Lydian Painted Pottery Abroad: The Gordion Excavations 1950-1973 9781949057140

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Lydian Painted Pottery Abroad The Gordion Excavations 1950–1973

gordion special studies I:  The Nonverbal Graffiti, Dipinti, and Stamps by Lynn E. Roller, 1987 II:  The Terracotta Figurines and Related Vessels by Irene Bald Romano, 1995 III:  Gordion Seals and Sealings: Individuals and Society by Elspeth R. M. Dusinberre, 2005 IV:  The Incised Drawings from Early Phrygian Gordion by Lynn E. Roller, 2009 V:   Botanical Aspects of Environment and Economy at Gordion, Turkey by Naomi F. Miller, 2010 VI:  The New Chronology of Iron Age Gordion edited by C. Brian Rose and Gareth Darbyshire, 2011 VII:  The Archaeology of Phrygian Gordion, Royal City of Midas edited by C. Brian Rose, 2012 VIII:  Agricultural Sustainability and Environmental Change at Ancient Gordion by John M. Marston, 2017

gordion excavations final reports I:  Three Great Early Tumuli by Rodney S. Young, 1982 II:  The Lesser Phrygian Tumuli. Part 1: The Inhumations by Ellen L. Kohler, 1995 III:  The Bronze Age by Ann Gunter, 1991 IV:  The Early Phrygian Pottery by G. Kenneth Sams, 1994

museum monograph 156

gordion special studies ix

Lydian Painted Pottery Abroad The Gordion Excavations 1950–1973

R. Gül Gürtekin-Demir

University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology | Philadelphia

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gürtekin-Demir, R. Gül, author. Title: Lydian painted pottery abroad : the Gordion excavations 1950-1973 / R. Gül Gürtekin-Demir. Other titles: Gordion excavations 1950-1973 Identifiers: LCCN 2021006508 | ISBN 9781949057133 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781949057140 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Gordion (Extinct city) | Painted pottery--Turkey--Gordion (Extinct city) | Painted pottery--Turkey--Lydia (Kingdom) | Excavations (Archaeology)--Turkey--Gordion (Extinct city) | Lydia (Kingdom)--Antiquities. | Turkey--Antiquities. Classification: LCC DS156.G6 G87 2021 | DDC 939/.26--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021006508

© 2021 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Philadelphia, PA All rights reserved. Published 2021 Distributed for the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology by the University of Pennsylvania Press. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper.

to my husband Erhan Demir

Contents List of Illustrations

ix

List of Tables

x

Abbreviations xi Acknowledgments xii Introduction xiv

1 Visual Aspects of the Fabric of Gordion’s Lydian Pottery

1

2 Painting Conventions

9



Bichrome 9



Lydian Bichrome: General Aspects

10



Lydian Bichrome at Gordion

12



Sardian Bichrome Imports at Gordion

14



Provincial Lydian Bichrome at Gordion

15



Brown-on-Cream

17



Marbling 18



Marbling Painting: An Introduction

18



Marbled Ware at Gordion

19



Streaky Glazed and Plain Painted

22



General Aspects

22



Streaky Glazed and Plain Painted Pottery at Gordion

23



Banded 25



Waveline 25



Black-on-Red

26



Lydian Black-on-Red: An Introduction

26



Lydian Black-on-Red at Gordion

27

CONTENTS

3 Shapes

29

Dish and Stemmed Dish

29



A Glance at the Dish and Stemmed Dish in the Lydian Shape Repertory

29



Lydian Dishes and Stemmed Dishes at Gordion

30

Phiale

32



32

Phialai in the Lydian Pottery Repertory and at Gordion

Skyphos 36

The Conventional Lydian Skyphos and its Distribution

36



Lydian Skyphoi at Gordion

38

Dinos

39

Krater 39 Stamnos

40



40

Amphora and Hydria

Oinochoe

41

Lekythos

42

Lydian Lekythoi: An Adoption of the so-called Samian Lekythos

42



44

Lydian Lekythoi at Gordion

Lydion 46

Conventional Shape, Decoration, Content, and Diffusion

46



Lydions at Gordion

48

Stand 53 Storage Vessel

53

4 An Analysis of Lydian Pottery According to Its Findspots at Gordion

57



58

Citadel Mound: Eastern Mound

Area of the Gate Complex and Outer Gate-Court

60



Inner Gate-Court

67



North of Building A

74



Terrace Building Zone

74



Northwest Corner Zone

84

vii

CONTENTS

Citadel Mound: Western Mound

88

Küçük Höyük

89



94

Tumuli, Common Cemetery, and the Museum Site

5 Eating, Drinking, and Perfuming in Lydian Style at Gordion

103



A Quantitative Approach to Lydian Pottery Shapes at Gordion

103



Lydian Pottery: Functions and Dining Settings at Sardis and Gordion

105



Lydian Food and Beverages

109

6

Graffiti on Lydian Pottery at Gordion 113

7 Lydian Material Culture at Gordion: Investigating Lydian Culture through Pottery Remains

119



120

Lydian Pottery at Gordion in Phrygian and Anatolian Context

Catalog 124 Turkish Summary/Türkçe Özet 151 References 155 Concordance of Catalog and Inventory Numbers

166

Index 172 Plates 178

viii

Illustrations (the color insert appears between pages 102 and 103)

Figures 1

Bichrome Pottery Types, Sardis Import and Provincial Products

color insert color insert

2a–c Marbling Types 3

Carinated Dishes

33

4

Stemmed Dishes with Plain Rims

34

5

Dish with Shield-form Rim

35

6

Lekythos Shapes, Types I, II, and III

46

7

Lydion Shape Types

54

8a–f

Marks on Lydian Pottery

9

Lydian Painted Pottery Vessels

115 color insert

10a–c Decorative Motifs on Lydian Painted Pottery from Gordion 11

Vessel Shapes of Lydian Pottery from Gordion

color insert 125

Map 1

Map showing the major topographic components of Gordion

59

1

Plan showing the East and West Mounds of the Citadel Mound

61

2

Plan showing the excavation trenches in the area of the Gate Complex and Outer Gate-Court

63

3

Plan showing trenches in the Inner Gate-Court

68

4

Plan showing trenches on the Eastern Mound, southwest area

75

5

Plan showing trenches in the Terrace Building Zone

76

Plans

6 Plan showing trenches at the Northwest Corner Zone of the Eastern Mound

85

7

90

Plan showing excavation areas in the Küçük Höyük

ix

Tables 1

Catalog numbers and vessel types of Sardian fabric

2

2

Catalog numbers and vessel types of Provincial fabric I

3

3

Catalog numbers and vessel types of Provincial fabric II

4

4

Catalog numbers and vessel types of Miscellaneous fabrics

5

5

Counts and percentages of fabric types

6

6

Analyzed Lydian pottery by the AIA Project and their elemental groupings

7

7

Counts of shapes, percentages, and fabric types of bichrome pottery

13

8

Total counts of fabric types and percentages of bichrome pottery

14

9

Counts of shapes, percentages, and fabric types of marbled pottery

21

10

Total counts of fabric types and percentages of marbled pottery

21

11

Counts of shapes, percentages, and fabric types of streaky glazed/plain painted pottery

24

12

Total counts of fabric types and percentages of streaky glazed/plain painted pottery

25

13

Counts of Lydian pottery from the various excavation contexts at Gordion with their percentage of the total assemblage of Lydian pottery

104

14a–c Lydian vessel shape percentages and counts

104

15 Counts of Lydian vessel shapes from the various excavation contexts at Gordion

105

16

Chronological distribution of Sardian imports versus provincial products, between the 7th century and the Achaemenid period

109

17

Lydian vessels with graffiti, showing the location of the mark and the type of marking

114

C1

Concordance: Gordion Inventory Number to Catalog Number

166

C2

Concordance: Catalog Number to Gordion Inventory Number

169

x

Abbreviations Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)

Sardis Sector Names:

Yassıhöyük Stratigraphic Sequence (YHSS)

Byzantine Fortress (ByzFort) House of Bronzes (HoB)

Gordion Sector Names:

Monumental Mudbrick Structure (MMS)

Clay Cut (CC)

Pactolus Cliff (PC)

Citadel Mound (CM)

Pactolus North (PN)

East Trench (ET) East Trench Oberlin (ETO) East Trench Sector (ET SEC) Küçük Höyük (KH) North Central Trench (NCT) North Central Trench South (NCT S) Northeast (NE) Persian Building P North (PBP N) Persian-Phrygian Building (PPB) Persian-Phrygian Building Southeast (PPB SE) Southeast Trench (SET) Southeast Trench North (SET N) Southeast Trench West (SET W) Southeast Trench Northwest (SET NW) Terrace Building (TB) Terrace Building Trench (TBT) West City Wall (WCW) West Slope (WS)

xi

Acknowledgments

W

orking on Lydian pottery was first suggested to me by late Crawford H. Greenewalt Jr., who invited me to study foreign influences on Lydian painted pottery from Sardis as a Ph.D. dissertation. I am grateful to him for his stimulating recommendations and discussions, and for giving me the opportunity and permission to publish the Lydian pottery from Sardis. Because of this, I was able to better understand the character and definition of Lydian pottery in general. Additionally, I owe a debt of gratitude to my Ph.D. supervisor, late Tomris Bakır, former director of the Daskyleion excavations, for her encouragement. It was at Daskyleion that I first encountered Lydian pottery while excavating as an undergraduate student. Special thanks are owed to the late G. Kenneth Sams, former director of the Gordion expedition, who invited me to study and publish the Lydian painted pottery excavated by Rodney Young. I am grateful for his critical and helpful comments on the final draft of this manuscript. I would like to express my gratitude to Brian Rose, the current director of Gordion excavations, for all of his kindness, support, generosity, and especially for helping me develop my understanding of the chronology of Middle and Late Phrygian Gordion through his careful analysis. I owe a great debt to him for reading the drafts of chapters and providing many helpful comments that significantly improved the book. A special word of gratitude is due to Andrea Berlin, who has thoroughly read and commented on the final draft. I am grateful for all her academic and friendly support. I would especially like to thank the current field director of the Sardis expedition, Nick Cahill, for his endless encouragement and support. I am grateful to him and to Bahadır Yıldırım for giving me the opportunity to explore Sardis and the

expedition’s resources as much as I needed. I also thank Andrew Ramage and Nancy H. Ramage for their valuable discussions on the pottery excavated in the House of Bronzes and Pactolus Cliff. This book represents and reflects all of my earlier research on the Lydian pottery excavated not only at Gordion, Sardis, and Daskyleion, but also from many settlements in Anatolia, such as Smyrna, Ephesus, Tabae, the salvage excavations in Manisa, and the survey research carried out in the Kayster and Hermus Valleys. I would therefore like to thank, Cumhur Tanrıver, Michael Kerschner, Bozkurt Ersoy, Mehmet Önder, Nilüfer Önder, Hasan Dedeoğlu, and Recep Meriç. I am also indebted to Mehmet Akalın, Halil Demirdelen, and Mustafa Metin from the Ankara Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi. They have been very helpful during my study at the museums in Ankara and Polatlı. Rostislav Oreshko was very helpful on my questions about the marks on Lydian pottery. I am very fortunate and thankful for him since we have overlapped both at Sardis and Gordion, where he kindly contributed to my knowledge on the related material. The Gordion Archive at the Penn Museum has been very helpful in obtaining resources. I am consequently grateful to Gareth Darbyshire for taking the time to send all the relevant field books, reports, and notes. I am also very grateful to him for carefully reading, editing, and commenting on my manuscript. The pencil drawings of nos. 83, 84, 86, 95, 97, 99,142 153, 155–157, 162, 165, 166, 168, 170–172, 175, 176, 179, 181, 183, 186, 187, 197, 203, 208, 209, and 211 belong to Günsel Özbilen Güngör, and some of the photographs belong to Gebhard Bieg. I am very grateful to both Günsel and Gebhard. Except where otherwise noted, all other photographs and drawings

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

belong to me. The digital drawings of the pottery were executed by Evren Açar, and I am thankful for his careful and diligent work. I am also grateful to Ergun Karaca during his assistantship at Ege University. The final digital versions of the illustrations and their layout were made by Ardeth Anderson, and I am most grateful to her for this work, and to Gareth Darbyshire who oversaw the process. I would also like to thank Lisa Kealhofer and Peter Grave for sharing their preliminary results of the 25 neutron activation analysis (NAA) samples of Lydian pottery. Page Selinsky, Director of Penn Museum Publications, has been truly very helpful and supportive, and

came up with creative ideas to improve this volume. I am deeply grateful for her. I owe my deepest thanks to my parents, Şenay Gürtekin and Recai Gürtekin, and to my brother Kaan Gürtekin. I wish that my mother had been able to see the final publication of this book before she passed away in 2017. Finally, my daughters Lidya and Arya deserve very special thanks for their patience and support during my research work. I am especially indebted to my husband Erhan Demir for his enduring support and endless optimism. This volume owes much to his inspiring encouragement.

xiii

Introduction

A

r‌chaeology enables us to decipher ancient re‌mains with the help of scientific tests and techniques, in combination with other information we have in hand as we evaluate those remains. This means that the analysis, dates, and conclusions expressed in this volume may shift in the future if new information emerges that alters our understanding of Lydian pottery. This is, however, inevitable and acceptable, and one may recall the words of the Danish scholar Rasmus Nyerup (1759–1829) who discussed history and archaeology two centuries ago: Everything which has come down to us from heathendom is wrapped in a thick fog; it belongs to a space of time which we cannot measure. We know that it is older than Christendom, but whether by a couple of years or a couple of centuries, or even by more than a millennium, we can do no more than guess (quoted in Renfrew and Bahn 1996:19)

Thanks to modern scholarship and the advancement of science, the history of earlier eras can be measured much more accurately now than it could 200 hundred years ago. This is especially true for Gordion: not very long ago, in the early 2000s, the dates of the Gordion/Yassıhöyük stratigraphical sequence, which are tied to the remains of both Gordion and many other Anatolian Iron Age sites, were radically changed. The Destruction Level that ended the Early Phrygian period (YHSS 6) had formerly been associated with a Cimmerian invasion that was dated to the early 7th century BCE, but radiocarbon and dendrochronological dating have subsequently shifted the Destruction Level approximately 100 years earlier (DeVries et al. 2003; Rose and Darbyshire 2011). This means that any pre-2003 reference to the Destruction Level’s chronology is incorrect.

The pottery presented in this volume was excavated by Rodney Young between 1950 and 1973 and is being published after more than 45–65 years. Although that is a considerable amount of time to have elapsed between excavation and publication, we are now in a position to analyze the ceramics within a more secure stratigraphic framework than would have been the case if they had been published shortly after the excavation. The Lydian pottery excavated during the directorship of Mary Voigt and Brian Rose was not included in this project, but I had the opportunity to look through it. The impression obtained through a general analysis of the related pottery does not seem likely to change the conclusions achieved in this study.1 A future evaluation of the finds discovered in post-Young excavations, which have been more carefully conducted with modern methods, may undoubtedly aid to place the material culture within more securely dated contexts. Chapters 1–3, 5, and 6 define and explain the general characteristics of Lydian pottery at Gordion. The fundamental source that makes it possible to define Lydian pottery and distinguish it from other groups of Anatolian ceramics is the ceramic sequence from the Lydian capital of Sardis. The ceramic assemblages at Gordion evince shapes and decoration similar to those of Sardis, both in distinct regional fabrics and in Sardian fabric, as I demonstrate in Chapter 1. Lisa Kealhofer and Peter Grave have tested hundreds of sherds excavated at Gordion, including many examples of Lydian pottery. The results of their geochemical tests and elemental groups on some of the Lydian pottery studied here have not yet been published. The fabric groups suggested in the volume, especially the identification of Sardian and provincial fabrics, are therefore based on macroscopic analysis of fabric, glaze, slip, firing, and style. Initially, pottery similar to

INTRODUCTION

Lydian painting conventions and shapes was chosen, and then various fabrics were identified from those samples. Thus, the provincial fabrics presented here, some of which may perhaps be plausibly considered local Gordion production, are restricted to Lydian shapes and conventions. The non-Lydian pottery at Gordion that has homogenous aspects with the provincial fabrics of Lydian ceramics is beyond the scope of this book. My macroscopic analysis on the identification of provincial products may be helpful for future ceramic studies in determining various similar regional Anatolian pottery groups. Chapters 2 and 3 analyze the characteristic aspects of the shape and decoration of Lydian pottery. In other words, what makes it possible for us to identify some of the vessels found at Gordion as distinctively Lydian, and how can we differentiate the provincial productions from those that were imported from Sardis? Did the regional productions outnumber the Sardian imports? When did the Sardis imports arrive and when was is it likely that regional Lydian products began to be produced? Is the Lydian pottery at Gordion similar to Lydian pottery made elsewhere? The introductory sections summarize the general traits regarding shape and painting style, as well as the chronological evidence for the types and their geographic distribution. Chapter 2 focuses on the Lydian painting conventions at Gordion, while Chapter 3 analyzes the shapes and their connection to the painting conventions examined in the previous chapter. These two chapters also examine the relevance of style and shape to findspots and situate Gordion’s Lydian ceramic assemblages within an Anatolian context. There are several questions that appear consistently in these chapters. A stylistic study of pottery that is tied to a specific regional tradition, such as “Lydian pottery” in our case, has the potential to tell us which shapes were common or less common, which decorative elements were used, and what the decorative schemes were. Comparative studies with other settlements will also help us to understand regional preferences for specific vessels and determine the patterns of trade. Which shapes were preferred as grave offerings vs. the household? What other local and imported pottery were used at the same time or in the same assemblages? How often is it possible to date the vessels according to stratigraphy or associated finds?

Chapter 4 attempts to offer a more detailed description of the findspots of Lydian pottery in relation to the trenches and levels where they were excavated. We should keep in mind that this volume deals with the material culture mainly excavated in the 1950s and 1960s, and some in the early 1970s, when the techniques of excavation were not as multifaceted as they are now. The classification and storage of objects were not as organized, nor was digital recording a possibility. Today we are usually left with bags of dusty pottery that are frequently not grouped according to contexts, and with field books that often need to be deciphered. We may think we have discovered material from a sealed context, yet it contains pottery and artifacts that have no logical place there. Furthermore, in some of the cases where context pottery was retained, only a small sample of the pottery was kept and the rest discarded, so they are not representative of the original context. Keeping in mind all of these obstacles, Chapter 4 aims to determine and locate the Lydian pottery according to findspots, and then to discuss whether there is any chronological or contextual information that we may derive from this evidence. Ascertaining the function of the Lydian and Lydian-style pottery is not easy. First of all, there are no textual sources that describe how a particular Lydian shape was used. We can only offer a guess based on comparison with Greek pottery, since the great majority of the Lydian shapes are derived from the repertory of Greek shapes; but what was true in Greece may not have been true for Sardis or Gordion. The quantitative descriptions offered in this volume should also be considered as a glimpse into the actual situation, since the pottery treated here covers less than 25 years of excavation and occurred in a limited area of the site. Furthermore, it is impossible to determine how much Lydian or Lydian-type pottery was discarded at the time of or shortly after excavation. Chapter 5 deals with the evidence for Lydian drinking, eating, and perfuming habits at Gordion. The chapter initially outlines the quantity of Lydian pottery shapes at Gordion and lists chronologically the preference for specific shapes both at Sardis and at Gordion. It is then followed by a discussion of the literary sources for Lydian food and beverages. Chapter 6 deals with the marks or graffiti on Lydian pottery, and attempts to determine their significance. xv

INTRODUCTION

It seems likely that the Lydians first established their control over Phrygia as well as many other areas to the west of the Halys River during the reign of Alyattes (ca. 610–560 BCE), and then under his son Croesus (ca. 580/560–546 BCE)2, but many questions remain. Did Lydian political control in Phrygia begin earlier in the 7th century, and did the cultural impact of Lydia on Gordion precede actual Lydian control? Did the Lydian political control over the region have any connection with the arrival or regional production of Lydian-type pottery? The Lydian painted pottery of Gordion may not necessarily express the presence of a Lydian cultural identity at Gordion even though it was under Lydian political control. These are all speculative questions that cannot yet be proven based on the existing evidence. Nevertheless, we can begin by describing, explaining, defining, and interpreting the ceramics within a logical and systematic analytical framework (Chapter 7). To put the importance of this volume in context, a quick review of prior research on Lydian painted pottery is needed. Twentieth-century scholarship provided two unpublished Ph.D. dissertations that particularly study Lydian painted pottery. One of them covered two popular Lydian ceramic conventions, the unguent container, lydion, and the marbled ware (Greenewalt 1966); the other dissertation (in Turkish) focused on the foreign elements of Lydian painted pottery from Sardis (Gürtekin 1998). The Lydian painted pottery discovered at Sardis and other sites have been discussed in several articles during the 21st century independently (e.g., Gürtekin-Demir 2001, 2002, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2014; Akdeniz and Eron 2017) or as part of other archaic ceramic assemblages (e.g., Kerschner 2005, 2008, 2019; Dupont 2014; Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015; Dupont and Lungu 2020; Hasdağlı 2014). Excavators and scholars often, and rightly, find it difficult to differentiate Lydianstyle pottery amongst other similar regional Anatolian painting conventions. Thus occasionally, pots belonging to other Anatolian pottery groups are incorrectly classified, documented, and/or published as “Lydian” (e.g., Hasdağlı 2014: nos. 1–6, 8–11; Dupont and Lungu 2011: pl. 2.19; Dusinberre et al. 2019:157–58, figs. 12–13, YH51532.5, YH53892.1, YH55670.1, YH55672.1; Bilgin 2020: 26, fig 4, no. 2). Therefore, this volume aims to contribute as a reference book for excavators, ceramic specialists,

scholars, and students who would like to get information on Lydian painted pottery. Pottery specialists who focus on the Archaic and Achaemenid periods of Anatolia would benefit more intensively in terms of the origins, chronology, distribution, and cultural aspects of Lydian pottery both at Sardis and elsewhere in Anatolia. Parallel with the publication of this book, the recent book on the stratigraphical sequences of Lydian levels of the sectors of HoB and PC at Sardis (A. Ramage et al. 2021) will undoubtedly be another guide for the types of Lydian painted pottery produced in the homeland of Lydians. This book offers an extensive study on Lydian pottery where all of the Lydian conventions attested at a site outside of Lydia are fully investigated through the lens of Gordion finds. The defining characteristic and chronological aspects of Sardian products alongside with the distinctive technical and stylistic elements of regional Lydian painted pottery types within the Anatolian context are discussed. The definition of style and technique of Sardian and regional Lydian pottery are determined in order to distinguish them from other classes of Anatolian pottery; however, the emphasizing aspect is to seek the meaning and perception of Lydian pottery in relation to its cultural, social, chronological, and artistic context in Anatolia. Although archaeological material culture, especially pottery, enables us to identify artistic traits, local preferences, and adaptations of previous cultures, we should be careful in making sharp judgements when interpreting pottery as an expression of group identity. Ceramics, as material culture are independent from political boundaries; the diffusion of artistic conventions cannot be equated with the movement of particular people groups. The paradigm of a correlation between the diffusion of Lydian-type pottery at sites outside of Lydia and the Lydian imperial power or Lydian ethnic identity remains as a primordial approach. It is nearly impossible and meaningless to detect Lydian ethnic identity through a small group of Lydian pottery discovered in Gordion, most of which are possibly produced outside of Lydia. The reconstruction of a cultural or ethnic identity is not easy and cannot solely built upon pottery evidence; it must be supported with various other types of evidence. The presence of Lydian painted pottery both as imports from Sardis and regional products at sites beyond the core Lydian region may be explained as xvi

INTRODUCTION

subtle Lydian cultural elements practiced in many regions of Asia Minor.

Voigt, was recently published (Dusinberre et al. 2019:156– 60). 0.2  Conventional date for the accession of Croesus is 560 BCE; however, Wallace (2016) suggests 580 based on numismatic evidence.

notes: 0.1  A limited group of Lydian pottery, which was associated with a dump deposited ca. 540 BCE and excavated by

xvii

1 Visual Aspects of the Fabric of Gordion’s Lydian Pottery

T

he visual aspects of fabric and glaze have typically been used by pottery specialists to define the general characteristics of regional or individual production centers. Several interdisciplinary methods of chemical and petrographic analyses may be useful in such an enterprise; however, it is imperative that the results of the chemical analyses are discussed in tandem with the stylistic evaluation. The richest source for Lydian pottery comes from Sardis, the capital of the Lydian kingdom. It is, therefore, crucial to define the technical characteristics of the local pottery at Sardis when attempting to identify provincial Lydian pottery. Lydian pottery has been found in a number of cultural regions of western Anatolia, including Aiolis, Ionia, Caria, Propontis, Pisidia, Lycia, and Phrygia, all of which are located to the west of the Halys River, as well as in the part of Phrygia that lies immediately to the east of Halys (Gürtekin 1998:2, n. 2–3; 133, n. 388–92; 211, n. 555). Excavators often mistakenly interpret Lydian pottery found at other sites as Phrygian, southwest Anatolian, imports from Sardis, or simply as Anatolian without considering the possibility of provincial Lydian production elsewhere in Anatolia. The Lydian ceramics excavated in the vicinity of Sardis, Daskyleion, and Gordion (Gürtekin-Demir 2007) as well as in Tabae (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015) have been linked to several different provincial production centers for Lydian-type painted pottery, which I treat in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3. The purpose of this chapter is initially to distinguish the pottery that is visually similar to that of Sardis, and then to identify, as far as possible, the other types of fabrics that are represented. It should be noted that this classification is based on macroscopic analysis, and that the pottery listed under certain types of fabric (especially non-Sardian fabrics) may have been

produced at more than one center or workshop that used similar types of clay. In other words, the nonSardian fabric types listed here may not necessarily have come from a single production center. Four groups of fabric may be identified within the Lydian pottery at Gordion: 1. Sardian fabric (Table 1): Although several clay sources may have been utilized at Sardis, the standard Sardian fabric is distinct and easily identifiable. It is soft and flaky with a considerable amount of golden mica. The color tones of red clay are generally between yellowish red (5 YR 5/6) and reddish yellow (5 YR 6/6). There can be several types of small gritty inclusions present, such as tiny flecks of limestone, and the fabric often has a porous texture due to its flaky structure. There are three major colors preferred for painting: bright red to brown iron-oxide glaze (similar to Greek glazes), a dark matte paint, and white. White is often used as a slip or coat for the decoration’s background. 2. Provincial fabric I (Table 2): The general features, such as the flaky, porous, and micaceous textures, are very similar to the Sardian fabric, although the color of Provincial fabric I tends to be a much darker red, which may indicate that its clay contains a higher quantity of iron oxide. The similarity to the Sardian fabric can often lead to an incorrect classification. The main difference is that the applied glaze of Provincial fabric I is evidently matte, whereas the Sardian imports frequently have a glossy glaze. Pottery with Provincial fabric I may point to a production within the Lydian region, perhaps some place near Sardis.

2

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Table 1  Catalog numbers and vessel types of Sardian fabric Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

1

Bichrome dish

78

Streaky glazed amphora

2

Bichrome dish

79

Streaky glazed oinochoe

10

Bichrome amphora

80

Streaky glazed oinochoe

11

Bichrome amphora?

81

Streaky glazed oinochoe

12

Bichrome amphora?

87

Streaky glazed lekythos

13

Bichrome amphora?

97

Streaky glazed lekythos

14

Bichrome amphora?

101

Streaky glazed lydion

15

Bichrome amphora?

104

Streaky glazed lydion

17

Bichrome storage vessel

106

Plain painted lydion

23

Marbling phiale

108

Plain painted lydion

24

Marbling phiale

109

Streaky glazed lydion

25

Marbling skyphos

110

Plain painted lydion

26

Marbling skyphos

117

Plain painted lydion

27

Marbling skyphos

129

Plain painted lydion

29

Marbling skyphos

131

Streaky glazed lydion

30

Marbling skyphos

133

Plain painted lydion

34

Marbling amphora

134

Plain painted lydion

35

Marbling oinochoe

135

Plain painted lydion

36

Marbling oinochoe

143

Unpainted lydion

38

Marbling oinochoe

167

Banded lydion

39

Marbling oinochoe

207

Banded lydion

41

Marbling lekythos

212

Banded lydion

46

Marbling lydion

213

Banded lydion

48

Marbling lydion

215

Banded lydion

59

Marbling effect lydion

219

Waveline amphora or hydria

60

Marbling effect stand?

220

Waveline hydria

61

Streaky glazed skyphos

222

Black-on-red dish

64

Streaky glazed skyphos

65

Streaky glazed skyphos

66

Streaky glazed skyphos

67

Streaky glazed skyphos

68

Streaky glazed skyphos

70

Streaky glazed skyphos

72

Streaky glazed skyphos

73

Streaky glazed skyphos

74

Streaky glazed column krater

75

Streaky glazed column krater



VISUAL ASPECTS OF THE FABRIC 3

Table 2  Catalog numbers and vessel types of Provincial fabric I Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

20

Brown-on-cream skyphos

37

Marbling oinochoe

42

Marbling lekythos

45

Marbling lekythos

49

Marbling lydion

62

Streaky glazed skyphos

82

Streaky glazed lekythos

86

Streaky glazed lekythos

91

Plain painted lekythos

93

Streaky glazed lekythos

96

Streaky glazed lekythos

99

Streaky glazed lekythos

100

Streaky glazed lekythos

103

Plain painted lydion

140

Unpainted lekythos

141

Unpainted lydion

142

Unpainted lydion

205

Banded lydion

216

Banded lydion

218

Banded lydion

3. Provincial fabric II (Table 3): This type of fabric seems to be the most common one among the Lydian pottery discovered at Gordion. It is hardfired, porous, and includes small, brown and reddish gritty inclusions, tiny flecks of limestone, and very slight traces of mica (occasionally nonmicaceous). The glaze preferred on these pots is generally matte, very rarely glossy. The color tones fall between brown and yellowish red. Provincial fabric II is distinctive and quite different from those of Sardian fabric and Provincial fabric I. It, therefore, seems to be a distinct clay source from a place out of the Sardis region and may plausibly be considered a local, perhaps Gordion, production. 4. Miscellaneous other fabrics (Table 4): There are various other regional types of Lydian pottery that have fabrics distinct from those made from Sardian clay. They vary in terms of the quantity

of inclusions, the color tones of the clay, and the fabric porosity. Visually, they may well resemble the aforementioned provincial fabric types, and, consequently, it can be difficult to differentiate them.

Analysis of Sardian Imports and Provincial Lydian Pottery at Gordion The provincially produced Lydian pottery found at Gordion clearly outnumbers actual Sardian imports. Sardian imports constitute nearly 30% of the total Lydian ceramic assemblage. The variety of distinct regional fabrics suggests the use of more than one clay source, either from a single region or from several regions. Although the number of individual shapes varies according to painting style and fabric, the shapes and the painting techniques used at both Sardis and the provincial production centers are similar. The question of whether these provincial production centers are from the region of Lydia or from elsewhere in Anatolia and if one or more of these centers are located at Gordion or Phrygia proper is difficult to answer since limited comparative study of provincial fabrics through clay analysis of Lydian or Lydian type of pottery has been published so far (for such a study see Gürtekin-Demir et al. forthcoming; see also Akurgal et al. 2002; Kerschner 2005, 2008; Dupont and Lungu 2020). The numbers of provincial examples of amphoras, storage vessels, kraters, and skyphoi are nearly equal to the numbers of those produced at Sardis. However, the Sardian imports amount to only 21 lydions out of 117, 3 lekythoi out of 32, and 3 dishes out of 13. Single examples of the stamnos (no. 77) and dinos (no. 31) have provincial fabrics, whereas the only two phialai are Sardian imports (nos. 23, 24). This implies that there was not only a considerable demand for Lydian-style lydions, lekythoi, and dishes, but also a desire for regionally made pots. It is significant that the chronological range of both the Sardian imports and the regional products falls between the late 8th to mid-6th centuries BCE (Lydian Levels III–I at Sardis) and the Achaemenid period (ca. 540–334 BCE). The earliest examples of

4

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Table 3  Catalog numbers and vessel types of Provincial fabric II Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

3

Bichrome dish

95

Plain painted lekythos

4

Bichrome dish

98

Streaky glazed lekythos

5

Bichrome dish

105

Plain painted lydion

6

Bichrome dish

107

Plain painted lydion

7

Bichrome skyphos

130

Plain painted lydion

8

Bichrome skyphos

136

Unpainted lekythos

16

Bichrome oinochoe

137

Unpainted lekythos

21

Marbling dish

138

Unpainted lekythos

22

Marbling dish

139

Unpainted lekythos

28

Marbling skyphos

144

Banded lekythos

31

Marbling dinos

145

Banded lydion

32

Marbling amphora

146

Banded lydion

33

Marbling amphora

147

Banded lydion

40

Marbling oinochoe

152

Banded lydion

43

Marbling lekythos

153

Banded lydion

44

Marbling lekythos

154

Banded lydion

50

Marbling effect dish

155

Banded lydion

51

Marbling effect dish

156

Banded lydion

52

Marbling effect dish

157

Banded lydion

53

Marbling effect oinochoe

158

Banded lydion

54

Marbling effect oinochoe

159

Banded lydion

55

Marbling effect oinochoe

160

Banded lydion

56

Marbling effect lekythos

161

Banded lydion

57

Marbling effect closed vessel

162

Banded lydion

58

Marbling effect lekythos

163

Banded lydion

63

Plain painted skyphos

164

Banded lydion

69

Plain painted skyphos

165

Banded lydion

71

Streaky glazed skyphos

166

Banded lydion

76

Streaky glazed column krater

168

Banded lydion

77

Streaky glazed stamnos

169

Banded lydion

83

Streaky glazed lekythos

170

Banded lydion

84

Streaky glazed lekythos

171

Banded lydion

85

Streaky glazed lekythos

172

Banded lydion

88

Streaky glazed lekythos

173

Banded lydion

89

Streaky glazed lekythos

174

Banded lydion

90

Streaky glazed lekythos

175

Banded lydion

92

Streaky glazed lekythos

176

Banded lydion

94

Streaky glazed lekythos

178

Banded lydion



VISUAL ASPECTS OF THE FABRIC 5 Table 3 cont'd  Catalog numbers and vessel types of Provincial fabric II Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

179

Banded lydion

181

Banded lydion

182

Banded lydion

183

Banded lydion

185

Banded lydion

186

Banded lydion

187

Banded lydion

188

Banded lydion

189

Banded lydion

190

Banded lydion

191

Banded lydion

192

Banded lydion

193

Banded lydion

194

Banded lydion

195

Banded lydion

196

Banded lydion

197

Banded lydion

198

Banded lydion

217

Banded lydion

Table 4  Catalog numbers and vessel types of Miscellaneous fabrics

Table 4 cont'd  Catalog numbers and vessel types of Miscellaneous fabrics Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

121

Plain painted lydion

122

Plain painted lydion

123

Plain painted lydion

124

Plain painted lydion

125

Plain painted lydion

126

Streaky glazed lydion

127

Plain painted lydion

128

Streaky glazed lydion

132

Streaky glazed lydion

148

Banded lydion

149

Banded lydion

150

Banded lydion

151

Banded lydion

177

Banded lydion

Cat. nos.

Vessel Type

180

Banded lydion

9

Bichrome krater

184

Banded lydion

18

Bichrome storage vessel

199

Banded lydion

19

Bichrome storage vessel

200

Banded lydion

47

Marbling lydion

201

Banded lydion

102

Streaky glazed lydion

202

Banded lydion

111

Plain painted lydion

203

Banded lydion

112

Plain painted lydion

204

Banded lydion

113

Plain painted lydion

206

Banded lydion

114

Streaky glazed lydion

208

Banded lydion

115

Plain painted lydion

209

Banded lydion

116

Plain painted lydion

210

Banded lydion

118

Plain painted lydion

211

Banded lydion

119

Plain painted lydion

214

Banded lydion

120

Plain painted lydion

221

Black-on-red dish

6

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Lydian pottery at Gordion are the bichrome, blackon-red, and brown-on-cream pottery, decorated with either horizontal wavy lines (nos. 1, 2) or with pendent concentric semicircles or hooks (nos. 3–20, 221). Based on the appearance of the fabric, it looks as if these groups include both imports from Sardis (nos. 1, 2, 10–15, 17) and their provincial counterparts (nos. 3–9, 16, 18–20, 221). They were used at Gordion at an early date within the 7th century, or perhaps even earlier during the 8th, a range that fits with the parallel chronological sequence attested at Sardis (see Chapters 2 and 3). This suggests that Lydian interaction with Phrygia vis-à-vis ceramics was already in place much earlier than the early 6th century, when Gordion came under direct Lydian control. The majority of the other imports include marbling and streaky glazed/plain painted pottery of the 6th century. These may extend down to the 5th century judging by their continuity in the early part of the Achaemenid period at Sardis and Daskyleion. All lydions of Sardian origin are of the fat-bellied 6th century type (nos. 46, 48, 59, 101, 104, 106, 108–110, 117, 129, 131, 133–135, 143, 207, 212, 213, 215), with the exception of a single late type (no. 167). Provincial fabric II seems to be the predominant Lydian pottery fabric at Gordion. Whether there was only one source, or several sharing similar elemental patterns, can only be determined by further chemical analysis. However, Provincial fabric II can be observed on all of the pottery that I have labelled the “marbling effect I” group, which imitates traditional marbling in a coarser technique (nos. 50–57), on the standard type of spiral red-banded “late lydions” (nos. 145–147, 152–162, 164–166, 168, 170–176, 178, 179, 181–183, 186–193, 195–198, 217), and on some other late lydions (nos. 163, 185, 194). It is also attested on several examples with conventional marbling (nos. 21, 22, 28, 31–33, 40, 43, 44), “marbling effect II” (no. 58), and streaky glazed and plain painted pottery (nos. 63, 69, 71, 76, 77, 83–85, 88–90, 92, 94, 95, 98, 105, 107, 130). The earliest use of this fabric on provincial Lydian bichrome pottery (nos. 3–8, 16) seems to be contemporary with the early imports from Sardis. Therefore, Provincial fabric II is evident from the 7th century and goes as late as the Achaemenid period. When all non-Sardian fabrics are considered, they include a wide range of popular painting conventions

Table 5  Counts and percentages of fabric types Fabric Type

Quantity

Percentage

Sardian fabric

64

29%

Provincial fabrics

158

71%

(bichrome, black-on-red, brown-on-cream, marbling, streaky glazed, and plain painted), as well as many shapes that reflect the pottery traditions of the Lydian capital within a wide time span, from the 8th to mid6th centuries BCE through the Achaemenid period. In terms of Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA), nearly one thousand local and non-local wares at Gordion were analyzed by Lisa Kealhofer and Peter Grave as part of the Anatolian Iron Age Ceramics Project– AIA (e.g., Grave et al. 2009; Kealhofer et al. 2015; Kealhofer et al. forthcoming).1 This analysis included 25 vessels reported in this volume (nos. 1, 3, 7, 9, 16, 20, 22–24, 28, 31, 39, 43, 52, 56, 60, 80, 83, 87, 93, 104, 160, 167, 206, and 222). The AIA Project also analyzed a large sample of ceramics and of sediments from the vicinity of Sardis and identified a distinctive local clay source (Kealhofer et al. 2013).2 Lydian-style pottery from Daskyleion was analyzed at Bonn by Hans Mommsen and Michael Kerschner. Sardis was the main source identified in both NAA studies.3 Their preliminary results of the aforementioned 25 vessels revealed three main categories: the first category is a direct match with the Sardis, Pactolus source (nos. 20 [AIA 6197], 22 [AIA 6194], 23 [AIA 6191], 24 [AIA 6196], 60 [AIA 6411], 80 [AIA 6195], 87 [AIA 7004], 104 [AIA 6996], 167 [AIA 6998], and 222 [AIA 6416]); the second category is likely the same Sardis, Pactolus source but formed a small very tight cluster geochemically (nos. 28 [AIA 6192], 93 [AIA 7003] and 206 [AIA 6997] ); and the rest are ambiguous (potentially regional Sardis or somewhere else, as noted by L. Kealhofer and Peter Grave) and cannot be assigned for any certainty at this time (nos. 1 [AIA 6543], 3 [AIA 6427], 7 [AIA 6432], 9 [AIA 6331], 16 [AIA 6334], 31 [AIA 6251], 39 [AIA 6202], 43 [AIA 6198], 52 [AIA 6193], 56 [AIA 6542], 83 [AIA 7002], and 160 [AIA 6999]) (Personal communication with L. Kealhofer and P. Grave in June 2019).



VISUAL ASPECTS OF THE FABRIC 7

Table 6  Analyzed Lydian pottery by the AIA Project and their elemental groupings Sardis – Pactolus Source Cat. nos.

Inv. nos.

AIA nos.

No. 20

P2401

AIA 6197

No. 22

P1777

AIA 6194

No. 23

P1173

AIA 6191

No. 24

P2879

AIA 6196

No. 60

P2988

AIA 6411

No. 80

P4427

AIA 6195

No. 87

P4129

AIA 7004

No. 104

P654

AIA 6996

No. 167

P1158

AIA 6998

No. 222

P5348

AIA 6416

Sardis – Pactolus Cluster Cat. nos.

Inv. nos.

AIA nos.

No. 28

P1202

AIA 6192

No. 93

P561

AIA 7003

No. 206

P1744

AIA 6997

Ambiguous – could be regionally local to Sardis or somewhere else Cat. nos.

Inv. nos.

AIA nos.

No. 1

P3253

AIA 6543

No. 3

P3882

AIA 6427

No. 7

P3750

AIA 6432

No. 9

P2777

AIA 6331

No. 16

P2564a

AIA 6334

No. 31

P4995

AIA 6251

No. 39

P3684

AIA 6202

No. 43

P4487

AIA 6198

No. 52

P4476

AIA 6193

No. 56

P2437

AIA 6542

No. 83

P503

AIA 7002

No. 160

P906

AIA 6999

A comparison of these preliminary AIA results with the visual analysis of Lydian pottery at Gordion discussed above, interestingly reveals that eight out of ten samples geochemically assigned to a Sardis (Pactolus) source are also visually identified as Sardian production (nos. 23, 24, 60, 80, 87, 104, 167, and 222). Of the two Lydian pottery samples with Provincial fabric I, which has similar fabric characteristics with the Sardian fabric (nos. 20, 93), no. 20 was identified as being from the Sardis, Pactolus source and no. 93 from the AIA second category (Sardis, Pactolus Cluster). The NAA of 12 samples, which are not clearly assigned to a certain source includes nine of the sherds (nos. 3, 7, 16, 31, 43, 52, 56, 83, and 160) that correspond with the Provincial fabric II, and one other sherd (no. 9) matching Miscellaneous other fabrics. Both the Provincial fabric II and Miscellaneous other fabrics are visually distinct from both the Sardian and Provincial I fabrics. Therefore, at least some of the pottery from these groups (i.e., Provincial fabric II and Miscellaneous other fabrics ) could imply a local source, perhaps somewhere near Gordion. Sample nos. 3, 7, 9, and 16 are all white bichrome provincial adaptations of conventional Lydian red bichrome, red or brown on white (or cream), and black-on-red at Sardis (see Chapter 2); no. 31 is a provincial marbled dinos subordinated with a dotted triangle, and no. 43 is plain marbled; nos. 52 and 56 are imitative marbled examples (see Chapter 2, Marbling Effect I); no. 83 is streaky glazed elongated lekythos; and no. 160 is an example of banded Type II (Late) lydion that has been numerously discovered at Gordion (see Chapter 3). Only five of the 25 NAA samples did not correspond with my macroscopic analyses: nos. 22 (Provincial fabric II) is identified as Sardis, Pactolus source, no. 28 (Provincial fabric II) and no. 206 (Miscellaneous other fabrics) both as Sardis, Pactolus Cluster, and nos. 1 and 39 (Sardian fabric) as ambiguous. notes: 1.1  All relevant information here (including Table 6 ) on NAA of Lydian pottery samples excavated at Gordion and the elemental groups was kindly supplied by Lisa Kealhofer and Peter Grave. 1.2  The NAA results and the stylistic aspects of the analyzed Iron Age pottery from Sardis will be published joint-

8

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

ly by N. Cahill, H. Mommsen, M. Kerschner, and R. G. Gürtekin-Demir. 1.3  A poster on “Analysing Lydian Pottery: Elemental vs. Stylistic Classification” was jointly presented by R. G. Gürtekin-Demir, H. Mommsen, M. Kerschner, L. Kealhofer, and P. Grave in the 12th European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics that took place in Padova (Italy) on Sep-

tember 19–21, 2013. The poster presented a preliminary report for the Lydian pottery samples from Daskyleion and Gordion, but only an abstract was published in the symposium abstract booklet. A comparative study on elemental vs. stylistic classification of Lydian pottery discovered at Daskyleion will be published in Gürtekin-Demir et al. forthcoming.

2 Painting Conventions

I

n order to better understand and define ancient ceramics, it is inevitable for specialists to designate them into several classifications. Squeezing each ceramic and painting convention into certain categories may not always be possible; however, the Lydian painted pottery can be explained through the painting conventions some of which are often difficult to distinguish since more than one convention may occur concurrently on a single vessel (for examples of Lydian painted decoration, see Fig. 10 in the color insert). Sardis is the principle site for the determination of Lydian painted pottery, not only because it was the metropolis of the Lydian Kingdom, where the richest variety and quantity of styles and vessel shapes were discovered, but also as it is where the local productions were characterized through clay analysis. The typological approach for regional Lydian-type pottery attested elsewhere in Anatolia can be achieved through the reading of local pottery of Sardis, where we can securely attribute the pottery to Lydian culture. Therefore, the local pottery of Sardis serves as a guidance in this study. However, other Lydian-type pottery excavated elsewhere will also be discussed within the Anatolian context. The terminology for Lydian painting conventions have been ascribed and recognized since the 1960s and there is no reason for renaming some of the wellestablished, but incorrect and ambiguous terms, such as bichrome, since further renaming would cause more confusion. The bichrome and black-on-red paintings were nearly universal applications preferred by many regional workshops in Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The regional characteristic aspects have been distinguished for Lydian bichrome (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:119–22; 2014; A. Ramage et al. 2021:15) and Lydian black-on-red (Gürtekin-Demir 2011; A. Ramage et al. 2021:11). Classifications of other regional

Anatolian bichrome and black-on-red pottery is yet to be determined. The streaky glazed and marbled paintings are the most easily differentiated Lydian conventions. The waveline amphora/hydria is a Lydian adaptation of its Greek prototypes. There are more Lydian adaptations or imitations of common Greek styles practiced at Sardis, such as imitations of Proto Corinthian Linear kotylai and local Lydian variants of Greek Wild Goat style, which have a limited distribution and have not been discovered at Gordion so far. The so-called Early Fikellura style, which may have been produced at Lydia was discovered in Gordion (named “House of Bronzes ware” by Schaus 1992:152, 174) but is not included in this study.

