Environment and Sustainable Development: educational-manual 9786010444065

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AL-FARABI KAZAKH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

A.K. Tanybayeva K.D. Abubakirova A.A. Rysmagambetova

ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Educational manual

Almaty «Qazaq University» 2020 1

UDC 574 (075) LBC 20.18 я 73 T 19 Recommended for publication by the Educational and Methodological Association of the Republican educational-methodical council on the basis of Al-Farabi KazNU as a textbook for bachelor's training students of the educational program «Ecology» (Protocol №2 dated 24.05.2019) and by the Academic Council of the Faculty of Geography and Environmental Sciences Al-Farabi KazNU (Protocol №5 dated 27.06.2019) Reviewers: Doctor of Chemical Sciences, Professor S. Kudaibergenov Candidate of Chemical Sciences D. Kassymbekova Candidate of Biological Sciences, Assoc. Pr. N. Voronova

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Tanybayeva A.K. Environment and Sustainable Development: educationalmanual / A.K. Tanybayeva, K.D. Abubakirova, A.A. Rysmagambetova. – Almaty: Qazaq University, 2020. – 198 p. ISBN 978-601-04-4406-5 The educational manual is developed in accordance with the standard program of the discipline «Environment and sustainable development». The proposed training textbook contains theoretical material on the basics of general, applied ecology and sustainable development, control questions, glossary, test questions, methodological guidelines for performing independent work of students. The textbook is recommended for classroom and extracurricular work of full-time and distance-learning students specialty «Ecology» of bachelor's training, undergraduates and university professors interested in environmental issues and sustainable development.

UDC 574 (075) LBC 20.18 я 73 ISBN 978-601-04-4406-5

© Tanybayeva A.K., Abubakirova K.D., Rysmagambetova A.A., 2020 © Al-Farabi KazNU, 2020

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CONTENTS List of abbreviations and notations ..................................................................... 4 FOREWORD ..................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 1. Environment and problems of modern civilization........................... 8 Chapter 2. Interaction of the organism and environment ................................... 18 Chapter 3. Population and Environment ............................................................ 25 Chapter 4. Ecosystem as a structural-functional unit of biosphere .................... 33 Chapter 5. Biosphere and its sustainability ........................................................ 42 Chapter 6. The concept of living substance ....................................................... 50 Chapter 7. Global biogeochemical cycles .......................................................... 58 Chapter 8. Anthropogenic effects as a geological and geochemical factor of the biosphere evolution ........................................................................ 66 Chapter 9. Strategy and Goals of Sustainable Development .............................. 91 Chapter 10. Environmental principles of Sustainable Development .................. 98 Chapter 11. Economic aspects of Sustainable Development ............................. 106 Chapter 12. Global Energy-Environmental Strategy for Sustainable Development of the ХХI century ....................................................................... 114 Chapter 13. Environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan .................... 120 Chapter 14. Social aspects of Sustainable Development.................................... 129 Chapter 15. Global partnership in Sustainable Development............................. 136 TERMINOLOGY AND DEFENITIONS .......................................................... 140 Suggestions for writing multiple-choice test items ............................................. 155 The keys for test items ........................................................................................ 194 REFERENCES ................................................................................. 196

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATION CIS CSR EIA EPP GDP HDI HPP ICED IPCC ISD ISO MAE MAR MPELs PRTRs SD TLV UNEP USAID WTO

The Commonwealth of Independent States Corporate Social Responsibility Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental protection program Gross domestic product Human Development Index Hydropower plant International Commission on Environment and Development Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Index of Sustainable Development The International Organization for Standardization Maximum allowable emission Maximum Allowable Reset Maximum Permissible Exposure Levels Pollutant release and transfer registers Sustainable Development The threshold limit value United Nations Environment Program United States Agency for International Development The World Trade Organization

UNESCO

The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

MDGs GNP HIV/AIDS

Millennium Development Goals General National Product Human immunodeficiency virus\ acquired immune deficiency syndrome The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Maximum Permissible Ambient Noise Levels Maximum Permissible Concentration Maximum permissible discharge The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

IUCN MPANLs MPC MPD OECD

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UNDP REI IWRM EPI ESI GSI HDI NGOs

United Nations Development Program Resource efficiency indicator Integrated Water Resources Management Environmental Performance Index Environmental Sustainability Index Genuine (domestic) Savings Index Human Development Index Non-Governmental Organizations

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FOREWORD The growth in the scale of production activity has led to an increase in the negative impact of man on nature as his environment, and this, in turn, jeopardized his life and health, the interests of present and future generations of people. Increasing population pressure in the world and technological advancement have severally affected all the environmental parameters and human beings are facing the consequences now. At present, the scale of the impact on nature began to exceed its recovery potential. The volume of pollutants in air, water and soil is continuously increasing. The environment is changing irreversibly and dangerously. Perfection of ecological education, formation of ecological outlook among students, obtaining of deep system of knowledge and ideas about the basics of environment and sustainable development of society and nature, strengthening and development of information space and resource support of all links and branches of continuing education is topical. The demand for a new ideology is incomparably more difficult than the tasks of protecting the environment; they are not limited to reducing the flow of contaminants. The complex of ecological knowledge should help future specialists organize human activity in the conditions of a strict ecological imperative. Environment and sustainable development is a methodology to understand causes and effects of all forces operating and affecting the surroundings directly embracing wide variety of topics and study areas to address the upcoming environmental hazards threatening the very existence of human being. The implementation of the social order of the society in the educational system presupposes the creation and application of textbooks, teaching aids and educational methodological complexes of a new generation. In the light of the above, the inclusion in the program of the discipline «Environment and sustainable development» such topics as: green economy and sustainable development; renewable energy sources; water – a strategic resource of the 21st century, water resources management; eco-power engineering; the global energy6

environmental strategy of sustainable development of the XXIst century is indisputable, relevant. The educational manual is developed in accordance with the content of the State Educational Establishment of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the standard program of the discipline «Environment and sustainable development». The proposed training textbook contains lectures, test questions, test tasks, a glossary, and a list of recommended literature. The informative nature of the glossary accompanying each lecture will help to activate the independent work of the student. In developing this training textbook, the authors set the task not only to reflect the principles of sustainable development, but also to reflect the world trends in the concept of sustainable development, to highlight the problems and challenges facing the world community in the light of the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals. This book has been written with a deep concern to fulfill the needs of Kazakhstan students, teachers and other readers. This book comprises 15 Chapters, which present a comprehensive and compact treatment of both theoretical and applied aspects of environmental science. The educational manual was developed by the authors on the basis of a large volume of educational literature, scientific and technical information on the creadure and development of the concept of sustainable development in Kazakhstan, it contains the author's interpretation of the issue under study. It should be noted that all the proposed training material was successfully tested and implemented in the educational process. This book covers scientific and practical approaches to understanding, assessing and monitoring environmental deterioration as well as to cooperation and sustainability, which are of immense use for the various work profiles of institutions and society. The educational manual is recommended for classroom and extracurricular work of full-time and distance learning students in all specialties and areas of bachelor's training, and can be used by undergraduates and teachers of environmental institutions. The authors of the book will be grateful to everyone for constructive comments and suggestions that will help improve its content in the future. 7

Chapter 1 ENVIRONMENT AND PROBLEMS OF MODERN CIVILIZATION 1. Introduction. The purpose, content, objectives of the discipline. 2. The main sections of modern ecology. 3. Modern environmental issues.

Introduction. The purpose, content, objectives of the discipline Environment is the set of natural and artificial objects including atmospheric air, the ozone layer of the Earth, surface and groundwater, land, subsoil, flora and fauna, as well as the climate in their interaction. Life and environment are inseparably interdependent. Living organism’s life is being affected by various environmental factors and in turn, they modify their environment in many ways. The environment surrounding the human being, in addition to factors common to all terrestrial animals of the natural environment, includes the material and social environment created by the person himself. They form a single complex system of interacting factors. Man himself is involved in a tremendous struggle against the environment. His ability to control the environment is the key to his success on the Earth. A widely used concept «environment» refers to that part of the environment, with the elements of which this organism directly contacts at a given time. The range of Sciences involved in environmental issues has grown enormously. Nowadays, this process is related to the integration of sciences and globalization. In this regard, the term – environmental science has been introduced. Environmental science is about understanding the causes and efforts of positive and negative aspects of global and local issues of immediate and long-term issues and of direct and indirect efforts of human activities on the environment. 8

The main objective of the course «Environment and sustainable development» is to form an ecological outlook, obtain in-depth system knowledge and ideas about the foundations of sustainable development of society and nature, theoretical and practical knowledge about modern approaches to the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. Ecological knowledge is called upon to form an active environmental position. The term ecology (from Greek Oikos – home, abode and logos – teaching) was introduced into scientific use by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866). In its interpretation, ecology is the knowledge of the economy of nature, it is important for the quantitative aspects of ecology and its relationship with the human economy. Later, various shades of meaning were introduced into the concept of ecology, and the subject of this field of science was expanded. Ecology is the science of the relationship between living organisms and their environment. The main theme of ecological studies is the relationship between organisms and their environment. Therefore, ecology may be called «environmental biology». Gradually ecological regularities began to be attributed to the sets of organisms-populations, species, communities; more clearly, ecology acquired the status of science about the organization and functioning of biological systems of organisms of all levels. The history of ecology can be divided into three main stages: – The first stage (up to the 60-ies of the X1X century) – the origin and formation of ecology as a science. – The second stage (after the 60-ies of the X1X century) – development of ecology as a separate branch of knowledge. – The third stage – the last 50 years of the twentieth century to the present) – the transformation of the environment in integrated science. Before our eyes, ecology acquires the features of a comprehensive and relevant worldview; it turns into a teaching about the survival of humankind. Tasks of the discipline teaching: – to familiarize students with the problems of modern civilization; – to study the main regularities of functioning of living organisms, ecosystems, the biosphere in general, and their sustainability; 9

– to generate knowledge about the consequences of human activities in the conditions of intensification of natural resources use; – to form a comprehensive objective and creative approach to the discussion of the most acute and complex problems of ecology, environmental protection and sustainable development among students. – to form students' basic environmental thinking, providing a systematic approach to the study of competence systems in the context of qualification requirements of specialty 5B060800-Ecology In accordance with the state compulsory standard of higher education, as a result of studying the discipline «Environment and sustainable development» the students must have a specified minimum of knowledge, skills and abilities, they must be able: – to demonstrate the knowledge gained about the basic patterns that determine the interaction of living organisms with the environment, the features of distribution and dynamics of the number of organisms, community structure and their dynamics; patterns of energy flow through living systems and the circulation of substances, the functioning of ecological systems and the biosphere as a whole; – to know the basic principles of sustainable development; – to interpret natural and anthropogenic environmental processes and know possible ways to regulate them; – to analyze modern concepts and strategies of environmental policy; – to summarize and evaluate the learning outcomes in the context of the discipline «Environment and Sustainable Development» In the process of mastering the discipline, the following educational technologies are used: personality-oriented, problem-oriented, interactive methods – lecture-visualization, preparation of presentation reports, discussion of problem situations, case studies, etc. The main sections of modern ecology At the turn of XX-XXI centuries ecology has become such a comprehensive phenomenon of the world civilization that without the use of ecological worldview the development of socio-economic and political system of any society, state, is apparently impossible. 10

The consideration of the environment and its relationship with the concept of sustainable development we will begin in the historical context. In recent years, when the threat of a global environmental crisis has affected the humans, there has been a rapid expansion of environmental boundaries. Ecology appeared as a purely biological science concerning the relationship «organism – environment». However, with the increase of anthropogenic pressure on the environment, the insufficiency of such an approach became apparent. These are not only sections of biology, but also disciplines related to biology – earth sciences, physics, chemistry, as well as various engineering sciences, economics, politics, sociology, ethics. Ecology is becoming an interdisciplinary science. Eventually, today there are no phenomena, processes and territories untouched by this powerful pressure. In addition, there is no science that could be eliminated from the process of searching for a way out of the environmental crisis. The range of sciences involved in environmental issues has grown enormously. Nowadays, along with biology, it is economic and geographical sciences, medical and sociological research, atmospheric physics and mathematics, and many other sciences. This process is called «greening» (ecologization). Ecologization reflects the important trend of modern science – the search for synthesis (the world is one and nature does not know faculties). In this regard, this term – modern ecology was introduced. The main sections of modern ecology are: General ecology (autecology, synecology, population ecology). Autecology – the section of ecology, studying the ecology of individuals of this species, the ecology of the species. The population ecology – the section, where the issues of population dynamics are studied. Synecology – the section of ecology studying the interaction of communities with the environment. Environmental problems of the Earth as a planet are dealt with by the global ecology, the main object of which is the biosphere as a global ecosystem. At the junction of ecology with other branches of knowledge the development of new areas such as geoecology, space, mathematical, engineering ecology, etc., is going on. 11

– Geoecology (climatology, ecology of geospheres, natural areas, regions, countries, continents) – Bioecology (the doctrine about the biosphere, ecology of groups of organisms, ecology of natural biological systems, evolutionary ecology). There are also special disciplines, such as social ecology studying the interaction in the system «human society – nature» and its part – the human ecology (Anthropoecology), which deals with the interaction of man as a biosocial being with the outside world. Human ecology (Bioecology of human, mankind) Social ecology (the ecology of individuals, families, ethnic groups and their ethnogenesis, population ecology). From the scientific and practical point of view, the division of ecology into theoretical and applied ecology is quite justified. – Theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the organization of life. – Applied ecology (environmental economics of nature management, engineering ecology, agricultural ecology, bioresources and field ecology, municipal and medical ecology, etc.) – studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man, ways to prevent this process and develops the principles of rational use of natural resources. Modern environmental issues As usual, in the infinite universe along the orbit around the Sun constantly rotates a small planet Earth, each new round proving the inviolability of its existence. Satellites that send space information to the Earth constantly reflect the face of the planet. However, this face is irreversibly changing. At the present stage of social development, humanity is looking for a response to the environmental challenge of our civilization, which is the quintessence of the results of its reckless economic and environmental activities. Environmental problems are related to the deterioration of the life level and quality in many countries, the difficulties encountered in the development of the world economy, and finally, the general systemic crisis of modern civilization. Environmental problems, which are expressed in violation of the balance of conditions and impacts on the environment, arose as a 12

result of the exploitative relationship of man to nature, a rapid growth of technology, the scale of industrialization and population growth. The development of natural resources is so great that the question of their use in the future has arisen. Large-scale production activity has led to strengthening of negative impact of the human on the nature as the environment of dwelling, and it in turn threatened his life and health, the interests of the present and future generations of people. At present, the impacts on nature have increased beyond its recovery potential, resulting in irreversible and dangerous changes in the natural environment. The human impact on terrestrial ecosystems, the relationships and interrelations of which together form the ecosystem of the earth as a planet cause changes in the complex system of the human environment. Moreover, the negative consequences of this impact are expressed as a threat to the environmental conditions of the whole existence of people, a threat to health through air, water and food, which are contaminated with substances produced by man. Environmental problems of our time on its scale can be conditionally divided into local, regional and global, and require different means of solving. An example of a local environmental problem is a plant that discharges its industrial untreated wastewater into the river, making the water harmful to human health. This is a violation of the law. The nature conservation authorities or even the public should, through the courts, fine such a plant and, under the threat of closure, compel it to build treatment facilities. A special science is not required. For instance, a regional environmental problem is drying up of the Aral Sea with a sharp deterioration of the environmental situation on its entire periphery, or a high radioactivity of soils in the areas adjacent to the territory of the former Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. In order to solve such problems, we need a scientific study. In the first case – exact hydrological research for the development of recommendations on a drain increase in the Aral Sea, in the second case – an assessment of long-term influence of radiation doses on population’s health and the development of soil’s decontamination methods. Anthropogenic impact on nature has reached such a scale that these problems are among the ones of a global nature. Let us move on to addressing specific global environmental issues. 13

Problem 1. The Earth's atmosphere receives a large amount of harmful substances with exhaust gases of vehicles, and other industrial enterprises and their share in pollution of atmospheric air is constantly growing. About 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide, which is formed due to combustion of various fuels, are annually released into the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is gradually increasing and has increased by more than 10% over the past 100 years. Carbon dioxide accumulated in the atmosphere prevents the outflow of thermal radiation into outer space, creating something like a film that retains the heat-greenhouse effect, which in turn leads to a global climate change. Problem 2. Population explosion (overpopulation). World population had made 3 billion by 1960, while by 2000 it had reached 6.0 billion, now it is 7 billion, by 2050, it is expected to be 10.8 billion. This very numerous population will provide pressure on the natural resources. Ultimately, the increase in the population pressure will lead to degradation or deterioration of environment. Problem 3. About 12 million hectares of forest are destroyed annually. While in 1950, forest space occupied 15% of the land, now only it equals to 7%. It is estimated that if the necessary measures are not taken, the planet may lose one of the main sources of oxygen in the coming decades. Problem 4. The saturation of the atmosphere with ozone is constantly changing in any part of the planet, reaching maximum in the spring in the circumpolar region. For the first time the depletion of the ozone layer attracted the attention of the general public in 1985, when a space with a low (up to 50%) ozone content was found over Antarctica. The size of this «ozone hole» was comparable to the continental part of the United States. The technogenic origin of the «ozone holes» is explained by the ingress of technogenic chlorine, fluorine and other atoms and radicals capable of actively adding atomic oxygen to the upper atmosphere, thereby competing with the reaction: О + О2 = О3 Thus, «ozone holes» are attributed to the fact that the introduction of active halogens into the upper layers of atmosphere is mediated by volatile chlorofluorocarbons such as freons. 14

Problem 5. One in four inhabitants of the earth is deprived of the access to clean drinking water, and a large part of the world's population has to settle for the water of questionable quality. Problem 6. From the beginning of the VII century to the end of the XX century the Earth has lost forever 63 species of mammals, 94 species of birds and 250 species of other vertebrates. Today, the process of extinction of living organisms – loss of biodiversity – has taken on a threatening scale: every day (!) 3 species of plants and animals die out. Problem 7. The amount of accumulated solid wastes is constantly growing. It is estimated that if the necessary measures are not taken, then in 10-15 years wastes can cover the land with a fivemeter layer. Land degradation is increasing every year, turning into a desert 6 million hectares of cultivated land, and 20 billion hectares of land are losing their productivity. In addition, the territory of deserts is expanding: the Sahara annually moves 30 km south. The above-considered global environmental problems in a generalized form can be formulated as follows: 1. The amount of anthropogenic impact on nature and the environment in the XXIst century has become too large and has approached the limit of the biosphere stability. The manifestations and testimonies are diverse: – A sharp reduction in the area of undisturbed ecosystems; – Human consumption and recovery of renewable natural resources; – Human waste from farms pollute the environment; – Violation of biosphere equilibrium; – Reduction of reserves of non-renewable mineral and fuel resources. 2. Nature responds to increasing anthropogenic pressure with unforeseen changes that create environmental hazards. 3. Man was trapped between his essence and alienation from nature. Humanity of the XXIst century has acquired the features of consumption civilization, which leads to excessive man-made stress on nature and the environment. Thus, the environmental problems of humankind are closely related to economic and social causes. 15

A reasonable solution to environmental problems is possible only under the condition of a natural combination of scientific and technological progress with the multifaceted social aspects of the biosphere protection, which should be the basis for the development and creation of existing and new industries and energy sources. Radical solution of environmental problems is possible only with harmonious interaction of society, technology and nature. We should take into account all the valuable achievements made in this field in other countries. At the same time, creative, critical and meaningful study and generalization of foreign experience in the organization of environmental activities, refraction through the prism of real economic reality, the practical situation in our country are required. Successful solution of large-scale tasks set by the Government, efficiency of reforms, achievement of the general goals set out in the strategy 2050, is possible only in conditions of sustainable development. Sustainable development is defined as the development where the present generations meet their needs without depriving future generations of the opportunity to meet their own needs. One of the definitions of sustainable development is sustainable development in the long-term, intergenerational context. Sustainable development requires the satisfaction of the most important vital requirements of all people and provide all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life in equal measure, the necessity of transition of world community to sustainable longterm development. The requirement of the new ideology is incomparably more complicated than the tasks of environmental protection; they are not limited to reducing the amount of pollution. The complex of ecological knowledge should help future specialists to organize human activity in the conditions of strict ecological imperative. (I) General subjective type questions 1. Give the definition of environment. 2. What is the relationship between ecology and environment? 3. Formulate a strategic task of ecological studies. 4. What are the global environmental problems? 5. Explain in brief historical development of ecology. 6. Why the concept of greening (ecologization) is introduced?

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7. Describe the structure of modern ecology. 8. Explain the civilization of consumption. 9. Discuss the effects of global warming. 10. What is the relationship between environmental and socio-economic problems?

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Chapter 2 INTERACTION OF THE ORGANISM AND ENVIRONMENT 1. 2. 3. 4.

Autecology – the ecology of organisms Environmental factors, their classification. Regularities of biotic and abiotic factors action. Limiting factor. Law of the minimum by Yu.Liebig. The law of tolerance by V. Shelford.

Autecology – the ecology of organisms Typically, there are six main levels of living matter organization: – Molecular; – Cellular; – Organismic; – Populational; – Ecosystem; – Biosphere (ecosphere). In ecology, living matter is considered at the level of organisms. Organism is any living creature. It differs from the inanimate nature by a certain set of properties inherent only in living matter: cell organization, metabolism with a leading role of proteins and nucleic acids, providing homeostasis of the body – self-renewal and maintaining the constancy of its internal environment. The following peculiarities are inherent in living organisms: movement, growth, irritability, reproduction and heredity, and adaptability to the conditions of their existence – adaptation. Living organisms have a metabolism or metabolic rate, thus there is a variety of chemical reactions, for example, breathing. Metabolic processes occur with different intensity throughout the life of the organism, the whole way of its development. This path from the origin to the end of life is called ontogenesis. Modern ontogenesis of organisms has developed over a long evolution, due to their historical development – phylogenesis. 18

Currently, there are more than 2.2 million species of organisms on Earth, which are divided into two empires – precellular (viruses and phages) and cellular (all other organisms). Among the cellular organisms two large groups has been singled out – prokaryotes – lower types of organisms (bacteria, blue-green algae) and eukaryotes – a highly organized organisms possessing cells with a membrane-bound nucleus, these are subdivided into three kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi. The whole set of plants of a certain area of the planet or of any part of it (region, district, etc.) is called flora, and the set of animal organisms – fauna. The flora and fauna of the territory taken together are called biota. Living organisms and their environment interact inseparably with each other. No living organisms can survive without their environment. Inseparable interaction between living organisms and their environment is beneficial for the maintenance, development and modification of life and dynamism of environment. Under the term habitat in ecology is understood the natural environment or place where organisms normally live and grow. There are five main types of habitats: aquatic, desert, forest, grassland, and tundra habitats. In addition to the factors common to all terrestrial animals, the human’s environment includes the material and social environment created by man himself. They form a single complex system of interacting factors. In relation to human society, the environment includes natural ecosystems, natural components (air, water, soils, fauna and flora), territory, landscapes, natural, historical, cultural and other material objects that have an impact on the quality of life, livelihoods and human health. Thus, environment is a complex of so many things, i.e. physical (light, temperature, soil, water etc.), biological (living organisms) and cultural or social components that surround and affect the life of an organism in many ways. The sum of all these living and non-living factors makes the environment of an organism. Ecological factors, their classification Ecological factors are the properties of the components of the ecosystem and environment, which have a direct effect on indivi19

duals in a given population, as well as on the nature of their relations with each other and with individuals of other populations. Ecological factors are classified according to several criteria. External factors affect the organism, the population, but do not directly reverse such effects as solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Internal factors are associated with the properties of the system itself and form its composition: number, feeding, concentration of substances, etc. It is essential to assess the importance of factors, highlight the main and secondary ones. Those, which are necessary for life of an organism – food, water, heat, light, oxygen – are defined as conditions of existence. Other factors that are not necessarily permanent are referred to as impact factors. Factors that characterize the availability of different forms of matter and energy, temporary changes, which are subject to the laws of conservation, are called resources. The most important ecological factors are considered as resources of the biosphere. It is solar energy, light, food, water, heat, soil, i.e. all that is necessary for life on Earth. According to the nature of the sources and the nature of the environmental factors these are divided into abiotic (inorganic nature) and biotic (organic nature). All biotic factors are caused by intraspecific and interspecific interactions. Nutrition is an important environmental factor. Nutrition is the process of energy and substance consumption. There are two ways of power supply used by living beings: without trapping food, through absorption of dissolved nutrients through the surface structure of the body (halophytes) and by trapping food outside the body (organisms). Nutrients taken into the body are involved in metabolic processes. Metabolism is a set of interconnected and balanced processes, including heterogeneous chemical transformations of substances in the body. Synthesis reactions of complex substances, carried out with energy consumption, form the basis of anabolism, or assimilation. A special group consists of anthropogenic impacts caused by human activities. These are deforestation, plowing of prairies, draining of the marshes. Other forms of impact are associated with the pollution of the natural environment (including habitats) – air, water bodies, land by the production of wastes. 20

Those anthropogenic factors that are associated with the use of technology, machinery, are called man-made. Regularities of biotic and abiotic factors action Each organism, each ecosystem develops in a certain combination of factors: moisture, light, heat, availability and composition of nutritional resources. All the factors affect the organism simultaneously. The reaction of the organism depends not so much on the factor, but on its amount (dose). For each organism, population, ecosystem there is a range of environmental conditions – the range of stability within which the vital activity of objects occurs. The scope of the quantitative values of the environmental factor, within which this species may exist, is called bio-interface factor. The dose factors, in which the organism achieves the best development and maximum productivity corresponds to the optimum conditions. With the change of this dose in the direction of reduction or increase, the depression of the organism occurs and the stronger the deviation of the factors from the optimum, the lower the viability is, up to its death. The conditions under which life activity is maximally oppressed, but the organism still exists, are called pessimistic. If we plot the dependence of environmental potency or response function on the values of the factor, then the bio-interval graph takes the form of a dome-shaped curve, which can be called a survival chart. Its vertex coincides with the point or region of the biological optimum. When approaching the extreme values of the factor in the organism the derangement of individual functions (state of stress) occurs. The situation where these problems are reversible and the ability to heal itself remains after the cessation of negative consequences is called a critical factor, and the corresponding status of the organism – a critical status. If the disturbances are irreversible and lead to the inevitable death of the organism, then this condition is called lethal. The gravity of the situation and lethal risks largely depend on the duration of the impact, exposure to extreme factors. The environmental safety standards are developed in the experiments on specially selected test objects (strains of microorganisms, 21

tissue cultures, various plants and animals), different doses of exposure are determined: a minimum toxic dose, average or lethal doses. Thus, a LD 50 is the dose at which 50% of test objects die. The concept of the dose refers to not only the amount of the introduced substance, but also to the effects of radiation, low and high temperatures, pressure, etc. Based on these results, regulatory indicators are calculated: maximum permissible levels of exposure (MPE), maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), and maximum permissible doses (MPD). These indicators, together with other ones, form the basis of environmental rationing. Limiting factors, the Law of minimum by J. Liebig. The law of tolerance by V. Shelford Factors that stronger than other ones affect the state of the organism or population are called limiting factors. For the first time the importance of limiting factors was pointed out by German agricultural chemist Justus von Liebig (1803 –1873). He formulated the minimum law which states: plant growth depends on the element that is present in the minimum amount. The organism resistance is determined by the weakest link in the chain of its environmental needs. If the quantity and quality of ecological factors are close to the minimum required by the organism, it survives, if less than this minimum, the organism dies, and the ecosystem collapses. The minimum law is valid for both plants and animals, including human beings, who, in certain situations, have to consume mineral water or vitamins to compensate for the lack of the required elements in the body. However, the law of minimum by Liebig has a limited significance for the level of chemical elements. It turned out that the factors can be limiting when being in the maximum. The most complete and most total account of the complexity of the impact of environmental factors on the organism is reflected by the law of tolerance by V. Shelford (1913). The lack of prosperity or inability to prosperity is determined by the deficiency (qualitative or quantitative) or on the contrary an excess of any of a number of factors. These two limits are called tolerance limits – the range between 22

the minimum and maximum values of the ecological parameters of the organism existence, or another term is tolerance range). The limits of tolerance for any species are the maximum and minimum temperatures. All living beings are able to live between 0 and 50°C, hence the general law of biological stability, according to Maxime Lamotte (1920 – 2007) states: the value of the «optimal interval» characterizes the value of resistance of the organism, i.e. the indicator of its tolerance to this factor, or «environmental valence». Organisms whose life requires conditions limited by a narrow tolerance range are called stenobionts and those able to live in a wide tolerance range – eurybionts. All living beings are divided into: Poikilothermic (body temperature varies with the temperature changes of the environment) – reptiles, insects, etc. Homoeothermic (body temperature is constant) – mammals, birds, and human. A large number of factors affects the organism, an ecosystem in natural conditions. Ecological constraints are never absolute; it is through the interaction of factors that the limits of life can be pushed back. Thus, the reduction in the temperature increases the endurance of fish in relation to the lack of food and oxygen. The survival chart of one factor changes under the influence of another factor. For the development and implementation of ecological potency of the species, an optimal combination of leading factors is necessary. This requirement is called the law of joint action of factors, which can be synergistic, when they seem to reinforce each other and produce a greater effect than the sum of separate actions, such as complex fertilizers. The combination can also be negative where there is a mutual weakening of the effects. For example, in cold-blooded animals low temperature increases the tolerance to hunger and lack of oxygen, and reduces that in warm-blooded ones, because the reaction to cold can increase the need for energy and oxygen. Multidimensional ecological space, formed by the combination of survival diagrams for essential ecological factors of a given species or population, is called the ecological niche. All species of living organisms occupy certain ecological niches, settling so as not to interfere with each other. This concept brings to 23

total everything the organisms need, i.e. all the necessary conditions and resources (ecological factors, foods, time and ways of nutrition, breeding areas, shelters, etc. in the necessary quantities), and determines the role of the species in a biotic community. The ecological niche shows how organisms are adapted to environmental conditions, how they react to them. Even if the conditions and resources of this part of the environment are quite favorable for the individuals of a given species, predators, parasites or competitors may hinder the organism of this species, its long-term existence. Therefore, biotic interactions are also part of the concept of a niche. The same habitat can generate several niches. The forest, for instance, is able to represent ecological niches to small birds, oaks, a huge number of plants and animals. The niches of the species found in the same habitat, often differ greatly. The more species, the more numerous ecological niches are and the greater the richness of the environment is. The diversity of living organisms, ecological niches is dependent on the completeness and speed of circulation of substances in a given biogeocenosis. If organisms occupy different ecological niches, they do not enter into a competitive relationship. However, in every ecosystem, there are species that pretend to the same niche. Then there is competition, struggle for the possession of niches. (II) General subjective types of questions 1. Regularities of action of biotic and abiotic factors. 2. Explain the biointerval of factors. 3. Define the meaning of the factor called critical. 4. What are resources? 5. Why can J. Liebig’ law be called a special case of the law of V. Shelford? 6. Explain the anthropogenic impacts. 7. What is an ecological niche? 8. Is there only one limiting factor for each species or can there be several? Justify your answer. 9. Why does nutrition belong to the ecological factor? 10. What is a habitat?

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Chapter 3 POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT 1. Static and dynamic characteristics of population 2. Growth curves of population numbers 3. Mechanisms of the population number regulation

Static and dynamic characteristics of population The term «population» is derived from the Latin word «populus» meaning people. From the ecological point of view population is a colection of individuals of one biological species inhabiting one territory, having a common gene pool and the possibility of crossing. Populations are evolving, and these are the elements of the evolution of species and their formation. Static and dynamic indicators of the population to be distinguished. Static indices of the population are quantity, density, biomass, and age and sex composition. Abundance is the number of individuals in a population. It can vary considerably in time and depends on the biotic potential of the species and the external conditions. Density is the number of the individuals or biomass of population per unit of area or volume. The population is characterized by a certain structural organization – the ratio of groups of individuals by sex, age, size, genotype, distribution of individuals across the territory, etc. In this regard, mark out various structures of population: sexual, age, dimensional, genetic, spatial and ecological, etc. The structure of population is formed, on the one hand, on the basis of the general biological properties of a look, on the other hand – under the influence of environmental factors, i.e. it has an adaptive character. Sexual structure of population – according to genetic laws it should be represented by the equal ratio of male and female individu25

als, i.e. 1: 1. However, due to the specific physiology, different viability, the influence of various external, social, anthropogenic and other factors, there can be significant differences in this ratio. Moreover, these differences are not the same both in different populations and in different age groups of the same population. Age structure is the static parameter of the population that characterizes the ratio of different age groups in the population, which determines its ability to reproduce. In any population, three ecological ages can be distinguished: pre-production (before breeding), reproductive (during the breeding season), post-productive (after breeding). It is one of the characteristics of the demographic structure of the population. Ecological structure of the population is the division of population into groups of the individuals that are differently interacting with the environmental factors. To maintain the normal structure of the population, it must have some minimum values of abundance and density. Population numbers in different animals and plants is regulated in different ways. Population density usually has a certain optimum. With any deviation from this optimum, the mechanisms of its intrapopulation regulation begin to work. Usually, the population is a part of the community, and the stable existence of biocenosis is possible only with certain quantitative ratios of all components. This has also caused the necessity to regulate the population that ensures a stable state of both individual populations and biocenoses in general. Dynamic population indicators: it is the birth rate, mortality, speed of immigration and emigration. Birth rate is the ability of the population to increase, or the number of offsprings produced by one female in 1 year. In human society, the birth rate is expressed as the number of births per 1000 people per year. Maximum fertility theoretically is the maximum possible number of individuals formed under ideal conditions, in the absence of limiting factors; reproduction is limited only by physiological factors.

