established term “global climate change” refers to the restructuring of all geosystems. Global warming is seen only as one aspect of change. Global warming is associated with the results of human activity – with increasing emissions of greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. TTPs, transport and urban facilities produce about one third of the carbon dioxide emitted into the Earth’s atmosphere. The main cause of global warming is consider the increase in the concentration of “greenhouse gases”, gases that contribute to the delay of terrestrial radiation and thereby contribute to the accumulation of heat on Earth. These gases delay infrared radiation, which emits the earth’s surface, thus creating a “greenhouse effect”. The phenomenon of greenhouse effect allows to maintain the temperature on the Earth’s surface, at which the occurrence and development of life is possible. If the greenhouse effect was absent, the average surface temperature of the globe would be much lower than it is now. The anthropogenic origin of modern climatic changes, in particular, confirms by paleoclimatic studies based on the analysis of the content of greenhouse gases in air bubbles frozen into the ice. They show that there has been no such concentration of CO2 over the past 650,000 years (and that there has been more than one warming of our planet over the years). Moreover, compared with pre-industrial era (1750), the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by a third. Modern global concentrations of methane and nitrous oxide are significantly higher than pre-industrial values. One of the main greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide, which enters the atmosphere because of combustion processes. There are some other factors: the negative impact of deforestation, mining, etc.

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In recent decades, many predictions have published about the devastating impact of global warming. Forecasts of climate change are made on the basis of mathematical models that use different sources of information, in particular, it is: –– Satellite data, over the past 20 years, –– World temperature statistics, –– Paleoclimatic data, which are obtained through archaeological and geological studies. Observations show an increase in Global sea level, melting glaciers and permafrost, increased irregularity of precipitation, the change in the flow regime of rivers and other global changes associated with climate instability. The basic predictions are about: –– Increase in the number and duration of droughts and forest fires, –– The increase in the number of powerful floods and hurricanes. Scientists’ findings suggest that continued climate change may lead to even more consequences that are dangerous in the future, if humanity does not take appropriate preventive measures. The consequences of climate change are already have being demonstrated, including an increase in the frequency and intensity of dangerous weather events and the spread of infectious diseases. They cause significant economic damage, threaten the sustainable existence of ecosystems, and threaten human health and life. According to the predictions of the international Council for climate change, an increase in world temperature of 1.5-2 °C, will lead to the threat of disappearance of 30% of animals and plants. By 2050, more than 1 billion people may be affected by chronic drinking water shortages. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – the most authoritative international body bringing together thousands of scientists from 130 countries, presented its Fourth assessment report, which provides summary conclusions about past and present climate changes and their impacts on nature and man and on possible measures to combat such changes.

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The Report States that, with a 90% probability, observed climate change is associated with human activities. The problem of destruction of the ozone layer of the Earth Currently, the depletion of the ozone layer is about 50% of its original condition. Extensive zones, where there is a decrease in ozone concentration in the upper atmosphere, called ozone holes. Ozone holes are a phenomenon of low ozone concentration in the stratosphere, which is located in the upper atmosphere of the earth at an altitude of 10 to 50 km, where there is a layer of high ozone concentration, called the ozone sphere. The formation of an ozone hole is associated with human economic activity and its constant interference in the environment. Ozone holes are located mainly in Polar Regions, such as Antarctica. In recent years, the appearance of ozone holes is also observe at the North Pole, over the Arctic, in the region of southern Argentina and Chile and periodically over the entire surface of the earth. According to annual research, ozone levels in these areas have reduced by about three per cent per year. In addition, the ozone layer of the Earth itself has is thinned out. Ozone is oxygen (О2), which at an altitude of 10 to 50 kilometers under the influence of sunlight ionizes, acquiring another atom of oxygen, resulting in ozone (О3). Ozone is a natural filter that protects the Earth from ultraviolet radiation and such compounds as CFC. What does an ozone hole mean? The ozone hole forms by the decomposition of ozone to a normal diatomic oxygen molecule and chlorine, which rises and reaches the upper layers of the atmosphere. Where does chlorine come from? Part of it comes from volcano gases, but more chlorine, which destroys the ozone layer, comes from the decomposition of freons, which are components of most paints, cosmetics and aerosol products. Also, such compounds are used for all types of cooling systems, they don’t burn, are not chemically ac-

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tive in natural and climatic conditions, but high in the atmosphere disintegrate under the influence of ultraviolet light and a substance that contains chlorine and destroys the ozone layer. Destruction of the ozone layer is mainly due to the chemical activity of its molecules. Entering into such substances as chlorine, bromine, hydrogen, methane, they are included in the reaction to them, causing ozone molecules to form other chemical compounds, losing their properties to hold solar radiation. Industry, household appliances and transport were increasing the atmospheric content of those substances, and ozone depletion was faster than its recovery. For a person, it threatens with an increase in skin cancers. However, if people can protect themselves against UV radiation, animal and plant life remains in front of him, defenseless. • The formation of acid rain Acid precipitation (rain, fog, snow) is precipitation, acidity of which is higher than normal. The measure of acidity is the pH value (pH value). The pH scale ranges from 0-2 (extremely high acidity), through 7 (neutral Medium) to 14 (alkaline medium), with the neutral point (pure distilled water) having pH=7. Rainwater in clean air has a pH=5,6. The lower the pH value, the higher the acidity. If the acidity of the water is below 5.5, the precipitation has considered acid. In large areas of the industrialized countries of the world there is precipitation, which exceeds the normal acidity of 10 - 1000 times (pH= 5-2,5). Chemical analysis of acid precipitation shows the presence of sulfuric (H2SO4) and nitric (HNO3) acids. The presence of sulfur and nitrogen in these formulas shows that the problem is associated with the release of these elements into the atmosphere. The combustion of fuel in air is formed sulphur dioxide, also takes place the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen with atmospheric oxygen and oxides of nitrogen. These gaseous products (sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide) react with atmospheric water to form acids (nitric and sulfuric)- Fig. 3.

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In aquatic ecosystems, acid precipitation causes the death of fish and other aquatic life. Acidification of river and lake waters also has a serious impact on terrestrial animals, as many animals and birds are part of food chains beginning in aquatic ecosystems. Together with the loss of lakes, forest degradation becomes apparent. Acids break the protective wax cover of leaves, making plants more vulnerable to insects, fungi and other pathogens. During drought, more moisture evaporates through the damaged leaves. Leaching of biogenes from the soil and release of toxic elements contribute to slowing the growth and death of trees. We can assume that is happening with wild animals, when they die the forest. If the forest ecosystem has destroyed, soil erosion, clogging of water bodies, flooding and deterioration of water resources become catastrophic. As a result of acidification, nutrients vital to plants are dissolved in the soil, these substances are carried by rain into the groundwater. At the same time, heavy metals leached from the soil, which are then have absorbed by plants, causing them serious damage. Using these plants in food, he also gets together with them a higher dose of heavy metals. When the soil fauna degrades, yields decline, the quality of agricultural products deteriorates, and this, as we know, entails a worsening in the health of the population. By the action of acids from rocks and minerals release aluminum, mercury and lead, which can then get into surface water and groundwater. Aluminum can cause Alzheimer’s disease, a form of premature aging. Heavy metals, which are in natural waters, negatively affect the kidneys, liver, ��������������������������������������������������� с�������������������������������������������������� entral nervous system, causing various cancer. Genetic consequences of heavy metal poisoning may occur in 20 years or more not only in those who consume dirty water, but also in their descendants. Acid rain can corrode metals, paints, synthetic compounds that destroy architectural monuments. In the Figure 8.1 demonstrated the formation of acid rain and it’s harmful effects.

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Figure 8.1. Acid rain, it’s causes and harmful effects

The most typical acid rain in industrial countries with highly developed energy. So, during the year of the Russian TTP emit into the atmosphere about 18 million tons of sulfur dioxide, and in addition, due to the Western air transport, sulfur compounds come from Ukraine and Western Europe. To combat acid rain it is necessary focused efforts on reducing emissions of acid-forming substances of the coal-fired power plants: –– Using low-sulfur coal or cleaning it from sulfur; –– Installation of filters for purification of gaseous products; –– The use of alternative energy sources. • Land degradation, desertification Land degradation – reduction or loss of biological and economic productivity of arable land or pastures because of land use. This is characterized by the dryness of the land, withering of vegetation, a decrease in connectedness of the soil, which makes it possible to quickly wind erosion and the formation of dust storms. Desertification – land degradation in arid, semi-arid (semiarid) and arid (sub-humid) regions of the globe, caused both by human activities (anthropogenic causes) and natural factors and processes. The term “climate desertification” has proposed by the French researcher Au-

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berville (1940). The term “land” in this case means a reproductive system consisting of soil, water, vegetation, other biomass, as well as ecological and hydrological processes within the system. Desertification is one of the most difficult to compensate for the effects of climate change, as it takes an average of 70 to 150 years to recover a conventional centimeter of fertile soil in the arid zone. • The loss of biodiversity Global changes in the atmosphere such as ozone depletion and climate change only adds to the problem of sharpness. A thinner ozone layer increases the extent of penetration of UV radiation on the Earth’s surface, where it affects living tissue. Global warming is already having a detrimental effect on the change of residence and migration trends of species. Scientists warn that a sharp increase in the average world temperature by even one degree will put many species on the verge of extinction. Our food production systems may also be severely affected. The loss of biodiversity often reduces the productivity of ecosystems, thereby impoverishing the natural storeroom of goods and services that we constantly use. It destabilizes ecosystems and weakens their capacity to cope with natural disasters such as floods, droughts and hurricanes, as well as anthropogenic stresses such as pollution and climate change. We are already spending huge sums to deal with the consequences of floods and hurricanes exacerbated by deforestation, which will only increase in the light of global warming. The loss of biological diversity and its impact on our lives manifests itself in various forms. Although the process of species extinction has always been considered a natural phenomenon, the rate of extinction is dramatically accelerated by human activity. There is fragmentation or extinction of individual ecosystems, incalculable number of species are on the verge of extinction or already extinct. We are on the verge of the greatest crisis that we have created, which will lead to the disappearance of more species than the natural disaster that left dinosaurs extinct 65 million years ago. The extinction of species is irreversible and, given our dependence on cereals, medicinal plants and other biological resources, poses a threat to our well-being. It is imprudent and

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dangerous, to constantly undermine the foundations of one’s own lifesupport system. At the very least, it is unethical to make the species disappear completely, thus depriving the present and future generations of options for survival and development. • The reduction in forest area Forests are one of the most important components of the biosphere, which have a diverse and exceptional impact on the natural environment of the planet. For example, Russia accounts for about 20% of the world’s forest cover. The evolution of society has changed the nature and extent of human impacts on forests, as well as on nature as a whole. According to estimates, occupies an area of forests during the historic period have decreased in two times. Reducing the forest areas leads to negative processes of global importance: soil erosion, reducing the diversity of flora and fauna, degradation of water basins, increasing the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere, reducing the amount of industrial and fuel wood, and ultimately – to reduce the potential of human life. We cann’t recognize the state of the world’s forests as prosperous. Some forests were particularly affected: 40-50% of the initial area of mixed and broad – leaved forests, 85-90% – monsoon, 70-80% – Mediterranean dry. Less than 5% of forests are left on the great Chinese and Indo-gang plains. The problem of forests in tropical and subtropical zones, where more than half of the world’s annual forest area is being cut down, is of particular concern to the world community. Among the main causes of forest area reduction are the following: forest fires, felling, industrial pollution, and pest damage, fungal and bacterial diseases of trees. Forest fires are burning vegetation, spontaneously spreading through the forest area. The main causes of forest fires are human activities, thunderstorms, spontaneous combustion of peat crumbs and agricultural bollards in hot weather conditions or in the so-called fire season (the period from the moment of melting snow cover in the forest to the appearance of full green cover or the onset of stable rainy autumn weather). Rates of deforestation do not slow down: their area is reduced by 200 thousand km

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annually. Of particular concern is the state of tropical forests, figuratively speaking “lungs” of our planet, which are cut down at a speed of 15-20 hectares per minute. Forests are intensively cut down and not always restored. The annual volume of logging is more than 4.5 billion m3. Already degraded 160 million hectares of tropical forests, and of the 11 million hectares harvested each year, only a tenth is being restored. In the face of increasing urbanization, population growth of cities and industrial centers in many forests, primarily suburban forest turned into places of mass recreation. Thus, the area of forests under recreational load in Russia and CIS countries is 320-400 thousand km². On this territory, there is a significant violation of forest ecosystems, ecological links. As a result, the forest cover declined from 50% to 33%, or one and a half times. Selectivity of felling affects the species composition of the forest. In forests, this leads to a decrease in the proportion of conifers. Great damage to forest resources causes soil moisture, flooding as a result of construction of HPP (especially in lowland areas), reservoirs, roads and Railways etc. Industrial enterprises throwing out into the atmosphere, water, soil various chemical compounds cause inhibition and death of trees, and shrubs. Significant damage to forests, meadows and pastures causes high levels of lead in the air, especially near major highways with heavy traffic, resulting in its accumulation in tissues and as a result causes depression, and often death. The main task of forest protection is their rational use and restoration. It is very important to increase the productivity of forests, their protection from fires and pests. In case of proper management of forestry, cuttings in certain areas should be repeated after 80-100 years. The excess of felling norms has led to the fact that forests have lost their climate-forming and waterregulating importance in many areas. • Kazakhstan’s environmental issues Kazakhstan has the richest reserves of mineral raw materials, has a sufficiently developed production and economic potential.

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Production of oil, gas and other mineral resources generates considerable wealth of Kazakhstan, the oil and gas sector provides about 30% of the country’s income. The Republic of Kazakhstan has proven recoverable oil reserves of 4,8 billion tons, which corresponds to 3% of the total oil reserves in the world and is among the twenty leading countries in hydrocarbon reserves. At the same time, the extensive approach in the economy brings its negative results. The oil and gas industry, which is the basis for the economic growth of our country, at the same time, is the cause of serious environmental problems. The sharp increase in the production of hydrocarbons observed in recent decades has caused an increase in the negative impact on the environment. Of particular concern is the fact that this problem is related to the activities of oil companies in the protected area. The big problem is the utilization of associated and natural gases in the extraction of hydrocarbons. When burning associated gas on the torches, emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and soot into the atmosphere occur. As of 2016, the main pollutants of atmospheric air was the manufacturing industry, their share in total emissions amounted to 39,6%, enterprises in the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water – 33,1%, mining industry – 16,5%, other enterprises – 10.8 %. The share of major industries in total emissions of harmful substances to the atmosphere is shown in the Table 8.2. The main part of the waste, as can be seen from Table 8.2, is the result of the activities of the mining and processing industry, iron and steel enterprises, petrochemicals, the production of construction materials. In terms of the negative impact on the environment, the energy and oil and gas sectors are also leading. Particularly acute in Kazakhstan is the issue of utilization of toxic by-products of oil production, such as sulfur, the issue of increasing radiation safety in oil production, as well as issues of reducing oil emissions into the aquatic environment and emissions of combustion products of natural gas into the atmosphere. The oil and gas production complex accounts for 70% of harmful emissions into the atmosphere (such as hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, mercaptans and sulfur dust).

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39

38

–

–

–

Proportion of total emissions in the atmosphere 29,0

25

–

–

–

–

8,1

20

16

43

23

3

24,0

Oil refining and petrochemical

–

–

13

–

82

15,5

Chemical industry

–

–

–

12

–

7,3

Non-ferrous metallurgy

16

22

–

–

–

10,5

Types of production Thermal power plant The production of construction materials Ferrous metallurgy

Dust

Sulphur Monox- Nitrogen Hydrodioxide ide oxides carbon

Enterprises of different profiles have various types of emissions, differing in environmental hazards: –– Metallurgical enterprises emit metal suspensions and their compounds (copper, iron, lead, zinc, nickel, hydrofluoric spar, cryolite, alumina, coal, sulfur dioxide, etc.); –– Machine-building enterprises – dust and gases containing silicon dioxide (foundries), carbon black (blacksmith shops), lead, carbon monoxide; –– Enterprises of oil refining and viscose industry emit hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons; –– Chemical industry enterprises emit nitrogen oxides, sulfurous anhydride, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, chloride and fluoride compounds; –– Enterprises of building materials and cement industry – pollute the atmosphere with various dust; –– In agriculture, sources of air pollution are livestock, poultry farms, and industrial complexes for the production of meat, pesticides, mineral fertilizers, the main pollutants ammonia,

CHAPTER 8. Anthropogenic effects as ageological and...

carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, chemical compounds, and harmful gases. The features of the impact of the oil and gas complex on the environment include: –– Aggressive properties of hydrocarbons (hydrogen sulfide content in the Tengiz field is 25%); –– The need for the use of powerful drilling and construction equipment with high destructive impact, abnormally high pressure (up to 550-900 atmospheres); –– The creation of a special transport systems for long-haul export of hydrocarbon raw materials, expanding the scope of environmental impact; –– Reduced reliability of commercial equipment and vehicles in difficult climatic conditions. The rise of the Caspian Sea level, which has been observed for a long time, has already caused flooding of 19 fields, where 1485 drilled wells are located, including 90 wells in the zone of constant flooding. The consequences of water pollution with oil and oil products are deterioration of water quality, disruption of the connection of its surface layers with the atmosphere, which leads to the formation of an oxygen-free marine environment, harmful to living organisms. More than 20% of Gross national product (GNP) is lost annually due to irrational use of natural resources and elimination of the consequences of past pollution. From 20 to 50% of the population’s morbidity is due to poor quality of the environment, drinking water and food. All this limits the possibilities of the country’s future development. Oil producing regions of Western Kazakhstan have a certain complex of environmental problems caused by both zone factors of arid territories and specific impact of oil and gas production. First of all, this is a violation of the soil and vegetation cover and the progressive process of man-made desertification; depletion of water resources and pollution by oil, petroleum products and other toxic substances (during drilling operations, more than 2,700 types of chemical reagents are used); the potential danger of oil-containing substances entering the Caspian sea water basin, and taking into ac-

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count its geographical features (closed reservoir), the probability of irreversible poisoning of its waters; deterioration of public health as a result of environmental pollution. The Aral Sea and the Aral Sea region have a tragic fate. Here the environmental catastrophe, which has become one of the largest defeats of economy of the USSR gradually matured. In the early 60-ies of the lake-sea had an area of 61 km2, a volume of about 1,000 km2 and a depth of 65 m. the Syrdarya and Amudarya brought to 30 km2 per year. The sea gave about 35 thousand tons of fish a year. Over the next 25 years in pursuit of imaginary cotton, independence in the republics of Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan planted a monoculture of cotton. As a result, the water intake for irrigation increased to 118 km3 per year. This led to a sharp reduction in the river flow and the Aral Sea began to dry quickly. At the same time, due to poor drainage, large areas were flooded and salinized, their degradation was aggravated by the use of pesticides. The dried up bottom of the Aral Sea was called the new desert – Aral-Kum. –– Land degradation and landscape degradation (more than 70% of the country’s territory is subject to desertification); –– Shortage of water resources (Kazakhstan takes the last place in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) on water supply); –– Problems of the Aral Sea and Semipalatinsk nuclear and military test sites; –– The high degree of air, soil and water pollution in human settlements, the reduction of biodiversity and natural reserves hinder the development of the economy and social sphere. Nowadays, the way out of the global environmental crisis is the most important scientific and practical task. The impact of harmful and dangerous production factors and the environment on human health Creating a techno sphere, human seeks to improve the comfort of the habitat live, to provide protection against natural adverse effects.