BICHROME The term “bichrome” seems to be a universal name to define the painting technique that uses two colors, mainly red and black, to decorate the vessel. This term was widely used to define vases from various ancient regions over a large span of time, starting with the Neolithic period (e.g., Pentedeka 2017:346, fig. 4; 348). In modern scholarship, the term “bichrome” is also used when the vessel is painted with a white/creamy white slip or with occasional white bands in addition to the decoration in red and black. In some cases, bichrome pottery was associated with polychrome pottery, which may often have the same color components. Thus, the perception and definition of the term bichrome in ceramic studies remains ambiguous. In the case of Lydian bichrome, discussed below, the term is used to define vessels that are decorated with two colors (red and black) over a background (either white slip or a reserved red clay surface). The main patterns (not necessarily the transitional bands) are in red and black,

10

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

whereas white was either applied as a background slip for main decorations or in the form of transitional bands. Greenewalt suggested that the red color that was used to decorate Lydian pottery was in fact similar to the Greek red glaze with high amounts of iron oxide and a glossy finish, whereas the dark glaze with high manganese content had a matte finish. Therefore, it seems the Lydian vessels were fired in a one-step process rather than three (Greenewalt 1970:58, 60–61). Bichrome was a popular painting technique throughout Anatolia, as well as at some Eastern Mediterranean centers during the Iron Age. The dating, painting conventions, preference for decorative elements, placement of the motifs and figures, and the shapes on which bichrome was executed could differ from one production center to another; nevertheless, the use of two main colors, namely red and black, with occasional use of white remained more or less uniform. The color tones may seem somewhat different from vessel to vessel, but this is due to variations in the clay, paint, or slip used, and/or differences in firing parameters, at the various production centers. The popularity of this painting convention in Anatolia is especially apparent in both Lydian and Phrygian pottery. Phrygian bichrome pottery was used at Gordion throughout the 9th century BCE, and is attested both in the Destruction Level and in levels predating that destruction, such as the Terrace Fill and Early Phrygian Building Phase V (Sams 1994: nos. 926, 944, 722, 925, 927 [Destruction Level]; nos. 255, 281, 295, 397–98 [Terrace Fill]; no. 127 [Early Phrygian Building V]). The Early Phrygian Building Phase V is now dated to ca. 850 BCE (Sams and Voigt 2011:159), a re-dating that constitutes only one of several recent chronological adjustments at Gordion. Until the early 2000s, the Destruction Level was associated with a presumed Cimmerian invasion at Gordion around 700 BCE, and this event became a firm anchor in the chronology of Gordion and the Central Anatolian Iron Age (Kohler and Ralph 1961). New radiocarbon determinations for the Destruction Level, however, point to an earlier date for the destruction, with a calibrated range extending from 824–803 BCE (DeVries et al. 2003; Voigt 2005:26–31; Voigt 2011; Rose and Darbyshire 2011).1 Consequently, the Destruction Level is now dated ca. 800 BCE, too early for any Cimmerian involvement, and the levels predating it have been assigned to the 9th century.

More recent work on Phrygian ceramics, tied to this revised chronology, indicates that local Phrygian bichrome ware is attested in the lower level of the South Cellar, dating from the late 8th to the early 7th century, (DeVries 2005:41–42, figs. 4–5; Sams 2011:72), and also amongst the finds from Tumulus H, which date to the second half of the 7th century (DeVries 2005:45, figs. 4–8). With reference to the two fragmentary bichrome vessels in the South Cellar deposit, Sams suggested that this variety of Phrygian bichrome, with abundant use of red, was already favored during the second half of the 8th century (Sams 2011:72). He also pointed out that the red color was secondary to black in earlier Phrygian bichrome painting, and that the bichrome variety with extensive use of red may have extended into the 4th century. Furthermore, Stewart identified a group termed “West Anatolian Banded Ware” dating to the Hellenistic period (Stewart 2010:152–53, fig. 60), in which there are traces of the continuity of bichrome tradition with extensive use of red. The dominant characteristic of Phrygian bichrome pottery is the use of a thick, creamy white slip, decorated with broad bands featuring complex geometric patterns such as linked lozenges, cross-andlozenge panels, latticed panels, regular/oblique checkerboards, multiple lozenge panels, and regular/dotted nets. The broad horizontal bands are occasionally vertically partitioned into panels. The decoration tends to appear on large, closed vessels such as jugs, amphoras, and jars, and is common among the finds uncovered from pre- and post-Destruction Level contexts, as well as the Destruction Level itself. In 1978, Sams stated that bichrome painting can be found in three regions (the western plateau or Phrygia proper, the Halys area, and North Syria), and that it did not attain any degree of popularity until the later 8th and 7th centuries (Sams 1978:227–28, using the date of 700 BCE for the Destruction Level). Lydian bichrome is different from Phrygian and other Anatolian bichrome in many respects, from the use and quality of the colors to the preference of shapes and decorative elements, and it is these features that I will now examine.

Lydian Bichrome: General Aspects Although the word “bichrome” implies the use of two colors, there were in fact three colors that were



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 11

used on Lydian pottery: white, red, and black. The black is matte whereas the red is generally glossy. The use of the same three colors is also found on Ephesian ware (Greenewalt 1973), Sardis Wild Goat style pottery (Greenewalt 1970), and architectural terracottas from Sardis (Shear 1923, 1926; Billot 1980; A. Ramage 1978; Hostetter 1994; Ratté 1994). Unlike bichrome painting from other parts of Anatolia, the Lydian variety uses two distinct types of color scheme, white bichrome and red bichrome, named after the dominant color used on the vessel. This dominant color is principally rendered as a background for the main decoration. The white bichrome is remarkable for its relatively thick creamy white slip, and the decorative elements are rendered on broad bands reminiscent of Phrygian bichrome painting. Three major groups of patterns occur: derivatives of the circle, such as rows of full single circles or concentric circles with a central dot; these patterns may be arranged either in a row within a regular band, or within a larger circle (like a wheel pattern), or independently arranged as filling ornaments (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 333, HoB 334, HoB 428, HoB 445, HoB 50, PC 29, PC 102); patterns arranged in panels, such as cross-hatched lattices, regular and oblique checkerboards, and panels of dotted net (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 245, HoB 280, HoB, 289, HoB 345, HoB 370); rows of cross-hatched, latticed or plain painted geometric patterns such as squares, rectangles, triangles (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 245, HoB 289). The most common white bichrome shapes are large vessels, such as kraters, dinoi, amphoras and jars. The large jars, which were probably used as storage vessels, evince a more careless decoration, especially when compared to other shapes where a more careful technique is evident. At Sardis, white bichrome is also attested on a small number of other shapes, such as dishes and round-mouthed jugs. The decoration in red bichrome, on the other hand, is usually executed over a smoothed reserved clay surface. The decoration is applied with a dark matte paint, whereas the red and the white are commonly used to render the transitional bands. The most common ornaments in red bichrome ware are compass-drawn pendent or ascendant concentric semicircles, and pendent concentric hooks, horizontal wavy lines, and rows of latticed squares. The general

tendency is to insert broad bands between the handles, commonly over a reserved red clay surface or occasionally on a diluted creamy white slip. These main bands are often enriched with red and/or white bands on the lower part of the body. Red bichrome is most popular on amphoras and oinochoai, as well as on skyphoi, skyphos-kraters, bowls, and on carinated bowls with or without horizontal reflex handles (Gürtekin 1998:116–19). Rarely, it is found on round-mouthed jugs, dinoi and pyxides (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 23, no. 72 [dinos]; pl. 25, nos. 77–78 [round-mouthed jug]; inv. no. P64.110: 6119 [pyxis]). Lydian white bichrome is attested at Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:120–21, fig. 9), KelainaiApameia Kibotos (Lungu and Dupont 2016:447, pl. 2, nos. 17–18), Aigai (Özver 2012: pl. 11, cat. no. 88), and Tabae (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015:290, fig. 3, nos. 22–23), while red bichrome seems to have had a broader geographical distribution, including Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:121–22, fig. 10), Xanthos (Metzger 1972: pl. 24, no. 107), Smyrna (Akurgal 1950:37, abb. 2), Larisa (Boehlau-Schefold 1942: Taf. 24, no. 3), and Ephesus (Brein 1978:726, pl. 224, abb. 17; Gasser 1992:192; Kerschner 2008: 227). Based on datable contexts at Sardis, bichrome pottery begins by the 9th century and seems to have been in use for a long period of time. Early evidence for bichrome painting comes from the House of Bronzes (HoB) at Sardis, which was excavated in the 1960s. The early traces of this painting convention are attested in Lydian level IV (9th to mid-8th century; A. Ramage et al. 2021:53–56) and in a destruction level previously inferred to be associated with the Cimmerian attacks on Sardis in the 650s (Hanfmann 1966:8–18; Hanfmann 1967: 31–37; Hanfmann and Waldbaum 1970:28–29; Hanfmann and Mierse 1983:26). The reassessment of the stratigraphy of this area reveals that the destruction in question actually occurred in the late 8th century, based on imported Greek Geometric pottery (see Schaeffer’s dating for diagnostic Corinthian pottery in Hanfmann and Mierse 1983:29; fig. 38 and Schaeffer et al. 1997:5, 7; pl. 4, Cor. 1; see also A. Ramage 1994; A. Ramage et al. 2021:57–70). The bichrome pottery from Lydian level IV includes large kraters and jars (inv. nos. P64.356:6471, P62.385:4725, P64.442:6575; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 245, HoB 280, HoB 289), and the destruction level (Lydian level III) includes a stand (probably belonging to a krater

12

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

or dinos), a round-mouthed jug, and the body fragments of large closed vessels (inv. nos. P66.069:7084, P68.006:7605, P68.007:7606, P13.002:13359; Gürtekin 1998: no. 75: pls. 19, 24, no. 78: pl. 25, no. 84: pl. 28; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 333, HoB 369, HoB 370). Bichrome pottery from the Lydian levels IV and III at HoB are commonly white bichrome, where thick creamy white slip was applied to broad areas as a coat for decorative patterns. Concentric hooks, which become popular on red bichrome in the later Lydian levels II and I, are not common on the bichrome examples from the Sardis destruction level or any earlier levels there (Gürtekin 1998: no. 86: pl. 28, no. 87: pl. 29; A. Ramage 1994: pl. 14.5.2). Pendent concentric semicircles, on the other hand, are more popular on black-on-red pottery at Lydian levels IV and III at HoB (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 278–279, HoB 308, HoB 326, HoB 332, HoB 368, HoB 374). Other early contexts excavated at the Byzantine Fortress sector (ByzFort) at Sardis especially included bichrome stemmed dishes and storage jars, dated to the mid- or late 7th (Greenewalt et al. 1993:29, fig. 26; 1994: 26–27, fig. 29; Cahill 2010b:82, 88, figs. 18–19). However, Cahill currently suggests that this context belongs to the late 9th century and bases his argument on the lack of 7th century imports and characteristic shapes, which are ubiquitous everywhere at Sardis, similarity to Lydian level IV (9th to mid-8th century), and dissimilarity to the later Lydian level III. Additionally, the unpublished results of Peter Kuniholm, suggest a dendrochronological date of about 800 BCE for the context (N. Cahill, pers. comm.). Black-on-red pottery motifs from the pits include pendent and ascendant concentric semicircles and hooks, as well as rows of latticed squares and wavy lines on a variety of shapes (e.g., Cahill 2010b:88, fig. 19). Unpublished bichrome pottery discovered from these pits are commonly decorated with concentric semicircles, latticed squares and bands, wavy lines, cross-hatched areas, and full concentric circles, but not concentric hooks (ByzFort Trenches 11&12, Baskets 10, 11, 16, 18, 22). Lydian pottery assemblages discovered both in the HoB and Pactolus Cliff (PC) sectors further indicate that in both Lydian II (ca. early to third quarter of the 7th century) and the early part of Lydian I (late 7th to mid-6th centuries) levels, red bichrome pottery decorated with pendent concentric hooks or semicircles was popular (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021:

HoB 403, HoB 407, HoB 411, HoB 429, HoB 509, HoB 521, HoB 620). The decoration of concentric pendent semicircles but not the concentric hooks is also attested on the pottery from the earlier Lydian III destruction level (ca. mid- to late 8th century). One of the latest examples with pendent concentric hooks is a Myrina-type amphora discovered at sector HoB in an early Lydian I Level (“Lydian Shop”). It is decorated in red bichrome bearing eclectic decorative elements from both the western Anatolian Orientalizing style (lotus palmette flower-and-bud chain) and from local bichrome and streaky styles (Greenewalt 2010a:110, fig. 3; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 521). It is important to note that the bichrome style is not attested among the finds from the mid-6th century BCE Persian Destruction Level that has been securely dated by both archaeological and scientific analysis (see Cahill 2010c), whereas simple spiral banded black-on-red, marbled, streaky-glazed, and banded wares were generally preferred at that time for the local painted pottery. Thus, the earliest examples of Lydian bichrome date to the 9th–8th centuries according to the evidence from the stratigraphy of the HoB and ByzFort sectors at Sardis when white bichrome was seemingly the primary version. The red bichrome, on the other hand, seems to have gained popularity during the 7th century and probably continued to be used into the early 6th century, probably not thereafter. Thus, Sardian red bichrome pottery was probably imported to Gordion prior to the early 6th century.

Lydian Bichrome at Gordion Technical Aspects: Fabric, Paint, Slip, and Shape A total of 19 Lydian bichrome vessels are attested at Gordion. Nine are open vessels (dishes, skyphoi, kraters), seven are closed (amphoras and oinochoai), and three are storage vessels. The preference is for dishes, with or without stands, and amphoras or oinochoai. All of the bichrome vessels are from the Citadel Mound with two exceptions: a dish (no. 6) found in the Küçük Höyük (a fort on Gordion’s Lower Town fortification wall circuit), and an amphora (no. 10) from Tumulus A.



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 13

To judge by the general visual appearance of the clay, it seems that an evenly balanced proportion of typical Sardian and provincial products is present in the Lydian bichrome at Gordion. Nine of the examples are probably imports from Sardis (nos. 1, 2, 10– 15, 17) and the rest are provincial (nos. 3–9, 16, 18, 19). This is in contrast to other Lydian vessels at Gordion, for which the proportion of Sardian imports to provincial Lydian pottery is always much lower. The Lydian bichrome ceramic assemblage at Gordion has two different variants in terms of fabric and color, even though the preference for decorative elements and decorative schemes remains similar.

Sardian Imports (Fig. 1a, see color insert): Lydian bichrome pottery at Gordion includes both actual imports from Sardis and also provincial adaptations. The Sardian pottery (nos. 1, 2, 10–15, 17) is uniform in terms of the application of color: the main decoration is applied with matte dark paint over either a diluted creamy white color or a smoothed clay surface. Bright red paint is used in the transitional bands or to paint broad areas below or above the main decorative band. The color of clay on these vessels is distinctively Sardian. Lydian white bichrome of Sardian origin is not attested among the finds at Gordion; all Lydian bichrome with Sardian fabric is red bichrome. The shapes of Sardian bichrome include dishes (nos. 1, 2), amphoras/oinochoai (nos. 10–15) and a storage vessel (no. 17).

Provincial Products (Fig. 1b–c, see color insert): Provincial Lydian bichrome pottery (nos. 3–9, 16, 18, 19), on the other hand, is somewhat different. The fabric of nos. 3–9, 16, 18, 19 is hard-fired and includes considerable quantities of tiny limestone flecks, as well as brownish grit and a very small amount of refined mica, unlike the Sardian bichrome examples nos. 1, 2, 10–15, 17 mentioned above. The porosity of the fabric of nos. 3–9, 16, 18, 19 is visible to a certain degree. Two types of coloring convention exist on the provincial Lydian bichrome at Gordion: 1. The patterns are applied either with a matte black or with an orange-red glaze in broad bands over a creamy white slip (nos. 3–8, 16, 18; Fig. 1b). Thus, the dominant color on the vessel is creamy white, while red is used in the transitional bands. This appearance is reminiscent of the Lydian white bichrome attested at Sardis. However, the decorative elements and overall scheme of the Gordion examples, which mainly include a series of pendent and ascendant concentric semicircles and hooks, are popular elements of red bichrome and red/brown-on-cream as well as black-onred at Sardis. This indicates that the provincial artists adapted these decorative schemes to white bichrome. The most popular shapes are the stemmed dish (nos. 3–6) and skyphos (nos. 7–8). Also included are an oinochoe (no. 16) and a storage vessel (no. 18).

Table 7  Counts of shapes, percentages and fabric types of bichrome pottery Quantity (total)

Percentage (total)

Sardian fabric

Provincial fabrics

Dish

6

32%

2

4

Skyphos

2

11%

—

2

Krater

1

5%

—

1

Amphora

6

32%

6

—

Oinochoe

1

5%

—

1

Storage vessel

3

16%

1

2

Shapes

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Table 8  Total counts of fabric types and percentages of bichrome pottery Fabric Type Sardian fabric Provincial fabrics

Quantity

Percentage

9

47%

10

53%

2. In the second type, the main difference from the first is the use of a chalky white slip and a bright matte red color (nos. 9, 19; Fig. 1c). The main patterns are painted in matt dark. The decorative elements include pendent concentric hooks and semicircles. The type is attested on a krater (no. 9) and a storage vessel (no. 19).

Sardian Bichrome Imports at Gordion The fabric of bichrome examples nos. 1, 2, 10–15, and 17 is similar to that of Sardis. The decoration on these examples is all rendered with dark matte paint, while glossy red paint was used on broad areas above or below the decorated bands. Creamy white slip is preferred either as a coat for decoration within a narrow band (nos. 1, 2, 10) and/or for transitional bands (nos. 10, 17). The two carinated dishes (nos. 1, 2) are decorated in a similar way: a wavy line on a creamy white coat is placed directly below a rim that is bordered with a single line above and below on the interior face. The rest of the interior face is painted red. The exterior of no. 2 has a red band above the carination, while no. 1 does not. This type of carinated bowl with a single interior horizontal wavy line band is a favored type at Sardis, where many examples are attested (Gürtekin 1998:140, 157, pl. 20, no. 63; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 442, HoB 515, HoB 546, HoB 741). The only other decorative elements typically used at Sardis are red and occasionally white bands. Also common at Sardis are several types of bichrome open vessels (especially the skyphos and skyphos-krater), on which the main decoration is a horizontal wavy line on a creamy white coat, forming a narrow band between the handles (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 20, no. 64; pl. 22, no. 70; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 466).

Close parallels for Lydian bichrome carinated bowls with wavy line decoration are attested at Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:120, fig. 8, no. 23) and Thyateria (Akdeniz and Eron 2017:89, resim 9). Carinated bowls with a wavy line band placed above the carination are popular in the late 7th and 6th centuries in Ionian centers, such as Samos (Furtwängler and Kienast 1989:254), Miletus (e.g., Kleiner 1979:150, Taf. 39, no. 4, abb. 21), and Klazomenai (Uzun 2007:236–37, fig. 172, M2–M3). The banded decoration of the Ionian examples is generally placed on the exterior; at Sardis, however, horizontal wavy line bands on bichrome bowls or dishes may be placed either on the interior or the exterior, but rarely on both faces of the pot. Bichrome carinated bowls are common in the 7th century at Sardis, where several contexts predating the archaic defensive walls included this type of bowl. One of these contexts is a platform in front of the “Ushaped” recess at the east face of the defensive wall. It was covered by several layers of water-laid sand, silt, and gravel which, it has been suggested, predated the walls (N. Cahill, Sector MMS/I 1997 Final Report: 10). Some of the lower layers yielded several sherds of bichrome bowls with a horizontal wavy line (Lot 108, Basket 27; Lot 10 Oven, baskets 31, 33). Further evidence for a 7th century date for this type of bowl or dish comes from Lydian Level II Building K at the HoB (e.g., inv. no. P12.141:131198; Hanfmann and Mierse 1983:29–31; Gürtekin 1998:121; no. 63, pl. 20; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 442) and from the later level, Lydian level I (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 515, HoB 546, HoB 741). Nos. 10–15 are all closed vessels, bearing pendent concentric hooks, and they seem to have Sardian fabric. Only one example is completely preserved, an amphora (no. 10) from the cremation pyre fill in Tumulus A, while all of the others are in a fragmentary state. These fragments most probably belong to amphoras or oinochoai, since these were the most favored closed shapes in the Lydian red bichrome shape repertory and are among the most numerous of the local pottery types attested at Sardis. Pendent concentric semicircles and pendent concentric hooks, which were the most prevalent decorative elements on Lydian red bichrome closed vessels (amphoras and oinochoai), are placed in the shoulder zone. The pottery that bears concentric hooks here (nos. 10–15) follows the Sardian tradition in terms of color



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 15

combinations and the preference for a closed vessel shape. The concentric circles preserved on nos. 14 and 15 belong to the lower ends of concentric hooks. The number of lines and ¾ circles forming the hook generally vary from 3 to 12 on Lydian pottery. The bichrome finds at Gordion conform to this scheme: 9 hooks on no. 11, 10 hooks on no. 10, and 11 hooks on no. 13. Concentric hooks also occur on a provincial Lydian bichrome dish at Gordion (no. 6), mentioned below. No. 17 is the body fragment of a large vessel, probably a storage jar that bears a row of pendent concentric semicircles. The fabric and decoration recall vessels found at Sardis in 1989 and 1991 in the ByzFort sector. Local pottery from the fills in a basement and in later pits consists primarily of large storage jars with bichrome painting, and relatively fewer examples with black-on-red painting, as well as bichrome stemmed dishes and gray ware initially dated to the mid- or late 7th century (Greenewalt et al. 1993:27–32; 1994: 24–27; Cahill 2010b:82, 88, figs. 18–19) but now dated to the 9th century by Cahill (see above). The bichrome pottery from this assemblage mostly has a thick creamy white slip on broad areas of decoration (white bichrome); the decoration on a smaller number of vessels is rendered on a well-smoothed red clay surface (red bichrome). Apart from the use of a compass for drawing the concentric circles and semicircles the drawing style is generally careless. There is a tendency to use thick-ended brushes on a well-burnished surface, especially on large jars. The black-on-red and bichrome vessels, similar to no. 17 in terms of fabric and decorative motifs, are also attested at Lydian levels III and II dating between the late 8th and mid-7th centuries at HoB (A. Ramage et al. 2021).

Provincial Lydian Bichrome at Gordion Two types of white slip occur at Gordion: a matte, thick, creamy white slip (nos. 3–8, 16, 18), and a matte, thick, chalky white slip (nos. 9, 19). Decoration is rendered in red and black: the tone of red and black is stronger on nos. 9 and 19 when compared to the lighter tones of nos. 3–8, 16, and 18. Red is used in the transitional bands, while both black and red are employed for the decorative elements. Matte black is also used for the upper and lower borders of the red bands.

This color convention accords with the local Lydian bichrome pottery at Sardis, although the tones of red and chalky white slip are different from the Sardian versions. The general tendency of applying white or creamy white color as a surface for broad areas of decoration calls to mind the white bichrome painting on the local pottery from Sardis. However, the placement of rows of pendent and ascendant concentric semicircles, pendent concentric hooks, and concentric circles on a broad white-slipped band, is more popular at Sardis on red bichrome, and occasionally on vessels painted with white bichrome or red/brown-on-cream (e.g., Greenewalt et al. 1993:32, fig. 26; Gürtekin 1998: pl. 31, no. 105; pl. 32, no. 93; pl. 36, no. 101; pl. 37, no. 105; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 325, HoB 655–656). Rows of concentric decorative elements are also favored on local black-on-red painting at Sardis (Gürtekin 1998:26–33). The rows of pendent concentric hooks on Sardian bichrome pottery constitute one of the principal designs on both open and closed vessels. Pendent concentric semicircles, however, are chiefly preferred on open vessels, especially on skyphoi, and are rarely seen on closed vessels (Gürtekin 1998: no. 66, pl. 21; see Stähler 1984: Taf. 22, no. 1 for a red bichrome oinochoe decorated with pendent concentric semicircles; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 661). The use of alternating red and black for pendent and ascendant concentric semicircles in the same row (nos. 3–5, 7, 18) is never a typical color scheme on the Sardian bichrome vessels, and consequently it seems more likely that the three dishes (nos. 3–5), two skyphoi (nos. 7, 8), and one storage vessel (no. 18) from Gordion exemplify provincial adaptations of decorative elements that were common in Lydian bichrome painting but in a different color combination. The placement of pendent and ascendant concentric semicircles in a single band, as painted on nos. 4 and 5, is paralleled on stemmed dishes with similar rim and foot treatments excavated from the Lydian level IV of the 9th to mid-8th century (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 278–279 [black-on-red]), Lydian level III of late 8th (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 325 [red-on-white]; HoB 379 [black-on-red], and the late 7th–early 6th centuries (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 655, HoB 656 [red/brown-on-cream]). Thus this decorative scheme was common at Sardis between the 9th and the early 6th centuries.

16

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

The color of the decoration on a dish (no. 6), a krater (no. 9), an oinochoe (no. 16), and a storage vessel (no. 19) is readily paralleled at Sardis, but again these examples appear to be provincial productions, judging by the comparatively brighter tones of the paint as well as their different fabrics. No. 5 is a well-preserved stemmed dish discovered together with no. 4 in a pit dug into the great clay filling beneath the new Middle Phrygian citadel (DeVries 1990:392, fig. 27). Nos. 3–5 are three examples of different stemmed dishes that are united by their painting style, decoration, and shape. This scheme is also observed on a skyphos (no. 7) and a storage vessel (no. 18). In general, nos. 3–9, 16, 18, and 19 have common features: the clay composition appears to be different from that of Sardis; the main decorative areas are on broad bands with white slip; there is a tendency to prefer mainly ascendant and/or pendent concentric semicircles, and, to a lesser extent, pendent concentric hooks as the main decorative elements, with horizontal wavy lines and plain painted bands serving as subsidiary or transitional decoration. Alternating colors of red and black are preferred on rows of ascendant and/or pendent concentric semicircles (nos. 3–5, 7), and open vessels are far more common than closed shapes. These common elements do not occur on bichrome pottery at Sardis or at other sites with Lydian or Lydian-style pottery. Thus, the provincial Lydian bichrome at Gordion constitutes a distinct group of regional Lydian bichrome. A note on the origin of concentric hooks and semicircles: In order to achieve a group of consistent and uniform concentric hooks, semicircles, and concentric circles, the designs were formed using compasses with multiple brushes. The application of these decorative elements and their appearance in Aegean and Mediterranean pottery has long been discussed by various scholars (see Papadopoulos et al. 1998 for an overview of the history of scholarship on multiplebrushed tools and for discussion of the origins of the application of motifs by such tools; for a recent discussion see N.H. Ramage 2018 and A. Ramage et al. 2021:12–14). Apparently, the use of concentric hooks or semicircles was not necessarily restricted to a certain class or style of pottery nor to a single production center or region. Rather, this motif was a decorative element that was accepted and adapted by several

centers in the Aegean and Mediterranean to suit their own tastes. How did the idea of compass-drawn hooks arrive on Lydian pottery? Concentric hooks occur on Mycenaean, Hittite, Cypriot, Greek, Phrygian, and Lydian pottery. Freehand-applied Bronze Age examples occur in Mycenean and Hittite assemblages (e.g., Frankfort 1927: pl. 10, no. 5; Furumark 1972:209, fig. 47, motif 19, nos. 49–59), leading Boardman to suggest that compass-drawn hooks may have derived from such freehand versions (Boardman 1960:87). It becomes a common element on Cypriot pottery in the mid-9th century in Cypriot Geometric III (Gjerstad 1948:301), and it also appears on local pottery dating to the late 9th century at Gordion (Sams 1994: pl. 122, no. 924 from the Destruction Level). The use of pendent concentric hooks is widespread on the imported Cypriot pottery from Cilicia in the 7th and the 6th centuries (Goldman 1963: fig. 83, no. 1042; fig. 141, no. 1059), where there might also have been local production of such material. The imported artifacts at Sardis attest to no direct relations with Cyprus or Cilicia, and the possibility that the concentric pattern may have arrived via other Anatolian centers seems unlikely since there is no other region, aside from Lydia and Cilicia, that favored it. Moreover, the use of concentric hooks on black-on-red pottery at Sardis goes back to the 9th century. The pattern was common on the shoulder zones of flask-like vessels and aryballoi in the Greek world, especially on a number of vessels from Rhodes dated to the 8th and the 7th centuries (Blinkenberg 1931:301–6; Johansen 1958:155–61, abb. 223–24, see especially 155–56 for information on where this type of pottery was discovered). Similarly, decorated vessels are also found in Western Greek centers, and these were probably distributed by Greek merchants (e.g., Coldstream 1968: pl. 49k; Buchner and Ridgway 1993: tav. 54, no. 8; tav. 61, no. 5; tav. 62, no. 5; tav. 75, no. 25; tav. 107, nos. 10–11). Both the decoration and the flask-like vessels bring to mind Phoenician counterparts, and Ridgway has argued that Phoenicians living in Rhodes were responsible for their production (Ridgway 1992:62). Currently, there is insufficient evidence from western Asia Minor that would suggest a local invention of this motif. A small amount of Lydian pottery decorated with concentric hooks is reported from Daskyleion



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 17

(Gürtekin-Demir 2002:121–22, fig. 10), KelainaiApameia Kibotos (Lungu and Dupont 2016:447, pl. 2, nos. 17–18), Xanthos (Metzger 1972: pl. 24, no. 107), Smyrna (Akurgal 1950:37, abb. 2), Larisa (Boehlau and Schefold 1942: Taf. 24, no. 3), and Ephesus (Brein 1978:726, pl. 224, abb. 17; Gasser 1992:192; Kerschner 2008:227). Some of the examples found at Ephesus were produced at Sardis, to judge by archaeometric analysis (Kerschner 2008:227). The general impression of the published pieces from Smyrna, Larisa, and Xanthos is that these pieces might have been produced at Sardis, or at some other place that imitated its pottery. The concentric hooks on black-on-red pottery from Sardis, excavated at sector ByzFort (mentioned above), indicates that the motif was introduced on Lydian pottery at an early date, during the ca. 9th century. This pattern became quite popular on Lydian vases in the 8th and 7th centuries. Imported Greek pottery at Sardis also includes vessels that bear concentric hooks (A. Ramage 1994:166, fig. 14.1.2; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 351). However, the date of the context is late 8th century, later than the diagnostic early pottery from ByzFort. It is difficult to point out a direct source of inspiration for the use of concentric hooks on Lydian pottery. However, Lydian pot painters seem likely to be among the earliest artists in Anatolia that applied the motif, which later became a very popular pattern on the Lydian pottery. Pendent or ascendant concentric semicircles, on the other hand, are not a common decorative element on Phrygian pottery. The pattern occurs on an amphora found in the burned citadel of the Early Phrygian period (Sams 1994: no. 924, pl. 122) and on a fragment of a large vessel found in the Early Phrygian Terrace fill (Sams 1994: no. 392, pl. 163). Sams suggested that the former vase “shows a sparse scheme in which the unusual motif of pendent concentric semicircles on the upper shoulder is the only primary design” (1994:140). The use of pendent concentric semicircles on dishes and bowls occurs also in the Halys region, as at Boğazköy (Seeher 1995:616, 619, Abb. 23f ) and Maşat Höyük (Özgüç 1982: fig. H.21); in southwestern Anatolia (Birmingham 1964:31, fig. 6); and in Cilicia (Dupré 1983: pl. 62, no. 24; pl. 65, nos. 57, 58, 65, 66, 68; pl. 69, no. 8). However, the pattern is drawn free-hand on these examples.

Compass-drawn pendent concentric circles, and especially semicircles, were a popular design of the Attic Protogeometric period in the 11th to 10th centuries. This convention survived into the 9th century in Euboia, Thessaly, Skyros, and the northern Cyclades. Through the 8th century, it continued to be applied to skyphoi in Cyprus, Cilicia, Syria, and Palestine (Desborough 1952:180–184; Coldstream 1968:40–41). These patterns seem to appear first on Lydian pottery, specifically the black-on-red vessels at Sardis, around the 9th century (Gürtekin 1998:441–42; nos. 3–4, 53; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 162, HoB 163, HoB 278, HoB 279), and they continued into the 8th and 7th centuries. In the 9th and 8th centuries, the pattern is accompanied by other geometric motifs, such as the double-axe and latticed squares, and so it does not constitute the major decorative element on the vessels. In time, the pattern became popular on red bichrome pottery and a primary design on some 7th century skyphoi, skyphos-kraters, amphoras, and oinochoai. The Greek versions of concentric pendent semicircles generally overlap one another, whereas they do not on Lydian and other Anatolian regional pottery. Furthermore, the number of semicircles on Lydian black-on-red vessels from the 9th through 7th century is between three and five, whereas the Greek parallels generally have more than ten. On the other hand, the number of semicircles on 7th century Lydian red bichrome is often between six and twelve. The use of multiple brushes at Sardis was not only restricted to concentric semicircles, hooks or full circles, but was also used to make cross-hatched squares and rectangles, multiple wavy lines, and checkerboards (N.H. Ramage 2018, A. Ramage et al. 2021:12–14).

BROWN-ON-CREAM Only a single example from Gordion’s Citadel Mound can be placed in the brown-on-cream group (no. 20). It belongs to a skyphos that is decorated with several rows of pendent ¾ concentric circles arranged to form a scale pattern. The fabric seems nonSardian. Decoration in brown-on-cream is commonly practiced at Sardis, where a number of shapes and decorative elements, styles, and schemes are attested

18

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

from the pre-late 7th century levels to the 6th century (Cahill 2010a:475, no. 89; Cahill 2010b: fig. 18). An exact parallel to this ornamentation appears on several pitchers from Sardis that were discovered at sector Pactolus North (PN) (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 36, no. 101; inv. no.: P64.263:6338). However, it seems to have been a rarely used decorative scheme at Sardis. A fragment from Sardis with this particular decoration was analyzed by P. Dupont, and he suggests that its chemical pattern was distinct from that of Sardis and fitted with his Aeolian group that also included a streaked skyphos and rim fragments of a skyphos-krater with waveline decoration from Old Smyrna, and two lydions from Berezan, (Dupont and Lungu 2020:121, fig. 12A–B [lydions from Berezan], 124–26, fig. 21 [analyzed vessel from Sardis]). Two close parallels to this particular type of decoration were found at Daskyleion (Akurgal et al. 2002:172, abb. 53, cat. no. 85 [oinochoe, brown-on-cream]; Gürtekin-Demir 2002:120, fig. 9, no. 20 [bichrome closed vessel]). Both of these vessels were chemically analyzed by H. Mommsen and M. Kerschner. One of them did not match any of the known provenance groups (Akurgal et al. 2002:112, no. 85), and the other vessel belonged to an unlocated group, Ul82, that also included a marbled vessel (Gürtekin-Demir et al. forthcoming, no. 19, fig. 5).

MARBLING Marbling Painting: An Introduction The marbling technique is a famous, easily recognizable, and widely distributed Lydian convention. The diluted paint is most often applied with a multi-brush tool during the application of adjacent vertical, horizontal, or diagonal wavy lines either over the entire vase or within stripes. Single brushes, which are consistently thick-ended, are occasionally used to make adjacent curls and crescents. The thicknesses of the multiple and single brushes may vary from thin to thick; however, the multi-ended brushes tend to be thinner than the single-ended ones. The marbling technique is applied both on a white slip and on a burnished clay surface, but only rarely on a micaceous slip (Greenewalt 1978a:13, n. 7). This distinctive style was first referred to as “marbling” by the Körte brothers in the publication of their

excavations conducted at Gordion in 1900 (Körte and Körte 1904:188–89; for a bibliography of the subsequent publications that have used the term “marbling,” and also for the various other names preferred for this design, see Greenewalt 1966:126–27). Marbling may be the sole decorative motif employed on a vessel, as on most of the examples from Gordion, or it may appear in tandem with other motifs or figures, such as linear and geometric motifs (e.g., chevrons, lozenges, broken meanders, double-axes, nets, square bars, concentric circles, dotted pendent triangles, rays, and simple bands), floral decoration (e.g., stemmed buds and myrtle leaves), and animal figures (e.g., silhouette painted birds, deer, goats, and animal friezes in the socalled Early Fikellura style).2 At Sardis, a considerable range of shapes were decorated with the marbling technique, the most popular being the lekythos and the skyphos. The typical lekythos has a thickened out-curved rim, a cylindrical neck with central ridge, a sharply angled shoulder, a sagging belly or an elongated body, and a conical or ring base (Greenewalt 1966:136–38). Most of the Lydian skyphoi have a deep, round bowl, and generally a conical foot and sometimes a ring base. Other popular shapes decorated with marbling are the dish, bowl, lydion, and phiale. The dinos, oinochoe, krater, lid, boat-shaped vessel, strainer-spouted jug, and metal bowl imitations are also attested in a few examples.3 There are various other shapes that featured marbling decoration but which are not attested at Sardis, such as the Myrina-type amphora, the pyxis, dishes with a shield-form rim, and the kantharos.4 Marbled ware is probably the most famous type of Lydian pottery, being widely attested on the western coast of Asia Minor from Aiolis in the north to Ionia and Caria in the south, and in the Propontis, Pisidia, and Phrygia.5 Marbled pottery is also traced outside the Lydian political territory, as far east as Alişar and Kültepe, respectively to the east and south of the Halys River (von der Osten 1937:44, fig. 53; Özgüç and Özgüç 1949:59, pl. 31, no. 211), and Tille Höyük (Blaylock 2009:204), located near Adıyaman in southeastern Anatolia. Marbled pottery was popular in the 6th century BCE. The earliest datable contexts for this painting technique are scarce but point to a late 7th and early 6th century date. A group of vessels discovered in a child’s burial at an unknown location in western Asia Minor,



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 19

and now in the Berlin Staatliche Museum (Schiering 1968; Kunisch 1971: Taf. 165, 7–8), includes a small stemmed dish with marbling stripes, and two so-called Early Fikellura vases dated to the late 7th and the early 6th centuries (Greenewalt 1971:161, n. 27, pl. 14.1; see also Gürtekin-Demir 2007:53, cat. no. 9 for a very close parallel from Alaşehir, now in the Manisa Museum). Other evidence for late 7th/early 6th century dating is provided by the kinds of shapes that received marbling decoration, as suggested by Greenewalt (1966:144–45). Marbling most probably continued down to the 5th century based on finds from Sardis and Daskyleion (Greenewalt 1966:150; GürtekinDemir 2002:141, deposits 9 and 10), and from Colophon as well (Mac Sweeney 2013:126, n. 46). Various technical and stylistic aspects of fabric, glaze, and painting on the marbled vessels from Asia Minor suggest that this type of pottery was made at various regional production centers, with our primary evidence coming from Alaşehir, Daskyleion, and Gordion (Gürtekin-Demir 2007). Chemical analysis of Lydian pottery also confirms this suggestion: Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) on two marbled sherds from Smyrna indicates that one of them was produced at Kyme in the Aeolis region, and the other at a north Ionian center, perhaps Smyrna itself (Kerschner 2005:137). Analysis on several sherds of Lydian painted pottery from Daskyleion, which also included nine marbling samples, have shown that there are at least three different provenance groups for five marbled ware examples. Moreover, four sherds out of these nine marbled samples are singletons, and had distinctive clay compositions that match none of the provenance groups of the database.6

Marbled Ware at Gordion Marbled pottery at Gordion reveals a rich assemblage of shapes and painting techniques. At least three distinct painting techniques can be identified.

Conventional Marbling (nos. 21–49; Fig. 2a, see color insert): The basis of the marbling technique is the use of diluted glaze in order to achieve parallel wavy lines using a single or multi-ended brush. The glaze used

on the marbling of Sardian vessels is similar to Greek glazes, which have a glossy finish and color tones between red and black. This type of glaze is evident on most of the marbled vessels at Gordion, although some of them are painted with a matte glaze (nos. 21, 22, 28, 31, 33, 40, 42–45). A creamy white slip heightens the effect of these color tones. This conventional application occurs on dishes, phialai, skyphoi, dinoi, amphoras, oinochoai, lekythoi, and lydions (nos. 21–49). The marbling glaze on the majority of them is applied over a creamy white slip (nos. 22–27, 29–31, 34–40, 46, 48, 49), whereas the marbling on the rest is applied directly over the clay (nos. 21, 28, 32, 33, 41–45). Plain vertical marbling is common (nos. 21, 22, 24–27, 30–35, 38, 41–45, 48), and is placed within broad vertical bands on nos. 23, 28, and 44. Horizontal marbling occurs on oinochoai (no. 40) and lydions (nos. 46, 47, 49). Other marbling decorations are curled marbling (nos. 36, 37) and marbling in the form of crescents (nos. 29, 39). The most popular type of marbling on open vessels is plain vertical marbling. The interiors of two dishes are painted with a series of vertical marbling (nos. 21, 22) that is also found on the interiors of phialai (nos. 23, 24, the exterior of no. 24 is also vertically marbled) and skyphoi (no. 28). The majority of the skyphoi are vertically marbled inside and out (nos. 25–27, 30), while the exterior of a phiale (no. 23) and a skyphos (no. 28) bear vertical marbling in stripes. Plain marbled skyphoi are common at Sardis, especially in levels dating to the mid-6th century (Greenewalt et al. 1995:15, fig. 15a–b). The phialai have either plain vertical marbling or marbling within vertical stripes. This type is common on the Lydian phialai from Sardis, Zeytintepe near Miletus (Kerschner 2010:260–61; Cahill 2010a:492–93, nos. 113–14), and in a private collection (Türkteki and Hürmüzlü 2007:66, no. 31). Although marbling in the form of crescents was never as popular as the vertical or horizontal marbling, it occurs on a skyphos (no. 29) and an oinochoe (no. 39). The short crescents are continuously painted with a single thick brush. In addition to the parallel finds at Sardis, similar marbling sherds are also reported from Midas City (Haspels 1951: pls. 8b and 10c). A provincial dinos suggests the syntax of conventional Lydian vertical marbling but with the addition of a

20

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

bichrome triangle with a dotted frame that may have been a Phrygian augmentation (no. 31). The dotted triangle is unusual in Lydian painted pottery but is more common on Phrygian painted pottery from contexts after the Early Phrygian Destruction Level (Sams 1994: pl. 32, no. 1036; pl. 55, no. 1038; pl. 141, no. 1048). As for closed shapes, the amphoras are solely vertically marbled (nos. 32–34), whereas the oinochoai exhibit a rich variety, including vertical marbling (nos. 35, 38), horizontal marbling (no. 40), marbling in the shape of crescents (no. 39), and curled marbling (nos. 36, 37). Curled marbling was evidently more popular than crescentic, but never as popular as standard marbling. It is common in 6th century levels at Sardis (Richter 1953:192, pl. 32c; Greenewalt 1966:180–82; Greenewalt et al. 1995: 15, fig. 15a–b) and is attested at a number of other sites in Asia Minor, such as Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:128–31, nos. 76, 78, 80, 86, 88, 96; 130, fig. 16, no. 88), Midas City (Haspels 1951:pl. 8b, 4–5), Düver in Pisidia (Greenewalt 1968: pl. 1, nos. 1–3), and Aslanlar/Torbalı on the Kayster (Recep Meriç, pers. comm.). Curled marbling at Sardis also occurs on skyphoi, oinochoai, dishes, and bowls (Gürtekin 1998). Lekythoi are either plain vertically marbled (nos. 41–43, 45) or vertically marbled in vertical bands (no. 44). Vertically marbled stripes are popular on Lydian shoulder lekythoi at Sardis (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 47, no. 124; Metropolitan Museum inv. no: 26.164.30) and Kula in Lydia (Gürtekin-Demir 2007:70, no. 3, fig. 2b). Lydions, on the other hand, commonly bear horizontal marbling (nos. 46–49), although vertical marbling was used on the belly of no. 48, and horizontal flutes in alternating red and white occur on no. 49. The delicate decoration of this fluted lydion has parallels at several places such as, Sardis, Daskyleion, Kibyratis, Camarina, and Caere (see Chapter 3).

Marbling Effects I and II: The term “marbling effect” is derived from Greenewalt’s definition of those groups of pottery that do not have the conventional marbling technique (1966:131). “Marbling Effect” is therefore used here to define such decorative imitations of standard marbling. It has two variants:

Marbling Effect I (nos. 50–57; Fig. 2b, see color insert): The first type of painting with a marbling effect is executed over a smoothed clay surface, in contrast to the conventional type generally applied over a creamy white slip. A thick, matte glaze was initially brushed in broad vertical or horizontal bands. A series of vertical or horizontal wavy lines were then applied over the semi-dry broad painted bands, either with a single-ended or a multi-ended tool, or perhaps with a dry brush, as suggested by Greenewalt (1966:123). A four-ended dry brush or other tool was used to apply wavy lines on no. 52, where the initial application was carried out on the right side and then the second was applied on the left, slightly overlapping the first application on the right. The strokes are uneven, as can easily be seen on the near-vertical strokes on the left in contrast to the slight wavy lines on the right. The strokes are relatively neater on nos. 50, 51, 53–56. The shapes on which this technique is applied include the dish (nos. 50–52), oinochoe (nos. 53–55), lekythos (no. 56), and an unidentified closed vessel (no. 57). This technique was first identified by Greenewalt, who grouped the relevant pottery under “Late” or “Provincial” Marbling (1966:129). The labels “Late” and “Provincial” are both acceptable in terms of the visual aspects of fabric and glaze, as well as the approximate dates of the stratigraphic levels from which they derived (see Chapter 4). A marbled lekythos painted similar to the Marbling Effect I of Gordion finds was excavated at Alişar, located to the east of Halys River (von der Osten 1937:44, fig. 53) Marbling Effect II (nos. 58–60; Fig. 2c, see color insert): The second marbling effect was defined as “imitation of marbling” by Greenewalt (1966:130). Linear vertical or horizontal wavy lines, or slight wavy lines, are painted parallel to each other either on a white slip (nos. 59, 60) or on an unslipped clay surface (no. 58). A series of short, linear wavy lines are occasionally applied over a creamy white slip on Lydian painted pottery excavated at Sardis (e.g., uninventoried pottery from MMS/S 2001, Lot 3889, Baskets 7–9). The decoration of near-vertical parallel lines on a lekythos (no. 58), on the other hand, has close parallels among the Sardis finds. For example, an intact shoulder



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 21

lekythos with standard horizontal marbling on the shoulder and vertical strokes on the body, discovered in a grave during Butler’s 1910–14 excavations at Sardis, has decoration very similar to that of no. 58 (Metropolitan Museum of Art inv. no: 26.164.30). There is another close parallel at the Uşak Museum (inv. no. 2005/21).7 One group of marbled pottery seems to come from Sardis, judging by the general characteristics of fabric and glaze (nos. 23–27, 29, 30, 34–36, 38, 39, 41, 46, 48, 59, 60). The majority of the marbled pottery, on the other hand, reveals different types of clay and glaze that may indicate one or more provincial production centers (nos. 21, 22, 28, 31–33, 37, 40, 42–45, 47, 49, 50–58). The major differences between the provincial and the Sardian pottery, as one may easily observe without any chemical analysis, are that the clay of the latter is soft and micaceous, and the glaze is lustrous, often applied on a white slip, whereas the provincial examples have hard-fired clay that includes less mica, or no mica at all, and have a rather dull glaze that is often applied directly onto the clay surface.