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The ecological or realized birth rate is the emergence of new individuals under the actual conditions of the environment. Anthropogenic impacts on population can change the birth rate. Mortality is the death of individuals per unit of time in the absence of limiting factors. The ecological or realized mortality is the death of individuals for a unit of time under the actual conditions of the environment. The difference between the birth rate and mortality is a certain resultant parameter that defines real dynamics of the number of this population. In the process of growth of population, there is a decrease in the environmental resources available to each individual. Under the conditions of resource depletion, the growth of population is slowed down and, eventually, stops. Population growth rate is expressed in a gain of the population and the growth rate of the population where the population gain is a difference between the birth rate and mortality. The gain can be positive, zero and negative. The rate of a gain of the population is its average gain for a unit of time. Growth curves of populations’ number The survival curve can be obtained by calculation of the number of the newborns in a certain population and the following marking the number of survivors as a function of time. On the vertical axis, usually either the absolute number of surviving individuals or their percentage of the original population is plotted: N=

Survivor Quatity Initial population

x 100

Each species is characterized by a survival curve, the shape of which depends in part on the mortality of immature individuals. A survivorship curve is the graphic representation of the number of individuals in a population that can be expected to survive up to any specific age (Figure 3.1). There are three general types of curves. The Type I curve, illustrated by large mammals, tracks the organisms that tend to live

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long lives (low death rate and high survivorship rate) towards the end of their life expectancies, however, there is a dramatic increase in the death rate. The Type III curve, characteristic of small mammals, fishes, and invertebrates, is the opposite: it describes organisms with a high death rate (or low survivorship rate) immediately following birth. In contrast, the Type II curve considers birds, mice, and other organisms characterized by a relatively constant mortality or survivorship rate throughout their life expectancies.

Figure 3.1. Type I, II, and III survivorship curves.

Exponential and logistic growth of the population The gain of population is proportional to its number and therefore if the growth of the population is limited by no external factors, population grows in an expedited manner. We will describe this growth mathematically. The gain of population is proportional to the number of individuals in it, that is NN where N – population number, and N – its change for a certain period of time. If this period is infinitely small, it is possible to write that: 28

dN = r · N, dt dN where dt – the change in the number of population (gain), and r – the reproductive potential – the variable characterizing the ability of population to increase in the number. The given equation is called exponential model of the population’s number growth – a J-shaped curve (Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.2. Exponential model of population growth

It is easy to understand that with the course of time, the number of population grows quicker and quicker, and tends to infinity soon. Naturally, no habitat will sustain existence of the population with an infinite number. Nevertheless, there are a number of population growth processes that can be described in a certain time interval using an exponential model. We are talking about the cases of unlimited growth, when a certain population inhabits the environment with the excess of free resource. Naturally, the exponential growth of the population cannot be eternal. Eventually the resource will be depleted, and the population growth will slow down. What will this inhibition be? Practical ecology knows a wide variety of options: a sharp rise in numbers, followed by the extinction of the population that has exhausted its resources, or a gradual inhibition of the growth as it approaches a certain level. The easiest way to describe a slow inhibition is the elementary model of such dynamics that is called logistic model and was offered (for the description of the growth in 29

the number of a human population) by the French mathematician Verhulst in 1845. In 1925, the similar regularity has been rediscovered by the American ecologist R. Perl who has assumed that it has a general character. In the logistic model the variable K is the environment capacity, an equilibrium number of population at which it consumes all available resources is shown by the S-shaped curve (Figure 3.3). The gain in logistic model is described by the equation: dN dt = r · N

Figure 3.3. Logistic model of population growth

Mechanisms of the population’s number regulation Change in the number depends on some factors of the environment – abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic factors. However, it is always possible to single out the key factor, which is most strongly influencing on birth rate, mortality, migration of individuals, etc. Populations of many types of organisms are capable to self-control their number. There are three mechanisms of inhibition of population growth: 1. With the increase in density the frequency of contacts between individuals increases, that causes in them the stressful state reducing birth rate and increasing mortality. 30

2. With the increase in density emigration to new habitats, regional areas where the conditions are less favorable amplifies and mortality increases. 3. With the increase in density there are changes in the genetic structure of population, for example, quickly breeding individuals are replaced by slowly breeding ones. Understanding the mechanisms of regulating the number of populations is extremely important for the ability to manage these processes. Human activities are often accompanied by a reduction in the number of populations of many species. The reasons for this lie in the excessive extermination of the representatives of the species, deterioration of living conditions due to environmental pollution, anxiety of animals, especially during breeding, habitat area reduction, etc. In nature, there are not and can not be «good» and «bad» species, they all are necessary for its normal development. Now the question of the conservation of biodiversity is particularly acute. Reduction in a gene pool of wildlife can lead to tragic consequences. The international union of conservation and natural resources (IUCN) publishes «Red List» where it registers the following types of species: disappearing, rare, reduced, uncertain and «Black List» of irreversibly disappeared species. In order to preserve species, people use various ways to regulate the population: proper management of hunting and fishing, prohibition of hunting for certain species of animals, regulation of deforestation, etc. At the same time, human activity creates conditions for the emergence of new forms of organisms or the development of the existing ones, unfortunately, often harmful to human – pathogens, pests of crops, etc. Mechanisms of population size regulation are based on complex interspecific relationships, i.e. on the community level, which will be discussed in the next section of the training textbook. (III) General subjective types of questions 1. What belongs to ecological characteristics of population? 2. How is the habitat of population called? 3. What does the age structure of population of the species depend on?

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4. How does population number change if the mortality prevails over the birth rate? 5. How does population number change if the birth rate prevails over the mortality? 6. Name the factors, which promote the growth of population number. 7. Give the characteristic of S-, J-shaped growth curves of population. 8. Indicate the data confirming the youth of the humankind as species. 9. Explain the factors of evolution that have allowed accelerating the growth in the number of people. 10. Define the factors, which constrain the growth in the population number. 11. Explain the name of the form of interspecies relations due to which species cannot exist without each other. 12. Under the influence of what reasons there is an increase and reduction in the number of populations?

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Chapter 4 ECOSYSTEM AS A STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE BIOSPHERE 1. 2. 3. 4.

Ecology of communities: the concept of biocenosis, biogeocenosis. Properties of complex systems. System’s parameters. Ecological pyramids. Laws of the modern ecology.

Ecology of communities: the concept of biocenosis, biogeocenosis The ecological system or ecosystem is the main object of ecology. In the general system, it is a real or imaginable set of parts the properties of which are defined by the interaction between the parts of the system. In a material world, there are certain hierarchies – the ordered sequences and complexes. All the diversity of our world can be represented in the form of three successive hierarchies: natural (physical and biological), social and technical. Emergence is a property characterizing the degree of irreducibility of the properties of a system to the properties of individual elements of which it consists. The decisive role in this case is the interaction between the elements. The principle of the necessary variety of elements is that the system cannot consist of absolutely identical elements. The lower limit of diversity is not less than two elements (he and she), the upper limit is infinity. The variety of microscopic properties of the parts of the system, the presence of different phase states of matter in it determines the heterogeneity of the system. Stability is the predominance of internal interactions over external ones. Stability (stationary state) of the dynamic system is supported by a continuously performed work (the principle of a bicycle). By the type of exchange of matter and / or energy with the environment, we distinguish:

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 Isolated systems – exchange is not possible;  Closed systems – energy exchange in any form;  Open systems – the exchange of matter and energy. The principle of evolution. The emergence and existence of all systems is due to evolution. Self-sustaining dynamic systems evolve towards the complication of organization and the emergence of a subsystem hierarchy. The consequence of increasing complexity and diversity is the acceleration of evolution, an ever faster passage through qualitative shifts. The number of its elements and the number of connections between them determine the complexity of the structure of the system. Systems are classified by complexity: − Simple systems have up to a thousand states; − Complex systems have up to a million states; − Very complex systems have over a million states. Depending on the relative organization, the systems are divided into three groups: − Probabilistic – capable of flexibly changing their properties; − Deterministic – conservative, rigid; − Quasideterministic – occupying an intermediate position. Most natural systems have a probabilistic or quasi-deterministic character. Ecosystem is a spatially defined set of living organisms and their habitats, combined with real-energy and information interacttions. The term was introduced by the English botanist A. Tensley (1935). There are water and terrestrial ecosystems. In each local land system, there is an abiotic component – a biotope or an ecotop – the site with identical landscape, climatic and soil conditions and a biotic component – community or a biocenosis – a set of all live organisms inhabiting this biotope. Associates are closely interconnected with the habitat therefore, they are united under the name a biogeocenosis. At the same time, biogeocenosis = biotope + biocenosis. The concept of a biogeocenosis was coined by V.N. Sukachyov (1942). Succession – the process of the development of the ecosystem from its inception to death, accompanied by the change in existing species due to the influence of natural factors (including internal forces) or human influence. 34

Species – a collection of individuals with a number of common morpho-physiological features that inhabit a certain area, capable of crossing resulting in the formation of a healthy offspring. Each ecosystem includes groups of organisms that differ in the way they feed – autotrophs (self-feeding or producers) and heterotrophs (that feed on others) – these are all animals, mushrooms and most bacteria. Depending on the energy source, heterotrophs are divided into several types: consumers, detritophags and decomposers. Consumers are the consumers of organic matter of living organisms. These include phytophages, i.e. those feeding on living plants, zoophages – eating other animals, parasites – living at the expense of the substances of the host organism. Detritophags are the organisms feeding on dead organic substance – the remains of plants and animals. Reducents are bacteria and lower fungi that complete the destructive work of consumers and detritophags, bringing the decomposition of organic matter to its full mineralization and returning to the environment carbon dioxide, water and mineral elements. Their joint functioning not only supports the structure and integrity of the biotope, but also is a means of self-purification. Properties of the complex systems. System’s parameters There are 9 types of the most important interspecific interactions (according to Yu. Odumu, 1986): 1. Neutralism (the association of two species of population that does not affect any of them); 2. Mutual competitive suppression; 3. Competition for resources; 4. Amensalism – where one population suppresses the other one, but does not experience negative influence itself; 5. Parasitism; 6. Predation; 7. Commensalism – where one population benefits from unification with another one, and for another population this association is indifferent; 35

8. Protocooperation – both populations benefit from the association; 9. Mutualism (symbiosis) – the relation is favorable for the growth and survival of both populations and none of them can exist without the other. The main sources of biological energy for living beings on Earth are sunlight and food. The Sun radiation reaching the biosphere carries energy of about 3x1024J a year. The solar constant is equal to 1352 W/m2. When solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, its energy spectrum changes: shortwave ultraviolet radiation is absorbed in the upper layers, mainly the ozone layer, and infrared radiation – in the lower cloud cover. Only 0.3% of this energy is directly converted in the process of photosynthesis into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances and only 0.1% is contained in pure primary production. Photosynthesis is understood as transformation by green plants and photosynthesizing microorganisms with the participation of the sunlight energy and pigments of simple substances absorbing light (water, carbon dioxide and mineral elements) in the complex organic substances necessary for the activity of all organisms. solar energy

6СО2 + 12Н2О

C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

In terms of energy, life in the biosphere is kept by the constant influx of energy from the sun and which is used in photosynthesis. Chemosynthesis is the formation of organic compounds from inorganic compounds of nitrogen, iron, and sulfur due to the energy of oxidation-reduction reactions. The role of chemosynthesis: chemosynthetic bacteria destroy rocks, purify sewage, and participate in the formation of organic minerals. The release of the energy contained in organic compounds occurs also in the process of breath or fermentation. Various organisms decompose the biomass remains to inorganic components, promoting the involvement of compounds and chemical elements in biological circulation that provides the next cycles of organic substance 36

production. The energy, which is contained in food, does not promote circulation, and gradually turns into thermal energy. As a result, the solar energy absorbed by organisms in the form of chemical bonds comes back to space in the form of thermal radiation again. Therefore, the biosphere needs continuous inflow of energy from the outside. In relation to this phenomenon, there is a rule of one percent: energy change of natural system on average by 1% puts the latter out of a condition of a homeostasis (balance). For the biosphere to continue to exist and the development of life on Earth not to stop, there have to be continuous chemical transformations of live substance. In other words, substances after the use by one organism have to pass into a form, useful for other organisms. There are two main cycles: large (geological) and small (biogenic and biochemical) ones. Big circulation lasts hundreds of millions years. Borders of geological circulation are much wider than biosphere borders; its amplitude is reflected in crust layers. A small cycle passes within the boundaries of the inhabited biosphere. Being a part of the big one, the small circulation occurs at the level of a biogeocenosis. It means that soil nutrients, water, carbon accumulated in the substance of plants, are spent for creation of an organism and for vital processes of this organism and organisms – consumenst. The products of decomposition of organic matter by the soil microflora and mesofauna are again decomposed to mineral components accessible to plants and therefore are reintroduced into the flow of matter. Such a cycle is called a biogeochemical cycle. Ecological pyramids. Pyramid of numbers To study the relationships between organisms in the ecosystem and to demonstrate the graphic representation of their relationships, it is more convenient to use not the schemes of food nets, but those of ecological pyramids. For this purpose, the number of different organisms in a given territory is first counted, grouped into trophic (nutritional) levels. After such calculations, it becomes obvious that the number of animals progressively decreases during the transition from the second trophic level to the subsequent one. The number of plants 37

of the first trophic level also often exceeds the number of animals that make up the second level; it can be shown in the form of a pyramid. For convenience, the number of organisms at a given trophic level can be represented as a rectangle, the length (or area) of which is proportional to the number of organisms living in the given area (or in a given volume, if it is a water ecosystem). Figure 4.1. shows the number pyramid demonstrating the actual situation in nature. Predators located at the highest trophic level are called ultimate predators.

Fourth trophic level

Tertiary consumers Secondary consumers

Third trophic Level Second trophic Level

Primary consumers

First trophic level

Primary producers

Figure 4.1. Population Pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of biomass and energy According to the law of the energy pyramid, about 10% of the energy passes from each level to the next one (the Lindemann rule). For comparison, the participation of different groups of heterotrophs in the destruction of organic matter has a similar sequence: about 90% of the energy is released by microorganisms and fungi, less than 10% – by invertebrates and not more than 1% – vertebrates. According to the 1% rule, this ratio and especially the contribution of final consumers to destruction (approximately 1%) is an important condition for stabilization of the biosphere. Of course, this is an approximate parameter; its accuracy cannot be established experimentally. 38

Laws of modern ecology Modern ecology, studying the super-system «man – economy – biota – environment» has a set of rules and laws. Here are the wellknown axioms – sayings of the American ecologist B. Commoner (1917 – 2012): Everything is connected with everything; Everything must go somewhere; Nothing is given for nothing; Nature knows best. Everything is connected with everything This is the law of ecosystems and the biosphere, drawing attention to the universal connection of processes and phenomena in nature. All living beings on Earth are subordinated to cosmic forces, a single stream of solar energy, to its rhythms. Nature and society are in one network of systemic interactions. This law should be understood to prevent the unconsidered impacts on certain parts of ecosystems, which can lead to unforeseen consequences (for example, draining swamps leads to shallowing of rivers). Everything must go somewhere (the law of conservation) The law of conservation of mass of matter is simultaneously one of the important requirements of rational nature management. For the biosphere, the quantitative balance of mass and the equality of the rates of synthesis and decay are always observed. It implies a high degree of isolation of circulation of substances in the biosphere. Activity of the human has led to the changes in the chemical environment on the surface of the planet, to emergence of high concentrations of xenobiotics (from Greek ksenos – the stranger). Of the total volume of substances extracted from the natural resources, only a small part falls into the natural cycle; from the point of view of nature, people produces only garbage. At the same 39

time, the closed cycle of substances is broken. Nature only opposes the function of pollution. In fact, this is the law on human economic activity, the waste from which is inevitable, and therefore it is necessary to think not only of reducing their quantity, but also of their subsequent use. Nothing is given for nothing (about the price of development) Any new acquisition in the evolution of the system is necessarily accompanied by the loss of some part of the old wealth and the emergence of new, increasingly complex problems. Hence, the law of irreversibility of evolution is stated. The global ecosystem is a single whole, within which nothing can be won or lost, and which cannot be the object of general improvement. To solve the problem it is necessary to apply energy for additional cleaning of wastes, fertilizers – for the increase in crop production, create sanatoria and medicines – for the improvement of health of people, etc. Nature knows best (about the main criteria of evolutionary selection) The law has two interrelated aspects: bionic and evolutionary. People have created many things that are not found in nature. Technological progress has reached unprecedented heights, but in the ingenuity of using the laws of nature, originality, perfection and beauty of constructive solutions, in common sense all technical devices are inferior to biological systems. Bionics is the science of applying the principles of the action of living systems to solve engineering problems. This is the law of reasonable, conscious use of nature. We must not forget that man is also a biological species, that he is a part of nature, not its ruler. This means that you cannot try to conquer nature, but you need to cooperate with it. While we do not have complete information about the mechanisms and functions of nature, and without an accurate knowledge of the consequences of the transformation of nature, its «improvement» is unacceptable. 40

The principle – nature knows best – determines, first of all, what cannot and what should not be in nature. The main criterion for this selection is the optimal entry into the global biotic cycle, the fullness of all ecological niches. (IV) General subjective types of questions 1. Name the main differences between biological and technical systems. 2. Why are most of the products of the economic activity of people not included in the natural biotic cycle? 3. Give examples of the unconditional superiority of human creations over the creatures of nature. 4. List the main laws of modern ecology. 5. What is an ecosystem? 6. Explain the rule of maximum life pressure. 7. Explain the principle of the necessary diversity of elements. 8. Explain the principle «nature knows best». 9. Why are the levels of biological organization the objects of environmental studies? 10. Describe the importance of homeostatic processes and adaptation for the interaction of the organism with the environment. 11. Why is it stated that the demographic explosion cannot last for long?

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Chapter 5 BIOSPHERE AND ITS SUSTAINABILITY 1. 2. 3. 4.

Fundamentals of biological organization Structure of the biosphere Evolution of the biosphere Vernadsky's doctrine about the biosphere and noosphere

Fundamentals of biological organization The completeness of all natural manifestations of life is represented at the ecosystem, ecosphere levels. Wildlife is a biota, in it, as in the entire material world, an almost infinite variety arises based on a combination of a few elements. Only six elements – carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus account for an average of 99% of the composition of all living things. These elements are called biogenic. Their compounds form several dozen bio-monomers (amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, sugars), which in turn give a huge number of biopolymers. The common character of the chemical composition and molecular-structural properties of animate and inanimate nature is reflected in the formulated by V.I. Vernadsky law of physical-chemical unity of living matter. The law does not exclude the biochemical specificity of species and individuals, but emphasizes the qualitative unity of all living things. Structure of the biosphere The biosphere is a collection of the earth shells (litho-, hydro-, and atmosphere), which living organisms inhabit, and biosphere is under their influence and is full of the products of their vital activity. In a literal translation, the term «biosphere» denotes the sphere of life and in this sense it was first introduced into science in 1875 by Austrian geologist and paleontologist Eduard Suss (1831-1914). 42

However, long before that, under other names, in particular the «space of life», the «picture of nature», the «living shell of the Earth», etc., its content was considered by many other natural scientists. G.B. Lamarck (1744-1829) was the first of biologists who has clearly pointed to a huge role of live organisms in crust formation. He emphasized that all substances, which are on the surface of the globe and forming its crust, were created thanks to the activity of live organisms. The facts and regulations on the biosphere were collected gradually in connection with development of phytology, soil science, geography of plants and other mainly biological sciences and geological disciplines. Those elements of knowledge, which became necessary for understanding of the biosphere in general, were connected with the emergence of ecology, the science that studies the relationships of organisms and the environment. The biosphere is a certain natural system, and it existence is expressed primarily in the circulation of energy and substances with the participation of living organisms. The biosphere covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper part of the lithosphere. The total length of the biosphere on the Earth radius is about 40 km. It stretches from the lower part of the ozone layer of the atmosphere located at the height of 20-25 km above sea level in the top part of rocks of land to the bottom of the World Ocean. Atmosphere is the lightest shell of the Earth, which borders on outer space, through the atmosphere the exchange of matter and energy with the cosmos occurs. The atmosphere has several layers: – The troposphere – the lower layer adjoining the Earth's surface (height of 9-17 km). In it, about 80% of gas of the atmosphere and all water vapor are concentrated. – The stratosphere is characterized by a lower density of air, there is no water vapor. In the lower part of the stratosphere at the height of about 25 km, «the ozone screen» – an atmosphere layer with the increased concentration of ozone absorbing ultra-violet radiation that is disastrous for organisms is located. – The mesosphere stretches at the height of 50 up to 80-90 km. With the increase in height the temperature decreases with an average vertical gradient (0.25 – 0.3) °/100 m, and the density of air lowers. The main physical process is radiant heat exchange. 43

– The thermosphere is found at the height of 80-90 up to 800 km. Air density here is minimum; the extent of ionization of air is high. Temperature changes depending on the activity of the Sun. Aurora borealis and magnetic storms are observed here due to a large amount of charged particles. In it, two parts differ. However, the ionosphere stretching from the mesosphere to the height of about one thousand kilometers, and the external part lying over it – the exosphere – passes into the terrestrial crown. The air in the ionosphere is extremely rarefied. The ionosphere, as tells its name, is characterized by a very high extent of air ionization. The maintenance of ions is many times higher here, than in underlying layers, despite a strong general tenuity of air. These ions are generally represented by charged atoms of oxygen, molecules of oxide of nitrogen and free electrons. The prevailing elements of the atmospheric chemical composition are N2 (78%), O2 (21%), Ar (0.9%), CO2 (0.03%). The hydrosphere is the water shell of the Earth. Due to high mobility, water penetrates everywhere into various natural formations, even the cleanest atmospheric waters contain 10 to 50 mg / l of soluble substances. The predominant elements of the chemical composition of the hydrosphere are Na+, Mg2 +, Ca2 +, Cl-, S, C. The concentration of any element in the water says nothing about its importance for the plants and animal organisms that live in it. The leading role belongs to N, P, Si, which are assimilated by living organisms. The main feature of oceanic water is that the main ions are characterized by a constant ratio throughout the entire world ocean. The lithosphere is the outer hard shell of the Earth, consisting of sedimentary and magmatic rocks. At present, the upper layer of the solid body of the planet is considered to be the earth's crust. The surface layer of the lithosphere, where the interaction of living matter with a mineral (inorganic) matter occurs, is soil. The remains of organisms after decomposition pass into humus (the fertile part of soil). The components of soil are minerals, organic substances, living organisms, water, gases.

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Unlike other resources, soil is less dynamic. The properties of soil as the part of the environment are physical structure, mechanical and chemical composition, рН, oxidation-reduction conditions, etc. Based on prevalence, three types of soils are distinguished: 1. Soils of wet tropics and subtropics; 2. Fertile soils of savannas and steppes; 3. Extremely unstable soils of deserts and semi-deserts. Soil is under the threat of disturbance – erosion – under the influence of the flow of air, water, human economic activity. The rate of erosion greatly increases, which ultimately leads to desertification. The prevailing elements of the lithosphere chemical composition: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K. The leading role is played by oxygen to which the share of a half of mass of crust and 92% of its volume falls; however, oxygen is strongly connected with other elements in the main rock-forming minerals. Thus, in a quantitative sense the crust is a «kingdom» of oxygen, chemically bound in the process of geological development of the crust. Gradually, the idea of a close relationship between animate and inanimate nature, the reverse effect of living organisms and their systems on the physical, chemical and geological factors surrounding them began to penetrate the consciousness of scientists and found its implementation in their specific studies. This fact was promoted also by the changes, which have happened in the general approach of scientists to studying the nature. All of them were more convinced that the research of the phenomena and processes of the nature isolated from the positions of separate scientific disciplines is inadequate. The doctrine of the biosphere is a natural stage in the development of Earth sciences. Therefore, at the turn of the ХIХ – ХХ centuries, the ideas of a holistic approach to the study of nature were increasingly penetrating into science, and in our time have evolved into a systematic method of studying it. The results of this approach immediately affected the study of common problems of the impact of biotic, or living, factors on abiotic or physical conditions. It turned out, for example, that the composition of seawater is determined largely by the activity of marine organisms. Plants, living on sandy soil, significantly change its structure. 45

Living organisms control even the composition of our atmosphere. The number of such examples is easy to increase, and all of them indicate a feedback between animate and inanimate nature, as a result of which living matter significantly changes the face of our Earth. Thus, the biosphere cannot be considered in isolation from the inanimate nature, on which it depends, on the one hand, and on the other hand it itself affects it. Therefore, there is a task for scientists – to investigate specifically how and in what measure live substance influences the physical, chemical, and geological processes occurring on the Earth's surface and in crust. Only such an approach can give a clear and profound understanding of the concept of the biosphere. Outstanding Russian scientist Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945) set this task. Evolution of the biosphere The modern biosphere was formed as a result of long evolution under the influence of a combination of space, geophysical and geochemical factors. The Sun was the initial source of all processes proceeding on Earth, but the leading role in formation and the subsequent development of the biosphere was played by photosynthesis. The biological basis of the biosphere genesis is connected with the emergence of the organisms capable to use an external energy source, in this case – the energy of the Sun – for the formation of the organic substances necessary for life from the simplest compounds. Evolution of the biosphere should be considered as a coevolution (joint, interfaced) of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The most important engine of evolution is a continuous, cyclically reproduced contradiction between the boundless capacity for reproduction, organized by the flows of solar energy and the limited material resources. The evolution of the biosphere consists of a prebiotic phase, during which chemical evolution prepared the emergence of life and biological evolution. According to the prevailing ideas (Calvin, 1971, Kashmilov 1979, Grant 1980), the sequence of the main stages is as follows: 46

 Prebiological Evolution 1. The formation of the planet and its atmosphere (about 4.5 billion years ago) 2. The appearance of abiotic circulation of substances in the atmosphere due to its gradual cooling. Liquid water appears, hydrosphere is formed, the water cycle, water migration of elements and multiphase chemical reactions in solutions occur. Due to the phenomenon of autocatalysis, the selection and growth of molecules takes place. 3. Organic substances formation from simple compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen in the condensation and polymerization processes. 4. The appearance of the cycle of organic compounds of carbon, including reactions of accumulation of solar energy and redox reactions – the embryo of the biotic cycle of the ecosphere. Further complication of organic substances and the emergence of stable complexes of macromolecules, the emergence of molecular systems of selfreproduction.  Biotic evolution 1. The emergence of life (about 3.5 billion years ago), structuring of proteins and nucleic acids involving bio membranes. At this stage, a biotic cycle arises and ecosphere functions are formed. 2. Development of photosynthesis and changes in the composition of the environment. The appearance of multicellular organisms leads to further complication of the biotic cycle. 3. Increase in biological diversity and complexity of structure and functional organization. Organisms occupied all ecological niches. 4. The emergence of man – the leader of evolution. The emergence and development of human society, involvement in the techno genesis of disproportionately large flows of matter and energy disrupts the closure of the biotic cycle, causes anthropogenic ecological crises and becomes a negative factor in the evolution of the ecosphere.

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The Vernadsky's doctrine about the biosphere and a noosphere The developed theory of the biosphere belongs to Vernadsky. In the lectures delivered in 1924 in Sorbonne (France), he stated the fundamentals of the theory of biosphere. The biosphere, according to Vernadsky's doctrine, is a complete unity, planetary system where all elements are interconnected and interact. In this system, the central role is played by live substance, as all structural parts of the biosphere due to the previous or current activity of live organisms are genetically connected. The physical and chemical environment surrounding live substance changes owing to it functioning to such an extent that biotic and abiotic processes become inseparable. As a result of their interference, live organisms transform the environment of their dwelling or support it in such state, which meets the conditions of their existence. According to Vernadsky, the biosphere substance consists of: Living matter – biomass of living organisms. The mass of living matter is relatively small; this film of life (in the words of Vernadsky) is less than 10-6 of the mass of the other shells of the Earth. In nature, the rule of maximum pressure of life acts. This means that the total amount of living matter of all organisms of the planet changes relatively little within the limits of large time intervals. V.I. Vernadsky formulated this pattern. – Biogenic substance – all forms of detritus, peat, coal, oil and gas; – Bioinert substance – a mixture of biogenic substances with mineral rocks (soils, or natural waters, bitum); – Mineral substance – rocks, minerals, sedimentary rocks; – Radioactive, dispersed atoms and substances of cosmic origin. Therefore, a significant increase in the number and mass of any organisms on a global scale occurs only at the expense of the decrease in the number and mass of other organisms. The amount of living matter in the biosphere (for a certain geological period) is constant. V.I. Vernadsky formulated this law, which he called the law of constancy. In accordance with it, any change in the amount of living matter in one of the regions of the 48

biosphere will inevitably lead to the same change in matter in another region, only with the opposite sign. The consequence of this law is the rule of mandatory filling of ecological niches. Extremely important value in Vernadsky's works belongs to ideas of the role of human in the evolution of the nature of the Earth; these views later became the doctrine about the noosphere – the sphere of reason – a human cover of Earth. Vernadsky noted that the biosphere, which arose as a result of natural evolution and existed for more than one billion years, gradually turns into a noosphere («noos» – intelligence) – «intelligence shell». The doctrine of the biosphere allows us to work out a set of environmental and economic measures that increase biological productivity and allow avoiding environmental catastrophes. In this case, the 4-component system of the biosphere (mineral, liquid, gaseous and living components) should be supplemented with a new, the 5 – component system – the man with his inexhaustible intelligence. One of the key ideas underlying Vernadsky's theory of the noosphere is that man coexists with nature and is a part of it. This unity is caused primarily by the functional continuity of the environment and man. Humanity in itself is a natural phenomenon and it is natural that the influence of the biosphere affects not only the environment of life, but also the image of thought. (V) General subjective types of questions 1. What is the structure of the biosphere? 2. How do you understand the co-evolution of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere? 3. Explain the main properties of the biosphere. 4. Name the main trends in the evolution of the biosphere. 5. Describe the main biogenic elements. 6. What is the biosphere resource? 7. What is the meaning of the maximum life pressure rule? 8. Who of biologists was the first to point to a huge role of living organisms in the formation of the earth's crust? 9. What does the biosphere matter consist of? 10. Explain the structure of the Earth's atmosphere.

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Chapter 6 THE CONCEPT OF LIVING SUBSTANCE 1. 2. 3. 4.