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All of this has had a positive impact on living conditions and, together with other factors, on life expectancy. However, the biosphere in many regions of our planet has become actively replaced by techno sphere. Man and his environment harmoniously interact and develop only in conditions when flows of energy, substances and information are within the limits favorably perceived by man and the natural environment. Any excess of habitual levels of streams is accompanied by negative influences on human and (or) environment. Under natural conditions, such changes are observed in the event of climate change and natural phenomena. In the conditions of technosphere negative effects are caused by elements of techno sphere (machines, mechanisms, equipment, tools, structures, etc.) human actions. Human interaction with the environment can be positive or negative; the nature of interaction is determined by the flow of substances, energies, and data. There are a number of characteristic States of interaction in the system of “man-habitat”: –– Comfortable (optimal), when flows correspond to the optimal conditions of interaction (create optimal conditions of activity and rest; prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest efficiency, guarantee the preservation of health and environment); –– Permissible when flows do not have a negative impact on health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the effectiveness of activities; –– Dangerous, when the flows exceed the permissible levels and have a negative impact on human health, causing disease, and (or) lead to degradation of the natural environment; –– Extremely dangerous when flows are high levels in a short period can cause injury; lead human to death, to cause destruction in the natural environment. Of the four States listed above, only the first two (comfortable and permissible) correspond to positive living conditions, and dangerous and extremely dangerous – are unacceptable for the processes of life, human, conservation and development of the natural environment. The result of human interaction with the environment can change in a very wide range: from positive to catastrophic, accompanied by

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the death of people and the destruction of the components of the environment. Determine the negative result of the interaction – the negative impact (danger), suddenly arising, periodically or permanently operating in the system of “man-habitat”. In the early stages of its development, people continuously experienced the impact of negative factors of natural origin. In the conditions of the modern world, numerous factors of technogenic origin were added to the natural ones: vibration, noise, increased concentration of toxic substances in the air, water body, soil, electromagnetic fields, ionizing radiation, etc. Anthropogenic hazards are largely determined by the presence of wastes that inevitably arise from any human activity in accordance with the law on the non-recoverability of wastes. Wastes accompany the work of industrial and agricultural production, means of transport, life of people and animals, entering the environment in the form of emissions into the atmosphere, discharges into reservoirs, industrial and household waste, flows of mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic energy, etc. Currently, the list of actual negative factors includes more than 100 types. The most common and has a high concentration or energy levels are factors: –– Dust and gas contamination of air; –– Noise and vibration; –– Electromagnetic fields and radiation; –– Uncomfortable microclimate (weather conditions); –– Lack of lighting; –– The monotony of work activities; –– Heavy manual labor, etc. The list of negative factors affecting the safety of human life in the workplace from a physiological point of view depends on the level of organization of working conditions, the degree of its harmlessness and safety. It should be noted, that the characteristics of the environment (socio-political, domestic and industrial) are interrelated. They are affecting human psychology and affect his physiology. This relationship

CHAPTER 8. Anthropogenic effects as ageological and...

can be direct or indirect. Moreover, in some cases, these relationships are not amenable to direct detection. In this regard, the solution of problems of ensuring safety of human activity will be carried out on the basis of the deep comprehensive analysis and at use of the complex system approach. (VIII) General subjective types questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Define an environmental crisis Explain the main causes of the environmental crisis. Discuss the natural side of the environmental crisis. Define the social side of the environmental crisis. What are the reasons for the tension in the interactions between society and nature? 6. Name the signs of degradation, destruction of the natural environment. 7. Explain the main problems of civilization and their causes. 8. Define the human impact on climate change? 9. How is monitoring changes in temperature of the Earth? 10. Explain the role of the ozone layer for living organism. 11. Discuss the impact of acid rain on biodiversity. 12. What are the main environmental issuess in Kazakhstan?

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CHAPTER 9 Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development

1. ���������������������������������������������������������� Evolution of views on sustainable development and environmental security 2. The concept of sustainable development, its principles 3. Implementation of the concept of sustainable development at various levels: global, regional and national Evolution of views on sustainable development and environmental security Due to the current environmental situation, the international community is looking for solutions to stabilize and improve the situation on a global scale. In the formation of the concept of sustainable development, which took place within the UN system under the aegis of UNESCO, it is possible to identify only the main milestones: Rome Club (1968) – international non-governmental organization presented in 1972 the report “Limits of growth” under the leadership of D. Meadows (1942). It showed population dynamics, food production, industrial goods, consumption of resources and pollution with extrapolation up to 2000. It was concluded that maintaining the rate of industrial growth leads humanity to the threshold of death at the end of the century. In

CHAPTER 9. Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development

the second report “Mankind at the turning point” (1974), prepared under the guidance of M. Mesarovic (1928) and E. Pestel (1914 – 1988) carried out by the regional differentiation of the dynamics and projections of economic development and environmental situations. The world was presented in the form of the ten regions (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and South America, the USSR and Eastern Europe, Latin America, North Africa and the Middle East, Tropical Africa, South Asia and China). The authors concluded that the world is threatened not by a global catastrophe, but by a series of crises. The result is justification the need for limited growth. These ideas were continued in the subsequent work of the Commission on environment and development. The first UN world Conference on the environment, held in Stockholm (Sweden), in June 1972, with the participation of 113 States, the decisions of which became historical for the whole world, played a decisive role in the initial formation of the concept of sustainable development. The Secretary-General of the Conference Maurice Frederick Strong (1929 – 2015) for the first time coined the term environmental development – environmentally oriented socio-economic development, in which the growth of human well-being is not accompanied by habitat degradation and degradation of nature. It is recognized as the most important task of our time, after eliminating the nuclear threat. Then it was first announced for inclusion in the Program of action at the government level measures to address problems of the natural environment degradation, were taken: –– A policy statement by the participants (declaration of 26 principles), –– An action plan that included 109 recommendations, and a recommendation to the UN General Assembly to establish an organization for international cooperation – the UN Environment Program (UNEP). A voluntary environment Fund was established and world environment day was established on 5th June. The initial task of UNEP was to develop recommendations on the most acute problems of the emerging environmental crisis – deserti-

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fication, soil degradation, freshwater reduction, ocean pollution, deforestation, loss of valuable animal species and plants. UNEP used the experience of the UNESCO program “Man and biosphere” and continued to work closely with her. Since the 1980s, stricter problem forecasts general economic, demographic, energy, food, and climate have been developed. The scientific conclusions of these forecasts are that we need to reconsider the system of values of mankind. At the same time, environmental forecasts were least studied, because for a dynamic description of the environment requires an incomparably large amount of information than in the economy, etc. The Environmental protection programs (EPP) have become the most effective response to the threat of an environmental crisis. Over the last decades in industrialized countries have developed and implemented a regional and national EPP providing for a set of measures: analysis of damages, in finding the balance between policy and investment, economic and technological means of control air, water, soil etc. The level of costs for the implementation of the EPP is constantly increasing, while in Japan it is 7.5% of GNP. All these activities look like general cleaning while maintaining economic growth. The Stockholm conference formulated the right of people to live “ live in an environment of such quality that involves living full of dignity and well-being”. After the 1972 Stockholm conference, it became possible to talk about state environmental priorities and the emergence of an all-round environmental movement. The International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED) was created in 1983, headed by the Prime Minister of Norway, G.H. Brundtland (1939). The objectives ICED included: –– Development of long-term environment strategies; –– Search for ways of cooperation between countries in the field of environment; –– To suggest ways and means of solving the problems of the environment;

CHAPTER 9. Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development

–– Identification of approaches to solving global environmental problems. The term “Sustainable Development” has become widespread since 1987, when it was published the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, “Our common future”, known as the report of G.H. Brundtland, who led this work. According to G.H. Brundtland, “The International Commission has come to the conclusion that sustainable development should be a fundamental element in the global strategy for change”. The report defines sustainable development as development, in which current generations meet their needs without depriving future generations of the opportunity to meet their own needs. One of the definitions of sustainable development is sustainable development in the long – term, intergenerational context. Sustainable development requires meeting the most vital needs of all people and enabling all to satisfy their aspirations for a better life equally; the need for the world community to move towards sustainable long-term development. In 1992 through 20 years after the Stockholm conference – the UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) with the participation of 17 thousand people from 179 countries, where more than 100 heads of state and government addressed. The conference adopted the definition of sustainable development proposed by the Brundtland Commission as the least contentious of all, one that reflects a strategic objective rather than a concrete way forward for action. A Declaration was also adopted that reflected the evolution of the global consensus on environmental issues over two decades, beginning with the Stockholm Declaration. The document had been addressed primarily to States, although a number of its principles were of universal importance. The main outcome of the Conference was the adoption of the World Program’s «Agenda for ХХIst centure» – The concept of sustainable development.

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The concept of sustainable development, its principles This document is a program of how to make the development sustainable from social, economic and environmental points of view, to ensure the consistency of concordance. At the same time, it was noted that one of the objectives of the strategy should be to ensure socially reliable economic development, in which measures are implemented to protect the environment in the institutions of future generations. The agenda to the twenty-first century explains that the driving forces of the pen-men in the environment are population, consumption and technology. It proposes policies and programs to achieve a sustainable balance between consumption and the ability of the Earth to sustain life. The program also describes some of the methods and technologies that need to be developed to meet the needs of people in the management of natural resources. The concept of Sustainable Development is based on five basic principles: 1. Humanity is indeed capable of making development sustainable and long-term nature, so that it responds to the needs of the people now living without depriving future generations of the opportunity to meet their needs. 2. The existing limitations in the exploitation of natural resources are relative. They are related to the current level of technology and social organization, as well as the ability of the biosphere to cope with the consequences of human activity. 3. The basic needs of all people must be met, and everyone must be given the opportunity to realize their hopes for a better life. Without this, sustainable and long-term development is simply not possible. One of the main causes of environmental and other disasters is poverty, which has become commonplace in the world. 4. There is a need to reconcile the way of life of those who have greater means (money and material) with the environmental possibilities of the planet, in particular with respect to energy consumption. 5. The size and rate of population growth should be consistent with the changing productive capacity of the Earth’s global ecosystem.

CHAPTER 9. Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development

Within the framework of the concept of sustainable development, there are three ways to ensure environmental safety on Earth. The first is the preservation of the expanded production of natural ecosystems, primarily plant communities, the medium-forming function of which is a guarantee of normal dynamic equilibrium in the human environment. The second is the management of natural and economic systems, the environmental function of which is equivalent to the functions of natural ecosystems, the place of which they took. Thirdly, it is the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies, eliminating the consequences of economic activity, adverse to human life. In 2002, a World Summit was held in Johannesburg, 10 years after the Rio conference, which assessed the progress made (Rio+10) and identified the challenges for subsequent periods in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development, referred to as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) until 2015: 1. Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. 2. Achieving universal primary education. 3. The promotion of equality between men and women. 4. Reducing child mortality. 5. Improving maternal health. 6. Fight against HIV/AIDS and other diseases. 7. Ensuring environmental sustainability. 8. Building a global partnership for development. Johannesburg reaffirmed the commitment of the entire world community to sustainable development. While the conference in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) was dominated by the issue of the environment to achieve the sustainable development goals, in Johannesburg the issue was given the same attention through the discussion of social and economic issues. Implementation of the concept of sustainable development at various levels: global, regional and national In the context of global warming and environmental crisis, the problem of environmental protection and conservation is particularly acute.

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This issue cannot be solved at the local level in the conditions of a single country, so this problem is solved globally with the involvement of the world community, developed countries and world organizations. The transition to a new strategy requires certain conditions: 1. There is a well-developed unified state environmental policy, supported by a long-term strategic program. 2. There is a well-developed legislation in the field of environmental management and protection. 3. Sufficient financial and material security. 4. Public participation in decision-making on the most important practical challenges of sustainable development. 5. Scientific and methodological, informational, normative support of territorial programs of ecological and economic development. 6. High qualification and competence in environmental management. 7. International cooperation and support. The problem of global degradation of nature is exacerbated because of poverty and inequitable distribution of the benefits, and allocated in the first place the task of “Environment for Development”. The transition to sustainable development was a global process, and a country could not take that path as long as other countries remained within the old development model. That is why it is important to make use of globalization and to focus primarily on its economic, environmental and social composition with a view to achieving the goals of sustainable development. (IX) General subjective types questions 1. The main functions of sustainable development management. 2. Discuss the sustainable development. 3. Give examples of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection. 4. Explain the purpose of “Agenda for XXIst century” 5. Name the priorities for managing sustainable development.

CHAPTER 9. Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development 6. Define the concept of sustainable development. 7. What conditions are needed to implement the concept of sustainable development? 8. Explain the objectives of the environment protection program. 9. Discuss the principles for overcoming the global environmental crisis. 10. Define the principles of environmental security.

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CHAPTER 10 Environmental principles of Sustainable Development

1. Rational nature use as one of the aspects of sustainable development 2. Protection of the environment. 3. Conservation of biological and landscape diversity 4. Environmental monitoring and environmental impact assessment. 5. Environmental certification of enterprises as a tool for assessing and regulating the quality of the environment. Rational nature use as one of the aspects of sustainable development All natural material and energy resources used by man are usually called natural resources. It is often forgotten that most of them are not only human resources, but also wildlife. A significant influence is due to those changes in nature that are caused by human economic activity. The total economic damage caused to natural systems in the second half of the twentieth century by the environment, and through it to the health of the population, now exceeds the world annual budget. Resources of the ecosphere are represented only by renewable resources of substances, energy and information under the control of living organisms.

CHAPTER 10. Environmental principles of Sustainable...

Resources of the technosphere, in addition to some of the resources of the ecosphere, captured by man and torn from the biotic cycle, include non-renewable resources extracted from the bowels. There are several classifications of natural resources: Natural, economic and ecological, the latter is studied in the most detailed way by N.F. Reimers (1994). The natural classification is based on the division: land, mineral, water, atmospheric, plant, animal world. In the economic classification: resources of metallurgy, fuel and energy complex, agricultural, chemical industry, etc. From the ecological and economic point of view, the most interesting is the sign of exhaustibility and the degree of renewability. The inexhaustible include space and planetary resources. Renewable resources are substances created on the Earth. Nonrenewable resources are minerals, ores. Let us list possible practical steps of human on the way to their own safety: 1. Inhibition of the negative impact of the economy on the environment, i.e. reduction of human-made flow. 2. Rational use of natural resources. 3. Scientific-based combination of environmental and economic interests. 4. Payment of nature use. 5. Compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation. 6. International cooperation in the field of environmental protection. 7. Announce in the work of environmental organizations and close communication with public associations in solving environmental problems. The main goal of the long-term environmental strategy is to harmonize the interaction between society and the environment, and create an environmentally friendly living environment. To achieve this goal, four priority areas have been selected: –– Creation of environmentally safe environment; –– Balanced use of natural resources;

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–– Preservation of diversity of animal and plant life; –– Environmental knowledge. A common desire to protect the environment, citizens’ health, is ultimately a crucial component of the success of economic reforms. The main goal of sustainable development is proclaiming the satisfaction of human needs and aspirations. It is important to emphasize that sustainable development requires meeting the most vital needs of all people and giving everyone the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life in equal measure. Protection of the environment The transition to sustainable development presupposes a gradual restoration of natural ecosystems to a level that ensures environmental sustainability and in which a real possibility exists for the future generations of people to meet their vital needs and interests. The organization of economic activity that does not destroy the biosphere, but preserves it, i.e. environmental acceptable, not exceeding the carrying capacity of ecosystems, is one of the central directions of Sustainable Society Future. The biosphere from this point of view should be considered not only as a storehouse and resource supplier, but also as the foundation of life, the preservation of which should be an indispensable condition for the functioning of the socio-economic system and its individual elements. Protection of the environment – the activities of government, local government, public associations, legal entities and individuals aimed at preserving and restoring the natural environment, rational use and reproduction of natural resources, preventing the negative impact of economic or other activities on the environment and the elimination of its consequences. A favorable environment is the state of the environment, the quality of which ensures the sustainable functioning of natural ecosystems, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects.

CHAPTER 10. Environmental principles of Sustainable...

At present, activities on international environmental conventions and agreements aimed at resolving priority problems have been significantly strengthened. Preservation of biological and landscape diversity Currently, on the basis of morphological and biochemical differences, 2.2 million species of organisms have been identified reliably about 50 thousand species of bacteria, about 100 thousand species of fungi, 300 thousand plants, 13 million animals, including 1 million insects and 50 thousand species of vertebrates. There are reasons to believe that due to the large number of no unidentified lower forms (bacteria, fungi, worms, arthropods), the actual total number of species can be 3-5 times greater. In the literature, it is possible to meet the range of species from 5 to 30 million. It should be borne in mind that many species form subspecies that differ markedly in a number of characters. The range of sizes of the body of terrestrial beings is enormous. From microscopic micro plasma, having a mass of no more than 1013 g., to a giant Californian sequoia weighing more than 1000 tons, there is a distance of 22x10. Even within the class of mammals, the shrew has a mass of 1-1.5 g, and a blue whale – 100-150 tons a hundred million times heavier. The fact that in nature there are such different in size creatures, indicates a variety of environmental benefits associated with the size of the body. Life can be found in hot springs, and in eternal ice, in the deepest abysses of the ocean and at the tops of mountains, in underground waters and in waterless deserts. There is a distinct gradient of biodiversity - from the maximum of the lowland tropics to the minimum of high mountains and Polar Regions. Climate resilience is considered to be the leading factor in increasing diversity. The most effective forms of protection of biotic communities and natural ecosystems include the state system of specially protected

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natural territories, land or water surface areas, which, due to natural values, are completely or partially removed from economic use and for which special protection is established. According to the Eco Codex of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the following categories of these territories are distinguished: –– State nature reserves, including biosphere reserves; –– National parks; –– State protected natural areas; –– Natural Parks; –– Pants of nature; –– Botanical gardens. The State Nature Reserve is a protected area in which economic activities are prohibited. Biosphere reserves are part of the state nature reserves and are used as a background reserve-reference facility in the study of biosphere processes. There is a unified Global Network of more than 300 biosphere reserves in the world. They work under the UNESCO program and conduct constant monitoring of changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic activity. The national nature park is relatively large natural areas and water areas, where three main objectives are achieved: ecological, recreational and scientific, and the availability of economic zones is allowed. The State Nature Reserve is a protected area in which the conservation function is combined with limited economic activities. A Natural Park is a landscape protected by means of long-term planning, use and agriculture. These valuable landscapes are preserved in their present state and promoted for tourism purposes. Monuments of nature – unique non-reproducible natural objects, which are also of cultural and aesthetic value (caves, ancient trees, rocks, waterfalls, etc.) Botanical gardens are nature protection institutions whose task is to create a collection of trees and shrubs to preserve biodiversity, as well as for scientific, educational and cultural purposes.

CHAPTER 10. Environmental principles of Sustainable...

Red books help to strengthen the protection of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. The Red Book is a systematic list of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. The term “Red Data Book” was proposed by the zoologist Peter Scott (1909–1989), who headed the Survival Service Commission established under the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). The species included in the Red Book were not in the same position; therefore, they were divided into 5 categories: The first category – endangered species, information on them is not a few, but not more than 50 years; The second category – shrinking species that have the danger of becoming endangered; The third category – rare species found in small numbers or in limited areas; The fourth category – undetermined species, the image of which has not been sufficiently studied. The fifth category – the restored species, the state of which due to the adopted measures of protection does not cause more fears. Every year, changes are made to it and new species that need special care. There are several versions of the Red Book: International, State. Therefore, according to the Eco Codex of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2014), the inclusion of an animal or plant in the Red Book means the widespread seizure of this species from economic circulation and trade. Environmental monitoring and environmental impact assessment Monitoring of the environment – long-term observations of the state of the environment, its pollution and natural phenomena occurring in it, as well as assessment of the state of the natural environment.

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There are several types of monitoring. On the territorial basis local, regional, global (biosphere) monitoring is distinguished. On the methods used – ground, aviation, space. By methods of research chemical, biological, physical and others. Local monitoring is carried out in separate ecological objects. Its purpose is to ensure an economic strategy that does not allow exceeding the permissible limits of pollution. A variety of local – impact monitoring – is carried out in especially dangerous areas. Regional monitoring – monitoring of processes and phenomena within a significant area of the area, which differs from neighboring by natural conditions. Global monitoring – Is conducted to obtain information in general on the biosphere. Its specific goals are defined in the framework of international cooperation, agreements and declarations. To analyze anthropogenic impact, background monitoring is often used – the natural concentration or the degree of exposure of natural substances and other agents to anything. Today, a global network of background monitoring stations has been established, which covers all types of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This work is carried out under the auspices of the UNEP. Environmental impact assessment – an assessment of the impact of the level of possible negative impacts of proposed economic activity on the environment, it is an important tool of public policy in the field of environment protection and environmental management in the country. Depending on who carries out the environmental expertise, the latter is divided: State, Departmental, Scientific and Public. State expertise is an independent type of environmental control that the state reserves, and on the other hand – an integral part of environmental forecasting, assessing the impact of a particular type of economic activity on the environment. The work on its conduct and assessment of the risk of economic activity is based on the Eco Codex of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The principle of environmental impact assessment: the presumption of the potential environmental hazard of any planned economic activity, until the harmlessness of any project has been proved; a ban

CHAPTER 10. Environmental principles of Sustainable...

must be imposed on it. Of all types of security, the fundamental criterion is medical and biological safety. Environmental certification of enterprises as a tool for assessing and regulating the quality of the environment The implementation of effective measures at the level of one business entity by creating an environmental passport of the enterprise is considered as an instrument for assessing and regulating the quality of the environment. The company’s environmental passport is a normative and technical document that includes data on the use of natural resources (air, natural waters, soils, forest resources, oil, etc.), secondary resources (electricity, fuel oil, etc.) and data on impact assessment activity of the enterprise on the environment. The information contained in the passport is aimed at solving environmental and economic problems related to establishing and monitoring the observance of MPE, MPA and MPC by the enterprise. Structure of the environmental passport: 1. General information about the enterprise. 2. A brief natural and climatic description of the location of the enterprise. 3. Use of land resources. 4. State of use of water resources. 5. Characteristics of air emissions. 6. Waste. 7. Environmental and economic indicators. 8. Planning of environmental measures and assessment of their efficiency. (X) General subjective types questions 1. Define the environmental monitoring. 2. Explain the main objectives of environmental monitoring.

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Ecology and sustainable development 3. Give an account of environmental passport. 4. Describe an impact monitoring. 5. What is the regulatory and legal framework for environmental monitoring? 6. Define the Red Book. 7. Explain the work on biodiversity conservation 8. Name the specially protected natural areas. 9. What does biosphere reserve mean? 10. How is the environmental certification of the enterprise explained?