Provincial marbled ware at Gordion reveals examples of the aforementioned three distinct technical practices. Decoration is executed on an unslipped surface on the majority of provincial marbled vessels, and only four vessels painted with Conventional Marbling bear a creamy white slip (nos. 31, 37, 40, and 49). The pottery assemblage in Marbling Effect I has a uniform character in terms of fabric, which is hard-fired and includes virtually no visible mica, a matte red to brown glaze, and an unslipped surface (nos. 50–57). This assemblage accordingly suggests a provincial production. Some of the other marbled ware has a similar fabric (nos. 21, 22, 28, 31–33, 43), but I suspect that here we are dealing with a different clay source that contained similar inclusions. The fabric of nos. 31, 37, 40, 42, and 49 is porous with some mica and tiny limestone flecks. In this respect, it is distinct from the clays of nos. 50–57 and close to Sardian fabric, although the color and the quality of the glaze are distinct from the glossier paint of the Sardis examples. The marbled pottery with Sardian fabric includes two phialai (nos. 23, 24), five skyphoi (nos. 25–27, 29, 30), an amphora (no. 34), four oinochoai (nos.

Table 9  Counts of shapes, percentages and fabric types of marbled pottery Quantity (total)

Percentage (total)

Sardian fabric

Provincial fabrics

Dish

5

12%

—

5

Phiale

2

5%

2

—

Skyphos

6

15%

5

1

Dinos

1

3%

—

1

Amphora

3

7%

1

2

Oinochoe

9

22%

4

5

Lekythos

7

18%

1

6

Lydion

5

13%

3

2

Stand

1

3%

1

—

Unidentified closed vessel

1

3%

—

—

Shapes

Table 10  Total counts of fabric types and percentages of marbled pottery Fabric Type

Quantity

Percentage

Sardian fabric

17

43%

Provincial fabrics

23

57%

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

35, 36, 38, 39), a lekythos (no. 41), and two lydions (nos. 46, 48). The most represented shape in marbled ware at Gordion is to be the oinochoe, after which comes the lekythos, followed by the skyphos. The dish and lydion are less frequently found with this decoration. The situation at Sardis is different to that observed at Gordion. The oinochoe was never a common shape in marbled ware, but it was in streaked and bichrome wares. The preferred shapes in marbled ware at Sardis were the skyphos, lekythos, lydion, and dish, whereas the dinos, oinochoe, krater, and strainer-spouted jug are each represented by only a couple of examples (Gürtekin 1998:201).

STREAKY GLAZED AND PLAIN PAINTED General Aspects The painting convention seen on streaky glazed pottery is similar to the marbling technique, in terms of the use of diluted paint. The basic difference between the two techniques is that in marbling, a single or a multiple brush was used to apply decoration in the form of adjacent wavy lines, whereas in the streaky technique the vessel was partially or completely painted with a single brush. The appearance of this application is not limited to Lydian pottery; it is also attested on a number of other ceramic traditions that used diluted paint. However, what distinguishes the Lydian pottery is that the artists were intentionally creating the streaky appearance. Streaky glaze may be applied together with various other Lydian conventions, such as the streaky painted bands on bichrome (no. 10), marbling (no. 23), and the waveline amphora/hydria (nos. 219, 220). This section deals with the pottery assemblage that is executed with plain streaky painted areas. When the streaky paint is overfired, either through the production firing stages or by an actual fire, a misleading visual effect can be created in which a pot may appear to have been plain painted; also, occasionally, a pot may be painted twice with streaks and have a plain painted finish. Consequently, this technique may often appear like the plain painted examples and it can

be difficult to tell the difference. Therefore, this chapter will include both the intentional/unintentional plain and the streaky painted pottery. The streaky glaze is similar to Greek glaze, which has color tones from red to black, and accordingly the color of the glaze is related to the degree of glaze dilution. To judge by the Lydian pottery attested both at Sardis and elsewhere, streaky painting is applied to various shapes, including the skyphos, skyphos-krater, bowl, kantharos, strainer-spouted jug, column krater, amphora, oinochoe, lekythos, feeder, and lydion. Of these, the most prevalent streaky glazed shapes are the skyphos, lekythos, oinochoe, column krater, and lydion (Gürtekin 1998:243, 250–55). In general, there are several distinct features of Lydian streaky glazed pottery, which can be grouped into two painting modes: 1. Plain streaky painted vessels. The vessels in this group may either be streaky painted overall or have reserved bands. The painting mode is most commonly found on skyphoi, oinochoai, lekythoi, and lydions. The reserved band is commonly placed between handles, below the rim on skyphoi, and on the shoulder of closed vessels such as oinochoai and amphoras. The reserved bands on oinochoai are frequently decorated with groups of pendent petals (e.g., Cahill 2010a:467, no. 75). 2. Streaky painted with additional white color. This group has nearly the same type of decoration as the plain streaky painted, except for the addition of white color. The glaze of this group may often be distinguished with plain or streaky glaze with a metallic sheen. The additional white is preferred in horizontal linear bands, dots, dot-rosettes, and groups of short vertical lines. The painting mode is most commonly found on skyphoi, column kraters, and oinochoai (e.g., Cahill 2010a:466, no. 73; 467, no. 74; 468, no. 77; 469, nos. 78–79; 470, no. 80), but it also occurs on skyphos-kraters, kantharoi, amphoras, strainer-spouted jugs, and feeders. It is rare on dishes, lekythoi, and lydions. Additional red color was also used, although infrequently. Similar to the distribution of marbled pottery, Lydian or Lydian-style streaky glazed pottery (with or without additional white), is attested at numerous sites



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 23

in Lydia, Troas, Aiolis, Ionia, Caria, and Propontis (e.g., Cook 1958/59:29, pl. 4; Greenewalt 1978a:16, n. 16; Mierse 1986:418; Gasser 1992: 191, figs. 6–7; Gürtekin 1998:264; Gürtekin-Demir 2002:122–28; Kerschner 2008:227; İren 2010:253, 262, fig. 8; Özver 2012: pls. 1–3, cat. nos. 1–22; Dupont 2014:75, fig. 3, nos. 1–3; 74, fig. 2, no. 3; Büyüközer 2014:115 figs. 6–7; Akdeniz 2017:89–90 figs. 10–11). However, the use of additional white or red linear decorations over a dark painted surface on vessels is not restricted to Lydian painted pottery and may often mislead regional classifications of pottery with similar painting conventions. We must bear in mind that similar painting conventions were also produced at various other sites such as Corinth (e.g., Johansen 1923:69ff; Dunbabin 1962:70, pl. 19 nos. 376, 383; pl. 27; Vallet and Villard 1964:63, pl. 48, no. 2), Etruria (e.g., Etruscan Bucchero, Vallet and Villard 1964: pl. 117 nos. 1–2, pl. 118 nos. 2–7), Laconia (e.g., Stibbe 1984:136 Abb. 4, 137 Abb. 5), Lefkandi (e.g., Popham et al. 1979: pl. 44 nos. 84–85, pl. 51 nos. 205–207), and Chios (e.g., Boardman 1967:157; Lemos 1991:119) mainly during the late 7th and 6th centuries like the Lydian examples. The Euboaian and Corinthian counterparts seem to have started earlier during the 8th century. The main criteria for distinguishing the Lydian examples from others is fabric along with the preference of the linear patterns in added white and rarely in red (especially parallel narrow lines, dot rows, dot rosettes, and short vertical lines) on mainly skyphos, oinochoe, and column krater commonly with a conical foot. The streaky/plain glaze is between glossy red to black, often with a metallic sheen. The finds from a pottery kiln at Klazomenai (6th century) showed that dark painted oinochoai decorated with additional white was locally produced (Ersoy 2003). Although the linear decoration with additional white over a dark painted back ground is reminiscent of Lydian parallels attested at Sardis or elsewhere, the possibility that the relevant pottery at Klazomenai was produced by immigrant Lydian craftspeople, as suggested by Ersoy (2003:256) remains speculative since it may well be manufactured by local artists of different ethnic origins who were inspired by Lydian pottery or by any other common source, such as Chian or Corinthian pottery of the late 7th and 6th centuries that applied similar coloring schemes. Therefore, the artists who would perform such paintings do not

necessarily have to be equated with Lydian ethnicity. Besides, there are no further indications of a possible Lydian cultural impact at Klazomenai in terms of other Lydian imports or artistic influences.

Streaky Glazed and Plain Painted Pottery at Gordion Streaky glazed and plain painted Lydian pottery constitutes the largest group within the Lydian pottery assemblage at Gordion. The favorite shape is the lydion (47%), then the lekythos (25%) and skyphos (17%). The krater, stamnos, amphora, and oinochoe together constitute only 10% of the total streaky and plain painted pottery. Only 12 vessels have linear decoration in additional white color (nos. 61, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72, 74–76, 79–81); the rest (63 vessels) are plain streaky or plain painted overall, at least in terms of their present state of preservation (nos. 62–64, 66, 69, 71, 73, 77, 78, 82–135). The streaky glazed or plain painted lydions at Gordion consist of both the earlier, fat-bellied type, and the late type, although the great majority belongs to the earlier type. Nearly half of the fat-bellied lydions at Gordion are streaky glazed or plain painted (nos. 101, 102, 104, 106, 108–135); only three examples seem to be of late type (nos. 103, 105, 107). Of the fat-bellied form, the most common subtype is the compressed-shouldered lydion (nos. 102, 106, 111–116, 118–128, 132), followed by the lydion with compressed belly (nos. 101, 104, 108–110, 131, 134, 135), and two examples with a spherical body (nos. 117, 129, 133). No. 130 is a miniature version of the fat-bellied type. Nos. 103 and 107, which belong to the later type, have a pronounced, elliptically compressed belly when compared to the other late example (no. 105). In general, the lydions are streaky glazed or plain painted, occasionally with small unpainted, reserved bands where the foot begins (e.g., nos. 112, 119, 122, 123, 125). The glaze on the majority of the fat-bellied vessels is relatively glossy, and it tends to change from red to black according to the firing temperature and duration, whereas the three lydions of late type (nos. 103, 105, 107) are matte, plain, red painted. When the published and unpublished lydions from Sardis and elsewhere in Anatolia are taken into consideration, it

24

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

is clear that the favored painting technique during the 6th century was streaky glazed and plain painted, as well as marbled; however, streaky glazed lydions may have been slightly more common. The visual aspects of the fabric imply that only a small number of these lydions are of Sardian-type clay (nos. 101, 104, 106, 108–110, 117, 129, 131, 133–135); the rest seem to have been produced elsewhere. The streaky glazed or plain painted lekythoi mostly belong to Type I, with ridged neck, angular shoulder, short and plump body, and frequently a slightly concave mid-body profile (Type I, nos. 82, 86, 87, 90–100). This is also the prevalent type of lekythos attested at Sardis, where it dates to the mid-6th century. Type II examples, with a nicked neck, angular shoulder, and an elongated body (nos. 83–85, 88), and Type III with non-ridged neck, rounded shoulder, and long ovoid body (no. 89), are few in number, but these are the types that continued to be used down to the 5th century at Sardis and in its vicinity (see Chapter 3). Except for nos. 83–85, 88, and 89, all other lekythoi are overall streaky glazed or plain painted. Some of them, mainly with a non-Sardian fabric, have dull matte glazes (nos. 82, 86, 91–96, 98–100). Nos. 83–85, 88, and 89, on the other hand, also have nonSardian fabrics, but are left unpainted on the lower part of the body and on the conical foot. No. 89 has reserved areas on the shoulder and mid-body. Only a few streaky painted lekythoi have a Sardian fabric (nos. 87, 97). The standard type of Lydian skyphos has a plain rim, a deep bowl, and a conical foot; only a few have a ring base. The decorative scheme of streaky glazed

or plain painted skyphoi is more or less standardized, and it corresponds to the types attested at Sardis and elsewhere (e.g., Greenewalt 2010b: 113, fig. 6). Skyphoi are commonly painted inside and out, and with a reserved band on the exterior between the handles (nos. 62–64, 66, 69, 71, 73). Examples with linear decoration in additional white color are likewise painted inside and out (nos. 61, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72). The glaze color tones on these latter examples generally range from dark red to black. Most of the skyphoi have fabrics that seem similar to those from Sardis; only a few examples seem to have been produced elsewhere (nos. 62, 63, 69, 71). The streaky glazed amphora (no. 78), three column kraters (nos. 74–76), one stamnos (no. 77), three oinochoai (no. 79–81), and the aforementioned skyphoi, are associated with the preparation and serving of drinks, assuming that the people of Gordion followed Greek drinking habits. Except for the stamnos, which is otherwise unknown in Lydian pottery, all other shapes were popular in Lydia (for parallels see Greenewalt 2010b:112, fig. 5; Cahill 2010a:466, no. 73; 467, no. 74–75). One of the kraters (no. 76) and the stamnos (no. 77) seem to be provincial productions, while nos. 74, 75, 78–81 have a Sardian fabric. To conclude, the majority of streaky glazed or plain painted Lydian pottery at Gordion mainly adheres to 6th century conventions, as can be deduced from the popular 6th century shape characteristics of the lydions (fat-bellied type, nos. 101, 102, 104, 106, 108–135) and lekythoi (Type I, nos. 82, 86, 87, 90– 100), as well as the skyphoi (nos. 61, 65, 67, 68, 70,

Table 11  Counts of shapes, percentages and fabric types of streaky glazed/ plain painted pottery Shapes

Quantity (total)

Percentage (total)

Sardian fabric

Provincial fabrics

Skyphos

13

17%

9

4

Krater

3

4%

2

1

Stamnos

1

1%

—

1

Amphora

1

1%

1

—

Oinochoe

3

4%

3

—

Lekythos

19

25%

2

17

Lydion

35

47%

12

23



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 25

Table 12  Total counts of fabric types and percentages of streaky glazed/plain painted pottery Fabric Type

Quantity

Percentage

Sardian fabric

29

39%

Provincial fabrics

46

61%

72, 74), column kraters (nos. 75, 76), and oinochoai (nos. 79–81) with additional white color. Their close parallels at Sardis place them most probably in the mid-6th century. The other streaky or plain painted pottery may perhaps be placed between the 6th and the 5th centuries, judging by their parallels from Sardis and elsewhere (see Chapter 3). The streaky glazed skyphoi, column kraters, stamnos, amphora, and oinochoai, which are all associated with the preparation and serving of drink, are mainly found on Gordion’s Citadel Mound (nos. 61–72, 74–81), whereas the lekythoi and lydions, associated with perfumed unguents, are the common streaky glazed vessels found in the Küçük Höyük area of the site (nos. 90–100, 111–128), where a single skyphos was also found (no. 73). In addition, some of the lekythoi (nos. 82–89) and lydions (nos. 101–109) are reported to have come from the Citadel Mound. A single example of a streaky painted lydion (no. 110) was excavated at the Gordion Museum Site, and seven lydions (nos. 129–135) are from tumuli. The provincial streaky glazed and plain painted Lydian pottery at Gordion demonstrate an understanding of painting conventions similar to those found associated with Sardian fabric, albeit using matte paint. The majority of the provincial examples feature the same shapes as those that were produced at Sardis. There are also features that are attested only at Gordion, such as the streaky glazed stamnos, which is the only known example of its kind in Anatolia. The range of provincially produced Lydian lekythos types is also remarkable, since there is no place other than Sardis that has revealed so rich a variety.

BANDED The term “banded” here refers to the simple banded decoration that is applied on the wheel in the form

of thin spiral bands as the sole decoration, primarily on lydions (nos. 145–218). One lekythos decorated with two thin bands on the shoulder is also included here (no. 144). Another lekythos (no. 89) with broad bands is not included in this group, but rather with streaky glazed pottery, since the broad bands are applied with a streaky glaze. A large number of the banded lydions are fatbellied: most of them are compressed at the shoulder (nos. 148–151, 200–206, 208–211, 214, 215, 218), while some of them are either compressed at the belly (nos. 177, 199, 212, 213, 216) or have a spherical body (nos. 169, 207). The spiral banded decoration is applied either on the shoulder or from shoulder to lower body. The rim, neck, lower body, and foot are plain painted. The glaze tends to be glossy, and color tones vary between red and black. The glaze is occasionally applied over a creamy slip (nos. 150, 151, 169, 177, 210, 211, 213–216). The fat-bellied banded lydions were recovered at Gordion from the Citadel Mound, Küçük Höyük, Museum Site, Tumuli A and C, and the Common Cemetery on the Northeast Ridge. The standard Late lydion, with compressed belly and high solid foot (nos. 145–147, 152–168, 170– 176, 178–198, 217), is uniform in the use of matte red color. With the exception of no. 198 from the Gordion Museum Site, and no. 217 inform the Common Cemetery site, all other late lydions come from the Citadel Mound. Late lydions (nos. 145–147, 152–168, 170–176, 178–198, 217) and one lekythos (no. 144) with banded decoration have a distinctive, non-Sardian fabric that may suggest a single provincial source. The fabrics of the majority of banded lydions of fat-bellied type are also distinct from the late type, as well as from those of Sardis. Some of them, such as no. 215, may point to a Sardian origin.

WAVELINE The waveline pottery examined here belongs to a popular painting convention on amphoras and hydrias that were commonly produced and distributed in the Greek Mainland, the Aegean islands, Asia Minor, the Eastern and Western Mediterranean, and the Black Sea. Although its origin goes back to the late

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

8th century BCE, the convention continued to be used until the early 5th century, and it was most widespread in the 6th. The style and chronology of the waveline pottery found at a number of sites have received considerable scholarly treatment (e.g., Hanfmann 1956; Furtwängler and Kienast 1989; Seifert 2004; Uzun 2007:41– 98). The origin of the waveline amphora and hydria may be traced to Attic pottery from the Late Geometric period (Brann 1962:34–35, pl. 3), where the wavy line appears on the neck as well as on the shoulder, and the banded decoration on the body is common. This general scheme continued during the 7th century not only on the Mainland but also at a number of sites in the Aegean, such as Rhodes ( Jacopi 1931:43–50), Samos (Walter and Vierneisel 1959:19), and Miletus (Seifert 2004:13–16). Characteristic in the 6th century is the addition of horizontal “S” loops on the shoulder. The production of waveline amphoras at Lydian Sardis was common in the 7th and 6th centuries and continued into the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods. The earliest evidence comes from Lydian Level II (ca. early to third quarter of the 7th century) at sector HoB (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 410), where the number of vases (both amphora and hydria) increases considerably in Lydian Level I, dating to the late 7th to mid-6th centuries (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 522). Waveline vessels are also attested in the Persian Destruction Level (Cahill 2010a:465, no. 72). The archaic waveline style is found almost exclusively on neck amphoras and on hydriae with a pronounced transition from neck to shoulder. The rims of both the amphoras and the hydriae are thickened, often rounded and outward curving; both have necks with near-vertical sides; bodies are almost globular, and occasionally compressed at mid-body, or plump ovoid in shape; bases can be flat or, more frequently, low conical or high ringed; the vertical handles of the amphoras are of strap form, whereas the loop handles on the shoulders of the hydriae are cylindrical. The material evidence attested at Sardis’ HoB sector suggests that the necks of these amphoras or hydriae were reused as pot stands (A. Ramage 2008; A. Ramage et al. 2021:104, figs. 7.19–7.20). The walls of these vessels become thinner in the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods, when the style seems to occur only on amphoras (Dusinberre 1999:96). Decoration

is typically applied with streaky glaze that has color tones between red and black. However, a few examples show that it was also applied in bichrome (e.g., Gürtekin 1998: pl. 26, no. 80; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 624). The standard type of streaky decoration includes a single horizontal waveline on the neck, while the rim and the transition to shoulder are banded. The shoulder is reserved and generally decorated with loose loops or horizontal “S” loops, which occasionally intersect at the center to meet central petals, pendent triangles, or lozenges; the mid- and lower body are banded; and the base and handles are plain painted, although the handles may sometimes be painted with elongated crisscross decoration. In addition to the numerous finds at Sardis, the diffusion of the Lydian waveline amphora/hydria with Sardian fabric is limited to Gavurtepe, Alaşehir in the Hermus Valley, where streaky glazed examples were discovered in the Hellenistic levels (GürtekinDemir 2010:44), and Tabae in Caria, where there is a waveline example painted in bichrome (GürtekinDemir and Polat 2015:290, fig. 5, no. 28). Only two vessels of this type have been found at Gordion. One of them is from the Küçük Höyük sector (no. 219), and the other (no. 220) from the Citadel Mound. No. 219 is a neck fragment, either from an amphora or a hydria decorated with a single red waveline. No. 220 is a fragmentary hydria decorated with large double loops overlapping the horizontal bands on the shoulder. Both have fabrics similar to the clays of Sardis.

BLACK-ON-RED Lydian Black-on-Red: An Introduction Black-on-red was a common painting technique favored in the Anatolian Iron Age, but its popularity varied both provincially and chronologically. Although the earliest evidence, as well as the origins of this particular technique, may be traced to Phoenicia and Cyprus, the type appears throughout Anatolia (see Schreiber 2003 for its origin and chronology). The study of black-on-red in Anatolia has been limited, but it is attested in various centers in the western, central, and southeastern regions (Gürtekin-Demir



PAINTING CONVENTIONS 27

2011:360–61). The diffusion of black-on-red pottery implies that there may have been several production centers with shared traits yet regional variations. The major evidence for the production of Lydian black-on-red comes from Sardis (Gürtekin-Demir 2011). Complementary data regarding its provincial Lydian production is attested at Tabae in Caria, near the southeastern border of Lydia (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015:118–22), and at Gordion. The local black-on-red ceramic assemblage at Sardis suggests two distinct groups, early and late. The early group is characterized by the application of mainly geometric patterns, particularly concentric semicircles, latticed squares, cross-hatched elements (rectangles, triangles, and zigzags), double-axes, checkerboards, and wavy lines, applied with a thick brush in broad bands over a red slip or a well-smoothed red clay surface. A white coat is rarely and subordinately applied in some bands. Early Lydian black-on-red at Sardis is common between the 9th and 7th centuries, on a variety of shapes such as the stemmed dish, round-mouthed jug, dinos, oinochoe, and krater with a high pedestal (Gürtekin-Demir 2011:363–68; A. Ramage et al. 2021:1–7). The later version of Lydian black-on-red is more or less a standardized type that is mainly attested in the 6th century levels at Sardis. It is easily identifiable, with rows of spiral bands appearing primarily on stemmed dishes and ring-based dishes, although it was occasionally used on skyphoi, mugs, Ionian bowl imitations, phialai, round-mouthed jugs, small squat jars, dinoi, column kraters, strainer-spouted jugs, and oinochoai (Greenewalt 2010b:114, figs. 8–9; Cahill 2010a:471–72, nos. 82–85; Gürtekin-Demir 2011:368–72; Gürtekin-Demir 2014:226, fig. 2). The use of a thin brush is common in the late type, in contrast to the thick brush of the earlier version. Linear patterns within narrow bands were also employed in late black-on-red (Gürtekin-Demir 2011:364, fig. 2).

Lydian Black-on-Red at Gordion Black-on-red painting at Gordion was locally produced in Phrygian decorative conventions, and it was also imported from elsewhere in Asia Minor (Schaus 1992:154–68; see also Dusinberre et al. 2019:figs. 12–13, YH55670.1, YH55672.1, which are labelled as “Lydian or Lydianizing”, however, they have no

parallels at Sardis and are apparently non-Lydian type), especially from workshops in southwestern Anatolia (Sams 1979:13; Schaus 1992:153). The main criterion used to distinguish genuine Lydian black-on-red from imitations of the type by other production centers is mainly the decorative scheme in relation to the shape. The visual aspects of the clay also contribute to our understanding of whether the vessel was produced at Sardis or elsewhere. Two black-on-red examples from Gordion seem to point to a Lydian origin (nos. 221, 222). Both are stemmed dishes, one of the most favored shapes for Lydian black-on-red. No. 221 has a plain and slightly inverted rim, and a shallow bowl. The exterior and interior are well-burnished, and a matte dark glaze is applied over the red clay surface. The exterior is decorated with two rows of concentric semicircles, the upper one pendent, the lower ascendant. The pendent and ascendant semicircles are common decorative elements in early Lydian black-on-red between the 9th and the 7th centuries at Sardis (Gürtekin-Demir 2011:366, 367, fig. 3; A. Ramage et al. 2021:11–14). The use of these concentric geometric patterns is one of the predominant features of Lydian early black-onred stemmed dishes and it does not commonly appear on other black-on-red examples attested at Gordion and elsewhere. The decorative scheme that includes both full concentric circles and pendent concentric hooks on black-on-red stemmed dishes at Sardis is common in Lydian level III (late 8th century) levels at HoB (e.g., P70.018:8091; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 379) and PC (e.g., inv. no: P13.029:13367; A. Ramage et al. 2021: PC 31). The clay of no. 221, on the other hand, is quite distinct from the Sardian fabric and may be a regional production. Other provincial Lydian early black-on-red pottery is attested at Tabae in Caria (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015:118–22); however, the fabric is different from that of the Gordion example (no. 221). To judge from the parallels at Sardis, no. 221 is possibly the earliest regional product of Lydian-style black-on-red excavated at Gordion that may tentatively be dated to the late 8th or the early 7th century. The carinated dish (no. 222) is a later version of Lydian black-on-red that has Sardian fabric. The glossy red slip and matte dark glaze are also very similar to those attested at Sardis. The narrow spiral banded decoration is a common feature. Stemmed dishes

28

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

with similar decoration are found in quantity in the 6th century levels at Sardis (see Chapter 3) however, they commonly have shallow rounded bowls and plain rims. The spiral band decoration was also commonly used in the Levant, Cyprus, and Cilicia, as well as at many other sites throughout Anatolia (see GürtekinDemir 2011 for their distribution). To conclude, the Lydian black-on-red pottery at Gordion, although represented by only two examples, shows that both imported Sardian black-on-red as well as provincially produced black-on-red were used at the site between the ca. late 8th and 6th centuries. notes: 2.1  See Muscarella 2003 for an argument against the new dating of the Destruction Level. 2.2  Gürtekin 1998:213–18; lev. 39–40, 42–46. Also see; Hanfmann 1962:37, fig. 29 and Hanfmann and Mierse 1983: fig. 76 (marbling and broken meander, and silhouette painted birds); Greenewalt 1966:125, 154, M1 (marbling and rays) and 125, 153, M2 (marbling and silhouette painted birds, and floral decoration); Greenewalt 1968:139–54 (marbling and crouching deer and floral decoration); Greenewalt et al. 1990:153, figs. 15–16 (marbling and “Early Fikellura” style); Greenewalt et al. 1994:20–21, 34– 35, n. 13 (marbling and animal figures); Greenewalt et al. 1995:15, figs. 15a–b (marbling and double-axe); GürtekinDemir 2001: figs. 3–4 (marbling and stemmed buds) and figs. 5–6 (marbling and silhouette painted birds); no. 31 here (marbling and dotted pendent triangle). 2.3  Gürtekin 1998:200–207. Imitation of a metal bowl: Hanfmann 1962:26, fig. 20; Knudsen 1964:59–69; Greenewalt 1972:122, 130–132, fig. 8, figs. 1–3; Hanfmann

and Mierse 1983: fig. 119. Stainer-spouted jug: Chase 1921:111–17; Richter 1953:192; pl. 32b; Greenewalt 1978b: pl. 13, fig. 2; boat-shaped vessel: Greenewalt 1990:152–53, pl. 15–16; lid: Vermeule 1970:3, fig. 4. 2.4  İren 2003 (Myrina-type amphora in İstanbul Museum); Gürtekin Demir 2001: figs. 1–2 and Gürtekin Demir 2007: no. 7 (dish with shield-form rim from Alaşehir in Manisa Museum); no. 21 here (dish with shield-form rim); Gürtekin Demir 2007: no. 5 (pyxis in Selçuk Museum); Gürtekin Demir 2001: figs. 3–4 (pyxis from Alaşehir in Manisa Museum); Greenewalt 1968:139–54 (kantharos from Burdur). 2.5  See Gürtekin 1998:211–12, n. 555 for the distribution of marbled ware published until 1998. For more recent published material see e.g., Cahill 2010a:492–93, nos. 113–14; Kerschner 2010:260–61; Yeni 2010: figs. 17c (Ömer Höyük, Denizli), 18c (Çingenören, Denizli); Dupont and Lungu 2011 (Apameia), 2020 (Apameia and Smyrna); Corsten and Hülden 2012:78, no. 8 (Kibyratis); Hasdağlı 2014:60, fig. 11 (Ulucak Höyük); KızıltepeBilgin 2018: nos. 298, 299; Bilgin 2020: 26, fig. 4, no. 1 (Arıcaklar Höyük, Bilecik). 2.6  The archaeometric analysis on the Lydian pottery from Daskyleion was carried out by H. Mommsen and M. Kerschner and will be published in Gürtekin-Demir et al. forthcoming. Preliminary results were jointly presented on a poster, “Analysing Lydian Pottery: Elemental vs. Stylistic Classification” by R.G. Gürtekin-Demir, H. Mommsen, M. Kerschner, L. Kealhofer, and P. Grave in the 12th European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics that took place in Padova (Italy) on September 19–21, 2013. 2.7  I am grateful for the Uşak Museum director, Şerif Söyler, for permitting me to use this information here.

3 Shapes DISH and STEMMED DISH A Glance at the Dish and Stemmed Dish in the Lydian Shape Repertory

T

he dish, with either stemmed or conical foot, is one of the shapes possibly used for serving food between the 9th and the 5th centuries BCE, to judge by the finds excavated at Sardis. Stemmed dishes were more common to those with a low conical foot. The earliest examples with short stem and conical foot come from 9th and 8th century contexts (Lydian levels IV and III) in the following sectors: House of Bronzes (HoB), Pactolus Cliff (PC), Field 49, and Byzantine Fortress (ByzFort). The standard Lydian stemmed dishes become popular in Lydian levels II and I during the 7th and 6th centuries. During the early Lydian period at Sardis, there seem to have been three main painting conventions: brown/red-on-cream, bichrome, and black-on-red. The characteristic shape features of the dishes excavated from 9th to mid-8th century levels (Lydian level IV) at HoB (Hanfmann and Mierse 1983: fig. 37; Gürtekin-Demir 2011:365, 367, fig. 3; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 278), PC (A. Ramage et al. 2021: PC 26, PC 27), and ByzFort (Cahill 2010b:82, 88, fig. 19) are flat bowl, everted horizontal rim, and short stem or conical foot; from the late 8th century level (Lydian level III) at HoB and PC are deeper bowl, plain/slightly curved in or everted horizontal rim, and short stem or conical foot (Hanfmann 1961:23, 25, fig. 12; Hanfmann and Mierse 1983:41, fig. 65; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 326, HoB 374, HoB 375); some have higher stems (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 325). The common painting convention

for dishes from Lydian levels IV and III is black- onred, where the decorative elements generally consist of concentric full circles, pendent or ascendant concentric semicircles and hooks, double axes, latticed/ cross-hatched squares, or rectangles arranged in broad bands. Stemmed dishes with plain, slightly inverted or everted horizontal rims continued their popularity during the 7th and 6th centuries (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 655, HoB 656, HoB 719–HoB 721). Red bichrome carinated dishes were common, especially during the late 7th and the early 6th centuries, judging by the pottery excavated at HoB (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 403, HoB 442, HoB 515, HoB 614, HoB 740, HoB 741). Flaring, wide, plain, and slightly inverted rims occur on these stemmed dishes. The wide, cylindrical stems rise from a ring base, and both shallow and relatively deeper bowls are attested. Ephesian Ware dishes (Greenewalt 1973) black-onred stemmed dishes (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 719–HoB 721) and dishes painted in local Sardis adaptations of archaic Eastern Greek styles (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 510, HoB 534, HoB 612, HoB 616) were also popular. The pottery assemblage from the Persian Destruction Level of the mid-6th century at Sardis contained no bichrome stemmed dishes, but there were black-on-red examples with plain or slightly inverted rims, and with decoration consisting of groups of horizontal narrow spiral bands on the interior (Cahill 2010b:92, figs. 29–30). Thus, the dishes with a high stem or low conical foot represented an essential type of vessel in the Lydian table setting at Sardis from the 9th to the mid-6th centuries. Elaborate geometric decoration of bichrome, black-on-red, and brown/red-on-cream were especially popular during the 8th and the 7th centuries, while the relatively simpler bichrome stemmed dishes

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

with bands and horizontal wavy lines became popular in the late 7th and the early 6th centuries, as did delicate Ephesian Ware and spiral banded black-onred stemmed dishes. Finally, during the mid-6th century, the stemmed dishes were standardized as spiral banded black-on-red versions. The Lydian stemmed dishes were replaced by bowls with inverted rims and Achaemenid bowls during Persian rule (Dusinberre 2013:127). Andrea Berlin suggests that the replacement of the stemmed dishes at Sardis in Achaemenid times happened toward the end of the 5th century (pers. comm., May 2017; Berlin 2018:2–9).

Lydian Dishes and Stemmed Dishes at Gordion Not all the dishes from Gordion have an extant base or stem (see Fig. 11 for Lydian vessel shapes from Gordion), but the breaks at the transition to the base suggest that the majority were indeed stemmed. Three profiles are in evidence: 1. Carinated dishes (Fig. 3a–c): rims are thickened and everted (nos. 1, 2, 51, 222) except for nos. 50 and 52, which have a plain straight rim; slight carination below rim. Horizontal loop handles are preserved on nos. 50 and 51. The painting conventions attested on these dishes are red bichrome (nos. 1, 2), marbling effect (nos. 50–52), and linear black-on-red (no. 222). 2. Dishes with plain rims (Fig. 4a–c): Nos. 3 and 4 have shallow bowls whereas nos. 5, 22, and 221 are comparatively deep. No. 5 is the only intact stemmed dish. Nos. 3–5 are painted in white bichrome, no. 22 in marbling, and no. 221 in geometric black-on-red. 3. Dish with a shield-shaped rim (no. 21; Fig. 5): this peculiar type among Lydian dishes has a flaring rim, a nearly flat, shallow bowl, and a conical foot. The distinctive feature is that the rim was cut at both sides to form a shield shape. The dish is marbled. The painting conventions found on these dishes are red bichrome (nos. 1, 2), white bichrome (nos. 3–6), marbling (nos. 21–22), marbling effect (nos. 50–52), and black-on-red (nos. 221, 222). Two red bichrome dishes (nos. 1, 2) are identical in terms of their thickened and everted rims, carinated

profiles, and decorative scheme. A horizontal dark wavy line is applied over a creamy white coated band above the carination, below the rim. This type of bichrome carinated dish, either with a stem or with a low conical foot, is quite popular in the 7th to early 6th century contexts at Sardis (see above), as well as in the Lydian painted pottery discovered at Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:120, fig. 8, cat. no. 23; 122, fig. 10) and Smyrna (personal observation at the depot in Smyrna). The parallel carinated dishes at Sardis occasionally have horizontal strap handles (Gürtekin 1998:157, no. 63; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 444). The carinated bowls with a horizontal wavy line decoration below the rim were also contemporarily manufactured in northern Ionia (Uzun 2007:236, fig. 172, M2; 239, fig. 173, M24) and southern Ionia (e.g., Kleiner 1979:150, Taf. 39, no. 4; abb. 21). The main difference between the Ionian and Lydian dishes is the painting convention: the Lydian examples are frequently painted with three colors (white, red, and black) whereas the Ionian versions tend to be of a single color (black or red). The fabric of nos. 1 and 2 suggests that they may well have been exported from Sardis. No. 1 was found in an intrusive fill within the deep Middle Phrygian clay layer over the Early Phrygian Citadel; this fill primarily contained pottery of the 8th and the 7th centuries.1 Four of the bichrome dishes (nos. 3–6) are painted in the white bichrome technique wherein the dish is generally slipped inside and out with a creamy white color. The decorative elements are painted red and matte dark. The main decorative elements are the rows of pendent concentric semicircles (nos. 3–5) and the pendent concentric hook (no. 6). The decorative scheme directly reflects a Sardian tradition that is common in black-on-red and red/brownon-cream rather than bichrome between the 9th and the 6th centuries (e.g., Gürtekin 1998: pl. 32, no. 93; Gürtekin-Demir 2011:365, 367, fig. 3; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 278, HoB 279, HoB 325, HoB 441, HoB 655, HoB 656). The homogenous character of the clay of nos. 3–6 suggests that these vessels were provincial adaptations of Lydian stemmed dishes. The only intact example at Gordion (no. 5) suggests that these dishes possessed a high stem. Stemmed dishes have long been accepted as a conventional feature of archaic Eastern Greek pottery of the late 7th century and most of the 6th. However,



SHAPES 31

stemmed dishes occur as early as the 9th century in Sardis at sectors HoB, ByzFort, and Field 49 (Cahill 2010b:88, fig. 19; A. Ramage et al. 2021:11–13; HoB 278, PC 74; Cahill 2019:122–26), and also in the 8th century levels (Gürtekin 1998:101, nos. 5–6; pl. 32, no. 93; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 325, HoB 326, HoB 374, HoB 379), suggesting that the stemmed dish tradition in Lydia pre-dates East Greek production. The early stemmed dishes commonly have slightly inverted plain and flaring horizontal rims and conical or high stems. The production of stemmed dishes at Sardis increases during the 7th and 6th centuries. Regarding nos. 3 and 4, the near-flat shape, and the placement of pendent concentric semicircles below the rim, closely parallel the 9th to mid-8th century (Lydian level IV) examples from the HoB, ByzFort, and Field 49 sectors at Sardis (Cahill 2010b:88, fig. 19 inv. no.: P89.62:9705; A. Ramage et al. 2021:11–13; HoB 278; Cahill 2019:122–26). However, the use of pendent and ascendant semicircles in the same band, as seen on nos. 3–5, is also continued in the later periods (7th–6th centuries) at Sardis (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 441, HoB 655, HoB 656). The mid-6th century levels at Sardis do not contain any remarkable bichrome or black-on-red ceramics with this decorative scheme, thereby suggesting that banded decoration with concentric semicircles fell out of fashion in bichrome and black-on-red towards that time at Sardis. It is worth noting that nos. 4 and 5 were found in the same context, a pit in Gordion’s Citadel Mound (CC 3E, Pit G, under cellar), where they were associated with Ionian cup fragments (inv. no.: 10894 P4496a–c) and Phrygian black polished stemmed dish fragments (inv. no.: 10980 P4492a–b). Roller dates the black polished dish with graffiti to the first half of the 6th century (1987:18, cat. no: 2A-34). The pit in question cut through the deep, Middle Phrygian clay layer that covered the Early Phrygian citadel, indicating that it postdates the 8th century and could have been dug during the 6th. The parallels at Sardis suggest that pendent and ascendant semicircle decoration was not a common aspect on bichrome, especially white bichrome stemmed dishes at the Lydian capital but on other painting techniques between the 9th and early 6th centuries. The long tradition of this decoration makes the Lydian provincial bichrome stemmed dishes at Gordion (nos. 3–6)

difficult to date. However, the general shape characteristics, especially the standard high stem of the provincial stemmed dishes at Gordion (such as on no. 5) have near parallels at sector HoB, Lydian Shop (Lydian level I) dated to the late 7th–early 6th centuries (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 511–514). One of these parallels at Sardis (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 512) also bears a similar graffiti as inscribed underside the foot of no. 5. The Phrygian letter inscribed on no. 5 was introduced during the 6th century (Lejuene 1970: 60–62; see Chapter 6). Two of the marbled dishes (nos. 21, 22) at Gordion are painted in the conventional manner, whereas three others (nos. 50–52) with carinated profiles are done in Marbling Effect I. A matte dark red paint was applied in wide vertical stripes, and then a sharp and multi-ended tool was lightly scraped over the painted stripes to achieve wavy lines. Nos. 50–52 comprise a separate group in terms of shape, decoration, and clay: they are carinated and painted matte dark red over a smoothed clay surface, with marbling imitation and a fabric that is non-micaceous, gritty, hard-fired, and thereby distinct from Sardian fabric. The painting convention seems to be a later provincial variant of earlier, conventional Lydian marbling, since a similarly painted lekythos (no. 56) was found in a ceramic assemblage that is tentatively datable to the early 5th century (see “lekythos” in this chapter). The same imitative marbling was also practiced on oinochoai (nos. 53–55). On no. 21, the typical Lydian features are the conical foot and the marbling decoration. The mouth is roughly cut on both sides and thus resembles the shield-shaped dishes of the Eastern Greek archaic pottery (e.g., Walter-Karydi 1973: Taf. 75, nos. 575– 77). An identical dish, which was illegally excavated in Alaşehir near Sardis, was most probably provincially produced in Lydia to judge by other provincial vessels with similar clay characteristics (Gürtekin-Demir 2001:65–67, figs. 1–2). The Alaşehir and Gordion examples both show same aspects of shape, decoration, and craftmanship, and are coarsely carved at the rim. This may imply that no. 21 was produced at the same center, since no other examples with similar marbling have been found at Sardis or reported from elsewhere. Only a couple of vessels are painted in Lydian black-on-red (nos. 221, 222). No. 222 is a carinated

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dish painted with narrow spiral bands, typical of the linear/late Lydian black-on-red of the 6th century (Gürtekin-Demir 2011:368–72); the fabric is similar to that of Sardian products. No. 221, on the other hand, may be provincial Lydian black-on-red, because it has a fabric quite different from vessels of Sardian manufacture. The decoration is reminiscent of the Lydian early black-on-red dating to the 8th century at Sardis (Gürtekin-Demir 2011:363–68; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 379, PC 31 and possibly an earlier example PC 74). Early Lydian black-on-red is also provincially produced in large numbers at Tabae in northeastern Caria, near the southern border of Lydia (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015). Only one Lydian stemmed dish was excavated at Gordion’s Küçük Höyük sector (no. 6), and it was provincially produced. No. 21 was found at the Gordion Museum Site, and no. 22 on the banks of the Sakarya River. The remaining dishes were recovered from the Citadel Mound (nos. 1–5, 50–52, 221, 222). We can reach several important conclusions regarding the Lydian dishes with or without stems at Gordion. Only a few examples have Sardian fabrics and are painted with standard Lydian decoration, such as the bichrome carinated dishes (nos. 1, 2) and a black-on-red carinated dish (no. 222); the majority of the dishes are provincial products with distinctive clays and decorative adaptations. Nos. 21 and 22 are painted with traditional marbling but their fabrics point to different, non-Sardian clay sources. On the other hand, nos. 3–6 (bichrome dishes) and nos. 50– 52 (imitative marbling dishes) indicate two particular groups of provincial product that are specific to the finds from Gordion. Sardis provides the main corpus for comparison with the Lydian pottery at Gordion. The earliest stylistic aspect of the Lydian dishes at Gordion is a provincial early black-on-red (no. 221) stemmed dish. As discussed above, the near parallels at Sardis offer a date within the 8th or perhaps early 7th centuries. Early provincial Lydian vessels are also attested at Tabae (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015:119–22), Kelainai-Apameia Kibotos (Lungu and Dupont 2016:447, pl. 2, nos. 17–18), and Aigai (Özver 2012: pl. 11, cat. no. 88), which may mean that there was more than one provincial center producing the early Lydian bichrome and black-on-red pottery of the 8th and the 7th centuries.

Carinated Lydian dishes of the 7th to early 6th centuries are red bichrome (nos. 1, 2), and those of the 6th century are linear black-on-red (no. 222) and marbled (nos. 21, 22). Provincial white bichrome dishes (nos. 3–6) may have been used during the early 6th century or perhaps a little earlier. Nos. 50–52, which are painted in a marbling effect, seem to be the latest examples of provincial Lydian dishes, perhaps of the 5th century during Achaemenid rule at Gordion. Thus, it seems most likely that the provincial production of Lydian dishes began ca. late 8th to early 7th centuries and continued down to the Achaemenid period.