The concept and functions of living matter in the biosphere. Distribution of living matter in the biosphere. Man in terms of the laws of evolution. Ecological niches of man Coevolutionary character of society and nature changes at the present stage of the biosphere development

The concept and functions of living matter in the biosphere The modern biosphere, in which the combined activity of living organisms and human is manifested as a geochemical factor of the planetary scale, was developed in the works of the famous Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky. One of the central points in the concept of the biosphere is the doctrine of living matter. Investigating the migration of atoms in the biosphere, V.I. Vernadsky considered the issue of the genesis (origin, occurrence) of chemical elements in the earth's crust, and touched upon the need to explain the stability of the compounds forming the organisms. The mass of living matter is only 0.01% of the mass of the entire biosphere. Nevertheless, the living matter of the biosphere is its main component. Living matter provides a biogeochemical cycle of substances and the transformation of energy in the biosphere. The following basic geochemical functions of living matter are distinguished: 1. Energetic function (biochemical) – binding and storage of solar energy in organic matter and the subsequent dissipation of energy when consuming and mineralizing organic matter. This function is related to nutrition, respiration, reproduction and other processes of vital activity of organisms. What are the characteristic features of a living substance? First, it is a huge free energy. In the course of evolution of species, the biogenic migration of atoms, i.e., the energy of the living matter of biosphere has increased many times and it continues growing, because the living matter 50

processes the energy of solar radiation, the atomic energy of radioactive decay and the cosmic energy of the scattered elements coming from our Galaxy. Living matter also has a high rate of chemical reactions in comparison with non-living matter, where similar processes go thousands and millions of times slower. For example, some caterpillars can process per day the amount of food 200 times larger than they weigh themselves, and one titmouse eats as many caterpillars per day as it weighs itself. For living matter, it is characteristic that the chemical compounds that make it up, the main ones being proteins, are stable only in living organisms. After the completion of the process of vital activity, the living organics decompose to chemical constituents. Living matter exists on the planet in the form of continuous alternation of generations, due to which, the newly formed substance is genetically related to the living substance of the past epochs. This is the main structural unit of the biosphere, which determines all other processes of the surface of the earth's crust. 2. Gas function is the ability of living organisms to change and maintain a certain gas composition of the environment and the atmosphere as a whole. With the gas function, two critical periods (points) are associated in the development of the biosphere. The first of these dates back to the time when the oxygen content in the atmosphere reached about 1% of the current level. This caused the appearance of the first aerobic organisms (able to live only in the environment containing oxygen). From this time, the regenerative processes in the biosphere began to be supplemented by oxidative processes. This happened about 1.2 billion years ago. The second critical period is associated with the time when the oxygen con-centration reached about 10% of the current one. This created conditions for the synthesis of ozone and the formation of the ozone layer in the upper strata of the atmosphere, that led to the possibility of terrestrial organisms development (before that, the function of organism protection from harmful cosmic radiations was fulfilled by water). 3. Concentration function – the «capture» from the environment of biogenic chemical elements by living organisms and the accumulation of atoms in them. Concentration ability of living matter increases the content of atoms of chemical elements in the organisms 51

in comparison with that in the environment by several orders of magnitude. Carbon content in plants is 200 times, and nitrogen is 30 times higher than the corresponding levels in the earth's crust. The content of manganese in some bacteria can be millions of times greater than that in the environment. The result of the concentration activity of living matter is the formation of deposits of minerals, limestones, ore deposits, etc. 4. Oxidation-reduction function – this is oxidation and reduction of various substances with the participation of living organisms. Under the effect of living organisms, there is an intensive migration of atoms of the elements with variable valence (Fe, Mn, S, P, N, etc.), new compounds are formed, deposits of sulfides and mineral sulfur, formation of hydrogen sulphide, etc. occur. 5. Destructive function is the destruction by the organisms and products of their vital activity, including postmortal ones as the remains of organic matter, and mineral substances. Decomposers (destructors) – saprotrophic fungi and bacteria, perform the most significant role in this process. 6. Transport function is the transfer of matter and energy as a result of active form of organisms motion. Such transfer can be carried out on huge distances, for example, at migrations and movements of animals. The concentration role of communities of organisms, for example, in places of their congestion (seashore colonies of birds and other colonial settlements) is considerably connected with the transport function. 7. Environmental-forming function is the transformation of physical and chemical parameters of the environment. This function is considerably integrated – it represents the result of joint action of other functions. It has different scales of manifestation. Both biosphere and soil as one of the habitats, and more local structures are the result of environment forming function. 8. Disseminating function is the function opposite concentration – it is the dispersion of substances in the environment. It has been shown through trophic and transport activity of organisms. For example, dispersion of substance in the elimination of excrements by the organisms, change of external covers, etc. The level of hemoglobin in blood is dissipated by blood-sucking insects. 9. Information function is the accumulation of certain information by living organisms, fixing it in hereditary structures and trans52

ferring it to subsequent generations. This is one of the manifestations of adaptation mechanisms. The presence of an evolutionary process is characteristic of living matter. The genetic information of any organism is encrypted in each of its cells. 10. Biogeochemical activity of human is the transformation and transfer of biosphere substances as a result of human activity for the economic and domestic needs, e.g., the use of carbon concentrators – oil, coal, gas, etc. Thus, the modern biosphere is a complex dynamic system that captures, accumulates and transfers energy through the exchange of substances between living matter and the environment. Distribution of living matter in the biosphere The most important property of live substance is reproduction capability and distribution on the planet. Live substance is spread in the biosphere unevenly: the areas that are densely occupied by organisms alternate with less populated territories. The highest concentration of life in the biosphere is observed on the borders of contact of terrestrial covers: the atmosphere and lithosphere (land surface), the atmosphere and hydrosphere (the surface of the ocean), hydrosphere and lithosphere (ocean bottom), and especially on border of three covers – the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere (coastal zones). Vernadsky called these places of the highest concentration of life «life films». Up and down from these surfaces the concentration of live matter decreases. At present, according to the species composition, animals (over 2.0 million species) predominate over plants (0.5 million) on the Earth. Nevertheless, phytomass reserves account for 99% of the living biomass of the Earth. The biomass of land is 1000 times greater than the biomass of the ocean. On land, biomass and the number of species of organisms as a whole increase from the poles to the equator. An important feature of the biosphere is its interconnection with other geospheres of the Earth. 53

The main mass of living matter, the presence of which distinguishes the biosphere from other geospheres, is concentrated in a relatively small layer of the biosphere, located in the range of 23 km deep into the land and 1-2 km below the ocean bottom. Man in terms of the evolution laws. Ecological niches of man The impact of the humankind on geochemical processes differs from that of other living beings, firstly, by its intensity, increasing with the course of geological time; secondly, the impact that the activities of people exert on other living organisms. This impact affects, above all, the creation of numerous new species of cultivated plants and domestic animals. Such species did not exist before and without the help of man would either die or turn into wild breeds. Therefore, Vernadsky considers the geochemical work of living matter as the inextricable connection of the animal, plant kingdom and cultural humanity as a single whole. The place of the human in the system of the nature is defined first of all by the fact that the human in view of considerable alienation from other wildlife, due to the big number and huge above biological consumption became the main cause of infringement of balance in the nature. By consideration of the human relationship and the nature, it is not enough to state only quantitative expansion and scales of anthropogenic impacts, it is necessary to understand why the humankind has appeared, to what it conducts and what exit from it can be found. Evolution of the human had a number of features important for understanding his biology and ecology. 1. Apelike ancestors of the human had no far-reaching morphological, physiological and ecological specialization that provides the increased adaptability in evolution. 2. Evolution of the human confirms the rule of acceleration of evolution, human is the youngest species of large animals on Earth. 3. A high adaptability, lack of complete set of conservative instincts have caused an extraordinary development of the highest forms of behavior and intelligence in the ancestors of the human. 54

4. The final stages of anthropogenesis are marked by the emergence of culture – tools, material values, speech and sign information transfer and training based on imitation of alarm memory. Culture becomes the dominating factor of evolution of the human, emergence of society and a civilization weakening the pressure of natural selection. 5. The rates of social progress and development of material culture not only advance biological evolution of the human, but also slow it down. Unlike ecological niches of animals, ecological human niches constantly changed, increasing along with the stages of the historical development of humankind. Early archanthropines occupied a niche of gatherers. The beginning of the use of fire and increased consumption of animal-source food has expanded the ecological niches to the niche of primitive hunters and fishermen. Transition to agriculture, settled life, creation of constant settlements and division of labor were caused by the emergence of steady material culture – emergence of civilization. The spread of agriculture was followed by the development of cattle breeding and economy, and the development of nomadic cattle breeding. It led to the development of considerable territories of subtropics and a moderate belt and to the increase in the number of people. It territorially determined ecological niches of large populations of people, there were conditions for the development of crafts, trade and concentration of people in the cities. The use of machines made it possible to significantly increase the yield of agricultural production, to develop new territories. By the end of the twentieth century, the average energy consumption per inhabitant of the planet was 25 times greater than his need for food energy. The main part of humankind is characterized by a steady increase in energy density per unit area. These trends correspond to the law of maximization of energy and information, which largely determines the evolution of biosystems. Coevolutionary character of the society and nature development at the present stage of the biosphere development The conditions of human survival require a more active development and the implementation of a single global strategy for safe 55

social development, guaranteeing the transition to a society where the interests of the economy, politics and social life will be purposefully coordinated with the potential of nature. This can be considered as the discovery of our time and the main reason for the development of the society and nature co-evolution strategy. The concept of co-evolution in its modern form is more a rational idea than a model for the future of social development. It has become an alternative to the contradictory processes taking place in society, when economic, political, intellectual inequality between individuals, social groups, regions and countries, between individual states has reached its culmination. There is a question of fundamental change of reference points, in the development of society that is caused by social, economic and ecological changes and is aimed at finding new alternative models and ideals of the future. People are united in communities. The composition of these communities also includes the surrounding plants and animals, which are a source of food and other necessary materials for people. Consequently, taking into account abiotic factors, the ecological system in which human functions is composed of communities of people and their habitat. Ecological systems in which man occupies an important place are extremely diverse in size, content and organization, which makes the classification of these systems extremely difficult. Nevertheless, the centers are villages, cities and other settlements in these ecological systems. All elements of ecological systems form a single set that is determined by the fact that they are united among themselves by so-called food chains. By food chains we imply the transfer of energy from the organisms feeding from the energy source (the Sun) through the consuming organisms (through a number of chains to the final link – a man) to the organisms-destroyers. (VI) General subjective types of questions 1. Explain the modern biosphere. 2. Name the boundaries of the biosphere. 3. Explain the functions of living matter in the biosphere. 4. Define the evidence that shows the youth of humankind as a biological species. 5. What is photosynthesis?

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6. What is the biotic cycle? 7. Define the name of the process of synthesis of organic compounds from inorganic ones due to the energy of light. 8. How do you understand the co-evolution of society and nature? 9. Describe the features of the human’s ecological niches. 10. What is man in terms of the laws of evolution?

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Chapter 7 GLOBAL BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES 1. 2. 3. 4.

Biogeochemical processes in the biosphere The water cycle The cycle of biogenic elements and their anthropogenic modification Energy flows in the biosphere. Energy exchange. Environmental consequences of using traditional energy sources

Biogeochemical processes in the biosphere The flow of the solar energy forms the global physical cycles of air and water on Earth. The motion of air masses, in addition to mechanical effects, causes an aerogenic migration of substances, primarily water vapor and dust particles, aerosols of different composition. The most common chemical compound on the surface of the Earth is water. The overwhelming majority of living organisms need fresh water, the reserves of which constitute only 3% of the total water reserve on the planet. The water content in actively functioning cells and tissues ranges from 70 to 98%. The global water cycle is the most significant cycle in terms of the mass carried and expenditure of energy on Earth. In a year, only 0.04% of the mass of the hydrosphere is involved in water cycle, but this corresponds to 18.3 million m3 of water per second and more than 40 Megawatt of Solar energy. The duration of a large water cycle is about 2 million years. In this large water cycle living organisms, ecosystems play an appreciable role. Plants intercept some part of precipitation and contribute to evaporation of moisture before it enters the soil. Plant roots absorb soil moisture and it participates in the metabolism of the plants and then evaporates from the leaves (transpiration). Transpiration is a total evaporation. In addition to the physical cycles of water and air, physicochemical cycles of many chemical elements and their compounds are also involved in this process. 58

Water cycle The main source of water supply is atmospheric precipitation, and the main source of its loss is evaporation. The duration of the cycle is as follows: the ocean (3000 years), groundwater (5000 years), polar glaciers (8500 years), lakes (17 years), rivers (10 days), and water in living organisms – several hours. The oceans occupy 70% of the Earth's surface; water enters the air, mainly by evaporating from the surface of the ocean. During evaporation, only water molecules rise into the air, while salts and other substances remain on the ground. When water vapor condenses, water is formed from it, the earth and the atmosphere work as a giant desalter and purifier. Evaporation also occurs from the surface of lakes, rivers, soils, etc. When the air, which is saturated with water vapor as much as possible, is cooled, the water condenses: its molecules merge into droplets. The amount of water vapor in the air is determined as moisture, usually in percentage (%). In the atmosphere, water condenses on dust particles, results in fog and clouds. When these drops or ice crystals become large enough, it rains or snows. Water gets to the ground, is absorbed into the soil, or flows down it. On the surface, water drains into streams, rivers, further into the ocean, where evaporation occurs. Water absorbed into the soil, or retained in the soil in an amount that depends on the water-holding capacity of the soil, returns to the atmosphere in the process of evaporation, or seeps down the cracks by gravity, reaching an impenetrable layer of rock accumulates there. This water is called groundwater. Further, water flows to the surface and forms springs, and springs feed streams, etc. The cycle of biogenic elements and their anthropogenic modification The cycle of biogenic elements, caused by the synthesis and decomposition of organic substances in the ecosystem is call the biotic cycle. 59

In addition to biogenic elements, biota-important mineral elements and many different compounds for biota are involved in the biotic cycle. In general, the entire cyclic process of chemical transformations, caused by the biota, is called the biogeochemical cycle. Human interference disturbs the processes of circulation, for example, deforestation and burning of fuel affects the carbon cycle. Oxygen on Earth is the first element in its abundance: its content (in percentage) in the atmosphere is 21, in the biosphere (in dry organics) – 44.8, in the lithosphere – 47.2, in the hydrosphere – 86.9. However, aquatic organisms need oxygen dissolved in water. Its average content in the upper layer of the hydrosphere is 4.5 mg/l and it undergoes considerable fluctuations. The oxygen content in the atmosphere is 288 mg/m3 and over a long geological era, it remains constant. For most organisms, oxygen has a great physiological significance. The constant concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is 21 %, its decrease by 2-3% does not have a noticeable physiological effect, but a significant deficit leads to a physiological disturbance and switches on acclimatization mechanism. The formation of ozone is closely connected with the oxygen cycle. In the high layers of the atmosphere, under the influence of the hard ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum, some oxygen molecules are ionized and dissociated, atomic oxygen is formed, which immediately joins the excited oxygen molecules forming ozone – triatomic oxygen. Ozone absorbs a significant part of the hard ultraviolet rays and plays a protective role for the entire ecosphere. This is one of the most critical circumstances of the current environmental situation, since the formation and content of ozone in the atmosphere is uneven, there are areas of significant ozone screen weakening, the so-called ozone holes. The chemical element «carbon» determines a complex mechanism of evolution on the Earth. Carbon is an integral part of rocks and in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2); it is a part of atmospheric air. The carbon dioxide sources are volcanoes, respiration, forest fires, fuel combustion, industry, etc. The atmosphere is intensely exchanging CO2 with the World Ocean, where it is 60 times larger than in the atmosphere, because CO2 is readily soluble in water (the lower 60

the temperature, the higher the solubility; CO2 is greater in low latitudes). The ocean acts like a giant pump: it absorbs CO2 in cold regions and partially blows out in the tropics. The excess amount of CO2 in the ocean combines with water, forming carbonic acid. Connecting with Ca, K, Na, forms stable compounds in the form of carbonates, which settle on the bottom. Phytoplankton in the ocean absorbs CO in the process of photosynthesis. Dying, the organisms become part of the sedimentary rocks. This shows the interaction of a large and small circulation of substances. Atom C from the molecule of CO2 in the course of photosynthesis is included in the composition of glucose, and then in the composition of more complex compounds, of which plants are built. Later they are transported along food chains, form the tissues of all other living organisms in the ecosystem, and return to the environment as part of CO2. In addition, carbon is present in oil and coal. Burning fuel, the human also completes the cycle of carbon contained in fuel – so there is a biological carbon cycle. The remaining mass of carbon is found in carbonate sediments of the ocean bottom (1.3-1016 tons), in crystalline rocks (1-1016 tons), in coal and oil (3.4-1016 tons). This carbon takes part in the ecological cycle. Life on Earth and gas balance of the atmosphere is supported by a relatively small amount of carbon (5-1012 tons). Nitrogen is the part of the structure of all proteins and nucleic acids and at the same time is the most limiting substance from biogenic elements. The colossal amount of free nitrogen in the atmosphere is only negligible affected by the biotic cycle. Nitrogen is a part of proteins. Circulation of nitrogen is somewhat complicated, because it includes a gaseous and a mineral phase. The main part of nitrogen is found in the air (78%). However, plants cannot assimilate nitrogen directly from the atmosphere, but only in the form of NH4+ and NO3- ions. There are bacteria and bluegreen algae that can turn gaseous nitrogen into ions. Bacteria living on the nodules of leguminous plants play the most important role among nitrogen-fixing organisms. Plants provide bacteria with habitat and food (sugars), getting from them an accessible form of nitrogen in return. Via food chains, organic nitrogen is transferred from beans to other organisms of the ecosystem. Organic nitrogen compounds after the death of organisms with the help of bacteria are 61

decomposed to ammonia and nitrates (NO3). Nitrates are partially reabsorbed by the plants, partially restored to N2, once again entering the atmosphere. Almost 80% of the global cycle of nitrogen is provided by the bacterial cycle. Phosphorus also refers to limiting elements. It is a part of the vital compounds of the cellular structures of all organisms. In soil, phosphorus is found in the form of acid calcium orthophosphates, as well as complex compounds with other metals. Plants that absorb phosphates from the soil are included in the biotic cycle that is mediated by all groups of organisms. The organisms known as decomposers- mineralizers, closing the cycle and returning phosphorus to the soil, play an important role. This element is a part of genes and molecules that transport energy within cells to bone tissue. In various minerals, phosphorus is contained in the form of PO43- ions. Phosphates are soluble in water, but not volatile. Plants absorb PO43- ions from an aqueous solution and are included in various organic compounds. By food chains, phosphorus passes from plants to other organisms. At each stage, phosphorus can be removed from the body with the urine. The difference from the carbon cycle is that there is a gaseous phase (CO2) in the carbon cycle and there is no gas phase in the phosphorus cycle. Phosphates circulate in the ecosystem only if phosphorus-containing biowaste is deposited at the site of absorption of this element. In natural ecosystems, this is what happens. Phosphorus can also enter with detergents and fertilizers. Phosphorus is considered the weakest link in the biotic cycle; the phosphorus cycle is open because a significant part of the continental runoff of phosphorus falls into deep oceanic sediments and is turned off from the cycle. This open loop is enhanced by anthropogenic interference. Approximately the same relationships are observed in the global sulfur cycle. The demand of biota for sulfur is relatively low, and the natural sulfur reservoirs are huge. The biotic cycle of sulfur is included in the general, largely abiogenic process of a gradual conversion of reduced forms of sulfur (mainly sulphide ores) into oxidized forms. The biotic cycle of biogenic cations K+, Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+ and microelements on land is limited by their consumption from the soil, subsequent migration by trophic chains and return to the soil by mineralizing decomposers. 62

Flows of energy in the biosphere. Energy exchange Global processes of formation and movement of living matter in the biosphere are connected and accompanied by the cycle of matter and energy. Unlike purely geological processes, biogeochemical cycles involving living matter have a much higher intensity, speed and quantity of matter involved in the circulation. With the emergence and development of humankind, the process of evolution has noticeably changed. In the early stages of civilization, deforestation and burning of forests for agriculture, grazing and hunting for wild animals, wars devastated entire regions, led to the destruction of plant communities, the disappearance of certain species of animals. As civilization developed, especially after the industrial revolution of the end of the Middle Ages, humankind was gaining more and more energy, an ever-increasing ability to involve and use huge masses of matter – both organic, living, and mineral, inert – to meet its growing needs. The real shifts in the biosphere processes began in the 20th century because of another industrial revolution. The rapid development of energy, engineering, chemistry, transport, has led to the fact that human activity has become comparable in scale to the natural energy and material processes occurring in the biosphere. The intensity of energy and material resources consumption by humankind grows in proportion to the population and even outstrips its growth. V.I. Vernadsky wrote, «Man becomes a geological force capable of changing the Earth face». This warning was prophetically justified. The consequences of anthropogenic (human-induced) activities are manifested in the depletion of natural resources, pollution of the biosphere with production waste, destruction of natural ecosystems, changes in the structure of the Earth's surface, and climate changes. Anthropogenic impacts lead to a disruption of almost all natural biogeochemical cycles. Environmental consequences of using traditional energy sources The traditional sources include, firstly: thermal, nuclear power and water flow energy. 63

Thermal power plant (TPP) is a power plant that generates electricity as a result of conversion of thermal energy released in the process of burning fossil fuels. The first TPPs appeared at the end of the 19th century and gained a predominant distribution. In the middle 1970s, TPPs were the main type of power plants. The share of electricity they produced was over 80% in Russia and the United States (1975), in the whole world – about 76% (1973). Hydroelectric power plant (HPP) is a complex of facilities and equipment, through which the energy of the water flow is converted into electrical energy. The hydropower plant consists of a series of hydraulic structures that provide the necessary concentration of water flow and the required pressure, and energy equipment that converts energy that transforms under the pressure of water into mechanical energy of rotation, which, in turn, is converted into electrical energy. The nuclear power plant (NPP) is a power plant in which atomic (nuclear) energy is converted into electrical energy. The nuclear power plant is an atomic reactor. The heat that is released in the reactor as a result of the chain reaction of nuclear fission of some heavy elements, then in the same way, as in conventional TPPs, is converted into electricity. Unlike TPPs operating on fossil fuels, the NPP operates on nuclear fuel (233U, 235U, 239Pu). It is established that the world energy resources of nuclear fuel (uranium, plutonium, etc.) significantly exceed the energy resources of natural reserves of organic fuel (oil, coal, natural gas, etc.). This opens up broad prospects for meeting a rapidly growing demand for fuel. Significant drawbacks of nuclear power plants under normal operating conditions have practically no effect. However, one cannot fail to notice the danger of nuclear power plants under possible force majeure circumstances: earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. – in this case old models of power units represent a potential danger of radiation contamination of territories due to uncontrolled overheating of the reactor. Non-traditional renewable sources of energy (NRSE) – these include wind, solar, geothermal energy, biofuel and the energy of the Oceans. The main advantage of renewable energy sources is their inexhaustibility and environmental friendliness. Their use does not change the energy balance of the planet. However, these energy sources also have negative properties. This is a low flux density 64

(specific power) and the variability in time of most NRSE. The first circumstance makes it necessary to create large areas of power plants that intercept the flow of energy used (the receiving surfaces of solar installations, the area of the wind wheel, the long dams of tidal power plants, etc.). This leads to a large material intensity of such devices, and, consequently, to an increase in specific investments in comparison with traditional power installations. Nevertheless, an increased capital investment subsequently pays off due to low operating costs. For example, a normal solar battery does not need repair a few dozen (!) years. These qualities also have caused the rapid development of renewable energy in the whole world and very optimistic forecasts of their development in the next decades. (VII) General subjective types of questions 1. What restrictions does environment impose on human use of land, water and biological resources of the planet? 2. Define the anti-environmental use of non-renewable fuel and mineral resources. 3. What does environmental damage mean? 4. Is ozone useful or harmful to living beings? Discuss the threat of its depletion in atmosphere. 5. How does the light affect distribution and growth of plants? Explain with examples. 6. What does biotic cycle mean? Explain with examples. 7. Describe water cycle. 8. Explain carbon cycle. 9. Why the global cycle of nitrogen is known as a bacterial cycle? 10. Describe the future of non-renewable sources of energy.

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Chapter 8 ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS AS A GEOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL FACTOR OF THE BIOSPHERE EVOLUTION 1. 2. 3. 4.

Withdrawal of natural resources. The origins of the environmental crisis Contamination of the environment Environmental crisis, at the global, regional and local levels The impact of harmful and dangerous factors of production and environment on human health

Withdrawal of natural resources. The origins of the environmental crisis Since nature is the basis of human life, its exhaustion and degradation under existing economic relations adversely affects social relations, the growth of poverty and the structures of production and consumption. On the other hand, it turned out that many renewable natural products do not have the proper value, which is the source of their exhaustion and degradation. The satisfaction of human needs is inconceivable without the exploitation of natural resources. Any production, in fact, is based on their use. Humanity consumes minerals, coal, oil and timber, transforming natural capital into economic one (industrial production, buildings, transport, goods and services). At the same time, natural systems are destroyed and polluted, and if this damage exceeds their ability to recover – we begin to take credit from nature to the account of future generations who will also need this natural capital. The growth model used by developing countries in the 1950s and 1960s of the last century was focused on achieving economic efficiency. It was believed that only the effectiveness of the economic system is able to pave the way to universal prosperity and end inequality both within a single country and on a global scale. However, it has been repeatedly pointed out that the economic system of industrially 66

developed countries is extremely inefficient, based on disproportionately high use of natural resources. By the early 70's in the twentieth century, the increasing number of poor people in developing countries and the lack of economic development benefits led to an increase in the number of attempts to directly correct the distribution of income. The development paradigm shifted towards a balanced growth, which explicitly took into account social goals and attached them the same importance as economic efficiency. The destruction of the biosphere increases from local to large regional dimensions with the development of industry accompanied by an increase in the population and the growth of large cities. The increased intensity and scale of human activity leads to a violation of the ecological balance. It became obvious: the only thing that can fix the situation is concrete actions, undertaken on a large scale and coordinated at the world level. In the 70s of the 20th century, when environmental problems sharply escalated throughout the world, economic science faced with the task of comprehending the current trends in environmental and economic development and creating fundamentally new concepts of development. One of the main tasks of development was the protecttion of the environment. By the early 80's of the last century, a large amount of information evidencing that environmental degradation is a serious barrier to economic development had been accumulated. It was pointed out that disregard for environmental problems cannot be justified by the need to solve other seemingly more urgent tasks. Excessive consumption of natural resources leads to imbalance in the environment. Economic activity of humankind during the last century has led to serious pollution of our planet with a variety of production wastes. The air pool, water and soil in the areas of large industrial centers often contain toxic substances whose concentration exceeds the maximum permissible concentration (MPC). Since the cases of a significant excess of the MPC are quite frequent and the incidence of environmental pollution has increased, in the last decades specialists and the media, and then the population began to use the term – environmental crisis (EC). 67

The EC is the current state of the relationship between human society and the environment in which a human lives. There are the contradictions between the economic interests of the society in the consumption and use of the environment and the environmental requirements for ensuring the preservation, the quality of this environment for the survival of the society. One of the reasons for the tension in the interactions between society and nature is the consumer attitude towards nature that has taken root in the minds of people. From the moment of appearance on Earth, a human has become accustomed to continuously taking from nature its resources. It was not one millennium that he cut down forests, hunted animals, caught fish, and used the fertility of soils created by nature. Until relatively recently, nature could itself restore the equilibrium disturbed in ecosystems, and this gave rise to a false belief of the human about the immensity of natural resources, about the possibility of taking them from nature, not returning anything to it. Thus, uncontrolled economic growth and consumption of natural resources exacerbated the EC. In the structure of EC, there are two sides – natural and social. The natural side of the EC combines the signs of degradation, destruction of the natural environment (for more details, see the next section): − Global warming of the climate, greenhouse effect; − General weakening of the Earth's ozone layer; the appearance of ozone holes; − Atmospheric pollution, the formation of acid rains, photochemical reactions with the formation of ozone; − Pollution of the world oceans, disposal of highly toxic and radioactive wastes, pollution with oil, oil products, pesticides, surfactants, heavy metals, thermal pollution; − Pollution and depletion of surface water, imbalance between surface and groundwater; − Surface contamination with the entire complex of pollutants: solid waste, heavy and radioactive elements, change in geochemistry of land and groundwater; − Reduction of forest areas as a result of fires, industrial felling, losses of already harvested wood, acid rains, illegal cutting, harmful insects and diseases, industrial emissions (including nuclear accidents); 68

− Degradation of soils, desertification as a result of deforestation, irrational land use, droughts, overgrazing, irrational irrigation (bogging, salinization); − Destruction of environmental balance at global and regional scales, general overpopulation of the planet and high population density in different regions, deterioration of quality of life in cities. The social side of EC is manifested in the following social phenomena: − Ineffectiveness of the work of special bodies for the environmental protection, ineffective protection and use of forests, fish resources, wildlife, subsoil; − Confrontation of representative and executive authorities, local self-government, which exacerbates the inefficiency of work; − Failure to comply with legislation and unfair enforcement of orders by business enterprises; − The inability of law enforcement agencies to ensure control and supervision over the implementation of laws on environmental protection; − Mass disrespect of environmental legal requirements, violation and non-fulfillment of these. Contamination of the environment The scale of anthropogenic impact on nature and environment in the twentieth century became too large and approached the limit of the biosphere stability. The vast majority of anthropogenic influences is the purposeful, i.e., carried out by man consciously in order to achieve the set goals. Anthropogenic impacts may be spontaneous, involuntary, having the nature of the consequences. Thus, anthropogenic transformation of landscapes and pollution often leads to the emergence of the increased environmental risk areas, disasters. Man was trapped between his essence and alienation from nature. Humanity of the twentieth century in the conditions of industrial society has acquired the features of consumption civilization, which leads to excessive human-made stress on nature and the environment. Environmental problems of humanity are closely linked to economic and social ones. 69

Well-known ecologist Barry Commoner (1917 – 2012) identified five main types of human interventions in environmental processes: − Simplification of ecosystems and the biotic gap emergence, − A sharp reduction in the area of undisturbed ecosystems, resulting in violation of the biosphere equilibrium; − Concentration of dispersed energy in the form of thermal pollution due to uncontrolled consumption and withdrawal of renewable and non-renewable natural resources; − Introduction of new species into the ecosystem; − Increase in the number of toxic wastes from chemical industries; − The emergence of genetic modifications of organisms of plants and animals. The main and most common type of negative human impact on the biosphere is environmental pollution – the penetration into the environment of any solid, liquid and gaseous substances, microorganisms or energies (in the form of sounds, noises, radiation) in quantities harmful to the normal state of ecosystems. Table 8.1 The types of pollution classifications By the origin:

Examples

1

2

Natural

− Pollution that occurs without human intervention or as a result of his distant indirect impact on nature; − Spontaneous, catastrophic natural processes: mudslides, volcanic eruptions, floods, fires.

Anthropogenic

− Pollution caused by human activity.

By the objects of pollution: Water Atmosphere Soil Landscape

Examples − Discharges: industrial wastewater, agricultural, household − Emissions: metals, oxides, soot, dioxins − Pesticides − Rivers, lakes, mountains, forests

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1

2

By the duration and scale of distribution

Examples

Temporary

− Accidental or sporadic emissions, spills

Permanent Local Regional Transboundary

− Due to functioning enterprises (transmission lines, TPP) − Due to a separate enterprise − Across the country − Pollution of the air basin, rivers, seas at the border of the countries. − Factors of global environmental problems (freons, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)) Examples

Global By the sources and types of pollutants Physical

− Pollution manifested in deviations from the norm of its temperature-energy, wave, radiation and other physical properties; − Thermal: emissions/discharges of heated gases and wastewater; − Lighting: artificial lighting in industrial centers, cities; − Noise: technical devices and transport (airfields, industrial objects.); − Radioactive (chemical): nuclear installations, nuclear tests, accidents.

Chemical

− Sources: industry, transport, agriculture.

Biological

− Introduction of uncharacteristic species of living organisms into ecosystems that affects human health and economic activity; − Random natural or more often associated with human activity introduction of alien organisms as a result of mechanical introduction of non-native species and creation of biotechnological products. Сhanges in the natural conditions of habitats as a result of physical, chemical impacts contribute to biological pollution; − Microbiological – mass reproduction of microorganisms.

Biotic

− Undesirable (from the point of view of human) excess of certain species or the emergence of new in the environment (soil, water, air); − Sources: washing of mineral and organic fertilizers into natural reservoirs, accumulation of sewage, dead organisms, and pesticides.

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1 Mechanical

2 − Pollution of the environment with physical and chemical inert household and industrial waste: construction and household waste, packaging materials). Soil and water bodies are the most affected; − Deterioration of aesthetic and recreational qualities of the environment; − Outer space debris growth (about 3,000 tons of debris).