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CHAPTER 11 Economic aspects of Sustainable Development

1. 2. 3. 4.

Natural environment as the basis of economic development Measuring industrial and natural potentials Management of natural resources Green Economy and Sustainable Development

Natural environment as a basis for economic development At the modern level of human development, nature is seen as the source of a wide variety of resources: –– Production (raw materials and energy for industry); –– Agricultural (natural fertility of soils, heat supply and moisture supply for the production of crop and livestock products); –– Health and recreation (providing treatment and recreation people), aesthetic and scientific (serving as a source of creative inspiration used to study natural patterns); –– Territorial and ecological (conditions of existence of people in a particular place) and others. We can say that almost all natural potential of the landscape in one form or another is used by man now, or will be used in the future.

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Environmental economics means a more versatile and at the same time more systematic approach to the environment. The main components of the environmental economy: –– Inclusion of environmental conditions, factors and objects, including renewable resources, into the number of economic categories as equals with other categories of wealth; –– Formation of international and interregional markets for environmental values and environment’s factors; –– Transition to a new pricing system that takes into account environmental factors, damage and risks; –– Substantial expansion and clarification of payment system for nature use; –– The principle of balanced nature management; –– Production transition to the qualitative growth strategy on the basis of technical re-equipment under environmental and economic control; –– Reduction of the goods excess assortment with the strengthening of environmental control of their quality; –– Change and environmental-economic orientation of needs structure and standards of well-being. Measuring the industrial and natural potentials The main condition for measuring: the technogenic load on the territory should not exceed the environmental and technological capacity of the territory. Balancing is needed not only by natural complexes and the environment of people, but also by the economy itself. The procedure for measuring is based on the definition and comparison of the environmental technological capacity of the territory (ETCT), but they are not legislatively approved as standards. The entire scope of environmental regulation and standardization, especially associated with technogenic pollution of the environment, somehow

CHAPTER 11. Economic aspects of Sustainable Development

relies on hygiene standards and uses the established maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) or the maximum permissible doses of harmful agents. MAC is the largest concentration of a substance in a medium that, with a more or less prolonged exposure to the body, does not affect health and does not cause retarded effects (does not affect the offspring). Since the effect depends on the duration of the exposure, the peculiarities of the situation, the maximum daily allowable maximum permissible concentration, the maximum permissible concentration of working zones, the maximum permissible concentrations for plants, animals and humans are distinguished. Based on the MAC limit, special programs calculate the values of the maximum permissible emissions – the maximum permissible emissions into the atmosphere (MPE), the maximum allowable discharge into water bodies (MAD) of certain substances of MPE and MAD already directly regulate the intensity and quality of technological processes and acquire the property of environmental standards. Over-standard emissions entail economic and administrative sanctions. From the environmental and economic point of view, the payment for natural resources should be calculated taking into account the regional and global impact of the economy on natural systems and taking into account the costs caused by inter-resource links. The draft National Action Plan for the implementation of the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Environment contains recommendations: –– Develop and implement the territorial cadasters’ system of natural resources, including their valuation; –– Form the system of environmental restrictions and regulations of environmental management regimes; –– Implement measures to develop and support environmental entrepreneurship and improve legislation in the interest of developing the market for environmental services.

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Management of natural resources According to the goals of sustainable development, the following tasks are identified in the functional management structure: –– Creation of the legislative system of environmental law; –– Construction of complex state cadasters of natural resources; –– Formation of total payment system and price policy for natural resources; –– Control of compliance with laws, standards, norms, limits, on exploitation and protection of natural resources. –– Priority management tasks assume: –– Problem analysis of the environmental situation; –– Selection of development priorities, development and approval of national environmental policy; –– Development of a state long-term strategic program for environmental development; –– Forming a system of functions for managing environmental and economic development; –– The assessment of the resource potential of the landscape should be approached from the economic, environmental and environmental-economic positions. With the economic approach, the value of natural resources is estimated. This takes into account, for example, the cost of raw materials in the domestic and world markets, the costs of mining and transporting it to the processing site, as well as the economic feasibility of choosing mutually exclusive types of nature use. In each specific case it is necessary to decide what is more expedient: to lead the extraction of minerals or to preserve the landscape as a source of other natural resources, for example, forest resources. Under the environmental approach, the natural potential of the landscape is assessed as a set of conditions necessary for life and reproduction, inhabiting a given territory of living organisms, including humans. The rejection of natural resources by man causes a change in both individual natural components and the landscape as a whole - the eco-

CHAPTER 11. Economic aspects of Sustainable Development

logical regime of the territory is being disturbed, and the state of the environment is deteriorating. Environmental and economic assessment of natural resources use include an assessment of the costs of reclamation of the natural potential of the landscape after its disruption caused by the exploitation of natural resources. Savings on the restoration of a normal habitat turn into tragic environmental and social consequences – a decrease in working capacity, worsening of health, an increase in the death rate of people. The losses to health restoration, social costs caused by environmental degradation, can be so significant that the damage will override the economic effect. In nature management, there are two levels of management: –– Management of natural systems, –– Management of nature users (management of environmental protection, and streamlining of natural resources use). The nature use management presupposes the rational use of natural resources and is based on the planning and forecasting of their consumption. The progress of economic science has led to a greater recognition of the natural factor. On the one hand, most traditional natural resources have become scarce. And this applies not only to nonrenewable resources, but also to so-called renewable resources - primarily ecosystem resources (ecosystem “goods” and “services”) and biodiversity. Under the impact of the crisis, many international organizations and institutions under the auspices of the United Nations have intensified research on the quality of economic growth and the search for innovative models that ensure the harmonious development of nature and man. The purpose of environmental management is to ensure compliance with norms and requirements that limit the harmful impact of production processes and products on the environment, ensure the rational use of natural resources, their restoration and reproduction.

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Environmental management is carried out by the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan, ministries and departments, local government bodies, enterprises and organizations directly engaged in the exploitation of natural resources. The task is set to persistently and consistently pursue a line for preserving and multiplying natural resources, improving the quality of the environment. Currently, environmental management should focus on: –– Decrease in environmental pollution; –– Reduction of consumption of natural resources; –– Rational use of renewable natural resources; –– Formation of the necessary development of the reserve of mineral resources; –– Effective use of primary raw materials; –– Creating economic conditions for entrepreneurs; –– The international cooperation. Green Economy and Sustainable Development Initiatives for a green economy are based on three main principles: –– Assessment and highlighting of natural services at the national and international levels; –– Ensuring employment of the population by creating “green” jobs and developing appropriate policies; –– Use of market mechanisms to achieve sustainable development. In the decisions of many important high-level meetings, calls are made to move to a “Green Economy”. For example, in the Clean Growth Declaration adopted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in June 2009, ministers expressed their determination to increase their efforts to further implement green growth strategies and encourage green investments and sustainable natural resource management.

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They emphasized the determination to use “effective and efficient climate policy packages” and implement “domestic policy reforms aimed at preventing or eliminating environmentally harmful types of production that hinder “green” growth. In addition, it was proposed to develop a strategy of “green” growth, in order to achieve economic recovery and environmentally and socially sustainable growth. The World Summit on Sustainable Development Rio +20 (2012) has given a new impetus to the development of the concept of a green economy and green growth, which is becoming popular and has become the subject of research by many International organizations and research institutions, including the CIS countries. As part of the implementation of the Declaration, “The Future We Want”, adopted at the Rio +20 Summit, requires the providence of further research in the following areas: –– Identify the links between the green economy and sustainable development. Countries need to prepare a list of strategies and activities proposed under the green economy concept. –– Conduct a further analysis of each policy “recipe” in terms of its impact on development, social impact and distributional consequences, as well as additional measures and activities, including in the framework of international cooperation necessary to ensure the alignment of economic, social and environmental objectives. Such an analysis should be carried out in specific national contexts. –– In addition to research at the national level, models and scenarios are needed to assess national green economy strategies and green growth in a global context, including, for example, interaction in international trade, investment and technology transfer. In some countries, such as South Korea, Denmark, Norway, the “green” economy model becomes dominant. Kazakhstan regards environmental issues as a priority area. As one of the ways to solve environmental challenges, the Government of Kazakhstan is currently paving the way for “greening” the economy through the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies to

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improve energy efficiency, long-term cost reduction and, more importantly, the reduction of hazardous factors for public health. The exhibition “EXPO 2017” (Astana, Kazakhstan), dedicated to clean energy, was intended to give an additional impetus to the development of the “green” economy in Kazakhstan. The country is already a manufacturer and exporter of wind and solar energy technologies. Large investments are expected in “green” initiatives and it is hoped that such investments will serve the benefit of the population as a whole. The development and implementation of modern energy-saving technologies, as well as the creation of scientific and technological bases for ensuring the environmental security of the Republic of Kazakhstan, are one of the main directions of scientific activity of alFarabi KazNU techno park. In light of the realization of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan ideas sets the task of studying the scientific and methodological foundations and prerequisites for the transition to a “green economy”, the development of specific stages and forms of the “green economy” within the framework of natural-economic systems with the goal of creating the “green economy” models in Kazakhstan. The scope of application of the research results will be the regions of Kazakhstan in solving a wide range of interrelated problems. They are: locating productive forces, population resettlement, and urban development, united by a single task of improving the quality of life of the population of Kazakhstan in the direction of creating a “green economy”. (XI) General subjective types questions 1. Explain the main components of the environmental economics. 2. Define the main criteria for measuring the natural and productive potentials. 3. Describe structural changes in the economics which associated with its environmental point. 4. Explain the main principles of creating an environmental and economic system. 5. Explain with example the management of nature use.

CHAPTER 11. Economic aspects of Sustainable Development 6. 7. 8. 9.

Define the environmental and economic system? Discuss the payment system for nature use. Explain the main task of greening the economy? What is the regulatory and legal framework for carrying out measures to green the economy? 10. Name the basis for the transition to a green economy.

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CHAPTER 12 Global Energy-Environmental Strategy for Sustainable Development of the ХХIst century 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Non-traditional environmentally friendly energy sources Renewable energy sources G-global project, energy saving strategy Water – a strategic resource of the XXIst century Management of water resources

Non-traditional environmentally friendly sources of energy The growth of the economy through the exploitation of natural resources can occur only at a certain stage. In modern conditions, more progressive mechanisms are required for growth and development. Sustainable development is necessary to achieve the goals of Kazakhstan’s Development Strategy until 2050. The principle of sustainable development is also laid in the basis of Kazakhstan’s strategy of becoming one of the thirty most competitive world countries, designated in the President N.Nazarbaev Address to Kazakhstan people “Nurly Zhol – the way to the future”. At the heart of many social and economic problems of the Republic of Kazakhstan lies the historically developed imbalance, when

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the country consumes resources disproportionately in comparison with their production. If we bring the main economic indicators of the country to a common unit of measurement based on the measurement of the energy useful value – the energy measured in gigawatts (GW), then it is possible to estimate the available losses. In the structure of the fuel balance of electrical power stations, for example, the main role is played a coal, whose content is about 75%, the gas content is 23%, the fuel oil (masut) content is – 2%. With existing generating capacities, there is a shortage of electricity generation. The total installed capacity of power plants is about 18.7 thousand MW. Existing generating capacities have a long service life (25 years or more), and therefore the available capacity is about 14.6 thousand MW. In the structure of generating capacities, TPP make up 15.42 MW, or 87% of the total capacity, the share of hydroelectric stations – about 12%, others – about 1%. In the Republic of Kazakhstan, the indicator of resource efficiency (EIR), which is currently at 31%, is relatively low. This is more than the average world level, equal to 24%, but less than in the most technologically advanced countries of the world: Japan – 36%, the USA – 34%, Germany – 33%. (In the former USSR, the EIR indicator reached 36%, which ensured a greater level of competitiveness in the world arena). Renewable energy sources Humanity is already facing the challenge of developing inexhaustible sources of energy. As you know, the environmental situation on the planet is under threat, therefore, for some time, humankind must introduce clean energy sources into everyday life, primarily such as wind energy and solar energy, thus preventing an increase in the risk of the planet’s biosphere death. Otherwise, future environmental disasters will be danger for the possibility of the life continued existence in our planet. During this century, a mass transition to alternative energy sources will begin, the era of “black gold” will pass and what happens to the economies of the countries dependent on oil could be guessed.

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Alternative sources of energy include: –– Solar energy –– Wind power; –– Bioenergy; –– Geothermal energy. • Solar power energetics Solar energy has two main advantages. Firstly, there is a lot of it and it relates to renewable energy resources: the life span of the Sun is estimated at about 5 billion years. Secondly, its use does not entail undesirable environmental consequences. However, a number of difficulties hampers the use of solar energy. Although the total amount of this energy is huge, it dissipates uncontrollably. To obtain large amounts of energy, large-area collector surfaces are required. In addition, there is the problem of instability of energy supply: the sun does not always shine. There are three main directions for using solar energy: for heating (including hot water supply) and air conditioning, for direct conversion to electricity through solar photoelectric converters and for largescale electricity generation based on the thermal cycle. • Wind power energetics Wind energy on earth is inexhaustible too. For many centuries, man has been trying to turn wind energy into his own favor, building wind farms that perform various functions: mills, water and oil pumps, power plants. As practice and experience of many countries have shown, the use of wind energy is extremely beneficial, because, firstly, the wind cost is zero, and secondly, the electricity is obtained from wind energy, and not by burning carbon fuel, whose combustion products are known for their dangerous exposure to humans (CO, SO2 and etc.). • Bioenergy When biomass is rotting (manure, dead organisms, plants), biogas is produced with a high content of methane. It use for heating and power generation. Sometimes pigs and barns are shown, which

CHAPTER 12. Global Energy-Environmental Strategy for...

provide with electricity and heat themselves. They have several large “vats”, where large quantities of manure are dumped from animals. In these sealed tanks manure decays, and the released gas goes to the needs of the farm. By the way, in the end, from the manure there remains a dry residue, which is an excellent fertilizer for the fields. Many ideas are devoted to growing fast growing algae and loading them into the same bioreactors, as well as the similar use of other organic waste (corn, cane stalks, etc.). • Geothermal power engineering Geothermal energy, i.e. the warmth of the Earth’s interior, has already been used in a number of countries, for example, in Iceland, Russia, Italy and New Zealand. The crust of 32-35 km in thickness is much thinner than the underlying layer – the mantle, which extends approximately 2900 km to the hot liquid core. The mantle is a source of gas-rich fiery-liquid rocks (magma), which are erupted by active volcanoes. Heat is released mainly due to the radioactive decay of substances in the earth’s core. The temperature and the amount of this heat are so great that it causes the melting of the mantle rocks. Hot rocks can create thermal “bags” under the surface, in contact with which the water heats up and even turns into steam. The greatest geothermal resources are concentrated in volcanic zones along the boundaries of cortical plates. Project G-global, energy saving strategy Kazakhstan has unique opportunities and prerequisites for sustainable development: favorable geopolitical location, unique mountain, water and other ecosystems, available oil and gas reserves, significant renewable energy potential, etc. Global energy-ecological strategy of sustainable development of the XXIst century by N. Nazarbayev, put forward in the framework of the development of a relatively new direction for our country, is the most important document whose task is to innovate the world’s existing energy technologies and scale up the modernization of the world energy sector.

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Ways of sustainable innovative environmentally friendly energy development: –– Creation of fundamental and methodological bases for the transition to a “green economy”; –– Development of effective methods for the formation of the technological and socio-economic structure of the “green economy” and management of the resource potential in the context of the development of territorial forms of natural-economic systems; –– Assessment of energy-environment balance of regions and branches of Kazakhstan; –– Providing legislative support for a gradual transition to effective forms of territorial organization of the “green economy” based on the use of innovative technologies to improve the human environment and improve the quality of life of the population; –– Use of an effective system of economic methods and instruments of influence on economic processes in the regions of Kazakhstan, ensuring their transition to a “green” economy. The Concept provides for the fact that sustainable economic development of Kazakhstan will be implemented by supporting environmentally efficient energy production, including the use of renewable sources and recycled materials. In this regard, the Committee for Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan, with the participation of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources and the UNDP Wind Energy Project, has drafted a National Wind Energy Development Program. The aims of this Program are involve significant wind energy resources in the country’s energy balance supporting plans to reduce the energy intensity of the economy and increase the rate of alternative energy sources in the overall energy balance of the country to 5% to 2024 and stabilization of greenhouse gas emissions at the level of 1990. The goal of the Program is to use the wind energy potential of Kazakhstan to generate electricity in the volume of 5 billion kW·h.

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Water is a strategic resource of the ХХIst century The unity of water as a great natural substance requires that water management be integrated, meaning the integration of different types of water on the land, all types of users and all kinds of consequences that determine whether the existence of water will be sustainable, efficient and harmless. However, the modern world is dissected by political boundaries, natural barriers (mountains, oceans, and deserts), administrative boundaries and corporate interests, local features and public (communal) entities. In addition, there are sectorial and professional priorities, political confrontations and ambitions. At the end of the XXIstcentury, there are seven (and in the future maybe ten) billions of people - as end users of water! To meet human and natural needs, one must take into account and overcome all the disconnecting and opposing barriers that we have! In connection with these facts, the governments of many countries adopted a program of integrated water resources management. Water resources management Integrated water resources management (IWRM) is “a process that facilitates the coordinated development and management of water, land and other related resources in order to achieve maximum socioeconomic well-being on an equitable basis without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems”. The basis of IWRM is the recognition of the interdependence of all types of water use: 1. ������������������������������������������������������������ Large irrigation norms and discharges of contaminated drainage waters reduce freshwater supplies for drinking needs or industry; 2. Wastewater pollutes rivers and threatens ecosystems; 3. Saving water to support fish farming and ecosystems – reduces water use for agriculture.

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Ecology and sustainable development (XII) General subjective types questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

How the water consumption is paid? Why water is a strategic resource? Explain the basin principle of water resources management. Define the basis of water management. Give concrete examples on the development of the renewable energy sources use in the Republic of Kazakhstan. 6. Discuss the energy saving strategy in Kazakhstan. 7. Define the goals and principles of the global environmental friendly energy strategy of sustainable development in the twenty-first century. 8. Name the goals and objectives of EXPO-2017. 9. Explain Goals of the Kazakhstan Development Strategy until 2050. 10. What is the idea of the G-global Project?

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CHAPTER 13 Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

1. Realization of the concept of sustainable development of the Republic of Kazakhstan 2. Environmental policy of Kazakhstan 3. Mechanisms for the implementation of environmental policy Realization of the concept of sustainable development of the Republic of Kazakhstan For the Republic of Kazakhstan, the transition to sustainable development is an urgent necessity. Kazakhstan lags behind the most developed countries in terms of quality of life, which is the main criteria for sustainable development. In the modern world, the quality of life is determined by the main components: longevity, well-being, education and the state of the environment. According to the quality of life index of the International University of Society, Nature and Human (Dubna, Russia), Kazakhstan ranks 78th with a coefficient of 1.17, while the leader of the rating Norway has a coefficient of 3,83, Russia – 1,57, China – 0,34. In Kazakhstan, the health status of the population and the life expectancy of people are significantly behind compared with those of other countries. Thus, the average life expectancy of the population

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in our country in 2017 was 72 years, and in Europe this figure is 80.6 years, while in Japan this figure reaches 84.6 years. The Environmental Performance Index 2016 (EPI) study on the environmental performance of 180 countries was conducted under the auspices of the World Economic Forum. The index is based on 20 indicators, which are grouped into several categories: air and water purity, the state of agriculture and forestry, biological diversity, climate, public health. For the study, analysts used information obtained from government organizations and academic communities. As noted in the report, over the past year the environmental situation in the world has improved. Kazakhstan ranked 69th in the rating, ahead of the Dominican Republic (70th), Kyrgyzstan (71st) and Tajikistan (72nd). The cleanest state in the environmental plan was Finland, followed by Iceland and Sweden. Finland achieved the greatest success in the categories “Impact on health”, “Water and sanitation”, and “Biodiversity”. The countries that suffered from conflicts and serious political problems were the least effective in the 2016 report: Somalia, Eritrea and Madagascar. The index of true savings (IIS), taking into account the depreciation and loss of natural capital, according to the World Bank, is 25.5 for the Republic of Kazakhstan, while for the Russian Federation - 4.4, Norway +14.8, the USA +4.4. In 2016, Kazakhstan occupied the 56th place in the ranking of countries on the Human Development Index (HDI). In order to ensure that by 2024 the quality of life of the Republic of Kazakhstan was consistently among the most competitive and developed countries in the world, it is necessary: –– Improve the efficiency of resource use, –– To increase life expectancy, –– To ensure an increase in the index of environmental sustainability. The conducted calculations show that for a stable finding among the fifty competitive countries of the world, Kazakhstan’s indicators should correspond to the following parameters: Index of Environmental Sustainability (IES) – not less than 43%, the total consumption of

CHAPTER 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

resources – not less than 246,86 GW, the annual aggregate produced product – not less than 113,1 GW. It is to such parameters, according to the forecast, the fifty most competitive countries of the world will correspond in this period. With IES of 53%, the path to «Sustainable Development» is provided, and economic growth occurs at the expense of more efficient, achievements technologies, rather than through the exploitation of non-renewable natural resources. The population of the Republic of Kazakhstan is an important criterion for sustainable development. Low population density (with a considerable length of borders) is always a factor of instability for the state development. Despite the fact that a significant part of the country’s territory is difficult for economic development and it is impossible to set the task of proportional settlement of all regions of Kazakhstan, yet the population should be maintained at a certain level, thereby increasing economic opportunities (primarily solving labor market problems) while preserving the genetic and the cultural potential of the Kazakhstan’s among the neighboring world nations, overcoming the undesirable differentiation between the regions, caused, in particular, by the weakness of the infrastructure and demographic imbalances. The most optimal target population level is reaching 18 million inhabitants by 2024. For this purpose, it is required to bring the natural growth rate to 12,68 per 1000 people by 2024, the average life expectancy is up to 73 years, to maintain the birth rate at a level not lower than 22 births per 1000 people. The gap in the average life expectancy of male and female populations should be reduced to 7,5 years from the current 11 years. In the process of economic growth, it is necessary to increase environmental requirements, reduce anthropogenic pressure on the environment. That is why the index of environmental sustainability should be brought by 2024, at least to the best for today, the value of 88 points. This will ensure a significant improvement in the quality of population, which will approach the best world indicators.