PHIALE Phialai in the Lydian Pottery Repertory and at Gordion The phiale was known both in the east and west worlds, although its origin in the east is traced earlier than the Greek centers. The shape is known in the Near East (Luschey 1939) and from the remains of Tumulus W at Gordion (Young 1981:204–206) during the 9th century, although it continued to be used in the later periods during the archaic and Achaemenid periods. The early tumuli at Gordion revealed numerous numbers of metal mesomphalic phialai (Young 1981:233–36): Tumulus W (Young 1981:204–206), now dated to the mid-9th century BCE (Sams and Voigt 2011:166), Tumulus P (Young 1981:14–17) and Tumulus MM (Young 1981:130–147), both dated to the 8th century (Sams and Voigt 2011:166). These were also found in the Destruction Level on the Citadel Mound dated ca. 800 BCE (Sams 2011:61 fig. 4.3C). Apart from one glass example excavated in Tumulus P (Young 1981:32 fig. 18) there are no pottery or wood examples of mesomphalic phialai in these early tumuli. Contrary to the large numbers of metal mesomphalic phialai, pottery versions are not common in Early Phrygian and early Middle Phrygian contexts. In her Ph.D. dissertation (1961) on the relation between Phrygian metalware and pottery, Knudsen mentions only a few parallels of pottery mesomphalic phialai (1961:149–161, 313, fig. 1). Although statistical and stratigraphical evidence of local



SHAPES 33

a 8376 P 3253

b 7297 P 2865

c 0 Fig. 3  Carinated Dishes. a: no. 1; b: no. 50; c: no. 222

10 cm

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a 10982 P 4494

b 10983 P 4495

c 0

4706 P 1777

Fig. 4  Stemmed Dishes with Plain Rims. a: no. 4; b: no. 5; c: no. 22

10 cm



SHAPES 35

0

6970 P 2709

10 cm

Fig. 5  No. 21 Dish with Shield-form Rim

mesomphalic phialai were not studied in this volume, I have observed that at least some local black-polished mesomphalic phialai (e.g., inv. nos.: P743, P2433, P2723) were used possibly during the later Middle Phrygian and Late Phrygian periods. The phiale is associated with sympotic activity and was used during libations, which was one of the most common forms of religious activity in Greek daily life, but there is not enough evidence for their use in similar libation rituals in Lydian culture. The only relevant visual evidence, which illustrates the Lydian King Croesus pouring liquid from a phiale, is depicted on a late 6th century Attic red figure amphora by Myson (Boardman 1996: fig. 171). In this case, the phiale was indeed provided with a ritual function, but it was depicted on a Greek vessel and from a Greek point of view. The phiale is generally associated with Kybele as one of her attributes, however, it is not specific to the Mother Goddess (Romano 1995:22). Other than a deity attribution, the shape is evidently part of funerary practices in Anatolia. It is not only left as burial gifts in Lydia and Phrygia, but also depicted on a wall

painting discovered at a tomb in Karaburun, dated to the Achaemenid period. The way an attendant and the reclining figure hold philalai on the tips of their fingers in this wall painting is a Persian or more generally an eastern feature as suggested by Baughan (2013:46). The phiale was also used in dedications to the sacred places, mentioned below. At Sardis, ceramic examples of mesomphalic bowls date back to the 9th century, and are most common in gray ware (e.g., A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 271, HoB 299–301). The excavations at Sardis have also yielded local phialai of the 7th and 6th centuries, but they are not as plentiful as other contemporary drinking vessels. The shape is common in red and gray ware, blackon-red, and marbled (Gürtekin 1998:37–38, 203–4; for a gray ware phiale see Greenewalt 2010b:114, fig. 7). The raised central boss has two versions in Lydian pottery at Sardis: a low, flattish and wide omphalos, and a higher version that has a relatively narrow diameter and a pronounced circumference. The blackon-red examples are generally painted with narrow spiral bands or groups of wavy lines. Marbled phialai, on the other hand, are either plain marbled or vertically marbled within groups of vertical stripes that generally intersect over the central bowl on the exterior or the interior (as seen on no. 23). Phialai were discovered both in habitation levels (http://sardisexpedition.org/en/essays/kst-cahill-kst-2010, fig. 21) and also in burials as grave offerings (e.g., a marbled omphalos phiale from Tomb 43, C. Greenewalt, 1998, pers. comm.). Aside from the local productions at Sardis, Lydian phialai are known from a number of sites in Asia Minor, such as Daskyleion, Smyrna, Ephesus, and Miletus. Greenewalt reported that gray monochrome phialai were common in E. Akurgal’s excavations at Daskyleion and Smyrna (1966:133–34); black-onred examples are also attested at Smyrna (1966:133). Marbled phialai seem to be the most common type of Lydian bowl discovered at sites beyond Sardis. One marbled omphalos phiale is in the collection of the Sadberk Hanım Museum (Türkteki and Hürmüzlü 2007:66, no. 31) and five others were found in an extramural sanctuary at the Temple of Aphrodite at Zeytintepe near Miletus (Kerschner 2010:260–61; Cahill 2010a:492–93, nos. 113–14). The latter examples were part of a large deposit that also included a marbled Lydian skyphos dated to the third quarter of the

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6th century. One of the plain marbled phialai bears an inscription naming the dedicator, Drymon, who was probably a Milesian dedicating Lydian pottery in a Greek sanctuary (after N. Ehrhardt, Kerschner 2010:260–61). Three more examples of marbled phialai were excavated in Didyma on the Taxiarchis Hill (Alexandra Von Miller, 2017, pers. comm.). Another marbled phiale was discovered in Kibyratis in Pisidia (Corsten and Hülden 2012:78, no. 8). A more delicate version of a late 7th century Lydian phiale is painted in Ephesian Ware style and was discovered in Ephesus, in an apsidal building in front of the archaic Artemis Temple (Cahill 2010a:495, no. 116). The phialai from Miletus, Didyma, and Ephesus represent the use of Lydian phialai as dedications in sacred places.2 Metal versions from Lydian tombs excavated by Butler were found at Sardis (N. Cahill, June 2019, pers. comm.; IAM 4539 and 4540, and two lost examples), and some other metal examples, dating to the Achaemenid period, were discovered in illegally excavated tumuli in Uşak near the eastern border of Lydia (e.g., Özgen et al. 1996:234, no. 224). The only two examples of Lydian phialai from Gordion are from the Citadel Mound (nos. 23, 24); both are of Sardian fabric. Vertical marbling in red with thin brushes over a creamy white slip inside and out occurs on no. 24 and on the interior of no. 23, whereas the exterior of no. 23 is painted with crossing alternate plain streaky and vertically marbled stripes.

SKYPHOS The Conventional Lydian Skyphos and its Distribution The conventional Lydian skyphos is distinguished by its deep bowl, conical foot, and decoration, which is either streaky or plain painted overall, leaving the handle area reserved or streaky/plain painted with linear decoration in added white or occasionally red. These characteristics have often led scholars to classify related skyphoi as Lydian or Lydian-type. But this simple painting scheme is not necessarily Lydian; it is also practiced on skyphoi produced in East Greece and attested in Ionia and the Mediterranean in the 7th and 6th centuries (e.g., Vallet and Villard 1955: pl. 7, fig.

A; Walter 1957:41, Beilage 54, no. 2; Boardman and Hayes 1973: pl. 11, no. 199b; Furtwängler 1980:207– 208, Abb. 15, no. Ia/I, e–f/II). Rather it is the shape, together with the painting, that distinguish the Lydian skyphoi from others with similar decoration. We must also bear in mind that the skyphos with this standard shape occasionally features other types of decoration, such as marbling, bichrome, and black-on-red. The types and decorative schemes of Lydian skyphoi, as other groups of Lydian pottery, can best be defined and classified on the basis of the pottery excavated at Sardis, where the skyphos is by far the most common drinking vessel. Local production is attested from the 8th century down to early Achaemenid times. The early Lydian levels at Sardis are best recognized at sectors ByzFort, PC, and HoB. There are, as yet, no definitive Lydian skyphoi from ByzFort and PC dating before the late 8th century. A few examples of skyphoid bowls with hemispherical bowls and diagonally rising handles (A. Ramage 1994:164; A. Ramage et al., 2021: HoB 393), and skyphoi with nearly hemispherical bowls, ring bases, and horizontal handles (inv. nos.: P62.239:4528, P62.297:4604; A. Ramage et al., 2021: HoB 329, HoB 330) were discovered at HoB in deposits dating to the late 8th century. The skyphoid bowls are decorated in early black-on-red painting (A. Ramage 1994:171, pl. 14.5.4; for Lydian early black-on-red, see Gürtekin-Demir 2011:363–68) and they are not very close to the later standardization of the Lydian skyphos during the 7th and 6th centuries, whereas the early skyphoi that are unpainted or plain/ streaky painted are closer to the later types. Skyphoi of the 7th century from Lydian Level II at HoB generally have either a hemispherical or deep bowl and a low conical foot or a ring base. Several painting conventions occur, such as red bichrome and plain/streaky painted (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 466, HoB 500; HoB 404–405). Few of them have additional white bands on streaky glaze (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 455). These aspects seem to continue down to the late 7th and early 6th centuries. However, red bichrome with geometric patterns and banded (dark over creamy white slip) decoration is no longer practiced after the early 6th century, and plain and streaky glazed painting, occasionally with added linear white decoration, becomes more common during the 6th century in the later Lydian Level I. This common type (plain/streaky glazed) usually has thinner



SHAPES 37

walls and a higher conical foot; the ring base is also used, albeit rarely (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 573, HoB 722–724, HoB 742–746). The type is popular in contexts reflecting occupation levels, burials, and ritual practices at Sardis, whereas earlier skyphoi seem to be limited to habitation areas. The abundant number of skyphoi from the Persian Destruction Level have a deep bowl, high conical foot, thin walls, and decoration with dark streaky glaze with or without added linear white decoration, and occasionally with marbled glaze (Greenewalt 2010b:109, 113, fig. 6; 115, fig. 11; 468–70, nos. 77–80; for the Destruction Level see Cahill 2010c). Streaky or plain painted skyphoi are common in the ceremonial rituals referred to as “Puppy Burials,” whereas marbled skyphoi are rarely found in ritual contexts (Greenewalt 1978a). Besides the popular painting conventions of Lydian skyphoi, i.e., marbling, plain, streaky painted, or streaky painted with additional white linear decoration, there were other groups or styles of decoration during the late 7th and the first half of the 6th centuries at Sardis. The skyphos was also painted in other styles, namely the Sardis Wild Goat style (Greenewalt 1970:66, pls. 6:1–2, nos. 6–7; Greenewalt 1972: pl. 4: 1–2, nos. 4–5), so-called Early Fikellura (Greenewalt 1971: pls. 5–12), and Ephesian Ware (Richter 1960: 303, fig. 423, Metropolitan Museum inv. no.: 16.75.14), all of which derive from archaic Eastern Greek painting. Lydian potters at Sardis also imitated Protocorinthian skyphoi (N.H. Ramage 1994:174, 182, pl. 15.5.4; 6th century example from HoB Lydian Level I, A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 658, HoB 692, PC 14). Although Lydian black-on-red at Sardis was popular during the late 7th and the 6th centuries, the skyphos seems to have been rarely painted in blackon-red (e.g., a linear black-on-red from HoB, inv. no.: P64.432:6565). Only rarely, the Lydian skyphoi were painted with horizontal lines in black and white over red, which calls to mind red bichrome during the late 7th–6th centuries (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 574). The bands on banded skyphoi at Sardis are rendered in red or black/brown over a creamy white slip during the 7th and 6th centuries (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 465, HoB 747). Plain painted and matte streaky glazed skyphoi continued to be produced at Sardis during the Achaemenid period and perhaps into Hellenistic times

(Dusinberre 1999:93). Berlin, however, points out that the Hellenistic deposits do not reveal any conventional Lydian skyphoi, which seem to disappear by the later 6th or early 5th century (Andrea Berlin, May 2017, pers. comm.; see also Berlin 2018 for the Late Achaemenid and Hellenistic shapes at Sardis). In addition to the numerous finds in the core Lydian region, the Lydian skyphos has been reported across a broader geographical range, extending from the southern Troas and Propontis down to Aeolis, Ionia, and Caria on the west, and to Pisidia and Phrygia further to the east. The easternmost of its diffusion is attested to the south of Halys River. The diffusion of Lydian skyphoi within and outside Lydia shows that streaky glazed decoration is prevalent, along with marbled especially in the 6th century, and there seems to be provincial production of the material in these regions as well.3 Provincial production is also attested within the Lydian region, such as at Alaşehir (Gürtekin-Demir 2007:52, 75, cat. no. 8) and Sebaste located to the easternmost border of Lydia (GürtekinDemir, forthcoming). The earliest provincial examples of Lydian skyphoi are black-on-red examples of the 7th century, which were discovered at Tabae in northeastern Caria, near the Lydian border (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015:119–20, fig. 1, no. 6). A similar early example is reported from Ulucak Höyük near the western border of Lydia (Hasdağlı 2014:36, 58 fig. 3, cat. no. 7). Streaky glazed or plain painted skyphoi of the 6th century are by far one of the most common Lydian painted pottery classes in Anatolia, and especially occur at sites where other Lydian painted pottery has also been discovered, such as Ephesus, Daskyleion, and Smyrna. These sites may be regarded as the places where the expansion of Lydian material culture is clearly evident, and where Lydian painted pottery of both Sardian and provincial production is attested. The majority of the related skyphoi at Daskyleion includes plain streaky or plain painted, occasionally with added white linear decoration (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:123–25, figs. 11–12; 127, fig. 14a; İren 2010:253, 262, fig. 8); other Lydian painting conventions, such as so-called Early Fikellura and marbling, are rare (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:114, fig. 2; 129). The datable contexts at Daskyleion suggest that at least some of these skyphoi were still in use in the early 5th century (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:140,

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deposits 4–5). Regional productions of Lydian skyphoi are attested at Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2007:55–58), Ephesus (Kerschner 2005:136–37; Kerschner 2019:379–80), and Smyrna (Dupont and Lungu 2020:figs. 15A–B). Within Ionia, streaky glaze, marbled, and banded are preferred for the Lydian type of skyphos at Ephesus (Gasser 1992:191, figs. 6–7; Kerschner 2008:227; Kerschner 2019:364–80) and Smyrna (Cook 1958/59: pl. 4a; Dupont 2014:75, fig. 3, nos. 1–3; Dupont and Lungu 2020:122–23, figs. 15–16), as well as in Miletus, where a single marbled skyphos was found together with five marbled phialai at the Temple of Aphrodite at Zeytintepe (Kerschner 2010:260–61). The majority of Lydian pottery at Aigai in Aiolis demonstrates streaky and plain glazed skyphoi, with or without added white (Özver 2012: pls. 1–3, cat. nos. 1–22). Several grave contexts from Pitane, also in Aeolis (Greenewalt 1978a:16, n. 16), and from Antandros on the modern Edremit Gulf, near ancient Adramytteion (Dupont 2014:74, fig. 2, no. 3), revealed a few Lydian streaky glazed skyphoi. Streaky glazed skyphoi were also discovered in Caria, such as at Aphrodisias (Mierse 1986:418), at Börükçü Nekropolis near Stratonikeia (Büyüközer 2014:115, fig. 6), and at Emirhisar-Yassıhöyük near modern Denizli (Yeni 2010:figs. 16a, 17b). Lydian type of skyphos with deep ovoid body and conical foot was also preferred on local Carian Wild Goat style (Hemelrjik 1987: 1, 42–43; figs. 19–21). The relevant type of skyphoi can be traced at Kibyratis in Pisidia (Corsten and Hülden 2012:78–79, no. 9 [streaky glazed]), and as far east as Kültepe to the south of Halys River (Özgüç and Özgüç 1949:59, pl. 31, no. 211[marbled]). The relatively large amount of Lydian or Lydianstyle skyphoi, excavated at various sites in Asia Minor from the western coast to the east on Halys River, implies that the Lydian-type skyphos, both imported from Sardis, and its regional products, was one of the most favored drinking cups amongst Lydian painted pottery. This situation is also apparent at Gordion.

Lydian Skyphoi at Gordion At Gordion, the skyphos is one of the most prevalent Lydian drinking vessel shapes. It was commonly decorated in streaky/plain glaze, and to a lesser degree in marbling, brown-on-cream, and white bichrome.

Although many of the examples are fragmentary—an exception being the intact no. 73 from the Küçük Höyük sector—all skyphoi have thin walls. The bowls are deeper on the streaky and plain painted examples, in comparison to the nearly hemispherical bowls of other painting conventions. Extant bases show a conical foot (nos. 64, 73). The two white bichrome skyphoi, both provincial, are painted in a similar technique (nos. 7, 8). White was applied as a coat for decorative zones and also for transitional bands, and red was used for the main decorative elements as well as for the slip of transitional bands, whereas black was preferred on thin transitional bands. The decorative elements are pendent concentric semicircles and concentric full circles, reminiscent of the red bichrome at Sardis; surprisingly, they are not a common practice on white bichrome. These provincial skyphoi thus seem to be influenced by the decorative scheme of Sardian red bichrome. The fabrics of both the examples from Gordion are distinct from those of the Sardian clays and they point to a local or provincial production of skyphoi with typical Lydian bichrome decoration. Lydian provincial bichrome was excavated at Tabae (Gürtekin-Demir and Polat 2015:121–22), but the application of the motifs as well as the choice of colors are different from what is seen on nos. 7 and 8, and they are more closely associated with the white bichrome attested at Sardis. Nos. 7 and 8 are stylistically and technically closer to the painting convention of nos. 3–6, 16 and 18. The small pendent concentric semicircles on no. 20 are organized in a scale pattern painted in brown over a creamy slip. The marbled decoration on skyphoi commonly takes the form of vertical marbling (nos. 25–28, 30), except for no. 29, which is painted in the shape of short arcs. No. 28 is painted with groups of vertically marbled stripes which occur on several other shapes, such as the phiale (no. 24), the dish (no. 50–52), the pitcher (nos. 53–55), and the lekythos (no. 56). The common painting conventions on Lydian skyphoi at Gordion are the streaky glazed and the plain painted. Linear or dotted decoration in added white occurs on several of the vessels (nos. 61, 65, 67, 68, 70, 71). Similar skyphoi are attested in large numbers at Sardis, where they date to the first half of the 6th century (Greenewalt 2010b:109, 113, fig. 6; 115, fig. 11; 468–70, nos. 77–80).



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None of the Lydian skyphoi at Gordion comes from a funerary context. Except for no. 73, excavated in the Küçük Höyük sector, all of them are from the Citadel Mound. Nos. 25–27, 29, 30, 61, 64–68, 70, 72, and 73 have fabrics similar to those produced at Sardis, whereas nos. 7, 8, 20, 28, 62, 63, 69, and 71 seem to be heterogeneous. The majority of the Lydian skyphoi may belong stylistically to the 6th century, but some skyphoi at Gordion may date earlier and later than this. Nos. 7, 8, and 20 are all provincial productions and are stylistically the earliest examples that can be dated within the 7th century. The deposits of at least some skyphoi may imply a date in the second half of the 6th or in the 5th century, during the early part of the Achaemenid period at Gordion. For example, a provincial skyphos, no. 28, was discovered in the 6th century renovated phase of Building F, in a level associated with a floor that yielded an Achaemenid seal (Dusinberre 2005:63, cat. no. 44). No. 72, on the other hand, is a Sardian import and was evidently from a destruction fill associated with the Painted House, which was in use during the early 5th century.4

DINOS The dinos, along with the column krater, was one of the two large, open vessel types in the Lydian shape repertory that was adapted from Greek mixingvessels. The shape was associated with several painting techniques in Lydia: red bichrome and marbling (Gürtekin 1998:117–18, no. 72, pl. 23; 204, no. 112, pl. 43), brown-on-cream with geometric patterns (Gürtekin 1998:187, no. 99), and even more sophisticated figurative decoration (Greenewalt 2010a:14, figs. 12–13). The dinos was relatively rare in blackon-red (Gürtekin 1998:37, no. 25, pl. 9) and white bichrome (Gürtekin-Demir 2014:234, fig. 15), and it was uncommon in streaky glaze. Lydian dinoi have simple flaring rims, rounded, spherical bodies, and rounded or flat bases. Some have square or rectangular lug attachments reminiscent of metalwork (e.g., Greenewalt 2010a:14, fig. 13). Only one dinos is known from the Lydian painted pottery assemblage discovered during Young’s excavations at Gordion (no. 31). The non-Sardian fabric is hard-fired, non-micaceous, and includes tiny

particles of limestone. Two glazes occur: a matte dark paint, and a probable iron-oxide base glaze that has matte color tones between dark brown and red. The dark matte glaze was used for the framing of the panel and the outer border of the triangle inside, whereas the dark brown to red matte glaze was used for the marbling decoration as well as for the inner frame of the triangle and for the dots inside the triangle. The matte marbling is quite different from the rather glossy appearance of the marbled decoration on examples from Sardis. In general, decoration that combines figurative and geometric or linear patterns with marbling occurs frequently in Lydian painting. However, the dotted triangle pattern was more popular in Phrygian and Aeolian painted pottery, and, in this respect, no. 31 is significant in terms of the hybridization of local Phrygian patterns with one of the most prevalent types of Lydian decoration, marbling. The dotted triangle, and dotted geometric patterns in general, were never common on Lydian painted pottery.5

KRATER The krater was used as a mixing bowl in Greek society; however, I am not yet convinced that Lydian kraters served the same function. The early versions at Sardis, dating to the 9th and 8th centuries, were gray ware or painted in black-on-red and bichrome, and generally they had a short, thickened, everted rim and a high stand (Gürtekin 1998:32, 113; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 159, HoB 179, HoB 195, HoB 255, HoB 397). The later versions of the 6th century are adapted from Corinthian column kraters and are streaky painted. Only four fragments of kraters painted in the Lydian tradition are attested at Gordion, all of them from the Citadel Mound (nos. 9, 74–76). No. 9 may belong to a krater or a large basin-like open shape. It is decidedly different from the common type of 6th century column kraters in Lydia (e.g., Greenewalt 2010b:112, fig. 5). It is the decorative scheme and the accompanying colors that signal it as Lydian or Lydian-type, not the shape. Both the shape and the fabric are foreign to local pottery at Sardis and suggest a provincial production. This is further supported by the chalky white slip and the matte red and dark paints used on the Gordion example, whereas a creamy white slip, along with a rather glossy red and

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a matte dark color, are preferred on Sardian bichrome. This color combination and decorative scheme are also attested on another provincial Lydian bichrome piece at Gordion (no. 19). The decorative elements of pendent concentric semicircles are a local adaptation of Lydian bichrome that is more common in the 8th and 7th centuries at Sardis (see Chapter 2). Three of the body sherds attributed to kraters are dark streaky painted with thin bands in added white (nos. 74–76); as such, they are reminiscent of the Lydian column kraters from Sardis, which are largely attested in levels dating to the first half and middle of the 6th century (e.g., Greenewalt 2010b:112, fig. 5). These kraters are almost exclusively decorated in streaky glaze with simple linear decoration in added white. The standardized shape characteristics of Lydian streaky glazed column kraters include an everted rim, a slightly flaring and short neck, a wide and nearspherical body, a conical foot, and slightly diagonal loop handles rising from the shoulder and connecting directly to the rim (Gürtekin 1998:253–54). The main difference from the column kraters of Corinth, where the shape originated, is the handle plate, which is omitted in the Lydian versions. Two of the Gordion fragments bear a visual similarity to Sardian fabric (nos. 74, 75), whereas no. 76 is quite different in terms of the non-micaceous and hard-fired character of the clay.

STAMNOS The only known example of a stamnos in the Lydian ceramic tradition is no. 77 from the Citadel Mound at Gordion. The fabric and matte streaky glaze, while indicating a Lydian or Lydian-type source, rule out Sardian production. The vessel is a relatively small version of the Greek stamnos, yet the shape adheres to the typical features: a wide, flaring rim, a vertical neck, a near-spherical body, a conical foot, and horizontal loop handles placed over the shoulder.

AMPHORA and HYDRIA Two main types of amphora occur in Lydian painted pottery at Sardis: the so-called Myrina type with horizontal loop handles over mid-body, and the neck amphora with handles from neck to shoulder.

The common aspects of both types at Sardis are a flaring rim, nearly vertical-sided neck, spherical or globular body, frequently a conical foot, and occasionally a flat base. Amphoras are occasionally attested in bichrome and brown/red-on-white (Myrina type amphorae: e.g., Greenewalt 2010b:110, fig. 3) but are not common in black-on-red at Sardis or at other sites that yield Lydian or Lydian-style pottery. Nor are amphoras commonly decorated with other Lydian painting conventions, such as, brown-on-creamy white slip with geometric patterns (e.g., Gürtekin 1998:171, n. 439), marbling (Gürtekin 1998:207), and streaky glaze (e.g., Gürtekin 1998:254, pl. 53, no. 135; Greenewalt 2010c:130, fig. 5, fifth vessel from left on lower line). By contrast, the amphora was commonly used for the waveline style that was adapted from the archaic Greek movement of the late 7th and 6th centuries (e.g., Cahill 2010a:465, no. 72). Nos. 219 and 220 are imports from Sardis, where numerous examples of this style are known from the 7th century down to the late Achaemenid and perhaps the early Hellenistic periods (Gürtekin-Demir 2013:98). The walls of the vessels tend to be thinner during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods (Dusinberre 2003:175; Berlin 2018:3, 6); however, the walls of nos. 219 and 220 are relatively thicker than those of these later vessels at Sardis. The amphora and oinochoe are common closed shapes in the corpus of Lydian painted pottery at Gordion. The only nearly complete amphora, painted in red bichrome, comes from a burial context in Tumulus A (no. 10). It is a neck amphora with flaring rim, vertical-sided neck, a spherical body, and a flat base. On the shoulder is a row of pendent hooks in black over a clay surface. This decorative scheme is common at Sardis in red bichrome, especially during the 7th century and perhaps also in the early 6th (see Chapter 2). It is also much more popular on the oinochoe than on the amphora; nevertheless, the red bichrome shoulder fragments nos. 11–15 could belong to either oinochoai or amphoras. The marbling technique was applied on three vertically marbled vessels, two of which are body sherds (nos. 32 and 33) and one a low conical foot fragment (no. 34). A streaky glazed example has a flaring rim and a vertical-sided neck, and it is alternately painted in additional white color on the rim (no. 78). A neck fragment painted with a horizontal thick wavy



SHAPES 41

line probably belongs to an amphora or a hydria of the popular Lydian waveline group (no. 219). No. 220 represents a hydria of the same group of vessels; it is decorated with large horizontal double loops intersecting over the horizontal bands on the shoulder. Except for nos. 10 and 219, which are from Tumulus A and the Küçük Höyük respectively, all amphora fragments were found on the Citadel Mound. Nos. 32 and 33 seem to be provincial productions, judging by their visual discrepancies with Sardian clay: hard-fired, porous, gritty, with tiny flecks of limestone and grog, and less mica. Nos. 10–15, 34, 78, 219, and 220, on the other hand, are in conformity with Sardian fabric.

OINOCHOE The oinochoe or pitcher was commonly used in Lydian pottery. The most common painting technique applied to the Lydian oinochoai is streaky glazed, often subordinated with rows of petals on the reserved shoulder zone, or with linear and/or dotted decoration. Such vessels are especially familiar in 6th century levels at Sardis (Cahill 2010a: 467, nos. 74–75). These oinochoai are both trefoil and roundmouthed; bodies are spherical, ovoid, and wide biconical (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 49, no. 126; pl. 51, no. 130; pl. 52. no. 131 [trefoil]; pl. 52, no. 132; pl. 53, no. 133[round-mouthed]). Streaky glazed pottery with additional white linear bands was discovered in a pottery kiln at Klazomenai dated to the first half of the 6th century (Ersoy 2003). The shapes in the assemblage consisted of streaky glazed oinochoai and simple dishes with articulated walls (Ersoy 2003:255, fig. 42D). The decoration scheme looks similar with those discovered at Sardis. However, there is no further evidence of other Lydian connections in terms of pottery since no standard Lydian pottery were discovered besides some lydions of possibly Eastern Greek production at Klazomenai. Bichrome oinochoai, painted with popular Lydian decorative patterns (pendent concentric semicircles or hooks) and with trefoil mouth and ovoid body, are attested in the 7th and early 6th century Lydian levels II and I (Gürtekin 1998:118–19; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 444, HoB 620, HoB 753). The earliest examples of painted Lydian trefoil oinochoai (blackon-red), which may be tentatively dated to the 9th

and 8th centuries, are known from the HoB, PC, and ByzFort sectors at Sardis (Gürtekin-Demir 2011:363; A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 246, HoB 337). The 7th century trefoil oinochoai have a wider range of painted decoration including bichrome and banded (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 408, HoB 481–483). Sixth century versions of black-on-red oinochoai at Sardis feature both round-mouthed and trefoil types (Gürtekin 1998:38–39; Gürtekin-Demir 2011:369– 70, fig. 6). On the other hand, the shape is not very frequent in Sardian marbled ware. Marbling seems to have been more common on provincially produced oinochoai: for example, one from Alaşehir in Lydia (Gürtekin-Demir 2001: pl. 22, figs. 5–6) and another which is now in the Penn Museum (inv. no.: 66-1-1; Greenewalt 1968: pl. 2, no. 4; pl. 4, nos. 1–2). Conventional Lydian oinochoai seem to have continued during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods at Sardis and in Lydia generally (Rotroff and Oliver 2003: pl. 36, no. 228; pl. 39, no. 235; Gürtekin-Demir 2010:43, 47, cat. no. 2; Dusinberre 2013:127). Because all oinochoai at Gordion are fragmentary, little can be said about their profiles or whether the vessels had round or trefoil mouths. The majority are either marbled (nos. 35–40) or have imitative marbling (nos. 53–55). Nearly all of the marbled pieces are painted over creamy white slips, which bear vertical marbling (nos. 35, 38), horizontal marbling (no. 40), curled marbling (nos. 36, 37), and marbling arcs (no. 39). The imitative marbling occurs on nos. 53– 55, where it is painted directly over the smoothed clay surface of the vessel. Similar imitative marbling also occurs on other shapes, such as the dish (nos. 50–52) and the lekythos (no. 56). The streaky glazed oinochoai are painted in black and have horizontal narrow bands in additional white (nos. 79–81). A row of dark petals with white dots at each end decorates a shoulder fragment (no. 81). Close parallels at Sardis for the streaky glazed oinochoai come from mid-6th century habitation levels (e.g., Cahill 2010a:467, nos. 74–75) and from tombs dating to the 6th century (Butler 1922:80, fig. III 75A). The single bichrome oinochoe fragment (no. 16) is decorated with dark pendent concentric semicircles, reminiscent of the decoration of other provincial white bichrome vessels at Gordion (nos. 3–7). All Lydian oinochoai at Gordion come from the Citadel Mound. They include both provincial

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products and imports from Sardis. Nearly half of the fragments are provincial. The dark streaky glazed sherds with additional white decoration have fabrics similar to those of Sardian production (nos. 79–81), as do four marbled fragments (nos. 35, 36, 38, 39). Two other marbled fragments (nos. 37, 40), three with imitation marbling (nos. 53–55), and one with bichrome (no. 16), are of fabrics distinct from those of Sardis. The fabrics of nos. 16, 40, and 53–55 are gritty and porous, with tiny flecks of limestone and perhaps chamotte. Only a few oinochoai come from relatively datable contexts. Nos. 79 and 80 were found in the rubble fill of the southern wall of Building U, probably relating to a rebuilding phase in the later part of the 6th century.6 A provincial marbled dish (no. 52) and a marbled lekythos (no. 43) are also associated with the rubble bedding of Building U.7 No. 53 was found in a 6th century fill near to Buildings O and Q,8 and no. 38 comes from a Late Phrygian fill, which mainly contained 5th century Attic black glazed pottery.9

LEKYTHOS Lydian Lekythoi: An Adaptation of the so-called Samian Lekythos Lekythoi with an angular shoulder and ridged neck have generally been classified under several names, such as Samian lekythos, Samian bottle, Samian flask, East Greek lekythos, and so forth. Although the earliest examples of the type go back to the 8th century BCE in the Levant, it was widely used and modified in the Greek world, Asia Minor, and in the western Mediterranean, especially during the 6th century. Boehlau was one of the first scholars to classify it as Samian (1898:147–48, pl. 7), and its place of origin and development have been discussed by several scholars. Pfuhl (1903:169, 173) suggested a Cypriot origin, whereas Gjerstad (1948:295) argued that the sack-shaped, handle-ridge jug with wide mushroom mouth was a Phoenician type. Johansen (1958:161–63) defined it as an Ionian revival of the Phoenician jugs with mushroom mouth that were imported to Exochi and other sites during the 8th century. Dunbabin (1962:477) suggested a Palestinian Iron Age influence, whereas Culican thought that it was a contemporary imitation

of Phoenician imports, and that the handle-ridge tradition was foreign to Greek and Ionian pottery. Culican further regarded Sidon as a production center for this type of lekythos (1986:145) and named the vessels “Sidonian bottles” (1975). Dunbabin, on the other hand, was inclined to see Rhodes as a center of manufacture (1962:235–37, 477). The great number of lekythoi with ridged necks at Rhodes includes both oriental imports and local products. Coldstream (1969:2) regarded the local products as the “Hellenization of a popular oriental shape” and believed that the Rhodian copies were produced from the mid-8th century onward, and that in the mid-7th century the neck-ridged flasks were a clear development from the 8th century Phoenician versions. The Rhodian versions have a more angular shoulder, as with those found in graves dated to the second half of the 7th century (Coldstream 1969:5, pl. IIIf ). It seems that the predecessors of neck-ridged lekythoi with an angular shoulder were common in Levantine lands between the 8th and the 6th centuries, and these were exported to several Aegean and Mediterranean sites. The Phoenicians and/or perhaps the Cypriots seem to have been responsible for introducing the shape via trade to the Aegean and the Mediterranean, and there the shape was modified locally by various centers, especially in Rhodes. The modified lekythoi have been discovered not only in the Greek islands (Boehlau 1898:147–48, pl. 7, nos. 3–4; Johansen 1958:161–63; Coldstream 1969:5), but also in Greek settlements in Italy, such as Gela (e.g., Orlandini 1978:97, figs. 35–36), Lucania (e.g., Horsnaes 2002:74), Caerea (e.g., Pieraccini 2003:52), Etruria (e.g., Cristofani 1978:171–73; Rasmussen 1985/86:119), and Sicily (e.g., Lo Porto 1962:157– 58). They are also known from sites in the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Dominguez and Sanchez 2001:82) and Georgia (Kakhidze 2007:112). The Attic lekythos was further developed from this so-called Samian lekythos, around 570–560 BCE (Oakley 2004:6). The so-called Samian type lekythos, in common use in the 6th century, was one of the vessel shapes adopted in Lydia perhaps from the Greek repertory. The prevalent type of Lydian lekythos, which is attested in the Lydian region and at sites elsewhere where Lydian pottery is found, has more or less a standardized form: thickened out-curved rim; long cylindrical neck with



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central ridge; angular shoulder; ovoid body; conical or ring base; and a vertical handle from neck to shoulder. The body usually has a slight concave profile near the middle, and it may have either an elongated (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 47, no. 124) or a more bulging ovoid profile (Greenewalt 2010b:111, fig. 4, lower left especially P63.443:5592). This standard type correlates with the Type I Lydian lekythoi of Gordion (see below). The most favored painted conventions of Lydian lekythoi are marbling and streaky and/or plain painted. At Sardis and elsewhere, Lydian lekythoi with an angular shoulder do not bear other popular painting conventions such as bichrome or plain/streaky painted with added white, and only rarely do they feature blackon-red.10 On streaky glazed or plain painted examples, the decoration covers the entire body, including the handle, rim, neck, and most of the base. Marbling is either vertically applied on the shoulder and body or in groups of vertical strips. Creamy white slip was preferred, especially on lekythoi with marbling in vertical strips; the slip was generally not used with plain marbling or with streaky glazed/plain painted vessels. The glaze is more or less the same on most lekythoi, with color tones from black to red. In Lydia, in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, lekythoi were popular both in domestic life and as offerings in burials. Streaky glazed and/or plain painted and marbled angular lekythoi were found commonly in the Persian Destruction Level at Sardis, dating to the mid-6th century. Lekythoi with a plump ovoid body were excavated in domestic buildings east of the city’s archaic defensive wall (Greenewalt et al. 1990:143–55, n. 19, P87.39:9425; Cahill 2000:180; Greenewalt 2010b:111, fig. 4, inv. no.: P86.41:9267). They were also discovered in the PN (Pactolus North) sector (a marbled lekythos, inv. no.: P69.33:7967) and in Lydian Level I, building E and a commercial area, in the so-called HoB sector (A. Ramage et al. 2021: HoB 648 and HoB 520 respectively). This latter area was described as a Lydian market, suggesting commercial activity, while a series of buildings here also imply a residential quarter (Cahill 2010b:88). The lekythoi from both the HoB and PN sectors may be dated within the 6th century. Similar lekythoi of the 6th century were among the finds excavated from many burials at Sardis. A streaky glazed lekythos with an angular shoulder and

a short and plump ovoid body came from a burial at Bintepe (BT63.2; inv. no.: P63.443:5592; Greenewalt 2010b:111, fig. 4), a large necropolis that consists of over 100 tumuli. Other similar lekythoi are attested from a sarcophagus found to the south of Şeydandere (Gürtekin 1998: pl. 47, no. 124; for the excavations see Hanfmann 1967:37–38), from Kula (Gürtekin-Demir 2007: 70, no. 3, fig. 2b), and also from a necropolis about 1 km west of the Artemis Temple (Grave no. 61.2; Greenewalt 1972:126; 145 [the grave deposit is dated to 575–540 BCE]). Lekythoi with marbled decoration (Metropolitan Museum inv. nos.: 26.164.25 and 26.164.30) were also retrieved from burials, by H.C. Butler, who excavated over a thousand graves at Sardis in 1910–1914 (Butler 1922). Lekythoi with a ridged neck, angular shoulder, and ovoid or elongated body seem to have also been in use during the 5th century. These possibly later types were found in burials at Sardis (Roosevelt 2008:13, 18–19; fig. 16, cat. no. 16; Baughan 2013:284–85, Tomb 89.11) and in the vicinity of the city (e.g., at Kemer near Daldis, see Greenewalt et al. 1986:24–25, fig. 36). Three streaky glazed lekythoi of Type I but with a more pronounced concave mid-body profile are probably from a 5th century burial in eastern Lydia, near Phrygian territory. This burial lies immediately to the east of the İkiztepe tumulus and may be a second tumulus grave (also referred to as Yanık Mezarı) that included only a funeral pyre (Özgen et al. 1996:52, fig. 107). Of the sites under Lydian domination, Lydian lekythoi have not been found in large quantities at places such as Smyrna, Ephesus, and Daskyleion, but they do occur in great numbers at Gordion. The majority of the Gordion lekythoi are of Type I (see below for lekythoi Types I–III), with a relatively short and plump ovoid body, which is also the most common form at Sardis in levels dating to the first half of the 6th century. Lydian lekythoi from other sites in Asia Minor also include Type I: Daskyleion (Greenewalt 1966:157, n. 25; Gürtekin-Demir 2002:131, no. 97), Smyrna (Greenewalt 1966:157, n. 24), and Burdur (Çokay-Kepçe 2009:67, fig. 22a–b, no. 24). An example of Type II, elongated with an angled shoulder and nicked neck, is known from Aksu in Pisidia (Hürmüzlü and Fırat 2009:276, resim 2), and several examples were discovered in Dinar (ancient Apameia in modern Afyon; Kızıltepe-Bilgin 2018:248, res. 23, Afyon

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Museum inv. nos.: E8455, E8799), while a lekythos similar to the marbled no. 55 of Type III (see below) was discovered at Alişar Höyük (von der Osten 1937:44, fig. 53). The Alişar example demonstrates that the provincial production of Type III lekythoi with marbling effect was used not only at Gordion but also at sites in the Halys region. To judge by the parallels in Anatolia, lekythoi of Types I–III were largely used between the 6th and the 5th centuries. However, Type III, with its elongated and more cylindrical body, and with both rounded and angled shoulders, should be placed later within the Achaemenid period.

Lydian Lekythoi at Gordion After the lydion, the lekythos is the second most prevalent shape in the Lydian pottery assemblage at Gordion, and here the predominant decorative schemes are streaky glazed and plain painted (nos. 82–100). Other painting conventions are marbling (nos. 41–45, 56, 58) and banding (no. 144). Five lekythoi are unpainted (nos. 136–140). The painting conventions for Lydian lekythoi at Gordion generally follow the trends found at Sardis and other sites. For example, bichrome and black-on-red schemes never occur on Lydian lekythoi at Gordion or anywhere else. Among the 32 inventoried Lydian lekythoi at Gordion, several types of shape characteristics can be recognized:

Type I (Fig. 6a): Citadel Mound: nos. 41–45, 82, 86, 87 Küçük Höyük: nos. 90–100, 140 Thickened and out-curved mouth, often with a low mushroom profile; cylindrical neck with an accented ridge where the handle projects; angular shoulder; short and plump body, nearly straight-sided, frequently with a slight concave profile at mid-body, and a rounded lower-body transition; ring base or short conical foot. Nos. 91, 98, and 100 differ only in terms of the body profile, in that the concavity is not present. This is the most prevalent type of Lydian

lekythos. They are frequently streaky-glazed or plain painted (nos. 82, 86, 87, 90–100); five are marbled (nos. 41–45), and one is unpainted (no. 140).

Type II (Fig. 6b): Citadel Mound: nos. 58, 83–85, 88, 136 The mouth is uncertain since it is not preserved on any of the recovered vessels; long, cylindrical neck, often with a slight ridge; angular shoulder; elongated ovoid body, in some cases nearly cylindrical (nos. 83, 84, 88); conical foot. The type occurs most frequently in connection with streaky-glazed painting (nos. 83– 85, 88); one example features a marbling effect (no. 58), while another is unpainted (no. 136).

Type III (Fig. 6c): Citadel Mound: nos. 56, 89, 137–139, 144 Plain, slightly flaring mouth; long cylindrical neck without a ridge; rounded transition at shoulder; long, ovoid body; conical foot. Decoration includes marbling effect (no. 56), streaky glazed painting (no. 89), and banded (no. 144). Three examples are unpainted (nos. 137–139). Of the three types of Lydian lekythoi, only three examples, all of Type I, appear to be of Sardian fabric (nos. 41, 87, and 97). The painted decoration includes marbling (no. 41), plain painted (no. 87), and streaky glazed (no. 97). Other examples may, on the basis of their clay, be of provincial manufacture. These include all three types of lekythos: Nos. 42, 45, 82, 86, 91, 93, 96, 99, 100, and 140 have fabrics reminiscent of Sardian ones but they differ in terms of inclusions, color, and porosity. They also differ in having a matte glaze, unlike the Sardian examples, which tend to have a glossy glaze, often with a metallic sheen. Nos. 43, 44, 56, 58, 83–85, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 98, 136–139, and 144 have a fabric distinctly different from the Sardian version, being hard-fired, porous, and gritty. The majority of these lekythoi also have a matte glaze. Since all six examples of Type III



SHAPES 45

a

4414 P 1645

c 6397 P2437

b

3254 P 1106

0

10 cm

Fig. 6  Lekythos shapes, Types I, II, and III. a: Type I (no. 140); b: Type II (no. 84); c: Type III (no. 56)

Lydian lekythoi at Gordion are of this fabric (nos. 56, 89, 137–139, and 144), Type III may be a provincial form of Lydian lekythos, with distinct fabric and shape characteristics. Lydian lekythoi are generally found in domestic contexts at Gordion: 20 were recovered from the Citadel Mound and 12 from the Küçük Höyük. The shape is rare in burials.11 No. 42 of Type I was discovered on the Citadel Mound in excavation trench TBT F, Floor 5, Pit 1, together with a large fluted marbled lydion (no. 46), typical of the 6th century. The pit was dug into the later floor of Building W, associated with

the latest phase of the Middle Phrygian period, ca. mid-6th century. It seems likely that the Type I and Type II angular shouldered-lekythoi were contemporaneously used, perhaps as late as the early 5th century, since no. 82 (Type I), with an ovoid body and concave mid-body profile, and no. 83 (Type II), with an elongated ovoid body, were found in the same deposit on the Citadel Mound, in excavation trench NCT, South section A, cut I, together with an Attic black-glazed bowl (P427). Additional diagnostic evidence for Type I again comes from the Citadel Mound, from the rubble bedding of Building U’s southern wall, where

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a lekythos (no. 43), two Lydian oinochoai (nos. 79 and 80), and a provincial marbled dish (no. 52) were attested in associated fills. The bedding suggests a rebuilding phase in the later part of the 6th century. Three lekythoi out of the 12 excavated at the Küçük Höyük fort were found in the burned destruction level inside a room, and the rest were from an area designated as the “balcony” by the excavator. All are of Type I, which has close parallels in the Persian Destruction Level at Sardis. The shape and painting characteristics correlate with the finds from Sardis in many respects: the preference for overall streakyglazed painting; ridge-neck; angled-shoulder; plump and ovoid body with a concave profile at the belly; and ring or short conical base. The main difference is that the majority of the lekythoi from Gordion have fabrics unlike those from Sardis (nos. 90–96, 98–100, 140), and the glaze is matte rather than glossy. Only no. 97 seems to be of Sardian manufacture, based on the clay and glaze characteristics. Good evidence for the date of Type III comes from a later cellar on the Citadel Mound, built in the area of Middle Phrygian Building K. No. 138 contained a hoard of 110 Persian silver sigloi that was concealed behind the cellar wall. The latest coin was dated to the late 5th–early 4th centuries BCE (DeVries 1990: 400). Among the Type III examples, no. 56 was found on the Citadel Mound in excavation trench W1S, in a layer (Layer 4) associated with the rubble foundation of Building N, which included an Attic black figure lekythos (inv. no.: 6409 P2441) dated to 500–475 BCE by K. Lynch. No. 89, from Citadel Mound excavation trenches WCW 11 and 13, was found with much Attic black-glazed and Attic black figure pottery, of which one vessel (P4340) was dated to the early 6th century by DeVries (pers. comm.). The contexts of nos. 56 and 89 may thus indicate that Type III lekythoi were used during the 6th and early 5th centuries. Greenewalt suggested that no. 56 was influenced by the Attic shape and might be dated as early as ca. 550–540 BCE (1966:129 and n. 92). To conclude, the lekythos with ridged-handle and angular or rounded shoulder seems to have been one of the most common flask shapes in the Levant, where it originated. It spread to regions where there was a Phoenician interest, such as Rhodes. The shape was adopted and locally produced or “Hellenized” in the Greek world, as Coldstream suggested (1969:2),

although it was never as popular or widespread as it had been in the Levant. The shape is prevalent in Lydia during the 6th and 5th centuries, but how it arrived there remains unknown. Yet because the Lydian shape repertory includes mainly Greek forms, and due to Lydia’s territorial proximity to the Ionians, the route of cultural interaction most probably was via Ionia. The presence of the shape at Gordion may be directly connected with the spread of Lydian ceramic culture in the 6th century, especially since the great majority of the Gordion lekythoi are of provincial rather than Sardian manufacture. The example from Alişar is perhaps best viewed as an anomaly, an isolated lekythos that somehow made its way to the Halys region. Judging by the published Lydian pottery from other sites, Gordion seems to be the only settlement beyond Sardis that has yielded considerable numbers of Lydian lekythoi. The shape was used mainly in daily life and rarely in burials at Gordion, while in Lydia and Pisidia the shape has appeared in both types of context in relatively equal numbers. The finds from Smyrna and Alişar were unearthed in the living quarters of the city. The most popular form of lekythos, Type I, seems to include both provincial and Sardian examples, but Sardian fabric is not evident in Types II and III, the last of which includes examples with a distinctive shape and singular fabric.