Pollution objects are distinguished by pollution of surface and groundwater, air pollution, soil pollution, near-earth space, etc. (table.8.1). Pollutant is a substance or a mixture of substances that exceed the established standards and has a negative impact on the environment. In this case, the surface of the earth is experiencing the greatest load. Compare – 1 billion tons of garbage is released into the atmosphere, 15 billion tons – into the hydrosphere, 85 billion tons – into the earth. Each unit of production accounts for up to 10 units of garbage. The main sources of pollution are: – Solid and liquid waste from extracting, processing and chemical industries; – Consumption waste; – Agricultural waste; – Pesticides; – Accidental releases; – Atmospheric deposition of toxic substances. The most dangerous are those that penetrate into the water, plants, such as heavy metal compounds, derivatives of petroleum products. Among the types of pollution, it is possible to distinguish the following ones: chemical (such as emission of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides in urban areas), physical (heat, noise, radioactive elements) and biological contamination (bacteria, viruses). The scale and distribution of the pollution may be local, regional and global. The number of pollutants in the world is huge and it is constantly growing with the development of new technologies, but the heaviest burden falls on the following pollutants: sulfur dioxide,

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heavy metals, some carcinogens, in particular benzapyrene, petroleum products in the seas and oceans, organochlorine pesticides (in rural areas), radionuclides, dioxins, etc. Currently, the main contribution to the pollution of the atmosphere is made by the following sectors: TPP, enterprises of ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, oil production and petrochemistry, transport, production of construction materials. The most important environmental impacts of global atmospheric pollution include: − Ozone layer disturbance; − Acid rain precipitation; − Possible warming of the climate (greenhouse effect). The main types of hydrosphere pollution are chemical (oil and oil products, synthetic surfactants, pesticides, heavy metals, dioxins, etc.), bacterial (pathogenic microbes and viruses), physical (radioactive substances, heat, etc.). The main sources of surface and groundwater pollution include the discharge of untreated wastewater into reservoirs, toxic chemicals washing off by storm precipitation, gas-smoke emissions, oil and oil product leaks. The main environmental consequence of the hydrosphere pollution is anthropogenic eutrophication. It is a sharp increase in the phytoplankton biomass due to mass reproduction of blue-green algae causing algal blooms, worsening its quality and living conditions of hydro-bionts. Water depletion is an unacceptable reduction in water stocks within a certain area or a decrease in the minimum permissible flow (for surface waters). The main anthropogenic impacts on soils are as follows: Erosion (wind, water) – the destruction and demolition of the upper fertile horizons and underlying rocks by wind or water flows, pollution, secondary salinization and waterlogging, desertification, alienation of land for industrial and municipal construction. Desertification is a process of irreversible change in soil and vegetation and a decrease in biological productivity, which can lead to a complete destruction of the biosphere potential and transformation of the territory into a desert. In the presence of anthropogenic impact on rocks, there are static, dynamic, thermal, electrical effects. In addition, dangerous processes cause landslides, flooding, subsidence processes, etc. 73

Environmental crisis at the global, regional and local levels Environmental damage refers to a significant regional violation of environmental conditions, which seriously threatens the health, lives of people, and causes economic damage. The damage may be: – sudden, catastrophic, related to emergencies. Emergencies are divided into natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mudslides, etc.), man-made disasters (industrial and communication accidents, explosions, collapses, etc.) – extended in time, when the damage is a long, gradually fading consequence of an emergency, disaster. The greatest environmental danger is represented by man-made disasters, which are accompanied by the release of harmful chemical and radiation substances into the environment. The largest radiation accident in Chernobyl will remind the world of the nuclear threat for a long time. Even greater contamination with radionuclides occurred in 1957 in an accident at the production site «Mayak» (Chelyabinsk-65). The common feature of such cases: uncontrolled events that cause death and injury to a large number of people. There are no clear boundaries between some of natural and anthropogenic environmental problems. Thus, it is impossible to establish clearly the cause of the fire, landslides and floods that can be the result of a technical accident. The areas of the territory where due to economic or other activity a steady negative change in the environment is observed are designated as zones of environmental emergency (ZEEs). The areas of the territory where, as a result of economic or other activities, a profound irreversible changes in the environment occurred having caused a significant deterioration in the health of the population, disturbance of natural equilibrium, destruction of natural ecosystems, degradation of flora and fauna are declared the zones of environmental disaster (ZEDs).  The issue of climate change The problem of climate change is extremely urgent today. The thermophysical processes caused by the solar energy flow in the 74

atmosphere take the form of various climate changes. The ecological and climatic characteristics of the area include average annual values and seasonal temperature fluctuations, absolute lows and highs. Based on it, for any site determine the macroclimate, and plot charts – climograms. Individual landscapes are characterized by mesoclimate. Some habitats may have its own microclimate (microclimate of tree crowns, holes, spaces). Of all the climatic factors associated with the energy of the biosphere, the greatest environmental importance is temperature. The air temperature on Earth ranges from -88.3C to + 58.7C. The thermal equilibrium of the atmosphere is maintained with great precision and that of the hydrosphere – with even higher precision, the average temperature of the hydrosphere is 3.3C. The climate on our planet is changing, and changing quickly enough, no one scientist denies this fact. However, on the agenda there are fears are that human-induced warming has been added to natural climate change. In recent decades, the impact of humanity on climate change was the subject of an increasing number of discussions and talks. Climate change does not mean a simple rise in temperature. The established term «global climate change» refers to restructuring of all geosystems. Global warming is only one aspect of this change. Global warming is associated with the results of human activity – with increasing emissions of greenhouse gases, i.e. carbon dioxide and methane. TTPs, transport and urban facilities produce about one third of carbon dioxide emitted into the Earth's atmosphere. The main cause of global warming is considered the increase in the concentration of «greenhouse gases», that is, the gases that contribute to the delay of terrestrial radiation and thereby contribute to the accumulation of heat on Earth. These gases intercept infrared radiation, which is emitted by the earth's surface, thus creating a «greenhouse effect». The phenomenon of greenhouse effect allows maintainning the temperature on the Earth's surface, at which the occurrence and development of life is possible. If the greenhouse effect were absent, the average surface temperature of the globe would be much lower than it is now. 75

The anthropogenic origin of modern climatic changes, in particular, is confirmed by paleoclimatic studies based on the analysis of the content of greenhouse gases in air bubbles frozen into the ice. These studies show that there has been no such concentration of CO2 over the past 650,000 years (and that has more than one warming of our planet occurred over the years). Moreover, compared with the pre-industrial era (1750), the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by a third. Modern global concentrations of methane and nitrous oxide are significantly higher than pre-industrial values. One of the main greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide, which enters the atmosphere due to combustion processes. There are some other factors: a negative impact of deforestation, mining, etc. In recent decades, many predictions have been published on the devastating impact of global warming. Forecasts of climate change are made based on mathematical models that use different sources of information, in particular, such as: – Satellite data, over the past 40 years, – World temperature statistics, – Paleoclimatic data, which are obtained in archaeological and geological studies. Observations show the increase in the global sea level, melting of glaciers and permafrost, increased irregularity of precipitation, the change in the flow regime of rivers and other global changes associated with climate instability. The basic predictions are: – The increase in the number and duration of droughts and forest fires, – The increase in the number of powerful floods and hurricanes. Scientists' findings suggest that a continued climate change may lead to even more consequences that will be dangerous in the future, if humanity does not take appropriate preventive measures. The consequences of climate change are already being manifested, including the increase in the frequency and intensity of dangerous weather events and the spread of infectious diseases. These consequences cause significant economic damage, threaten the sustainable existence of ecosystems, and threaten human health and life. 76

According to the predictions of the International Council for Climate Change, the increase in world temperature by 1.5-2C will lead to the threat of disappearance of 30% of animals and plants. By 2050, more than 1 billion people may be affected by chronic drinking water shortages. Emissions of greenhouse gases are regulated by an international instrument – the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – the most authoritative international body bringing together thousands of scientists from 130 countries, presented its Fourth assessment report, which provides summary conclusions on the past and present climate changes and their impacts on nature and man and on possible measures to combat such changes. The Report States that, with a 90% probability, the observed climate change is associated with human activities. The Paris Climate Agreement (2015) provides for keeping the growth of the global average temperature «much lower» 2 °C and «make an effort» to limit the temperature rise to 1.5 °C.  The problem of the Earth’s ozone layer destruction Currently, the depletion of the ozone layer reaches about 50% of its original state. Extensive zones, where there is a decrease in ozone concentration in the upper atmosphere, are called ozone holes. Ozone holes are a phenomenon of low ozone concentration in the stratosphere, which is located in the upper atmosphere of the earth at the altitude of 10 to 50 km, where there is a layer of high ozone concentration, called the ozone sphere. The formation of an ozone hole is associated with human economic activity and its constant interference with the environment. Ozone holes are located mainly in the Polar Regions, such as Antarctica. In recent years, the appearance of ozone holes is also observed at the North Pole, over the Arctic, in the region of southern Argentina and Chile and periodically over the entire surface of the earth. According to annual measurements, ozone levels in these areas are reducing by about three per cent per year. In addition, the ozone layer of the Earth itself has thinned out. 77

Ozone is oxygen (О 2 ), which ionizes at the altitude of 10 to 50 kilometers under the effect of sunlight, acquiring another atom of oxygen, this process resulting in ozone (О 3 ). Ozone is a natural filter that protects the Earth from ultraviolet radiation and such compounds as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. Since CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) e.g., R-410A and R-134a. What does an ozone hole mean? The ozone hole is formed by decomposition of ozone to a normal diatomic oxygen molecule and by chlorine, which rises and reaches the upper layers of the atmosphere. Where does chlorine come from? Part of it comes from volcano gases, but more chlorine, which destroys the ozone layer, comes from the decomposition of freons, which are the components of most paints, cosmetics and aerosol products. Besides, such compounds are used for all types of cooling systems, they do not burn, are not chemically active in natural and climatic conditions, but high in the atmosphere they disintegrate under the effect of ultraviolet light and the substance that contains chlorine destroys the ozone layer. Destruction of the ozone layer is mainly due to the chemical activity of its molecules. Entering into such substances as chlorine, bromine, hydrogen, methane, they are included in the reaction causing ozone molecules to form other chemical compounds that leads to their losing the properties allowing solar radiation holding. Industry, household appliances and transport increase the atmospheric content of these substances, and ozone depletion goes faster than its recovery. For a human, this phenomenon threatens with an increase in skin cancers. However, while people can protect themselves against UV radiation, animal and plant life remains defenseless.  Formation of acid rains Acid precipitation (rain, fog, snow) is the precipitation, the acidity of which is higher than normal. The measure of acidity is the pH value. The pH scale ranges from 0-2 (extremely high acidity), 78

through 7 (neutral medium) to 14 (alkaline medium), with the neutral point (pure distilled water) at pH=7. Rainwater in a clean air is at the pH level = 5.6. The lower the pH value, the higher the acidity is. If the acidity of the water is below 5.5, the precipitation is considered acid. In large areas of industrialized countries precipitation exceeds the normal acidity 10 – 1000 times (pH= 5-2.5). Chemical analysis of acid precipitation shows the presence of sulfuric (H2SO4) and nitric (HNO3) acids. The presence of sulfur and nitrogen in these formulas shows that the problem is associated with the release of these elements into the atmosphere. The combustion of fuel results in the fact that in addition to sulphur dioxide the reaction of atmospheric nitrogen with atmospheric oxygen and oxides of nitrogen also takes place. These gaseous products (sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide) react with atmospheric water to form acids (nitric and sulfuric). See Fig. 8.1. In aquatic ecosystems, acid precipitation causes the death of fish and other aquatic life. Acidification of river and lake waters also has a serious impact on terrestrial animals, as many animals and birds are part of food chains beginning in aquatic ecosystems. Together with the loss of lakes, forest degradation becomes apparent. Acids break the protective wax cover of leaves, making plants more vulnerable to insects, fungi and other pathogens. During drought, more moisture evaporates through the damaged leaves. Leaching of biogenes from soil and the release of toxic elements contribute to the death of trees and slowing down their growth. We can assume that the same occurs with wild animals, when they inhabit the forest. If the forest ecosystem has been destroyed, soil erosion, clogging of water bodies, flooding and deterioration of water resources become catastrophic. As a result of acidification, nutrients vital to plants are dissolved in the soil, these substances are carried by rain into the groundwater. At the same time, heavy metals leached from the soil later are absorbed by plants that causes the latter serious damage. Using these plants as food, a human also gets a higher dose of heavy metals. 79

When the soil fauna degrades, yields decline, the quality of agricultural products deteriorates, all this, as we know, entails a deterioration in the health of the population. By the action of acids from the rocks and minerals aluminum, mercury and lead are released and these elements may get into both surface water and groundwater. Aluminum can cause Alzheimer's disease – a form of premature aging. Heavy metals, which are found in natural waters, negatively affect the kidneys, liver, central nervous system, causing various forms of cancer. Genetic consequences of heavy metal poisoning may occur in 20 years or more not only in those who consumed contaminated water, but also in their descendants. Acid rain can corrode metals, affect paints, synthetic compounds that may destroy architectural monuments. In the Figure 8.1, the formation of acid rain and its harmful effects are demonstrated.

Figure 8.1. Acid rain, its causes and harmful effects

The most typically acid rains are observed in industrial countries with highly developed energy industry. So, during a year a Russian TTP emits into the atmosphere about 18 million tons of sulfur dioxide, and in addition, due to the western air transport, sulfur compounds come from Ukraine and Western Europe. To combat acid rain, the efforts should be focused on reducing emissions of acid-forming substances of the coal-fired power plants, it is necessary: 80

− To use low-sulfur coal or clean it from sulfur; − Install filters for purification of gaseous products; − Use alternative energy sources.  Land degradation, desertification Land degradation is the reduction or loss of biological and economic productivity of arable land or pastures due to land use. It is characterized by the dryness of the land, withering of vegetation, a decrease in connectedness of the soil, which makes possible quick wind erosion and formation of dust storms. Desertification is land degradation in arid, semi-arid (semiarid) and sub-humid regions of the globe, caused both by human activities (anthropogenic causes) and natural factors and processes. The term «climate desertification» was proposed by the French researcher Auberville (1940). The term «land» in this case means a reproductive system consisting of soil, water, vegetation, other biomass, as well as ecological and hydrological processes within the system. Desertification is one of the most difficult to compensate for the effects of climate change, as it takes an average of 70 to 150 years to recover a conventional centimeter of fertile soil in the arid zone.  The loss of biodiversity Global changes in the atmosphere such as ozone depletion and climate change only add the urgency to the problem. A thinner ozone layer increases the extent of penetration of UV radiation on the Earth's surface, where it affects living tissue. Global warming is already having a detrimental effect on the change of residence and migration trends of species. Scientists warn that a sharp increase in the average world temperature even by one degree will put many species on the verge of extinction. Our food chains may also be severely affected. The loss of biodiversity often reduces the productivity of ecosystems, thereby impoverishing the natural storeroom of goods that we constantly use. It destabilizes ecosystems and weakens their capacity to cope with natural disasters such as floods, droughts and 81

hurricanes, as well as anthropogenic stresses such as pollution and climate change. We are already spending huge sums to deal with the consequences of floods and hurricanes exacerbated by deforestation, which will only increase in the light of global warming. The loss of biological diversity and its impact on our life manifests itself in various forms. Although the process of species extinction has always been considered as a natural phenomenon, the rate of extinction is dramatically accelerated by human activity. There is fragmentation or extinction of individual ecosystems, incalculable number of species are on the verge of extinction or already have already disappeared. We are on the verge of the greatest crisis that we have created, which will lead to the disappearance of more species than that were demolished by the natural disaster that led to the extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago. The extinction of species is irreversible and, taking into consideration our dependence on cereals, medicinal plants and other biological resources, poses a serious threat to our well-being. It is imprudent, if not dangerous, to constantly undermine the foundations of our own life-support system. At the very least, it is unethical to make the species disappear completely, thus depriving the present and future generations of options for survival and development.  The reduction in forest area Forests are one of the most important components of the biosphere, which have a diverse and exceptional impact on the natural environment of the planet. For example, Russia accounts for about 20% of the world's forest cover. The evolution of society has changed the nature and extent of human impacts on forests, as well as on the nature as a whole. According to estimates, the area occupied by forests in the historic period have decreased twice. Reduction in the forest areas leads to negative processes of global importance: soil erosion, reduction of the diversity of flora and fauna, degradation of water basins, the increase in carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere, reduction in the amount of industrial and fuel wood, and ultimately – in reduction of the potential of human life. We cannot recognize the present state of the world's forests as prosperous. Some forests have been particularly affected: 40-50% of 82

the initial area of mixed and broad-leaved forests, 85-90% of monsoon forests, 70-80% – of the forests of the Mediterranean region dried out. Less than 5% of forests still remain on the great Chinese and Indo-Gangetic plains. The problem of forests in tropical and subtropical zones, where more than half of the world's annual forest area undergoes cutting down, is of particular concern to the world community. Among the main causes of forest area reduction are the following ones: forest fires, felling, industrial pollution, and pest damage, fungal and bacterial diseases of trees. Forest fires burning vegetation, spontaneously spread through the forest area. The main causes of forest fires are human activities, thunderstorms, spontaneous combustion of peats in hot weather or in the so-called fire season (the period from the moment of snow cover melting in the forest to the appearance of full green cover or the onset of stable rainy autumn weather). Rates of deforestation do not slow down: their area is reduced by 200 thousand km annually. Of a particular concern is the state of tropical forests, figuratively speaking «lungs» of our planet, which are cut down at the rate of 1520 hectares per minute. Forests are intensively cut down and not always restored. The annual volume of logging is more than 4.5 billion m3. It is necessary to point out, that 160 million hectares of tropical forests have already degraded, and of the 11 million hectares harvested each year, only a tenth is restored. In the face of increasing urbanization, population growth in the cities and industrial centers, many suburban forests turned into the places of mass recreation. Thus, the area of forests under recreational load in Russia and the CIS countries is 320-400 thousand km². On this territory, there is a significant violation of forest ecosystems, environmental links. As a result, the forest cover has declined from 50% to 33%, or one and a half times. Selectivity of felling affects the species composition of the forest. In forests, this leads to a decrease in the proportion of conifers. Great damage to forest resources is caused by soil moisture, flooding as a result of construction of HPPs (especially in lowland areas), reservoirs, roads, railways, etc. Industrial enterprises throwing out into the atmosphere, water, soil various chemical compounds cause inhibition of growth and death of trees, and shrubs. 83

Significant damage to forests, meadows and pastures is caused by high levels of lead in the air, especially near major highways with heavy traffic, resulting in its accumulation in tissues and as a result causes depression, and often death. The main task of forest protection is their rational use and restoration, increasing the productivity of forests, their protection from fires and pests. In case of proper management of forestry, cuttings in certain areas should be repeated in 80-100 years. The excess of felling norms has led to the fact that forests have lost their climate-forming and water-regulating importance in many areas.  Kazakhstan’s environmental issues Kazakhstan has the richest reserves of mineral raw materials, a sufficiently developed production and economic potential. Production of oil, gas and other mineral resources generates considerable wealth of Kazakhstan, the oil and gas sector provides about 30% of the country's income. The Republic of Kazakhstan has proven recoverable oil reserves of 4.8 billion tons, which corresponds to 3% of the total oil reserves in the world and it is among the twenty leading countries in hydrocarbon reserves. At the same time, the extensive approach in the economy brings its negative results. The oil and gas industry, which is the basis for the economic growth of our country, at the same time, is the cause of serious environmental problems. The sharp increase in the production of hydrocarbons observed in recent decades has caused an increase in the negative impact on the environment. Of particular concern is the fact that this problem is related to the activities of oil companies in the protected areas. A serious problem is the utilization of associated and natural gases in the extraction of hydrocarbons. When associated gas is burned in the torches, the emissions of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and soot into the atmosphere occur. As of 2018, the main subject polluting atmospheric air was the manufacturing industry, its share in total emissions amounted to 39,6%, the enterprises engaged in the production and distribution of electricity, gas and water contributed 33,1%, mining industry – 16,5%, other enterprises – 10.8 %. 84

The share of major industries in total emissions of harmful substances to the atmosphere is shown in Table 8.2. Table 8.2 Emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere in Kazakhstan (as a percentage of total industrial emissions) Types of production

Thermal power plant The production of construction materials Ferrous metallurgy Oil refining and petrochemical industry Chemical industry Non-ferrous metallurgy

Dust

Sulphur dioxide

Monoxide

Nitrogen oxides

Hydrocarbon

Proportion of total emissions in the atmosphere

39

38

-

-

-

29,0

25

-

-

-

-

8.1

20

16

43

23

3

24.0

-

-

13

-

82

15.5

-

-

-

12

-

7.3

16

22

-

-

-

10.5

The main part of the waste, as can be seen from Table 8.2, is the result of the activities of the mining and processing industry, iron and steel enterprises, petrochemicals, the production of construction materials. In terms of the negative impact on the environment, the energy and oil and gas sectors are also leading. Particularly acute in Kazakhstan is the issue of utilization of toxic by-products of oil production, such as sulfur, as well as the issue of increasing radiation safety in oil production, the issues of reducing oil emissions into the aquatic environment and emissions of combustion products of natural gas into the atmosphere. Oil and gas production complex accounts for 70% of harmful emissions into the atmosphere (such as hydrogen 85

sulfide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, mercaptans and sulfur dust). Enterprises of different profiles have various types of emissions, differing in environmental hazards: – Metallurgical enterprises emit metal suspensions and their compounds (copper, iron, lead, zinc, nickel, hydrofluoric spar, cryolite, aluminum , coal, sulfur dioxide, etc.); – Machine-building enterprises – dust and gases containing silicon dioxide (foundries), carbon black (blacksmith shops), lead, carbon monoxide; – Enterprises of oil refining industry emit hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons; – Chemical industry enterprises emit nitrogen oxides, sulfurous anhydride, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, chloride and fluoride compounds; – Enterprises producing building materials and cement industry – pollute the atmosphere with various dust; – In agriculture, the sources of air pollution are livestock, poultry farms, and industrial complexes for the production of meat, pesticides, mineral fertilizers, the main pollutants are ammonia, carbon disulfide, hydrogen sulfide, chemical compounds, and harmful gases. The specifics of the impact of the oil and gas complex on the environment include: − Aggressive properties of hydrocarbons (hydrogen sulfide content in the Tengiz field is 25%); − The need for the use of powerful drilling and construction equipment with high destructive impact, abnormally high pressure (up to 550-900 atmospheres); − Creation of a special transport systems for long-haul export of hydrocarbon raw materials, that expand the scope of environmental impact; − Reduced reliability of commercial equipment and vehicles in difficult climatic conditions. The rise of the Caspian Sea level, which has been observed for a long time, has already caused flooding of 19 fields, where 1485 drilled wells are located, including 90 wells in the zone of constant flooding. The consequences of water pollution with oil and oil products 86

are deterioration of water quality, disruption of the connection of its surface layers with the atmosphere that leads to the formation of an oxygen-free marine environment, harmful to living organisms. More than 20% of Gross national product (GNP) is lost annually due to irrational use of natural resources and lack of elimination of the consequences of previous pollution. From 20 to 50% of the population migration is due to poor quality of the environment, drinking water and food. All this limits the possibilities of the country's future development. Oil producing regions of Western Kazakhstan have a certain complex of environmental problems caused by both zone factors of arid territories and specific impact of oil and gas production. First, this is the damage to the soil and vegetation cover and the progressive process of man-made desertification. Then, it is depletion of water resources and pollution by oil, petroleum products and other toxic substances (in the process of drilling operations, more than 2,700 types of chemical reagents are used). The next problem is a potential danger of oil-containing substances entering the Caspian Sea water basin, and taking into account its geographical features (closed reservoir), the probability of irreversible poisoning of its waters, and, the last but not the least problem is deterioration of public health as a result of environmental pollution. The Aral Sea and the Aral Sea region have a tragic fate. Here the environmental catastrophe, which has become one of the largest defeats of economy of the USSR, matured gradually. In the early 60-ies the lake-sea had an area of 61 km2, volume of about 1,000 km3 and the depth of 65 m. The Syrdarya and Amudarya brought up to 30 km3 per year. The sea gave about 35 thousand tons of fish a year. Over the next 25 years in pursuit of valuable cotton in the republics of Central Asia and southern Kazakhstan a monoculture of cotton was planted. As a result, water intake for irrigation increased to 118 km3 per year. This led to a sharp reduction in the river flow and the Aral Sea began to dry quickly. At the same time, due to poor drainage, large areas were flooded and salinized, their degradation was aggravated by the use of pesticides. The dried up bottom of the Aral Sea was called the new desert – Aral-Kum. The results of this economical policy are as follows: − Land and landscape degradation (more than 70% of the country's territory is subject to desertification), 87

− Shortage of water resources (Kazakhstan takes the last place in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in water supply), − Problems of the Aral Sea and Semipalatinsk nuclear and military test sites, − The high degree of air, soil and water pollution in human settlements, the reduction of biodiversity and natural reserves hinder the development of the economy and social sphere. Nowadays, the way out of the global environmental crisis is the most important scientific and practical task. The impact of harmful and dangerous production factors and the environment on human health Creating a technosphere, human seeks to improve the comfort of the habitat, to provide protection against natural adverse effects. All of this has long had a positive impact on living conditions and, together with other factors, on life expectancy. However, the biosphere in many regions of our planet is being actively replaced by technosphere. Man and his environment harmoniously interact and develop only in conditions when the flows of energy, substances and information are within the limits favorably perceived by man and the natural environment. Any excess of habitual levels is accompanied by negative effects on human and (or) environment. Under natural conditions, such changes are observed in the event of climate change and natural phenomena. In the conditions of technosphere, negative effects are caused by the elements of technosphere (machines, mechanisms, equipment, tools, structures, etc.) or human actions. Human interaction with the environment can be positive or negative; the nature of interaction is determined by the flows of substances, energies, and data. There is a number of characteristic states of interaction in the system of «manhabitat»: − Comfortable (optimal) state, when the said flows correspond to the optimal conditions of interaction (create optimal conditions of activity and rest, prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest 88

efficiency, and guarantee the preservation of health and environment); − Permissible state, when these flows do not have a negative impact on health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the effectiveness of activities; − Dangerous state, when the flows exceed the permissible levels and have a negative impact on human health, causing diseases, and (or) lead to degradation of the natural environment; − Extremely dangerous state, when the high levels of the flows can cause injury in a short period; this leads to death of humans, causes destruction in the natural environment. Of the four states listed above, only the first two ones (comfortable and permissible) correspond to positive living conditions, and dangerous and extremely dangerous states are unacceptable for the processes of life, conservation and development of the natural environment. The results of the human interaction with the environment can change in a very wide range: from positive to catastrophic ones, accompanied by the death of people and the destruction of the components of the environment. Determine the negative result of the interaction – the negative impact (danger), suddenly arising, periodically or permanently operating in the system of «man-habitat». In the early stages of its development, people continuously experienced the impact of negative factors of the natural origin. In the conditions of the modern world, numerous factors of technogenic origin were added to the natural ones: vibration, noise, increased concentration of toxic substances in the air, water bodies and soil contamination, electromagnetic fields, ionizing radiation, etc. Anthropogenic hazards are largely determined by the presence of wastes that inevitably arise from any human activity in accordance with the law on the non-recoverability of wastes. Wastes accompany the work in the sphere of industrial and agricultural production, transport, life of people and animals, entering the environment in the form of emissions into the atmosphere, discharges into reservoirs, industrial and household waste, flows of mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic energy, etc. 89

Currently, the list of actual negative factors includes more than 100 types. The most common factors having a high concentration or energy levels are: − Dust and gas contamination of air; − Noise and vibration; − Electromagnetic fields and radiation; − Uncomfortable microclimate (weather conditions); − Lack of lighting; − The monotony of work activities; − Hard manual labor, etc. The list of negative factors affecting the safety of human life at the workplace from a physiological point of view depends on the level of organization of working conditions, the degree of its harmlessness and safety. It should be noted, that the characteristics of the environment (socio-political, domestic and industrial) are interrelated. They affect human psychology and physiology. This relationship can be direct or indirect. Moreover, in some cases, these relationships are not amenable to direct detection. In this regard, the solution of ensuring safety problems of human activity will be carried out on the basis of a deep comprehensive analysis of interrelations in the use of a complex system approach. (VIII) General subjective types of questions 1. What is an environmental crisis? 2. Name the main causes of the environmental crisis. 3. Discuss in brief the natural side of the environmental crisis. 4. What is the social side of the environmental crisis? 5. What are the reasons for tension in the interactions between society and nature? 6. What are the signs of degradation, destruction of the natural environment? 7. What are the main problems of civilization and their causes? 8. Discuss in brief the human impact on climate change. 9. How are the changes in temperature of the Earth monitored? 11. Explain the importance of the ozone layer for living organisms. 12. Explain the impact of acid rains on biodiversity. 13. Name the main environmental problems in Kazakhstan.

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Chapter 9 STRATEGY AND GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1. Evolution of views on sustainable development and environmental security 2. The concept of sustainable development, its principles 3. Implementation of the sustainable development concept at various levels: global, regional and national

Evolution of views on sustainable development and environmental security Due to the current environmental situation, the international community is looking for solutions to stabilize and improve the situation on the global scale. In the formation of the sustainable development concept in the frames of the UN system under the aegis of UNESCO, it is possible to identify only the milestones: Rome Club (1968) – this international non-governmental organization presented in 1972 the report «Limits of growth» under the leadership of D. Meadows (1942). It showed population dynamics, food and industrial goods production, consumption of resources and pollution extrapolated up to 2000. It was concluded that maintaining the rate of industrial growth leads humanity to the threshold of death at the end of the century. In the second report «Mankind at the turning point» (1974), prepared under the guidance of M. Mesarovic (1928) and E. Pestel (1914 – 1988) a regionnal differentiation of the dynamics and projections of economic development and environmental situations was carried out. The world was presented as ten regions (North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and South America, the USSR and Eastern Europe, Latin America, North Africa and the Middle East, Tropical Africa, South Asia and China). The authors concluded that not a global catastrophe threatens the world, but a series of crises. As a result, a justification of the need for limited growth was proposed. 91

These ideas underwent further consideration in the subsequent work of the Commission on environment and development. The first UN world Conference on the environment, held in Stockholm (Sweden), in June 1972, with the participation of 113 States, the decisions of which became historical for the whole world, played a decisive role in the initial formation of the concept of sustainable development. The Secretary-General of the Conference Maurice Frederick Strong (1929 – 2015) for the first time coined the term environmental development – environmentally oriented socio-economic development, in which the growth of human well-being is not accompanied by habitat and nature degradation. It is recognized as the most important task of our time, after eliminating the nuclear threat. Then the inclusion of measures to address problems of the environment degradation in the Program of actions at the government level was first announced:  A policy statement by the participants (declaration of 26 principles),  An action plan that included 109 recommendations, and the recommendation to the UN General Assembly to establish an organization for international cooperation – the UN Environment Program (UNEP). A voluntary Environment Fund was established and the World Environment Day – on June 5 – was fixed. The initial task of the UNEP was to develop recommendations on the most acute problems of the emerging environmental crisis – desertification, soil degradation, freshwater reduction, ocean pollution, deforestation, loss of valuable animal species and plants. The UNEP used the experience of the UNESCO program «Man and biosphere» and continued to work closely with it. Since the 1980s, stricter problem forecasts on general economic, demographic, energy, food, and climate have been developed. The scientific conclusions of these forecasts state that we need to reconsider the system of values of humankind. At the same time, environmental forecasts were least studied, as the dynamic description of the environment requires an incomparably large amount of information than in the economy, demography, etc. The Environmental protection programs (EPP) have become the most effective response to the threat of the environmental crisis. 92

Over the last decades in industrialized countries, regional and national EPPs providing for a set of measures have been developed and implemented: the analysis of damages, search for a balance between policy and investment, economic and technological means of control of the state of air, water, soil etc. The level of costs for the implementation of the EPPs is constantly increasing, e.g., in Japan it is 7.5% of GNP. All these activities look like general cleaning while maintaining economic growth. The Stockholm conference formulated the right of people to live «in the environment of quality that presupposes a well-being life». After the 1972 Stockholm conference, it became possible to talk about state environmental priorities and the emergence of an allround environmental movement. The International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED) was created in 1983, headed by the Prime Minister of Norway, G.H. Brundtland. The objectives of the ICED included:  Development of long-term environment strategies;  Search for the ways of cooperation between countries in the field of environmental protection;  Proposals of ways and means of solving the problems of the environment;  Identification of approaches to solving global environmental problems. The term «Sustainable Development» has become widespread since 1987, when it was published in the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development «Our common future», known as the report of G.H. Brundtland, who led this work. According to G.H. Brundtland,»The International Commission has come to the conclusion that sustainable development should be a fundamental element in the global strategy for change». The report defines sustainable development as the development, in which current generations meet their needs without depriving future generations of the opportunity to meet their own needs. One of the definitions of sustainable development is sustainable development in the long-term, intergenerational context.