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Ecology and sustainable development Table 13.1 Assessment of the setting parameters of the transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to sustainable development (2005 – 2024 years) №

Integrated Measuring Instruments

2005

2009

2012

2018

2024

1 2 3 4

Population, mln. people Average life expectancy, years Average life expectancy Exceeding the average life expectancy of women over the average life expectancy of men, years Power Consumption (for the previous year), GW Power production (for the current year), GW

15,05 65,91 0,66 11,47

15,66 67,87 0,68 10,00

16,13 68,89 0,69 9,3

17,13 70,99 0,70 8,5

18,18 73,14 0,73 7,5

Power loss, GW Efficiency of the use of resources, IES Quality of the environment Standard of living, kW / person. Quality of life, kW / hour Index of environmental sustainability, scores

65,45 87,40 97,56 151,77 220,14 0,31 0,33 0,37 0,43 0,53

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

94,85 130,45 154,86 264,86 468,38 29,40 43,05 57,30 113,10 248,24

0,91 1,95 1,17 63

0,95 2,75 1,78 68

0,99 3,55 2,43 73

0,93 6,60 4,35 75

0,95 13,65 9,49 88

The transition to sustainable development for the Republic of Kazakhstan will take place on a phased basis. For this, the setting parameters for sustainable development are determined for each stage (Table 13.1). Preparatory stage (2007-2009) – preparation of conditions for inclusion of the sustainable development principles in all spheres of public and political activity, diversification of the economy, implementation of technological breakthrough. The first stage (2010-2012) is to ensure the accession of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the list of the fifty most competitive countries in the world. The second stage (2013 – 2018) is the strengthening of the country’s position among world development leaders in terms of the qual-

CHAPTER 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

ity of life, a significant reduction in losses from irrational use of natural resources and ensuring a high level of the country’s environmental sustainability. The third stage (2019-2024) is the achievement of the accepted international criteria for sustainable development. The main principles of transition to sustainable development in the Republic of Kazakhstan are: –– Involving the whole of society in the process of achieving sustainable development; –– Creation of a political basis for sustainable development; –– Interdepartmental integration, a systematic approach to state management, improving the efficiency of forecasting, planning and regulation of key development indicators; –– Economic progress as a result of the active introduction of high technology into the economy of the country, increasing the efficiency of resource use; –– Ensuring the competitiveness of science and education; –– Improvement of the health of the population, demographic situation as a result of the introduction of the paradigm of a healthy society; –– Improvement of environmental protection activities as the most important noospheric function of society; –– Territorial development based on the trans-regional ecosystem approach. –– Priorities for the transition to sustainable development are: –– Introduction of sustainable production and consumption patterns; –– Use of new and environmentally friendly technologies; –– Development of sustainable transport systems; –– Energy efficiency and energy saving; –– Regional problems of sustainable development; –– Raising the level of social security of the population; –– Poverty alleviation, taking into account environmental and gender aspects; − Preservation of historical and cultural heritage;

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–– Prevention and reduction of environmental threats to public health; –– Combating desertification; –– Conservation of biological diversity; –– Reduction of emissions, including greenhouse gases and ozonedepleting substances; –– Access to quality drinking water; –– Addressing transboundary environmental problems; –– Radiation and biochemical safety; –– Waste management. Another program document in the field of environmental security is the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2014). At the same time, the main positions of these Laws, amended and supplemented in accordance with the international approaches adopted in the Republic, are included in the relevant sections of the Code. The main objective of the Environmental Code is the reform of environmental legislation aimed at bringing the environmental norms of the Republic of Kazakhstan closer to the directives of the European Union and international legal standards. Ecological security is understood as a state of protection of the natural environment and vital human interests from the possible negative impact of economic or other activities, emergency situations of natural and man-made nature, their consequences. Environmental policy of Kazakhstan Beginning from the nineties, a new environmental policy of the transition period started to form in Kazakhstan, aimed at developing economic methods for regulating the use of natural resources, expanding the rights and powers of local governments. After gaining independence, Kazakhstan has repeatedly reaffirmed its commitment to the ideas of environmental safety and sustainable development by signing the outcome documents of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio-92), became an active

CHAPTER 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

participant in the “Environment for Europe” process, joined the major international conventions on climate change, combating desertification and preserving biodiversity. Kazakhstan is a regular participant in international environmental forums, a member of the UN Sustainable Development Commission, and actively initiates agreements on a bilateral and regional basis. Environmental policy is a policy towards the environment. The appearance of the term “eco-politics” testifies to the recognition by human society of the third dimension in environmental policy, as well as the need to consider the economic, social and environmental goals and tasks of the state as a single system. The four levels of environmental policy hierarchy: 1. International-global environmental policy – is to conduct international legal, political and foreign policy actions, taking into account environmental constraints in socio-economic development, the global potential of natural resources (NR) and their global deployment. For example: economic zones in the World Ocean, quotas (shares, norms) for the withdrawal of specific stocks of specific NR, the payment for pollution of the environment is agreed, prohibitions are imposed on the discharge of certain substances (washing water from tankers, ozone-depleting substances). 2. Regional (macro-regional) environmental policy covers the interests of one continent, subcontinent, a large region of the world (Europe, the Mediterranean, the Danube Basin, the Caspian region, the Baltic countries) and provides for the creation of border reserves, cooperation of countries in controlling trans boundary air and water pollution, establishing regional quotas for the seizure of living NR. 3. National (state) environmental policy – involves the adoption and implementation of socio-economic solutions and international treaties relating to the ecological state of the territories (water areas, airspace), its natural and resource potential. 4. Local environmental policy is an analogue of the state within the boundaries of small territorial entities (river basin, econom-

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ic region). Specific methods are tools for environmental policy: –– Fiscal – directly related to finance; –– Non-fiscal – legal support of nature protection activities, economic rationing, education, etc. Fiscal instruments: –– Related to government revenues (licensing of nature use, taxes). –– Related to government costs (environmental targeted investments, state support for environmental R&D activities (research and development), public funding for environmental activities, environmental programs). Mechanisms for implementing environmental policy 1. Legal 2. Administrative 3. Information 4. Economic The legal mechanism includes all the existing laws on the protection of the natural environment and natural resources. Administrative regulation covers a number of management methods, among which, on the basis of domestic and foreign experience, there are: environmental quality standards, environmental impact standards, direct prohibitions, technological standards, product quality standards, environmental certificates, permits and licenses. The system of environmental standards implies the establishment of unified and mandatory for all objects of this condition a system of managing norms and requirements. The regulatory body for managing environmental problems and nature management issues in Kazakhstan is the Committee for Environmental Protection, whose mission is «harmonization of interactions between society and the environment». The committee is entrusted with the primary responsibility for the protection of nature and the rational use of natural resources. It is the

CHAPTER 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

central executive body of the republic in the field of environmental protection and coordinates the activities of other central executive bodies that carry out functions of environmental protection and environmental management, conducts state oversight and forms a unified state policy in the field of environmental protection. Information management is a set of information, mainly about natural resources, natural conditions, as well as the activities of nature users. Provision with information necessary for making a management decision precedes the application of certain methods. At the same time, information support should be created in accordance with the requirements and requests of environmental management systems. Economic Regulation The economic mechanism includes: − Planning and financing of environmental protection measures; − Payment for emissions into the environment; − Payment for the use of certain types of natural resources; − Economic incentives for environmental protection; − Market mechanisms and trading of quotas for emissions into the environment; − Environmental insurance; − Economic evaluation of damage to the environment; National and regional environmental programs are the most important means of implementing state environmental policy. (XIII) General subjective types questions 1. Explain the relationship of concepts: the environmental footprint, the quality of the environment, the Human Development Index (HDI). 2. Name the general principles of environmental policy. 3. Define the legal basis for nature use. 4. What are the legal bases for the environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan? 5. Identify the main stages in the formation of Kazakhstan’s environmental policy 6. Discuss the main strategic directions for environmental protection in Kazakhstan. 7. Define the main tasks of environmental NGOs.

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CHAPTER 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

CHAPTER 14 Social aspects of Sustainable Development

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Human rights. Wealth and poverty Health of the individual and family Development of civil society Education for Sustainable Development Formation of environmental culture

Human rights. Wealth and poverty Social criteria of human quality as a biological individual – health, giftedness, education. The existing disparity in the conditions and quality of life leads to deep economic and social differentiation. This is another source of self-conflict of people. Currently, the number of economically active population does not exceed one billion, which is each worker provides himself and five other people. Problems of unemployment, job shortages cause a whole chain of deformations in the economy and negative social phenomena from poverty, to the growth of crime. Millions of people are forced or consider it necessary to engage in ac-

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tivities that, from the point of view of social ecology, are essentially unnecessary or even contrary to the normal sustainable existence of mankind: to produce weapons, poisonous substances, drugs, etc. The economic inequality of states, aggravated by the growth of population, adds to this the geopolitical contradictions, the growing pressure of immigration to economically prosperous countries, separatism, terrorism, interethnic and interreligious conflicts.  All these problems are a barrier to the environmentally of the economy and the social order, the transition of humankind to the path of an environmentally oriented post-industrial civilization. A very rapid increase in population in the twentieth century is called a demographic explosion. The contribution of different countries and continents to the overall picture of population growth is not the same. The largest increase is in Asian countries – China, India, Indonesia. Fighting poverty and preventing social stratification. In the relative concept of ­ poverty income ­ man is compared with the average level of well-being achieved in a given society. According to this concept, a person or a family is considered poor if the means at their disposal do not allow them to lead the way of life adopted in the society where they live.  To measure relative poverty, a relative poverty line is used that determines the proportion of the population living below the level of the average income that exists in the society at a certain stage of its development. Subsistence minimum assigned to: 1. Estimates of the standard of living and development ­ dividing the poverty line. 2. Definitions of directions of social policy and implemented ­ social support measures ­ population. 3. Rationale established ­ the minimum ­ wages, pensions, allowances and other social benefits. Based on international experience, the most effective and comprehensive social protection systems include the following ­ the main elements are:

CHAPTER 14. Social aspects of Sustainable Development

1. Government benefits. 2. Compulsory social insurance. 3. Accumulative pensions. 4. Social assistance. As part of measures to ensure sustainable development of Kazakhstan society, it is necessary to take further steps to eliminate poverty by adopting a set of interrelated measures, especially in rural areas. These results will be achieved by: –– Economy growth of country’s all regions; –– Development of agriculture, including the use of more efficient modern agricultural technologies; –– Increase the effectiveness of the population social protection system, including simplification of bureaucratic procedures in obtaining social benefits, improving employment policies; –– Involvement of the business community in the regions of the country in solving the problems of poverty. Health of Individual and family The demographic situation. The further development of Kazakhstan society should be based on the formation of a stable demographic situation characterized by an increase in the average life expectancy with a proportional increase in the birth rate and the preservation of the proportion of the able-bodied population in the age structure. These tasks will be achieved by: –– Restriction of tobacco smoking, sale of tobacco products in common trading halls, prohibition of smoking in public places and advertising of tobacco products, anti-tobacco company in the media, stimulation of quitting smoking in “influence groups” – among doctors, civil servants, educators; –– Restriction of alcohol consumption, ban on advertising of spirits, tightening control over the quality of alcoholic beverages; –– The intensification of the fight against drug addiction and drug trafficking, including the propaganda of non-acceptance of drugs and the formation of public anti-drug immunity;

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–– Improving nutrition standards, increasing the consumption of natural juices and dairy products per capita, promoting healthy nutrition, strengthening the control of food quality in the domestic market; –– Increase of motor activity, including expansion of the network of free sports and gyms, children’s sports sections, stimulation of motor activity and healthy lifestyle through social advertising; –– Ensuring the involvement of young people to the realization of the project “My motherland is Kazakhstan”, as well as tour guides in the organization of ecotourism activities; –– Providing a systematic approach to work on the introduction of the healthy lifestyles principles and shaping the citizens of the country the perception of sport and active types of ecotourism as a new ideology for improving the quality of life of Kazakhstanis. Health care. To ensure sustainable development of Kazakhstan society, it is necessary to improve the health care system, including: –– Choosing the best economic model for health development; –– Creation of centers of high medical technologies with attraction of leading world experts; –– Development of the medical market with state and non-state participation; –– Constant increase of per capita health financing , support of voluntary medical insurance as one of the important elements of the economic healthcare system; –– Active use of Kazakhstan recreational resources of the nature, including the creation of a network of sanatorium-resort and rehabilitation institutions of the international level; –– A radical improvement in the system of maternal and child health, obstetrics, and the strengthening of reproductive health of men and women. Industrial security and labor protection. Ensuring sustainable development in the field of industrial security and labor protection will be carried out by:

CHAPTER 14. Social aspects of Sustainable Development

–– Implementation of international standards of security and labor protection in industrial enterprises; –– Spread a culture of secure behavior and increase the responsibility of both employers and employees for meeting security requirements; –– Implement measures for risk assessment and management; –– Strengthening the state control over compliance with security standards; –– Conducting an independent audit of security and labor protection at production facilities. Development of civil society In the Republic of Kazakhstan, measures should be taken to further develop civil society primarily through: –– Development of local government; –– Educating the civil consciousness of the population through the activities of patriotically oriented political parties, social movements; –– Development of youth’ patriotic education; –– Strengthening the role of the public in the process of ensuring the transition to sustainable development; –– Expanding the population’s access to information, the development of “e-government”. Education for Sustainable Development Environmental knowledge is called upon to form an active environmental position. Culture and information. Environmental culture is the whole complex of skills of being in contact with the environment. Sustainable development of culture and information policy in the Kazakh society will be provided by:

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–– Priority creation and support of cultural organizations both at the national level, at the local and, especially, rural level; –– Taking measures to preserve paleontological, archaeological and architectural monuments and cultural heritage of Kazakhstan, which are of national and global significance; –– Propaganda of the best achievements of Kazakh culture and art at the international level; –– Support for the universally valid directions of the national culture, primarily cinema art, folk and symphonic music, aitys, drama theater, opera and ballet, fine arts; –– Increase of patriotic orientation and professional culture in the work of mass media –– Creation of the Kazakhstan segment of the Internet, functioning based on the principles of public freedom of information. Formation of environmental culture Environmental education is a purposefully organized, systematically and systematically carried out process of mastering environmental knowledge, skills and attainments. The system of education and science in the Republic of Kazakhstan will be consistent with the goals and principles of sustainable development. The improvement of education and science for sustainable development should be carried out on the basis of: –– Ensuring modernization of the national multi-level education system; –– With the establishment in the country on international level the elite educational institutions of and campuses; –– Modernization of education at the scientific and methodological level, the creation of fundamentally new structures that ensure the interrelationship of educational, scientific and production processes; –– Introducing technological training in secondary schools to develop new abilities and abilities for students, including the abil-

CHAPTER 14. Social aspects of Sustainable Development

–– ––

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ity to design, make decisions and perform creative work, maintain a high level of innovation; Preparing a competitive personality ready for active participation in the social, economic and political life of the country; Ensuring equal access to full-fledged education for different categories of students, creating conditions for training high school students in accordance with their individual abilities and intentions to continue education, self-realization and finding their place in the labor market; Creation of broad opportunities for the socialization of students, effective training of school leavers for mastering vocational education programs; Conducting monitoring of the personnel (staff) potential of the republic with the definition of the forecast demand for specialists of the highest scientific qualification both at the national and regional level; Reforming the national science with an orientation to both its own and foreign traditions, with the support not only of research areas giving immediate feedback, but also of the scientific community as a whole, which is an essential element of sustainable development of society; Formation of the National Innovation System (NIS) as the most important condition for realizing the links between science and production; Stimulation of the introduction of domestic scientific achievements into practice; Establishment of technological institutes and provision of their funding for research and development in the field of advanced technological developments so that the target production schemes are based on technologies adapted to local conditions, technologies for environmental rehabilitation, and technologies based on traditional knowledge; Improvement of the  regulatory framework in the field of intellectual property protection, use of patents, establishment of

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legal relations with foreign and domestic investors, private enterprises using the results of scientific research. (XIV) General subjective types questions 1. How did the issues of preserving peace and international security implemented? 2. Name documents which define human rights? 3. What national program is aimed at improving the health of Kazakhstan population? 4. How the civil society in Kazakhstan is developed? 5. Define the tasks of social ecology. 6. How social and global ecology are correlated? 7. Describe a socio – ecosystem. 8. Name of the programs, which aimed at raising the level of social security of Kazakhstan’ population. 9. Define the programs aimed at the development of science and education in Kazakhstan. 10. Which state programs are aimed at preventing and reducing environmental threats to the health of Kazakhstan’ population?

CHAPTER 14. Social aspects of Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 15 Global partnership in Sustainable Development

1. Implementation of the concept of sustainable development at the global level. Preservation of peace and international security 2. Development of civil society. Activities of non-governmental organizations 3. International eco-policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Astana Initiative “Green Bridge” Implementation of the concept of sustainable development at the global level. Preservation of peace and international security At present, there is no doubt that the continuation of the economic, demographic, socio-geographical and environmental trends that emerged in the second half of the twentieth century, leads to the deepest crisis of modern civilization. According to various estimates, humankind has been given away from 30 to 60 years to radically change the course. Therefore, now there is an intensive search for the optimal path choice. From the standpoint of the model of sustainable develop-

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ment, the prevention of a new world war is the most important global problem of mankind. An integrated approach to the problems of disarmament would be in the interests of all world countries. The best way to prevent nuclear war is to radically change the relationship between the world’s largest powers. New political thinking was embodied in the transition from the principle of “class struggle” to the principle of “universal human values”. Civil society’s development. Activity of non-governmental organizations Environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) around the world are fighting for the sustainable using resources, restoration and protection of the environment through changes in public policy, behavior of citizens and control over technologies for the production and reporting of companies to environmental pollution. The work of environmental NGOs is linked to their crucial mission to move towards sustainable development, i.e. to promote sustainable development. Such forms of development, in which economic growth, material production and consumption function within the capacity of natural ecosystems to recover, absorb pollution and sustain the livelihoods of present and future generations. The main tasks of environmental NGOs are: –– development and implementation of measures to ensure environmental safety and public health protection; –– education and advocacy; –– assistance in the implementation of national and international programs; –– participation in the development of normative and legislative acts in the sphere of environment and nature management.

CHAPTER 15. Global partnership in Sustainable Development

International eco-policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Astana Initiative “Green Bridge” The modern world is experiencing a multidimensional global financial and environmental crisis. There was an urgent need to revise existing approaches to understanding the principles of the relationship between society and nature. In this context, Kazakhstan’s initiative voiced at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development Rio + 20 in June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) is very timely. The idea of​​ creating the “Green Bridge” program was put forward on behalf of the country, the main purpose of which is to support the initiatives of the Head of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev: Global Energy and Environmental Strategy for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century, the Green Bridge Partnership Program, which contains scientifically sound and innovative principles needed to overcome global challenges. Global Energy and Sustainable Development Strategy of XXIst century, putting forward in the framework of the relatively new direction development for our country, is the most important document which task is to innovate the world’s existing energy technologies and scale up the modernization of the world energy sector. One of the key tasks in the implementation of the “Green Bridge” program is the creation of a single educational space, enhancing the role of the youth of the countries in sustainable development, and their mobilization for the practical implementation of initiatives for sustainable innovation development. To this end, the al-Farabi Kazakh National University was the first among the universities of the country and among Central Asia, in conjunction with the world’s leading universities, to develop mechanisms to implement practical recommendations in the field of sustainable development. The scientific and educational programs of personnel training in the field of design and management of sustainable innovative and energy-environmental development in the regions, industries and enterprises of Kazakhstan are being developed.