LYDION Conventional Shape, Decoration, Content, and Diffusion The small container named the lydion (plural lydia) is perhaps the most well-known Lydian shape, not only in our modern sense of understanding Lydian pottery, but also in the pottery market and daily life of the ancient world. The word “lydion” was ancient and was mentioned on a graffito as “10 larger lydia, 5…” inscribed on an Attic red figure stamnos (Beazley 1927:349–50). The shape was termed “Kugelgefässe” by Boehlau (1898:145) and as “Lydian Salbgefässe” by Rumpf (1920:166). Boehlaeu was inclined to see an Egyptian origin dating back to the 13th century (1898:145), whereas some other scholars suggested a connection between the Italic olla and the lydion



SHAPES 47

(Blakeway 1935:132–33). Greenewalt rejected both suggestions (1966:83–91) and argued that “the Lydian salve containers now called lydion was an ancient vessel name that was applied in antiquity to a different shape” (2012:274, n. 8.12; also see 1972:132–34). The small capacity of the vessel points to its possible function as a cosmetic container, and its relatively wide mouth and the absence of a lid or any sort of stopper may further suggest a non-liquid substance.12 Ancient literary sources, of which the majority are secondary, attest to the fame of Lydian scented unguents. Bakkaris, brenthon, and brentheion myron are identified as Lydian cosmetics by Greek and Roman literary sources (Greenewalt 2010d:201). Athenaeus, who lived during the late second and early 3rd centuries CE, provides us with information about many earlier writers and poets who mentioned bakkaris as a Lydian cosmetic (Deipnosophistae [Banquet of the Learned]). In terms of the evidence for bakkaris and Lydian unguents, Athenaeus cites both 7th and 6th century BCE Ionian writers and poets (Hipponax, Simonides, and Xenophanes), and 5th century BCE writers (Ion of Chios, Achaeus of Eretria, Magnes, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Cephisodorus). It is clear from Athenaeus’ quotes of Hipponax, Ion, and Magnes that bakkaris was closely associated with the Lydians (Deipnosophistae 12.553, 15.41, 15.690). Xenophanes of Colophon criticized the Colophonians who learned “useless luxuries (habrosyne),” including charming scents, from the Lydians (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 12.31). The ancient records do not specify whether bakkaris was a scented oil, cream, powder, or liquid fragrance. Hipponax mentions that bakkaris was smeared on the nose and refers to the “high quality of bakkaris which Croesus had at his disposal in Daskyleion” (Pedley 1972:43–44, no. 131; Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 15.41; Greenewalt 1974). The latter case may imply either that quality bakkaris was a product restricted to the core Lydian region as well as the Propontis, that the quality of bakkaris in general was high when Croesus controlled the region in the second quarter of the 6th century, or that Croesus demanded only the very best. Dale’s recent study of the fragment of Hipponax further suggests a completely different discussion on the issue: the “bakkaris” mentioned in the lines may have been used to prevent the smell of female genitals and that the word “Daskyleion” used in the next line seemed like a pun on

the word “daskios” meaning “densely-shaded, bushy” (Dale 2018:10, n. 13). Craig’s analyses of the organic residues preserved in lydions excavated at Sardis and Gordion did not reveal the specific nature of the vessels’ contents (Craig 2008). However, he concluded that the residues appeared to contain a mixture of ruminant fats and plant molecules, and that one sample from Gordion (Craig 2008:169) contained a range of triterpenoids, which are a class of chemical compounds evident in essential oils and oleoresins of plants and plant sterols. He further suggested that a mixture of a ruminant fat and triterpenoid resins would correspond well to the scented product known as bakkaris (Craig 2008:137). Results of analysis of one lydion and several other Corinthian unguent vessels discovered in Rhodian tombs revealed similar compositions that included coniferous resin and dairy product (Coulie et al. 2017:582–83, cat. 27 [lydion]). It has been suggested that dairy product in such a mixture may have been used to give a creamy texture and had a medicinal role to judge by the prescriptions of ancient doctors, especially to those of the Hippocratic Corpus (Coulie et al. 2017:579). There are frequent references in the Greek world to the popularity of Lydian perfumes and other kinds of scented cosmetics, along with other Lydian luxury products such as colorful headbands (Pedley 1972:45, no. 139; Sappho frg. 219), purple-dyed coverlets, and red Sardian blankets (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 2.48b, quoting Plato; Pedley 1972:42–43, no. 128). Morris has suggested that Greek elites identified themselves with Lydia and the east by using these deluxe items (Morris 2000:178–85). Alternatively, Crielaard (2009:60–61) has pointed out that such products would have enabled the Greeks to present themselves as cosmopolitans, members of international elite. Whether or not the use of Lydian luxuries, including lydions containing the famous scented cosmetic, signified an “Eastern” or an“International” lifestyle aspiration, it seems clear that Lydian luxury products had an especially high reputation in the Greek world. A similar phenomenon would be today’s demand for well-known cosmetics with French trademarks. By using a high quality, expensive French perfume, rather than a basic local product, one may be marked as a member of the elite, but not necessarily as a person who imitates a French or, more generally, a European

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lifestyle. Correspondingly, in antiquity, the use of a famous Lydian cosmetic in a lydion container does not necessarily imply imitation of a Lydian lifestyle or an interest in the vessel form itself, but rather a desire for a luxurious and no doubt expensive unguent that would signal elevated social status. The lydion shape, in accordance with the fame of its contents, probably originated in Lydia, and was locally produced in Anatolia. Lydions of Lydian and/or Anatolian production were exported to mainland Greece and the islands, as well as to the western Mediterranean (e.g., Sicily, southern Italy, Etruria, and Spain) and the Black Sea; the shape was also copied and/or adapted in Greece and Italy. Whether the non-Lydian versions also copied the original function and contained the same kind of Lydian cosmetics remains unclear. However, it is evident that the lydion was the vessel shape most commonly associated with Lydia. Moreover, it also seems to be the only Lydian shape that was exported and imitated outside Anatolia. Its popularity in Asia Minor and in overseas trade suggests that it was valued not for its shape but for its contents. However, it remains uncertain whether information about the social use of the unguents was also exported. Greenewalt provided a typology of the lydions found in Asia Minor and in other regions such as mainland Greece, Italy, Sicily, the Black Sea, and Spain, in his study of 1966. The “Fat-bellied” and “Transitional/Late” lydions are the types that were commonly produced in Lydia and elsewhere in Asia Minor (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:138; Gürtekin-Demir 2007:55–57, 61–63, 65). The “Fat-bellied” forms are also found in Greece, Sicily, and Italy (Greenewalt 1966:21–34), whereas the “Late” type is limited to the Lydian region and to sites controlled by the Lydians, such as Daskyleion and Gordion (Greenewalt 1966:41–43; Gürtekin-Demir 2002:139; GürtekinDemir 2007:65). “Fat-bellied” lydions are commonly streaky and/or plain painted, marbled, or banded, whereas the “Transitional/Late” versions are generally banded and streaky/plain painted. Other lydion groups classified by Greenewalt are “Lydia with Linear Decoration,” “Lydia with Pattern and Figure Decoration,” “Eastern Greek Lydia,” and “Sports.” “Lydia with Linear Decoration” and “Lydia with Pattern and Figure Decoration” are different from the “Fat-bellied” and “Transitional/Late” types in terms of shape and decoration. They are local

adaptations of the shape found mainly in mainland Greece and Italy and are far from serving as close comparanda for the lydions from Sardis and other areas under Lydian domination in Asia Minor. Greenewalt dated the Fat-bellied lydions between 600 BCE and the 5th century, and he assigned the Late type to a date after the late 6th century (Greenewalt 2010d:205–6). He also pointed out that lydions are found in both domestic and funerary contexts, and they are common as burial gifts outside Anatolia (Greenewalt 2010d:205). The standard material for lydions is of course clay, but a unique silver example with fluted decoration was found in the İkiztepe tumulus in eastern Lydia (Özgen et al. 1996:108, no. 63).

Lydions at Gordion In many cases, it is likely that the contents of the lydions were more desirable than the vessels themselves, since many of the sites where lydions are attested have not yielded other kinds of Lydian pottery. Therefore, lydions may indicate less a diffusion of Lydian painted pottery than the widespread consumption of Lydian cosmetics. It is the other classes of Lydian vessel that should be regarded as the primary evidence for the commercial or cultural expansion of Lydian pottery. The lydion is the most frequently encountered Lydian shape at Gordion. It constitutes a little more than one half of the total number of Lydian vessels excavated, both in the habitation levels and in graves. The majority (74 out of 117) are banded (nos. 145– 218), 35 are streaky or plain painted (nos. 101–135), four are marbled (nos. 46–49), one is painted with a marbling effect (no. 59), and three are unpainted (nos. 141–143). The size of the vessels, as well as their capacities, varies from large to miniature, medium-sized being the most common with a little over 100 examples. The belly diameters of large lydions (nos. 46, 48, 59, 129, 135, 207) are ca. 12–15 cm, whereas the miniature versions (nos. 130, 163) are ca. 2.5–4 cm. The belly diameters of medium-sized lydions are ca. 6–10 cm, but the majority are generally ca. 7–9 cm. The capacity of medium-sized lydions may be grouped into two categories: large capacity (nos. 47, 49, 101, 102, 104, 106, 108–129, 131, 132–134, 141–143, 148– 151, 167, 177, 199–206, 208–216, 218) and small



SHAPES 49

capacity (nos. 103, 105, 107, 145–147, 152–162, 164–166, 168, 170–176, 178–198, 217). The walls of small capacity lydions are relatively thick, ca. 2 cm, while the others are generally ca. 1 cm or less. The lydions with the smallest capacity (nos. 107, 130, 163) have an interior belly diameter of ca. 2–2.5 cm, whereas a number of other small lydions generally have an interior diameter of ca. 4 cm. The interior belly diameter of the large lydions is ca. 11–14 cm. Several different fabrics are represented by the lydions from Gordion. Only a small number of the vessels appear to be of Sardian manufacture (nos. 46, 48, 59, 101, 104, 106, 108–110, 117, 129, 131, 133– 135, 143, 167, 207, 212, 213, 215); the rest would have been produced at one or more provincial centers. In particular, a good number of Late lydions have a homogenous fabric that is hard-fired, slightly or nonmicaceous, with chamotte and tiny flecks of limestone. These shared traits might point to a single production center (nos. 105, 145–147, 152–166, 168–176, 178, 179, 181–183, 185–198, 217). A large group of banded or plain painted lydions with a compressed shoulder may also signal a different clay source. These vessels are hard-fired, gritty, occasionally porous, and with tiny flecks of limestone (nos. 102, 111–116, 118–128, 132, 148–151, 200–206, 208–211, 214, 218). Greenewalt, in his pioneering study on lydions (1966), recognized the Fat-bellied type as the most common. He described its general characteristics as being a flanged lip, a flat or slightly bowed mouth, tilted inward and out; a fairly high, outstretched neck; a globular body, either nearly spherical, more angularly bowed, or high-shouldered. The foot is short, conical, or key-shaped (1966:6). He proposed that the chronological range for the Fat-bellied lydions lay between the second quarter of the 6th century and the late 6th/ early 5th. The start date is supported by finds from the Alyattes tomb, from a grave context at Pitane, and from a lydion at Sardis that contained 30 croeseid gold staters (Greenewalt 1966:13–16). Wallace (2016), in his recent study on the redating of Croesus, suggests the 580s not 560s BCE for his accession to the Lydian throne, which concurrently implies an earlier date (first quarter of the 6th rather the second quarter of the 6th century) for the end of Alyattes’ rule. Therefore, the Fat-bellied lydions may have started in the first quarter of the 6th century. The latest dating for the Fat-bellied type comes with lydions from grave

contexts at Sardis, assigned to the late 6th/early 5th century (Greenewalt 1966:18–20). Greenewalt’s second category of lydion is the Late type, which is common in 6th–5th century Persian levels at Sardis and Gordion (Greenewalt 1966:35). He defined it as having a vertical or near-vertical neck; a small globular or compressed body; and a high vertical or near-vertical foot. These lydions are banded and their capacity is generally small (Greenewalt 1966:35–37). He suggested that Late lydions began to be made not much later than 500 BCE, and that their production may have continued into the 4th century (Greenewalt 1966:37). Their continuity in the 4th century is questionable and needs further diagnostic evidence (mentioned below). Greenewalt proposed that the Late type was developed from the Fat-bellied form, since both of them were made of similar clays, had the same type of banded decoration, and were found in the same places, namely Sardis and Gordion (Greenewalt 1966:38). Greenewalt identified an intermediate type as “Transitional,” based on examples that were morphologically midway between globular Fat-bellied and slender Late types, and he suggested that the transition from Fat-bellied to Late was made either during the second half of the 6th century or between the years 530–510 BCE (Greenewalt 1966:38–40). Greenewalt’s Fat-bellied and Late types can be easily identified. However, the Transitional form is not so readily distinguishable since it has aspects that overlap with both the Fat-bellied and the Late versions. Greenewalt’s main criterion for identifying the Transitional type is the body profile, which lies between globular and slender. Other aspects of Transitional lydions, such as the slightly spreading neck and the conical foot, are typical also for the Fat-bellied vessels, though not for the Late ones. Contrary to Greenewalt’s suggestion, however, a globular or spherical body can also be found on Late lydions (such as nos. 167, 180, 184), and the “compressed body,” defined by Greenewalt as typical for Late lydions, can also be found on Fat-bellied examples (such as nos. 111–116). The thick walls and small capacity of the Late lydions are very distinctive and are not present in Greenewalt’s Transitional group (see, for example, Greenewalt 2010d:207 fig. 7). Therefore, it seems more likely that a Transitional group does not in fact exist, and that Greenewalt’s Transitional examples better fit the Fat-bellied type.

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The principal distinctions between the Fat-bellied lydions (Type I) and the Late lydions (Type II) from Gordion are based on the general features of rim, neck, foot, and wall thickness, rather than the body. Globular, spherical, and slightly compressed bodies are apparent on both types, although the slightly compressed profile seems to be more common on the Late type.

Type I (Fat-bellied) Lydions (Fig. 7a–c): Findspots of the 66 Fat-bellied lydions: Citadel Mound: nos. 46, 47, 101, 102, 104, 106, 108, 109, 141, 148–151, 169, 177 Museum Site: nos. 48, 110 Küçük Höyük: nos. 111–128, 142, 199–206 Tumulus A: nos. 59, 129, 130, 143, 207–211 Tumulus C: nos. 131–135, 212 Common Cemetery: nos. 49, 213–216, 218 Type I lydions are generally characterized by the presence of an everted rim, a convex-sided neck, a conical foot, and a wall thickness of ca. 1 cm or less, and they can be assigned to one of three subgroups: compressed shoulder, compressed belly, and rounded/ spherical body. The most common painting convention on Type I is banding (nos. 148–151, 169, 177, 199–216, and 218) and streaky or plain painted (nos. 101, 102, 104, 106, and 108–135). Nos. 141–143 are unpainted (or at least no paint is preserved). All of the marbled lydions from Gordion are of Type I. No. 59 is painted with a series of short vertical wavy lines that give a marbling effect. Deep horizontal flutes are found occasionally (nos. 46, 101, 108–110, 129, 142, and 143). The horizontal flutes on no. 46 are delicately painted, alternately white and red over the shoulder and lower body, and there is a horizontally marbled band at mid-body, between the fluted areas. Fat-bellied lydions with compressed shoulder (Fig. 7a): Citadel Mound: nos. 102, 106, 148–151 Küçük Höyük: nos. 111–116, 118–128, 200–206 Tumulus A: nos. 208–211

Tumulus C: no. 132 Common Cemetery: nos. 214, 215, 218 The lydion with compressed shoulder is the predominant Type I subgroup found at Gordion, accounting for 43 out of the 66 Fat-bellied specimens. These vessels are either streaky/plain painted or banded. The spiral bands are often applied to the shoulder and sometimes continue onto the lower body. Most of the fabrics are not consonant with Sardian examples, which is probably indicative of one or more provincial production centers. Indeed, only a couple of the Gordion vessels are made from Sardian clay (nos. 106 and 215). The compressed shoulder is common on the Küçük Höyük examples (24 lydions, nos. 111–116, 118–128, 200–206), which are all associated with the Persian destruction level of the mid-6th century. On the Citadel Mound, five examples were found together in a pottery dump, excavated in the South Trench, cut DII–DIII, Level 5 (nos. 102, 148–151), and another was found in excavation trench OQ1 (no. 106). Eight were found in burials: in Tumulus A (nos. 208–211), Tumulus C (no. 132), and the Common Cemetery (nos. 214, 215, and 218). This variety of Type I is not very common at Sardis, nor at sites under Lydian domination such as Daskyleion and Smyrna. It is, however, attested at a number of places in the vicinity of Sardis and elsewhere in western Asia Minor, as well as in Italy and Sicily. The parallels suggest that the subgroup was in use between the early 6th and the late 6th/early 5th century. Early examples, classified as Eastern Greek type by Greenewalt (1966:71, pl. I. G, H), come from a cremation burial at Pitane, assigned to the first quarter of the 6th century (Greenewalt 1966:216). In Italy, examples that were either produced locally or imported have been found in graves which are generally dated to the second quarter of the 6th century (Cristofani 1978:182, pl. 82, fig. 47). Lydions with a compressed shoulder are rarely attested at Sardis and its environs in burial contexts. A tumulus (BT66.6) excavated in the Bin Tepe cemetery yielded two fragmentary lydions, one of them a horizontally fluted example with spherical body, the other a banded example with compressed shoulder (Ratté 2011:84–85, 189, figs. 116–117 b and f ). A date for these around the late 6th century is suggested by Ratté, and the association may indicate that the rounded/



SHAPES 51

spherical body form and the compressed shoulder form were in use at the same time.13 However, this tomb was evidently robbed and disturbed by later pottery, and the date proposed by Ratté may be misleading. Another assemblage of pottery, from Daldis to the north of Sardis, included two lydions (one with a compressed shoulder, the other with a globular body), two oinochoai, two shouldered lekythoi with ridged necks similar to Type I lekythoi from Gordion, and a black-glazed Achaemenid bowl (Greenewalt et al. 1986; Roosevelt 2009:243). The assemblage was apparently illegally excavated and later brought to the Manisa Archaeology Museum. If these vessels were indeed all associated with one burial, the Achaemenid bowl would date the group to the late 6th/early 5th century at the earliest, since this was when such bowls began to appear (Dusinberre 1999:78). Unfortunately, we cannot be certain about the association. Some of the banded and marbled lydions with compressed body that are stored in Uşak Museum were illegally excavated and brought to the museum (Temiz 2020: figs. 2–3). All of the pottery types represented in the group continued to be used in Lydia during the early 5th century. The finds from Sardis and from sites under Lydian domination such as Daskyleion and Smyrna, together with the finds from graves in Asia Minor and Italy, may indicate that the lydion with compressed shoulder was a common funerary gift. Fat-bellied lydions with compressed belly (Fig. 7b): Citadel Mound: nos. 46, 101, 104, 108, 109, 177 Museum Site: no. 110 Küçük Höyük: nos. 142, 199 Tumulus A: nos. 59, 143 Tumulus C: nos. 131, 134, 135, 212 Common Cemetery: nos. 49, 213, 216 The distinguishing characteristic of this Type I subgroup is the slightly compressed mid-body zone. Streaky/plain painted (nos. 101, 104, 108–110, 131, 134, and 135) and banded (nos. 177, 199, 212, 213, and 216) decoration is more common than marbling (nos. 46, 49). No. 59 is painted with a series of short vertical wavy lines that reflect marbling; similar decoration occurs on a stand from Gordion (no. 60). Two lydions are unpainted (nos. 142, 143). Decorative

horizontal flutes are commonly found in this subgroup: no. 46 is a delicate version, with the flutes alternately painted thick bright red, and white, subordinated to marbling at mid-body; other fluted examples are either streaky/plain painted (nos. 101, 108–110, 129) or unpainted (nos. 142, 143). At Sardis, lydions with a compressed belly, whether fluted or not, are common in levels dating to the first half of the 6th century. Parallels for fluted lydions are attested in large numbers in the Persian destruction level of the mid6th century at Sardis, where both streaky glazed and plain painted examples occur (Cahill 2010b:98–99, figs. 32–33). A grave (no. 62.2) at Sardis, located about 1 km west of the Artemis Temple, included a lydion with a compressed belly; the burial is dated 575–540 BCE on the basis of imported pottery (Greenewalt 1972:140–41, pl. 9, no. 1). A marbled lydion similar to no. 49 was found in a grave excavated by Butler (Oliver 1968:198, no. 7, Metropolitan Museum inv. no.: 26.164.27). Elaborately decorated lydions similar to no. 46 were discovered in tombs at Sardis (Metropolitan Museum Inv. no.: 26.199.204; Bilgin et al. 1996: 217, fig. 13a–b) and also in habitation levels at Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:131, 137, fig. 19). Parallels are also reported from Kibyratis in Pisidia (Corsten and Hülden 2012:77–78, no. 7), Camarina (Fouilland 2006:116, fig. 8a) in Sicily and from Caere in central Italy (Greenewalt 2010d:202–3, fig. 3). Fat-bellied lydions with rounded/spherical body (Fig. 7c): Citadel Mound: nos. 141, 169 Museum Site: no. 48 Küçük Höyük: no. 117 Tumulus A: nos. 129, 207 Tumulus C: no. 133 Only a few Type I lydions have a rounded or spherical body, on which marbling (no. 48), plain painted (nos. 117, 129, 133), and banded (nos. 169, 207) decoration was applied. No. 141 is unpainted. These Gordion examples are among the largest known, with a height of 10–15 cm, the biggest being no. 48 at ca. 15 cm. The flaring neck and conical foot are not much different from those on other Fat-bellied

52

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

examples. Large and rounded lydions are not common at Gordion when compared to other examples of Type I and Type II; this is also the case at Sardis and elsewhere. Their scarcity may be a result of the high quality and cost of their contents, which were probably more commonly purchased in smaller rather than larger containers. Type II (Late) Lydions (Fig. 7d–f ): Findspots of the 52 Late lydions: Citadel Mound: nos. 103, 105, 107, 145–147, 152– 168, 170–176, 178–197 Museum Site: no. 198 Common Cemetery: no. 217 The general features of Type II are a thickened, short flaring rim; a straight or nearly straight-sided neck; a straight or nearly straight-sided long, solid (occasionally narrow conical) foot. Many of them have a wall thickness of nearly 2 cm or more; some may have thinner walls. The body is frequently of compressed globular form (nos. 105, 145–147, 152–166, 168, 170–176, 178, 179, 181–183, 185–198, 217; Fig. 7d), occasionally rounded/spherical (nos. 167, 180, 184; Fig. 7e), and only rarely is it elliptically compressed (nos. 103, 107; Fig. 7f). The major painting convention is banding. Only three examples are plain painted, with wheel-made narrow ridges (nos. 103, 105, and 107). Nearly all of the Late lydions at Gordion are homogenous in terms of fabric, shape, and decoration (nos. 105, 145–147, 152–166, 168–176, 178, 179, 181–183, 185–198, 217). The fabric is hard-fired, slightly or non-micaceous, sometimes with chamotte and tiny flecks of limestone, and a clay color that is generally reddish yellow (7.5 YR 6/6). The shape and dimensions are more or less standard, and the basic banded decoration is applied in red (2.5 YR 5/8) over a smoothed clay surface or over a highly diluted creamy slip. The rim and neck are plain painted, and the spiral bands are applied to the shoulder, often continuing down below the belly. The homogenous character and the abundance of Type II lydions at Gordion may well suggest a local production, since it appears to be quite distinct from all other fabrics, identified by naked eye

here (see “Provincial Fabric II” Chapter 1). Except for nos. 198 and 217, all of them come from the Citadel Mound, which implies that the type was not common in burials. No. 198 is the only Late lydion from the simple graves of the Common Cemetery. Although no. 217 was found in an area where such graves occur, its findspot does not seem to be associated with a burial. Late lydions are attested at Sardis (Oliver 1968:198, no. 7, Metropolitan Museum inv. nos.: 16.75.16 and 16.75.17; Greenewalt 2010d:206, 213, n. 13), Daskyleion (Gürtekin-Demir 2002:131– 37, 139), as well as from illegal excavations (Temiz 2020:figs. 4–7) and, like the examples from Gordion, these are banded or streaky glazed/plain painted. They suggest that Late lydions were common during the late 6th and 5th centuries. At Gordion, Voigt’s excavations during the 1990s indicated that Type II was still in use there during the 4th century (Voigt et al. 1997:10–11, 54, fig. 30f–g). However, there is no evidence from Sardis or anywhere else that supports a post-5th century date for the type. Furthermore, although Young was inclined to date some lydions to the 4th century (1955:6, 8), a thoroughly study showed that none of the datable deposits from Young’s excavations at Gordion in the 1950s and ‘60s imply a 4th century date for the use of lydions (see Chapter 4). The diagnostic evidence that suggests 6th and 5th century dates for these Late lydions (Type II) at Gordion comes from several deposits on the Citadel Mound. These contexts, summarized here, are discussed more extensively in Chapter 4. The earliest evidence for Late lydions comes from near the South Cellar, located to the southwest of Building O. No. 187 was excavated to the south of the cellar, above the thick clay layer.14 The assemblage here contained nothing later than the 6th century. Other early evidence is reported from the area north of the NCT Building, where no. 183 was found in a pit cut into the Middle Phrygian deep clay fill that covered the Early Phrygian citadel. The destruction fill, above the latest floor level of Building C, dating to the Late Phrygian period, yielded nos. 161, 162, and 164.15 This phase may have been contemporary with the Painted House built next to it in the early 5th century (Rose 2012:16, n. 32). No. 171 was found below Floor O of Building H, in Layer 6, and it must date to earlier than ca. 450 BCE since Floor O is contemporary with the floor of



SHAPES 53

the Floor S House, which is dated to the mid-5th century.16 No. 179 is related to the finds discovered in the second construction phase (L2) of Building L.17 Rose proposes that the renovation of L2 began around the second half of the 8th century and that the building was used until the end of the Middle Phrygian period, and certainly before the early 5th century, which is the date of the last phase (L3). Therefore, no. 179 probably pre-dates the early 5th century. The fill that was associated with the rubble bedding of Building L also yielded three Late lydions (nos. 154–156).18 The latest diagnostic pottery from this context is an Attic white ground cup by the Penthesilea Painter dated 470–450 BCE (Lynch and Matter 2014:111–12, fig. 6), and thus the fill should relate to the last phase of the building, L3. No. 193 was also attested in a Late Phrygian level, over a floor associated with the insertion of a cellar in Building W during the early 5th century (Rose, forthcoming).19 Two Late lydions, nos. 190 and 191, were excavated in the PPB complex, which was built in the Middle Phrygian period and apparently went out of use by the mid-5th century; the lydions were from levels datable to the 6th and 5th centuries.20 No. 174 was found in a clay layer below the last occupation level of a Late Phrygian building, the Yellow House, which is dated to the late 6th or the early 5th century. In summary, all of the chronologically diagnostic evidence suggests that Type II (Late) lydions were produced during the last part of the Middle Phrygian period and on into the 5th century during the Late Phrygian times. To conclude, the lydion is the most common and widely attested Lydian vessel shape. However, the lydion alone cannot be taken as primary evidence for the diffusion of Lydian material culture or of Lydian cultural expansion, since the popularity of the shape seems to have related primarily to its cosmetic content, which may have been bakkaris. Types I (Fat-bellied) and II (Late) were equally popular, and the evidence indicates that the lydion shape was used at Gordion between the 6th and 5th centuries. Banded and streaky/ plain glazed were the most common forms of painted decoration, whereas marbling was infrequently applied and is only associated with Type I. Lydions from the Küçük Höyük and from burials are virtually all of Type I, with two exceptions: no. 198, from a simple inhumation burial at the Gordion Museum Site, and

no. 217, from an area south of Tumulus H, are both Type II. Fifty out of the 52 excavated Late lydions are from the Citadel Mound; no Type II lydions are attested from the Küçük Höyük or from tumulus burial contexts. The subgroups of Type I were occasionally found in the same levels, suggesting that they were in use at the same time.

STAND A fragment from the Citadel Mound may possibly belong to some kind of stand (no. 60). The stands that were excavated in the archaic levels at Sardis usually have a spool shape (e.g., A. Ramage 2008:84, fig. 6). No. 60, however, is quite different in shape, being nearly straight-sided. The sherd has a thick white slip and is decorated with a series of parallel, horizontal, wavy red lines, like the decoration that occurs on a lydion from Tumulus A (no. 59). The clay looks similar to Sardian fabric.

STORAGE VESSEL The name Storage Vessel is used here to refer to large portable containers, rather than to large pithoslike vessels, with much thicker walls, that could not easily be transported. Three storage vessel fragments were recovered from Gordion’s Citadel Mound, all of which have thick walls and bear bichrome painting (nos. 17–19). They have a similar decorative scheme consisting of rows of pendent concentric semicircles. The clay suggests that no. 17 is from Sardis, whereas nos. 18 and 19 appear to be of provincial production, their fabric being porous and gritty with a considerable amount of limestone. The provincial execution of the bichrome of no. 18 is paralleled by nos. 3–8 and 16, and that of no. 19 by no. 9. The chalky white slip of no. 19 is alien to the creamy white color of Sardian bichrome (compare no. 17), while its matte red contrasts with the bright, glossier red that is generally found on the Sardian versions. However, the execution of the decoration is more or less the same on both nos. 17 and 19. A considerable number of storage vessels with similar bichrome decoration were discovered in a collapsed cellar at Sardis, in an area (sector ByzFort) where terrace walls dating earlier than the mid-6th

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

a

1576 P 493

b

1577 P 494

c 6978 P 2715

f 1695 P 542

d

e

2815 P 927

6967 P 2706

0

10 cm

Fig. 7  Lydion shape types. a: Type I (Fat-bellied) Compressed shoulder (no. 113); b: Type I (Fat-bellied) Compressed belly (no. 114); c: Type I (Fat-bellied) Rounded/spherical body (no. 48); d: Type II (Late) Compressed belly (no. 164); e: Type II (Late) Rounded/Spherical body (no. 180); f: Type II (Late) Elliptically compressed belly (no. 103)



SHAPES 55

century had been built; the deposit was tentatively dated to the mid-7th century by Greenewalt (Greenewalt et al. 1994:24–27, fig. 29; Cahill 2010b:82) but now dated to the 9th century by Cahill ( June 2019, pers. comm.). Some of the bichrome storage vessels from levels associated with the pits discovered at ByzFort are decorated with similar pendent semicircles (uninventoried numbered pottery from Baskets 10, 11, 16). Similar decoration is more common on black-on-red rather than on bichrome pottery from contemporary HoB Lydian level IV (9th to mid-8th century) and Lydian level III (late 8th century); however, the decoration scheme with pendent semicircles on bichrome pottery becomes more popular during the 7th and early 6th centuries (Lydian levels II and I) in HoB. It seems most likely that sometime during the 7th century, or perhaps even earlier, Gordion received storage vessels from Sardis, especially to judge by the similarity of fabric and surface treatment between no. 17 and those bichrome closed vessels discovered in Lydian levels II and I at HoB. The provincially produced vessels in the same style (nos. 18, 19) may have been contemporary with no. 17. notes: 3.1  Notebook 118: 47–48. 3.2  Marbled ware are also reported from other sacred areas such as Samos Heraion and Aphrodite temenos of Oukious near Miletus (Kerschner 2010:260, fig. 3). 3.3  It should be noted here that only a general frame of the diffusion of Lydian skyphoi is presented, and there are other sites that reveal published and unpublished Lydiantype skyphos, which is one of the most popular type of Lydian ceramics in Asia Minor. 3.4  Notebook 53:65–70. 3.5  See İren (2009) for dotted style pottery, where he argues that it is non-Greek/Anatolian.

3.6  Notebook 91:173; Notebook 161:91–91. 3.7  Notebook 164:76–78, 81–83. 3.8  Notebook 103:82–88. 3.9  Notebook 128:27–28. 3.10  An early black-on-red lekythos fragment with angular shoulder was excavated in the HoB sector at Sardis, in a level dated earlier than the late 7th century (inv. no.: P68.180:7897). Its fabric looks homogenous with Sardian fabric. 3.11  Kohler reports monochrome Lydian? shouldered lekythos fragments from Tumulus B, dated by her to the late 7th century (Kohler 1995:15, 217, pl. 8C, P 36), but now re-dated to the early 6th century (Darbyshire in Sams and Voigt 2011:166). This lekythos does not seem to be of Lydian character as Kohler posited (1995:15). Its shape looks more like a Levantine type, with a shorter and pronounced neck ridge and a baggy lower body (cf. Culican 1986:146, fig. 1 C; Karageorghis 1973: pl. ccxxvi). Two other monochrome lekythos fragments were recovered from Tumulus M (P297) and Tumulus K (P5432). 3.12  A secondary use of the high conical foot of a small skyphos as a stopper for a lydion was suggested by A. Ramage (2008:83, 84, figs. 5–6). 3.13  A banded lydion with a compressed shoulder, similar to the Gordion finds, was found in a grave at Sardis by Butler during his 1910–14 excavations (Oliver 1968:198, no. 7, Metropolitan Museum inv. no.: 26.199.64). 3.14  Notebook 121:18, 26, 28. 3.15  Notebook 39:109–111, 129. 3.16  The date is provided by an Attic red figure krater (Fields 2010:58–59). 3.17  Notebook 82:49, 191. 3.18  Notebook 9: 135–136, 173, 175. 3.19  The fill over the floor level also included roof tiles with scroll decoration that may date to the early 5th century (Notebook 135:36–37, 45–47). 3.20  Notebook 130:52–80, 84, 102–110, 112.

4 An Analysis of Lydian Pottery According to Its Findspots at Gordion

L

y‌ dian material culture at Gordion comes mainly from two different settlement zones: the Citadel Mound, which lies on the east bank of the modern Sakarya River, and the Küçük Höyük, located to the southeast of the Citadel Mound. Additional Lydian material comes from the monumental burial mounds (tumuli) on the perimeter of the city. The Citadel Mound was encircled by strong Iron Age fortifications, and the Early Phrygian citadel could have risen 5–9 m above the contemporary surrounding plain (Rose 2012:2). Today, the eastern and western parts of the Citadel Mound have differing elevations, the west side being the highest at ca. 16.5 m (measured from the river level in 1950), whereas the eastern area only rises to as high as ca. 13 m. The main reason for this variation is because the western portion of the mound continued to be intensively occupied and built on through the Roman period, whereas the eastern area was not. Consequently, Young decided to forego excavation in the western part after his first season in 1950 and concentrated his efforts in the eastern sector (1950–1973). Here, his main excavation area revealed a succession of monumental megaron building complexes, which had the same basic plan layout in both the “Old Citadel” phase (Early Phrygian period, YHSS 6 [950– 800 BCE]) and the “New Citadel” phase (Middle and Late Phrygian periods, YHSS 5 [800–550 BCE] and YHSS 4 [550–330 BCE]). Young focused mainly on the Early Phrygian / Old Citadel levels, where he had discovered extensive architectural remains with rich assemblages of Phrygian material culture. By contrast, the New Citadel’s architecture and other remains were generally not as well preserved and less investigated, and the buildings were removed by Young when necessary, to allow for exploration of the underlying Early Phrygian material.

Mary Voigt’s excavations (1988–2006) included the western part of the Citadel Mound, and these demonstrated that here too there was Early, Middle, and Late Phrygian occupation. Between the Old and the New Citadel phases, on both the east and west sides of the mound, lies ca. 5 m of clay fill, deposited at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period. The western and eastern sides of the Citadel Mound were divided by a street, effectively creating two separate mounds or elevated enclosures, although it was filled in at the beginning of the Hellenistic period (Sams 2005:18). Voigt’s excavations showed that most of the investigated remains on the western mound, dating to the Middle and Late Phrygian periods, belonged to domestic units, in contrast to the more administrative character of the buildings found on the eastern half of the mound (Voigt 1997:5–6; Voigt and Young 1999:210–11; Voigt 2005:194). The New Citadel construction program seems to have already started before the extensive fire of ca. 800 BCE (Voigt 2012), which marks the end of the Early Phrygian period, and it continued following the destruction or demolition of the Early Phrygian buildings. All of the buildings of the New Citadel had collapsed by the late 5th or 4th century (Rose 2012:16). The Küçük Höyük, a smaller mound located to the southeast of the citadel, was intermittently excavated by Machteld Mellink in the 1950s and ‘60s. The mound covers the remains of a four-story mudbrick structure that functioned as a fort on the outer fortification circuit. This area is part of the Lower Town, which lies to the south of the Citadel Mound and included both public and private structures (Voigt and Young 1999: 211–12, 220). The considerable amount of Lydian pottery from the Küçük Höyük led the excavators to interpret the fort as housing a Lydian

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garrison, and to date its construction to the late 7th or early 6th century. The fort was destroyed by a fire associated with the Persian attack on Gordion in the 540s BCE.

CITADEL MOUND: EASTERN MOUND The eastern part of the citadel comprised a large, enclosed area that served as a quarter for elite architecture and industry, and it had been built before the late 9th century. It was divided into two zones: the first included a Gate Building leading into two courts (the “Outer and Inner Courts”) that were separated by a wall over 4 m high. Both courts contained a number of megaron buildings that were probably intended for administrative use. The second area, located to the west of the megarons, was the Terrace Building Complex, or industrial zone. This complex consisted of two long buildings, one of which was fully excavated and shown to be 100 m long and comprised of eight adjacent units; the second building was only partially excavated but it was presumably identical. These buildings were demonstrably a center for cooking and weaving. Following the destruction in ca. 800 BCE, the New Citadel was built over a raised clay fill on both the eastern and the western sides of the mound. In Young’s terminology, the Early Phrygian buildings in the Inner and Outer Courts were numbered as Megarons 1, 2, 3, etc., while the buildings in the Terrace Building Complex were named as TB 1–8 and CC 1–4. In the Middle Phrygian settlement, all buildings were named with letters (such as Building A, C, D, etc.). A general outline for the initial construction and rebuilding phases within the Middle and Late Phrygian periods was provided by Young. These discussions are presented in the framework of interim field reports; they offer general descriptions of the buildings, rebuilding phases, and associated significant finds, but they do not provide a comprehensive analysis of the stratigraphic sequences, archaeological discoveries, and chronology of the buildings. Recent reassessment of the chronological phases of the Middle and Late Phrygian periods carried out by Rose now presents a clearer perspective in many aspects and is summarized briefly below.

The Middle and Late Phrygian Periods1 Early 8th century construction: The Middle Phrygian citadel on the eastern side of the mound encompassed five areas: the Gate Complex, Outer Gate-Court, Inner Gate-Court, Terrace Building zone, and the Northwest Corner zone. The Middle Phrygian Gate Complex on the southeastern side was the main entrance to the citadel and had walls of polychromatic stones built above a 10 m high foundation of stone rubble. One entered from the Gate directly into the stone-paved Outer Gate-Court where Buildings C and G appear on the left, and F, D, and E on the right. The buildings in the unpaved Inner Gate-Court (Buildings O, Q, M, H, NCT, X, and P) occupied a larger area. Nearly all of the buildings in the Outer and Inner Gate-Courts had an Early Phrygian predecessor, except for Buildings E and P, and they were usually built over a rubble foundation supported by wooden beams. Buildings C and P were built entirely in stone, while the others had mudbrick walls above a stone socle. Late 8th–7th century renovation: Building A and PPB (the so-called “PersianPhrygian Building”) were both multi-roomed structures that did not have an Early Phrygian predecessor. The former building was situated to the west of the Gate Complex and probably had an administrative function, while PPB in the Northwest Corner zone sector contained a network of cellars for storage. These cellars, which at Gordion were semi-subterranean structures often appended to the sides of buildings, constitute the most significant architectural innovation in the Middle Phrygian citadel. The earliest was attached to Buildings I:1 and I:2 in the Terrace Building zone during the 8th century, and it was followed by many more, including the South Cellar near Building O. Several structures were rebuilt during the late 8th century: Buildings C, E, X, and L. Buildings C and E were enlarged; Building L was redesigned and a pebble mosaic floor was installed; and four cellars were added to PPB. Nearly all of the buildings in the Outer and Inner Gate-Courts received new roofs with terracotta tiles in the first half of the 6th century, thus the walls of these buildings were probably reinforced in order to carry the heavier pitched roof tiles. According to

Map 1  Map showing the major topographic components of Gordion

FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 59

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Rose, this new restoration and rebuilding program may have received Lydian financial support. Second half of the 6th century: Following the Persian attack on Gordion in the 540s BCE, Buildings M, O, Q, P, and X in the Inner Gate-Court were destroyed; Building W was abandoned but not destroyed, and the western side of the citadel may also have been significantly damaged. Soon after the attack, the South Gate, which was discovered in Area 1 in 2013, seems to have been repaired, but otherwise there are no signs of new constructions during the second half of the 6th century. 5th century: In the first half of the 5th century, there was a new program of construction and, in many areas, the ground level was raised 0.8–1.2 m. A number of buildings in the Inner Gate-Court went out of use, including Buildings H, M, and O, which were dismantled, and new cellars were built. Some buildings in the Inner Gate-Court, such as Buildings X, P, and NCT, were reconstructed: Building X was enlarged, and, together with Building P, it was joined to the NCT Building by a new stone pavement. The Outer GateCourt continued to function and many of its buildings received new roofs with terracotta tiles. Several buildings in the Outer Gate-Court were reconstructed: Buildings C and E received a new floor; Buildings D and F were rebuilt parallel to each other and given terracotta roofs; Building F was enlarged, while Building G was now smaller. A new building, the Painted House, was constructed between Buildings C and G in the early 5th century, perhaps when Buildings C and G were being modified. The Enclosure Wall that divided the Terrace Building zone from the Inner and Outer Gate-Courts was dismantled, and annexes to Building C and the Floor S House were built over its line. The gate between the Inner and Outer Gate-Courts was blocked after ca. 475 BCE by a new building, the “Yellow House.” Following the demolition of the Enclosure Wall, Rose suggests that a new street, the “Megaron Street,” was installed in the area between the Terrace Buildings and the Outer Gate-Court megarons during the 5th century. During the first half of the 5th century, the open, corridor-like spaces between the Terrace Buildings

were blocked, and the resulting new enclosed spaces were used for industrial purposes. Many of the stones of the collapsed Terrace Buildings, including Buildings K, U, R, W, T, and I:2, were reused in cellar construction. In the second quarter of the century, the Gate Complex and Building A were renovated, and next to the latter a new structure was added, the “Mosaic Building,” which featured a pebble mosaic floor and a wall mosaic of terracotta pegs. During the second half of the 5th century, Building E, adjacent to the Gate Complex, was reconstructed and received a stone pavement. Elsewhere, Room A-B was added to the interior of Building M, and a cellar was built next to Building P. 4th century: The destruction in the Citadel Mound in the early 4th century may be related to an earthquake that followed Agesilaos’ attack in 395 BCE (DeVries 1990:391, 400). Most of the buildings in the eastern part of the mound were badly damaged around this time and went out of use. Only Building C (at least in part), the Gate Complex, and the Mosaic Building seem to have escaped serious harm. A foundry was then built in the area of the Painted House and Buildings C and G. The area occupied by Terrace Buildings J, K, and L likewise seems to have been converted to industrial workshop use. Building E, on the other hand, was used as a domestic quarter with cellars, and additional cellars were constructed in the area of Buildings K and U.

Area of the Gate Complex and Outer Gate-Court (see Plan 2) Behind the Gate Complex A series of trenches in the area of the Middle Phrygian Gate Complex were excavated during Young’s 1951 and 1953 campaigns. Four of these trenches yielded Lydian pottery: trenches ET SEC 3 and ETO 1, located to the rear of the southern and northern bastions of the Gate Complex; the Gate Building West trench, sited west of the Gate’s South Bastion and east of the enclosure wall within the Outer Gate-Court; and the Gateway North trench, in the same area as trench ETO 1.2



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 61

EAST MOUND Inner Gate-Court

PPB

Q

R

M

S

D E

G

I

Terrace Building Zone

P

F

H

N

J

C K

L

South Trench

Ga

te

WEST MOUND

T

Outer Gate-Court

NC T

lex

U

X

O

mp

W

Y

Co

Northwest Corner Zone

V

Z

Southwest Area

N

A

Excavation trenches with Lydian ceramics Middle and Late Phrygian architecture 0

100 m

Plan 1  Plan showing the East and West Mounds of the Citadel Mound. (Drawing by Evren Açar, from an original in the Gordion Archive, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)

The 1951 excavations in trench ET SEC 3 revealed a Lydian streaky glazed skyphos (no. 61) typical of the mid-6th century. The vessel was discovered in a pit with a mixed ashy fill, which also contained a 5th century Attic red figure Sotadaean rhyton (Lynch and Matter 2014:112, fig. 5; inv. no.: 1203 P380) as well as earlier pottery, including Phrygian polychrome ware (inv. no.: 1476 P448).3 The Gate Building West trench was cut to the west of ET SEC 3. In this area, a paved floor (Floor 4) seems to have been added when the enclosure wall was still in use. An earlier floor (Floor 5b), below Floor 4, covered an area where a north-south drain was

found.4 Young suggested that Floor 5b was related to the Outer Gate-Court enclosure wall and to the drain below it as well as to the 5th century renovation of the Gate Building.5 A provincial Lydian black-on-red stemmed dish (no. 221) was discovered in Floor 5b. Unfortunately, the field notebook does not provide any further information regarding the findspot and it is unclear whether other artifacts were found in association. No. 221 can be dated stylistically no later than the 7th century, since no parallels are attested in the 6th century levels at Sardis or elsewhere (see Chapter 2). Therefore, Floor 5b and no. 221 may belong either to the initial

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building phase of the 8th century, or later in the 7th century. This may mean that Young was incorrect in linking Floor 5b to the renovation of the Gate Building or that no. 221 was residual. For trench ETO 1, as with ET SEC3, there is no clearly datable evidence for the contexts that included Lydian pottery. The remains of Hellenistic domestic architecture were excavated in the upper layers. A Late lydion (no. 157) was discovered in the fill of a pit at the northwest end of the trench.6 This pit disturbed the stone paving of the North Bastion of the Gate Complex, which provides only a terminus post quem of ca. 475 BCE for the pit and its contents. No. 137 came from one of the pits dug over the wall of the north wing of the Gate Complex. The excavator suggested that the pit (Pit 6) was associated with the first renovation rather than the first construction phase, which, again, would supply a terminus post quem of ca. 475.7 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench ET SEC 3: Excavated in 1951, located behind the Middle Phrygian Gate Complex, over the northwestern part of the Early Phrygian South Court, southeast of the Polychrome House.

1211 P382 (no. 61), skyphos. ET SEC 3. “Great Pit”, 2.40–3.00 m below the surface.

Trench ETO 1: Excavated in 1953, located behind the entrance of the northern part of the Middle Phrygian Gate Complex.

2528 P819 (no. 157), lydion. ETO 1. In yellow fill. Northwest pit.

Trench Gate Building West: Excavated in 1953, located to the east of Building C and west of the Gate Complex.

2883 P950 (no. 221), stemmed dish. Gate Building West. Long east-west cut beside Building B (Enclosure Wall). Layer 5b.

Trench Gateway North: Excavated in 1953, located in the same area as trench ETO 1.

2639 P866 (no. 137), lekythos. Gateway, north, Pit 6.

Central North End of the Outer Gate-Court and the Gate access Trench NCT S covers a large area that includes the northern enclosure wall and gate, as well as the northern end of the Outer Gate-Court and the northwest corner of Building F.8 Nos. 82 and 83 were excavated in 1951 in this trench, in an area defined as section A, cut 1, level 1b.9 The context of No. 82 was defined by the excavator as a “deep well,” which also yielded a glass flask (inv. no.: 1313 G57), an Attic black glazed sherd (inv. no.: 1381 P427), and a fish plate (inv. no.: 1390 P431).10 No. 83 was discovered at the same level near to no. 82.11 Unfortunately, it is difficult to know whether these two lekythoi actually belong to the same mixed context. During the excavations carried out in 1955 in the area of Building F to the east of trench NCT S, a new trench was extended to the west of and adjacent to trench ETO 9.12 This area is where the corner of Building F was discovered.13 The excavator notes that a Lydian sherd (a marbled phiale, no. 23) was uncovered in Layer 4, cut 1, together with architectural tile fragments, pithos fragments, and a kantharos with graffito. Cut 1 was seemingly disturbed by a later pit.14 Only some of the finds from cut 1 and from two other cuts (2 and 3) were kept.15 Cuts 2 and 3 included two uninventoried Lydian sherds (a lydion with conical foot and a streaky glazed body sherd), which seem to be from either the 6th century or, at the latest, the 5th century. Several floor levels with Hellenistic fills were discovered in 1955 at the northern end of trench NCT S, in the area of the enclosure wall gate. A Lydian lekythos (no. 144) was reported as being found over an “earlier floor,” but there are no further references to this floor in the excavator’s notebook.16 Trench NCT A1 was located parallel to trench NCT S. A Late lydion (no. 158) was excavated in a fill below a Hellenistic floor (floor 1), underneath the first course of a Hellenistic wall.17 This fill also contained the terracotta head of a woman in high relief, stylistically dated to the 4th century (inv. no.: 2513 P810; Romano 1995:37, cat. no. 80) and a late 4th century coin (inv. no.: C 419). The context also included earlier pottery (inv. nos.: 2517 P812, 2553 P829, 2577 P842, 2584 P847).