93

Sustainable development requires meeting the most vital needs of all people and enabling everyone to satisfy their aspirations for a better life, the need for the world community to move towards sustainable long-term development. In 1992, 20 years after the Stockholm conference, the UN Conference on Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) with the participation of 17 thousand people from 179 countries, where more than 100 heads of states and governments were present. The conference adopted the definition of sustainable development proposed by the Brundtland Commission as the least contentious of all, one that reflects a strategic objective rather than a concrete way forward for action. A Declaration was also adopted that reflected the evolution of the global consensus on environmental issues over two decades, beginning with the Stockholm Declaration. The document was addressed primarily to the states, although a number of its principles were of universal importance. The main outcome of the Conference was the adoption of the World Program’s «Agenda ХХI» – The concept of sustainable development. The concept of sustainable development, its principles This document is a program of how to make the development sustainable from social, economic and environmental points of view, to ensure the consistency of concordance. At the same time, it was noted that one of the objectives of the strategy should be to ensure socially reliable economic development, in which certain measures are implemented to protect the environment for future generations. The agenda ХХI for the twenty-first century explains that the driving forces of the problems in the environment are population, consumption and technology. It proposes the policies and programs to achieve a sustainable balance between consumption and the ability of the Earth to sustain life. The program also describes some methods and technologies should be developed to meet the needs of people in the management of natural resources. 94

The concept of Sustainable Development is based on five main principles: 1. Humanity is indeed capable of making development sustainable and long-term, so that it responds to the needs of people living now without depriving future generations of the opportunity to meet their needs. 2. The existing limitations in the exploitation of natural resources are relative. They are related to the current level of technology and social organization, as well as the ability of the biosphere to cope with the consequences of human activity. 3. The basic needs of all people must be met, and everyone must be given the opportunity to realize their hopes for a better life. Without this, sustainable and long-term development is simply not possible. One of the main causes of environmental and other disasters is poverty, which has become a commonplace in the world. 4. There is a need to reconcile the life style of those who have greater means (money and material) with the environmental possibilities of the planet, in particular in respect of energy consumption. 5. The size and rate of population growth should be consistent with the changing productive capacity of the Earth's global ecosystem. Within the framework of the sustainable development concept, there are three ways to ensure environmental security on Earth. The first is the preservation of the expanded production of natural ecosystems, primarily plant communities, the medium-forming function of which is the guarantee of normal dynamic equilibrium in the environment. The second is the management of natural and economic systems, the environmental function of which is equivalent to the functions of natural ecosystems, the place of which they took. Thirdly, it is the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies, eliminating the consequences of economic activity, adverse to human life. In 2002, a World Summit was held in Johannesburg, 10 years after the Rio conference, which assessed the progress made (Rio+10) and identified the challenges for subsequent periods in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development, referred to as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) until 2015: 95

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger; Achievement of universal primary education; The promotion of equality between men and women; Reduction in child mortality; Improvement of maternal health; Fight against HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases; Ensuring environmental sustainability; Building a global partnership for the development.

Johannesburg reaffirmed the commitment of the entire world community to sustainable development. While the conference in Rio de Janeiro was dominated by the issue of the environment to achieve the sustainable development goals, in Johannesburg the issue was given the same attention through the discussion of social and economic issues. Implementation of the sustainable development concept at various levels: global, regional and national In the context of global warming and environmental crisis, the problem of environmental protection and conservation is particularly acute. This issue cannot be solved at the local level in the conditions of a single country, so this problem is solved globally with the involvement of the world community, developed countries and world organizations. The transition to a new strategy requires certain conditions: 1. There is a well-developed unified state environmental policy, supported by a long-term strategic program. 2. There is a well-developed legislation in the field of environmental management and protection. 3. Sufficient financial and material security. 4. Public participation in decision-making on the most important practical challenges of sustainable development. 5. Scientific and methodological, informational, normative support of territorial programs of environmental and economic development. 96

6. High qualification and competence in environmental management. 7. International cooperation and support. The problem of global nature degradation is exacerbated by poverty and inequitable distribution of the benefits, and the task of «Environment for Development» ranks the first. The transition to a sustainable development is a global process, and a separate country cannot take this path as long as other countries remain within the old development model. That is why it is important to make use of globalization and to focus primarily on its economic, environmental and social composition with a view of achieving the goals of sustainable development. (IX) General subjective types of questions 1. The main functions of sustainable development management. 2. What is sustainable development? 3. Give examples of international cooperation in the field of environmental protection. 4. Explain the purpose of «Agenda for XXIst century» 5. Name the priorities for managing sustainable development. 6. Discuss in brief the concept of sustainable development. 7. What conditions are needed to implement the concept of sustainable development? 8. Name the objectives of the environmental protection program. 9. Explain the principles for overcoming the global environmental crisis. 10. Discuss in brief the principles of environmental security.

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Chapter 10 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rational nature use as one of the sustainable development aspects The environmental protection Conservation of biological and landscape diversity Environmental monitoring and impact assessment. Environmental certification of enterprises as a tool for assessing and regulating the quality of the environment.

Rational nature use as one of the sustainable development aspects All natural material and energy resources used by man are usually called natural resources. It is often forgotten that most of them are not only human resources, but also wildlife. A significant impact is caused by those changes in nature that are induced by human economic activity. The total economic damage caused to natural systems of environment in the second half of the twentieth century to the health of the population, now exceeds the world annual budget. The resources of the ecosphere are represented only by renewable resources of substances, energy and information under the control of living organisms. The resources of the technosphere, in addition to some of the ecosphere resources, captured by man and torn from the biotic cycle, include non-renewable resources extracted from the subsoil. There are several classifications of natural resources: Natural, economic and environmental resources, the latter issue has been studied in the most detailed way by N.F. Reimers (1994). The natural classification is based on the division: land, mineral, water, atmospheric, plant, animal world. The economic classification: resources of metallurgy, fuel and energy complex, agricultural, chemical industry, etc.

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From the ecological and economic point of view, the most interesting is the sign of exhaustibility and the degree of renewability. The inexhaustible resources include space and planetary resources. Renewable resources are substances created on the Earth. Nonrenewable resources are minerals, ores. Let us list possible practical steps of human on the way to his own security: 1. Inhibition of the negative impact of the economy on the environment, i.e. reduction of human-made emissions; 2. Rational use of natural resources; 3. Scientific-based combination of environmental and economic interests; 4. Payment for nature use; 5. Compliance with the requirements of environmental legislation; 6. International cooperation in the field of environmental protection; 7. Announce in the work of environmental organizations and close communication with public associations in solving environmental problems. The main goal of the long-term environmental strategy is to harmonize the interaction between society and the environment, and create an environmentally friendly living environment. To achieve this goal, four priority areas have been selected: − Creation of environmental security; − Balanced use of natural resources; − Preservation of diversity of animal and plant life; − Environmental knowledge. A common desire to protect the environment, citizens' health, is ultimately a crucial component of the economic reforms success. The main goal of sustainable development is proclaiming the satisfaction of human needs and aspirations. It is important to emphasize that sustainable development requires meeting the most vital needs of all people and giving everyone the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life in equal measure. 99

The environment protection The transition to sustainable development presupposes a gradual restoration of natural ecosystems to the level that ensures environmental sustainability and where a real possibility for the future generations of people to meet their vital needs and interests exists. The organization of economic activity that does not destroy the biosphere, but preserves it, i.e. it is environmental acceptable and does not exceed the capacity of ecosystems, it is one of the central directions of Sustainable Future Society. The biosphere from this point of view should be considered not only as a storehouse and resource supplier, but also as the foundation of life, the preservation of which should be an indispensable condition for the functioning of the socio-economic system and its individual elements. Protection of the environment is the activities of the state government, local government, public associations, legal entities and individuals aimed at preserving and restoring the environment, maintaining rational use and reproduction of natural resources, preventing the negative impact of economic or other activities on the environment and elimination of harmful consequences. A favorable environment is the state of the environment, the quality of which ensures the sustainable functioning of natural ecosystems, natural and natural-anthropogenic objects. At present, the activities on international environmental conventions and agreements aimed at resolving priority problems have been significantly strengthened. Preservation of biological and landscape diversity Currently, on the basis of morphological and biochemical differences, 2.2 million species of organisms have been identified reliably, about 50 thousand species of bacteria, about 100 thousand species of fungi, 300 thousand plants, 13 million species of animals, including 1 million insects and 50 thousand species of vertebrates. There are reasons to believe that due to a large number of unidentified lower forms (bacteria, fungi, worms, and arthropods) the 100

actual total number of species can be 3-5 times greater. In the literature, it is possible to meet the range of species from 5 to 30 million. It should be borne in mind that many species form subspecies that differ markedly in a number of characteristics. The range of sizes of the body of terrestrial beings is enormous. From microscopic micro plasma, having a mass of no more than 10-13 g., to a giant Californian sequoia weighing more than 1000 tons. Even within the class of mammals, the shrew has a mass of 1-1.5 g, and a blue whale – of 100-150 tons, that is a hundred million times heavier. The fact that in nature there are such different in size creatures, indicates a variety of environmental benefits associated with the size of the body. Life can be found in hot springs, and in eternal ice, in the deepest abysses of the ocean and at the tops of mountains, in underground waters and in waterless deserts. There is a distinct gradient of biodiversity – from the maximum of the lowland tropics to the minimum of high mountains and Polar Regions. Climate resilience is considered the leading factor in the increasing diversity. The most effective forms of protection of biotic communities and natural ecosystems include the state system of specially protected natural territories, land or water surface areas, which, due to their natural value, are completely or partially removed from economic use and for which a special protection is established. According to the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the following categories of such territories are distinguished: − State natural reserves, including biosphere reserves; − National parks; − State protected natural areas; − Natural Parks; − Monuments of nature; − Botanical gardens. The State Natural Reserve is a protected area where economic activities are prohibited. Biosphere reserves are part of the state natural reserves and are used as a background reserve-reference facility in the study of biosphere processes. 101

There are a unified Global Network of more than 300 biosphere reserves in the world. They work under the UNESCO program and conduct constant monitoring of changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic activity. The national natural park is relatively large natural and water areas, where three main objectives are achieved: ecological, recreational and scientific ones, and the presence of economic zones is allowed. The State Nature Reserve is a protected area where the conservation function is combined with limited economic activities. A Natural Park is a landscape protected by means of long-term planning, use and agriculture. These valuable landscapes are presserved in their present state and serve for the purposes of tourism. Monuments of nature – unique non-reproducible natural objects, which are also of cultural and aesthetic value (caves, ancient trees, rocks, waterfalls, etc.) Botanical gardens are nature protection institutions whose task is to create a collection of trees and shrubs to preserve biodiversity, as well as for scientific, educational and cultural purposes. Red books help to strengthen the protection of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. The Red Book is a systematic list of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. The term «Red Data Book» was proposed by the zoologist Peter Scott (1909 – 1989), who headed the Survival Service Commission established under the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). The species included in the Red Book were not in the same position; therefore, they were divided into 5 categories: The first category is endangered species, i.e. the species that are highly likely to become extinct. The second category is shrinking species that are under the threat of becoming endangered; The third category is rare species found in small numbers or in limited areas; The fourth category is undetermined species, the appearance and features of which have not been sufficiently studied. The fifth category is the restored species, the state of which due to the measures of protection does not cause fears any more. 102

Every year the Red Book is revised and new species that need a special care are included in it. There are several versions of the Red Book: International, State version. Therefore, according to the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2014), the inclusion of an animal or plant in the Red Book means a widespread exclusion of this species from economic circulation and trade. Environmental monitoring and impact assessment Monitoring of the environment is a long-term observation of the state of the environment, its pollution and natural phenomena occurring in it, as well as the assessment of the state of the natural environment. There are several types of monitoring. On the territorial basis local, regional, global (biosphere) monitoring are distinguished. By the methods used they are categorized as ground, aviation, space monitoring. By the methods of research – chemical, biological, physical and other types. Local monitoring is carried out on separate environmental objects. Its purpose is to ensure the economic strategy that does not allow exceeding the permissible limits of pollution. A variety of local monitoring – impact monitoring – is carried out in especially dangerous areas. Regional monitoring is the monitoring of processes and phenolmena within a significant area, which differs from neighboring ones in natural conditions. Global monitoring is conducted to obtain a general information on the biosphere. Its specific goals are defined in the framework of international cooperation, agreements and declarations. To analyze anthropogenic impact, background monitoring is often used – monitoring of the natural concentration or the degree of exposure of natural substances and other agents to anything. Today, a global network of background monitoring stations has been established, it covers all types of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This work is carried out under the auspices of the UNEP. 103

Environmental assessment is an impact assessment of the level of possible negative impacts by the proposed economic activity on the environment, it is an important tool of public policy in the field of environmental protection and environmental management in the country. The entities that carry out the environmental expertise are State, Departmental, Scientific and Public organizations. State expertise is an independent type of environmental control that the state reserves, and on the other hand it is an integral part of environmental forecasting, assessing the impact of a particular type of economic activity on the environment. The work on its conduct and assessment of the risk of economic activity is based on the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The principle of environmental impact assessment: the presumption of a potential environmental hazard of any planned economic activity, until the harmlessness of any project has been proved; a ban must be imposed on it. Of all types of safety, the fundamental criterion is medical and biological security. Environmental certification of enterprises as a tool for assessment and regulation of the environment quality The implementation of effective measures at the level of one business entity by creating an environmental passport of the enterprise is considered as an instrument for assessing and regulating the environment quality. The company's environmental passport is a normative and technical document that includes the data on the use of natural resources (air, natural waters, soils, forest resources, etc.), secondary resources (electricity, fossil fuel, etc.) and the data on the assessment of the impact of the activity of the enterprise on the environment. The information contained in the passport is aimed at solving environmental and economic problems related to establishing and monitoring the observance of MPE, MPANLs and MPC by the enterprise. 104

Structure of the environmental passport: 1. General information about the enterprise; 2. A brief natural and climatic description of the location of the enterprise; 3. Information on the use of land resources; 4. State of water resources use; 5. Characteristics of air emissions; 6. Characteristics of wastes; 7. Environmental and economic indicators; 8. Planning of environmental measures and assessment of their efficiency. (X) General subjective types of questions 1. What is environmental monitoring? 2. Name the main objectives of environmental monitoring. 3. Explain the structure of environmental passport. 4. What is impact monitoring? 5. Define in brief the regulatory and legal framework for environmental monitoring. 6. What is the Red Book? 7. Discuss the work on biodiversity conservation. 8. Explain the specially protected natural areas, 9. What does biosphere reserve mean? 10. What is the purpose of the environmental certification of the enterprise?

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Chapter 11 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1. 2. 3. 4.

The environment as the basis of economic development Measurement of industrial and natural potentials Management of natural resources Green Economy and Sustainable Development

The environment as a basis for economic development At the modern level of human development, nature is seen as a wide variety of resources: − Production (raw materials and energy for industry); − Agricultural (natural fertility of soils, heat supply and moisture supply for the production of crop and livestock products); − Health and recreation (providing treatment and recreation of people); − Aesthetic and scientific (serving as a source of creative inspiration used to study natural patterns); − Territorial and environmental (conditions of the existence of people in a particular place), etc. We can say that almost all the natural potential of the landscape in one form or another is used by man now, or will be used in the future. Environmental economy means a more versatile and at the same time more systematic approach to the environment. The main components of the environmental economy are: − Inclusion of environmental conditions, factors and objects, as well as renewable resources, into the number of economic categories on an equal footing with other categories of wealth; − Formation of international and interregional markets for environmental values and environment factors; − Transition to a new pricing system that takes into account environmental factors, damage and risks;

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− Substantial expansion and clarification of the system of payment for nature use; − The principle of balanced nature management; − Production transition to the qualitative growth strategy on the basis of technical re-equipment under environmental and economic control; − Reduction of the goods excess assortment with the strengthening of environmental control of their quality; − Change and environmental-economic orientation of the structure of needs and standards of well-being. Measurement of the industrial and natural potentials The main condition for such measurement is that the technogenic load on the territory should not exceed the environmental and technological capacity of the territory. Balancing is required not only by natural complexes and by the environment, but also by the economy itself. The procedure for measuring is based on the definition and comparison of the environmental technological capacity of the territory (ETCT), but these are not legislatively approved as standards. The entire scope of environmental regulation and standardization, especially the issues associated with technogenic pollution of the environment, somehow relies on hygiene standards and uses the established maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) or the maximum permissible doses (MPD) of harmful agents. MPC is the largest concentration of a substance in a medium that, in a more or less prolonged exposure to the body, does not affect health and does not cause retarded effects (does not affect the offspring). Since the effect depends on the duration of the exposure, the peculiarities of the situation, the maximum daily allowable maximum permissible concentration, the maximum permissible concentration of working zones, the maximum permissible concentrations for plants, animals and humans are distinguished. Based on the MPC limit, special programs calculate the values of the maximum permissible emissions – the maximum permissible emissions into the atmosphere (MPE), the maximum permissible 107

discharge into water bodies (MPD) of certain substances. The MPE and MPD already directly regulate the intensity and quality of technological processes and acquire the property of environmental standards. Over-standard emissions entail economic and administrative sanctions. From the environmental and economic point of view, payment for natural resources should be calculated taking into account a regional and global impact of the economy on natural systems and taking into account the costs arising from inter-resource links. The draft National Action Plan for the implementation of the decisions of the United Nations Conference on the Environment contains the following recommendations: − Develop and implement a system of territorial cadasters of natural resources, including their valuation; − Form the system of environmental restrictions and regulations of environmental management regimes; − Implement measures to develop and support environmental entrepreneurship and improve legislation in the interests of developing the market for environmental services. Management of natural resources According to the current 17 goals of sustainable development, the following tasks are identified in the functional management structure: − Creation of the legislative system of environmental law; − Construction of the natural resources complex state cadasters; − Formation of the total payment system and price policy for natural resources; − Control of the compliance with laws, standards, norms, limits, on exploitation and protection of natural resources. Priority management tasks assume: − Problem analysis of the environmental situation; − Selection of development priorities, development and approval of national environmental policy;

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− Creation of the state long-term strategic program for environmental development; − Formation of a system of functions for managing environmental and economic development; − Assessment of the landscape resource potential should be considered from the economic, environmental and environmentaleconomic positions. With the economic approach, the value of natural resources is estimated. It takes into account, for example, the cost of raw materials on the domestic and world markets, the costs of mining and transporting to the processing site, as well as the economic feasibility of choosing mutually exclusive types of nature use. In each specific case it is necessary to decide what is more expedient: to continue the extraction of minerals or to preserve the landscape as a source of other natural resources, for example, forest resources. Under the environmental approach, the natural potential of the landscape is assessed as a set of conditions necessary for life and reproduction of living organisms, including humans, inhabiting a given territory. The rejection of natural resources by man causes a change in both separate natural components and the landscape as a whole – the ecological regime of the territory is disturbed, and the state of the environment deteriorates. Environmental and economic assessment of the natural resources use includes the assessment of the costs of reclamation of the natural potential of the landscape after its disruption caused by the natural resources exploitation. Savings on the restoration of a normal habitat lead to tragic environmental and social consequences – a decrease in working capacity, deterioration of health, an increase in the death rate of people. The losses in health restoration, social costs caused by environmental degradation, can be so significant that the damage will override the economic effect. In nature management, there are two levels: − Management of natural systems, − Management of nature users (management of environmental protection, and rational use of natural resources). 109

The nature use management presupposes the rational use of natural resources and is based on planning and forecasting of their consumption. The progress of economic science has led to a greater recognition of the natural factor. On the one hand, most traditional natural resources have become scarce. However, this applies not only to non-renewable resources, but also to the so-called renewable resources – primarily ecosystem resources (ecosystem «goods» and «services») and biodiversity. Under the impact of the crisis, many international organizations and institutions under the auspices of the United Nations have intensified the research on the quality of economic growth and the search for innovative models that ensure a harmonious development of nature and man. The purpose of environmental management is to ensure compliance with the norms and requirements that limit the harmful impact of production processes and products on the environment, ensure the rational use of natural resources, their restoration and reproduction. The Kazakhstan government, ministries and departments, local government bodies, enterprises and organizations directly engaged in the exploitation of natural resources, carry out environmental management. The task is set to pursue a persistent and consistent policy for preserving and multiplying natural resources, improving the quality of the environment. Currently, environmental management should focus on: − Decrease in environmental pollution; − Reduction in natural resources consumption; − Rational use of renewable natural resources; − Formation of the necessary development of the mineral resources reserve; − Effective use of primary raw materials; − Creation of economic conditions for entrepreneurs; − International cooperation. Green Economy and Sustainable Development Initiatives for a green economy are based on three main principles: − Assessment and highlighting of natural services at the national and international levels; 110

− Ensuring employment of the population by creating «green» jobs and developing appropriate policies; − Use of market mechanisms to achieve sustainable development. The decisions of many important high-level meetings call for moving to a «Green Economy». For example, in the Clean Growth Declaration adopted by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in June 2009, ministers expressed their determination to increase their efforts to further implement green growth strategies and encourage green investments and sustainable natural resource management. They emphasized the determination to use «effective and efficient climate policy packages» and implement «domestic policy reforms aimed at preventing or eliminating environmentally harmful types of production that hinder «green» growth. In addition, it was proposed to develop a strategy of «green» growth, in order to achieve economic recovery and environmentally and socially sustainable growth. The World Summit on Sustainable Development Rio +20 (2012) has given a new impetus to the development of the green economy concept and green growth, which is becoming popular and has become the subject of the research of many International organizations and research institutions, including the CIS countries. The implementation of the Declaration, «The Future We Want», adopted at the Rio +20 Summit, requires the conduct of further research in the following areas: − Identifying the links between the green economy and sustainable development. Countries need to prepare a list of strategies and activities proposed under the green economy concept. − Conducting a further analysis of each policy «recipe» in terms of its impact on the development, social and distributional consequences, as well as additional measures and activities, that should be included in the framework of international cooperation required to ensure the alignment of economic, social and environmental objecttives. This analysis should be carried out in specific national contexts.

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− In addition to the research at the national level, models and scenarios of assessment of national green economy strategies and green growth in the global context, including, for example, interaction in international trade, investment and technology transfer are required. In some countries, such as South Korea, Denmark, Norway, the «green» economy model becomes dominant. Kazakhstan regards environmental issues as a priority area. As one of the ways to solve environmental challenges, the Government of Kazakhstan is currently paving the way for «greening» the economy through the introduction of environmentally friendly technologies to improve energy efficiency, long-term cost reduction and, more importantly, the reduction of factors hazardous for public health. The exhibition «EXPO 2017» (Astana, Kazakhstan), dedicated to clean energy, was intended to give an additional impetus to the development of the «green» economy in Kazakhstan. The country is already a manufacturer and exporter of wind and solar energy technologies. Large investments are expected in «green» initiatives and it is hoped that such investments will serve the benefit of the population as a whole. The development and implementation of modern energy-saving technologies, as well as the creation of scientific and technological bases for ensuring the environmental safety of the Republic of Kazakhstan, are one of the main directions of scientific activity of the Techno Park of the al-Farabi KazNU. In the light of the realization of the ideas of the first President of Kazakhstan, N. Nazarbayev has set the task of studying the scientific and methodological foundations and prerequisites for the transition to a «green economy», the development of specific stages and forms of the «green economy» within the framework of natural-economic systems with the goal of creating models of Kazakhstan’s «green economy». The scope of application of the research results will be the regions of Kazakhstan aimed at solving a wide range of interrelated problems of productive forces allocation, population resettlement, and urban development, united by a single task of improving the life quality of Kazakhstan’s population in the direction of «green economy» creation. 112

(XI) General subjective types of questions 1. Name the main components of the environmental economy. 2. Explain the main criteria for measuring natural and productive potentials. 3. What structural changes in the economy are associated with its environmental point? 4. Discuss the main principles of creating an ecological and economic system. 5. What should be the management of nature use? 6. Explain the environmental and economic system. 7. What is the system of payment for nature use? 8. Name the main task of greening the economy. 9. Define in brief the regulatory and legal framework for carrying out measures to green the economy. 10. Name the basis for the transition to a green economy.

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Chapter 12 GLOBAL ENERGY-ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ХХI CENTURY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Non-traditional environmentally friendly energy sources Renewable energy sources G-global project, energy saving strategy Water is a strategic resource of the XXI century Management of water resources

Non-traditional environmentally friendly sources of energy The growth of the economy through the exploitation of natural resources can occur only at a certain stage. In modern conditions, the mechanisms that are more progressive are required for growth and development. Sustainable development is necessary for the achievement of the Development Strategy goals of Kazakhstan until 2050. The principle of sustainable development is also laid in the basis of Kazakhstan's strategy of becoming one of the thirty most competitive countries of the world. This goal was stated in the Address of the President to Kazakhstan’s people – «Nurly Zhol – the way to the future». At the heart of many social and economic problems of Kazakhstan, there is a historically developed imbalance, when the country consumes its resources disproportionately in relation to their production. If we bring the main economic indicators of the country to a common unit of measurement based on the measurement of the energy useful value – the energy measured in gigawatts (GW), then it is possible to estimate the losses. In the structure of the fuel balance of electrical power stations, for example, the main role is played by coal, whose content is about 75%, the gas content is 23%, and the fuel oil (masut) content is 2%. With the existing generating capacities, there is a shortage of electricity generation. The total installed capacity of power plants is about 18.7 thousand MW. Existing generating capacities have a long 114

service life (25 years or more), and therefore the available capacity is about 14.6 thousand MW. In the structure of generating capacities, TPPs make up 15.42 MW, or 87% of the total capacity, the share of hydroelectric stations is about 12%, other types of power plant produce about 1%. In Kazakhstan, the resource efficiency indicator (REI), which is currently at the level of 31%, is relatively low. This is more than the average world level, equal to 24%, but less than in the most technologically advanced countries of the world: Japan – 36%, the USA – 34%, Germany – 33%. (In the former USSR, the EIR indicator reached 36%, which ensured a greater level of competitiveness in the world arena). Renewable energy sources Humanity is already facing the challenge of developing inexhaustible sources of energy. As you know, the environmental situation on the planet is under threat, therefore, for some time, humankind must introduce into everyday life clean energy sources, primarily such as wind energy and solar energy, thus preventing an increase in the risk of the planet's biosphere death. Otherwise, future environmental disasters will present the danger for the possibility of the continued life existence in our planet. In this century, a mass transition to alternative energy sources will begin, the era of «black gold» will pass and the future of the economies of the countries dependent on oil could be only guessed. Alternative sources of energy include: − Solar energy − Wind power; − Bioenergy; − Geothermal energy.  Solar power energetics Solar energy has two main advantages. Firstly, there is a lot of it and it relates to renewable energy resources: the life span of the Sun is estimated at about 5 billion years. Secondly, its use does not entail 115

undesirable environmental consequences. However, a number of difficulties hampers the use of solar energy. Although the total amount of this energy is huge, it dissipates uncontrollably. To obtain large amounts of energy, large-area collector surfaces are required. In addition, there is the problem of instability of energy supply: the sun does not always shine. There are three main directions for using solar energy: for heating (including hot water supply) and air conditioning, for direct conversion to electricity through solar photoelectric converters and for large-scale electricity generation based on the thermal cycle.  Wind power energetics Wind energy on earth is inexhaustible too. For many centuries, man has been trying to turn wind energy into his own favor, building wind farms that perform various functions: mills, water and oil pumps, power plants. As practice and experience of many countries have shown, the use of wind energy is extremely beneficial, because, firstly, the wind cost is zero, and secondly, the electricity is obtained from wind energy, and not by burning carbon fuel, whose combustion products are known for their dangerous effects on humans (CO, SO2, etc.).  Bioenergy When biomass is rotting (manure, dead organisms, plants), biogas is produced with a high content of methane. It is used for heating and power generation. In some countries, pig farms are provided with electricity and heat at the expense of biowaste. They have several large «vats», where large quantities of manure obtained from animals are dumped. In these sealed tanks manure decays, and the released gas goes to the needs of the farm. By the way, in the end, a dry residue of the manure remains, and it is an excellent fertilizer for the fields. There are many ideas, such as the use of fast growing algae and loading them into similar bioreactors, or the use of other organic waste (corn, cane stalks, etc.). 116

 Geothermal power engineering Geothermal energy, i.e. the warmth of the Earth's interior, has already been used in a number of countries, for example, in Iceland, Russia, Italy and New Zealand. The crust of 32-35 km in thickness is much thinner than the underlying layer – the mantle, which extends approximately 2900 km to the hot liquid core. The mantle is a source of gas-rich fiery-liquid rocks (magma), which are erupted by active volcanoes. Heat is released mainly due to the radioactive decay of substances in the earth's core. The temperature and the amount of this heat are so great that it causes melting of the mantle rocks. Hot rocks can create thermal «bags» under the surface, in contact with which water heats up and even turns into steam. The greatest geothermal resources are concentrated in volcanic zones along the boundaries of tectonic plates. Project G-global, energy saving strategy Kazakhstan has unique opportunities and prerequisites for sustainable development: favorable geopolitical location, unique mountain, water and other ecosystems, available oil and gas reserves, significant renewable energy potential, etc. Global energy-environmental strategy of sustainable development of the XXI century by N. Nazarbayev, put forward in the framework of the development of a relatively new direction for our country, is the most important document whose task is to innovate the world's existing energy technologies and scale up the modernization of the world energy sector. The ways of sustainable innovative environmentally friendly energy development are: − Creation of fundamental and methodological bases for the transition to a «green economy»; − Development of effective methods for the formation of the «green economy» technological and socio-economic structure and management of the resource potential in the context of the of territorial forms of natural-economic systems development;

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− Assessment of energy-environment balance of regions and areas of Kazakhstan; − Provision of a legislative support for a gradual transition to effective forms of the «green economy» territorial organization based on the use of innovative technologies to improve the human environment and improve the quality of life of the population; − Use of economic methods and instruments of influence on economic processes in the regions of Kazakhstan, ensuring their transition to a «green» economy. The Concept provides for the fact that sustainable economic development of Kazakhstan will be implemented by supporting environmentally efficient energy production, including the use of renewable sources and recycled materials. In this regard, the Committee for Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan, with the participation of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources and the UNDP Wind Energy Project, has drafted a National Wind Energy Development Program. The aims of this Program are to involve significant wind energy resources in the country's energy balance supporting plans to reduce the energy the intensity of the economy and increase the rate of alternative energy sources in the overall energy balance of the country up to 5% by 2024 and stabilize greenhouse gas emissions at the level of 1990. The goal of the Program is to use the wind energy potential of Kazakhstan to generate electricity in the volume of 5 billion kWh. Water is a strategic resource of the ХХI century Water as a great natural substance requires that water management be integrated, meaning the integration of management of different types of water on the land, all types of users and all kinds of consequences that determine whether the existence of water will be sustainable, efficient and harmless. However, political boundaries, natural barriers (mountains, oceans, and deserts), administrative barriers and corporate interests, local features and public (communal) entities dissect the modern world. In addition, there are sectorial and professional priorities, political confrontations and ambitions. 118

There are seven (and in the future maybe ten) billion of people – the end users of water! To meet human and natural needs, one must take into account and overcome all the disconnecting and opposing barriers that we have! In connection with these facts, the governments of many countries adopted a program of integrated water resources management. Integrated water resources management Integrated water resources management (IWRM) is «a process that facilitates the coordinated development and management of water, land and other related resources in order to achieve maximum socio-economic well-being on an equitable basis without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems». The basis of IWRM is the recognition of the interdependence of all types of water use: 1. Large irrigation norms and discharges of contaminated drainage waters reduce freshwater supplies for drinking needs or industry; 2. Wastewater pollutes rivers and threatens ecosystems; 3. Water saving to support fish farming and ecosystems reduces water use for agriculture. (XII) General subjective types of questions 1. How is the water consumption paid? 2. Why is water a strategic resource? 3. Name the basin principle of water resources management. 4. Explain the principles of water management. 5. Give concrete examples of the development of the use of renewable energy sources in the Republic of Kazakhstan. 6. Discuss the energy saving strategy in Kazakhstan. 7. What are the goals and principles of the global environmentally friendly energy strategy of sustainable development in the twenty-first century? 8. Name the goals and objectives of EXPO-2017. 9. Discuss the Development Strategy Goals of Kazakhstan until 2050. 10. Explain the idea of the G-global Project.