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Al-Farabi Kazakh National University became the only one among the universities of the CIS countries, which organized its own section at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development Rio + 20 in June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), with the participation of representatives of the UN, state structures of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the academic community, where the idea of creating a consortium of universities “Green Bridge Through Generations” was put forward, which was actively supported by the conference participants. The Consortium “ Green Bridge Through Generations” promotes the unification of efforts of states, international organizations, public and business sectors, universities of the Republic of Kazakhstan, near and far abroad. The green bridge assumes: –– Transition to an energy-efficient economy; –– Attracting investment in the green economy; –– Involvement and development of advanced innovations; The Green Office is the Green Campus management algorithm aimed at minimizing the negative impact of the organization’s activities on the environment through the rational use and savings of both environmental resources and the resources of the organization itself. The idea of creating the “Green Office” has its origins in the 80-ies of XXth century, which was later supported and developed by the UN Conference on Sustainable Development “Rio + 20” in 2012. This project strengthens its influence due to the expansion and active promotion of the principles of the Green campus, the Green Campus, the Green Economy on a global scale and with the support of the UN Office. The concept of «the Green campus» – a comprehensive approach that includes technical, information and educational and motivational activities aimed at implementing in the corporate university of environmental policy. Green Campus, the Green Way youth movement is a program widely used in universities in Great Britain, the United States and other developed countries aimed at attracting young people to manage their universities using environmentally safe and innovative methods.

CHAPTER 15. Global partnership in Sustainable Development

The implementation of the adopted strategy began in Kazakhstan and is applied based on the Al-Farabi Kazakh National University in Almaty. This project will educate youth about the careful attitude to natural resources and will be the beginning for a full transition to the regime “With nature on YOU!” (XV) General subjective types questions 1. Give examples of International anti-nuclear movement. 2. Name the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in solving environmental problems. 3. Give examples of participation of youth international organizations in solving environmental problems. 4. Give examples of the implementation of international cooperation in the field of sustainable development. 5. Give examples of the implementation of the “Green Bridge” program at the global, regional levels. 6. Discuss the principles of International Eco-politics of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 7. Describe the Astana’s initiative of «Green Bridge”. 8. What kind of practical steps have been taken in the Republic of Kazakhstan in the framework of the strategy for sustainable development implementation? 9. What are the principles and idea of the ​​ program “Green Bridge through Generations”? 10. Give examples of the implementation of the Youth Environmental Programs?

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Terminologies and defenitions

Glossary on the Chapter – 1: Ecology is the science of the relationship between living organisms and their environment. The term ecology (from the Greek “Oikos” – dwelling, abode and “logos” – teaching) was introduced into the scientific use by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866). Habitat – the set of conditions in which this individual exists. The landscape is the main category of territorial division of the geographic envelope of the Earth. Ecologization reflects an important trend of modern science – the search for synthesis (the world is one, nature does not know the faculties). In this connection, the term “ macroecology” Macroecology is a scientific discipline in which, on the basis of a systematic approach, the largest generalizations of the “classical” ecology are combined with human ecology, environmental science and the problems of the relationship between man and nature. The main sections of modern ecology: − About general ecology (autecology, synecology, population ecology) − Autecology is a division of ecology, which studies the ecology of individual specimens of this species, the ecology of the species. − Synecology is the division of ecology, which studies the interaction of communities with the habitat. − Demecology is the ecology of populations, the focus of which is on the dynamics of numbers. − bioecology (the doctrine of the biosphere, the ecology of groups of organisms, the ecology of natural biosystems, evolutionary ecology). − geoecology (ecology of geospheres, natural zones, climatology of regions, countries, continents) − human ecology (bioecology of man, humanity) − social ecology (ecology of the person, family, ethnoses and ethnogenesis, demographic ecology) − Theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the organization of life. − Applied ecology (ecological economy of nature management, engineering ecology, ecology, bioresource and trade ecology, communal and medical ecology).

Terminologies and defenitions Glossary on the Chapter – 2: The ecological system is the main object of ecology , in the general sense the system is a real or conceivable set of parts whose properties are determined by the interaction between parts of the system. The biosphere is a global ecosystem, a special active shell of the Earth, whose composition, structure and energy are determined by the existence and activity of living organisms. Community – the totality of living organisms that make up this ecosystem. Homeostasis of the body is self-renewal and maintenance of the constancy of its internal environment Adaptation is the adaptability of the organism to conditions of existence. Ontogenesis is a set of transformations that the organism undergoes from the beginning to the end of life. Prokaryotes – low-organized pre-nuclear (bacteria, blue-green algae) eukaryotes – highly organized nuclear, represented by three kingdoms: animals, plants, mushrooms . Biocenosis – a set of populations that are adapted to co-habitation in a given territory. The biotope is the space occupied by the biocenosis. Biogeocenosis is an ecological system that includes a community of different species under certain geological conditions. Biological diversity is the number of living organisms, species and ecosystems. Emergence is a property characterizing the degree of irreducibility of the properties of a system to the properties of individual elements of which it consists Stability-the predominance of internal interactions over external ones determines its stability and the ability to self-preservation The principle of evolution – the emergence and existence of all systems is due to evolution. Self-sustaining dynamic systems evolve towards the complication of organization and the emergence of a subsystem hierarchy. The rule of maximum life pressure : this means that the total amount of living matter of all organisms of the planet changes relatively little within the limits of large time intervals. Bionics – the science of applying the principles of the action of living systems to solve engineering problems. The biosphere is a global ecosystem, a special active shell of the Earth, whose composition, structure and energy are determined by the existence and activity of living organisms. Glossary on the Chapter – 3: Six elements – carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus account for an average of 99% of the composition of all living things. These elements are called biogenic.

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Ecology and sustainable development The biosphere is a collection of parts of the earth’s shells (litho-, hydro-, and atmosphere), which is inhabited by living organisms, is under their influence and is occupied with the products of their vital activity. The term biosphere was introduced by the Austrian geologist E. Zuss (1873). Ecosphere is a planetary space in which global ecological processes occur, the interaction between the modern biosphere and the technosphere, their sum. According to V.Vernadsky, the biosphere substance consists of: Living matter – biomass of living organisms Biogenic substance – all forms of detritus, peat, coal, oil and gas. Bio-nutrients – mixtures of nutrients with mineral rocks (soils, or, natural waters of bituminous,) Bare substance – rocks, minerals, precipitation Biomass – the total mass of individuals of a species, group, species, referred to the area or volume of habitat. The noosphere is the sphere of the mind that arises as a result of the appearance of man on the Earth and its interaction with the natural environment. The law of constancy says that the amount of living matter of the biosphere (for a certain geological time) is a constant value. This law, called The pressure of life is the ability to produce offspring. Ecosystem – a spatially defined set of living organisms and their habitat, combined with real-energy and information interactions. The term was introduced into the ecology by the English botanist A. Tensli (1935). Abiotic component – biotope or ecotope – a site with the same landscape, climatic, soil conditions Biotic component – community or biocenosis – the totality of all living organisms that inhabit this biotope. Succession – the process of development of the ecosystem from its inception to death, accompanied by a change in existing species in it. The species is a natural biological unit, a set of individuals possessing a number of common morpho-physiological characters inhabiting a certain area, capable of crossing with the formation of healthy offspring. A population is a collection of individuals of a single biological species inhabiting one territory, having a common gene pool, and the possibility of crossing. The community is a group of populations of different species inhabiting a certain territory. Ecotope – the habitat of the community. Each ecosystem includes groups of organisms that differ in the way they feed – autotrophs (self-feeding or producers) and heterotrophs (feeding on other or otherwise consumers). Producers are autotrophic organisms that produce food from simple inorganic substances.

Terminologies and defenitions Depending on the power source heterotrophs are divided into several types: consumers, detritophages and decomposers. Consumers are consumers of the organic matter of living organisms. These include phytophages, i.e. feeding on living plants, zoophagous – eating other animals, parasites living at the expense of host substances. Detritophages are organisms that feed on dead organic matter – plant and animal remains. Reducents – bacteria and lower fungi complete the destructive work of consumers and detritophages, bringing the decomposition of organic matter to its full mineralization and returning to the environment portions of carbon dioxide, water and mineral elements. Interspecific relationships can be classified as follows: Neutralism (0,0) is the type of relationship between populations in which they do not form significant direct interactions. Amensalism (-, 0) – any interspecific relationship in which one population negatively affects the other and does not experience significant response on its part. For example, the suppression of the growth of grass by the shading trees. Commensalism (+, 0) – relations of this type favorably affect the state of one population and do not affect the state of the other in any way. For example: lichens living on the trunk of a pine. Mutually beneficial interspecific relations (+, +) – both populations receive mutual benefit – mutualism or protocol operation. For example: flowering plants and pollinating their insects. Competition (-, -) populations of both species adversely affect each other. Relations of the “victim-exploiter” type (+, -). E is a group united by a variety of relationships between species. For example: a victim and a predator Glossary on the Chapter – 4: The environment corresponds to that part of the ecological environment with the elements of which the given organism is currently in contact and directly or indirectly interacting. The natural environment is a set of components of the natural environment, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects. Ecological factors are such properties of components of an ecosystem and its external environment that have a direct effect on individuals of a given population. Those that are needed for the life of the organism – food, water, heat, light, oxygen – are defined as conditions of existence. Other factors that do not necessarily function consistently are called exposure factors. The factors characterizing the availability of various forms of matter and energy, the temporal changes of which are subject to conservation laws, are called resources. The most important environmental factors are considered as resources of the biosphere.

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Ecology and sustainable development Abiotic factors – a set of inorganic conditions of the organism. Biotic factors are caused by intraspecific and interspecific interactions. The range of quantitative values of ​​ the environmental factor, within which representatives of a given species may exist, is called the bio-interval of the factor External factors affect the body, the population, but do not experience direct reverse action: solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Internal factors are related to the properties of the system itself and form its composition: abundance, food, concentration of substances, etc. Anthropogenic impacts generated by human activities constitute a special group. Part of the anthropogenic factors associated with the use of machinery, machines, is called technogenic. Factors that are stronger than others affect the state of the body or population are called limiting. Law of the minimum J. Liebig: Growth of plants depends on the element that is present in the minimum amount . V. Shelford’s law of tolerance (1913): the absence or impossibility of prosperity is determined by a lack (qualitatively or quantitatively) or vice versa by an excess of any of a number of factors whose level may be close to the limits tolerated by the given organism. These two limits are called limits of tolerance. Organisms that require conditions limited by a narrow range of tolerance are called stenobiontic organisms, and those capable of living in a wide range of factors are eurybiontic. Critical is the importance of the factor and the state of the organism corresponding to it, in which these violations are reversible, when the ability to self-recovery remains after the cessation of negative consequences. If the violations are irreversible and lead to the inevitable death of the body, then this condition and condition is called lethal. The multidimensional ecological space formed by combining the survival diagrams for the essential environmental factors of a given species or population is called an ecological niche. To develop and implement the ecological potency of the species, an optimal combination of the leading factors is necessary. This requirement is called the law of joint action of factors. Glossary on the Chapter – 5: The most important environmental factors are considered as resources of the biosphere. The ecological and climatic characteristics of the area include: average annual values ​​and seasonal temperature variations, absolute minimums and maximums.

Terminologies and defenitions On the basis of this, a macroclimate is determined for any territory , and diagrams are created – climograms . For individual landscapes, the mesoclimate is characteristic . Some habitats may have their own microclimate , which differs markedly from the macroclimate. According to the law of the energy pyramid, from each level to the next, about 10% of the energy passes (the rule is 10%). Plants intercept some of the precipitation and promote the evaporation of moisture before it reaches the ground. Soil moisture is absorbed by plant roots, participates in the metabolism and then evaporates from the leaves (transpiration). Together with evaporation from the soil surface, transpiration is total evaporation or evapotranspiration. The cycle of biogenic elements, caused by the synthesis and decomposition of organic substances in the ecosystem, is called the biotic cycle. Under photosynthesis understood converting green plants and photosynthetic microorganisms involving light energy and a light absorbing pigments simplest compounds (water, carbon dioxide and mineral elements) in complex organic substances necessary for the life of all organisms. The cycle of biogenic elements, caused by the synthesis and decomposition of organic substances in the ecosystem, is called the biotic cycle . Ecological pyramid – a graphic representation of the ratio of trophic levels. There may be three types – abundance, biomass, energy. Emissions of greenhouse gases are regulated by an international instrument the Kyoto Protocol , which came into force in 2005. After its ratification by at least 55 countries that signed the Framework Convention on Climate Change. Glossary on the Chapter – 6 and 7: The ecological niches of man constantly changed, increasing with increasing speed along with the stages of the historical development of mankind. The environment surrounding the human being, in addition to factors common to all terrestrial animals of the natural environment, includes the material and social environment created by the person himself. They form a single complex system of interacting factors. Demographic explosion – a very rapid increase in the population in the twentieth century . Anthropogenic – caused by human activity. All natural material and energy resources used by man are usually called natural resources. Resources of the ecosphere are represented only by renewable resources of substances, energy and information under the control of living organisms. Resources of the technosphere in addition to some of the resources of the ecosphere, captured by man and torn from the biotic cycle, include non-renewable resources extracted from the bowels.

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Ecology and sustainable development Renewable resources are substances created on the Earth. Non-renewable resources are minerals, ores, minerals Degradation – deterioration of the state, loss of quality. Natural and resource potential is a part of natural resources that can be really involved in economic activity under given technical and socio-economic opportunities of the society with the condition of preserving the human life environment. Urbanization is the process of increasing the number of cities and increasing the number of urban residents. Equilibrium is a state where individual parameters of the system are unchanged or oscillate around a certain mean value. Pollution of the environment – the entry into the environment any solid, liquid and gaseous substances, microorganisms or energies (in the form of sounds, noises, radiations) in quantities harmful to the normal state of the ecosystem. A pollutant is a substance or a mixture of substances that exceed the established standards and have a negative impact on the environment. According to the types of pollution, chemical ( carbon monoxide and nitric oxide in cities), physical ( heat, noise, radioactive elements ) and biological pollution ( microbes, viruses ) In terms of scale and distribution, pollution can be local, regional and global. Acid rain – rain, containing oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide. Mutation is a change in the genetic code that is inherited. Insecticides are chemicals used to control harmful insects. Defoliants – chemical substances that cause the leaves to fall off. Herbicides are chemicals used to control plant pests of agriculture. Pesticides are substances used to control pests of agriculture. eutrophication – a sharp increase in the biomass of phytoplankton due to mass reproduction of blue-green algae, causing the flowering of water, deterioration of its quality and living conditions of hydrobionts. Depletion of water should be understood as an unacceptable reduction in their reserves within a certain territory or a decrease in the minimum allowable runoff (for surface waters). Erosion (wind, water) – destruction and demolition of the upper fertile horizons and underlying rocks by wind or streams of water, Desertification is the process of irreversible changes in soil and vegetation and a decrease in biological productivity, which can lead to the complete destruction of the biosphere potential and the transformation of the territory into a desert. The traditional sources include, first of all, thermal, atomic and energy flow of water. Glossary on the Chapter – 8: Environmental damage is a significant regional violation of environmental conditions, which seriously threatens the health and lives of people and causes economic damage.

Terminologies and defenitions Suddenly catastrophic defeat associated with emergency situations, the latter are divided into: natural disasters and natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mudflows, etc.) Anthropogenic (technogenic) disasters – industrial and communication accidents, explosions, collapses, etc.) Technogenic catastrophes are accompanied by the release of harmful chemical and radiation substances into the environment. Zones of an emergency ecological situation are areas of the territory where, as a result of economic or other activities, there are stable negative changes in the environment. Areas of ecological disaster are areas of the territory where, as a result of economic or other activity, profound irreversible environmental changes occurred that resulted in significant deterioration of public health, violation of natural balance, destruction of natural ecosystems, degradation of flora and fauna. Greenhouse effect – increasing the concentration in the atmosphere of socalled greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, etc.) absorbing the thermal radiation of the earth’s surface, which leads to a warming of the climate. Ozone layer (screen) - layer of the atmosphere, lying at altitudes of 7 km . up to 50 km . (With the highest ozone density at altitudes of 20-22 km) With an increased content of ozone molecules. The environmental crisis (EC) refers to the current state of the relationship between human society and the environment in which a person lives, in which the contradictions between the economic interests of society in the consumption and use of the natural environment and the environmental requirements for ensuring the preservation, quality of this environment for the survival of the society itself. Environmental security is the state of protection of the natural environment and vital human interests from the possible negative impact of economic or other activities, emergency situations of natural and man-made nature, their consequences. Smog – a combination of gaseous and solid impurities, aerosol haze in the atmosphere. Glossary on the Chapter – 9 and 10: Humanism is a worldview based on the principles of equality, justice, humanity. The Roman Club is an international non-governmental scientific organization uniting scientists, political and public figures of many countries. The activities of the Club of Rome are aimed at developing tactics and strategies for resolving global problems. The Roman Club was established in 1968 by the Italian economist A. Peccei.

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Ecology and sustainable development UNEP – United Nations Environment Program The initial task was to develop recommendations on the most acute problems of the oncoming environmental crisis – desertification, soil degradation, freshwater reduction, ocean pollution, deforestation, loss of valuable species of animals and plants. First World Conference on the Environment / 1972, Stockholm / with the participation of 113 states. The International Commission on Environment and Development (ICRD) was established in 1983. The Man and the Biosphere Program is an international research program of UNESCO, the continuation of the International Biological Program. The “Man and the Biosphere” program is aimed at solving a number of biological and environmental issues formulated in the form of separate subprogrammesprojects. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development – Rio / 1992, Rio de Janeiro / Central Conference ideas: The main outcome of the Conference was the adoption of the document “Agenda for the XXIst century” of the world program – the Concept of Sustainable Development. In 1992, the Global Forum of NGO representatives took place in Rio, which adopted ideological guidelines: – Economic development in isolation from ecology leads to the transformation of the Earth into a desert – Environment without economic development – it is poverty for all – Inevitability compromises and sacrifices on the part of developed countries on the path to sustainable development. In the widely disseminated in the Rio Heidelberg call of eminent scientists, it was noted that human progress has always been associated with the use of nature. World Summit – Rio + 10, / 2002 Johannesburg / The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) until 2015: 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 2. Ensuring universal primary education, 3. Promoting equality between men and women, 4. Reducing child mortality, 5. Improve maternal health, 6. Fighting HIV / AIDS, etc. Diseases, 7. Ensuring environmental security, 8. Forming a global partnership for development. Ecological law is a set of legal norms regulating the public attitude to the sphere of interactions between society and nature. The cadastre is a systematized quantitative and qualitative set of information on natural resources.

Terminologies and defenitions Sustainable development – developing that meets the needs of the present, but does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of environmental security of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a document developed on April 30, 1996. The Concept of Transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to Sustainable Development for 2007-2024 – defines the vision of principles, goals, objectives and basic mechanisms for achieving sustainability in all spheres of the country’s life, aimed at improving the quality of life of the population of Kazakhstan. High technologies – new generally recognized achievements in engineering and technological processes, realized in the form of new and improved products and the most environmentally friendly technology used to integrate products produced in the Republic of Kazakhstan into the world market. Glossary on the Chapter – 11 – 13: Environmental protection – the activities of public authorities, local governments, public associations, legal entities and individuals aimed at preserving and restoring the natural environment, rational use and reproduction of natural resources, preventing the negative impact of economic or other activities on the environment and the elimination of its consequences . Rational nature management is nature management with preservation of ecological balance. A favorable environment is the state of the environment, the quality of which ensures the sustainable functioning of natural ecosystems, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects. Natural resources are components of the natural environment, natural objects and natural-anthropogenic objects that are used or can be used for economic and other activities as sources of energy, products of production and consumer goods and have a consumer value A natural object is a natural ecological system, a natural landscape and the elements that make up them, and retain their natural properties. Renewable resources are substances created on the Earth. Non-renewable resources are minerals, ores, minerals. Subsoil is a part of the earth’s crust located below the soil layer, and in its absence – below the earth’s surface and the bottom of the seas, lakes, rivers and other bodies of water, extending to the depths available for subsoil operations taking into account scientific and technological progress. A subsoil user is a natural or legal person who, in accordance with this Law, has the right to conduct subsoil use operations. Agroecosystems - are created by man for obtaining high yields - pure production of autotrophs.