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 63

Inner Gate-Court

Floor S House

Yellow House

M

NCT S

ETO 11

D

Outer Gate-Court ted n i Pa ouse H

C

ET

3

V

ET O

2

NO BA RTH ST IO N

ET O

I:2

2

ET

Q1

C 3

J

ET 2 C

E

1

3

G

P

1

NCTA

I:1

F

ET O

H

ETO 10

TE GA ESS C AC

20 m

LE MP CO GA TE

SO BA UTH ST IO N

L

N 0

ET

K

X

SE

C

4 SE NW T

TA

NC

Enclosure Wall

Plan 2  Plan showing the excavation trenches in the area of the Gate Complex and Outer Gate-Court (Drawing by Evren Açar, from an original in the Gordion Archive, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)

Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench NCT S: Excavated in 1951 and 1955, located in the area which partially covers the gateway between the Inner and Outer Gate-Courts, the northern end of the Outer Gate-Court, and the northwest corner of Building F.

3376 P1173 (no. 23), phiale. Excavated in 1955. NCT S. Persian Building.



1525 P463 (no. 82), lekythos. Excavated in 1951.

NCT S, section A, cut 1, Level 1b, deep well.

1587 P503 (no. 83), lekythos. Excavated in 1951. NCT S, section A, cut 1, Level Ib1–II.



3075 P1028 (no. 144), lekythos. Excavated in 1955. NCT S, northern half over early floor.

Trench NCT A1: Excavated in 1951. This trench was laid out parallel to trench NCT S

2542 P825 (no. 158), lydion. Excavated in 1951. NCT A1, fill under Floor 1, near west end wall.

64

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

3416 P1202 (no. 28), skyphos. ETO 10, Layer 3.

Building F



Building F was located at the northern end of the Outer Gate-Court, on the court’s east side along with Buildings D and E. Like other megarons of the Middle Phrygian period, it was constructed in the early 8th century. It had a rubble foundation supported by timbers, and a mosaic floor and a hearth during its initial phase (Young 1962:156; Rose, forthcoming). The building’s history through the 8th and the 7th centuries is unclear; however, the presence of architectural terracottas indicates that its roof was renovated during the early 6th century, and the building was rebuilt during the 5th century (Rose, forthcoming). Trenches ETO 10 and ETO 11 ran diagonally over Building F, extending to the area between Buildings F and D to the south, and outside Building F to the north. The building was found to be poorly preserved (Young 1956:255). From the excavator’s field notes for trench ETO 10, we understand that there were two levels (Layers 1 and 2) above the one (Layer 3) where a Lydian skyphos (no. 28) was discovered. Layers 1 and 2 included mixed material with Hellenistic and Roman pottery.18 Layer 3 was excavated at the southern end of the trench, where there was a large building with stone blocks set on wooden beams.19 Although this structure is named as Building BB in the field notebook, it actually seems to be the southwest end of Building F. A provincial Lydian skyphos with marbling decoration (no. 28) was found over the stone foundation wall at a level near the floor, together with an Achaemenid seal of swirling agate from Lydia (Dusinberre 2005:63, cat. no. 44). This suggests that the provincial Lydian skyphos was used during the Achaemenid period. A Late lydion (no. 168) was excavated within Building F in trench ETO 11, which was located immediately to the south of trench ETO 10. No. 168 was found in Layer 2 below a layer (Layer 1) of mixed material, mostly Roman or Hellenistic pottery.20 Layer 2 seems to have been truncated by several pits and does not help much with dating.21

Trench ETO 11: Excavated in 1955. The trench ran from the northeast corner of the enclosure wall to the south, over the eastern half of Building F.

Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench ETO 10: Excavated in 1955, located in the central part of Building F. The trench ran to the north of trench ETO 11.



3481 P1237 (no. 168), lydion. ETO 11, Layer 2.

Building D Building D was a smaller megaron akin to Building E. Like Building F, it was erected at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period, with a rubble foundation supported by timbers, and with a mosaic floor; likewise, it was re-roofed during the 6th century and renovated in the 5th (Rose, forthcoming). Trench ET C3, which yielded a Lydian lekythos (no. 84), lay at the south end of Building D. The upper layers of the trench contained the remains of Hellenistic domestic architecture, which were later removed during the excavation.22 The lekythos was discovered in the area of the southern wall of Building D.23 Although the excavator does not present any diagnostic pottery or stratigraphic information to date the levels here, we may presume that no. 84 was excavated in the uppermost level associated with the later phase of Building D. This phase may be connected with the renovation of the area that occurred during the Late Phrygian period. Moreover, although the lekythos is recorded as being discovered in Level 3, the excavator appears to have associated it with Level 5 in the field notebook.24 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench ET C3: Excavated in 1955, located near to the northern end wall of the Gate Complex, and above the north wall of the Early Phrygian North Court. The trench included the southern wall of Building D.

3254 P1106 (no. 84), lekythos. ET C3, Level 3.

Building E (Hearth Building) Building E was a very small building located immediately to the northeast of the Gate Complex, and it was in use continuously from the 8th to the 4th centuries. Young identified four construction phases



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 65

(Young 1955:4–6). The initial phase, during the new construction program of the early 8th century, included a single square room with a central hearth. The building was slightly expanded during the second phase, which should date to ca. 700 BCE on the evidence of an ivory stamp seal found within the floor (Young dated the seal to ca. 525 BCE [1955:5, pl. 2, fig. 9]; however, the seal is now dated to the late 8th/ early 7th century by Phoebe Sheftel [Sheftel, forthcoming; Rose, forthcoming]). The third phase dates to the first half of the 5th century, when the floor was raised by 0.70 m and was surfaced with a mosaic of eggsize pebbles. In its final phase, around the second half of the 5th century, Building E became an expanded megaron with a hearth and stone pavement. The debris over the floor consisted material dating between 6th and 4th centuries, including roof tiles of the first half of the 6th century and mixed pottery, which are all pre-Hellenistic (Rose, forthcoming). Both Young (1955:6) and Rose (forthcoming) suggested that this last phase was covered by a cellar and a multi-room house built after a destruction dated to the 4th century. Young connected the destruction and the abandonment of the fourth phase to the coming of Alexander, and dated a Late lydion (no. 165) and the associated pottery from the cellar and house to after ca. 333 BCE (Young 1955:6). However, he did not present any diagnostic pottery for the date of the destruction besides the Late lydion (no. 165). Young reached a similar conclusion with regard to a Late lydion (no. 160) from one of the earliest pits dug into Building C after it was finally abandoned (1955:8). Dating a habitation level on the basis of a Late lydion seems ill-advised, since a reliable chronology for Late lydions has not yet been established, and there is insufficient firm evidence to extend their use into the 4th century. On the other hand, both no. 165 and associated pottery are recorded by the excavator as “burnt intrusive earth in stone paved unit” that clearly relates this context to the habitation level and the destruction fill over the disturbed stone pavement of the last (fourth) phase of Building E and not to the cellar that is built after the 4th century destruction 25. Pottery from the same context also included Lydian material, such as a plain painted skyphos handle, a marbled base, and a lekythos fragment, which may be dated between the 6th to late 5th centuries, and also a tile fragment

depicting a lion and a bull as well as an Atticizing black glazed kylix (inv. no.: 12478 P558).26 Therefore, this context seems unlikely to be associated with the habitation levels of the cellar dating to the 4th century as suggested by Young, but rather to the disturbed levels of the last phase of Building E that contained earlier pottery dating between the 6th and the late 5th centuries. A similar Late lydion (no. 166), even though it is not mentioned in Young’s report, was also found in an associated context probably from the fill of an adjacent cellar.27 Pottery from this fill included an Anatolian bichrome painted amphora (inv. no.: 2944 P968) and a red polished amphora (inv. no.: 2847 P932),28 which may tentatively be dated within the 6th century. Voigt had excavated a couple of complete Late lydions together with a black burnished Achaemenid bowl from a Late Phrygian house in the Lower Town, and noted that the house was cut through an abandoned building that is at the end of Middle Phrygian period (i.e., ca. 540 BCE). She associated the relevant context to the latest phase of Late Phrygian period, and the house to the 4th century (Voigt et al. 1997:10–11, 54, fig. 30f–g; M. Voigt, February 15, 2019, pers. comm.). Diagnostic evidence for some other Late lydions studied in this volume (nos. 154–157, 161, 162, 164, 171, 174, 179, 183, 187, 190, 191, 193) all suggest a date between the 6th and late 5th centuries and not the 4th century. Their contexts are discussed below and summarized in Chapter 3 Type II (Late Lydions). A 4th century date for the Late lydions and the aforementioned contexts should be reconsidered. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench ET C2: Excavated in 1953 and 1955, located to the north of the Gate Building, above the north wall of the Early Phrygian North Court.

12438 P5548 (no. 8), skyphos. ET C2, Gate Building construction, excavated in 1955.



2855 P935 (no. 165), lydion. ET C2, in black earth intrusive in paved unit, excavated in 1953.



2856 P936 (no. 166), lydion. ET C2, in cellar (cut into paved unit), excavated in 1953.

66

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Building C Along with Building E, Building C was one of the first megarons excavated by Young, in 1953. It was located to the northwest of the South Court of the Gate Building. Young distinguished three phases for this building in his preliminary reports (Young 1955:6–8). The first phase was contemporary with the construction of the Gate Building and may be dated to the early 8th century. Building C was renovated during the second phase, and its walls were enlarged in three directions (west, north, and south, whereas the eastern wall remained the same), and the new foundations were laid over the rubble from the earlier phase. Rose dated this second phase to the late 8th century, basing his discussion primarily on the evidence of the use of timber and rubble foundations that did not appear any later than that time. Building C received a tile roof during the first half of the 6th century and may have been renovated in the early 5th century when the nearby Painted House was built. The area was converted to a foundry in the 4th century. One of the latest pits (Pit 5) dug into Building C after its final destruction included a mixed assemblage of pottery and terracotta architectural elements, including a gray ware spouted bowl (inv. no.: 2754 P907), a rhyton (inv. no.: 2710 P892; Young 1955:pl. I, fig. 5), tile fragments decorated with scrolls, black glazed pottery, and a Late lydion (no. 160, also mentioned above).29 Similar tiles were used in the Mosaic Building and Painted House both of which were roofed during the first half of the 5th century. A small excavation area, which is cited as the “Southwest Corner of Rodger” in the Gordion field books, was located west of the south wall of Building C. Three Late lydions (nos. 161, 162, and 164) were discovered here, in earth and rubble layers above two floors (floors A and B).30 This destruction fill above the floor sequence seems to be associated with the last occupation level in the Late Phrygian period of Building C. It may date within the 5th century, together with nos. 161, 162, and 164. When the excavators were uncovering the southeastern corner of Building C, a Late lydion (no. 159) was found in a fill that seemed to include debris from earlier excavations, so the context cannot offer a secure date.31 An early example of a Lydian bichrome fragment (no. 17), which may date to before the

late 7th/early 6th century, was found in a pit at the southwestern corner of Building C. The pit was dug through earlier levels, but it also contained fine black glazed sherds dated by Young to the 5th century.32 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench ET V2: Excavated in 1953, located inside Building C, covering the area from the anteroom to the center of main hall.

2673 P884 (no. 159), lydion. ET V2, Cut into the southeast corner of big wall.



2753 P906 (no. 160), lydion. ET V2, Pit 5.



2778 P913 (no. 161), lydion. ET V2, fill over floor B (southwest corner of Rodger).



2779 P914 (no. 162), lydion. ET V2, fill over Building B rubble (southwest corner of Rodger).



2815 P927 (no. 164), lydion. ET V2, southwest corner (Rodger), under floor with pithos to rubble.

Trench Q1: Excavated in 1956, located in the area to the west of the Enclosure Wall and Building C, and east of Buildings I:2, J, and K. The trench included the southeast wall of Building I, the east wall of Building J, and the area east of Building K.

12205 P5366 (no. 17), storage vessel. Q1, east end of pit at southwest corner of Building C.

East of Building C There are several trenches named and numbered with the rubric ETO. During the excavations carried out in this area, the upper layers included the remains of Hellenistic houses with a courtyard.33 A large pit, which was partly in ETO 3 but mostly in ETO 2, was discovered while removing a stone paving and a floor, and within it was a Late lydion (no. 163).34 The other pottery collected from the pit includes mostly gray and black polished ware, painted pottery probably from the 7th and the 6th centuries, and coarse ware.35 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench ETO 2–3: Excavated in 1953, located behind the Gate Complex and east of Building C, and



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 67

above the northeast wall of, and to the southeast of, the Early Phrygian Polychrome House.

2811 P924 (no. 163), lydion. ETO 2–3, in pit.

South of Building C Trench SET NW was located immediately to the south of Building C, where a small extension of the western enclosure wall was discovered within the trench. Seven distinct layers were identified during excavation in 1951. The first layer was the surface fill; the following three layers belonged to the Hellenistic period, and the fifth layer was dated no later than the 5th century.36 The evidence for the sixth layer seems unclear; however, the excavator’s sketch in the field notebook suggests that the seventh layer belonged to the period when the Enclosure Wall was in use. Rose (forthcoming) suggests that the Enclosure Wall was dismantled during the 5th century; in that case, Layer 7 would have to date earlier than the early 5th century. Layer 7 contained an uninventoried Attic sherd, a Late lydion (no. 153), a mortar (inv. no.: 1549 P477), and a lateral sima fragment (12943 A351).37 Such lateral simas at Gordion are dated to around the mid-6th century (Glendinning 1996:113). Therefore, the seventh layer may tentatively be placed within the 6th century. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench SET NW: Excavated in 1951. The trench started immediately west of the southwestern end of the Enclosure Wall and extended to the east of the wall.

1480 P450 (no. 153), lydion. SET NW, Cut 1-c, Layer 7.

Area between Buildings C and G Building G had a megaron plan like the other buildings within the Outer Gate-Court; it was constructed during the early 8th century, and was later renovated. A small structure named the Painted House was built between Buildings C and G (Young 1955:8–10; Young 1956:255–57). The Painted House was a partially subterranean, single-roomed structure of the Late Phrygian period; wall paintings discovered in the room have been dated to the first decade of the

5th century (Rose 2012:16, n. 32). The Lydian pottery from this area consists of a skyphos (no. 72) from the building’s destruction fill in trench NCT A4;38 no. 72 may therefore date to the 5th century, when the building was still in use. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench NCT A4: Located in the area of the Late Phrygian Painted House.

14105 P6704 (no. 72), skyphos. NCT A4, Painted Room, destruction fill, excavated in 1955.

Inner Gate-Court (see Plan 3) The Inner Gate-Court was much larger than the outer one, to which it was connected by a gate, and it included a series of Middle Phrygian megarons: Buildings H, M, O, P, Q, V, Y, Z, X, and NCT. It was bounded by the Enclosure Wall, which was only partially excavated. Buildings H, M, O, and Q were situated on the western side of the Inner Gate-Court, while Buildings NCT, V, X, Y, and Z occupied the eastern half.

NCT Building The NCT Building was located to the northeast of the gate, with an entrance initially facing northwest. Much of the megaron was dug in 1950, when most of the remains of Late and Middle Phrygian date were cleared. The building’s foundations were built above the clay layer that covered the Early Phrygian citadel, but they had been disturbed when Hellenistic architecture was constructed above them. A Late lydion (no. 145) was discovered within this disturbance in a layer (Layer I E) that also yielded a black polished loom weight (inv. no.: 498 MC 36) and an Attic red figure sherd (inv. no.: 549 P152).39 Trench NC Building Ea, located to the north of the NCT Building, was excavated in 1963 in order to reveal Early Phrygian levels. The first level encountered included Floor 1 and Floor 2, with a fill between them. This fill contained several architectural tiles, including one with a chariot hunt panel (inv. no.: 7502 A 233) that has parallels at Gordion dated to the mid-6th century or slightly earlier (Glendinning 1996:110–13).40 The clay layer below Floor 2 yielded

68

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

South Cellar C

OQ 1 C M6

Inner Gate-Court 3

TW

W3

NC

1 TW

NC

Building M, 1C

PBP N1

Yellow House

M

2

H

T

NC

F

1 A1

D Outer Gate-Court

Floor S House

P

1

W

N

NCT

E N

N M2

M

NCT

1

M4

PB E X

I

N

PP

PS PP

Z

O

Tr en ch

T

X

3

J

M5

W

PN

NE

M5

Q

PB 5 X

M7

rth ut No ad C o ilr Ra

I

0

G

N

E 20 m

Plan 3  Plan showing trenches in the Inner Gate-Court. (Drawing by Evren Açar, from an original in the Gordion Archive, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)

a Lydian skyphos (no. 63) and a spindle whorl (inv. no.: 7494 MC 195).41 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench NCT: Excavated in 1950. NCT Building.

497 P144 (no. 145), lydion. NCT, Level I-E, North Room in NE corner of later courtyard.

Trench NC Building: Excavated in 1963, located to the north of the NCT Building in the area of Early Phrygian Megaron 12.

7496 P2964 (no. 63), skyphos. NC Building Ea, clay fill.

Northeast of the NCT Building A Late lydion (no. 183) was found in 1963 in a trench excavated to the east of the front of the NCT

Building. The lydion came from a pit that lay above the deep clay layer deposited at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period. A stemmed dish (inv. no. P2802), which may date to the 7th or the 6th centuries, was also found in the same context.42 A provincial dish decorated with marbling (no. 50) was likewise found above the clay layer, but in a fill with no other datable pottery.43 Trenches with Lydian pottery North Railroad Cut: Excavated in 1963, located in the northeastern part of the Inner Court, east of trench PN 3.

7297 P2865 (no. 50), dish. North Railroad Cut, Clay, mixed brown fill over clay.



7187 P2803 (no. 183), lydion. North Railroad Cut, second trench east of PN 3; pit in surface of clay.



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 69

South of the NCT Building, near the Courtyard Gate Excavations in the area to the south of the NCT Building and near the gate between the Outer and Inner Gate-Courts took place in 1963.44 A Lydian oinochoe decorated with provincial marbling (no. 54) was found in the upper surface of the clay layer. The excavator noted that this clay layer also yielded fragments of Phrygian and Hittite pottery as well as fragments of sculptured orthostats (inv. nos.: 7504 S79, 7505 S80),45 one of which was unfinished (inv. no.: 7504 S79) and may have been intended to decorate the Polychrome Gate House (Young 1964:288, pl. 89, fig. 24). Since No. 54, which stylistically cannot be any earlier than the early 6th century, was from the same part of the clay fill, there must have been some sort of disturbance, possibly a pit, in this area. Trenches with Lydian pottery

7432 P2922 (no. 54), oinochoe. Excavated in 1963. South of NCT Building, Clay Cut 3, at surface of clay.

Southeast of the NCT Building A considerable amount of Lydian painted pottery was excavated in trenches PBX5, PBX E NE, and NE 1, which were located between Building NCT at the northwest and Building P at the southeast. A Late lydion (no. 196) was excavated in Layer 5 of trench PBX5. The overlying layers contained Hellenistic and Attic red figure pottery (Floor 4), as well as a Persian-period floor.46 Consequently, Layer 5 must have been part of, or disturbed by, a pit dug during the Hellenistic period. The fill contained earlier pottery, including a 6th century black-on-red fragment (inv. no.: 9721 P3870), black polished ware (inv. no. 9660 P3840), an Attic black figure sherd (inv. no.: 11825 P5050), an architectural terracotta (9533 A261), and a glass trefoil jug (inv. no.: 9715 G354). The latter dates to somewhere between the late 6th and the late 5th century according to Janet Jones, but there were also later finds in the fill, including a gray polished bowl with graffiti dated to the 4th century (Roller 1987:27, cat. no. 2A-158), a small black glazed echinus bowl dating to the last quarter of the 4th century

(K. Lynch, pers. comm.), and an unguentarium (inv. no.: 9621 P3805). A Lydian lekythos (no. 88) was excavated in a layer (Layer 12), which was apparently the fill from a robbing trench of the cross wall.47 Trench NE 1 was opened in 1955, to the east of trenches ETO 10, ETO 11, ETO 12, ETO 13, and ETC 4, and just north of Building E.48 The excavations here revealed the remains of domestic architecture, various pits, and a stone pavement dating to the Hellenistic period.49 A second stone pavement (Floor 2) seems to have been disturbed by a pit in the western section of trench NE 1, at Level 2B. This pit reached earlier levels and contained a rich assemblage of archaic relief vessels (inv. nos.: 3345 P1153, 3346 P1154, 3353 P1157, 3356 P1160), an architectural terracotta (a sima, inv. no.: 3429 A150), a lydion (no. 167), and gray ware (inv. no.: 3355 P1159) dating to the 6th century.50 The vessels were dated to the 6th century by Romano (1995:65–66, cat. nos. 29, 20, 25, 26, 28; see also DeVries 1988:51). The eastern section of trench NE 1 was excavated in 1961, and no. 16 was discovered during the removal of the railroad spur that separated trenches NE 1 and CW 1 Extension; therefore, the context does not offer a secure date.51 Trench NE lies to the east of the Enclosure Wall and was dug in 1951, prior to the excavation of NE 1. Two Lydian fragments, a lekythos (no. 136) and a lydion (no. 104), were found in a fill in Cut 3. The excavator provides no evidence for any stratification, but the fill was probably pre-Hellenistic since it included no Hellenistic remains.52 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench PBX5: Excavated in 1969, in the southeastern part of the Inner Gate-Court, to the southeast of the NCT Building.

9526 P3794 (no. 196), lydion. PBX 5, Layer 5.

Trench PBX E: Excavated in 1971, in the southeastern part of the Inner Gate-Court, to the southeast of the NCT Building.

10374 P4204 (no. 88), lekythos. M12 E, above PBX, refill of PBX E cross wall.

Trench NE: Excavated in 1951, in the southeastern

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

part of the Inner Gate-Court, to the southeast of the NCT Building.

2090 P654 (no. 104), lydion. NE corner, Cut 3, 1.40–1.90 m below surface.



2089 P653 (no. 136), lekythos. NE corner, Cut 3, from stones above coursed wall.

Trench NE 1: Excavated in 1955 and 1961, located on the eastern Enclosure Wall.

6668 P2564a (no. 16), oinochoe. Excavated in 1961. NE1, east end RR spur, Strata 1–3.



3354 P1158 (no. 167), lydion. Excavated in 1955. NE 1, west section, Level 2B.

Buildings H, M, and the Floor S House Buildings H and M were the two megarons located on the west side of the Inner Gate-Court, with entrances facing northeast. They were constructed in the early 8th century but, unlike many of the other Middle Phrygian buildings, it seems that they were not renovated later on. Both of them seem to have been destroyed at the time of the Persian attack in the mid-6th century. A new structure, the Floor S House, facing west, was built between Building H and Building I:1 during the second quarter of the 5th century. The rubble walls of this building were composed of spoliated stones robbed from Building H (Rose, forthcoming). The trench in which they were discovered, Trench MW2, covered an area that partially included Building H, the Enclosure Wall, and Building I:1 in the Terrace Building zone. During the excavations in Building H, a Late lydion (no. 171) was discovered in Layer 6 below Floor O.53 This floor seems to have been contemporary with the floor of the Floor S House, which included an Attic red figure krater dated to the first half of the 5th century (Fields 2010:58–59); therefore, no. 171 probably dates to the same period. Another excavation trench, NCT A11, ran parallel to MW2 and partially covered the southern wall of Building H and the Enclosure Wall. No. 169, which may be dated stylistically to the 6th or early 5th century, came from one of the upper layers (Layer 3) where a rough stone wall, a pithos, and the remains of stone

paving were found.54 Layer 3 mainly contained Hellenistic pottery, but earlier pottery was also present.55 The earlier layers in this area (Layers 4 and 5) were disturbed by several pits dug through the foundations of the Middle Phrygian architecture. Layer 6 contained a large number of painted tiles, as well as several pits and pithoi over floors,56 and a lydion (no. 170) was found in a fill in the northern sector, near to a pit (Pit 2, Layer 5) that contained Hellenistic sherds, Phrygian painted pottery, and storage jars.57 A marbled lekythos (no. 41) came from a clay layer in Building H, but unfortunately no further contextual information is provided in the field records. This area of the site may have been used as a workshop during the 5th century, as suggested by Rose, and nos. 41, 169, and 170 were probably originally part of an early 5th century assemblage from here. They may, perhaps, be somewhat earlier date. Trench MN2 extended from the southeastern corner of Building M to the area in front of Building H. The upper layer (Layer 3) had a stone pavement, like many of the other upper layers of the trenches in this area.58 A large number of pits in some of the layers (Layers 3–6) had been dug down to the earlier Middle Phrygian occupation levels.59 No. 172 (a lydion) was found in a pit associated with Layer 6.60 Another Late lydion (no. 173) was found above the thick clay layer that separated the Early Phrygian citadel from the Middle Phrygian one, and presumably it had been deposited in a pit.61 During the excavations in trenches WML 3 and WML 4, in 1958, a large trench that was subdivided into several areas (1a, 1b, 1c, 2a, 2b, and 2c) was opened over Building M.62 The trench lay immediately to the east of WML 3 and WML 4. 63 While the excavator was still removing a clay layer in the trench, a Late lydion (no. 176) was found in a pit (Pit A) dug into a floor level. The other contents of the pit are recorded as ash, bones, and a small fragment of alabaster.64 The clay layer may be part of the clay floor that was excavated in 1958 in trenches EML 2 and EML 3, and the only floor level associated with Building M seems to be this one.65 The floor yielded sherds of an Attic black figure amphora dated to the mid-6th century (Edwards 1959:265; DeVries 1988:51, n. 7; DeVries 2005:47; Fields 2010:64–65) and some complete Middle Phrygian vessels, as well as later pottery.66 The pit (Pit A) may have been dug at any time



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 71

after the last use of Building M, perhaps at the beginning of the Late Phrygian period. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench MW2: Excavated in 1957. The trench extended over parts of Building I (Terrace Building Zone) and Building H (Inner Gate-Court).

4794 P1817 (no. 171), lydion. MW2, Layer 6, below floor O.

Trench NCT A11: Excavated in 1956. The trench partially covered the south wall of Building H and the western Enclosure Wall.

586 P2161 (no. 41), lekythos. NCT A11, Building H, clay.



4086 P1485a, b (no. 169), lydion. NCT A11, Layer 3.



4297 P1604 (no. 170), lydion. NCT A11, Layer 6, upper fill, N.

Trench MN 2: Excavated in 1957. Located over the eastern walls of, and to the east of, Buildings H and M.

4862 P1840 (no. 172), lydion. MN2, Layer 6, pit.



5096 P1864 (no. 173), lydion. MN2, W end, disturbed fill over clay.

Trench Building M, 1C: Excavated in 1959. A small trench located at the northwestern corner of Building M.

6197 P2314 (no. 176), lydion. Building M, Ic, Pit A.

East of Buildings H and M Trenches NCT W1 and NCT W3 were placed between the NCT Building to the east and Buildings H and M to the west. No. 85 was found in the upper fill that covered both NCT W1 and W3, and thus it did not belong to any occupation level. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench NCT W1/3: Excavated in 1958. NCT W1 and NCT W3 were two separate trenches, with

NCT W2 in between them. Located to the north of the courtyard gate and trench NCT S.

6707 P2582 (no. 85), lekythos. NCT W1/3, HHB, top clay fill.

Yellow House The so-called Yellow House (Edwards 1959:266– 67) lay close to Building H and just to the east of the gate that connected the Outer and Inner Gate-Courts. Its name comes from the remains of the yellow plaster found within it. The building was exposed in trench MN Extension 2–3, and a cut below its floor revealed an Attic kylix dated to the early 5th century.67 The Yellow House was used during the Late Phrygian period, perhaps in the late 6th or early 5th century (DeVries 1990:400), and therefore the Late lydion (no. 174) that was excavated in a clay layer below the building’s occupation level probably dates prior to the early 5th. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench Gate Cut: Excavated in 1958, located to the northwest of the courtyard gate.

5741 P2145 (no. 174), lydion. Gate Cut, under Yellow House.

Building O and North of Building O Middle Phrygian Building O lay to the north of Building M, with an entrance facing southeast. It had been plundered in later times, and so only a small portion of its foundation blocks and rubble bedding was found (Young 1962:155). The poor state of preservation and the pits dug through the building in later periods eliminated any secure deposits in this area. It looks as if Building O and the two cellars (South and North Cellars) nearby were built during the 8th century, and the building continued in use until the first half of the 6th century. Of the two trenches that revealed Lydian pottery, trench OQ1 was located at the northeast corner of the building and northwest corner of Building Q, and trench PPPS covered the center of the anteroom of Building O. A lydion (no. 106) was excavated above the floor (Floor 3) of a cellar in trench OQ1. This

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

mixed deposit also yielded a pot stand (inv. no.: 8035 P3228), a miniature pot (inv. no.: 8034 P3233), the sherd of a Phrygian painted vessel with cross-hatched panels, Middle Phrygian pottery (e.g., Sams 1994:cat. nos. 1054–1055), an East Greek plastic vessel dated to the 6th century (Romano 1995:12, cat. no. 24; inv. no.: 8036 P3229), and a bronze fibula of earlier date (of Type XII, 14, Muscarella 1967:24–26; inv. no.: 8267 B1550).68 In the anteroom of the building, in trench PPPS, the excavator recorded that a lydion (no. 185) came from an uncertain context in either the foundation wall or the clay layer.69 The level above it (Floor 5) included a fill that contained pottery dating between the 6th and the 4th centuries, evidence of the later disturbances that reached this Middle Phrygian building.70 At some point within the 8th century, a stonelined cellar (the South Cellar) was built to the northwest of Building O. This area was extensively excavated in 1965 in several trenches (Young 1966:269; Notebooks 114, 119, 121). A Late lydion (no. 187) was recovered in trench M5J, which is located to the south of the cellar.71 This Late lydion was accompanied by material dating no later than the 6th century, e.g., architectural revetment and roof tiles, coarse ware, and Phrygian painted pottery (inv. no. 8164 P3271). One of the architectural fragments (not inventoried) belongs to a feline antefix that dates to the first half of the 6th century (Glendinning 1996:111, cat. no. 5). The closing date of the South Cellar has been difficult to determine, even though the cellar yielded one of the richest assemblages at Gordion, with imported Greek pottery, Phrygian painted pottery, ivory objects, and bronze fibulae (DeVries 2005:37–40; Sams 2011). Young initially dated the deposit to the 5th century (1966:269), but it is now generally accepted that the cellar was installed during the 8th century (Voigt and DeVries 2011:42; Sams 2011:59). Only a single 4th century red figure sherd was excavated from the entire fill of the cellar (DeVries 2005: 37), and the rest of the material can be dated between the 8th and the 6th centuries. It is noteworthy that a provincial type of Late lydion (no. 187) was attested in a stony fill to the south of the South Cellar wall. The find may indicate that Late lydions were in use at Gordion during the 6th century, which is probably when the cellar’s fill was disturbed, judging by the datable

material excavated in the fill’s “upper layers” (DeVries 2005:40). Trench M6C was excavated in 1965 to the east corner of the South Cellar. Here, a provincial Lydian bichrome fragment (no. 19) was associated with the remains of the floor (Floor 3) of a stone structure, though the entire area had been disturbed by pits dug down to earlier levels.72 The fill over Floor 3 contained pottery that spanned a period from the 7th century through the Hellenistic period.73 Trench M7C, situated further to the northwest of Building O, was excavated in 1967. Its two upper layers yielded stone paving, which was disturbed by pits, and a layer (Layer 5) that the excavator dated to the late 5th through early 4th century.74 Beneath Layer 5 there was a clay layer over the remains of the northern Enclosure Wall.75 No. 37 came from a mixed fill in this clay, but the excavator provided no information about any other finds from the context.76 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench OQ1: Excavated in 1965. Located to the north between Buildings O and Q.

8109 P3245 (no. 106), lydion. OQ1, Floor 3 cellar, fill in and behind wall.

Trench PPPS: Excavated in 1963. Located in the anteroom of Building O.

7522 P2975 (no. 185), lydion. PPPS, clay.

Trench M5J: Excavated in 1965. Located to the north of Building O.

8122 P3250 (no. 187), lydion. M5J, stony fill east of South Cellar wall.

Trench M6C: Excavated in 1965. Located to the north of Building O.

14102 P6702 (no. 19), storage vessel. M6C, Floor 3.

Trench M7C: Excavated in 1967. Located to the north of Building O.

8734 P3505 (no. 37), oinochoe. M7C, mixed fill over clay.



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 73

Southeast of Building Q

Trench M4W3: Excavated in 1963. Located to the west of Building O.

The upper layer of trench PPN included the remains of Hellenistic architecture and several pits dug into earlier levels. The level (Level 5) in which two Lydian sherds (nos. 53, 180) were found contained plenty of pottery and architectural terracottas. The pottery included gray ware (inv. no.: 6969 P2708), an Attic black figure kylix (inv. no.: 6975 P2712), and an Ionian oinochoe handle of the archaic period (7005 P2708). Among the architectural terracottas are relief decorated pendent friezes (inv. nos.: 7161 A218, 7162 A219, 7164 A221).77 The finds from this deposit suggest a general date within the 6th century.



Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench PPN: Excavated in 1962. Located to the southeast of Building Q.

6968 P2707 (no. 53), oinochoe. PPN, layer above Level 5A.



6967 P2706 (no. 180), lydion. PPN, layer above Level 5B.

West of Building O Several trenches (TE1, M4, M4C, M4S1, M4S2, M4W2, PPPN, PPPS and M4W3) to the west of Building O were excavated simultaneously in 1963. A Lydian marbled amphora base fragment (no. 34) was found in M4W3 below a floor level (Floor 2). The fill above Floor 2 contained Hellenistic pottery, and the fill in which no. 34 appeared contained mixed pottery of the 6th and 5th centuries, e.g., a black polished fragment with burnished decoration (inv. no.: 7365 P2894), and a glass bracelet (inv. no.: 7375 G288).78 Unfortunately, there is no information in the field notebook for trench M5I with regard to no. 18. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench M5I: Excavated in 1965. Located to the west of Building O.

14101 P6701 (no. 18), storage vessel. M5I, Layer 4.

7364 P2893 (no. 34), amphora. M4W3, below Floor 2.

Building P Building P lay to the southeast of Buildings NCT and X, and east of the Enclosure Wall. Like the other buildings in the Outer and the Inner Gate-Courts, it was built in the megaron style, with large square stone blocks founded on deep rubble bedding. Constructed in the early 8th century, it seems to have functioned as a place for storing and preparing food, at least during the first half of the 6th century (Rose, forthcoming). The southeastern portion of the building was extensively disturbed by two cellars, which were probably built in the late 5th century (Young 1962:155). Trench PBP N1 (the so-called “Persian Building P North” trench) included part of Building P’s northern and eastern ante walls, as well as a small area of stone paving that extended from P to Building X (DeVries 1990:396).79 The stone paving was named Floor 4,80 and the level beneath it was designated Level 5.81 The walls of Building P show traces of their dismantling after the building was destroyed in the mid-6th century.82 A provincial Lydian bichrome skyphos (no. 7) was found in a deep fill underneath Floor 4, together with two terracotta pegs, ca. 220 terracotta tile fragments. There was also a three-legged pan fragment (inv. no 9361 P3747), paralleled in the Early Phrygian destruction level of ca. 800 BCE (Sams 1994:280–81, cat. no. 863), as well as a black polished sherd with incised decoration (inv. no.: 9416 P3768), Phrygian waveline painted pottery, and a bronze fibula (inv. no.: 9515 B1771).83 Thus the context is composed of a mixed fill that contains material dated to between the late 9th and the Achaemenid period. Building P had no Early Phrygian predecessor (DeVries 1990:396). Trench Z1 was located at the northwest end of Building P and was excavated in 1965 and 1969.84 During the 1965 investigations, Young discovered a deep fill with 4th century pottery, undoubtedly from later disturbances within the remains of the building.85 This fill included the sherd of a typical mid-6th century streaky glazed skyphos (no. 65).

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench Z 1: Excavated in 1965. Located in the area of Building P, east of the Enclosure Wall.

8304 P3345 (no. 65), skyphos. Trench Z 1, below Layer 5b.

Trench PBP N1: Excavated in 1969. Located in the area of Building P, east of the Enclosure Wall.

9368 P3750 (no. 7), skyphos. PBP N1, Layer 5, beneath floor 4 to PBP.

North of Building A (see Plan 4) Building A, to the west of the Middle Phrygian Gate Building, was a six-room complex built in the early 8th century (Rose 2012:9, 16). It was uncovered in trench SET in 1950, below the remains of Hellenistic domestic architecture. Two Late lydions (nos. 146 and 147) were found in a pit associated with a lower layer (Layer 5). Noting that the pit contained no 4th century material, the excavator (Young) suggested that the fill was deposited before that date.86 The pit yielded a considerable number of architectural terracottas (inv. nos.: 500 A24, 501 A25, 502 A26, 528 A28, 608 A30), including a pendent frieze with Theseus and the Minotaur dating to the first half of the 6th century (Glendinning 1996:183, cat. no. 75), and painted pottery of pre-5th century date (e.g., inv. nos.: 600 P162, 626 P176) . Trench SET N was placed to the northeast of SET, over and beyond the northeast end of Building A and directly southwest of the South Bastion of the Gate Complex. The uppermost layers (Layers 1 and 2) seem to have included mainly Hellenistic pottery,87 whereas the layer below them (Layer 3) contained not only Hellenistic coins and pottery but also fragments of 6th or 5th century architectural tiles.88 In the next layer (Layer 4), a Lydian bichrome amphora fragment with pendent concentric hook decoration (no. 11) was discovered.89 Another Lydian sherd, a lydion (no. 152), was found in a similar context that contained both Hellenistic and earlier pottery, as well as architectural tile fragments (e.g., inv. nos.: 1090 P330, 1655 A62).90 This context clearly derived from a Hellenistic pit dug into the earlier levels. Another lydion (no. 103) was excavated further to the north in Layer 6b. The excavator (Young) noted that this layer included

pottery and architectural tiles dating to earlier than the 4th century,91 among them a Corinthian style pan tile of the mid-6th (Glendinning 1996:104, cat. no. 2; inv. no.: 1707 A73). There is no information in the field notebook regarding the provincial dinos (no. 31) from trench SET N. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench SET N: Excavated in 1951. This large trench was located at the southwestern corner of the Enclosure Wall and extended west of the Gate Complex.

1489 P454 (no. 11), amphora? SET N, Cut N1-A, Layer 4.



11739 P4995 (no. 31), dinos. SET N.



1695 P542 (no. 103), lydion. SET N, angle between wall A2 and Building C, Layer 6b.



1061 P325 (no. 152), lydion. SET N, Cut N1-C/D, Level 3 pit.

Trench SET: Excavated in 1950. Located to the west of the Gate Complex and north of Building A.

599 P161 (no. 146), lydion. SET, east of Wall E, pit through Layer 5.



605 P167 (no. 147), lydion. SET, Central Area, Layer 5.

Terrace Building Zone (see Plan 5) The Terrace Building complex was located on the western side of the Eastern Citadel and consisted of two rows of buildings on either side of a central street. The complex was built ca. 2 m higher than the Outer and Inner Gate-Courts. The original, Early Phrygian version was destroyed in the great fire of ca. 800 BCE. It was rebuilt in a modified form at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period, with further modifications later on. The Early Phrygian buildings bear a different name from their Middle Phrygian successors. On the western side of the complex, the Early Phrygian buildings were named CC (“Clay Cut”) Buildings 1–4, while those on the eastern side were recorded as TB (“Terrace Buildings”) 1–8. The Middle Phrygian units on the western side were designated Buildings R, S, and U, whereas those on the



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 75

K

SET W

L SET N N T SE UT C D 1

N T SE UT C C 1

SE CU T N N T 1A

SET

N 0

20 m

Plan 4  Plan showing trenches on the Eastern Mound, southwest area. (Drawing by Evren Açar, from an original in the Gordion Archive, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)

eastern side were labelled Buildings I:1, I:2, J, K, L, N, T, and W.

Area of Clay Cut (CC): Buildings R and U Only three of the Early Phrygian Clay Cut Buildings (CC1–3) and their Middle Phrygian successors (U, R, and S) were excavated. Building R was situated between U at the north and S at the south. This area was initially excavated in 1952 and work continued in 1955, focused on the southern part.92 It was during 1955 in CC that Young exposed the remains of the Early Phrygian destruction level, now dated to ca. 800 (Sams 1994:2–5). Buildings R and U were both built in the early 8th century, and DeVries suggested that they were probably renovated during the first

half of the 6th century and perished in the mid-6th century destruction. The area may have been reused during the Late Phrygian period (DeVries 1990:391, 399–400). Evidence for the use of Building R during the 6th century is supported by the discovery of a hoard of 45 early Lydian electrum coins dated to 610–560 BCE (Bellinger 1968:10–15; Greenewalt 2012:261, n. 18.12; Rose 2012:16). The coins were found in the destruction debris of the mudbrick wall of Building R (Young 1964:283; DeVries 1990:391, 395).93 Parts of the walls of Buildings R and S were discovered during 1962, above the thick clay layer laid down at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period (Edwards 1963:46). Below this clay, in CC Building 1, were two cylindrical kilns (Kilns B and E) placed ca. 1 m apart. The upper diameters were 0.9–1.10 m

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

South Cellar

PPB

V

Q TB 8D

W

W2S S4

2

W

S

W22 S 2 W3 S

TBT-CCS 1

N

0

3

D

I:1

T5

TB

TBT 7B

20 m

Outer Gate-Court

G

I:2 I:2 Cellar

P

F

H

1

L WM

E

Painted House C

J

TBT 7A

N

Yellow House

M

L WM

W1S

Terrace Building Zone

NCT Inner Gate-Court

TN

TC

R

Floor S House

O

TB 7C

T

TB 7A

X

Q2 E1

K TBT 8A KTL

L

S II ET C W II B

CC 3E CC 3G CCC 3 D 3 CC CC 3B U CC 2 CC 1 CC Test CC Cut

TB 8S1

TB 7F TB 7E TB 7D

Y

Z

Plan 5  Plan showing trenches in the Terrace Building Zone. (Drawing by Evren Açar, from an original in the Gordion Archive, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)

for Kiln B and ca. 1 m for Kiln E; the heights were 0.78 m for Kiln B and 1.15 m for Kiln E. The excavator suggested that both kilns would have been accessible from two levels. The upper level would provide a suitable place to deposit and collect pottery, while the lower level would have been used for stoking.94 The kilns contained a large quantity of fine wares, far more than the coarse or cooking wares.95 The pottery from Kiln B included mainly monochrome wares: a strainer spouted vessel, an omphalos phiale (inv. no.: 6989 P2723), a ribbed and burnished oinochoe (inv. no.: 6986 P2726), an oinochoe with plastic decoration (inv. no.: 6986 P2720), a lebes with plastic and pattern-burnished decoration (inv. no.: 6987 P2721), and a burnished/incised lebes (inv. nos.: 7078 P2757, 7079 2758).