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Chapter 13 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN 1. Realization of the sustainable development concept of Kazakhstan 2. Environmental policy of Kazakhstan 3. Mechanisms for the implementation of environmental policy

Realization of the sustainable development concept of Kazakhstan For the Republic of Kazakhstan, the transition to sustainable development is an urgent necessity. Kazakhstan lags behind the most developed countries in terms of life quality, which is the main criteria for sustainable development. In the modern world, the quality of life is determined by the main components: longevity, well-being, education and the state of the environment. According to the quality of life index of the International University of Society, Nature and Human (Dubna, Russia), Kazakhstan ranks the 78th with a coefficient of 1.17, while the leader of the rating Norway has a coefficient of 3, 83, Russia – 1, 57, China – 0, 34. In Kazakhstan, the health status of the population and the life expectancy of people are significantly behind compared with those or other countries. Thus, the average life expectancy of the population in our country in 2017 was 72 years, while in Europe, this figure is 80.6 years, and in Japan, it reaches 84.6 years. The Environmental Performance Index 2016 (EPI). The study on the environmental performance of 180 countries was conducted under the auspices of the World Economic Forum. The index is based on 20 indicators, which are grouped into several categories: air and water purity, the state of agriculture and forestry, biological diversity, climate, public health. For the study, the information obtained from governmental organizations and academic communities 120

was used. As it is noted in the report, over the past year the environmental situation in the world has improved. Kazakhstan ranked the 69th in the rating, ahead of the Dominican Republic (70th), Kyrgyzstan (71st) and Tajikistan (72nd). The cleanest state of the environment plan was found in Finland, followed by Iceland and Sweden. Finland achieved the greatest success in the categories «Impact on Health», «Water and Sanitation», and «Biodiversity». The countries that suffered from conflicts and serious political problems were the least effective in the 2016 report: Somalia, Eritrea and Madagascar. The genuine (domestic) savings index (GSI), taking into account the depreciation and loss of natural capital, according to the World Bank, is 25.5 for the Republic of Kazakhstan, while for the Russian Federation it is -4.4, +14.8 – for Norway, and +4.4 for the USA. In 2018, Kazakhstan occupied the 58th place in the ranking of countries on the Human Development Index (HDI). Thus, in order to ensure that by 2024 the quality of life of the Republic of Kazakhstan will have achieved the level of the most competitive and developed countries in the world, it is necessary: − To improve the efficiency of resource use, − To increase life expectancy, − To ensure an increase in the index of environmental sustainability. The conducted calculations show that for a stable presence among the fifty competitive countries of the world, Kazakhstan's indicators should correspond to the following parameters: Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) should be not less than 43%, the total consumption of resources – not less than 246. 86 GW, the annual aggregate manufactured product – not less than 113.1 GW. According to the forecast, fifty of the most competitive countries of the world will correspond to such parameters in this period. With the ESI of 53%, the path to the «Sustainable Development» is provided, and economic growth occurs at the expense of more efficient technologies, rather than through the exploitation of non-renewable natural resources. The population of the Republic of Kazakhstan is an important criterion for sustainable development. Low population density (with

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a considerable length of borders) is always the factor of instability for the state development. Despite the fact that a significant part of the country's territory is difficult for economic development and it is impossible to set the task of proportional settlement in all regions of Kazakhstan, the population should be maintained at a certain level, thereby increasing economic opportunities (primarily solving labor market problems) while preserving the genetic and the cultural potential of Kazakhstan among the neighboring world nations, overcoming the undesirable differentiation between the regions, caused, in particular, by the weakness of the infrastructure and demographic imbalances. The most optimal target population level is 18 million inhabitants by 2024. For this purpose, it is required to bring the natural growth rate to 12,68 per 1000 people by 2024, the average life expectancy – up to 73 years, to maintain the birth rate at a level not lower than 22 births per 1000 people. The gap in the average life expectancy of male and female groups of population should be reduced to 7.5 years from the current 11 years. In the process of economic growth, it is necessary to increase environmental requirements, reduce anthropogenic pressure on the environment. That is why the index of environmental sustainability should be brought to the value of 88 points by 2024. This will ensure a significant improvement in the quality of population, which will approach the best world indicators. Table 13.1 Assessment of the parameters of the transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to sustainable development (2005 – 2024.) №

Integrated Measured Parameters

2005

2009

2012

2018

2024

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1

Population, mln people

15.05

15.66

16.13

17.13

18.18

2

Average life expectancy, years

65.91

67.87

68.89

70.99

73.14

3

Average life expectancy

0.66

0.68

0.69

0.70

0.73

122

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

4

Surplus of the average life expectancy of women over the average life expectancy of men, years

11.47

10.00

9.3

8.5

7.5

5

Power Consumption (for the previous year), GW

94.85

130.45

154.86

264.86

468.38

6

Power production (for the current year), GW

29.40

43.05

57.30

113.10

248.24

7

Power loss, GW

65.45

87.40

97.56

151.77

220.14

8

Efficiency of the use of resources, IES

0.31

0.33

0.37

0.43

0.53

9

Quality of the environment

0.91

0.95

0.99

0.93

0.95

10

Standard of living, kW / person.

1.95

2.75

3.55

6.60

13.65

11

Quality of life, kW / hour

1.17

1.78

2.43

435

9.49

12

Index of environmental sustainability, scores

63

68

73

75

88

The transition to sustainable development for the Republic of Kazakhstan will take place on a phased basis. For this, the parameters for sustainable development are determined for each stage (Table 13.1). Preparatory stage (2007-2009) – preparation of conditions for inclusion of the sustainable development principles in all spheres of public and political activity, diversification of the economy, implementation of technological breakthrough. The first stage (2010-2012) is to ensure the accession of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the list of the fifty most competitive countries in the world. The second stage (2013 – 2018) is the strengthening of the country's position among the world development leaders in terms of quality of life, a significant reduction in losses from irrational use of natural resources and assurance of a high level of the country’s environmental sustainability. 123

The third stage (2019-2024) is the achievement of the accepted international criteria for sustainable development. The main principles of transition to sustainable development in the Republic of Kazakhstan are: − Inclusion of the whole of society in the process of achieving sustainable development; − Creation of a political basis for sustainable development; − Interdepartmental integration, a systematic approach to state management, improvement of the efficiency of forecasting, planning and regulation of key development indicators; − Economic progress as a result of the active introduction of high technology into the economy of the country, increase in the efficiency of resource use; − Assurance of the competitiveness of science and education; − Improvement of the population health, demographic situation as a result of the introduction of the healthy society paradigm; − Improvement of environmental protection activities as the most important noospheric function of society; − Territorial development based on the trans-regional ecosystem approach. Priorities for the transition to sustainable development are: − Introduction of sustainable production and consumption patterns; − Use of new and environmentally friendly technologies; − Development of sustainable transport systems; − Energy efficiency and energy saving; − Regional problems of sustainable development; − Rise in the level of social security of the population; − Poverty alleviation, taking into account environmental and gender aspects; − Preservation of historical and cultural heritage; − Prevention and reduction of environmental threats to public health; − Combat against desertification; − Conservation of biological diversity; − Reduction of emissions, including greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting substances; 124

− Access to quality drinking water; − Solution of transboundary environmental problems; − Radiation and biochemical safety; − Waste management. Another program document in the field of environmental security is the Environmental Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2017). With the introduction of the EcoCodex, the previously valid Laws of the Republic of Kazakhstan: «On Environmental Protection», «On Environmental Expertise», «On Protection of Atmospheric Air» were abolished. At the same time, the main provisions of these Laws, amended and supplemented in accordance with the international approaches adopted in the Republic, are included in the relevant sections of the Code. The main objective of the Ecocode is the reform of environmental legislation aimed at bringing the environmental norms of the Republic of Kazakhstan closer to the directives of the European Union and international legal standards. Environmental security is understood as a state of protection of the natural environment and vital human interests from a possible negative impact of economic or other activities, emergencies of natural and man-made nature, their consequences. Environmental policy of Kazakhstan Beginning from the nineties, a new environmental policy of the transition period began to form in Kazakhstan, aimed at developing economic methods for regulating the use of natural resources, expanding the rights and powers of local governments. After gaining independence, Kazakhstan has repeatedly reaffirmed its commitment to the ideas of environmental security and sustainable development by signing the outcome documents of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio-92) and became an active participant in the «Environment for Europe» process, joined the major international conventions on climate change, combating desertification and preserving biodiversity. Kazakhstan is a regular participant in international environmental forums, a member of the UN Sustainable Development Commis125

sion. Kazakhstan actively initiates agreements on a bilateral and regional basis. Environmental policy is a policy towards the environment. The appearance of the term «ecopolitics» testifies to the recognition by the human society of the third dimension in environmental policy, as well as the need to consider the economic, social and environmental goals and tasks of the state as a single system. The four levels of eco-policy hierarchy: 1. International-global eco-policy is to conduct international legal, political and foreign policy actions, taking into account environmental constraints in socio-economic development, the global potential of natural resources (NR) and their global deployment. For example: economic zones in the World Ocean, quotas (shares, norms) for the withdrawal of specific stocks of specific NR, payment for pollution of the environment have been agreed, prohibitions are imposed on the discharge of certain substances (washing water from tankers, ozone-depleting substances). 2. Regional (macro-regional) eco-policy covers the interests of one continent, subcontinent, a large region of the world (Europe, the Mediterranean, the Danube Basin, the Caspian region, Baltic countries) and provides for the creation of border reserves, cooperation of the countries in controlling trans boundary air and water pollution, establishing regional quotas for the seizure of living natural resources. 3. National (state) eco-policy involves the adoption and implementation of socio-economic solutions and international treaties relating to the ecological state of the territories (water areas, airspace), natural and resource potential. 4. Local eco-policy is an analogue of the state policy within the boundaries of small territorial entities (river basin, economic region). Specific methods are tools for environmental policy: − Fiscal methods – directly related to finance; − Non-fiscal methods – legal support of nature protection activities, economic rationing, education, etc. Fiscal instruments are those: − Related to government revenues (licensing of nature use, taxes). − Related to government costs (environmental targeted investments, state support for environmental R&D activities (research and 126

development), public funding for environmental activities, environmental programs). Mechanisms for implementing eco-policy 1. Legal 2. Administrative 3. Information 4. Economic The legal mechanism includes all the existing laws on the protection of the natural environment and natural resources. Administrative regulation covers a number of management methods based on domestic and foreign experience, among which there are: environmental quality standards, environmental impact standards, direct prohibitions, technological standards, product quality standards, environmental certificates, permits and licenses. The system of ecological standards implies the establishment of unified and mandatory for all objects system of managing norms and requirements. The regulatory body for managing environmental problems and nature management issues in Kazakhstan is the Committee for Environmental Protection, whose mission is the «harmonization of interactions between society and the environment». The committee is entrusted with the primary responsibility for the protection of nature and the rational use of natural resources. It is the central executive body of the Republic in the field of environmental protection and coordinates the activities of other central executive bodies that carry out functions of environmental protection and environmental management, conducts state supervision and forms a unified state policy in the field of environmental protection. Information management is a set of information on natural resources, natural conditions, as well as the activities of nature users. Provision with information required for making a management decision precedes the application of certain methods. At the same time, information support should be effected in accordance with the requirements and requests of environmental management systems. 127

Economic Regulation The economic mechanism includes: − Planning and financing of environmental protection measures; − Payment for emissions into the environment; − Payment for the use of certain types of natural resources; − Economic incentives for environmental protection; − Market mechanisms and trading of quotas for emissions into the environment; − Environmental insurance; − Economic evaluation of damage to the environment; National and regional environmental programs are the most important means of implementing the state environmental policy. (XIII) General subjective types of questions 1. What is the relationship of the concepts: the ecological footprint, the quality of the environment, the Human Development Index (HDI)? 2. What are the general principles of environmental policy? 3. What is the legal basis for nature use? 4. What is the legal bases for the environmental policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan? 5. Identify the main stages in the formation of Kazakhstan's environmental policy 6. What are the main strategic directions for environmental protection in Kazakhstan? 7. What are the main tasks of environmental NGOs? 8. Name the legal framework for environmental management in Kazakhstan. 9. What are the main principles of Kazakhstan's environmental policy? 10. Name the main strategic directions of the Republic of Kazakhstan for the improvement of the environment. 11. What basic documents determine Kazakhstan's commitment to the transition to sustainable development? 12. What are the main principles of environmental safety in Kazakhstan? 13. What steps are envisaged in the Concept of the transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to sustainable development? 14. Name the main environmental indicators of sustainable development. 15. What are the priorities of Kazakhstan's transition to sustainable development? 16. How will the ESI increase be ensured in Kazakhstan? 17. What measures are envisaged to increase the average life expectancy of the population in Kazakhstan?

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Chapter 14 SOCIAL ASPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Human rights. Wealth and poverty Health of the individual and family Development of civil society Education for Sustainable Development Formation of ecological culture

Human rights. Wealth and poverty Social criteria of human quality as a biological individual are health, wellbeing, education. The existing disparity in the conditions and life quality leads to deep economic and social differentiation. This is another source of people self-conflict. Currently, the number of economically active population does not exceed one billion that means each worker provides himself and five other people. Problems of unemployment, job shortages cause a whole chain of deformations in the economy and negative social phenomena from poverty to the growth of crime. Millions of people are forced to be engaged in some activities that, from the point of view of social ecology, are essentially unnecessary or even contrary to the normal sustainable existence of humanity: in production of weapons, poisonous substances, drugs, etc. The economic inequality of the states, aggravated by the growth of population, leads to geopolitical contradictions, the growing pressure of immigration on economically prosperous countries, separatism, terrorism, interethnic and interreligious conflicts. All these problems are the barriers to the environmentally friendly economy and social order, the transition of the humankind to the path of an environmentally oriented post-industrial civilization. In the twentieth century, a very rapid increase in population is called a demographic explosion. The contribution of different countries and continents to the overall picture of population growth is not the same. The largest increase is observed in Asian countries – China, India, and Indonesia. 129

Fighting poverty and preventing social stratification. In the relative concept of poverty, the income of an individual is compared with the average level of well-being achieved in a given society. According to this concept, a person or a family is considered poor if the means at their disposal do not allow them to lead the life style adopted in the society where they live. To measure relative poverty, a relative poverty line is used. It determines the proportion of the population living below the level of the average income that exists in the society at a certain stage of its development. The cost of living is used for: 1. The assessment of living standards and poverty lines; 2. Definition of the directions of social policy and implementation of social support measures; 3. Justification of the minimum wages, pensions, allowances and other social benefits. Based on the international experience, the most effective and comprehensive social protection systems include the following main elements: 1. State benefits; 2. Compulsory social insurance; 3. Accumulative funded pension 4. Social help. As part of measures to ensure sustainable development of Kazakhstan society, it is necessary to take further steps to eliminate poverty by adopting a set of interrelated measures, especially in rural areas. These results will be achieved by: − Economy growth of all the regions of the country; − Development of agriculture, including the use of more efficient modern agricultural technologies; − Increase in the efficiency of the system of social protection of the population, including simplification of bureaucratic procedures in obtaining social benefits, improvement of employment policies; − Involvement of the business community regions in the solution of the problems of poverty in the regions of the country. Health of individual and family The demographic situation. The further development of Kazakhstan society should be based on the formation of a stable demog130

raphic situation characterized by an increase in the average life expectancy with a proportional increase in the birth rate and the preservation of the proportion of working-age population in the age structure. These tasks will be achieved by means of:  The decrease in the population overall mortality for the reasons of domestic, industrial and road traumatism, cardiovascular and oncological diseases, respiratory diseases, through the implementation of comprehensive prevention programs;  The decrease in infant and maternal mortality due to improved measures of protection of the reproductive health of population;  The improvement of the life quality of the elderly by adopting special gerontological programs;  The stimulation of the birth rate through social policy, adequate for the purposes of population growth, including education and employment, housing provision, the system of social payments;  The implementation of measures to prevent (decrease the growth rate) of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and HIV as well;  The organization of continuous monitoring of the demographic situation with the analysis of the results and preparation of managerial decisions; Improvement of the health of the nation. To ensure a sustainable development the people of Kazakhstan are in need of a cardinal solution to the task of creating a healthy lifestyle, which involves the implementation of the following measures: − Restriction of tobacco smoking, ban on the sale of tobacco products in common trading halls, prohibition of smoking in public places and tobacco products advertising, anti-tobacco company in the media, stimulation of quitting smoking in the «influence groups» – the doctors, civil servants, educators; − Restriction of alcohol consumption, ban on advertising of spirits, tightening the control over the alcoholic beverages quality; − Intensification of the fight against drug addiction and drug trafficking, including the propaganda of non-acceptance of drugs and formation of public anti-drug immunity;

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− Improvement of nutrition standards, increase in the consumption of natural juices and dairy products per capita, promotion of healthy nutrition, strengthening of the control of food quality on the domestic market; − Increase in physical activity, including expansion of the network of free sports clubs and gyms, children's sports sections, stimulation of motor activity and healthy lifestyle through social advertising; − Involvement of young people in the realization of the project «My motherland is Kazakhstan», as well as active participation of tour guides in the organization of ecotourism activities; − Systematic approach to the work on the introduction of the healthy lifestyle principles and shaping in the citizens of the country the perception of sport and active types of ecotourism as a new ideology for improving the life quality of Kazakhstan’s people. Health care. To ensure sustainable development of Kazakhstan society, it is necessary to improve the health care system, including: − Selection of the best economic model for health development; − Creation of high medical technologies centers with the participation of leading world specialists; − Development of the medical market with the state and nonstate participation; − Constant increase in health financing per capita, support of voluntary medical insurance as one of the important elements of the economic healthcare system; − Active use of recreational resources of Kazakhstan nature, including creation of a network of sanatorium-resort and rehabilitation institutions of the international level; − A radical improvement in the system of maternal and child health, obstetrics, and protection of reproductive health of men and women. Industrial security and labor protection. Assurance of sustainnable development in the field of industrial security and labor protection will be achieved by: − Implementation of international standards of safety and labor protection in industrial enterprises; 132

− Spread of culture of safe behavior and increase in the responsibility of both employers and employees for meeting safety requirements; − Implementation of measures for risk assessment and risk management; − Strengthening the state control over the compliance with safety standards; − Arrangement of independent audit of safety and labor protection at production facilities. Development of civil society In the Republic of Kazakhstan, the appropriate measures should be taken to further develop the civil society, primarily through: − Development of local government; − Enhancement of civil consciousness of the population through the activities of patriotically oriented political parties, social movements; − Development of the patriotic education of youth; − Strengthening of the role of the public in the process of ensuring the transition to sustainable development; − Expansion of the population's access to information, the development of «e-government». Education for Sustainable Development Ecological knowledge is called upon to form an active environmental position. Culture and information. Cultural ecology is the whole complex of skills of being in contact with the environment. Sustainable development of culture and information policy in the Kazakh society will be provided by: − Priority creation and support of cultural organizations both at the national, local and, especially, rural level; − Measures to preserve paleontological, archaeological and architectural monuments and cultural heritage of Kazakhstan, which are of national and global significance; 133

− Propaganda of the best achievements of Kazakh culture and art at the international level; − Support for the universally valid directions of the national culture, primarily cinema art, folk and symphonic music, aitys, drama theater, opera and ballet, fine arts; − Increase in patriotic orientation and professional culture in the work of mass media − Creation of the Kazakhstan segment of the Internet, functionning on the principles of public freedom of information. Formation of ecological culture Ecological education is a purposefully organized, systematically carried out process of mastering ecological knowledge, skills and attainments. The system of education and science in the Republic of Kazakhstan will be consistent with the goals and principles of sustainable development. The improvement of education and science for sustainnable development should be carried out on the basis of: − Assurance of modernization of the national multi-level education system; − Establishment of the elite educational institutions and campuses at the international level; − Modernization of education at the scientific and methodo-logical level, creation of fundamentally new structures that ensure interrelationship of educational, scientific and production processes; − Introduction of technological training in secondary schools to develop new abilities in the students, including the ability to design , make decisions and perform creative work, maintain a high level of innovations; − Preparation of a competitive personality ready for active participation in the social, economic and political life of the country; − Assurance of equal access to full-fledged education for different categories of students, creation of conditions for training high school students in accordance with their individual abilities and intentions to continue education, self-realization and search for their place on the labor market; − Creation of broad opportunities for socialization of students, effective training of school leavers for mastering vocational educational programs; 134

− Monitoring of the personnel (staff) potential of the Republic relying on the forecast demand for specialists of the highest scientific qualification both at the national and regional level; − Reformation of the domestic science with the orientation to both its own and foreign traditions, with the support not only of research areas giving immediate feedback, but also of the scientific community as a whole, which is an essential element of sustainable development of society; − Formation of the National Innovation System as the most important condition for realizing the links between science and production; − Stimulation of the introduction of domestic scientific achievements into practice; − Establishment of technological institutes and provision of their funding for the research and development in the field of advanced technology so that the target production schemes would be based on the technologies adapted to the local conditions, technologies for environmental rehabilitation, and technologies based on traditional knowledge; − Improvement of the regulatory framework in the field of intellectual property protection, use of patents, establishment of legal relations with foreign and domestic investors and private enterprises using the results of scientific research. (XIV) General subjective types of questions 1. Describe the issues of preserving peace and international security. 2. What documents define human rights? 3. What national program is aimed at improving the health of the Kazakhstan population? 4. Describe the process of civil society development in Kazakhstan. 5. Explain the tasks of social ecology. 6. How are social and global ecology correlated? 7. Define in brief a socio – ecosystem. 8. What are the names of the programs aimed at raising the level of social safety of the Kazakhstan population? 9. Name the programs aimed at the development of science and education in Kazakhstan. What are the names of the programs? 10. Which state programs are aimed at preventing and reducing environmental threats to the health of the population of Kazakhstan?

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Chapter 15 GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 1. Implementation of the sustainable development concept at the global level. Preservation of peace and international security 2. Development of civil society. Activities of non-governmental organizations 3. International environmental policy of Kazakhstan. Astana Initiative «Green Bridge»

Implementation of the sustainable development concept at the global level. Preservation of peace and international security At present, there is no doubt that the continuation of the economic, demographic, socio-geographical and environmental trends that emerged in the second half of the twentieth century, leads to the deepest crisis of the modern civilization. According to various estimates, humankind disposes about 30 to 60 years to radically change the course. Therefore, now there is an intensive search for the optimal path of development. From the standpoint of the model of sustainable development, the prevention of a new world war is the most important global problem of humanity. An integrated approach to the problems of disarmament would be in the interests of all countries of the world. The best way to prevent nuclear war is to radically change the relationship between the world's largest powers. New political thinking was embodied in the transition from the principle of «class struggle» to the principle of «universal human values». Development of civil society. Activity of non-governmental organizations Environmental NGOs (non-governmental organizations) around the world are fighting for the sustainable use of resources, restoration 136

and protection of the environment through changes in public policy, behavior of citizens and control over production technologies and reporting on the environmental pollution. The work of environmental NGOs is linked to their crucial mission of moving towards sustainnable development, i.e. to the promotion of sustainable development – such forms of the development in which economic growth, material production and consumption lie within the capacity of natural ecosystems to recover, absorb pollution and sustain the livelihoods of present and future generations. The main tasks of environmental NGOs are: − development and implementation of measures to ensure environmental security and public health protection; − education and advocacy; assistance in the implementation of national and international programs; − participation in the development of normative and legislative acts in the sphere of environment and nature management. International environmental policy of Kazakhstan. Astana Initiative «Green Bridge» The modern world is experiencing a multidimensional global financial and environmental crisis. There is an urgent need to revise existing approaches to understanding the principles of the relationship between society and nature. In this context, Kazakhstan's initiative voiced at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development Rio + 20 in June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro is very timely. There the idea of creating the «Green Bridge» program was put forward on behalf of the country. The main purpose of this program is to support the initiatives of the Head of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev – Global Energy and Ecological Strategy for Sustainable Development in the XXIst Century, the Green Bridge Partnership Program, which contains scientifically sound and innovative principles required to overcome global challenges. Global Energy and Sustainable Development Strategy of the XXI century , put forward in the framework of the relatively new direction development for our country, is the most important document whose task is to innovate the world's existing energy 137

technologies and scale up the modernization of the world energy sector. One of the key tasks in the implementation of the «Green Bridge» program is the creation of a single educational space, enhancement of the role of the young and their mobilization for the practical implementation of the initiatives for sustainable innovation development. Al-Farabi Kazakh National University was the first among the universities of the Central Asia to develop the mechanisms of implementing practical recommendations in the field of sustainable development in cooperation with the leading universities of the world. Scientific and educational programs of personnel training in the field of design and management of sustainable innovative and energyenvironmental development in the regions, industries and enterprises of the Republic of Kazakhstan are being worked out. Al-Farabi Kazakh National University became the only one among the universities of the CIS countries that has organized its own section at the UN Conference on Sustainable Development Rio + 20 in June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), with the participation of representatives of the UN, state structures of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the academic community. At this conference, the idea of creating a consortium of universities «Green Bridge through Generations» was put forward, and this idea found the active support of the conference participants. The Consortium «Green Bridge through Generations» promoted the unification of the efforts of states, international organizations, public and business sectors, universities of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the countries of near and far abroad. The green bridge assumes:  Transition to energy-efficient economy;  Attraction of investments in the green economy;  Application and development of advanced innovations; The Green Office is the Green Campus management algorithm aimed at minimizing the negative impact on the environment of any organization's activities through the rational use and savings of both environmental resources and the resources of the organization itself. The idea of creating the «Green Office» originated in the 80-ies of XX century, and it was later supported and developed by the UN 138

Conference on Sustainable Development »Rio + 20» in 2012. This project strengthens its influence due to the expansion and active promotion of the principles of the Green Campus, the Green Economy on a global scale and with the support of the UN Office. The concept of «the Green campus» is a comprehensive approach that includes technical, informational, educational, and motivational activities aimed at implementation of environmental policy in the corporate university. The youth movement Green Campus, Green Way is a program widely used in the universities in Great Britain, the United States and other developed countries aimed at attracting young people to manage their universities using environmentally safe and innovative methods. The implementation of this strategy in Kazakhstan is based on the Al-Farabi Kazakh National University in Almaty. This project will teach the youth a careful attitude to natural resources and will be the beginning for a full transition to the regime «With nature on YOU!» (XV) General subjective types of questions 1. Give examples of the international anti-nuclear movement. 2. Explain the role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in solving environmental problems. 3. Give examples of participation of the international youth organizations in solving environmental problems. 4. Give examples of the implementation of international cooperation in the field of sustainable development. 5. Give examples of the implementation of the «Green Bridge» program at the global, regional levels. 6. Name the principles of the International Ecopolitics of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 7. What is the Astana initiative of «Green Bridge»? 8. Name the kind of practical steps that have been taken in Kazakhstan in the implementation of the strategy for sustainable development? 9. Discuss the principles and idea of the program «Green Bridge through Generations». 10. Give examples of the implementation of the Youth Environmental Programs.

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TERMINOLOGY AND DEFENITIONS Glossary for Chapter – 1: Environment means all natural and artificial objects including atmospheric air, the ozone layer of the Earth, surface and groundwater, land, subsoil, flora and fauna, as well as the climate in their interaction. A widely used concept environment refers to that part of the environment with the elements of which the given organism is currently in contact and directly or indirectly interacts. Ecology is the science of the relationship between living organisms and their environment. The term ecology (from the Greek »Oikos» – dwelling, abode and »logos» – teaching) was introduced into the scientific use by German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1866). Habitat is a set of conditions in which this individual exists. The landscape is the main category of territorial division of the geographic envelope of the Earth. Ecologization (greening) reflects an important trend of modern science – the search for synthesis (the world is one, nature does not know the faculties). Modern ecology is a science in which, based on a systematic approach, the largest generalizations of the «classical» ecology are combined with human ecology, environmental science and the problems of the relationship between man and nature. The main sections of modern ecology are: − Common ecology (autecology, synecology, demecology) − Autecology is the section of ecology, which studies the ecology of individual specimens of a given species, the ecology of the species. − Synecology is the section of ecology, which studies the interaction of communities with the habitat. − Demecology is the ecology of populations, the focus of which is on the dynamics of numbers. − Bioecology (the doctrine of the biosphere, the ecology of groups of organisms, the ecology of natural biosystems, evolutionary ecology). − Geoecology (ecology of geospheres, natural zones, climatelogy of regions, countries, continents) − Human ecology (bioecology of man, humanity) − Social ecology (ecology of the individual, family, ethnos and ethnogenesis, demographic ecology) − Theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the life organization. − Applied ecology (environmental economy of nature management, engineering ecology, bioresources and trade ecology, medical ecology). Glossary for Chapter – 2: Ecological factors are such properties of the components of an ecosystem and its external environment that have a direct effect on individuals of a given population.

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The factors that are necessary for the life of the organism – food, water, heat, light, oxygen – are defined as conditions of existence. Other factors that do not necessarily function consistently are called exposure factors. The factors characterizing the availability of various forms of matter and energy, temporal changes of which are subject to conservation laws are called resources. The most important ecological factors are considered as resources of the biosphere. Abiotic factors – it is a set of inorganic conditions of the organism. Biotic factors are caused by intraspecific and interspecific interactions. The range of quantitative values of the ecological factor, within which representatives of a given species may exist, is called a bio-interval of the factor. External factors affect the organism, the population, but do not experience direct reverse action: solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Internal factors are related to the properties of the system itself and form its composition: abundance of food, concentration of substances, etc. Anthropogenic impacts generated by human activities constitute a special group. The anthropogenic factors associated with the use of machinery, machines, are called technogenic factors. Factors that are stronger than other ones affect the state of the organism or population are called limiting factors. Critical factor is the factor that is the closest to tolerance limit and the state of the organism in which the damage is reversible, when the ability to self-recovery remains after the cessation of negative circumstances. If the damage is irreversible and leads to the inevitable death of the organism, then this condition and state is called lethal. The multidimensional ecological space formed by combining the survival diagrams for the essential environmental factors of a given species or population is called an ecological niche. To develop and implement the ecological potency of the species, an optimal combination of the leading factors is necessary. This requirement is called the law of joint action of factors. Law of the minimum by J. Liebig: Growth of plants depends on the element that is present in the minimum amount. V. Shelford's law of tolerance (1913): the absence or impossibility of prosperity is determined by a lack (qualitatively or quantitatively) or vice versa by an excess of any of a number of factors level of which may be close to the limits tolerated by the given organism. These two limits are called limits of tolerance. Organisms that require conditions limited by a narrow range of tolerance are called stenobiontic organisms, and those capable of living in a wide range of factors are eurybiontic. Glossary for Chapter – 3: The species is a natural biological unit, a set of individuals possessing a number of common morpho-physiological characters inhabiting a certain area, capable of crossing within this unit with the formation of healthy offspring.

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A population is a collection of individuals of a single biological species inhabiting one territory, having a common gene pool, and the possibility of crossing. Static indices of the population are quantity, density, biomass, and age and sex composition. Abundance is the number of individuals in a population. It can vary considerably in time and depends on the biotic potential of the species and the external conditions. Density is the number of the individuals or biomass of population per a unit of area or volume. Dynamic population indicators are birth rate, mortality, speed of immigration and emigration. Birth rate – is the ability of the population to increase in number, or the number of offspring produced by one female in 1 year. In human society, the birth rate is expressed as the number of births per 1000 people a year. Mortality is the death rate of individuals per unit of time in the absence of limiting factors. Population growth rate is expressed as a gain of population and growth rate of population where a population gain is a difference between birth rate and mortality. The gain can be positive, zero and negative. The rate of gain of population is the average gain for a unit of time. Ecotope is the habitat of the community. Each ecosystem includes groups of organisms that differ in the way they feed – autotrophs (self-feeding or producers) and heterotrophs (feeding on others or otherwise – consumers). Producers are autotrophic organisms that produce food from simple inorganic substances. Depending on the power source, heterotrophs are divided into several types: consumers, detritophages and decomposers. Consumers are the organisms-consumers of the organic matter of living organisms. These include phytophages, i.e. feeding on living plants, zoophagous – eating other animals, parasites living at the expense of host substances. Detritophages are organisms that feed on dead organic matter – plant and animal remains. Reducents are bacteria and lower fungi that complete the destructive work of consumers and detritophages, bringing the decomposition of organic matter to its full mineralization and returning to the environment portions of carbon dioxide, water and mineral elements. Interspecific relationships can be classified as follows: Neutralism (0,0) is the type of relationship between populations in which they do not form significant direct interactions. Amensalism (-, 0) is any interspecific relationship in which one population negatively affects the other one and does not experience significant response on its part. For example, the suppression of the growth of grass by the shading trees. Commensalism (+, 0) – the relations of this type favorably affect the state of one population and do not affect the state of the other one in any way. For example – lichens living on the trunk of a pine.

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Mutually beneficial interspecific relations (+, +) – here both populations mutually benefit. Mutualism – for example: flowering plants and insects pollinating them. Competition (-, -) – it is observed in populations of two species adversely affecting each other. Relations of the «victim-exploiter» type (+, -). It is a group united by a variety of relationships between species. For example – a victim and a predator Glossary for Chapter – 4: The ecological system is the main object of ecology, in the general sense, this system is a real or conceivable set of parts whose properties are determined by the interaction between the parts of the system. The biosphere is a global ecosystem, a special active shell of the Earth, whose composition, structure and energy are determined by the existence and activity of living organisms. The biosphere is a collection of parts of the earth's shells (litho-, hydro-, and atmosphere), which is inhabited by living organisms, is under their influence and is filled with the products of their vital activity. The term biosphere was introduced by the Austrian geologist E. Zuss (1873). Six elements – carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus – account for an average of 99% of the composition of all living things. These elements are called biogenic elements. Ecosphere is a planetary space where the global ecological processes occur, the interaction between the modern biosphere and the technosphere, their sum. According to Vernadsky, the biosphere substance consists of: Living matter – biomass of living organisms Biogenic substance – all forms of detritus, peat, coal, oil and gas. Bio-nutrients – mixtures of nutrients with mineral rocks (soils, ores, natural waters). Bare substance – rocks, minerals, deposits. Biomass – the total mass of individuals of a species, group, population referred to the area or volume of the habitat. The noosphere is the sphere of the mind that arises as a result of the appearance of man on the Earth and its interaction with the natural environment. The law of constancy says that the amount of living matter of the biosphere (for a certain geological time) is a constant value. The pressure of life is the ability to produce offspring. Ecosystem is a spatially defined set of living organisms and their habitats, combined by real-energy and information interactions. The term was introduced into the ecology by English botanist A. Tensley (1935). Abiotic component – biotope or ecotope – is a site with the same landscape, climatic, soil conditions. Biotic component – community or biocenosis – is the totality of all living organisms that inhabit this biotope. Succession is the process of development of the ecosystem from its inception to death, accompanied by the change in existing species in it. Community is the totality of living organisms that make up this ecosystem.