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Ecology and sustainable development Anthropogenic object is an object created by a person to ensure his social needs and does not possess the properties of natural objects. Safe subsoil use – provision of technical, environmental and sanitary-epidemiological safety during subsoil use operations; Efficiency management is the management of the interaction of society and nature based on the use of economic, administrative, social, technological and information factors, with the aim of achieving the quality (condition) of the natural environment that ensures the sustainable development of society and nature. Environmental monitoring – long-term observations of the state of the environment, its pollution and natural phenomena occurring in it, as well as assessment of the state of the natural environment. Local monitoring is carried out in separate environmental objects. Its purpose is to ensure an economic strategy that does not allow exceeding the permissible limits of pollution. A variety of local – impact monitoring – is carried out in especially dangerous areas. Regional monitoring – monitoring of processes and phenomena within a significant area of ​​the area, which differs from neighboring by natural conditions. Global monitoring – is conducted to obtain information on the whole biosphere. Its specific goals are defined in the framework of international cooperation, agreements and declarations. To analyze anthropogenic impact, background monitoring is often used the natural concentration or the degree of exposure of natural substances and other agents to anything. Environmental assessment – an assessment of the impact of the level of possible negative impacts of proposed economic activity on the environment, it is an important tool of public policy in the field of environmental protection and environmental management in the country. Depending on who carries out environmental expertise, the latter is divided into state, departmental, scientific, and public. State expertise is an independent type of environmental control that the state reserves, and on the other hand – an integral part of environmental forecasting, assessing the impact of a particular type of economic activity on the environment. Pollutants are substances entering the habitat and leading to a disturbance in the functioning of the ecosystem. Atmospheric pollution is the introduction into the air or the formation in it of physical agents, chemicals or organisms adversely affecting the environment of life and damaging material values. Water pollution – introduction into water or formation in it of physical, chemical or biological agents adversely affecting the environment of life or damaging material values.

Terminologies and defenitions Soil pollution is the accumulation of industrial and domestic waste and waste products on the Earth’s parts, leading to a loss of soil fertility. Contamination of the sea – the supply of materials, substances, energy, noise, vibrations to the marine environment, as well as the formation of various types of radiation and fields that cause or are likely to harm human health, the living resources of the sea and the marine ecosystem or interfere with or cause or are likely to cause physical damage or legal entities carrying out legal activities in the sea or on its coast. Historical pollution – currently orphaned objects: oil and gas and hydrogeological wells, mines, mines, etc. Hazardous waste – waste containing substances that have one of the dangerous properties (toxicity, explosiveness, fire hazard, infectiousness, radioactivity, etc.). Secondary pollution is the pollution of the environment that occurs as a result of biochemical reactions between primary pollutants and natural components and due to the transformation of pollutants. Emission – a short term or continuous (per hour, day) entry into the environment of harmful substances (pollutants) by a military facility, an industrial enterprise, a group of enterprises or a settlement. There are emissions from a separate source and total emissions on the area of a​​ populated point, region, state or group of states, the planet as a whole. Specially protected natural areas are land or water surface areas that, due to natural values, have been completely or partially removed from economic use and for which a special protection regime has been established. The reserve is a protected area in which the performance of the nature protection function is combined with limited economic activities. The reserve is a protected area in which economic activities are prohibited. The national nature park is relatively large natural areas and water areas, where three main objectives are achieved: ecological, recreational and scientific, and the availability of economic zones is allowed. The Red Book is a systematic list of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. Biosphere reserves are part of the state nature reserves and are used as a background reserve-reference facility in the study of biosphere processes. In the world there is a single global network of more than 600 biosphere reserves that work under the UNESCO program and conduct constant monitoring of changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic activity. Monuments of nature – unique non-reproducible natural objects, which are also of cultural and aesthetic value (caves, ancient trees, rocks, waterfalls, etc.) Botanical gardens are environmental institutions in order to create a collection of trees and shrubs to preserve biodiversity, as well as in scientific, educational and cultural and educational purposes.

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Ecology and sustainable development Recreational resources – all the phenomena that can be used for recreation, climatic, water, hydromineral, forest, mountain, etc. Environmental economy means a more versatile and at the same time more systematic approach to the environment. The main condition for measuring production and natural potentials: technogenic load on the territory should not exceed the ecological technological capacity of the territory . Environmental and economic assessment of the use of natural resources includes an assessment of the costs of reclamation of the natural potential of the landscape after its disruption caused by the exploitation of natural resources. MPC is the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances (normative index), which is characterized by a threshold concentration, i.е. this is the largest concentration of the substance in the medium, which, if more or less prolonged exposure to the body does not affect health and does not cause retarded effects (does not affect the offspring). MPE – maximum permissible emissions into the atmosphere (standards). The MPE is installed in such a way that emissions of harmful substances from this source in a given area do not create surface concentrations exceeding the maximum single-time limit-permissible concentrations. PDS is the maximum permissible discharge for the collection of a pollutant. The maximum permissible emissions – the maximum permissible emissions into the atmosphere, (MPE), the maximum permissible discharge to water bodies (PDS) of certain substances. Over normative emissions entail economic and administrative sanctions. Limits on emissions and discharges of pollutants and microorganisms restrictions on emissions and discharges of pollutants and microorganisms into the environment established for the period of environmental protection measures, including the introduction of the best technologies, in order to achieve environmental standards. The draft National Plan of Action for the Implementation of the United Nations Conference on the Environment (NEAP) contains recommendations: – develop and implement a system of territorial cadastres of natural resources, including their valuation – form the system of environmental restrictions and regulations of environmental management regimes – implement measures to develop and support environmental entrepreneurship and improve legislation in the interest of developing the market for environmental services. The company’s environmental passport is a normative and technical document that includes data on the use of natural resources (air, natural waters,

Terminologies and defenitions soils, forest resources, oil, etc.), secondary resources (electricity, fuel, fuel oil, etc.) and data on impact assessment activity of the enterprise on the OS. Environmental audit – an independent comprehensive documentary assessment of compliance by a business entity or other activity with established requirements in the field of environmental protection. Environmental impact assessment is a type of activity for the identification, analysis and recording of direct, indirect and other consequences of the environmental impact of the planned economic activity with a view to deciding whether or not it is possible to implement it. The principle of environmental impact assessment: the presumption of the potential environmental hazard of any planned economic activity, until the harmlessness of any project has been proved; a ban must be imposed on it The National Plan of Action for the Implementation of the United Nations Conference on the Environment (NEAP) contains the following recommendations: – develop and implement a system of territorial cadastres of natural resources, including their valuation; – form the system of environmental restrictions and regulations of environmental management regimes; – implement measures to develop and support environmental entrepreneurship and improve legislation in the interest of developing the market for environmental services. Environmental policy- a policy aimed: – to protect and improve the natural environment; – rational use and renewal of natural resources; – to preserve and develop the sociosphere, which ensures normal life activity and environmental safety of a person. Environmental policy of an enterprise – according to ISO – the organization defined set of intentions and principles with respect to the environmental performance of its activities, which creates the basis for the development of specific goals and objectives. Glossary on the Chapter – 14: Environmental education is a purposefully organized, systematically and systematically carried out process of mastering environmental knowledge, skills. Environmental culture is the whole complex of skills of being in contact with the environment. Socio-ecosystem – consists of biogenic, abiogenic. social and technical components. Social ecology – forms the laws of interaction between man and nature. Social criteria of human quality as a biological individual – health, giftedness, education.

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Ecology and sustainable development A very rapid increase in population in the twentieth century is called a demographic explosion. Social policy – the policy of regulating the social sphere, aimed at achieving welfare in society Social protection is a system designed to provide a certain level of access to essential goods and a certain level of well-being of citizens who, due to circumstances (old age, state of health, loss of breadwinner or work and other legal grounds) can not be economically active and provide themselves with income through participation in decent work The subsistence minimum is an objectively determined level of income (expenditure) proportional to the value of goods and services included in the consumer basket, an important component of which is the list of certain types of non-food products and services to meet the minimum requirements Social criteria of human quality as a biological individual – health, giftedness, education. Average life expectancy is the indicator of the expected life expectancy of the population, divided by 100 The quality of life is a complex indicator, defined as the product of the average normalized life expectancy, living standards and environmental quality The quality of the environment is the state of the environment, which is characterized by physical, chemical, biological and other indicators and their totality. Glossary on the Chapter – 15: UNEP – United Nations Environment Program. The initial task was to develop recommendations on the most acute problems of the oncoming ecological crisis – desertification, soil degradation, freshwater reduction, ocean pollution, deforestation, loss of valuable species of animals and plants. Eco-forum for Peace – created in 1986 . The international ecological movement, which aims to save life on Earth. Eco-forum NGO of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the largest national network of non-governmental organizations in Kazakhstan, carrying out their activities in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development. Has representative offices in all regions of Kazakhstan. An international non-governmental organization (INGO) is an international organization not established under an intergovernmental agreement. A distinctive feature of an international non-governmental organization is its recognition by at least one state or the existence of a consultative status with international intergovernmental organizations. The Kazakhstan Association of Nature Users for Sustainable Development is currently actively working to strengthen cooperation and develop a constructive dialogue between government agencies, nature users and NGOs in addressing environmental problems, conduct environmental seminars, fa-

Terminologies and defenitions miliarize with international environmental impact reports, participate in International seminars and symposia, closely cooperates with the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The public ecological movement is a form of public associations acting in the protection of the environment that do not have fixed membership. Public environmental expertise in the Republic of Kazakhstan is an environmental assessment that is organized and conducted at the initiative of citizens and public organizations, as well as on the initiative of local self-government bodies, public organizations whose main activity is the protection of the natural environment. Public environmental assessment is carried out before or simultaneously with the state environmental review. Eco-forum for Peace – created in 1986 . The international ecological movement, which aims to save life on Earth. Astana Initiative “Green Bridge” – the main purpose of which is to support the initiatives of the Head of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev: Global Energy and Ecological Strategy for Sustainable Development in the XXst Century, the Green Bridge Partnership Program, which contains scientifically sound and innovative principles needed to overcome global challenges. Global Energy-Ecological Strategy for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century – President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev, put forward in the framework of the development of a relatively new direction for our country, is the most important document whose task is to innovate the world’s existing energy technologies and scale up the modernization of the world energy sector. Green Office is the Green Campus management algorithm aimed at minimizing the negative impact of the organization’s activities on the environment through the rational use and savings of both environmental resources and the resources of the organization itself. The concept of «Green the campus» – a comprehensive approach that includes technical, information and educational and motivational activities aimed at implementing in the corporate university of environmental policy. The Green Way youth movement is a program widely distributed in universities in Great Britain, the USA and other developed countries aimed at attracting young people to manage their universities using environmentally safe and innovative methods. “Green Bridge through Generations” is a program that facilitates the unification of efforts of states, international organizations, public and business sectors, universities of the Republic of Kazakhstan, near and far abroad. Responsible consumption is the encouragement of an active position in the purchase of “eco” products.

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Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items

1. Ecology is a science that studies: A) interaction between organisms and environment B) interaction between only nonliving organisms C) interaction between inorganic ions D) only social problems E) only economic problems 2. The term “Ecology” was introduced by: A) V. Vernadsky B) B. Commoner C) J. Liebig D) E. Haeckel E) V. Shelford 3. “Nature knows better” was proposed by: A) E. Haeckel B) B. Commoner C) J. Liebig D) V. Vernadsky E) V. Shelford 4. The term “environment” means: A) chemical balance B) parts of the earth where life does not exist C) outside the organism in which an organism lives and which affects it D) abiotic balance E) only plants

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 5. Autecology– is ecology of…: A) formation of new species B) characteristics of populations C) individual organisms D) functional groups of an ecosystem E) biotic relationships in a community 6. Demecology – is ecology of...: A) populations B) all living organisms C) biotic relationships in a community D) adaptations of all living organisms E) formation of new species 7. Synecology – is ecology of…: A) formation of new species B) biological diversity C) adaptations of organisms D) evolution processes in biosphere E) communities 8. Structure and functions of biosphere are studied by: A) synecology B) global ecology C) autecology D) demecology E) applied ecology 9. The physical area in which an organism lives is its: A) ecosystem B) habitat C) ecological niche D) trophic level E) trophic web 10. The position of an organism defined by its role in a biological community: A) habitat B) ecosystem C) biome D) niche E) trophic web

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Ecology and sustainable development 11. The term “Ecosystem” was introduced by: A) V. Vernadsky B) A. Tansley C) E. Haeckel D) E. Zuss E) B. Commoner 12. Ecosystem is: A) all the organisms which interact each other B) all nonliving parts of an area that are interrelated C) an ecological unit that includes biotic and abiotic factors D) all the populations in an area E) an ecological niche of organism 13. The community includes: A) nonliving factors in an environment B) living factors of an environment C) all parts of the earth where life exists D) the members of one species E) all the populations in an area 14. Succession is a process where: A) organisms are adapted to environment B) a dominant male is replaced by a subordinate C) energy moves through a food web D) abiotic components are recycled E) a community changes over time 15. Find an abiotic factor in an ecosystem: A) sunlight B) plants C) animals D) microorganisms E) fungi 16. Find biotic factor in an ecosystem: A) direction of the wind B) temperature C) pollination of flowers by insects D) annual rhythms E) soil composition

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 17. Land temperature and precipitation are chief determinants of A) the air biome B) the water’s biome C) the earth’s biome D) the aquatic biome E) energy moves through a food web 18. “Organism growth is limited by the resource in the shortest supply”. This law is described by: A) B. Commoner B) V. Shelford C) V. Vernadsky D) J. Liebig E) Ch. Darwin 19. “Each environmental factor has limits of its positive influence on the organism”. This principle is described by: A) Lindeman B) J. Liebig C) V. Vernadsky D) B. Commoner E) V. Shelford 20. The term “tolerance” means: A) any ecological factor B) limits of organisms stability to effect of ecological factors C) metabolism of living organisms D) only minimum of factors available to organisms life E) only maximum of factors available to organisms life 21. Ecological factor that limits viability of organisms is: A) critical B) stress C) optimal D) zone of intolerance E) effective zone 22. Eyrobionts are organisms with: A) one population that inhabits only a small area B) a narrow range tolerance to an ecological factor C) a constant temperature of their body D) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor E) a body temperature depending on environment temperature

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Ecology and sustainable development 23. Stenobionts are organisms with: A) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor B) a constant temperature of their body C) a narrow range of tolerance to an ecological factor D) a body temperature depending on environment temperature E) one population that inhabits only a small area 24. Xerophytes are organisms that: A) with a constant temperature not depending on environment temperature B) with a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor C) are adapted to drought and environmental water shortage D) with a big range of tolerance to an ecological factor E) form one population that inhabits only a small area 25 Find homeothermic organisms: A) microorganisms B) fungi C) bacteria D) mammals E) all plants 26. Poikilothermic are organisms with: A) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor B) a body temperature depending on environment temperature C) a narrow range tolerance to an ecological factor D) with a big range of tolerance to an ecological factor E) a constant temperature not depending on environment temperature 27. Species that are localized and may have just one population that inhabit only a small area are called: A) eyrobionts B) endemic C) stenobionts D) xerophytes E) relict 28. Population growth rate is: A) individuals number change in a population over specific period of time B) a group of individuals of the same species living in the same place C) a number of individuals in a given population D) the number of individuals in given area at a given time E) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 29. Find the statistic characteristic of population: A) population number B) birthrate C) survival rate D) population growth E) death rate 30. Find the dynamic characteristics of population: A) population density B) individuals distribution in the space C) population number D) individuals sex and age groups E) population growth rate 31. The carrying capacity of a population does not include the statement: A) resources must be limited B) there is environment resistance C) the population exhibits J-shaped growth curve D) the birthrate is equal to the death rate E) the environment cannot support a larger population 32. Population growth is exponential when: A) the birthrate is lower than the death rate B) the birthrate is about the same as the death rate C) the birthrate reaches its biotic potential D) the birthrate is limited by lack of resources E) environment can not support a larger population 33. The S-shaped curve is typical of a population that: A) has more births B) is growing exponentially C) is not limited by its environment D) is regulated by density-dependent factors E) population exhibits exponential growth curve 34. The industrial revolution, agricultural revolution and others helped to… A) the rapid decrease of human population B) the rapid increase of human population C) the slow increase of human population D) the slow decrease of human population E) form one population that inhabits only a small area

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Ecology and sustainable development 35. The population with rapid growth includes the following age groups: A) most of the population is pre-reproductive or reproductive B) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� there are equal proportions of pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive ones C) most of the population is reproductive or post-reproductive D) almost all of the population is in the reproductive age group E) most of the population is post-reproductive 36. The volcanic eruption is an example of: A) a density-dependent factor B) something that would be charted on an J-shaped curve C) something that would be charted on an S-shaped curve D) anthropogenic factor E) a density-independent factor 37. The area of the earth occupied with living things is called: A) stratosphere B) ionosphere C) troposphere D) biosphere E) mezosphere 38. The term “Biosphere” was introduced by: A) V. Vernadsky B) E. Zuss C) E. Haeckel D) Ch. Darwin E) B. Commoner 39. The author of the study about biosphere is: A) B. Commoner B) V. Shelford C) V. Vernadsky D) J. Liebig E) E. Haeckel 40. The term “Noosphere” was introduced by: A) V. Vernadsky B) Le Rya C) J. Liebig D) E. Zuss E) E. Haeckel

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 41. Noosphere – is an evolutionary step of biosphere that: A) is transformed by conscious human activity B) is occupied by living organisms on the Earth C) has a negative anthropogenic impact D) includes past life on the Earth planet E) includes technogenic activity of humans 42. Environment that is changed by people is: A) natural environment B) second nature, or quasi-nature C) first nature, or ecological space D) third nature, or art-nature E) anthropogenic impact 43. Anthropogenic sources of pollution are: A) automobile exhausts B) earthquake C) electromagnetic waves D) volcano eruption E) flood 44. Competition, predation, and symbiosis are l types of: A) abiotic rhythms B) parasitic relationships C) biotic relationships D) biogeochemical cycles E) abiotic relationships 45. Interspecific competition is relationship between: A) plant’s community B) members of the same species C) organism-host and worms-parasite D) wolves in a pack E) members of the same species 46. Type of biotic relationship when one species benefits and other one has neither harm nor profit: A) mutualism B) predation C) parasitism D) competition E) commensalism

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Ecology and sustainable development 47. An interaction between two species in which species benefit each other is: A) predation B) parasitism C) competition D) mutualism E) commensalism 48. Two species that occupy a very similar niche are likely to be: A) commensalists B) mutualists C) predators D) competitors E) parasites 49. The major producers found in aquatic ecosystems are: A) aquatic plants B) phytoplankton C) zooplankton D) chemosynthetic bacteria E) benthos 50. The following is not correctly matched: A) phototroph – plants B) heterotroph – consumer C) herbivore – autotroph D) carnivore – animals E) bacteria – decomposer 51. Define the right order of components in the trophic chain “tree – hare – fox”: A) producer – primary consumer – secondary consumer B) heterotroph – primary consumer – secondary consumer C) autotroph – heterotroph – decomposer D) producer – heterotroph – decomposer E) producer – consumer – decomposer 52. Plants in an ecosystem play the following role: A) are primary consumers B) synthesize organic substances from inorganic compounds C) decompose organic substances to inorganic compounds D) are secondary consumers E) 6 are decomposers

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 53. Primary productivity is the energy contained in the trophic level of: A) herbivores B) producers C) carnivores D) omnivores E) decomposers 54. Nitrogen in the atmosphere is captured by: A) all types of bacteria B) only one type of bacteria C) nitrogen-fixing bacteria D) plants E) vegetables 55. Organisms that use ready food are called: A) producers B) phototrophs C) autotrophs D) chemotrophs E) heterotrophs 56. Find the heterotrophic organism: A) photosynthetic bacteria B) chemosynthetic bacteria C) plants D) wolves E) phototrophs 57. Find an autotrophic organism: A) fungi B) plant C) insect D) bird E) reptile 58. The wolf and the fox are on the same trophic level because both animals: A) have large size B) live on the land C) use food at 10% D) eat herbivore organisms E) have similar behavior

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Ecology and sustainable development 59. Consumers that eat producers are: A) herbivores B) autotrophs C) carnivores D) omnivores E) producers too 60. Consumers, such as wolves, that eat other consumers are: A) autotrophs B) herbivores C) omnivores D) producers E) carnivores 61. Consumers, such as humans, that eat both producers and other consumers are called: A) omnivores B) carnivores C) herbivores D) scavengers E) autotrophs 62. Amount of energy passing from one trophic level to the next one is: A) 1% B) 100% C) 50% D) 25% E) 10% 63. The main characteristic of biomass pyramids of freshwater or marine is to be: A) depends on a particular ecosystem B) right C) inverted D) do not change E) changes cyclically 64. According to number pyramids, a quantity of organisms at a higher trophic level: A) do not change B) decreases C) increases

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items D) changes cyclically E) depends on a particular ecosystem 65. Find the nonrenewable resources: A) forests B) soil C) wildlife D) minerals E) phytoplankton 66. Find the renewable resources: A) oil B) coal C) natural gas D) minerals E) forests 67. Organic garbage that is a subject to decay by microorganisms is called: A) minerals B) abiotic components C) non-renewable D) non-biodegradable E) biodegradable 68. Factors that specifically cause abnormalities during embryo development are called: A) mutagens B) teratogens C) carcinogens D) pesticides E) fungicides 69. Herbicides are chemicals that kill undesirable organisms such as: A) worms B) fungi C) plants D) insects E) bacteria 70. Factors that damage genetic material of organisms are: A) mutagens B) teratogens