These two kilns and their contents are Early Phrygian in date (9th c. BCE), but they were disturbed by several deep pits (Pits A, C, and F) that were dug into this area during the Hellenistic period. One of the pits truncated Kiln B and contained two Late lydions (nos. 181 and 182), but also Hellenistic pottery. Consequently, there are no sealed strata here that can assist us with dating the Lydian pottery. Trench W2S4, excavated in 1962, was located near the southeast wall of Building R and extended to the street in front of it. A marbled oinochoe fragment (no. 35) was found in a fill between two floors (Floors 3 and 4). Above Floor 3, excavations yielded mostly coarse and cooking ware, and a mixture of Hellenistic and Phrygian painted pottery,96 while the layer below this floor and above Floor 4 had been disturbed by several



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 77

pits. The latter contained Hellenistic West Slope sherds mixed with Phrygian painted and black burnished pottery (inv. no.: 7087 P2766), as well as a Lydian marbled oinochoe fragment (no. 35).97 The finds below Floor 4 down to the Middle Phrygian clay layer included coarse ware and Phrygian painted pottery, an Ionian cup, architectural terracottas, and fine black polished pottery (inv. no.: 7072 P2752; Roller 1987:22, cat. no. 2A-85, inv. no. 6990 P2724).98 A provincial Lydian bichrome krater fragment (no. 9), stylistically datable to the 7th century or earlier, was excavated in the clay layer in the northern part of the trench.99 Following the exposure of the Early Phrygian buildings in the CC area in 1963, a small trench (CC Test Cut) was excavated to the west of Building U in order to determine the width of Early Phrygian CC Building 2. Within it was a Lydian streaky glazed skyphos (no. 64) in a mixed fill without a datable context.100 West of Building R was trench CCS1, which was excavated to the southwest of Clay Cut Building 2 in 1967 (Young 1968:238).101 Two Lydian streaky glazed sherds (nos. 66 and 76) were found in a layer (Layer 8) to the south of an east-west stone wall, part of which rested over a burned fill. The finds from Layer 8 seemingly yielded no pottery later than the 6th century,102 although the layer above it (Layer 7) was truncated by several Hellenistic pits.103 The western and southwestern corner walls of Building U were exposed in 1963 during the excavations in trench CC1, located to the northwest of trench CC. A streaky glazed oinochoe fragment with additional white decoration (no. 79) that belongs to the 6th century was found in the rubble fill of the building’s western wall; it is tied to a renovation of Building U. The finds over the Middle Phrygian clay layer included 21 boxes of pottery, mainly coarse ware and 6th and 5th century material, as well as one unguentarium and a Lydian marbled phiale (no. 24). In addition, there were terracotta tile fragments (Corinthian and Laconian cover tiles, fragments with diamondand-scroll and star-and-scroll decoration); a banded Attic cup (dated to 550–530 BCE by K. Lynch, pers. comm., inv. no.: 7339 P2883); intentional red pottery; and black glazed, polished black glazed, black-on-red, and bichrome pottery (inv. no.: 7334 P2880).104 Trench CC2 was placed directly to the east of CC1 in the same year, 1963. Its two uppermost layers

(Floors 1–2) and the third layer (Floors 3A–C) were truncated by several pits. A Lydian sherd with curled marbling decoration (no. 36) was discovered in the third layer, together with Attic black glazed sherds, an inscribed sherd (inv. no.: 7342 I257), and a bronze rectangular plaque (inv. no.: 7535 B1457).105 The excavations carried out in 1973 in the area of Building U (trench CC 3B) exposed the northwest corner of the building, which was set above its rubble bedding.106 The wall was seemingly robbed out and no. 80 was discovered in the fill, which included black polished pottery and a bone cylinder attachment (inv. no.: 10729 BI570). An ashy fill in trench CC 3C was related to the reconstruction of Building U,107 and joining fragments of vessels were discovered both in this fill and the robber-trench fill in CC 3B (where no. 80 was discovered).108 In trench CC 3D, a mixed brown and ashy-white fill was encountered.109 A provincial marbling dish fragment (no. 52) was found in a pit (Pit 10) associated with this ashy fill, together with several uninventoried items such as a banded lydion, fine black polished sherds, a terracotta pyramidal loom weight, and flat roof tiles.110 A marbled Lydian lekythos (no. 43) came from the same assemblage, along with a bichrome sherd (inv. no.: 10933 P4480), an Attic black figure sherd (inv. no.: 11725 P4982), a glass hawk head (inv. no.: 10951 G378), a bronze bridle attachment (inv. no.: 11459 B2011), and uninventoried architectural tile fragments with star and scroll decoration.111 The pottery in the ashy fill suggests a date no earlier than the 6th century, and the deposit seems to have belonged to an occupational phase of Building U. During the excavation of the Early Phrygian destruction layer here, a typical 6th century streaky glazed krater sherd with horizontal lines in additional white (no. 75) was discovered, in an ash fill near to the trench scarp.112 Again, this sherd had probably been deposited in a pit. Trenches CC 3C, CC 3D, CC 3E, and CC 3G, in which Lydian pottery was excavated in 1973, were located to the north of Building U. No. 60, in trench CC 3C, was discovered beneath a pebble floor, but this level had been disturbed by an oven and several pits possibly dating to the Hellenistic period, and so the strata here cannot be considered as sealed.113 Trench CC 3E was located near to the northeast corner of CC Building 3. The excavators exposed the

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD



14108 P6707 (no. 76), krater. TBT CCS1, Layer 8.

Middle Phrygian clay layer over the burned destruction debris that ended the Early Phrygian period.114 A pit (Pit G) within the clay layer contained a stemmed dish, black polished pottery, including some with graffiti (inv. nos.: I533, I537, I538, I541, P4492), and provincial Lydian bichrome stemmed dishes (nos. 4 and 5). Also present were ivory objects (inv. nos.: 10957 BI581a,b, 10958 BI582), and an Ionian cup (dated to the 6th century by K. Lynch; inv. no.: 10984 P4496).115 The pottery is clearly later than the early 8th century since the pit was dug into the thick clay layer, and the latest datable sherd, the imported Ionian cup, belongs to the late 6th. The style of the provincial Lydian bichrome dishes suggests they be dated earlier than the early 6th century (see Chapter 2). Two streaky glazed sherds with added white horizontal lines (nos. 71 and 74) were discovered in trench CC 3G, which was located over the northwest corner of CC Building 3. No. 71 was not from a stratified context, but no. 74 came from a fill over a floor (Floor 5) that lay above the thick Middle Phrygian clay layer. This fill included black polished carinated bowls, a bronze arrowhead, worked astragals, and a large quantity of 6th century red-painted tile fragments (pan and cover tiles).116 Nos. 71 and 74 can be dated stylistically to the 6th century.

Trench CC 3D: Excavated in 1973. Located at the northern end of trench CC 3, north of Building U.

Trenches with Lydian pottery



Trench CC: Excavated in 1962. Located to the west of the main room of Building R.

10960 P4487 (no. 43), lekythos. CC 3D, ash above clay.



7007 P2730 (no. 181), lydion. CC “C,” kiln B, above clay.

10929 P4476 (no. 52), dish. CC 3D, Pit 10, cutting through ash above clay and brown earth.



14107 P6706 (no. 75), krater. CC 3D, South Area, ash fill.



7008 P2731 (no. 182), lydion. CC “C,” kiln B, above clay.

Trench CC Test Cut: Excavated in 1963. North of the northwest corner of trench CC 1 and west of Building U.

7576 P2988 (no. 64), skyphos. CC Test Cut, Layer 3–4.

Trench TBT CCS1: Excavated in 1967. Located to the southwest of Clay Cut Building 2 and west of Building R.

9279 P3711 (no. 66), skyphos. TBT CCS1, Layer 8.

Trench W2S4: Excavated in 1962. Located to the southeast of Building R.

7123 P2777 (no. 9), krater. W2S4, north end of trench.



6985 P2719 (no. 35), oinochoe. W2S4, center of trench between Floors 3–4.

Trench CC 3B: Excavated in 1973. Located on the southwestern side of trench CC 3; included the northwest corner of Building U.

10832 P4427 (no. 80), oinochoe. CC 3B, Building U, robbed “south” (northwest corner of Building U) wall.

Trench CC 3C: Excavated in 1973. Located at the northeastern end of trench CC 3; included part of the northern wall of Building U.

10830 P4425 (no. 60), stand? CC 3C, under pebble floor.

Trench CC 3E: Excavated in 1973. Located at the northeastern end of trench CC 3.

10982 P4494 (no. 4), stemmed dish. CC 3E, Pit G, under cellar.



10983 P4495 and 10938 P4482 (no. 5), stemmed dish. CC 3E, Pit G, under cellar.

Trench CC 3G: Excavated in 1973. Located at the northwestern end of trench CC 3.

14103 P6703 (no. 71), skyphos. CC 3G, iskele.



14106 P6705 (no. 74), krater. CC 3G, cellar fill.



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 79

Trench CC 1: Excavated in 1963. Located west of Buildings U and R; included part of the southwest wall of Building U and the northwest corner of Building R.

7330 P2879 (no. 24), phiale. CC 1, Floor 3 to surface of clay.



7503 P2965 (no. 79), oinochoe. CC 1/CC 2, Building U, rubble fill.

Trench CC 2: Excavated in 1963. Located over part of the main room of Building U and part of the north wall of Building R.

7340 P2884 (no. 36), oinochoe. CC 2, Layer 3.

Eastern Row of Terrace Buildings: Buildings I:1, I:2, J, K, L, N, T, and W The eastern row of Middle Phrygian terrace buildings was constructed over the thick clay layer that covered their eight Early Phrygian predecessors. Unlike the latter, which were contiguous units, the Middle Phrygian buildings were free standing, though all had virtually the same orientation as their predecessors. Buildings L and K Building L was one of the first structures excavated by Young, in 1951. It was further investigated in 1959. The remains of the building were uncovered in several cuts in the South East Trench (SET), trench SET W,117 and trench KTL.118 During the 1959 excavations, three phases for Building L were distinguished by the excavator.119 The first phase, in the early 8th century, was preserved along the northern end of the building, where the remains of beam bedding were excavated. This phase (L1) was recorded as Layer 6. In the succeeding phase (L2), the building was renovated, and its foundation was set deep into the clay layer, resting in some areas over Early Phrygian pebble flooring. Floor 5 and Layer 5 are associated with this phase, lying over the clay and rubble fill that constituted part of the bedding of Building K.120 The last phase (L3) of Building L is associated with the Late Phrygian period, when new western and northern walls were added; the northern wall abutted the

south wall of Building K. Layer 4 and Floors 4 and 5 are contemporary with this final phase. Rose (forthcoming) agrees with the three phases and suggests that the initial early 8th century building (L1), with two rooms, included two workshop installations, and that the following building (L2), in the second half of the 8th century, was completely transformed into a new, four-room construction. The last phase occurred during the Late Phrygian period when the building was transformed back to a two-room plan again, though with a different orientation. There are no secure contexts to date the layers associated with phases L1, L2, and L3. However, L3 yielded Attic black glazed sherds (Layer 4, inv. no.: 12513 P5602), and L2 (Layer 5) included relatively earlier material, such as fine black polished pottery, large gray polished jars, and a Late lydion (no. 179).121 Fills associated with the Late Phrygian building (L3) included Attic black glaze vessels of which the earliest examples date to the early 5th century. Consequently, a date earlier than the early 5th century can be suggested for Layer 5 and for the lydion (no. 179). It seems likely that no. 179 was deposited at the very end of the Middle Phrygian period. Three Late lydions (nos. 154–156) were found in trench SET W, Cuts IIB and IIC. Nos. 154 and 155 came from a fill below a floor level (Floor 3) in SET W, Cut IIB. The fill consisted of stony earth with burned patches and seems to have been associated with the rubble fill of Building L. The excavator stated that it included no black glazed pottery, but there was a bronze double-flanged arrowhead and a bronze fibula.122 No. 156 was found in SET W, Cut IIC, below a floor (Floor 4) that had been disturbed by several pits. The context seems to be related to a rubble fill that may have been the bedding of a wall from Building L. It contained small glass objects (inv. nos.: 1570 G78, 1571 G79), six arrowheads, and an Attic white ground cup by the Penthesilea Painter dated to ca. 470–450 BCE (DeVries 1997:449–50, fig. 5; Lynch and Matter 2014:111–12, fig. 6), as well as earlier examples of painted pottery, such as black-on-red and red-on-buff.123 Building K was located to the north of Building L. Its main room was partially excavated, but the anteroom and entrance, which probably faced west, were not discovered. It is difficult to trace its architecture through the Middle Phrygian period; however, the

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

building was expanded during the Late Phrygian period, and the walls of Buildings K and L abutted each other (Rose, forthcoming). The trenches appertaining to Building K (Q2E1, KTL, and TBT 8A) yielded some Lydian pottery, the most interesting find being a Type III lekythos (no. 138) that was used as a container for 110 Persian silver sigloi. The lekythos was discovered in trench Q2E1, behind the wall of a cellar that truncated the northeast end of Building K. According to the excavator’s records, the walls of Middle Phrygian Building K were removed when this later cellar was built, and it seems probable that the wall stones were reused for the cellar’s construction.124 Rose suggests a late 5th century date for this activity (Rose, forthcoming). Young reported that all the silver sigloi in the lekythos were worn, and that the vessel had been tucked into a cavity in the cellar’s foundation (Young 1958:141). DeVries added that the pot was concealed behind the cellar wall and that the latest coin belonged to Ian Carradice’s class IIIb group c (ca. 420– 375 BCE) (DeVries 1990:400, n. 69). Additional evidence for Lydian pottery being used as containers for Persian silver sigloi comes from the excavations at Old Smyrna, Bayraklı, where four sigloi were found in a lydion dated to the early 5th century (Kroll 2010:151–54, figs. 12–13). Although the silver sigloi from Gordion have not been intensively studied, the Gordion hoard certainly belongs to the Achaemenid period, and therefore so too does no. 138, providing further support for my dating of the Type III lekythos (see Chapter 3, “Lekythos”). Much of the northwestern portion of Building K was exposed in trench TBT 8A.125 A fat-bellied lydion (no. 184) was discovered in the deep clay layer (Level 6) that was laid down at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period, over the burned Early Phrygian destruction level. The finds from Level 6 included large coarse storage jars, Attic black glazed kylix handles and body sherds, spindle whorls, Phrygian painted pottery, and two and three-flanged arrowheads (inv. no. 6961 B1375).126 However, the excavator noted that some of the finds in the clay layer were probably from later disturbances. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench SET W: Excavated in 1951. Located in Building L.



1481 P451 (no. 154), lydion. SET W, Cut II-B, fill below Floor 3.



1482 P452 (no. 155), lydion. SET W, Cut II-B, fill below Floor 3.



1569 P489 (no. 156), lydion. SET W, Cut II-C, fill below Floor 4.

Trench KTL: Excavated in 1959. Located over and southeast of Building K and northwest of Building L.

6952 P2697 (no. 179), lydion. KTL, Layer 5, west of Building K Wall.

Trench Q2E1: Excavated in 1957. Located in the southeastern part of Building K.

4665 P1762 (no. 138), lekythos. Q2E1, Hoard no. 2, N wall of Level 3 cellar.

Trench TBT 8A: Excavated in 1961. Located in the northwestern part Building K.

7190 P2804 (no. 184), lydion. TBT 8A, Level 6, East of wall K.

Buildings J, I:1, and I:2 In his recent study of the Middle and Late Phrygian architecture, Rose (forthcoming) suggests that Buildings J, I:1, and I:2 were constructed concurrently in the early 8th century. Initially, I:2 was divided into two separate rooms, and there was a semi-subterranean cellar at the northwestern corner (Voigt and Young 1999:203–5). There was also a cellar at the southwestern corner of I:1 (Voigt 1994:274). Rose further states that the I:2 cellar was remodeled and the building renovated during the second half of the 8th century, and later a new cellar (the “Cut Stone Cellar”) was added at the southwestern corner of I:2, in the late 8th or early 7th century. There is not much evidence for activity in I:1 and I:2 in the later 7th and 6th centuries, though the buildings may have continued in use then without any architectural modification (Rose, forthcoming). Several additional structural renovations and modifications occurred during the 5th century. Building J was located between Buildings K and I:2. The Lydian pottery found there was discovered



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 81

in two adjacent trenches (TBT 7A and TBT 7B), which covered the area of the south wall of the building. A marbled lydion belly fragment (no. 47) excavated in TBT 7A came from an unstratified area between “Level 2 and Level 4,” which yielded 16 boxes of mixed pottery.127 Two other marbled sherds (nos. 32 and 33) were found in TBT 7B, in a layer (Level 4) associated with Building J. Level 4 included several floors, one of them pebbled, and a considerable quantity of architectural fragments. The remains of a pebble mosaic floor and architectural terracottas were also discovered in trenches TBT 6A and TBT 6B, directly north of trenches TBT 7A and TBT 7B.128 These too may belong to the floor and roofing of Building J. The Lydian pottery from Level 4 (nos. 32 and 33) may be dated to the 6th or early 5th century, and so too the associated black polished sherds (inv. nos.: 7209 P2813, 7210 P2814) and gray strainer-spouted vessel. The architectural tiles are in the same style as those found in Late Phrygian buildings such as the Mosaic Building and the Painted House, which has led Rose to suggest that Building J was provided with a tiled roof during the early 5th century (Rose forthcoming). As with Buildings N, I:2, and J, the architectural remains of Building I:1 were not well–preserved and were mostly plundered. A single Late lydion (no. 175) was discovered in trench WML 1 in 1959, in a layer (Layer 5) that was dated by Young to the 5th century.129 The stratum also contained a bronze fibula (inv. no.: 5973 B1204) and bracelet (inv. no. 5974 B1205). Trench TBT 5 extended between the south wall of Building I:2 and the north wall of Building J. These buildings had been extensively plundered and the walls robbed in antiquity. The trench’s upper layers included several floor levels disturbed by Hellenistic pits.130 On Floor 5, a plain painted Lydian amphora fragment (no. 78) was found together with the remains of many cooking pots and coarse ware vessels, a lydion foot, a loom weight, and the fragment of a bichrome bowl (inv. no.: 6581 P2533). The main feature of Floor 5 was a wall resting on the Middle Phrygian rubble fill that covered the burned layer of the final Early Phrygian phase.131 It is unclear whether this wall was part of Building I:2 itself, or was simply attached to the latter. Its foundations cut into the clay and rubble fill (Voigt 1994:274, pl. 25.7.2). The remains of

wooden beam foundations (for a wall that no longer exists) were also recorded in this area.132 Rose suggests that a cut through Building I:2’s southeastern wall and the laying of the wooden beam foundations were complementary operations during the second half of the 8th century (Rose forthcoming). Floor 5, where no. 78 was discovered, must represent a later phase of occupation during the late 7th or 6th century judging by the date of the Lydian pottery. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench TBT 7A: Excavated in 1961. Located at the southwestern corner of the main room of Building J, and to the south of the building.

14112 P6711 (no. 47), lydion. TBT 7A, Level 2– Level 4.

Trench TBT 7B: Excavated in 1961 and 1962. Located in the southern area of Building J’s anteroom.

7207 P2812a (no. 32), amphora. TBT 7B, Level 4, below Floors 2 and 4B.



7207 P2812b (no. 33), amphora. TBT 7B, Level 4, below Floors 2 and 4B.



6880 P2648 (no. 62), skyphos. TBT 7B–TBT 8B.

Trench WML 1: Excavated in 1959. Located over the north wall of Building I:1, and extending northeast to the western Enclosure Wall of the Inner Gate-Court.

5834 P2169 (no. 175), lydion. WML 1, Area E, Layer 5.

Trench TBT 5: Excavated in 1961. Located in the area between Buildings I:2 and J. It partially covered the north wall of Building J and the south wall of Building I:2.

6570 P2526 (no. 78), amphora. TBT 5, Floor 5.

Building N No well-preserved architectural remains of Building N were found, though the rubble wall beddings survived. The floor levels above the deep Middle Phrygian clay layer were also in place.

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

A Lydian lekythos painted with a provincial marbling effect (no. 56) was discovered in a fill above the Middle Phrygian clay, in an area where the building’s rubble foundations were excavated; the deposit could not be well dated.133 The fill’s contents were mostly 6th-century and 5th-century pottery, such as a black polished saucer (inv. no.: 6388 P2428), a black polished omphalos bowl (inv. no.: 6393 P2433), Phrygian painted sherds (inv. no.: 6390 P2430), and an imported Attic black figure lekythos (inv. no.: 6409 P2441), but there was also a banded bowl that is probably Hellenistic (inv. no.: 6389 P2429). A provincial Lydian skyphos decorated with ¾ concentric circles (no. 20) was found in an unstratified layer in trench W2S.134 Another provincial Lydian fragment, decorated with horizontal marbling (no. 40), was found in Building N (Layer 4 in trench WML 3E), but unfortunately it provides no helpful information since the stratigraphy here was poorly recorded.135 Nearby, a Late lydion (no. 178) was discovered in a fill (Level 6) over Building N’s rubble bedding;136 the context also included a bronze fibula fragment (inv. no.: 6438 B1307). Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench W2S: Excavated in 1961. Located directly northeast of trenches W2S2 and W2S3. It covered the northwestern part of Building N, and the area beyond to the north .

6332 P2401 (no. 20), skyphos. W2S, West2.00–2.60 m and W2S3 under Floor 2b.

Trench WML 3D: Excavated in 1959. Located in the northern part of Building N, and running northeast to the western Enclosure Wall.

6951 P2696 (no. 178), lydion. WML 3D, Level 6.

Trench WML 3E: Excavated in 1959. Located in the northern part of Building N, and running northeast to the western Enclosure Wall.

14113 P6712 (no. 40), oinochoe. WML 3E, Layer 4.

Trench W1S: Excavated in 1962. Located at the front of Buildings N and I:1.

6397 P2437 (no. 56), lekythos. W1S, Layer 4.

West of Building N In trench W2S2A, a fat-bellied lydion (no. 177) was found in a fill located northwest of a hearth (Hearth H) lying above the deep Middle Phrygian clay layer, together with much coarse ware and black polished pottery, a bronze fibula (inv. no. 6534 B1319), a painted sherd (inv. no. 6384 P2424), and a decorated tile fragment.137 The fill seems likely to have been deposited in the 6th century. In the adjacent trench W2S3, a bichrome amphora fragment decorated with concentric hooks (no. 12) was found in the fill of a pit (Pit H) dug into a floor (Floor 4) that had been disturbed by many such pits. The fill contained mostly coarse ware and variously red or black polished pottery, but also a number of bichrome sherds (inv. no.: 6464 P2478) and a trilobate arrowhead.138 The floor lay over the deep layer of early Middle Phrygian clay.139 Since there was no Hellenistic pottery in Pit H, the pit may have been dug down to the Middle Phrygian levels in the Late Phrygian period. Nevertheless, No. 12, an early example of its type, is datable to the 7th century on stylistic grounds. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench W2S2: Excavated in 1961. Located over the street between Buildings R and N.

6362 P2411 (no. 177), lydion. W2S2, northwest of Hearth H, above clay.

Trench W2S3: Excavated in 1961. Located over the street between Buildings R and N.

6550 P2512 (no. 12), amphora? W2S3, Pit H, Floor 4.

Buildings T and W Buildings T and W were located at the northern end of the eastern row of megarons in the Terrace Building zone. Trench TB 7A covered the middle of the north side of Building T, whose walls were poorly preserved, having been robbed out in a later period. Three Lydian vessels were discovered here, in deposits that were clearly later intrusions since they lay above the wall remains and sloped down into the building.140 These vessels consisted of a marbled skyphos fragment



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 83

(no. 25), a streaky-glazed skyphos (no. 68), and a Late lydion (no. 197). In the Middle Phrygian clay layer, a Lydian lekythos (no. 87) was found together with a bronze fibula fragment and an architectural tile with a chariot hunt depiction (inv. no.: 10258 A279).141 No. 69, the fragment of a streaky-glazed skyphos, was also discovered near to the clay layer, which included many architectural terracottas (inv. no.: 10327 A280) and Phrygian painted vessels (inv. no.: 10369 P4199).142 One of the earliest examples of Lydian pottery, a 7th century red bichrome sherd with concentric semicircles (no. 15), was found in a pit (Pit 17) that penetrated down to Building T’s wall-bedding. The pit contained mostly cooking pots, as well as coarse and gray ware.143 Trenches TN and TC were both located inside Building T. No. 186, a Late banded lydion, came from a fill in TC that had been disturbed by several pits.144 In TN, a Lydian lekythos (no. 86) was found in a fill that also included Attic black figure sherds, architectural tiles with checkerboard designs, and coarse pottery, indicating a 6th century date.145 Adjacent to TN, trenches TB 7C and TB 7D lay over the northeastern end of the alley between Buildings T and W. A red bichrome sherd decorated with concentric pendent hooks (no. 13), similar to no. 15, was found in one of several pits in this area. Although this particular pit contained no other datable artifacts,146 the style of No. 13 suggests a 7th century date. No. 105, a Late lydion, was found in a fill (Level 4) in TB 7D. This deposit contained painted pottery of the 7th–6th centuries, including Phrygian painted vessels (inv. nos.: 7989 P3205, 7998 P3212, 7629 P3813), as well as an Anatolian black-on-red fragment, an imported Attic black figure fragment, and a large number of bronze objects.147 The pits may have been dug during the Late Phrygian period. Trenches TB 7E and TB 7F were located over Building W. The earliest deposit that contained Lydian pottery was a fill (Layer 5) above the early Middle Phrygian clay layer in TB 7E. Here, an early Lydian bichrome carinated dish (no. 1) was associated with artifacts dating mostly to the 8th and 7th centuries, including a Phrygian painted vessel decorated with cross-hatching and the figure of a goat (inv. no.: 8076 P3239), a Phrygian pitcher (inv. no.: 8075 P3238), bronze fibula fragments (Caner 1983:123, no. 743, inv. nos.: 8265 B1548; 8269 B1552), and other finds

probably belonging to the early phase of the Middle Phrygian period.148 In TB 7F, two Lydian marbled vessels, a lekythos (no. 42) and a fluted fat-bellied lydion (no. 46), both of them stylistically datable to the 6th century, were apparently discovered at the top of an ash-filled pit (Pit 1) that extended 0.60 m into a hard-packed earth floor (Floor 5). Other finds from the pit included many coarse ware fragments, spindle whorls, and a trefoil-mouth jug (inv. no.: 8177 P3280).149 There were also two other pits truncating Floor 5, and the floor lay above the thick layer of clay that was deposited at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period (and in which were found traces of the wooden beams from Building W’s wall foundations).150 Scattered on the floor were many bronze and iron objects, as well as terracotta tiles with Theseus and the Minotaur scenes.151 It looks as though Floor 5 and the pits represent the last phase of activity in the Middle Phrygian period, relating to a later reuse of Building W.152 The structure was probably abandoned shortly after the Persian invasion, in the mid-6th century (Rose, forthcoming). Trench TB 8S1 was located at the western end of Building W, and here a Late lydion (no. 193) was discovered over a floor level (Floor 6) associated with the building’s entrance; there were also painted roof tiles decorated with scrolls and the goat-in-tree motif.153 The scroll decoration finds parallels in the tiles from the Mosaic Building and the Painted House, both of which were roofed during the early 5th century, and a similar date for no. 193 seems likely. Rose has pointed out that the southwest corner of Building W was removed during the Late Phrygian period and a cellar was inserted (Rose, forthcoming). Another Lydian sherd from the Late Phrygian period is a marbled oinochoe fragment (no. 38), which was found to the north of Building W in trench TB 8D, in a fill between two floor levels (Floors 3 and 4). The deposit contained mainly Attic black glazed rouletted or palmette stamped bowl fragments of the 5th century.154 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench TC: Excavated in 1963. Located to the south of Trench TB 7A.

7585 P2994 (no. 186), lydion. Gordion Museum 30-035-07. TC, Level 4 fill.

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Trench TN: Excavated in 1963. Located to the east of Trench TB 7A.

7428 P2919 (no. 86), lekythos. TN, Level 4 fill.

Trench TB 7A: Excavated in 1971. Located at the north-central end of Building T.

14100 P6700 (no. 15), amphora? TB 7A5, Pit 17 (below Floor 3).



10395 P4216 (no. 25), skyphos. TB 7A4, Layer 7.



10396 P4217 (no. 68), skyphos. TB 7A1, Layer 4.



20435 P4233 (no. 69), skyphos. TB 7A3, Layer 5.



10252 P4129 (no. 87), lekythos. TB7A1, 2 in clay.



10177 P4074 (no. 197), lydion. TB 7A2, in Floor 4a, northeast corner.

Trench TB 7C: Excavated in 1965. Located between Buildings T and W.

8345 P3314 (no. 13), amphora? TB 7C, Level 4.

Trench TB 8D: Excavated in 1967. Located north of

Building W.



8829 P3513 (no. 38), oinochoe. TB 8D, Floors 3–4.

Northwest Corner Zone (see Plan 6) The excavation trenches at the northern end of the eastern mound included two main trench groups, named WCW (West City Wall) and WS (West Slope). A number of these trenches yielded Lydian pottery: WCW 8, WCW 9, WCW 11, and WCW 13, located in the western part of the area; and WCW 6, WCW 3, WCW 1, WS 5S4, WS 4–5S3, WS 5–6S3 WS 3–4S1, and PH–PEW to the east. Within the northeastern part of the excavated zone stood a multi-roomed building complex named PPB (the so-called “PersianPhrygian Building”), which was constructed in the Middle Phrygian period and was probably composed of sixteen cellar units (Rose, forthcoming). Trenches with Lydian pottery in this particular area included PPB 5, WS 4–5N, WS 5–6N, WS 7N, WS 8N, WS 9N, and PPB SE.

Trench TB 7D: Excavated in 1965. Located between

Buildings T and W, partially covering the southeast corner of Building W and the northeast corner of Building T.



7997 P3211 (no. 105), lydion. TB 7D Layer 4.

Trench TB 7E: Excavated in 1965. Located in the area of Building W, partially covering the main room and south wall.

8376 P3253 (no. 1), dish. TB 7B, Layer 5.

Trench TB 7F: Excavated in 1965. Located over the

southeast corner of Building W’s main room, and east beyond the building.



8123 P3251 (no. 46), lydion. TB 7F, Floor 5, Pit 1.



8157 P3265 (no. 42), lekythos. TB 7F, Floor 5, Pit 1.

Trench TB 8S1: Excavated in 1967. Located at the

northwest end of Building W.



9062 P3614 (no. 193), lydion. TB 8 S1, Floor 6.

The North Circuit Wall A high retaining or terrace wall, made of squared limestone blocks separated by heavy horizontal wooden beams, constituted the outer face of a Middle Phrygian defensive circuit (Young 1968:232–33). This wall was first excavated in 1967, continued by further excavations between 1969 and 1973. DeVries suggested that there was a rectangular bastion here during the early part of the Middle Phrygian period, formed by the circuit wall making a return to the south at both its east and west ends (DeVries 1990:393–95, fig. 29). Work in the area also revealed a series of adjoining secondary walls (DeVries 1990: fig. 30). Trenches WCW 3 and WCW 6 were located in the central part of the circuit wall’s length, WCW 11 and WCW 9 lay at the western end, and WCW 13, WCW 1, WS5–S4, WS4–5S3, and WS5–6S3 were cut to the south of the wall line. Work at the western end of the area, in trench WCW 13, revealed a succession of secondary walls adjoining the terrace wall (DeVries 1990:393–95, fig. 30). Here, a Lydian waveline hydria (no. 220) was found, together with



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 85

PH-PEW

WS4 3- 1 S

WS-5 4 3 S W WS 5 C W S4 1

WCW 3 WCW 6

W WC1 1

WS N 4-5

PPB 5

WS N 5-6 WSN 7

WS 5-6 S3

PPB

W8 WC

WS 8N WSN 9

WCW 9 W WC 13

South Cellar

PPB SE

N 0

20 m

W

Plan 6  Plan showing trenches at the Northwest Corner Zone of the Eastern Mound. (Drawing by Evren Açar, from an original in the Gordion Archive, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)

a Lydian streaky glazed Type III lekythos fragment (no. 89) over the terrace wall (see Chapter 3), and an Attic black-glazed base fragment (not inventoried) dated to the 5th century.155 A joining fragment to no. 89 was discovered further to the north in trench WCW 11, in Layer 6, which also included a Lydian bichrome carinated dish fragment (no. 2) and a rich range of painted pottery datable to the 7th–4th centuries, such as Phrygian black burnished ware (inv. no.: 10711 P4376), buff ware, gray ware, and gray burnished stamped ware. There were also Attic black figure fragments (e.g., inv. nos.: 10626 P4340, 11358 P4701, 11727 P4984, 11256 P4653), cover tiles decorated with heraldic lions (inv. no.: 10647 A284), an Achaemenid bowl, and other bowls dated to the 4th century.156 Another Lydian lekythos (no. 44) was

discovered in trench WCW 9, in a layer (Layer 5) with fragments of lozenge-palmette tiles, large coarse ware vessels, and monochrome carinated bowls. 157 In the western sector of the north circuit wall, a Lydian marbled skyphos fragment (no. 30) was found in trench WCW 8, in a layer (Layer 3) with Phrygian painted sherds and Phrygian monochrome carinated bowls.158 Directly to the east of this trench, three more Lydian pottery fragments came from a fill (Layer 4) above the circuit wall: a dish decorated with marbling effect (no. 51), together with a marbled skyphos (no. 29), from WCW 6; and a lekythos (no. 139) from WCW 3. The fill contained mixed material, including Phrygian painted pottery, an Attic red figure lekythos with palmettes, roof tiles, Hellenistic echinus bowls, Hellenistic fish plates, and other Attic

86

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

red figure fragments.159 Nos. 26 and 27 come from contaminated fills in WCW 3.160 A Lydian bichrome amphora fragment with concentric hooks (no. 14) and an oinochoe fragment with marbling effect (no. 55) were excavated in trench WCW 1. No. 55 came from the top layer (Layer 7) with no datable pottery, though the excavator did not save all the material,161 and no. 14 was found in the layer below it (Layer 8), which included pre-Hellenistic remains (dating from the 8th century to the Achaemenid period), such as a bronze arrowhead, a mosaic peg, tiles decorated with checkerboards, coarse ware, Phrygian painted pottery, and a bronze fibula (inv. no.: 9605 B1796).162 The layer below that (Layer 9), above the Middle Phrygian clay layer, included a crystal seal stone (Dusinberre 2005:48, cat. no.: 25; parallels from the Levant date to before 700 BCE). Further to the east, three lydions excavated in trenches WS5S4, WS 4–5S3, and WS 3–4S, came from above the Middle Phrygian clay layer. In WS5S4, a fat-bellied lydion fragment (no. 108) was discovered in Layer 7, immediately above the clay, together with a bronze fibula, a spindle whorl, and Phrygian black polished sherds.163 No. 192, a Late lydion, was found in Floor 5B. Although the overlying layer included Hellenistic material, Floor 5B appears to have been undisturbed, and contained Phrygian painted pottery, a bronze fibula (inv. no.: 9449 B1746), 6th century terracotta tiles decorated with star and scroll pattern (Glendinning 2002:29, fig. 30), and Attic black glazed fragments.164 Pottery from the fill (Layer 3) above the circuit wall in trench WS 3–4S included a Late lydion (no. 107), as well as coarse ware and Hellenistic sherds. The excavation records indicate that the wall was largely robbed out, and that Layer 3 thus contained both early and later pottery.165 Nos. 188 and 189 are two identical Late lydions, found near the cut through the wall in trench WS 4–5N, outside the east wall of a cellar; the fill contained black burnished ware and coarse storage jar fragments. Neither fill appears to have been disturbed by later pits.166 Still further east, trench PH–PEW yielded one Late lydion (no. 194) that was discovered in a pit (Pit B) dug into a hard-packed earth floor (Floor 4). The pit contained Phrygian painted pottery (inv. no.: 9075 P3622) and a Phrygian black polished trefoilmouth jug (inv. no.: 9014 P3592), none of which can

be dated earlier than the 6th century.167 Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench WCW 13: Excavated in 1973.

11027 P4514ab (no. 220), hydria. WCW 13, under Floor 5, “south of Persian City Wall.”

Trench WCW 11: Excavated in 1971.



10799 P4408a-c (no. 2), dish. WCW 11, Layer 6; WCW 12, under floor 5-N.



10839 P4434 (no. 89), lekythos. WCW 11, Layer 6; WCW 13, “south of Persian Wall,” white floor patch.

Trench WCW 9: Excavated in 1971.



14116 P6715 (no. 44), lekythos. WCW 9, Layer 5.

Trench WCW 8: Excavated in 1971.



14110 P6709 (no. 30), skyphos. WCW 8, Layer 3.

Trench WCW 6: Excavated in 1971.



10063 P4011 (no. 51), dish. WCW 6, Layer 4.



141 P6708 (no. 29), skyphos. WCW 6, Layer 4, just above Floor 4. “Persian wall.”

Trench WCW 3: Excavated in 1969.



9766 P3886 (no. 26), skyphos. WCW 3, WGI, Layer 5.



9767 P3887 (no. 27), skyphos. WCW 3, Layer 5.



9703 P3867 (no. 139), lekythos. WCW 3, Layer 4.

Trench WCW 1: Excavated in 1969.



14099 P6699 (no. 14), amphora? WCW 1, Layer 8.



14114 P6713 (no. 55), oinochoe. WCW 1, Level 7.

Trench WS5S4: Excavated in 1967.



9371 P3751 (no. 108), lydion. WS5S4, Layer 7.

Trench WS 4–5 S3: Excavated in1967.





FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 87

9061 P3613 (no. 192), lydion. WS 4–5 S3, Floor 5B, under Floor 4B.

Trench WS 5–6 S3: Excavated in 1967.



9217 P3684 (no. 39), oinochoe. WS 5–6 S3, Layer 6.

Trench WS 3–4 S1: Excavated in 1967.



8671 P3486 (no. 107), lydion. WS 3–4 S, Layer 3, above wall.

Trench WS 4–5 N: Excavated in 1967.



8827 P3511 (no. 188), lydion. WS 4–5 N, fill outside and near base of east wall of cellar cut through “Persian City Wall.”



8828 P3512 (no. 189), lydion. WS 4–5 N, fill outside and near base of east wall of cellar cut through “Persian City Wall.”

Trench PH–PEW: Excavated in 1967.



9063 P3615 (no. 194), lydion. PH-PEW, Floor 4, PitB.

The PPB (Persian-Phrygian Building) Area Young had suggested that the PPB building was constructed in the Early Phrygian period but was also used during Middle Phrygian times. A reassessment of the evidence, suggests that the PPB building was constructed at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period, with no significant Early Phrygian predecessor (Sams and Voigt 2011:163). Like many of the buildings on the Citadel Mound, this multi-roomed complex was disturbed in the Hellenistic period, but it was not built over the thick layer of Middle Phrygian clay attested elsewhere on the mound (Young 1968:235– 36, pl. 72, fig. 13, pl. 73, fig. 3). The fill from the building included rich finds of inscribed pottery as well as many metal artifacts (Young 1968:235–36). Young suggested that the PPB complex was no longer used after the mid-5th century (Young 1968:235). During the course of the 1967 excavations, four adjacent rooms were uncovered in WS 5–6N, WS 7N, WS 8N, and WS 9N, and these trenches also yielded Lydian painted pottery. WS 5–6N and WS

7N included the northern end of the building. In WS 5–6N, the finds from Layer 6 (where no. 190, a Late lydion, was discovered), as well as from the pits at the same level, seem to be chronologically homogenous, with nothing noticeably later than the 5th century. Among the rich material from the fill are at least 20 inscribed pottery fragments (e.g., inv. nos.: 8893 I386, 8897 I390, 8899 I392, 8939 I402), decorated roof tiles, bronze fibulae (e.g., 9432 B1742, 9460, B1757), a bronze ring, a bronze bracelet, and a bronze arrowhead.168 Similarly, Layer 6 in trench WS 7N revealed many bronze and iron artifacts, as well as a Late lydion (no. 191), 6th and 5th century Attic black figure and black-glazed sherds (inv. nos.: 9116 P3638, 11846 P5071), several architectural terracottas, black polished ware, gray ware, and pithoi fragments.169 Traces of domestic Hellenistic architecture lay over the upper four levels of trenches WS 8N and WS 9N. Below the Hellenistic remains, several fills were attested. The upper fills in which nos. 58 and 196 were found contained mixed pottery of 7th–5th century date as well as Hellenistic material,170 whereas the lower fills in which nos. 45, 67, and 109 were discovered contained no Hellenistic finds.171 Trench PPB 5 was located at the eastern end of the building. A provincial bichrome dish fragment (no. 3) was found in Layer 5. The layers above were mainly Hellenistic, but they included earlier material, such as black glazed pottery, Phrygian painted vessels with geometric patterns (inv. nos.: 9733 3880, 9768 P3888), a black polished trefoil-mouth jug (inv. no.: 9791 P3895), an Attic black figure fragment (inv. no.: 9789 P3893), and an Egyptian scarab, the parallels of which can be dated between the 7th and the 5th centuries (Dusinberre 2005:57–58, cat. no. 36).172 Trench PPB SE was located at the southwest corner of the building. A Lydian closed vessel fragment with marbling effect (no. 57) was found below a floor (Floor 4) in Pass 12. The excavator recorded that after Pass 3, Hellenistic pottery decreased, and after Pass 6, Phrygian painted pottery became evident.173 In the lower passes, Phrygian painted pottery was predominant. Trenches with Lydian pottery Trench WS 5–6N: Excavated in 1967.

8916 P3549 (no. 190), lydion. WS 5–6 N, Layer 6. Beside large wall.

88

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Trench WS 7N: Excavated in 1967.



8974 P3570 (no. 191), lydion. WS 7 N, Layer 6.

Trench WS 8N: Excavated in 1967.



14111 P6710 (no. 45), lekythos. WS 8 N, Layer 8.



9324 P3735 (no. 67), skyphos. WS 8 N, Level 9A.



9372 P3752 (no. 109), lydion. WS 8 N, Layer 8.



9216 P3683 (no. 195), lydion. WS 8 N, Layer 6.

Trench WS 9N: Excavated in 1967.



9213 P3680 (no. 58), lekythos. WS 9 N, Layer 6B.

Trench PPB 5: Excavated in 1969.



9762 P3882 (no. 3), stemmed dish. PPB 5, Layer 5.

Trench PPB SE: Excavated in 1971.



14115 P6714 (no. 57), closed vessel. PPB SE. Below Floor 4, pass 12.

CITADEL MOUND: WESTERN MOUND (see Plan 1) Excavation in this area was initiated by the Körte brothers in 1900 (Körte and Körte 1904:146–211) and continued by Young in 1950.174 Like the eastern mound, the western mound was covered by a deep clay fill laid down at the beginning of the Middle Phrygian period, separating the Early and Middle Phrygian settlements. The western mound was reinvestigated by Voigt in1989 and from 1993–1996 (1994, 2013), and she suggested that the volume of clay exceeded that which covered the eastern mound (Voigt 2007:327). Sams argued that the layers excavated by Young in the South Trench (trench ST) may in fact have been the backfill of the Körte brothers’ trenches, and this was confirmed by Voigt’s more limited excavations (Voigt 2005:34). Hence, it might be thought that there is no secure stratigraphy from Young’s excavations in the area. Nevertheless, a group of lydions excavated in squares D-II and D-III gives the impression that they

may have been found in a stratified deposit (nos. 102, 141, 148–151), and this assumption has also recently been supported (Dusinberre et al. 2019). Recent analysis of this deposit determined that it may have been part of a dumped debris accumulation following the Persian sack of Gordion in ca. 540 BCE. The related analysis of stratigraphy was, to a large degree, based upon the results of Voigt’s excavations by combining previous data and revealed that half of the deposit was, in fact, cleared in 1950 (Dusinberre et al. 2019:147–150). Six similar fat-bellied lydions (nos. 102, 141, 148–151 were discovered in a layer (Layer 5) in Cut DII–III. Five of the lydions are banded with a compression on the shoulder (nos. 102, 148–151), and one of them has a spherical body (no. 141). A streaky-glazed stamnos (no. 77) and oinochoe (no. 81) were also excavated in relation to these cuts. The ceramic assemblage had previously been associated with a Middle Corinthian aryballos of the early 6th century (inv. no.: 776 P210, Alkım et al 1951:13; DeVries 2005:47, n. 22; recently studied by Lynch in Dusinberre et al. 2019:200, no. 11). The recent study of the assemblage by Dusinberre, Lynch, and Voigt determined that content of the deposit is rich that includes Attic and Corinthian imports, cooking pots, polished and gray wares, architectural tiles, and animal bones (Dusinberre et al. 2019:152–194) most of which were excavated by Voigt. Careful study of Attic and Corinthian imported pottery by Lynch provides a terminus post quem of 550–540 BCE for the deposit (Dusinberre et al. 2019:53–56). The Lydian pottery in the article is in accord with Gordion’s general Lydian ceramic repertory; however, some of the pottery labeled as “Lydianizing” (i.e., Dusinberre et al. 2019:157–58, figs. 12–13, YH51532.5, YH53382.1, YH55670.1, YH55672.1) are, in fact, not strongly related to Lydian tradition but rather involved in central Anatolian “black-on-red” koine (especially YH55670.1, YH55672.1). Trenches with Lydian pottery South Trench: Excavated in 1950 except for no. 77, which was excavated in 1951.

12194 P5355 (no. 70), skyphos. ST, between Cuts A I and A II, and Cut A III.



12397 P5516 (no. 77), stamnos. ST, Cut D II.



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 89



12035 P5215 a–b (no. 81), oinochoe. ST, Cut D-II, below floor 4.



555 P156 (no. 101), lydion. ST, Cut C III. Between floors 4 and 5.



718 P205 (no. 102), lydion. ST, Cut D II–D III. Level 5.



750 P218 (no. 141), lydion. ST, Cut D II–D III, Level 5.



717 P204 (no. 148), lydion. ST, Cut D II–D III. Level 5.



719 P206 (no. 149), lydion. ST, Cut D II–D III. Level 5.



720 P207 (no. 150), lydion. ST, Cut D II–D III. Level 5.



721 P208 (no. 151), lydion. ST, Cut D II–D III. Level 5.



12137 P5348 (no. 222), stemmed dish. ST, Cuts AI–II.

KÜÇÜK HÖYÜK (see Plan 7) The Küçük Höyük is a small mound located southeast of the Citadel Mound, in the southern sector of the Lower Town. Excavation yielded a multistoried monumental fort incorporated into the Lower Town fortification circuit, with the remains of over 40 Lydian vessels and numerous arrowheads that were embedded in the mudbrick defensive walls. Unfortunately, this complex still remains problematic in terms of its chronology and occupation phases. One reason lies in the fact that the mound has not been extensively excavated and studied. It was explored by M.J. Mellink in 1951, 1956–1959, 1961, and 1963.175 During the 1951 investigations, the excavators hit a 1.50–4.50 m thick clay layer at 5 m below ground level. Young thought that the top of the mound had been used as a tumulus in the second half of the 6th century or later, and that the lower part containing the fort had been covered by the tumulus clay following the fort’s destruction in the mid-6th century (Young 1953a). Mellink’s excavations revealed a mudbrick platform standing about 12 m high, 50 m long, and

over 10 m wide, on top of which the fort had been built. At least four stories high, the building rose to a height of about 14 m, with wood and mudbrick walls set on stone foundations (Young 1957:324; Young 1958:140; Edwards 1959: 264; Mellink 1959). Mellink and Edwards suggested that occupation in the Küçük Höyük started after the Early Phrygian settlement’s destruction, during the Middle Phrygian period but before the advent of Lydian control (Mellink 1959:105–6; Edwards 1959: 264). Voigt’s excavations in the 1990s confirmed prior conclusions that the fort was linked to the Lower Town fortifications, and that all the defenses were part of a rebuilding program in the Middle Phrygian period (Voigt et al 1997:6–8). The only point of difference is that Mellink and Edwards assumed that the building program started after the early 7th century, which is the date proposed by Young for the Early Phrygian destruction, whereas Voigt argued that the destruction occurred about a century earlier, ca. 800 BCE, according to the revised chronology for Iron Age Gordion (see Rose and Darbyshire 2011). It still remains unclear as to when exactly the fort was constructed within the Middle Phrygian period (DeVries 2011:19). The remains of Lydian pottery in the Küçük Höyük’s destruction debris led Young to identify the fort as a Lydian installation (Young 1957:324), and the destruction was linked to a Persian attack on Gordion in the 540s BCE (Young 1953a; Young 1953b:29; Mellink 1991:652–53; Sams 2005:19–20). In contrast to Young’s inclination to date the Küçük Höyük’s construction to the Lydian period, during the first half of the 6th century, Mellink believed that it was built prior to the establishment of Lydian control. This was based on the presence of an earlier mudbrick wall underneath and extending out from the fortress (Mellink 1991:629). This earlier wall was located under the floor in the southeast corner of Room 1 (see below).176 Mellink referred to this room as Unit A in her Field Report of 1956. Recent discoveries through remote sensing have revealed that there was a street that linked the Küçük Höyük fort to the Citadel Mound, and that the Middle Phrygian citadel was protected by three forts, Kuştepe to the north, Küçük Höyük to the south, and another one in the Outer Town to the west (Rose 2017:146–47).