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Homeostasis of the body is the self-renewal and maintenance of the constancy of its internal environment Adaptation is the adaptability of the organism to conditions of existence. Ontogenesis is a set of transformations that the organism undergoes from the beginning to the end of life. Prokaryotes are low-organized pre-nuclear organisms (bacteria, blue-green algae). Eukaryotes are highly organized nuclear organisms, represented by three kingdoms: animals, plants, mushrooms. Biocenosis is a set of populations that are adapted to co-habitation in a given territory. The biotope is the space occupied by the biocenosis. Biogeocenosis is an ecological system that includes a community of different species under certain geological conditions. Biological diversity is the number of living organisms, species and ecosystems. Emergence is a property characterizing the degree of irreducibility of the properties of a system to the properties of individual elements of which it consists. Stability is the predominance of internal interactions over external ones that determines the stability and the ability to self-preservation of the organisms. The principle of evolution is the principle of the emergence and existence of all systems due to evolution. Self-sustaining dynamic systems evolve towards the complication of organization and the emergence of a subsystem hierarchy. The rule of maximum life pressure: this means that the total amount of living matter of all organisms of the planet changes relatively little within the limits of large time intervals. Bionics is the science of applying the principles of the action of living systems to solve engineering problems. Ecological pyramid is a graphic representation of the ratio of trophic levels. There may be three types – abundance, biomass, energy. Glossary for Chapter – 5: The ecological and climatic characteristics of the area include average annual values and seasonal temperature variations, absolute minimums and maximums. Based on this, a macroclimate is determined for any territory, and special diagrams are plotted – climograms. For individual landscapes, the mesoclimate is characteristic. Some habitats may have their own microclimate, which differs markedly from the macroclimate. According to the law of the energy pyramid, about 10% of the energy passes from each level to the next one (the rule of 10%). Plants intercept some of the precipitation and promote the evaporation of moisture before it reaches the ground. Soil moisture is absorbed by plant roots, participates in the metabolism and then evaporates from the leaves (transpiration). Together with evaporation from the soil surface, transpiration is total evaporation or evapotranspiration. The cycle of biogenic elements, caused by the synthesis and decomposition of organic substances in the ecosystem, is called a biotic cycle.

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Photosynthesis is the use of sun light by green plants and some microorganisms for conversion of the simplest substances (water, carbon dioxide and mineral elements) into complex organic substances necessary for the life of all organisms. The cycle of biogenic elements, i.e. the synthesis and decomposition of organic substances in the ecosystem, is called the biotic cycle. An international instrument – the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005, regulated emissions of greenhouse gases. The Paris Climate Agreement (2015) provides for keeping the growth of the global average temperature «much lower» than 2 ° C and «makes an effort» to limit the temperature rise to 1.5 ° C. Glossary for Chapters 6 and 7: The ecological niches of man constantly changed, increasing with the increase in the speed of changes of the stages of the historical development of humanity. The environment surrounding the human being, in addition to factors common to all terrestrial animals of the environment, includes the material and social environment created by the human himself. They form a single complex system of interacting factors. Demographic explosion is a very rapid increase in the population in the twentieth century. Anthropogenic means caused by human activity. All natural material and energy resources used by man are usually called natural resources. Resources of the ecosphere are represented only by renewable resources of substances, energy and information under the control of living organisms. Resources of the technosphere, in addition to some of the resources of the ecosphere, captured by man and torn from the biotic cycle, include non-renewable resources extracted from the subsoil. Renewable resources are substances created on the Earth. Non-renewable resources are minerals, ores, Degradation is the deterioration of the state, loss of quality. Natural and resource potential is a part of natural resources that can be really involved in economic activity under given technical and socio-economic conditions of the society that allow preserving the human environment. Urbanization is the process of increasing the number of cities and increasing the number of urban residents. Equilibrium is a state where individual parameters of the system are unchanged or oscillate around a certain mean value. Pollution of the environment is the entry into the environment of any solid, liquid and gaseous substances, microorganisms or energies (in the form of sounds, noises, radiations) in quantities harmful to the normal state of the ecosystem. A pollutant is a substance or a mixture of substances that exceeds the established standards and has a negative impact on the environment. The types of pollution: chemical (carbon monoxide and nitric oxide in cities), physical (heat, noise, radioactive elements) and biological pollution (microbes, viruses)

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In terms of scale and distribution, pollution can be local, regional and global. Acid rain is the rain, containing oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide. Mutation is a change in the genetic code that is inherited. Insecticides are chemicals used to control harmful insects. Defoliants are chemical substances that cause the leaves to fall off. Herbicides are chemicals used to control undesirable plants in agriculture. Pesticides are substances used to control pests in agriculture. Eutrophication is a sharp increase in the biomass of phytoplankton due to mass reproduction of blue-green algae, causing the flowering of water, deterioration of its quality and living conditions of hydrobionts. Depletion of water should be understood as an unacceptable reduction in its reserves within a certain territory or a decrease in the minimum allowable runoff (for surface waters). Erosion (wind, water) is the destruction and demolition of the upper fertile horizons and underlying rocks by wind or streams of water. Desertification is the process of irreversible changes in soil and vegetation and a decrease in biological productivity, which can lead to a complete destruction of the biosphere potential and the transformation of the territory into a desert. The traditional sources of energy include, first of all, thermal, atomic energy and energy of the flow of water. Glossary for Chapter – 8: Environmental damage is a significant regional violation of environmental conditions, which seriously threatens the health, lives of people, and causes economic damage. Sudden catastrophic damage is associated with emergencies, the latter are divided into natural disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mudflows, etc.) and anthropogenic (technogenic) disasters – industrial and communication accidents, explosions, collapses, etc.) Technogenic catastrophes are accompanied by the release of harmful chemical and radioactive substances into the environment. Zones of an environmental emergency are the areas of the territory where, as a result of economic or other activities, stable negative changes in the environment arise. Areas of environmental disaster are the areas of the territory where, as a result of economic or other activity, profound irreversible environmental changes occurred that resulted in significant deterioration of public health, disturbance of natural balance, destruction of natural ecosystems, degradation of flora and fauna. Greenhouse effect is the increase in the atmospheric concentration of the socalled greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, etc.) absorbing the thermal radiation of the earth's surface, that leads to a warming of the climate. Ozone layer (screen) is the layer of the atmosphere, lying at the altitudes of 7 km up to 50 km and having an increased content of ozone molecules. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are fully halogenated paraffin hydrocarbons that contain only carbon (С), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F), produced as volatile derivative of methane, ethane, and propane. These are also commonly known under

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the DuPont brand name Freons. The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12 or Freon-12). Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosols), and solvents. As CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) e.g., R-410A and R-134a. The environmental crisis (EC) refers to the current state of the relationship between human society and the environment in which a human lives, characterized by the contradictions between the economic interests of the society in the consumption and use of the environment and the environmental requirements for ensuring conservation, quality of this environment for the survival of the society itself. Environmental security is the state of the environment protection and vital human interests from the possible negative impact of economic or other activities, emergencies of natural and anthropogenic nature and their consequences. Smog is a combination of gaseous and solid impurities, aerosol phase in the atmosphere. Glossary for Chapters 9 and 10: Humanism is a worldview based on the principles of equality, justice, humanity. The Roman Club is an international non-governmental scientific organization uniting scientists, political and public figures of many countries. The activities of the Club of Rome are aimed at developing tactics and strategies for resolving global problems. The Roman Club was established in 1968 by Italian economist A. Peccei. UNEP – the United Nations Environment Program. The initial task was to develop recommendations on the most acute problems of the oncoming environmental crisis – desertification, soil degradation, freshwater reduction, ocean pollution, deforestation, loss of valuable species of animals and plants. First World Conference on the Environment / 1972. Stockholm / with the participation of 113 states. The International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED) was established in 1983. The Man and the Biosphere Program is an international research program of the UNESCO, the continuation of the International Biological Program «Man and Biosphere». The program is aimed at solving a number of biological and environmental issues formulated as separate sub-program projects. United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development – 1992. Rio de Janeiro / The main outcome of the Conference was the adoption of the document »Agenda for the XXIst century» of the world program – the Concept of Sustainable Development. In 1992, the Global Forum of the NGO representatives took place in Rio, which adopted ideological guidelines: – Economic development in isolation from environment leads to the transformation of the Earth into a desert. – Environment without economic development is poverty for everyone.

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– Inevitability of compromises and sacrifices on the part of developed countries on the path to sustainable development. Heidelberg call of eminent scientists widely disseminated at the Rio conference it was noted that human progress has always been associated with the use of nature. World Summit – Rio + 10, / 2002 Johannesburg / The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) until 2015 require to: 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 2. Ensure universal primary education, 3. Promote equality between men and women, 4. Reduce child mortality, 5. Improve maternal health, 6. Fight HIV / AIDS, and other diseases, 7. Ensure environmental sustainability, 8. Form a global partnership for the development. The cadaster is a systematized quantitative and qualitative set of information on natural resources. Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present, but does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of environmental security of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a document developed on April 30, 1996 on the instructions of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Concept of Transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to Sustainable Development for 2007-2024 defines the vision of principles, goals, objectives and basic mechanisms for achieving sustainability in all spheres of the country's life, aimed at improving the quality of life of the population of Kazakhstan. High technologies are new generally recognized achievements in engineering and technological processes, realized in the form of new and improved products and the most environmentally friendly technology used to integrate products produced in the Republic of Kazakhstan into the world market. Glossary for Chapters 11 – 13: Environmental protection is the activities of public authorities, local governments, public associations, legal entities and individuals aimed at preserving and restoring the environment, at rational use and reproduction of natural resources, prevention of the negative impact of economic or other activities on the environment and the elimination of its consequences. Rational nature management is nature management with the conservation of ecological balance. A favorable environment is the state of the environment, the quality of which ensures the sustainable functioning of natural ecosystems, natural and naturalanthropogenic objects. Natural resources are components of the natural environment, natural objects and natural-anthropogenic objects that are used or can be used for economic and

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other activities as sources of energy, products of production and consumer goods and have a consumer value. A natural object is a natural ecological system, a natural landscape and the elements that make them up and retain their natural properties. Subsoil is a part of the earth's crust located below the soil layer, and in its absence – below the earth's surface and the bottom of the seas, lakes, rivers and other bodies of water, extending to the depths available for subsoil operations taking into account scientific and technological progress. A subsoil user is an individual or legal entity who has the right to conduct subsoil operations. Agro-ecosystems are created by man for obtaining high yields – a pure production of autotrophs. Anthropogenic object is an object created by a human to ensure his social needs that does not possess the properties of natural objects. Safe subsoil use is the provision of technical, environmental and sanitaryepidemiological safety in the course of subsoil use operations. Efficient management is the management of the interaction of society and nature based on the use of economic, administrative, social, technological and informational factors with the aim of achieving the quality (condition) of the natural environment that ensures the sustainable development of society and nature. Monitoring of the environment is a long-term observation of the state of the environment, its pollution and natural phenomena occurring in it, as well as the assessment of the state of the natural environment. Local monitoring is carried out in separate ecological objects. Its purpose is to ensure an economic strategy that does not allow exceeding the permissible limits of pollution. A variety of local impact monitoring activities is carried out in especially dangerous areas. Regional monitoring is monitoring of processes and phenomena within a significant area, which differs from neighboring areas by natural conditions. Global monitoring is conducted to obtain information on the biosphere. Its specific goals are defined in the framework of international cooperation, agreements and declarations. To analyze anthropogenic impact, background monitoring is often used – monitoring of the natural concentration or the degree of exposure of objects to natural substances and other agents. Environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the impact of the level of possible negative impacts of proposed economic activity on the environment; it is an important tool of public policy in the field of environmental protection and environmental management in the country. State, departmental, scientific, and public bodies may conduct the environmental expertise. State expertise is an independent type of environmental control that the state reserves, and on the other hand it is an integral part of environmental forecasting, assessing the impact of a particular type of economic activity on the environment.

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The principle of environmental impact assessment is the presumption of the potential environmental hazard of any planned economic activity, until the harmlessness of any project has been proved; a ban must be imposed on this activity. Pollutants are substances entering the habitat and leading to a disturbance in the functioning of the ecosystem. Atmospheric pollution is the introduction into the air or the formation in it of physical agents, chemicals or organisms adversely affecting the environment and damaging material values. Water pollution is an introduction into water or formation in it of physical, chemical or biological agents adversely affecting the environment or damaging material values. Soil pollution is the accumulation of industrial and domestic waste and waste products in soil leading to a loss of soil fertility. Contamination of the sea is the supply of materials, substances, energy, noise, vibrations to the marine environment, as well as the formation of various types of radiation and fields that cause or are likely to cause harm to human health, the living resources of the sea and the marine ecosystem or interfere with or cause or are likely to cause physical damage to the property and equipment of legal entities carrying out legal activities in the sea or on its coast. Historical pollution – this term denotes currently ownerless objects: oil and gas and hydrogeological wells, mines, etc. Hazardous waste is the waste containing substances possessing at least one of the dangerous properties (toxicity, explosiveness, fire hazard, infectiousness, radioactivity, etc.). Secondary pollution is the pollution of the environment that occurs as a result of biochemical reactions between primary pollutants and natural components and due to the transformation of pollutants. Emission is a short – term or continuous entry into the environment of pollutants by a military facility, an industrial enterprise, a group of enterprises or a settlement. There are emissions from a separate source and total emissions from the area of a populated point, region, state or a group of states, the planet as a whole. Specially protected natural areas are land or water surface areas that, due to natural values, have been completely or partially removed from economic use and for which a special protection regime has been established. The reserve is a protected area where the performance of the nature protection function is combined with limited economic activities. The national nature park is relatively large natural and water areas, where three main objectives are achieved: ecological, recreational and scientific, and the presence of economic zones is allowed. The Red Book is a systematic list of rare and endangered species of plants and animals. Biosphere reserves are part of the state nature reserves and are used as a background reserve-reference facility in the study of biosphere processes. In the world, there is a single global network of more than 600 biosphere reserves that work under the UNESCO programs and conduct constant monitoring of changes in the natural environment under the impact of anthropogenic activity.

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Monuments of nature are unique non-reproducible natural objects, which are also of cultural and aesthetic value (caves, ancient trees, rocks, waterfalls, etc.) Botanical gardens are environmental institutions aimed at creating a collection of trees and shrubs to preserve biodiversity for scientific, educational and cultural purposes. Recreational resources are all the phenomena that can be used for recreation – climatic resorts, water, hydromineral sources, forests, mountains, etc. Ecologization of the economy means a more versatile and at the same time more systematic approach to the environment. Environmental and economic system (EES) according to M.Ya. Lemeshev is the integration of economy and nature, which is an interrelated and interdependent functioning of social production and the succession of natural processes in nature in general and the biosphere in particular. EES is a part of the technosphere, bounded by a certain territory, where natural, social and production structures and processes are connected by mutually supported flows of matter, energy and structure. The main condition for measuring production and natural potentials is as follows: technogenic load on the territory should not exceed the environmental technological capacity of the territory. Environmental and economic assessment of the natural resources use includes an assessment of the costs of reclamation of the natural potential of the landscape after its disruption caused by the exploitation of natural resources. MPC is the maximum permissible concentration of harmful substances (normative index), which is characterized by a threshold concentration, i.е. this is the largest concentration of the substance in the medium, which, in more or less prolonged exposure to the body does not affect health and does not cause retarded effects (does not affect the offspring). MPE is the maximum permissible volume of emissions into the atmosphere (standards). The MPE is set in such a way that emissions of harmful substances from the source in a given area do not create surface concentrations exceeding the maximum single-time permissible concentrations. The maximum permissible emissions are the maximum permissible emissions of certain substances into the atmosphere, (MPE), and the maximum permissible discharge of these into water bodies (PDS). Over-standard emissions entail economic and administrative sanctions. Limits on emissions and discharges of pollutants and microorganisms are the restrictions on emissions and discharges of pollutants and microorganisms into the environment established for the period of environmental protection measures, including the introduction of the best technologies, in order to achieve environmental standards. The company's environmental passport is a normative and technical document that includes the data on the use of natural resources (air, natural waters, soils, forest resources, oil, etc.), secondary resources (electricity, fuel, fuel oil, etc.) and the data on the impact assessment activity of the enterprise. Environmental audit is an independent comprehensive documentary assessment of compliance by a business entity or other activity with the established requirements in the field of environmental protection.

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The National Plan of Action for the Implementation of the United Nations Conference on the Environment (NEAP) contains the following recommendations: – to develop and implement a system of territorial cadasters of natural resources, including their valuation; – to form the system of environmental restrictions and regulations of environmental management regimes; – to implement measures for the development and support of environmental entrepreneurship and to improve legislation in the interests of the development of the market for environmental services. Environmental policy is the policy aimed at: – protection and improvement of the environment; – rational use and renewal of natural resources; – preservation and development of the socio sphere, which ensures normal life activity and environmental security of a human. The enterprise's environmental policy is a set of ways to achieve the goals and objectives set by the environmental strategy. Environmental policy of an enterprise – according to ISO – is the arrangement of a certain set of intentions and principles with respect to the environmental performance of its activities, which creates the basis for the development of specific goals and objectives. Environmental performance of the organization – according to ISO 14000 – is the measured result of the environmental management system functioning in relation to the issues of environmental impact control in accordance with the organization's goals and objectives, established by its environmental policy. Glossary for Chapter – 14: Ecological education is a purposefully organized, systematically carried out process of mastering ecological knowledge and skills. Ecological education is required to form an active environmental position Ecological culture is the whole complex of skills of being in contact with the environment. Socio-ecosystem – it consists of biogenic, abiogenic, social and technical components. Social ecology – forms the laws of interaction between man and nature. Social criteria of human quality as a biological individual are health, wellbeing and education. A very rapid increase in population in the twentieth century is called a demographic explosion. Social policy is the policy of regulation of the social sphere, aimed at achieving welfare in the society. Social protection is a system designed to provide a certain level of access to essential goods and a certain level of well-being of citizens who, due to certain circumstances (old age, state of health, loss of breadwinner or work and other legal grounds) cannot be economically active.

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The subsistence minimum is an objectively determined level of income (expenditure) proportional to the value of goods and services included in the minimum consumption basket, an important component of which is the list of certain types of non-food products and services that meet the minimum requirements. Social criteria of life quality of a human as a biological individual – health, well-being, education. Average life expectancy is the indicator of the expected longevity of the population, divided by 100. The quality of life is a complex indicator, defined as the product of the average normalized life expectancy, living standards and environmental quality The quality of the environment is the state of the environment, which is characterized by physical, chemical, biological and other indicators and their totality. Glossary for Chapter – 15: UNEP is the United Nations Environment Program. The initial task was to develop recommendations on the most acute problems of the oncoming environmental crisis – desertification, soil degradation, freshwater reduction, ocean pollution, deforestation, loss of valuable species of animals and plants. Ecoforum for Peace was established in 1986. The international environmental movement, which aims to save life on Earth. Ecoforum NGOs of Kazakhstan is the largest national network of non-governmental organizations in Kazakhstan, carrying out their activities in the field of environmental protection and sustainable development. It has representative offices in all regions of Kazakhstan. An international non-governmental organization is an international organization not established under an intergovernmental agreement. A distinctive feature of an international non-governmental organization is its recognition by at least one state or the existence of a consultative status with international intergovernmental organizations. The Kazakhstan Association of Nature Users for Sustainable Development is currently actively working to strengthen cooperation and develop a constructive dialogue between government agencies, nature users and NGOs in addressing environmental problems, conduct environmental seminars, familiarize the concerned bodies with international environmental impact reports, participate in International seminars and symposia. The Association closely cooperates with the Committee of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The public environmental movement is a form of public associations acting in the field of protection of the environment that do not have fixed membership. Public environmental expertise in the Republic of Kazakhstan is an environmental assessment that is organized and conducted at the initiative of citizens and public organizations, as well as on the initiative of local self-government bodies, public organizations whose main activity is the protection of the natural environment. Public environmental assessment is carried out before or simultaneously with the state environmental review. Astana Initiative «Green Bridge» – its main purpose is to support the initiatives of the Head of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev: Global

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Energy and Ecological Strategy for Sustainable Development in the XXIst Century, the Green Bridge Partnership Program, which contains scientifically sound and innovative principles required to overcome global challenges. Global Energy-Environmental Strategy for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century. The President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N.A. Nazarbayev put forward this strategy in the framework of the development of a relatively new direction for our country, it is the most important document whose task is to innovate the world's existing energy technologies and scale up the modernization of the world energy sector. Green Office is the Green Campus management algorithm aimed at minimizing the negative impact of the organizations’ activities on the environment through the rational use and savings of both environmental resources and the resources of the organization itself. The concept of « Green campus » is a comprehensive approach that includes technical, information and educational and motivational activities aimed at implementing the environmental policy in the corporate university. The Green Way youth movement is a program widely distributed in the universities in Great Britain, the USA and other developed countries that is aimed at directing young people to manage their universities using environmentally safe and innovative methods. «Green Bridge through Generations» is a program that facilitates the unification of efforts of states, international organizations, public and business sectors, universities of the Republic of Kazakhstan, near and far abroad. Responsible consumption is the encouragement of the active position in the purchase of «eco» products.

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SUGGESTIONS FOR WRITING MULTIPLE-CHOICE TESTS 1. A) B) C) D) E)

Ecology is a science that studies: interaction between organisms and environment interaction between only nonliving organisms interaction between inorganic ions only social problems only economic problems

2. A) B) C) D) E)

The term «Ecology» was introduced by: V. Vernadsky B. Commoner J. Liebig E. Haeckel V. Shelford

3. A) B) C) D) E)

«Nature knows better» was proposed by: E. Haeckel B. Commoner J. Liebig V. Vernadsky V. Shelford

4. A) B) C) affects it D) E)

The term «environment» means: chemical balance parts of the earth where life does not exist the sphere outside the organism in which an organism lives and which abiotic balance only plants

5. A) B) C) D) E)

Autecology is the ecology of…: formation of new species characteristics of populations individual organisms functional groups of the ecosystem biotic relationships in a community

6. A) B) C) D) E)

Demecology is the ecology of...: populations all living organisms biotic relationships in a community adaptation of all living organisms formation of new species

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7. A) B) C) D) E)

Synecology is the ecology of…: formation of new species biological diversity adaptations of organisms evolution processes in biosphere communities

8. A) B) C) D) E)

Structure and functions of biosphere are studied by: synecology global ecology autecology demecology applied ecology

9. A) B) C) D) E)

The physical area in which an organism lives is its: ecosystem habitat ecological niche trophic level trophic web

10. The position of an organism defined by its role in a biological community is: A) habitat B) ecosystem C) biome D) niche E) trophic web 11. The term «Ecosystem» was introduced by: A) V. Vernadsky B) A. Tansley C) E. Haeckel D) E. Zuss E) B. Commoner 12. A) B) C) D) E)

Ecosystem is: all the organisms which interact each other all nonliving parts of an area that are interrelated an ecological unit that includes biotic and abiotic factors all the populations in an area an ecological niche of organism

13. The community includes: A) nonliving factors in an environment B) living factors of an environment

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C) all parts of the earth where life exists D) the members of one species E) all the populations in an area 14. A) B) C) D) E)

Succession is a process where: organisms are adapted to environment a dominant male is replaced by a subordinate energy moves through a food chain abiotic components are recycled the community changes over time

15. A) B) C) D) E)

Find an abiotic factor in an ecosystem: sunlight plants animals microorganisms fungi

16. A) B) C) D) E)

Find biotic factor in an ecosystem: direction of the wind temperature pollination of flowers by insects annual rhythms soil composition

17. A) B) C) D) E)

Land temperature and precipitation are chief determinants of the air biome the water’s biome the earth’s biome the aquatic biome energy that moves through a food chain

18. «Organism growth is limited by the resource in the shortest supply». This law was described by: A) B. Commoner B) V. Shelford C) V. Vernadsky D) J. Liebig E) Ch. Darwin 19. «Each ecological factor has limits of its positive influence on the organism». This principle was described by: A) Lindeman B) J. Liebig C) V. Vernadsky D) B. Commoner E) V. Shelford

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20. A) B) C) D) E)

The term «tolerance» means: any ecological factor limits of organisms stability to effect of ecological factors metabolism of living organisms only minimum of factors available to the organism’s life only maximum of factors available to the organism’s life

21. A) B) C) D) E)

Ecological factor that limits viability of organisms is: critical stress optimal zone of intolerance effective zone

22. Eurybionts are the organisms with: A) one population that inhabits only a small area B) a narrow range of tolerance to an ecological factor C) the constant temperature of their body D) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor E) a body temperature depending on the environment temperature 23. A) B) C) D) E)

Stenobionts are the organisms with: a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor a constant temperature of their body a narrow range of tolerance to an ecological factor a body temperature depending on the environment temperature one population that inhabits only a small area

24. Xerophytes are the organisms: A) with the constant temperature not depending on the environment temperature B) C) D) E)

with a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor that are adapted to drought and environmental water shortage with a big range of tolerance to an ecological factor form one population that inhabits only a small area

25. A) B) C) D) E)

Find homoeothermic organisms: microorganisms fungi bacteria mammals all plants

26. Poikilothermic are the organisms with: A) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor B) a body temperature depending on the environment temperature

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C) a narrow range of tolerance to an ecological factor D) with a big range of tolerance to an ecological factor E) a constant temperature not depending on the environment temperature 27. Species that are localized and may have just one population that inhabit only a small area are called: A) eurybionts B) endemic C) stenobionts D) xerophytes E) relicts 28. Population growth rate is: A) change in individuals number in a population over a specific period of time B) a group of individuals of the same species living in the same place C) the number of individuals in a given population D) the number of individuals in given area at a given time E) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor 29. A) B) C) D) E)

Find the statistic characteristics of population: population number birth rate survival rate population growth death rate

30. A) B) C) D) E)

Find the dynamic characteristics of population: population density individuals distribution in the space population number individuals sex and age groups population growth rate

31. A) B) C) D) E)

The carrying capacity of a population does not include the statement: resources must be limited there is environment resistance the population exhibits J-shaped growth curve the birthrate is equal to the death rate the environment cannot support a larger population

32. A) B) C) D) E)

Population growth is exponential when: the birthrate is lower than the death rate the birthrate is about the same as the death rate the birthrate reaches its biotic potential the birthrate is limited by a lack of resources environment cannot support a larger population

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33. A) B) C) D) E)

The S-shaped curve is typical of a population that: has more births is growing exponentially is not limited by its environment is regulated by density-dependent factors population exhibits exponential growth curve

34. The industrial revolution, agricultural revolution and other factors promoted to… A) the rapid decrease of human population B) the rapid increase of human population C) the slow increase of human population D) the slow decrease of human population E) form one population that inhabits only a small area 35. The population with rapid growth includes the following age groups: A) most of the population is pre-reproductive or reproductive B) there are equal proportions of pre-reproductive, reproductive and postreproductive individuals C) most of the population is reproductive or post-reproductive D) almost all of the population is in the reproductive age group E) most of the population is post-reproductive 36. A) B) C) D) E)

The volcanic eruption is an example of: a density-dependent factor something that would be plotted on an J-shaped curve something that would be plotted on an S-shaped curve anthropogenic factor a density-independent factor

37. A) B) C) D) E)

The area of the earth occupied with living beings is called: stratosphere ionosphere troposphere biosphere mesosphere

38. A) B) C) D) E)

The term «Biosphere» was introduced by: V. Vernadsky E. Zuss E. Haeckel Ch. Darwin B. Commoner

39. The author of the study about biosphere is: A) B. Commoner

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B) C) D) E)

V. Shelford V. Vernadsky J. Liebig E. Haeckel

40. A) B) C) D) E)

The term «Noosphere» was introduced by: V. Vernadsky Le Rya J. Liebig E. Zuss E. Haeckel

41. A) B) C) D) E)

Noosphere is an evolutionary step of biosphere that: is transformed by conscious human activity is occupied by living organisms has a negative anthropogenic impact includes past life on the Earth includes technogenic activity of humans

42. A) B) C) D) E)

Environment that is changed by people is: natural environment second nature, or quasi-nature first nature, or ecological space third nature, or art-nature anthropogenic impact

43. A) B) C) D) E)

Anthropogenic sources of pollution are: automobile exhausts earthquake electromagnetic waves volcano eruption flood

44. A) B) C) D) E)

Competition, predation, and symbiosis are the types of: abiotic rhythms parasitic relationships biotic relationships biogeochemical cycles abiotic relationships

45. A) B) C) D) E)

Interspecific competition is the relationship between: plant’s community members of the same species organism-host and worm-parasite wolves in a pack members of one species

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46. The type of biotic relationship when one species benefits and other one has neither harm nor profit: A) mutualism B) predation C) parasitism D) competition E) commensalism 47. other is: A) B) C) D) E) 48. A) B) C) D) E)

An interaction between two species in which the species benefit each predation parasitism competition mutualism commensalism Two species that occupy a very similar niche are likely to be: commensalists mutualists predators competitors parasites

49. The major producers found in aquatic ecosystems are: A) aquatic plants B) phytoplankton C) zooplankton D) chemosynthetic bacteria E) benthos 50. A) B) C) D) E)

The following is not correctly matched: phototroph – plants heterotroph – consumer herbivore – autotroph carnivore – animals bacteria – decomposer

51. Define the right order of components in the trophic chain «tree – hare – fox»: A) producer – primary consumer – secondary consumer B) heterotroph – primary consumer – secondary consumer C) autotroph – heterotroph – decomposer D) producer – heterotroph – decomposer E) producer – consumer – decomposer 52. Plants in an ecosystem play the following role: A) are primary consumers

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B) C) D) E)

synthesize organic substances from inorganic compounds decompose organic substances to inorganic compounds are secondary consumers are decomposers

53. A) B) C) D) E)

Primary productivity is the energy contained at the trophic level of: herbivores producers carnivores omnivores decomposers

54. A) B) C) D) E)

Nitrogen in the atmosphere is captured by: all types of bacteria only one type of bacteria nitrogen-fixing bacteria plants vegetables

55. A) B) C) D) E)

Organisms that use ready food are called: producers phototrophs autotrophs chemotrophs heterotrophs

56. A) B) C) D) E)

Find the heterotrophic organisms: photosynthetic bacteria chemosynthetic bacteria plants wolves phototrophs

57. A) B) C) D) E)

Find an autotrophic organism: fungi plant insect bird reptile

58. The wolf and the fox are on the same trophic level because both animals: A) have large size B) live on the land C) use food at 10% D) eat herbivorous organisms E) have similar behavior

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59. A) B) C) D) E)

Consumers that eat producers are: herbivores autotrophs carnivores omnivores producers too

60. A) B) C) D) E)

Consumers, such as wolves, that eat other consumers are: autotrophs herbivores omnivores producers carnivores

61. Consumers, such as humans, that eat both producers and other consumers are called: A) omnivores B) carnivores C) herbivores D) scavengers E) autotrophs 62. A) B) C) D) E) 63. water: A) B) C) D) E)

Amount of energy passing from one trophic level to the next one is: 1% 100% 50% 25% 10% The main characteristic of biomass pyramids of freshwater or marine it depends on a particular ecosystem it is right it is inverted it does not change it changes cyclically

64. According to number pyramids, a quantity of organisms at a higher trophic level: A) does not change B) decreases C) increases D) changes cyclically E) depends on a particular ecosystem 65. Find the nonrenewable resources: A) forests

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B) C) D) E)

soil wildlife minerals phytoplankton

66. A) B) C) D) E)

Find the renewable resources: oil coal natural gas minerals forests

67. A) B) C) D) E)

Organic garbage that is subject to decay by microorganisms is called: minerals abiotic components non-renewable non-biodegradable biodegradable

68. Factors that specifically cause abnormalities during embryo development are called: A) mutagens B) teratogens C) carcinogens D) pesticides E) fungicides 69. A) B) C) D) E)

Herbicides are chemicals that kill undesirable organisms such as: worms fungi plants insects bacteria

70. A) B) C) D) E)

Factors that damage genetic material of organisms are: mutagens teratogens carcinogens pesticides fertilizers

71. A) B) C) D) E)

The global warming is primarily caused by the: increase of producers increase of greenhouse gases concentration decay of the organic compounds decrease of greenhouse gases concentration use of alternative kinds of energy

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72. order is: A) B) C) D) E) 73. 2100 to: A) B) C) D) E)

Distribution of gas concentrations in the atmosphere in descending oxygen – argon – nitrogen – carbon dioxide carbon dioxide – oxygen – nitrogen – argon nitrogen – oxygen – argon – carbon dioxide argon – nitrogen – carbon dioxide – oxygen oxygen – carbon dioxide – nitrogen – argon Scientists predict the global average temperature rise by 2025 and by 3°C and 5°C, correspondingly 5°C and 2°C, correspondingly 1°C and 3°C, correspondingly 5°C and 7°C, correspondingly 7°C and 10°C, correspondingly