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Ecology and sustainable development C) carcinogens D) pesticides E) fertilizers 71. The global warming is primarily caused by: A) increase of producers B) increase of greenhouse gases concentration C) decay of the organic compounds D) decrease of greenhouse gases concentration E) use of alternative kinds of energy 72. Distribution of gas concentrations in the atmosphere in descending order is: A) oxygen – argon – nitrogen – carbon dioxide B) carbon dioxide – oxygen – nitrogen –argon C) nitrogen – oxygen – argon – carbon dioxide D) argon – nitrogen – carbon dioxide – oxygen E) oxygen – carbon dioxide – nitrogen – argon 73. Scientists predict the global average temperature will rise by 2025 and by 2100 to: A) 3oC and 5oC, correspondingly B) 5oC and 2oC, correspondingly C) 1oC and 3oC, correspondingly D) 5oC and 7oC, correspondingly E) 7oC and 10oC, correspondingly 74. To reduce greenhouse effect it should be done: A) to cut off rain forest B) to avoid sewage water C) to burn the trees and rubbish D) to use alternative sources of energy E) to use fertilizers 75. Alternative sources of energy include: A) natural gas, peat and oil, B) oil, coal and geothermal energy C) biomass, nuclear energy and oil D) sun, wind and waves E) oil, coal, and natural gas 76. The greenhouse gases are the following: A) stratospheric ozone B) NH3, O2, noble gases

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items C) chlorine and fluorine D) SO2, NO2, NO, CO E) CO2, CFCs, CH4, NO, NO2, tropospheric ozone 77. The heights of troposphere and stratosphere above the earth: A) 0-5 km and 5-50 km respectively B) 0-15 km and 15-55 km respectively C) 0-10 and 10-80 km respectively D) 0-12 and 12-100 km respectively E) 0-20 and 20-200 km respectively 78. To stop ozone layer depletion it should be done: A) to stop wood cutting B) to use solar power C) to replace or recycle freons used in fridge and cooling systems D) to use a nuclear power E) to use geothermal energy 79. Loss of ozone has serious effects in people because ultra-violet radiation can cause: A) skin cancer and eye damage B) liver and kidneys damage C) respiratory and nervous system damage D) hepatitis and heart attack E) anemia and diarrhea 80. Chemical compounds cause acid rain: A) acetic and carbonic acid B) sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide C) methane and ammonia D) carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide E) ozone and particulates 81. Acid rains occur as: A) rain, snow, mist, fog, hail B) only rain C) acetic acid D) lemon acid E) carbonic acid 82. The pH of acid rain is: A) below 5 B) below 6

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Ecology and sustainable development C) below 7 D) below 8 E) below 9 83. Acid rain is harmful because it can: A) cause skin cancer in humans B) cause land flooding C) dissolve nutrients and toxic metals in the soil D) destroy ozone layer E) increase earth temperature 84. The primary reason of acid rain is: A) ozone layer depletion B) wood cutting C) burning fossil fuels D) marsh drainage E) water thermal pollution 85. A major component of photochemical smog is: A) sulfur dioxide B) tropospheric ozone C) particulates D) acid rain E) carbon dioxide 86. A main physical reason of the photochemical smog is: A) wind speed B) mixing between air layers C) atmosphere gas composition D) atmosphere temperature inversion E) precipitation 87. A) B) C) D) E)

For prevention or reducing waste it should be done: to transport hazardous waste rather than treating on-site to use over-packaging to avoid using a catalytic converter to release waste into the domestic sewage system to use recycled materials whenever possible

88. Biological magnification is the process of: A) concentration of calcium deposits in the shells of dead organisms B) algal bloom in a lake

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items C) increasing concentration of hazardous wastes through food chains D) accumulation of organics in the water reservoirs E) biogeochemical cycles 89. A primary cause of species extinction is: A) exposure to hazardous waste B) biological magnification C) acid rain D) global warming E) destruction of habitats 90. Industries contribute to habitat damage and destruction if they: A) pollute water B) use proper drainage system C) produce freons D) plant trees E) organize natural parks and reserves 91. Land area of the Earth occupied by the forest is: A) about 25% B) about 5% C) about 10% D) about 50% E) about 60% 92. Land area of the Earth occupied by the rain forest is: A) about 25% B) about 5% C) about 10% D) about 50% E) about 60% 93.The world amount of fresh water is: A) about 1% B) about 5% C) about 3% D) about 10% E) about 70% 94. The amount of the earth’s water supply available to land organisms is: A) less than 1% B) about 10%

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Ecology and sustainable development C) more than 50% D) about 5% E) about 3% 95.The average renewal rate of rivers is: A) about 17 years B) about 24 hours C) about 1400 years D) about 12–17 days E) nonrenewable 96. Eutrophication of water is accompanied with: A) intensive algae propagation B) thermal water pollution C) bioaccumulation of heavy metals D) water erosion of soil E) bio-magnification 97. A main source of water pollution is: A) hydroelectric power station B) petrochemical industry C) dam construction D) fishing E) thermal pollution 98. Industries can help to mitigate problems with water supply by: A) marsh drying B) dam construction C) releasing of farmer run-off D) releasing of detergents to the domestic water system E) recycling water during industrial operations 99. A largest landscape zone of Kazakhstan is: A) forest B) steppe C) mountains D) desert E) grassland 100. External cost is: A) the cost of environment friendly equipment and technologies B) harmful environmental or social cost borne by people not directly involved in buying or selling a product

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items C) the cost of all goods and services, produced in a country per year D) a measure of the total income of nation’s goods and services for a given year E) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� earth’s resources and processes that sustain living organisms, including humans 101. Environmental footprint (of a country or each person) is: A) the average for each country total value of all life quality indices B) the quality of satisfaction with material and cultural human needs C) the average amount of productive land and ocean needed to supply with food, energy, water, housing, transportation, and waste disposal D) the cost of all goods and services, produced in a country for a given year E) the level of welfare of a country and its citizens 102. A main reason of Aral Sea catastrophe is: A) a natural disaster B) land degradation caused by the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya rivers flood C) careless use of water for irrigation D) over-fishing E) water pollution 103. A special protected territory that is completely removed from an economical use is: A) Reserve B) natural heritage C) national park D) biosphere reserve E) botanical garden 104. The numbers of plants and animals species included in the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan are: A) 504 and 409, respectively B) 304 and 209, respectively C) 309 and 404, respectively D) 404 and 309, respectively E) 204 and 109, respectively 105. Indicate the name of Kazakhstan’s reserve among the following list: A) Altyn Emel B) Ile-Alatau C) Kokshetau D) Burabay E) Aksu Jabagly

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Ecology and sustainable development 106. Indicate the name of Kazakhstan’s national park: A) Altyn Emel B) Kurgaldzhino C) Alakol D) Markakol E) Naurzum 107. Percentage of Kazakhstan’s soil that is undergone to desertification: A) about 30% B) about 40% C) about 50% D) about 60% E) about 70% 108. The main anthropogenic cause of desertification is: A) uneven distribution of precipitation B) excessive livestock grazing C) high level of solar radiation D) weak vegetation E) lack of water supply 109. The natural reason of desertification is: A) careless irrigation B) wood cutting and logging C) over-pasture and road construction D) wind and water erosion E) mining industry and weapon tests 110. Erosion is the loss of soil that results from: A) recycling B) reforestation C) abiotic factors D) contour plowing E) proper grazing 111. The organic part of the soil that helps it to retain its moisture and nutrients is: A) humus B) detritus C) organic fertilizers D) topsoil E) microorganisms

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 112. Term “Sustainable development” referred to ecology was first introduced at: A) Earth Summit Declaration on sustainable development, Johannesburg, 2002 B) Conference on global environment monitoring system, Stockholm, 1972 C) Conference on Ozone layer protection, Vienna, 1985 D) Conference on International Trade in Endangered Species, Washington, 1973 E) Earth Declaration on environment and development, Rio-de-Janeiro, 1992 113. The primary body responsible for nature protection in Kazakhstan is: A) Ministry of Agriculture B) Environmental Union “Tabigat” C) Committee of Environmental Protection D) Society of Nature Protection E) Ecnvironmental Movement “Nevada-Semipalatinsk” 114. Sustainable use of natural resources means that they should be: A) all replaced by genetically modified products B) distributed equally between nations C) controlled by environmental legacy D) ensured the durability of them for future generations E) used at a higher rate 115. The basic nature protection law of Kazakhstan is: A) Convention on Combat Desertification B) Ecological Code C) Water Code D) On Special Protected Territories E) Forest Code 116. The basic national current document about environmental security of Kazakhstan A) Concept of Transition to Sustainable Development of RK for 2007-2024 B) Convention on Biological Diversity C) Montreal and Kyoto Protocols D) Documents of Earth Summits in Rio-de-Janeiro and Johannesburg E) Concept of Environmental Security of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 20042015 117. The International basic document about ozone layer safety is: A) Convention on Biodiversity B) Kyoto protocol C) Stockholm convention on control of persistent organic pollutants

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D) Convention on Combat Desertification E) Montreal protocol 118. The International basic document about greenhouse gases control is: A) Kyoto protocol B) Convention on Biodiversity C) Montreal protocol D) Stockholm convention on control of persistent organic pollutants E) Convention on Combat Desertification 119. The International Convention on control of persistent organic pollutants is: A) Montreal protocol B) Convention on Biodiversity C) Stockholm convention D) Kyoto protocol E) Convention on Combat Desertification 120. The International Convention about wildlife protection is: A) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, CITES B) Framework Convention on Climate Change C) Convention on Ozone Layer Protection D) Convention on Biological Diversity E) Convention on Combat Desertification 121. The interspecific competition is the …: A) competition among members of the same species. B) competition between members of different species. C) competition between plants and animals. D) competition between living organisms and non-living things. E) competition between more groups for limited resources. 122. A population that is growing exponentially in the absence of limiting factors can be illustrated by: A) Tolerance curve B) Population pyramid C) S-shaped curve D) Demographic transition E) J-shaped curve 123. Three functional groups of an ecosystem is… A) Herbivores, carnivore, omnivore B) Consumer, producer, scavenger

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items C) Producers, consumers, decomposers D) None of the above E) Autotroph, heterotroph, producer 124. Global biogeochemical cycles are: A) The processes by which organic materials move from the atmosphere or soil into involving organisms and back again. B) The processes by which inorganic materials move from the atmosphere or soil into involving organisms and back again. C) ��������������������������������������������������������������������� The processes by which inorganic materials do not move from the atmosphere or soil into involving organisms and back again. D) None of the above. E) Describing the movement of species in the ecosystem. 125. The range of conditions to which an organism is adapted is called its …: A) demographic transition B) population pyramid C) zones of intolerance D) range of tolerance E) zones of physiological stress 126. The … is all the members of a species that live in the same area and make up a breeding group. A) population density B) population dynamics C) population D) tolerance E) tolerance limit 127. Herbivores and carnivores are on the: A) first, third trophic level B) second, third trophic level C) first, second trophic level D) first, four trophic level E) second, second trophic level 128. Polar, tundra, taiga, desert and etc. there are several kinds of: A) water biomes B) aquatic biomes C) air biomes D) hydro biomes E) land biomes

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Ecology and sustainable development 129. The 2nd and the 3rd stages of demographic transition are characterized by: A) low death rate and high birth rate B) falling death and birth rates C) high death and birth rates D) high death and low birth rates E) low death and birth rates 130. Biologists recognize two general types of food chains. They are: A) food web, grazer food chain B) herbivores, carnivores C) nutrients, microorganisms D) grazer, decomposer E) plants, animals 131. The law of minimum was discovered by the …: A) J.Liebig (1840) B) V.Shelford (1913) C) A.Tensly (1935) D) E.Haeckel (1866) E) A.Zuss (1875) 132. Growth rate = ? A) crude birth rate + crude death rate B) crude death rate – crude birth rate C) crude birth rate – crude death rate D) crude birth rate : crude death rate E) crude death rate : crude birth rate 133 … is the specific region in which an organism lives: A) xerophyte B) niche C) photosynthesis D) energy flow E) habitat 134. Population growth rate is: A) an increase in a population at a given time B) a number of individuals in a given population C) displays the age and sex composition of a population D) crude death rate : crude birth rate E) the change in the number of individuals in a population over time

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 135. What is Synecology? A) the ecology of single species B) the ecology of communities C) the ecology of population D) the ecology of resource E) the ecology of biosphere 136. All the members of the species that live in the same area and make up a breeding group it is… A) population B) environment C) ecology D) community E) biosphere 137. Sustainable development means that … A) All the biological and nonbiological factors that affect an organism life. B) A group of plants, or microorganisms C) A group of organisms that look alike and are capable of producing fertile offspring in the natural environment D) Our generations’ economic development must not risk the ability of future generations to foster their own economic development E) The position of an organism in a food chain 138. When term “biosphere” was proposed? A) 1872 B) 1879 C) 1865 D) 1863 E) 1875 139. …is an area of the earth where life exists. A) hydrosphere B) biosphere C) atmosphere D) troposphere E) ionosphere 140. Abiotic factors are …: A) a kind of antagonistic relationship within a community B) the biological component of the ecosystem C) the nonliving components of an ecosystem

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Ecology and sustainable development D) all the populations in an area E) assemblage of plants, animals, and microorganisms 141. … are the organisms that are adapted to drought and environmental water shortage A) Xerophytes B) Photosynthesis C) Decomposer D) Chlorophyll E) Zooplankton 142. Find out non-renewable resource: A) water B) sun light C) fossil fuel D) wind E) plants 143. Organism with body temperature depending on environmental temperature it’s… A) Consumer A) Endemic B) Herbivore C) Poikilothermics D) Nutrient 144. Difference between J-shaped and S-shaped curve – A) they are same B) J-shaped curve – occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate, S-shaped curve – occurs because of environmental resistance C) J-shaped curve – occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate, S-shaped curve – occurs indefinitely at an ever-decreasing rate D) J-shaped curve – occurs indefinitely at an ever-decreasing rate, S-shaped curve – occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate E) J-shaped curve – occurs because of environmental resistance, S-shaped curve – occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate 145. Population Density is ..: A) an increase in a population at a given time B) the change in the number of individuals in a population over time. C) the number of individuals in a population in given area

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items D) ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� distribution of population number by age accounting individual’s sex (Pyramid-like graph) E) a number of individuals per unit area 146. All the members of a species that live in the same area and make up a breeding group it’s: A) Community B) Photosynthesis C) Population crash D) Overpopulation E) Population 147. The subject of demography is: A) Population activity B) population cyrcle C) Primary consumer D) the factors that affect rates of birth, death on population E) None of the above 148. How many ecological groups has an ecosystem? A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 1 E) 5 149. Two species can not occupy the same niches for long according what rule? A) The principle of two species B) The same niches principle C) The competitive exclusion principle D) The competitive principle E) The competition between species 150. Biome is …: A) One of several immense terrestrial regions, each characterized throughout extent by similar plants, animals, climate, and soil type. B) The biological component of the ecosystem C) All the populations in an area D) The dried weight of all organic matter ill the ecosystem E) A community of organisms occupying given region within a biome.

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Ecology and sustainable development 151. Herbivore is an organism that feeds exclusively on – … A) meat B) wine C) plants D) milk E) microorganisms 152. Position of organism in a food chain is called … A) Secondary consumer B) Food web C) Second level D) Trophic level E) First consumer 153. Term “biosphere” was produces by… A) V.I. Vernadsky B) Le Rya C) L. James D) D. Adams E) E. Zuss 154. From Greek “noos” means … A) energy B) sunlight C) consciousness D) air E) nonliving 155. How many tons of carbon dioxide are added to the atmosphere each year? A) 7 billions B) 5 billions C) 4 billions D) 9 billions E) 2 billions 156. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by … A) plants B) animals C) amino acids D) nitrogen E) fossil oil

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 157. Poikilothermic are organisms with: A) a large range tolerance to an ecological factor B) a narrow range tolerance to an ecological factor C) a constant temperature of their body D) one population that inhabits only a small area E) a body temperature depending on environment temperature 158. If a body temperature of organism depends on environment temperature, it is called A) homeothermic organism B) nonliving organism C) poikilothermic organism D) secondary consumer E) primary consumer 159. The area of the earth occupied with living things is called.. A) atmosphere B) biosphere C) hydrosphere D) aquatic biome E) ionosphere 160. In the stratosphere stratospheric ozone exists as a layer …. A) 15 to 55 km below the earth B) 1,5 to 5,5 km above the earth C) 150 to 550 km above the earth D) 15 to 55 km above the earth E) 1,5 to 5,5 km below the earth 161. In the stratosphere …. exists as a layer 15 to 55 km above the earth, where it forms an important barrier against harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays from the sun A) Stratospheric ozone B) Tropospheric ozone C) Dry smog D) Acid Rain E) ionospheric ozone 162. Organism, such a plant, producers its own food generally via photosynthesis is called… A) heterotroph B) consumer

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Ecology and sustainable development C) autotroph D) herbivore E) decomposer 163. The organisms with body temperature not depending on environment temperature is called… A) poikilothermics B) heterotrophs C) autotrophs D) herbivores E) homeothermics 164. The two-part process in plants and algae involving the capture of sunlight and its conversion into cellular energy and amino acids from carbon dioxide, water and energy from sun is called… A) biological diversity B) homeostasis C) overshoot D) photosynthesis E) decomposer 165. The chemical or physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem is … A) biotic factor B) abiotic factor C) anthropogenic factor D) living component E) biological diversity 166. Factors that affect populations regardless of population density is called… A) density – independent factors B) density – dependent factors C) anthropogenic factors D) limiting factors E) reduction factors 167. Principle of tolerance limits was discovered by… A) J. Liebig B) E. Haeckel C) V. Vernadsky D) V. Shelford E) Ch. Darvin

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 168. The biological balance between an organism and its environment is called… A) biotic factor B) anthropogenic factor C) living component D) biological diversity E) homeostasis 169. Ecological factors are divided into… groups A) two B) three C) five D) seven E) nine 170. Biotic factors are divided in … groups A) two B) five C) three D) seven E) nine 171… is a kind of relationship when one organism (predator) feeds directly upon another living organism (prey). A) Parasitism B) predation C) Symbiosis D) Mutualism E) commensalism 172 …is a kind of relationship when one organism (parasite) feeds on another living organism (host) or steal resources from it without killing it. A) predation B) Symbiosis C) Mutualism D) Parasitism E) commensalism 173. In some interactions, called…, one species benefits and the other apparently suffers no harm. A) amensalistic B) Mutualistic

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Ecology and sustainable development C) Parasitic D) predation E) commensalistic 174. In … interactions both species benefit. A) commensalistic B) amensalistic C) Mutualistic D) parasitic E) predation 175. Symbiosis – is a type of … relationship between different species in close association with one another. A) nonantagonistic B) antagonistic C) anthrophogenic D) limitind E) decreasing 176. … is the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. A) Biological diversity B) predation C) Symbiosis D) Mutualism E) commensalism 177. … is a kind of antagonistic relationship within a community. A struggle between two or more groups for a limited resource A) neutralism B) Symbiosis C) Mutualism D) commensalism E) Competition 178. … (in general) is anything used by organisms to meet their needs. A) neutralism B) Symbiosis C) Resource D) Mutualism E) Commensalism

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 179. Limiting factor is … A) a chemical or physical factor that does not determine whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. B) �������������������������������������������������������������������������� a chemical or physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem C) only chemical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. D) only physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. E) anthropogenic factor 180. … is the age structure that is illustrated as a pyramid with the length of each tier showing the number of males (left side) and number of females (right side) in a particular age group of individuals. A) Population number B) Population biomass C) Population density D) Population pyramid E) Population activity 181. The term …. refers to the movement of people into country A) migration B) emigration C) Symbiosis D) Mutualism E) commensalism 182. The term … refers to the movement of people out of the country A) Mutualism B) emigration C) Symbiosis D) migration E) commensalism 183. Crude Birth rate (Natality) is the number of births per ? people in a population. A) 1000 B) 100 C) 10 D) 10000 E) 100000

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Ecology and sustainable development 184. Crude Birth rate (Natality) is… A) the number of births per 100 people in a population. B) the number of births per 10 people in a population. C) the number of births per 1000 people in a population. D) the number of births per 10000 people in a population. E) the number of births per 100000 people in a population. 185. … is the number of deaths per 1000 people. A) Natality B) Symbiosis C) Mutualism D) commensalism E) Mortality 186. Growth rate is equal 15\1000. This means that every…. A) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15 people decrease the world population for every 1000 people in the population. B) 15 people join the world population for every 100 people in the population. C) 150 people join the world population for every 1000 people in the population. D) 15 people join the world population for every 10000 people in the population. E) 15 people join the world population for every 1000 people in the population. 187. The common name for all chemicals used for pest control is: A) herbicides B) fungicides C) Pesticides D) rodenticide E) xenobiotics 188 … in a given population depends on the following: A) the age at which women and men get married B) their educational levels C) whether the woman works after marriage D) the number of children woman and her husband want E) their cultural values and religious beliefs. 189. … is the number of organisms the Earth can support. A) The biodiversity B) The birth rate C) Natality D) The carrying capacity of the Earth E) Mortality

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items 190. …is determined by resource availability, including food supplies and the environment’s capacity to absorb and detoxify wastes. A) The biodiversity B) The carrying capacity of the Earth C) The birth rate D) Natality E) Mortality 191. Doubling time = ? A) 70/ birth rate (%) B) 70/ dearth rate (%) C) 700/ growth rate (%) D) 7/ growth rate (%) E) 70/ growth rate (%) 192. …is the maximum reproductive rate of an organism, unlimited resources and ideal environmental conditions. A) Abiotic potential B) Biotic potential C) The birth rate D) Natality E) Mortality 193. …is an organism’s place in the ecosystem: where it lives, what it consumes, what consumes it, and how it interacts with all biotic and abiotic factors. A) the habitat B) biome C) The ecological niche D) aquatic biome E) water biome 194. …begin with plants and algae. A) aquatic biome B) Decomposer food chains C) the niche D) Grazer food chains E) water biome 195. …begin with dead material A) Decomposer food chains B) Grazer food chains C) the niche D) aquatic biome E) water biome

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Ecology and sustainable development 196. Carbon cycle is the cycling of carbon between…. A) only organisms B) only environment C) organisms and the environment D) two herbivores E) decomposers 197. …is a specific nutrient and energy pathway in an ecosystem in which bacteria and fungi consume dead plants and animals as well as animal wastes. A) Decomposer food chain B) Grazer food chains C) the niche D) aquatic biome E) water biome 198. …are the processes by which inorganic materials move from the atmosphere or soil into living organisms and back again. A) Global abiogeochemical cycles B) Global abiocycles C) Global biodiversity D) Global biogeochemical cycles E) Global chemical cycles 199. Two main processes in the oxygen -carbon cycle are A) global abiogeochemical cycles B) photosynthesis and respiration. C) global abiocycles D) global biodiversity E) global grazer food chains 200. Atmospheric carbon dioxide absorb by … A) plants and other animals B) plants and other insects C) decomposes D) consumers E) plants and other photosynthetic organisms 201. …are submitted only renewable by resources of substances, energy and information which are taking place under the control alive organisms. A) The resources of the ecosphere B) The resources of the techno sphere C) The resources of troposphere

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items D) The resources of ionosphere E) The resources of stratosphere 202. …in which except for a part of resources of the ecosphere, seized by the man and pulled out from the biotic circulation, enter and nonrenewable resources extracted from depth. A) The resources of the ecosphere B) The resources of troposphere C) The resources of ionosphere D) The resources of the techno sphere E) The resources of stratosphere 203.…is a strategy to reduce resource use by returning used or waste materials from the consumption phase to the production phase of the economy. A) Reforming B) Recycling. C) refraction D) Mutualism E) Commensalism 204. …are the biotic and abiotic factors that tend to decrease population growth and help balance populations and ecosystems, offsetting growth factors A) recycling factors B) Reforming factors C) Increasing factors D) Static factors E) Reduction factors 205. Two environmental impacts of anthropogenic factor are… A) recycling and reforming B) static and dynamic C) depletion and pollution problems. D) reusing and recycling E) dynamic and reusing 206. “Quasi-nature” is … A) an environment changed by animals. B) an environment changed by decomposers C) an environment changed by producers D) an environment changed by autotrophs E) an environment changed by humans.