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LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

Edge of excavated area D

B A

West wall

East wall

Area of “Balcony”

Room 2

Room 1

South wall

C

Blocked Door

N

Beam Unit

0

5m

Plan 7  Plan showing excavation areas in the Küçük Höyük. (Drawing by Evren Açar, after Young 1953a: fig. 3, modified by Gareth Darbyshire and Ardeth Anderson)



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 91

Room 1 and the “Balcony” In her unpublished Field Report of 1956, Mellink discussed the results of her previous excavations at the Küçük Höyük. She noted that the monumental mudbrick fort was built over a mudbrick terrace that had a foundation fill of solid dark clay. The fort had a roughly rectangular plan, with interior access provided by two doors at the south and a larger door at the north. The two southern doors she thought were for access to basement rooms and the northern door was an external entrance to the upper level (Young 1953a:163). Three units of the fort were investigated (see Plan 7): Room 1 (Unit A) at the southeast; Room 2 (Unit C), to the east of Room 1; and the “Beam Unit” (Unit B), to the south of Room 1. The area known as the “Balcony” actually refers to a wooden construction that may have served as a porch on an upper story of Room 1; it collapsed during the destruction fire, and the remains covered the interior of Room 1 as well as the east side of the building. The top of the terrace was exposed ca. 1 m below the floor of Room 1, which had a separate mudbrick foundation of about 10 courses supported by beams.177 The room had a rectangular plan with thick (ca. 1.50 m) mudbrick walls supported by wooden frames. It had a hard earth floor with pebbles and stones patches.178 Access was provided by two of the doors mentioned earlier, one on the south side of the room, the other on the east. Of the 42 Lydian vessels reported from the Küçük Höyük excavations, 38 of them (nos. 73, 90–100, 111–127, 140, 199–204, and 206) were found in the “Balcony” area. Much of this pottery was from a stratum of burned earth that lay above the burned wood. At the top of the debris were five lydions (nos. 111–114, 199) and a lekythos (no. 115).179 Six more lydions (nos. 115–118, 200 and 201) from the burned earth were found with the charred wood that had evidently fallen from an upper story; here Mellink noted that the wood remains “must be the roof beams,” and “some three-flanged arrowheads come from this area, also pieces of iron with traces of wood on their square faces.”180 As noted above, the debris within the southeast room (Room 1) was also referred to as the “Balcony” in the field notebook.181 The eastern door connecting Room 1 with Room 2 was filled with rubble according to Young

(1953a:163);182 Mellink recorded that the door was blocked with a small mudbrick wall and stone boulders.183 The excavations carried out in the debris to the west of the door and to the south of Room 1 yielded a Lydian skyphos (no. 73), as well as arrowheads that are mostly of the bronze two-flanged type (e.g. inv. no.: 2096 B370), an incised amphora handle (inv. no.: 2490 P801, 2491 I87; Roller 1987:18, cat. no. 2A-30), and the burned skeletal remains of two human victims.184 She found the remains of at least two more people on the floor in the southern part of the room.185 Mellink opened an additional cut to the east of Room 1 to further investigate the fallen “balcony” outside: “The top level consisted of at least two beams issuing from the east wall of Room 1 and cross beams laid over them.”186 She recorded that two lydions came from the first layer of burned wood, two more were found between the first and second burned wood layers, and yet more lydions came from the second burned stratum, in both burned and unburned tumble.187 It is uncertain which lydions came from each of these layers, but Mellink separately listed the inventory numbers of 11 lydions (nos. 119–126, 202–204) and eight lekythoi (nos. 92–99) that were found in this area of the “balcony.”188 Along with these vessels there were some painted roof tiles, and gray ware with incised small concentric circles.189 Another lydion was recorded to have been found in the fallen burned stratum in 1956.190 A lekythos (no. 140) was discovered in the burned wood stratum below the mudbrick tumble in the northern part of the area to the east of Room 1,191 and two lydions (nos. 128, 206) were found in the same vicinity, lying on the burned debris.192 From the same general context were the remains of a cart and two wooden scoops (Greenewalt 1966:17, n. 12; Kohler 1980:89, fig. 32). There appears to have been no datable imported pottery among the finds in the burned debris. However, a bird bowl fragment (inv. no. 1488 P4089), securely datable to the 7th century, was discovered in a fill that was part of the stone packing for Room 1’s southeastern doorway threshold. This confirms Mellink’s suggestion that the area may have been occupied during the 7th century. Mellink extended her excavations further to the north, and here she discovered a doorway in the northwest corner of Room 1 leading to the west, as

92

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

well as a lekythos in the burned debris near the northern side of the room (no. 91).193 Outside the southern doorway of Room 1, Mellink found what she referred to as “a solid mudbrick platform or ramp leading up to the building.”194 She further stated that access to the artificial terraces was via this ramp, and that the foundation terraces continued under Room 1.195 In other words, she regarded it as a possible siege ramp leading up to the fortress, and during the next few seasons she cleared the remains of it,196 finding fragments of an imported Attic Little Master cup in a fill over the rampart’s surface.197 The fragments were dated 560–525 BCE, which confirms the mid-6th century date previously suggested for the destruction (DeVries 2005:51, fig. 4-14). Mellink concluded that the fire affected Room 1, the “Balcony” area to the east, and part of the area to the south.198 The fallen wood stratum that constituted the “Balcony” mainly covered the eastern part of Room 1 and sloped down to the west. The other room (Room 2, also called Unit C by Mellink) to the south of the “balcony” was evidently unaffected by the fire. Room 1 and the “Balcony” area were later filled in with yellow-brown clay.199 Trenches with Lydian pottery



1581 P497 (no. 115), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 44.48.66. KH, burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum.



1582 P498 (no. 116), lydion. KH, burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum.



1583 P499 (no. 117), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 44.46.66. KH, burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum.



1584 P500 (no. 118), lydion. KH, burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum.



1585 P501 (no. 200), lydion. KH, burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum.



1649 P529 (no. 201), lydion. KH, burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum.

South of Room 1, West of East Door

Burned earth inside Room 1

1579 P496 (no. 90), lekythos. KH, burned earth inside building.



1574 P491 (no. 111), lydion. KH, burned earth inside building.



1575 P492 (no. 112), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 18303. KH, burned earth inside building.

1637 P523 (no. 73), skyphos. KH, south of Room 1. In horizontal beam trench.

North of Room 1

1638 P524 (no. 91), lekythos. KH. Room 1, in fill, burned mudbrick building.

East of east wall of Room 1: Balcony

1731 P560 (no. 92), lekythos. KH, Balcony.



1732 P561 (no. 93), lekythos. KH, Balcony.



1733 P562 (no. 94), lekythos. KH, Balcony.



1576 P493 (no. 113), lydion. KH, burned earth inside building.



1577 P494 (no. 114), lydion. KH, burned earth inside building.



1734 P563 (no. 95), lekythos. KH, Balcony.



1735 P564 (no. 96), lekythos. KH, Balcony.

1573 P490 (no. 199), lydion. KH, burned earth inside building.



1736 P565 (no. 97), lekythos. KH, Balcony.



1737 P566 (no. 98), lekythos. KH, Balcony.

Burned debris east of main mudbrick wall above burned wood stratum



1825 P606 (no. 99), lekythos. KH, Balcony.



1679 P533 (no. 119), lydion. KH, Balcony.





2445 P775 (no. 100), lekythos. KH. Burned House.



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 93



1687 P539 (no. 120), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1738 P567 (no. 121), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1739 P568 (no. 122), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1740 P569 (no. 123), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1742 P571 (no. 124), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1743 P572 (no. 125), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1855 P613 (no. 126), lydion. KH, Balcony.



4412 P1643 (no. 127), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1660 P531 (no. 202), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1741 P570 (no. 203), lydion. KH, Balcony.



1825 P605 (no. 204), lydion. KH, Balcony.

North of Balcony

4640 P1745 (no. 128), lydion. KH, North Extension of Balcony.



4639 P1744 (no. 206), lydion. KH, North Extension of Balcony.



4414 P1645 (no. 140), lekythos. KH, area north of Balcony, burned stratum.

North of the Küçük Höyük Mellink distinguished three building periods for the Lower Town fortifications when she evaluated the evidence from both the Küçük Höyük and the enceinte further to the north.200 In the latter area, she identified a gateway that was protected by a large bastion on its northern side. The earliest phase (Period I), attested north of the gateway, consisted of the bastion and a mudbrick structure identified as the outer face of the rampart. The structures from this phase seem to have been burned, since Mellink refers to the remains of burned pottery, tiles, and charcoal, as well as burned mudbrick wall faces. Edwards reported that this first construction phase occurred during the early 7th century, following the partial destruction of the Early Phrygian citadel by fire (Edwards 1959:264). However, his dating scheme was formulated prior to the New Chronology, which has now shifted the date of the Early Phrygian citadel fire from 700 to 800 BCE (Rose and Darbyshire 2011). Furthermore, recent excavations at the South Gate Complex in Area 1

on the Citadel Mound may also indicate that the first construction phase of the Lower Town fortifications could be much earlier than the 7th century, since the Phrygian roadway here, which appears to have connected with the Küçük Höyük, was in use between the 9th and the 6th centuries. However, the precise chronology is unclear. Period II is represented by a large, 7 m thick, greenish mudbrick wall that was set over a foundation of limestone blocks.201 It was excavated during 1958 and was traced north of the Küçük Höyük into the alluvial plain of the Sangarius/Sakarya River; a stone tower was also found associated with the wall (Edwards 1959:264).202 The last phase of the fortifications (Period III) is represented by several renovations and repairs. Edwards suggested that the green mudbrick wall was renovated in this third phase, to which he assigned a date prior to the mid-6th century. During this period, new stone walls belonging to habitation areas were constructed to the northwest of the green mudbrick wall (Walls I, II, III, and IV in the notebooks). Two Lydian pottery fragments (nos. 6 and 219) were discovered in the area of these walls, in “Level III,” which was found beneath a thick layer of clay and a pebble floor covered with burned fill.203 No. 6 is a provincial Lydian bichrome plate, and its decoration of rows of pendent concentric hooks was popular at Sardis during the 7th century (see Chapter 2). No. 219, a neck fragment from a waveline amphora/hydria, is of a type long-lived at Sardis, from the 7th century to the Achaemenid period (see Chapter 2). These Lydian vessel fragments support the proposal that there was habitation in this area during the 7th century. On the other hand, the lydion (no. 142) found over a stone pavement indicates continued occupation during the 6th century.204 Trenches with Lydian pottery

12740 P5756 (no. 6), stemmed dish. KH, IIIA, Level 3.



6637 P2548 (no. 142), lydion. KH, on Pavement IIA.



12651 P5684 (no. 219), amphora (or hydria). KH, IIIA, under Walls I and II, over Walls III and IV.

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West of the Küçük Höyük A trial trench (Field Cut 2) was made to the west of the Küçük Höyük mound. The architectural remains found here included simple houses with stone foundations and mudbrick superstructures. No. 205 was found in the soft sandy topsoil.205 The lower levels of this small trench revealed pottery from the 6th century, as well as a roof tile with relief decoration (Theseus) dating to the same period.206 Trenches with Lydian pottery

4194 P1566 (no. 205), lydion. KH, Field Cut no. 2, Lydian topsoil.

To conclude, the Lydian pottery that was discovered in and around the Küçük Höyük came mainly from a room (Room 1) within the fort complex, and from the collapsed remains of a wooden structure (“Balcony”) lying to the east of the room. The vessels from this debris include 25 lydions (nos. 111–128, 200–204, and 206), 12 lekythoi (nos. 90–100, and 140), and a single skyphos (no. 73), and the stratigraphy finds close parallels in the Persian destruction level at Sardis. This particular group of pottery provides our best evidence for the Lydian ceramic tradition at Gordion during the first half of the 6th century. Two examples (nos. 6 and 219), however, represent an earlier Lydian cultural tradition at Gordion, dating to the 7th century, a tradition that is evident also on the Citadel Mound.

TUMULI, COMMON CEMETERY, AND THE MUSEUM SITE The Common Cemetery is located in the western part of the Northeast Ridge, at the edge of the modern village of Yassıhöyük, encompassing an area of ca. 400 m from north to south (see Map 1). Tumuli A, B, C, D, E, F, H, I, J, K, M, and K-II are located in and around the same area, overlying the simple graves of the Common Cemetery as well as a number of Phrygian buildings that formerly existed there (Anderson 2012:173–74). Lydian pottery was discovered in four of these tumuli (A, C, H, and K).207 Tumulus A was a cremation burial and the first tomb to be excavated by Young in his 1950 campaign. Lydian pottery from

Tumulus C was recovered only from disturbed areas, because the tomb (an inhumation burial) had been looted. The cremation burial in Tumulus K had likewise been looted. The Lydian vessels from the Tumulus H excavations were not from the tumulus burial itself but rather from the simple inhumation graves of the Common Cemetery. A total of nine cremation tumuli (A, D, E, F, I, K, K-I, K-V, and M) were investigated in this area (Darbyshire, in Sams and Voigt 2011:165–66). Those designated K-I and K-V were dug by the Körte brothers (Körte and Körte 1904) and the rest were explored by Young. Only two of them yielded Lydian pottery. The looted cremation in Tumulus K included a single fragmentary angular lekythos (inv. no.: 12298 P5432).208 The other cremation burial, in Tumulus A, seems to have survived unlooted, and a total of 10 intact Lydian vessels were recovered. The evidence from Tumulus A and the other cremation tumuli at Gordion was being prepared for publication by Ellen Kohler, this material has been re-evaluated and will be published by Kohler and Dusinberre (forthcoming). The majority of the inhumation tumuli at Gordion are clustered in the same area, on the Northeast Ridge, and these range in date from the 9th century to the Achaemenid period. Three of the largest (Tumuli MM, P, and W) were studied by Young (1981) and the lesser inhumation tumuli were published by Kohler (1995).

Tumulus A Ten Lydian vessels were found in Tumulus A (a bichrome amphora, no. 10, and nine lydions, nos. 59, 129, 130, 143, and 207–211). The artifactual remains from the cremation burial were discovered in three main areas: on the western and northern parts of a white floor, and in a pit dug through that floor. Over the white floor at the west were found the Lydian bichrome amphora (no. 10), small golden beads, ivory, a mass of bronze objects, two stone alabastrons (inv. nos.: 11 ST1, 12 ST2), a large lydion painted with marbling effect (no. 59),209 a coarse fragmentary pot (inv. no.: 3 P3),210 shallow gray ware (Kohler 1980:87, fig. 30; inv. no.: 10 P10), ivory discs (inv. no.: 93 BI6), and a golden bracelet (inv. no.: 16 J2).211 The northern part of the white floor bore the scattered remains



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of the funeral cart (Kohler 1980:69, 84, fig. 23; 88, fig. 31), a gray spouted vessel (inv. no. 26 P11), and a large banded lydion (no. 207).212 The amphora (no. 10) and one lydion (no. 59) are heavily burned, but the other lydion (no. 207) shows no trace of burning. The amphora was partially filled with ashes and small bone chips. The pit was located to the east of the spot where the Lydian amphora was discovered. Its upper level contained a golden bracelet (inv. no.: 15 J1), two lydions (nos. 208 and 209), a plastic vessel (Kohler 1980:86, fig. 28; inv. no.: 13 T1), a silver mirror (inv. no.: 14 LS1), and golden beads.213 More gold jewelry was found a little further down (inv. nos.: 31 J16, 32 J17, 35 J20).214 Six lydions (nos. 129, 143, and 208– 211) from the pit were burned, but the miniature lydion (no. 130) was not. The grave assemblage’s pottery was mainly Lydian: 9 lydions (nos. 59, 129, 130, 143, 207–211) and a bichrome amphora (no. 10). The lydion painting styles consist of marbling effect (no. 59), plain painted (nos. 129, 130), unpainted and horizontally fluted (no. 143), and banded (nos. 207–211). All of the lydions are fat-bellied Type I, but there are differences in their belly profiles: nos. 59 and 143 have compressions on the belly, nos. 208–211 are compressed on the shoulder, nos. 129 and 207 have a rounded/spherical belly, and no. 130 is a miniature lydion. The clay types suggest that four lydions were imported from Sardis (nos. 59, 129, 143, and 207); one example resembles Provincial Fabric II (no. 130); and four lydions (nos. 208–211) seem to have been produced at a single center, with a fabric that differs from that of Sardis and Provincial Fabrics I and II (see Chapter 1). The bichrome amphora (no. 10), on the other hand, is made from Sardian clay. It is noteworthy that all three of the Lydian vessels from the white floor (the amphora no. 10 and lydions no. 59 and 207) are imports from Sardis, and that the two lydions are among the largest attested at Gordion. The pit also included a large lydion (no. 129) and a miniature lydion (no. 130). Tumulus A is commonly dated within the later part of the third quarter of the 6th century (Kohler 1980:68; Darbyshire, in Sams and Voigt 2011: 165– 66). The main criterion for the chronology derives, of course, from the offerings, which include bronze, gold, and ivory objects, as well as pottery (Kohler 1980:68).

The most closely datable artifact is a terracotta vessel in the form of a kore holding a bird, assigned by Romano to 540–530 BCE (Romano 1995:13–14, cat. no. 27). Other offerings have not been thoroughly studied, and firm dates seem rather elusive, which is generally true also of Lydian pottery. Fat-bellied lydions are generally dated to the 6th century. For more precise dating, the best yardstick is provided by the mid-6th century lydions from the Persian destruction levels at Sardis and Gordion’s Küçük Höyük. Significantly, the banded lydions (nos. 208–211) from the Tumulus A pit, with their slightly flaring necks, conical feet, and slight shoulder compressions, are very similar to those from the Küçük Höyük (nos. 199–206) and Sardis (Cahill 2010a:479–80, nos. 96–97) destruction levels. Consequently, the date of the Tumulus A lydions appears to be in harmony with the suggested date of the tomb, between ca. 540 and 520 BCE. Nevertheless, the Lydian bichrome amphora with pendent hooks (no. 10) seems earlier. It is noteworthy that even though bichrome is one of the most favored painting styles and is found in abundance at Sardis, none of the bichrome pottery from Sardis’ Persian Destruction Level, or from later contexts, is decorated with pendent concentric hooks or semicircles. By contrast, these decorative features are well attested at Sardis on the large quantity of earlier Lydian bichrome, dating prior to the late 7th/early 6th century, from the HoB, PC, ByzFort, and Field 49 sectors (see Chapter 2). Therefore, the Tumulus A amphora (no. 10) cannot possibly have been produced around the mid-6th century or afterward, to judge by the datable contexts at Sardis, where the vessel was made. How does this anachronism lead us to interpret the Tumulus A assemblage? Perhaps the simplest explanation is that the amphora was passed down through at least two generations. However, re-use of the tumulus may be another possibility. Lydian pottery from Tumulus A

1 P1(no. 10), amphora. Tumulus A, cremation pyre fill beside bone pit at west.



9 P9 (no. 59), lydion. Tumulus A, west and north of pit.



7 P7 (no. 129), lydion, Museum of Anatolian

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Civilizations 44.36.66. Tumulus A, in bone pit.





41 P13 (no. 130), miniature lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 150.11.64. Tumulus A, in pit.

12357 P5483 a,b (no. 135), lydion. Tumulus C, findspot unknown.



12351 P5478 (no. 212), lydion. Tumulus C, pile of looters’ back-fill.



8 P8 (no. 143), lydion. Tumulus A, in bone pit.



2 P2 (no. 207), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 11441. Tumulus A, north of bone pit, on side.



4 P4 (no. 208), lydion. Tumulus A, in bone pit.



5 P5 (no. 209), lydion. Tumulus A, in bone pit.



6 P6 (no. 210), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 12910. Tumulus A, in bone pit.



40 P12 (no. 211), lydion. Tumulus A, in pit.

Tumulus C The inhumation burial in Tumulus C had been looted and six Type I, fat-bellied lydions were found in several disturbed areas (Kohler 1995:25–34): nos. 131, 133, and 134 were excavated in the disturbed main burial, nos. 132 and 212 came from the first pile of looters’ earth, and no. 135 was from an unknown location within the tumulus complex. Only one lydion (no. 132) has a non-Sardian fabric and a compressed shoulder; the rest seem to be Sardian productions, with slightly compressed bellies. The main burial, inside a small timber chamber, was thought to be a child’s and was dated by Kohler to ca. 540 BCE (Kohler 1995:28–29). Lydian pottery from Tumulus C

115 P27 (no. 131), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (no museum inv. no.). Tumulus C, disturbed main burial.



153 P43 (no. 132), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 150.17.64. Tumulus C, pile of looters’ back-fill.



551 P154 (no. 133), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (no museum inv. no.). Tumulus C, disturbed main burial.



552 P155 (no. 134), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (no museum inv. no.). Tumulus C, disturbed main burial.

The Common Cemetery Anderson has studied the simple burials of the Common Cemetery, and also the Phrygian buildings, located in the Tumulus H and I areas, the extended Main Trench, the Trial Trenches, and the Gordion Museum Site (Anderson 1980). Lydions were found associated with several inhumation and cremation burials in the Common Cemetery (Anderson 2012:172). A total of seven lydions (nos. 49, 213– 218) are attested from the simple graves near Tumulus H, inhumation graves A-56, A-68, A-110, A-161, and the cremation grave A-108. A-56 was a disturbed burial located 50 cm above bedrock, possibly that of a child; it was covered by a large flat stone.215 No. 215, a banded fat-bellied lydion of Sardian fabric, was apparently an offering from the grave. Burial A-68 lay above the burned debris of a building; the grave goods included a banded lydion of provincial clay (no. 216), knuckle bones, and bronze pins (inv. no.: B434).216 Grave A-110 was disturbed by a Roman burial, but the extant offerings included two lydions (nos. 213 and 214), one of which was a Sardian import, the other a provincial product; there were also two possibly non-Lydian lekythoi (inv. nos.: P763, P774).217 The other inhumation burial, A-161, was placed in a pit. Traces of wood may imply the existence of a wooden chamber. The burial was covered with stones, one of which bears a Phrygian inscription (inv. no.: I119). The offerings consisted of a marbled lydion (no. 49, found at the upper left arm of the skeleton), a globular jug (inv. no. P1024), a miniature jug (inv. no.: P1028), and bronze artifacts (inv. nos.: B653, B770, B771, B783).218 One simple cremation burial that included a Lydian vessel (lydion, no. 218) was found in a large jar filled with ashes and bones. The lydion is a fat-bellied type of nonSardian fabric. 219 During the excavation of the so-called “Royal Road” to the east of Tumulus H, an intact Late type of banded provincial lydion (no. 217) was found



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below the road.220 There is no evidence that it was associated with a burial, although it was located near to the graves.

Lydian pottery from the Gordion Museum Site

6970 P2709 (no. 21), dish. Museum Site, Section B prime, Burial MS-6.

Lydian pottery from the Common Cemetery



6978 P2715 (no. 48), lydion, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations 15716. Museum Site, Section G, Burial MS-5, surface.



7022 P2744 (no. 110), lydion. Museum Site, Section R, surface.



7076 P2756 (no. 198), lydion. Museum Site, Section M, Burial MS-35.



3018 P993 (no. 49), lydion. Common Cemetery, Trial Trench 7 and extension, Burial A-161.



2386 P751 (no. 213), lydion. Common Cemetery, Burial A-110.



2387 P752 (no. 214), lydion. Common Cemetery, Field Trench, Burial A-110.



2194 P684 (no. 215), lydion. Common Cemetery, Cut VII, Burial A-56 (in gravel).



2209 P695 (no. 216), lydion. Common Cemetery, Cut VI-VII, Extension at head of Burial A-68.



3886 P1401(no. 217), lydion. Common Cemetery, south of Tumulus H.



2388 P753 (no. 218), lydion. Common Cemetery, Tumulus Trench 3, Cremation A 103.

Gordion Museum Site The Gordion Museum Site, part of the Common Cemetery, was excavated in 1962 (Edwards 1963). The burials found here dated to the Bronze Age, the Middle Phrygian, Late Phrygian, and Roman periods. The Hittite pithos burials in the area were published by Mellink (1956). Burial MS-5: The skeleton was preserved, with a Roman ring seal stone on one of the fingers (Dusinberre 2005: 86, cat. no. 101; inv. no.: 7000 ILS355). A marbled fat-bellied lydion (no. 48) of Sardian manufacture, with a rounded/spherical belly, was discovered in the upper fill of the burial and therefore must be intrusive.221 Burial MS-6: A large, fragmentary, gray ware amphora (inv. no.: 6970 P2709) was found over a child’s skull, and a provincial marbled dish (no. 21) was discovered near to the skeleton. Burial MS-35: A Late type of provincial lydion (no. 198) was found at the left side of the skull. No other offerings were evident.222 A fragmentary fluted lydion (no. 110) was found in the surface layer above the burials.223

In conclusion, it is clear that Lydian pottery, some imported and some provincially produced, was deposited with both inhumation and cremation burials, whether in simple graves or in prestigious tumuli. The offerings that represent Lydian culture are mainly limited to lydions, all of which are fat-bellied types except for no. 198, which is the only late provincial example to have been found with a burial. The non-lydion shapes are the bichrome amphora found in Tumulus A, which appears to be a pre-late 7th/early 6th century import from Sardis (no. 10), a provincial marbled dish (no. 21) from Burial MS-6, and a lekythos fragment from Tumulus K (inv. no.: 12298 P5432). These vessels should not necessarily indicate Lydian cultural influence, but rather a preference for Lydian fragrance products. The discoveries outlined here raise many questions, such as whether the decedent might have been a Lydian, or whether he/she was buried with what was intended to be an exotic gift—none of which we can answer definitively. Nevertheless, it looks as if Lydian pottery discovered in the graves was used in the Phrygian capital beginning in the 7th century, down to the 6th, and perhaps into the 5th century. The most popular burial gift was the lydion.

Final Thoughts The Lydian painted pottery in Gordion was discovered to a large extent in the excavations carried out at the Citadel Mound, which constitutes nearly 70% of the total Lydian pottery assemblage. Following this, ca. 20% comes from the Küçük Höyük fort, and the remainder was found in burials. Datable contexts, especially those discovered at the Citadel Mound are few. This is partially because

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the Middle and Late Phrygian levels were disturbed by pits dug in the later periods and were dismantled, and also because of the removal of some buildings by Young. However, several important chronological conclusions, in addition to the more detailed discussions above, may be gotten from the analysis of the excavation records. Closely datable contexts for the pottery dating to the 7th century or earlier are few. Nos. 6 and 219 were discovered in Küçük Höyük from levels dating to ca. 7th century. No. 10 was found in a cremation burial in Tumulus A together with other grave offerings; however, this amphora is stylistically at least two generations earlier than the date of the context, which is dated to the third quarter of the 6th century. The majority of the 7th century Lydian pottery was found in mixed contexts in the Citadel Mound, except for example, no. 1, which was discovered in Building W from a fill dating to the ca. late 8th or 7th centuries. On the other hand, we have more stratigraphic information regarding the 6th and 5th century levels. Good evidence comes especially for the fat-bellied lydions, Type I lekythoi, streaky glazed pottery, and marbled pottery, all of which are related to the Persian Destruction levels of the mid-6th century excavated at Küçük Höyük (nos. 73, 90–100 , 111–128, 140, 200–204, and 206), and at Building W (nos. 42, 46), and South Trench (nos. 77, 81, 102, 141, 148–151) both of which are located on the Citadel. Evidence for the renovation of buildings during the second half of the 6th century are discovered in Building F (no. 28) and Building U (nos. 43, 52, 79, 80). Type I lekythoi continued to be used during the 5th century together with Type II to judge by the context dated with imported Attic pottery (nos. 82, 83). Datable contexts of the Late Phrygian levels give evidence for Type III lekythos. Early examples come from later 6th century fills (no. 89). It seems to be most common during the 5th century: for example, 138 was excavated at Building K, and contained Persian silver sigloi. Nos. 56 and 137 (Type III lekythoi) were found in fills dating to or pre-early 5th century. The earliest evidence for Late lydions (Type II) suggests a 6th century date, which is attested at Building L (Phase L2; no. 179) and NCT Building (no. 183). Nos. 154–156 and 179 were discovered in Building L (phase L3) and no. 193 from Building W from levels dating to the second half of the 6th or early

5th centuries. Late lydions were more common during the 5th century: nos. 161, 162, 164 (Building C), no. 171 (Floor S House), and no. 174 (Yellow House) were found on the contemporary floor levels dating to the early 5th century. Marbled and streaked ware were also common during the 5th century to judge by the archaeological evidence coming from the Painted House (no. 72), the Gateway (no. 28), and Building W (no. 38). The findspots of marbled, streaked, banded, and fluted fat-bellied lydions, which were common during the 6th century, are concentrated in the Küçük Höyük fort, South Trench (located on the western half of Citadel Mound), and graves. The Lydian pottery excavated from the graves represents only ca. 10% and mainly involves the lydion shape, which was also common as burial gifts in many Aegean and Mediterranean contexts. There is also a marbled dish (no. 21) and an amphora (no. 10) from two different burials discovered along with lydions. Although the findspots of Lydian pottery, were mostly in the elite quarters of the city, This may have more to do with where excavation was concentrated rather than any strict association between Lydian pottery and class. It seems likely that a hierarchy did not exist on its preference since subsequent excavations have found it in the Lower Town, where probably the ordinary residents of Gordion lived. notes: 4.1  The following chronological data and information on the Middle and Late Phrygian periods are based on Rose, forthcoming. 4.2  Notebook 38:27 (Trench ETO 1); Notebook 40:7 (Trench Gateway North). 4.3  Notebook 14:54–55. 4.4  Notebook 20:173–77. 4.5  Notebook 37:2–4. 4.6  Notebook 38:6 (sketch plan of the trench showing the pit on the northern side of the NC Wall), 19. 4.7  Notebook 40:14. 4.8  Notebooks 19 and 23. 4.9  For a sketch plan of the section, see Notebook 19:91  See also Notebook 19:93ff, and Notebook 23:1–5 for Section A, cut 1, level 1b. 4.10  Notebook 19:137–39. 4.11  Notebook 23:5. 4.12  Notebook 51:153.



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4.13  Building F is referred to as Persian Building BB in Notebook 51:153. See also Young 1956:254–55. 4.14  Notebook 51:157. 4.15  Bags 23 (cut 1), 24 (cut 2), and 25 (cut 3); Notebook 51:153–72. 4.16  Notebook 51:18. 4.17  Notebook 23:119. 4.18  Notebook 51:81–95. 4.19  Notebook 51:106–7, 113. This building is referred to as Building BB in the notebook (Notebook 51: 106). 4.20  Notebook 51:123–29. 4.21  Notebook 51:138. 4.22  Notebook 50:3–11, 15. 4.23  Notebook 50:18–19. 4.24  Notebook 50:19. The excavator states that the lekythos was discovered 10 m south of the main drain where a large pithos was found. 4.25  Notebook 40:73 (the excavator had mistakenly written 2855 P936 instead of 2855 P935), Notebook 75; ETC 2, Bag 16. The pottery Bag 16, along with Bags 7, 10, 11, 19, consist pottery from habitation level and destruction fill of Phase 4 of Building E. 4.26  Notebook 40:72–73, 75, 80, 86, 87; Trench ETC 2, Bag 16. 4.27  Notebook 40:66–67. 4.28  Notebook 40:66–67, 82; Trench ETC 2, Bag 15. 4.29  Notebook 39:78. 4.30  Notebook 39:109–11, 129. 4.31  Notebook 39:74 4.32  Notebook 60:129. 4.33  Notebook 38:73. 4.34  Notebook 38:65. 4.35  Notebook 38:72. 4.36  Notebook 21:1–22. 4.37  Notebook 21:23. The Attic pottery was dated by the excavator prior to the early 4th century. 4.38  Notebook 53:65–70. 4.39  Notebook 5:103–4. 4.40  Notebook 110:16–17. 4.41  Notebook 110:23–24. 4.42  Notebook 99:65. 4.43  Notebook 99:90. 4.44  Notebook 99:93–99, 103–5, 114–16. 4.45  Notebook 99:114–116. 4.46  Notebook 142:99–100. 4.47  Notebook 150:146–48. 4.48  Notebook 52:103, 105. 4.49  Notebook 52:103–15.

4.50  For the list of finds from the pit, see Notebook 52:118, 120. 4.51  Notebook 96:26. The excavator records that no. 16 (inv. no.: 6668 P2564) was found in a dump. 4.52  Notebook 27:83–85, 97. 4.53  Notebook 67:144. 4.54  Notebook 60:43–44 4.55  Notebook 60:49–50, Bags 1–4. 4.56  Notebook 60:63–99. 4.57  Notebook 60:66–68, 99. 4.58  Notebook 66:124. 4.59  Notebook 66:130–34, 138–42, 144–49. 4.60  Notebook 66:146. The excavator refers to this pit as the “3rd pit,” but without providing any further information about its context. 4.61  Notebook 66:172. 4.62  For a sketch plan of the trench, see the last page of Notebook 79. The final excavation of Building M was carried out in several trenches, including EML 2, EML 3, and EML 4 (Notebooks 74 and 78). 4.63  Notebook 79:167–68. 4.64  Notebook 79:171–72. 4.65  Notebook 74:125–27, 131. 4.66  Notebook 74:142–43. 4.67  Notebook 72:76–78. 4.68  Notebook 116:187–88. 4.69  Notebook 106:132. 4.70  Notebook 106:112, 114–16. 4.71  Notebook 121:18, 26, 28. 4.72  Notebook 121:104–5 (Floor 2); 105–8 (remains from Floor 2, which include both Hellenistic and 7th–6th century material, e.g., a black polished stemmed dish with graffito dated to 350–250 BCE [Roller 1987:31, cat. no.: 2A-202]; a lydion and two molded tile fragments, etc., dated to the 6th century); 108–9 (Floor 3). 4.73  Notebook 121:113–16. The remains from this fill include a gray ware sherd with a star graffito, dated to the 4th century (Roller 1987:28, cat. no.: 2A-166), black and gray polished pottery, a bronze fibula, and terracotta tiles. 4.74  Notebook 123:173–78. 4.75  Notebook 123:180, 183. The Enclosure Wall is named the Phrygian Wall, and the clay above it included fragments of painted Phrygian pottery. 4.76  Notebook 131:9, 18. 4.77  Notebook 103:82–88. 4.78  Notebook 106:98–101. 4.79  Notebook 143:33–55, especially plan no. 1 (last page of the notebook).

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4.80  Notebook 143:24–27. Rose (forthcoming) dates this pavement to the early 5th century. 4.81  Notebook 143:31–40. 4.82  Notebook 143:51–53. 4.83  Notebook 143:41, 43. 4.84  Notebooks 117, 143. 4.85  Notebook 117:124, 137–38 . 4.86  Notebook 6:78–85. 4.87  Notebook 18:1–5. 4.88  Notebook 18:7–9. 4.89  Notebook 18:14. 4.90  Notebook 18:119, 133; Bag no.: 9. 4.91  Notebook 25:61, 65 (tiles decorated with spirals and lozenges, and a black figure kylix dating no later than the mid-5th century), 69–70; Bag 38. 4.92  Notebook 33:60–98; Notebook 55. 4.93  Notebook 91:98–101. 4.94  Notebook 88:176–77. 4.95  Notebook 88:180. The excavator also noted that one of the lebes fragments from Kiln B had very similar parallels in Pit E (page 182). 4.96  Notebook 91:33–36. 4.97  Notebook 9146–49. 4.98  Notebook 91:56–59. 4.99  Notebook 91:64. 4.100  Notebook 111:26–29. 4.101  Notebook 111:105. 4.102  Notebook 111:123, 125, 128. Aside from the Lydian streaky glazed fragments and a lydion belly fragment of the 6th century, other pottery from Layer 8 included gray ware, and black polished, burnish-patterned dish fragments. 4.103  Notebook 111:114–21. 4.104  Notebook 91:160–63. 4.105  Notebook 91:70–71. 4.106  Notebook 161:91–92. 4.107  Notebook 160. 4.108  Notebook 161:91–98. 4.109  Notebook 164:69–74, 76–78. 4.110  Notebook 164:76–78. 4.111  Notebook 164:81–83. 4.112  Notebook 167:30. 4.113  Notebook 160:85, 163. 4.114  Notebook 160:106–7. 4.115  Notebook 160:105–6; 141–142. 4.116  Notebook 166:95. 4.117  Notebooks 9 and 26. 4.118  Notebook 82:43 (Wall 10), 62–65.

4.119  Notebook 82:64–65. 4.120  Notebook 82:47, 65. 4.121  Notebook 82:49, 191. 4.122  Notebook 9:135–36. 4.123  Notebook 9:173, 175. 4.124  Notebook 60:141, 144. 4.125  The layers from Level 1 down to the early Middle Phrygian clay layer (Level 6) are recorded in Notebook 93, and those from Level 6 down to the Early Phrygian Destruction Level (ca. 800 BCE) appear in Notebook 100. 4.126  Notebook 100:16–18. 4.127  Notebook 93:167–69. 4.128  Notebook 89:143, 147–51; Notebook 93:90–91; Notebook 100:112, 114–16. 4.129  Notebook 80:5. 4.130  Notebook 89:102–20. 4.131  Notebook 89:156. 4.132  Notebook 89:157. 4.133  Notebook 89:34–45. 4.134  Notebook 87:36a. 4.135  Notebook 79. 4.136  Notebook 79:134, 138–39. 4.137  Notebook 87:91, 97. 4.138  Notebook 91:5. 4.139  Notebook 91:11. 4.140  Notebook 156:11–17, 34–35. 4.141  Notebook 156:19–20. 4.142  Notebook 156:41–42. 4.143  Notebook 157:48–49. 4.144  Notebook 109:46–49. 4.145  Notebook 109:26–27. 4.146  Notebook 118:20–21. 4.147  Notebook 120:17–24. 4.148  Notebook 118:47–48. 4.149  Notebook 118:98–100. 4.150  Notebook 118:96–97. 4.151  Notebook 118:90–95. 4.152  Notebook 118:82–83, 87–88. 4.153  Notebook 135:36–37, 45–47. 4.154  Notebook 128:27–28. 4.155  Notebook 162:72. 4.156  Notebook 153:197–200. 4.157  Notebook 153:134–135. 4.158  Notebook 153:92–93. 4.159  Notebook 153:13–14 (trench WCW 6); Notebook 141:119–23 (trench WCW 3). 4.160  Notebook 141:126, 133. 4.161  Notebook 141:48.



FINDSPOTS AT GORDION 101

4.162  Notebook 141:50–54, 60–61. 4.163  Notebook 133:171–72. 4.164  Notebook 133:68–77. 4.165  Notebook 127:91–92. 4.166  Notebook 130:18–21. 4.167  Notebook 132:35. 4.168  Notebook 130:52–80, 84. 4.169  Notebook 130:102–10, 112. 4.170  Layer 6 (trench WS 8N; Notebook 130:191) and Layer 6B (trench WS 9N; Notebook 130:178–86, 189). 4.171  Layers 8 and 9A; Notebook 138:8–9, 17–20. 4.172  Notebook 140:94–96. 4.173  Notebook 152:12. 4.174  Notebooks 4, 8. 4.175  Notebooks 24, 65, 75, and 97. 4.176  Notebook 24: 40, 58. 4.177  Mellink, Küçük Höyük Field Report 1956:4–5. 4.178  Notebook 24:38. 4.179  Notebook 24:7–8. 4.180  Notebook 24:16, 18. 4.181  Notebook 24:7, 16, 44–46. 4.182  See also the plan in Notebook 24:137. 4.183  Notebook 24:28. 4.184  Notebook 24:22. 4.185  Notebook 24:40, 42. 4.186  Notebook 24:44. 4.187  Notebook 24:46. 4.188  Notebook 24:45. 4.189  Notebook 24:66. 4.190  Notebook 65:10. 4.191  Notebook 24:180. 4.192  Notebook 65:46. 4.193  Notebook 24:26, 34 (doorway); 28 (no. 73).

4.194  Notebook 24:32. 4.195  Mellink, Küçük Höyük Field Report 1956:2. 4.196  Notebooks 65, 75. 4.197  Notebook 75:21–22. 4.198  Notebook 65:4. 4.199  Notebook 65:1–6. 4.200  Mellink, Küçük Höyük Field Report 1958:1–6. 4.201  Mellink, Küçük Höyük Field Report 1958:3; Notebook 75:95–96. 4.202  Mellink, Küçük Höyük Field Report 1958:4. 4.203  See section sketch plan in Notebook 75:101. 4.204  Notebook 97:30. 4.205  Notebook 24:140. 4.206  Mellink, Küçük Höyük Field Report 1956:11. 4.207  There are two other monochrome lekythoi fragments excavated from Tumulus M (P297) and Tumulus K (P5432). 4.208  This lekythos is not included in the present volume. 4.209  Notebook 1:4–6. 4.210  Notebook 1:10. 4.211  Notebook 1:18. 4.212  Notebook 1:15. 4.213  Notebook 1:12–13. 4.214  Notebook 1:16. 4.215  Anderson 1980:100, no. 33. 4.216  Anderson 1980:101, no. 34. 4.217  Anderson 1980:104, no. 41. 4.218  Anderson 1980:107, no. 48. 4.219  Anderson 1980:132, no. 103. 4.220  Notebook 59:17. 4.221  Notebook 102:19. 4.222  Notebook 104:40–42. 4.223  Notebook 103:159.

C-1

a 0

5 cm

c

0

10 cm

b

Fig. 1  Bichrome pottery types, Sardian import and provincial products. a: Lydian red bichrome produced at Sardis (no. 17); b: Provincial Lydian bichrome (no. 4); c: Provincial Lydian bichrome (no. 9)

C-2

0

5 cm

Fig. 2a  Marbling types: Conventional Marbling (no. 22, interior).

C-3

Fig. 2b  Marbling types: Marbling Effect I (no. 52, detail).

C-4

0 Fig. 2c  Marbling types: Marbling Effect II (no. 59).

5 cm

C-5

Fig. 9  Lydian painted pottery vessels from Gordion (photography by Gebhard Bieg).

C-6

wavyline pendent concentric semicircles

pendent and ascendent concentric semicircles in the same band

pendent concentric semicircles forming scale pattern

pendent concentric hooks Fig. 10a  Decorative Motifs on Lydian Painted Pottery from Gordion

C-7

row of dots

concentric circle pendent triangle, centrally dotted

marbling (plain)

marbling (arcs) Fig. 10b  Decorative Motifs on Lydian Painted Pottery from Gordion

marbling (in stripes)

marbling (curled)

C-8

star rosette

dotted petals

short vertical lines Fig. 10c  Decorative Motifs on Lydian Painted Pottery from Gordion

parallel spiral bands

5 Eating, Drinking, and Perfuming in Lydian Style at Gordion

E

ating and drinking habits, along with the functions of different vessel types and table settings as cultural indicators, were as important in antiquity as they are in modern life. Among the most important sources of evidence for such habits are the types of vessels that were used and the contexts in which those vessels are found. Equally important are the regional variations in the use of particular vessels, which is central to our reconstructions of diet and dining throughout the Mediterranean. For example, a traditional western Turkish breakfast would include olives, cheese, tomatoes, etc. whereas a southeastern Turkish breakfast occasionally includes rich meat; however, both of them prefer cheese along with other food, with tea as the standard beverage. One finds a host of similarities and differences among ancient societies in terms of their gastronomic habits and table settings. Who used Lydian pottery at Gordion: Lydians, Phrygians, the inhabitants of other regions, or all of them? What did they eat and drink? How was the dining table set? Was it set differently in the 5th century than it had been in the 7th and the 6th centuries? In order to determine the answers to such questions we have to combine the existing literary sources with the relevant archaeological evidence. The latter includes both pottery assemblages and food and drink residues. By using such evidence, we can come closer to understanding ancient eating and drinking habits, along with the functions of vessel shapes, in various social contexts such as daily life, the afterlife, and rituals. The main focus of this chapter is to examine eating and drinking with Lydian or Lydian-type vessels outside of the Lydian region—if it existed at all—and specifically in the Phrygian capital at Gordion. The ceramic assemblages of the Lydians in their capital of Sardis will of course be taken into consideration during the discussion, as will the

ancient sources that refer to typical Lydian foods and beverages.

A Quantitative Approach to Lydian Pottery Shapes at Gordion Since this study focuses on the pottery from Young’s excavations, the quantitative conclusions presented here derive only from the material excavated between 1950 and 1973. Excavation in the settlement zones (Citadel Mound and Küçük Höyük) and in the cemeteries (Tumuli A, C, H, and Gordion Museum Site) both revealed Lydian pottery. The largest quantity comes from the Citadel Mound (152 vessels), followed by the material from the Küçük Höyük (42 vessels). A total of 27 vessels were retrieved from burials: 10 were excavated in Tumulus A, 6 in Tumulus C, and 11 in the Common Cemetery, the latter including 7 from near Tumulus H and 4 from the simple graves at the Museum Site. These totals imply that Lydian pottery was most commonly used in the settlement areas, especially at the Citadel Mound, but was also popular for burial gifts. Aside from one bichrome amphora (no. 10) and a marbled dish (no. 21), all Lydian vessels serving as burial gifts are lydions, which shows that the lydion was the favored gift. As the most popular shape, it constitutes 53% of the total amount of Lydian pottery recovered during the excavations; second is the lekythos (15%), followed by the skyphos (10%), oinochoe (6%), dish (6%), and amphora (5%). Combined, the other shapes (hydria, krater, dinos, stand, stamnos, phiale, and storage vessel) amount to 5% of the total. The majority of the Lydian vessels found at Gordion were used to store scented oil or some sort of cosmetic, to judge by the number of lekythoi and

104

LYDIAN PAINTED POTTERY ABROAD

lydions found: 65 lydions and 20 lekythoi from the Citadel Mound, and 27 lydions and 12 lekythoi from a considerably smaller area in the Küçük Höyük. The smaller number of Lydian or Lydian-type vessels used for drinking (skyphoi), eating (dishes), serving (oinochoai), preparing drink (stamnoi, kraters, dinoi), and storage (amphoras, hydrias, storage vessels) were discovered primarily on the Citadel Mound, and single examples of skyphoi, dishes, and amphoras were found at the Küçük Höyük. The two fragments of phialai were found on the Citadel Mound. In other words, Lydian vessels at Gordion derive mainly from the Citadel Mound, whose inhabitants preferred the unguent containers, above all other vessel types in the Lydian repertory, as also did the inhabitants of the Küçük Höyük, in the Lower Town. Therefore, the suggestion that deluxe Lydian cosmetics reflected an elite lifestyle among Greeks (Morris 2000:178–85; Crielaard 2009:60–61) may not necessarily be the case at Gordion since lydions were discovered both at the elite quarters (Citadel Mound) and at the lower town (Küçük Höyük). On the other hand, the Lydian pottery from the Citadel Mound and the Küçük Höyük includes very few dining and drinking vessels. One of the reasons for this is probably the large number of Attic imports at Gordion in this period, which are mainly for food and drink and point to a stronger interest in using Attic rather than Lydian tableware. Another reason is that the local products inevitably dominated both the Attic as well as Lydian pottery in the assemblage.

Table 13  Counts of Lydian pottery from the various excavation contexts at Gordion, with their percentage of the total assemblage of Lydian pottery Context Citadel Mound

Count

%

152

68

Küçük Höyük

42

19

Burials

27

12

1

1

Banks of New Sakarya

Table 14a  Lydian vessel shape percentages of the total assemblage Shape

%

Lydion

53

Lekythos

15

Skyphos

10

Dish

6

Oinichoe

6

Amphora

5

Krater

2

Storage vessel

1

Phiale

1

Dinos