74. A) B) C) D) E)

To reduce greenhouse effect it is necessary: to cut off rain forest to avoid sewage water to burn the trees and rubbish to use alternative sources of energy to use fertilizers

75. A) B) C) D) E)

Alternative sources of energy include: natural gas, peat and oil, oil, coal and geothermal energy biomass, nuclear energy and oil sun, wind and waves oil, coal, and natural gas

76. A) B) C) D) E)

The greenhouse gases are the following ones: stratospheric ozone NH3, O2, noble gases chlorine and fluorine SO2, NO2, NO, CO CO2, CFCs, CH4, NO, NO2, tropospheric ozone

77. A) B) C) D) E)

The height of troposphere and stratosphere above the earth: 0-5 km and 5-50 km respectively 0-15 km and 15-55 km respectively 0-10 and 10-80 km respectively 0-12 and 12-100 km respectively 0-20 and 20-200 km respectively

78. To stop ozone layer depletion it is necessary: A) to stop wood cutting

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B) C) D) E)

to use solar power to replace or recycle freons used in fridge and cooling systems to use a nuclear power to use geothermal energy

79. Loss of ozone has serious effects in people because ultra-violet radiation can cause: A) skin cancer and eye damage B) liver and kidneys damage C) respiratory and nervous system damage D) hepatitis and heart attack E) anemia and diarrhea 80. A) B) C) D) E)

Chemical compounds that cause acid rains: acetic and carbonic acid sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide methane and ammonia carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide ozone and particulates

81. A) B) C) D) E)

Acid rains occur as: rain, snow, mist, fog, hail only rain acetic acid lemon acid carbonic acid

82. A) B) C) D) E)

The pH of an acid rain is: below 5 below 6 below 7 below 8 below 9

83. A) B) C) D) E)

Acid rain is harmful because it can: cause skin cancer in humans cause land flooding dissolve nutrients and toxic metals in the soil destroy ozone layer increase earth temperature

84. A) B) C) D) E)

The primary reason of acid rain is: ozone layer depletion wood cutting burning of fossil fuels marsh drainage water thermal pollution

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85. A) B) C) D) E)

A major component of photochemical smog is: sulfur dioxide tropospheric ozone particulates acid rain carbon dioxide

86. A) B) C) D) E)

A main physical reason for the photochemical smog is: wind speed mixing between air layers atmosphere gas composition atmosphere temperature inversion precipitation

87. A) B) C) D) E)

To prevent or reduce waste it is necessary: to transport hazardous waste rather than treating on-site to use over-packaging to avoid using a catalytic converter to release waste into the domestic sewage system to use recycled materials whenever possible

88. A) B) C) D) E)

Biological magnification is the process of: concentration of calcium deposits in the shells of dead organisms algal bloom in a lake increasing concentration of hazardous wastes through food chains accumulation of organics in the water reservoirs biogeochemical cycles

89. A) B) C) D) E)

A primary cause of species extinction is: exposure to hazardous waste biological magnification acid rains global warming destruction of habitats

90. A) B) C) D) E)

Industries contribute to habitat damage and destruction if they: pollute water use proper drainage system produce freons plant trees organize natural parks and reserves

91. A) B) C)

Land area of the Earth occupied by the forest is: about 25% about 5% about 10%

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D) about 50% E) about 60% 92. A) B) C) D) E)

Land area of the Earth occupied by the rain forest is: about 25% about 5% about 10% about 50% about 60%

93. A) B) C) D) E)

The world amount of fresh water is: about 1% about 5% about 3% about 10% about 70%

94. The amount of the earth’s water supply available to land organisms is: A) B) C) D) E)

less than 1% about 10% more than 50% about 5% about 3%

95. A) B) C) D) E)

The average renewal rate of rivers is: about 17 years about 24 hours about 1400 years about 12–17 days nonrenewable

96. A) B) C) D) E)

Eutrophication of water is accompanied with: intensive algae propagation thermal water pollution bioaccumulation of heavy metals water erosion of soil bio-magnification

97. The main source of water pollution is: A) hydroelectric power station B) petrochemical industry C) dam construction D) fishing E) thermal pollution

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98. A) B) C) D) E)

Industries can help to mitigate problems with water supply by: marsh drying dam construction releasing of farmer run-off releasing of detergents to the domestic water system recycling water during industrial operations

99. A) B) C) D) E)

The largest landscape zone of Kazakhstan is: forest steppe mountains desert grassland

100. External cost is: A) the cost of environment friendly equipment and technologies B) harmful environmental or social cost borne by people not directly involved in buying or selling a product C) the cost of all goods and services, produced in a country per year D) a measure of the total income of nation’s goods and services for a given year E) earth’s resources and processes that sustain living organisms, including humans 101. Environmental footprint (of a country or each person) is: A) the average for each country total value of all life quality indices B) the quality of satisfaction with material and cultural human needs C) the average area of productive land and ocean needed for the supply with food, energy, water, housing, transportation, and for waste disposal D) the cost of all goods and services, produced in the country for a given year E) the level of welfare of the country and its citizens 102. A main reason of Aral Sea catastrophe is: A) a natural disaster B) land degradation caused by the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya induced floods C) careless use of water for irrigation D) over-fishing E) water pollution 103. A special protected territory that is completely removed from the economical use is: A) reserve B) natural heritage C) national park D) biosphere reserve E) botanical garden

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104. The number of species of plants and animals included in the Red Data Book of Kazakhstan is: A) 504 and 409, respectively B) 304 and 209, respectively C) 309 and 404, respectively D) 404 and 309, respectively E) 204 and 109, respectively 105. Indicate the name of Kazakhstan’s reserve among the following list: A) Altyn Emel B) Ile-Alatau C) Kokshetau D) Burabay E) Aksu Jabagly 106. Indicate the name of Kazakhstan’s national park: A) Altyn Emel B) Kurgaldzhino C) Alakol D) Markakol E) Naurzum 107. The percentage of Kazakhstan’s soil that is undergone desertification: A) about 30% B) about 40% C) about 50% D) about 60% E) about 70% 108. The main anthropogenic cause of desertification is: A) uneven distribution of precipitation B) excessive livestock grazing C) high level of solar radiation D) weak vegetation E) lack of water supply 109. The natural reason of desertification is: A) careless irrigation B) wood cutting and logging C) over-pasture and road construction D) wind and water erosion E) mining industry and weapon tests 110. Erosion is the loss of soil that results from: A) recycling

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B) C) D) E)

reforestation abiotic factors contour plowing proper grazing

111. The organic part of soil that helps it to retain its moisture and nutrients is: A) humus B) detritus C) organic fertilizers D) topsoil E) microorganisms 112. Term «Sustainable development» referred to ecology was first introduced at: A) Earth Summit Declaration on sustainable development, Johannesburg, 2002 B) Conference on global environment monitoring system, Stockholm, 1972 C) Conference on Ozone layer protection, Vienna, 1985 D) Conference on International Trade in Endangered Species, Washington, 1973 E) Earth Declaration on environment and development, Rio-de-Janeiro, 1992 113. The primary body responsible for nature protection in Kazakhstan is: A) B) C) D) E)

Ministry of Agriculture Environmental Union «Tabigat» Committee of Environmental Protection Society of Nature Protection Environmental Movement «Nevada-Semipalatinsk»

114. Sustainable use of natural resources means that they should be: A) all replaced by genetically modified products B) distributed equally between nations C) controlled by environmental legacy D) guaranteed as harmless for future generations E) used at a higher rate 115. The basic nature protection law of Kazakhstan is: A) Convention on Combat Desertification B) Ecological Code C) Water Code D) On Special Protected Territories E) Forest Code

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116. The basic national current document on the environmental security of Kazakhstan is A) Concept of Transition to Sustainable Development of RK for 2007-2024 B) Convention on Biological Diversity C) Montreal and Kyoto Protocols D) Documents of Earth Summits in Rio-de-Janeiro and Johannesburg E) Concept of Environmental Security of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2004-2015 117. The International basic document concerning the ozone layer safety is: A) B) C) D) E)

Convention on Biodiversity Kyoto protocol Stockholm convention on control of persistent organic pollutants Convention on Combat Desertification Montreal protocol

118. The International basic document on greenhouse gases control is: A) Kyoto protocol B) Convention on Biodiversity C) Montreal protocol D) Stockholm convention on control of persistent organic pollutants E) Convention on Combat Desertification 119. The International Convention on control of persistent organic pollutants is: A) Montreal protocol B) Convention on Biodiversity C) Stockholm convention D) Kyoto protocol E) Convention on Combat Desertification 120. The International Convention on wildlife protection is: A) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, CITES B) Framework Convention on Climate Change C) Convention on Ozone Layer Protection D) Convention on Biological Diversity E) Convention on Combating Desertification 121. The interspecific competition is the …: A) competition among the members of the same species. B) competition between the members of different species. C) competition between plants and animals. D) competition between living organisms and non-living things. E) competition between the groups for limited resources.

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122. A population that is growing exponentially in the absence of limiting factors can be illustrated by: A) Tolerance curve B) Population pyramid C) S-shaped curve D) Demographic transition E) J-shaped curve 123. Three functional groups of an ecosystem are… A) Herbivores, carnivores, omnivores B) Consumers, producers, scavengers C) Producers, consumers, decomposers D) None of the above E) Autotrophs, heterotrophs, producers 124. Global biogeochemical cycles are: A) The processes by which organic materials move from the atmosphere or soil into the organisms and back again. B) The processes by which inorganic materials move from the atmosphere or soil into the organisms and back again. C) The processes by which inorganic materials do not move from the atmosphere or soil into the organisms and back again. D) None of the above. E) Describe the movement of species in the ecosystem. 125. The range of conditions to which an organism is adapted is called its …:

A) B) C) D) E)

demographic transition population pyramid zones of intolerance range of tolerance zones of physiological stress

126. The … is all the members of a species that live in the same area and make up a breeding group. A) population density B) population dynamics C) population D) tolerance E) tolerance limit 127. Herbivores and carnivores are on the: A) first, third trophic level B) second, third trophic level C) first, second trophic level D) first, four trophic level E) second, second trophic level

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128. Polar tundra, taiga, desert etc. There are several kinds of: A) water biomes B) aquatic biomes C) air biomes D) hydro biomes E) land biomes 129. The 2nd and the 3rd stages of demographic transition are characterized by: A) low death rate and high birth rate B) falling death and birth rates C) high death and birth rates D) high death and low birth rates E) low death and birth rates 130. Biologists recognize two general types of food chains. They are: A) food chain, grazer food chain B) herbivores, carnivores C) nutrients, microorganisms D) grazer, decomposer E) plants, animals 131. The law of minimum was discovered by …: A) J. Liebig (1840) B) V. Shelford (1913) C) A. Tensly (1935) D) E. Haeckel (1866) E) A. Zuss (1875) 132. Growth rate = ? A) crude birth rate + crude death rate B) crude death rate – crude birth rate C) crude birth rate – crude death rate D) crude birth rate : crude death rate E) crude death rate : crude birth rate 133 … is a specific region in which the organism lives: A) xerophyte B) niche C) photosynthesis D) energy flow E) habitat 134. Population growth rate is: A) an increase in a population at a given time B) a number of individuals in a given population

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C) the age and sex composition of a population D) crude death rate : crude birth rate E) the change in the number of individuals in a population over time 135. What is Synecology? A) the ecology of single species B) the ecology of communities C) the ecology of population D) the ecology of resource E) the ecology of biosphere 136. All the members of the species that live in the same area and make up a breeding group constitute… A) population B) environment C) ecology D) community E) biosphere 137. Sustainable development implies … A) All the biological and non-biological factors that affect the organism life. B) A group of plants, or microorganisms C) A group of organisms that look alike and are capable of producing fertile offspring in the natural environment D) That our generations' economic development must not risk the ability of future generations to foster their own economic development E) The position of an organism in a food chain 138. When term «biosphere» was proposed? A) 1872 B) 1879 C) 1865 D) 1863 E) 1875 139. …is an area of the earth where life exists. A) hydrosphere B) biosphere C) atmosphere D) troposphere E) ionosphere 140. Abiotic factors are …: A) a kind of antagonistic relationship within a community B) a biological component of the ecosystem C) nonliving components of an ecosystem

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D) all the populations in an area E) the assemblage of plants, animals, and microorganisms 141. … are the organisms that are adapted to drought and environmental water shortage A) Xerophytes B) Photosynthesis C) Decomposer D) Chlorophyll E) Zooplankton 142. Find out non-renewable resource: A) water B) sun light C) fossil fuel D) wind E) plants 143. Organism with the body temperature depending on environmental temperature … A) Consumer A) Endemic B) Herbivore C) Poikilothermic D) Nutrient 144. What is the difference between J-shaped and S-shaped curves A) they are same B) J-shaped curve occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate, S-shaped curve occurs because of environmental resistance C) J-shaped curve occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate, S-shaped curve occurs indefinitely at an ever-decreasing rate D) J-shaped curve occurs indefinitely at an ever-decreasing rate, S-shaped curve occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate E) J-shaped curve occurs because of environmental resistance, S-shaped curve occurs indefinitely at an ever-increasing rate 145. Population density is..: A) an increase in a population at a given time B) the change in the number of individuals in a population over time. C) the number of individuals in a population in given area D) distribution of population number by age considering individual's sex (Pyramid-like graph) E) a number of individuals per unit area 146. All the members of the species that live in the same area and make up a breeding group: A) Community

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B) C) D) E)

Photosynthesis Population crash Overpopulation Population

147. The subject of demography is: A) Population activity B) population circle C) Primary consumer D) the factors that affect rates of birth, death on population E) None of the above 148. How many ecological groups has an ecosystem? A) 2 B) 3 C) 4 D) 1 E) 5 149. According to what principle are two species not able to occupy the same niches for a long period? A) The principle of two species B) The same niches principle C) The competitive exclusion principle D) The competitive principle E) The competition between species 150. Biome is …: A) One of several immense terrestrial regions each characterized throughout its extent by similar plants, animals, climate, and soil type. B) The biological component of the ecosystem C) All the populations in an area D) The dried weight of all organic matter in the ecosystem E) A community of organisms occupying a given region within a biome. 151. Herbivore is an organism that feeds exclusively on -… A) meat B) wine C) plants D) milk E) microorganisms 152. The position of organism in a food chain is called … A) Secondary consumer B) Food chain

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C) Second level D) Trophic level E) First consumer 153. The term «biosphere» was coined by… A) V.I. Vernadsky B) Le Rya C) L. James D) D. Adams E) E. Zuss 154. From Greek «noos» means … A) energy B) sunlight C) consciousness D) air E) nonliving 155. How many tons of carbon dioxide are added to the atmosphere each year? A) 7 billion B) 5 billion C) 4 billion D) 9 billion E) 2 billion 156. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by … A) plants B) animals C) amino acids D) nitrogen E) fossil oil 157. Poikilothermic are the organisms with: A) a large range of tolerance to an ecological factor B) a narrow range of tolerance to an ecological factor C) a constant temperature of their body D) one population that inhabits only a small area E) a body temperature depending on environment temperature 158. If the body temperature of organism depends on environment temperature, it is called A) homoeothermic organism B) nonliving organism C) poikilothermic organism D) secondary consumer E) primary consumer

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159. The area of the earth occupied with living beings is called... A) atmosphere B) biosphere C) hydrosphere D) aquatic biome E) ionosphere 160. In the stratosphere, stratospheric ozone exists as a layer of…. A) 15 to 55 km below the earth B) 1.5 to 5.5 km above the earth C) 150 to 550 km above the earth D) 15 to 55 km above the earth E) 1.5 to 5.5 km below the earth 161. In the stratosphere …. exists as a layer of 15 to 55 km above the earth, where it forms an important barrier against harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays from the sun A) Stratospheric ozone B) Tropospheric ozone C) Dry smog D) Acid Rain E) Ionospheric ozone 162. The organism, such as a plant, that produces its own food generally via photosynthesis is called… A) heterotroph B) consumer C) autotroph D) herbivore E) decomposer 163. The organism with body temperature not depending on environment temperature is called… A) poikilothermics B) heterotrophs C) autotrophs D) herbivores E) homeothermics 164. The two-part process in plants and algae involving the capture of sunlight and its conversion into cellular energy and amino acids from carbon dioxide, water and energy from sun is called… A) biological diversity B) homeostasis C) overshoot D) photosynthesis E) decomposer

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165. The chemical or physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem is … A) biotic factor B) abiotic factor C) anthropogenic factor D) living component E) biological diversity 166. Factors that affect populations regardless of population density is called… A) density –independent factors B) density –dependent factors C) anthropogenic factors D) limiting factors E) reduction factors 167. The principle of tolerance limits was discovered by… A) J. Liebig B) E. Haeckel C) V. Vernadsky D) V. Shelford E) Ch. Darvin 168. The biological balance between an organism and its environment is called… A) biotic factor B) anthropogenic factor C) living component D) biological diversity E) homeostasis 169. Ecological factors are divided into… groups A) two B) three C) five D) seven E) nine 170. Biotic factors are divided into … groups A) two B) five C) three D) seven E) nine 171. … is a kind of relationship when one organism (predator) feeds directly upon another living organism (prey). A) Parasitism

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B) C) D) E)

Predation Symbiosis Mutualism Commensalism

172 … is a kind of relationship when one organism (parasite) feeds on another living organism (host) or steals the resources from it without killing it. A) Predation B) Symbiosis C) Mutualism D) Parasitism E) Commensalism 173. In some interactions, called…, one species benefits and the other apparently suffers no harm. A) Amensalistic B) Mutualistic C) Parasitic D) Predation E) Commensalistic 174. In … interactions both species benefit. A) Commensalistic B) Commensalistic C) Mutualistic D) Parasitic E) Predation 175. Symbiosis is a type of … relationship between different species in close association with one another. A) non-antagonistic B) antagonistic C) anthropogenic D) limiting E) decreasing 176. … is the variability among living organisms of all s ecosystems including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes the diversity within species, between species and ecosystems. A) Biological diversity B) Predation C) Symbiosis D) Mutualism E) Commensalism

182

177. … is a kind of antagonistic relationship within a community. A struggle between two or more groups for a limited resource A) Neutralism B) Symbiosis C) Mutualism D) Commensalism E) Competition 178. … (in general) is anything used by organisms to meet their needs. A) Neutralism B) Symbiosis C) Resource D) Mutualism E) Commensalism 179. Limiting factor is … A) a chemical or physical factor that does not determine whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. B) a chemical or physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem C) a single chemical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. D) a single physical factor that determines whether an organism can survive in a given ecosystem. E) anthropogenic factor 180. … is the age structure that is illustrated as a pyramid where the length of each tier shows the number of males (left side) and number of females (right side) in a particular age group of individuals. A) Population number B) Population biomass C) Population density D) Population pyramid E) Population activity 181. The term …. refers to the movement of people into country A) Migration B) Emigration C) Symbiosis D) Mutualism E) Commensalism 182. The term … refers to the movement of people out of the country A) Mutualism B) Emigration C) Symbiosis

183

D) Migration E) Commensalism 183. Crude birth rate (Natality) is the number of births per ? people in a population. A) 1000 B) 100 C) 10 D) 10000 E) 100000 184. Crude Birth rate (Natality) is… A) the number of births per 100 people in a population. B) the number of births per 10 people in a population. C) the number of births per 1000 people in a population. D) the number of births per 10000 people in a population. E) the number of births per 100000 people in a population. 185. … is the number of deaths per 1000 people. A) Natality B) Symbiosis C) Mutualism D) Commensalism E) Mortality 186. Growth rate is equal to15\1000. This means that every…. A) 15 individuals fall out of the world population per every 1000 people in the population. B) 15 individuals enlarge the world population per every 100 people in the population. C) 150 individuals enlarge the world population per every 1000 people in the population. D) 15 individuals enlarge the world population per every 10000 people in the population. E) 15 individuals enlarge the world population per every 1000 people in the population. 187. The common name for all chemicals used for pest control is: A) Herbicides B) Fungicides C) Pesticides D) Rodenticide E) Xenobiotics 188. Birth rate in a given population depends on the following: A) the age at which women and men get married

184

B) C) D) E)

their educational levels whether the woman works after marriage the number of children woman and her husband want their cultural values and religious beliefs.

189. … is the number of organisms the Earth can support. A) Biodiversity B) Birth rate C) Natality D) The carrying capacity of the Earth E) Mortality 190. … is determined by resource availability, including food supplies and the environment’s capacity to absorb and detoxify wastes. A) Biodiversity B) The carrying capacity of the Earth C) Birth rate D) Natality E) Mortality 191. Doubling time = ? A) 70/ birth rate (%) B) 70/ dearth rate (%) C) 700/ growth rate (%) D) 7/ growth rate (%) E) 70/ growth rate (%) 192. … is the maximum reproductive rate of an organism in the unlimited resources and ideal environmental conditions. A) Abiotic potential B) Biotic potential C) The birth rate D) Natality E) Mortality 193. … is an organism’s place in the ecosystem: where it lives, what it consumes, what consumes it, and how it interacts with all biotic and abiotic factors. A) habitat B) biome C) ecological niche D) aquatic biome E) water biome 194. … begins with plants and algae. A) aquatic biome

185

B) C) D) E)

decomposer food chain niche grazer food chain water biome

195. … begins with dead material A) decomposer food chain B) grazer food chain C) niche D) aquatic biome E) water biome 196. Carbon cycle is the cycle of carbon between…. A) only organisms B) only environment C) organisms and environment D) two herbivores E) decomposers 197. … is a specific nutrient and energy pathway in the ecosystem in which bacteria and fungi consume dead plants and animals as well as animal wastes. A) decomposer food chain B) grazer food chains C) niche D) aquatic biome E) water biome 198. … are the processes by which inorganic materials move from the atmosphere or soil into living organisms and back again. A) Global abiogeochemical cycles B) Global abiocycles C) Global biodiversity D) Global biogeochemical cycles E) Global chemical cycles 199. Two main processes in the oxygen -carbon cycle are A) global abiogeochemical cycles B) photosynthesis and respiration. C) global abiocycles D) global biodiversity E) global grazer food chains 200. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by … A) plants and other animals B) plants and other insects C) decomposers

186

D) consumers E) plants and other photosynthetic organisms 201. … are represented only by renewable resources of substances, energy and information occur under the control of alive organisms. A) The resources of the ecosphere B) The resources of the techno sphere C) The resources of troposphere D) The resources of ionosphere E) The resources of stratosphere 202. … in which except for a part of resources of the ecosphere, used by the man and pulled out from the biotic circulation, nonrenewable resources extracted from depth are included. A) The resources of the ecosphere B) The resources of troposphere C) The resources of ionosphere D) The resources of the techno sphere E) The resources of stratosphere 203.… is a strategy to reduce the resource use by returning used or waste materials from the consumption phase to the production phase of the economy. A) Reforming B) Recycling. C) Refraction D) Mutualism E) Commensalism 204. … are the biotic and abiotic factors that tend to decrease population growth and help balance populations and ecosystems, offsetting growth factors A) Recycling factors B) Reforming factors C) Increasing factors D) Static factors E) Reduction factors 205. Two environmental impacts of anthropogenic factor are… A) recycling and reforming B) static and dynamic C) depletion and pollution problems. D) reusing and recycling E) dynamic and reusing 206. «Quasi-nature» is … A) environment changed by animals. B) environment changed by decomposers

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C) environment changed by producers D) environment changed by autotrophs E) environment changed by humans. 207. … cannot be self-regulated for a long time. It includes cultural landscapes, for example: gardens, parks, pasture etc. A) «Biotic-nature» B) «Abiotic-nature» C) «First-nature» D) «Quasi-nature» E) «Art-nature» 208. «Art-nature» is …. A) environment created by people. B) environment changed by humans. C) environment changed by decomposers D) environment changed by producers E) environment changed by autotrophs 209. Find the «art-nature» A) Animals, plants, fungi B) Factories, plants, houses, cities. C) Sun, moon, wind D) Water, sun, wind E) Insects, bacteria, microorganisms. 210. Air, water and soil pollutants are classified … A) by the medium they do not contaminate B) by the medium they form C) by the medium they contaminate. D) by the medium they recycle E) by the contamination and recycling 211. Solid and liquid waste obtained in the processing and chemical industry, the waste of consumption, agricultural waste, chemical waste, emergency emissions, atmospheric emissions of poison substances are …. A) basic sources of ground pollution B) basic sources of air pollution C) basic sources of atmosphere’s pollution D) basic sources of animal’s pollution E) basic sources of stratosphere’s pollution 212. … are chemical wastes of factories and plants and the emission of these into the air or water or store of these is harmful. A) Agricultural sources B) Industrial sources of pollutions

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C) Domestic sources D) Tropospheric sources E) Water sources 213. … of pollutions are chemicals called pesticides that are manufactured to control insects or other pests. A) Industrial sources B) Domestic sources C) Tropospheric sources D) Water sources E) Agricultural sources 214. … are chemicals that kill undesirable plants. A) Fungicides B) Mutagens C) Insecticides D) Herbicides E) Carcinogens 215. … are chemicals that kill undesirable fungi. A) Insecticides B) Mutagens C) Fungicides D) Carcinogens E) Herbicides 216. … are chemicals that kill undesirable insects. A) Fungicides B) Insecticides C) Mutagens D) Carcinogens E) Herbicides 217. … are chemical or radioactive substances that damage or alter genetic material in cells. A) Carcinogens B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Fungicides E) Mutagens 218. … are substances that cause cancer. A) Teratogens B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Carcinogens E) Fungicides

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219. … are chemicals or the other factors that specifically cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and development. A) Carcinogens B) Herbicides C) Teratogens D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 220. … of pollution are household wastes (solid) and sewage (liquid). A) Domestic sources B) Industrial sources C) Domestic sources D) tropospheric sources E) water sources 221. To prevent sewage from flowing into rivers and lakes it is necessary to …. A) develop animal treatment facilities B) develop sewage treatment facilities C) develop plant treatment facilities D) develop garden treatment facilities E) develop park treatment facilities 222. Mechanism that explains atmospheric heating caused by the increase of carbon dioxide levels is called… A) blackhouse effect. B) redhouse effect. C) greenhouse effect. D) bluehouse effect. E) whitehouse effect. 223. …. is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the ecosystem. A) Teratogens B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Pollution E) Fungicides 224. … are directly poisonous to humans and other life forms. A) Teratogens B) Herbicides C) Insecticides D) Fungicides E) Toxic waste

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225. … are capable of causing harm to humans and the environment (acidic resins, arsenic, heavy metals, organic solvents, pesticides and radioactive materials. A) Hazardous waste B) Teratogens C) Herbicides D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 226. … are those that result from some effect acting on primary pollutants (tropospheric ozone, acid rains, photochemical smog). A) Teratogens B) Herbicides C) Secondary pollutants D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 227. … is any naturally occurring or anthropogenic gas that heats escaping from the Earth’s surface, causing the atmosphere to heat up. A) Teratogens B) Greenhouse gas. C) Herbicides D) Insecticides E) Fungicides 228. Pollution is … A) an undesirable change only in physical characteristics of an ecosystem. B) an undesirable change only in chemical characteristics of an ecosystem. C) an undesirable change only in biological characteristics of an ecosystem. D) an undesirable change in physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of an ecosystem. E) chemicals which kill undesirable fungi. 229. Factors that influence on global warming due to human activities (arrange them in a proper order): A) industry, agriculture , energy use, deforestation B) energy use, industry, agriculture, deforestation C) industry, agriculture, energy use, deforestation D) industry, deforestation, energy use, agriculture E) energy use, agriculture, deforestation, industry F) industry, deforestation, agriculture, energy use 230. When and where was adopted the Frame Convention on Climate Change? A) In 1992, Rio de Janeiro. B) In 2002, Montreal Protocol

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C) In 1989, Basel, D) In 2001, Stockholm, E) In 2002, Johannesburg, 231. … is the state when water becomes so over-enriched with nutrients that organisms, e.g. algae and phytoplankton multiply. A) Eutrophication B) Reforming C) Refraction D) Mutualism E) Commensalism 232. … is an organism that eats both plants and animals. A) Carnivore B) Herbivore, C) Omnivore. D) Nutrient E) Producer 233. Movement of people across the state and national boundaries in the search of a new residence is called… A) eutrophication B) refraction C) mutualism D) migration E) commensalism 234. Economic system that strives to meet human needs while protecting the life-support system of the biosphere is called… A) unsustainable economics B) sustainable economics C) evolution D) eutrophication E) commensalism 235. … is a long-term process of changes in the organism caused by random genetic mutations that favor the survival and reproduction of the organism. A) Eutrophication B) Commensalism C) Mutualism D) Refraction E) Evolution 236. Name the measures that prevent the pollution from waste. A) Evolution B) Refraction

192

C) Eutrophication D) Migration E) Reuse, Replacement, Recycling, Re-invention. 237. … is a by-product of modern atmospheric pollution – secondary pollutant (pH of acid rain is bellow 5). A) Dry smog B) Tropospheric ozone C) Stratospheric ozone D) Acid Rain E) Eutrophication 238. … causes blurred vision and irritation of eyes, nose and throat. The main physical reaction is the atmospheric temperature inversion. A) Dry smog B) Tropospheric ozone C) Stratospheric ozone D) Acid Rain E) Evolution 239. … at the ground level is poisonous to life. A) Stratospheric ozone B) Dry smog C) Tropospheric ozone D) Acid Rain E) Eutrophication 240. … is an international political agreement about ozone layer protection. A) 1987, Montreal Protocol B) 1992, Rio de Janeiro. C) 1989, Basel, D) 2001, Stockholm E) 2002, Johannesburg

193

THE KEYS FOR TEST ITEMS № Сorrect № Сorrect answer answer

№

Сorrect answer

№

Сorrect answer

1

A

41

A

81

A

121

A

161

A

201

A

2

D

42

B

82

A

122

E

162

C

202

D

3

B

43

A

83

C

123

C

163

E

203

B

4

C

44

C

84

C

124

B

164

D

204

E

5

C

45

E

85

B

125

D

165

B

205

C

6

A

46

E

86

D

126

C

166

A

206

E

7

E

47

D

87

E

127

B

167

D

207

D

8

B

48

D

88

C

128

E

168

E

208

A

9

B

49

B

89

E

129

A

169

B

209

B

10

D

50

C

90

A

130

D

170

C

210

C

11

B

51

A

91

A

131

A

171

B

211

A

12

C

52

B

92

E

132

C

172

D

212

B

13

E

53

B

93

C

133

E

173

E

213

E

14

E

54

C

94

B

134

E

174

C

214

D

15

A

55

E

95

D

135

B

175

A

215

C

16

C

56

D

96

A

136

A

176

A

216

B

17

C

57

B

97

B

137

D

177

E

217

E

18

D

58

D

98

E

138

E

178

C

218

D

19

E

59

A

99

D

139

B

179

B

219

C

20

B

60

E

100

B

140

C

180

D

220

A

21

A

61

A

101

C

141

A

181

B

221

B

22

D

62

E

102

C

142

C

182

D

222

C

23

C

63

C

103

A

143

D

183

A

223

D

24

C

64

B

104

D

144

B

184

C

224

E

25

D

65

D

105

E

145

E

185

E

225

A

26

B

66

E

106

A

146

E

186

E

226

C

194

№ Сorrect № Сorrect answer answer

27

B

67

E

107

E

147

D

187

C

227

B

28

A

68

B

108

B

148

B

188

A

228

D

29

A

69

C

109

D

149

C

189

D

229

A

30

E

70

A

110

C

150

A

190

B

230

A

31

C

71

B

111

A

151

B

191

E

231

A

32

C

72

C

112

E

152

D

192

B

232

C

33

D

73

C

113

C

153

E

193

C

233

D

34

B

74

D

114

D

154

C

194

D

234

B

35

A

75

D

115

B

155

A

195

A

235

E

36

E

76

E

116

E

156

A

196

C

236

E

37

D

77

B

117

E

157

E

197

A

237

D

38

B

78

C

118

A

158

C

198

D

238

B

39

C

79

A

119

C

159

B

199

B

239

C

40

B

80

B

120

D

160

D

200

E

240

A

195

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Еducational issue

Ainur Kabdrasulovna Tanybayeva Kalkash Daurenbekovna Abubakirova Aina Akanovna Rysmagambetova

ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Educational manual Editor V. Popova Typesetting U. Moldasheva Cover design Ya. Gorbunov Cover design used photos from sites www.MyTravelBook.org

IB №13363

Signed for publishing 17.02.2020. Format 60x84 1/16. Offset paper. Digital printing. Volume 12,37 printer’s sheet. 100 copies. Order №1348. Publishing house «Qazaq University» Al-Farabi Kazakh National University KazNU, 71 Al-Farabi, 050040, Almaty Printed in the printing office of the «Qazaq University» publishing house.

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