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Ecology and sustainable development 207…cannot be self-regulated for a long time. It includes cultural landscapes, for example: gardens, parks, pasture etc. A) “Biotic-nature” B) “Abiotic-nature” C) “First-nature” D) “Quasi-nature” E) “Superart-nature” 208. “Art-nature” is …. A) an environment created by people. B) an environment changed by humans. C) an environment changed by decomposers D) an environment changed by producers E) an environment changed by autotrophs 209. Find out the “art-nature” A) Animals, plants, fungi B) Factories, plants, houses, cities. C) sun, moon, wind D) water, sun, wind E) insects, bacteria, microorganisms. 210. Air, water and soil pollutants are classified … A) by the medium they do not contaminate B) by the medium they formed C) by the medium they contaminate. D) by the medium they recycling E) by the contamination recycling 211. Solid and liquid waste obtained in processing and chemical industry, the waste of consumption, agricultural waste, chemical waste, emergency emissions, atmospheric emissions of poison substances are …. A) The basic sources of ground pollution B) The basic sources of air pollution C) The basic sources of atmosphere’s pollution D) The basic sources of animal’s pollution E) The basic sources of stratosphere’s pollution 212. … are chemical wastes in factories and plants and releasing them into the air or water or storing them incorrectly. A) Agricultural sources B) Industrial sources of pollutions

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items C) Domestic sources D) tropospheric sources E) water sources 213. … of pollutions are chemicals called pesticides that are manufactured by farmers to control insects other pests. A) Industrial sources B) Domestic sources C) tropospheric sources D) water sources E) Agricultural sources 214. …are chemicals that kill undesirable plants. A) Fungicides B) Mutagens C) Insecticides D) Herbicides E) Carcinogens 215. …are chemicals that kill undesirable fungi. A) Insecticides B) Mutagens C) Fungicides D) Carcinogens E) Herbicides 216. …are chemicals that kill undesirable insects. A) Fungicides B) Insecticides C) Mutagens D) Carcinogens E) Herbicides 217. …are chemicals (or radiation) that damage or alter genetic materials in cells. A) Carcinogens B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Fungicides E) Mutagens

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Ecology and sustainable development 218. …is substances that cause cancer. A) Teratogents B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Carcinogens E) Fungicides 219. … is chemicals or the other factors that specifically cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and development. A) Carcinogens B) Herbicides C) Teratogens D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 220. …of pollutions are household wastes (solid) and sewage (liquid). A) Domestic sources B) Industrial sources C) Domestic sources D) tropospheric sources E) water sources 221. To prevent sewage from flowing into rivers and lakes it is need to …. A) develop animal treatment facilities B) develop sewage treatment facilities C) develop plant treatment facilities D) develop garden treatment facilities E) develop parktreatment facilities 222. Mechanism that explains atmospheric heating caused by increasing carbon dioxide is called… A) blackhouse effect. B) redhouse effect. C) Greenhouse effect. D) bluhouse effect. E) whitehouse effect. 223. ….is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of an ecosystem. A) Teratogents B) Herbicides C) Insecticides

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items D) Pollution E) Fungicides 224. …are those are directly poisonous to humans and other life forms. A) Teratogents B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Fungicides E) Toxic waste 225. …are those are capable of harming people and the environment (acidic resins, arsenic, heavy metals, organic solvents, pesticides and radioactive materials. A) Hazardous waste B) Teratogents C) Herbicides D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 226. …are that result from some effect acting on primary pollutants (tropospheric ozone, acid rains, photochemical smog). A) Teratogents B) Herbicides C) Secondary pollutants D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 227. … is any several naturally occurring or anthropogenic gas that heat escaping from the Earth’ surface, causing the atmosphere to heat up. A) Teratogents B) Greenhouse gas. C) Herbicides D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 228. Pollution is … A) an undesirable change only in the physical characteristics of an ecosystem. B) an undesirable change only in the chemical characteristics of an ecosystem. C) an undesirable change only in the biological characteristics of an ecosystem. D) an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of an ecosystem. E) chemical which kill undesirable fungi.

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Ecology and sustainable development 229. Influence of human activities to global warming by the following: A) industry ,agriculture , energy use ,deforestation. Arrange them in descending order B) energy use, industry, agriculture, deforestation C) industry, agriculture, energy use, deforestation D) industry, deforestation, energy use, agriculture E) energy use, agriculture, deforestation, industry F) industry, deforestation, agriculture, energy use 230. When and where was odopted Frame convention on climate change A) 1992, Rio de Janeiro. B) 2002, Montreal Protocol C) 1989, Basel, D) 2001, Stockholm, E) 2002,Johannesburg, 231. …is a state when water becomes so over-enriched with nutrients that organisms such as algae and phytoplankton multiply. A) Eutrophication B) Reforming C) refraction D) Mutualism E) commensalism 232. …is an a organism that eats both plants and animals. A) carnivore B) herbivore, C) Omnivore. D) nutrient E) produser 233. Movement of people across state and national boundaries to set up new residence is called… A) Eutrophication B) refraction C) Mutualism D) Migration E) commensalism 234. Economic system that to meet human needs while protecting the lifesupport system of the biosphere is called… A) unsustainable economics B) Sustainable economics

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items C) Evolution D) Eutrophication E) commensalism 235. … is a long-term process of change in organisms cause by random genetic changes that favor the survival and reproduction of the organism possessing the genetic change. A) Eutrophication B) commensalism C) mutualism D) refraction E) Evolution 236. Name the Prevention measures of pollution from waste. A) Evolution B) refraction C) Eutrophication D) Migration E) Reuse, Replace, Recycle, Re-invent. 237. …is a by-product of modern atmospheric pollution – secondary pollutant (pH of acid rain is bellow 5). A) Dry smog B) Tropospheric ozone C) Stratospheric ozone D) Acid Rain E) Eutrophication 238. …causes reduced visibility and irritation of eyes, nose throat. The main physical reaction is the atmospheric temperature inversion. A) Dry smog B) Tropospheric ozone C) Stratospheric ozone D) Acid Rain E) Evolution 239. …at ground level, it is poisonous to life. A) Stratospheric ozone B) Dry smog C) Tropospheric ozone D) Acid Rain E) Eutrophication

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Ecology and sustainable development 240. …is an international political agreement about ozone layer protection. A) 1987, Montreal Protocol B) 1992, Rio de Janeiro. C) 1989, Basel, D) 2001, Stockholm, E) 2002, Johannesburg

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items

The keys for test items №

Сorrect Сorrect Сorrect Сorrect Сorrect № № № № № answer answer answer answer answer

Сorrect answer

1

A

41

A

81

A

121

A

161

A

201

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2

D

42

B

82

A

122

E

162

C

202

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3

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43

A

83

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123

C

163

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203

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4

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44

C

84

C

124

B

164

D

204

E

5

C

45

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85

B

125

D

165

B

205

C

6

A

46

E

86

D

126

C

166

A

206

E

7

E

47

D

87

E

127

B

167

D

207

D

8

B

48

D

88

C

128

E

168

E

208

A

9

B

49

B

89

E

129

A

169

B

209

B

10

D

50

C

90

A

130

D

170

C

210

C

11

B

51

A

91

A

131

A

171

B

211

A

12

C

52

B

92

E

132

C

172

D

212

B

13

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53

B

93

C

133

E

173

E

213

E

14

E

54

C

94

B

134

E

174

C

214

D

15

A

55

E

95

D

135

B

175

A

215

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16

C

56

D

96

A

136

A

176

A

216

B

17

C

57

B

97

B

137

D

177

E

217

E

18

D

58

D

98

E

138

E

178

C

218

D

19

E

59

A

99

D

139

B

179

B

219

C

20

B

60

E

100

B

140

C

180

D

220

A

21

A

61

A

101

C

141

A

181

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221

B

211

212

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22

D

62

E

102

C

142

C

182

D

222

C

23

C

63

C

103

A

143

D

183

A

223

D

24

C

64

B

104

D

144

B

184

C

224

E

25

D

65

D

105

E

145

E

185

E

225

A

26

B

66

E

106

A

146

E

186

E

226

C

27

B

67

E

107

E

147

D

187

C

227

B

28

A

68

B

108

B

148

B

188

A

228

D

29

A

69

C

109

D

149

C

189

D

229

A

30

E

70

A

110

C

150

A

190

B

230

A

31

C

71

B

111

A

151

B

191

E

231

A

32

C

72

C

112

E

152

D

192

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232

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33

D

73

C

113

C

153

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193

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233

D

34

B

74

D

114

D

154

C

194

D

234

B

35

A

75

D

115

B

155

A

195

A

235

E

36

E

76

E

116

E

156

A

196

C

236

E

37

D

77

B

117

E

157

E

197

A

237

D

38

B

78

C

118

A

158

C

198

D

238

B

39

C

79

A

119

C

159

B

199

B

239

C

40

B

80

B

120

D

160

D

200

E

240

A

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items

Reference

1. Назарбаев Н.А. Глобальная стратегия устойчивого развития в ХХI веке. – М.: Экономика, 2011. – 368 с. 2. Акимова Т.А., Хаскин В.В. Экология. Человек-Экономика-Биота-Среда: учебник для студентов вузов / 2-е изд., перераб. и дополн. – М.: ЮНИТИ, 2009. – 556 с. 3. Одум Ю. Экология в 2 томах. – М.: Мир, 1986. Т. 1. – 328 с., Т. 2-376 с. 4. Бигалиев А.Б. Общая экология / на каз., русс., анг. языках – Алматы: Қазақ университеті, 2013. – 434 с. 5. Абубакирова К.Д., Кожагулов С.О. Экология и устойчивое развитие. – Алматы: Инжу-Маржан, 2011. – 276 с. 6. Колумбаева С.Ж. и др. Экология и устойчивое развитие. – Алматы: Қазақ университеті, 2011. – 153 с. 7. Алинов М.Ш. Экология и устойчивое развитие. – Алматы, 2012. – 268 с. 8. Коробкин В.И., Передельский Л.В. Экология: учебник для студентов вузов. – 69-е изд., доп. и перераб. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс, 2007. – 575 с. 9. Тонкопий М.С., Сатбаева Г.С., Имкулова Н.П., Анисимова Н.М. Экология және тұрақты даму: оқулық: ҚР Білім және ғылым м-гі. Алматы: ЖШС РПБК «Дәуір», 2011. – 312 б. 10. Колумбаева С.Ж., Бильдебаева Р.М. Общая экология. – Алматы: Қазақ университеті, 2006 11. Вертянов С.Ю. Основы учения о биосфере. – М., 2008. 12. Реймерс Н.Ф. Экология. – М., 1994. – 327 с. 13. Концепция перехода Республики Казахстан к устойчивому развитию на 2007-2024 гг., Астана, 2006. 14. Экологический кодекс Республики Казахстан, Астана, 2010. 15. Послание Президента республики Казахстан – Лидера нации Н.А. Назарбаева народу Казахстана «Стратегия «Казахстан-2050». 14 декабря 2012 г. http6//akorda.kz. 16. Миллер Т. Жизнь в окружающей среде / Пер. с англ. – М., 1994. Т. 1. 17. Экология, охрана природы, экологическая безопасность: учебное пособие / Под общей ред. А.Т. Никитина, С.А. Степанова. – М.: Изд-во МНЭПУ, 2000. – 648 с. 18. Vidya Thakur, A Text Book of Environmental Science, ISBN: 9788172337551 – Scientific Publisher, India, 2012 – 307 p.

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Ecology and sustainable development 19. Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook. Glossary of Environmental Terms – World Bank group, 1998. – pp. 441-457 20. Интернет-ресурс: Казахстанская Ассоциация природопользователей для устойчивого развития: http://www.kap.kz/ 21. Интернет-ресурс: Всемирный фонд дикой природы: https://new.wwf.ru/ 22. Интернет-ресурс: Международная Организация Стандартизации: https://www.iso.org/ 23. Интернет-ресурс: Организация Объединенных Наций по вопросам образования, науки и культуры: http://ru.unesco.org 24. John Rieuwerts, The Elements of Environmental Pollution, eBook ISBN 9781135126728 –  Routledge, London, 2017 – 352 p. 25. Gerald Filbin, Eyvonne Harris, John Moses and others (Members of EPA’s Office of Sustainable Ecosystems and Communities (OSEC)). Community-Based Environmental Protection: A Resource Book for Protecting Ecosystems and Communities – U.S. EPA, Washington, 1997. – 144 p. 26. Paul Robbins, John Hintz, Sarah A. Moore. Environment and society: a critical introduction, 2nd edition, ISBN: 978-1-118-45156-4. – Wiley-Blackwell, 2014. – 350 p. 27. Des Connell W. Basic Concepts of Environmental Chemistry (Textbook) ISBN 9781566706766 – CRC Press, 2005. – 480 p. 28. Michael Begon, Colin R. Townsend, John Harper L. Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems, 4th Edition. ISBN: 978-1-405-11117-1. – Wiley-Blackwell, 2005. – 750 p. 29. Gabriella Magyar, Geza Meszena, Liz Pasztor, Tamas Czaran, Zoltan BottaDukat. Theory-Based Ecology. Academic Textbook. – ISBN-13: 9780199577859. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, 2016. – 301 p. 30. Fred Singer D. Ecology in Action. ISBN: 978-1-107-11537-8. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016. – 706 p. 31. Worku Legesse, Teklu Mulugeta and Aragaw Ambelu. Introduction to Ecology. Lecture notes For Environmental Health Students. Jimma University, 2002. – 93 p. 32. Richard Brewer. The Science of Ecology. Second edition. ISBN-13:  9780030965753. Publisher: Brooks Cole, US, 1994. – 816 p.

Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items

Еducational issue

Kalkash Daurenvekovna Abubakirova Ainur Kabdrasulovna Tanybayeva Aina Akanovna Rysmagambetova

ECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Educational-methodological manual Typesetting and cover design U. Moldasheva IB №12328

Signed for publishing 22.10.2018. Format 60x84 1/16. Offset paper. Digital printing. Volume 13,43 printer’s sheet. 110 copies. Order №6692. Publishing house «Qazaq University» Al-Farabi Kazakh National University KazNU, 71 Al-Farabi, 050040, Almaty Printed in the printing office of the «Qazaq University» publishing house.

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216 Новые С o nкниги tents издательского дома «ҚАЗАҚ УНИВЕРСИТЕТІ» Абубакирова К.Д. Экология бойынша терминологиялық сөздік / К.Д. Абубакирова, А.К. Таныбаева, А.А. Рысмагамбетова. – Алматы: Қазақ университеті, 2017. – 142 б. ISBN 978-601-04-3140-9 Терминологиялық сөздікте ғылыми журналдарда, анықтамалық әдебиеттерде, Қазақстан Республикасының Экологиялық Кодексінде, халықаралық келісімдерінде, мемлекеттік стандарттарда, ведомстволық нормативті-құқықтық актілерде қолданылатын жүйеленген 500 термині қазақ, орыс және ағылшын тілдерінің сәйкес эквивалентінде берілген. Терминдердің дұрыс және бір мәнді анықтамасында түсінуге мүмкіндік беретін сөздік оқытушылар, бакалавриат студенттеріне, магистранттарға, докторанттарға, экология, геоэкология және табиғатты пайдалануды басқаруды, тіршілік әрекетінің қауіпсіздігі және қоршаған ортаны қорғау бағытындағы мамандарға, ғылыми қызметкерлерге, ғылыми-техникалық ақпарат қызметтерінің аудармашылары мен қызметкерлеріне арналған. Бұл оқу құралы оқырмандарының кең ауқымына да – «жасыл» әлеуметтік бірлестігінен эколог-заңгерлеріне дейін пайдалы болады. Жоғарғы геодезия өлшеулері: оқу құралы / Г.К. Байдаулетова, Г.К. Джангулова, Х.М. Касымканова, Е.Ж. Жалгасбеков. – Алматы: Қазақ университеті, 2018. – 145 б. ISBN 978-601-04-3219-2 Қазіргі кезде жоғарғы геодезияда Жер пішіні ретінде Жердің физикалық беті, Жердің гравитациялық өрісі, Жердің тәуліктік айналуынан туындайтын центрден итеруші күш пен тартылыс күшіне тең болатын ауырлық күшінің өрісі қарастырылады. Кітапта Жердің өлшемдері, пішіні және гравитациялық өрісін анықтау, мемлекеттік тірек геодезиялық тораптарын құру, геодинамикалық құбылыстарды зерттеу, Жер эллипсоиды бетіндегі және кеңістіктегі геодезиялық есептерді шешу жолдары түсіндіріледі. Оқу құралы мемлекеттік оқу стандартына сәйкес 5В071100 – Геодезия және Картография, 5В090300 – Жерге орналастыру, 5В090700 – Кадастр мамандықтарына арналған. Мадибеков А.С. Атмосфераның ластануы және оны қорғау: оқу-әдістемелік құралы / А.С. Мадибеков. – Aлмaты: Қaзaқ университеті, 2017. – 78 б. ISBN 978-601-04-3126-3 «Атмосфераның ластануы және оны қорғау» пәні бойынша 5В061200Метеорология мамандығына арналған оқу-әдістемелік құралы. Әдістемелік құралда атмосферадағы ластаушы заттардың таралу заңдылықтары, таралу процесіне әсер ететін климаттық жағдайлардың ықпалы, ауаның ластануын болжаудың физикалық негіздері, фондық шоғырлану және мүмкін тасталымдардың шекті нормаларын әзірлеу туралы ақпарат, атмосфералық ауадағы қоспалардың концентрациясын есептеу әдістерінің негізгі ережелері келтірілген, ауа сапасын бақылау жүйесі туралы ақпарат және ауа сапасын бағалау кезіндегі пайдаланылатын статистикалық сипаттамалар қарастырылады. По вопросам приобретения обращаться в отдел продаж издательства «Қазақ университеті». Контактные тел.: 8 (727) 377-34-11, 328-56-51. E-mail: [email protected], cайт: www.read.kz, www.magkaznu.com