Lecture Notes for Training Class II and Class III Agricultural Meteorological Personnel

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INDEX

INDEX

INDEX

INDEX

INDEX

C ONTENTS

a

................................................................. .................................................................

Foreword Preface

1.1 1.2

-

AGRICULTURAL METEOROLOGY

- ITS

SCOPE AND AIMS

.............................................................. ........................................... .................................................... ...................................................

Aims c Range of subject matter 1.2.1 Coi1 1.2.2 Plants 1.2.7 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6

............................ .................. .............................

Farm'animals (farm livestock) Diseases and pests of crops and animals Farm buildings and equipment Artificial modification of meteorological and hydrological régimes Ty-pes of agrometeorological problems

............................................ 1.3 .............................. References ................................................................ Questions ................................................................. Chapter 2

2.1

-

1 1

2 2

3 3 5 3 3

5 6

PEYSICAL CLIMATOLOGY - SOIG ASPECTS OF PARTICULAR IMeORTANCE TO AGRICULTURE

............... Ehergy in the solar beam ................................. .Solar energy and some biological processes ............... Ehergy in the visible spectrum - Light ...................

Solar energy ("short-wave*I energy from sun and sky)

8

2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4

9

The geometry of solar radiation - direct and diffuse components of solar radiation- horizontal and sloping surfaces 2.1.5 Daily course of total radiation on a horizontal surface 2.1.6 Reflection coefficient The energy balance and its components 2.2.1* The long-wave budget

................................................. .. ...................................

2.2

xiii

*

Y

Chapter 1

xi

............................. ...................................

10 11

13 16

17 17 17

INDEX .iv .

& 2.3

....... ................. long-wave radiatio:: ............

2.2.2 The total radiation budget at the Earth's surface Some special aspects of radiation in agriculture

2.3.l*

Crop stands . short- and Radiation minimum temperatures

.......................... 2.4 The complete energy balance ...................................... References ............................................................... Questions ............................................................... 2.5.2

Chapter 3

3.1

.HEAT

...........................

The effects of surface and near-surface soil properties and soil cover on soil temperature . general considerations

.................................

3.2

Diurna1 anh annual course o f soil ternperature at different depths

3.3

Some observational data and empirical relationships regarding soil and Earth Pemperature

3.7.1

...................................... General survey .........................................

3.3.2"

3.4

23

24

28

32

33 36 36

General survey

....................................... ..................... .........................................

Questions

.............................................................. ..............................................................

Chaater 4

.WATER

References

AND TRE KYDROLOGICAL CYCLE IN AGRICULTURE

............................................ ......... Processes concerned with water in movement .............

43 44 44

Processes concerned with sedinient load

45

Water and vegetation 4.1.1 Processes concerned with falling rain and snow 4.1.2

................. Noisture characteristics o f soils ............................... Soil moisture and plant growth .................................. 4.1.7

4.2 4.3 4.4

22

Effect of surface and near-surface soil properties on soil tenperature Biological significance of soil temperature

3.4.1

4.1

21 21 22

BALANCE OF THE SOIL- SOIL TEMPEHATURE

Transmission of heat and temperature in the soil- thermometric conductivity (or thermal diffusivity) 3.1.1

21

4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3

-

............................... Some basic processes ................................... The determination of water loss fron land surfaces . evaporation and evapotranspiration ..................... Soil moisture budgets - irrigation need ................

The water balance

soil noisture

45 46 48 48 50 62

INDEX - v -

page References Questions

............................................................. .............................................................

Chapter 5 .INFLUENCE OF TOPOGMBPRY. SURFACE ANO SOIL CHkRACTERISTICS UPON THE PROPERTIES OF T€IE LOWEST UYERS OF TIIE ATI4OSPHERE TOPOCLIMATE (OR MESOCLTMIITE~.MICROCLIMATE 5.1 5.2

67

68

.

......................................... ...........................

General considerations Topoclimatological effects arising from the form of the ground surface (i.e. from surface geometry) 5.2.1 Topoclimatological effects of landscape and artificial obstructions on air flow 5.2.2 Effecta o f landscape features on the interception and disposal of solar radiation 5.2.3 Influence of landscape features on other aspects of climate ...............................................

.............................. ...........................

5.3"

................... ................................... ...................

Effects of surface roughress on microclimate 5.3.1 Effects on air-flow 5.3.2 Effects on air and soil temperatures

References Questions

............................................................. .............................................................

76

79 83

06 86

87 08

91 92

Chapter 6 .INFLUENCE OF NANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND TREATICENTS UPON MICROCLIMATE AND CONSEQUENTIAL LPFECTS UPOlJ AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION 6.1 6.2

6.3

6.4 6.5 6.6%

6.7 6.8

6.9 6.10 6.11

................................................... ....................................................... .................................

introduction Drainage Soil treatment and cultivation 6.3.1 Treatment 6.3.? Effects following changes of some physical properties of the s o i l Irrigation Crop managenent and layout Shading Cover c r o p s Nuiching Weeding Windbreaks Protective croppinK

.............................................

........................................... .....................................................

6.11.1

.................................... ........................................................ .................................................... ....................................................... ........................................................ ..................................................... ............................................ The glass-house and similar structures - effects on air novement and temperature ..............................

97 97 98

98

102

103 105 108

110 111 114 115 116 117

INDEX .v i

.

..............

6.11.2.

E f f e c t s on o t h e r m e t e o r o l o g i c a l elements

6.11.5'

Some s p e c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o t h e d e s i g n and s i t i n g o f glass-houses

................................

............................................................. Q u e s t i o n s ..............................................................

References

Chapter 7

7.1

.WEATKER

HAZARDS ADVERSELY AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT

........................................................ The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f drought ................... 7.1.2 A g r i c u l t u r a 1 drought .................................. 7.1.3 H y d r o l o g i c a l . atmospheric and edaphic droug?it ......... 7.1.4 F i r e i n v e g e t a t i o n .................................... 7.1.5 The e f f e c t of drought on land-use and management and upon a g r i c u l t u r a 1 o p e r a t i o n s .......................... 7.1.6 P e s t s and d i s e a s e s i n drought ......................... H a i l ........................................................... 7.2.1 H a i l p r e v e n t i o n ....................................... F r o s t . f r o s t damage and p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t f r o s t damage ........ 7.3.1 F r o s t and frost damage ................................ 7.3.2 Methods of p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t frost damage ............ 7.3.3 F o r e c a s t i n g ...........................................

Drought

7.1.1

7.2

7.3

7.4

7.5"

Wind

...........................................................

7.4.1

B f f e c t s of wind on p l a n t growth and development

7.4.2

The e f f e c t on wind of v a r i o u s t y p e s o f s h e l t e r b e l t s g e n e r a l survey

.......

7.4.3" 7.4.4 7.4.5

........................................ B a s i c flow p a t t e r n s i n l e e of b a r r i e r s ................ Wide and m u l t i p l e b e l t s ............................... Windbreaks and snow d e p o s i t i o n .......................

7.4.6.

S h e l t e r . when wind

7.4.7"

The e f f e c t s o f s h e l t e r b e l t s on o t h e r m e t e o r o l o g i c a l

d i r e c t i o n i s oblique t o b a r r i e r

...

7.5.1

.............................................. .............. Sea-spray and s e a - s a l t damage .........................

7.5.2"

Other p o l l u t a n t s

elements

Damage t o p l a n t s by sea-salt and o t h e r p o l l u t a n t s

References Questions

...................................... .............................................................

..............................................................

INDEX .vii .

a Chapter 8 8.1

8.2

8.3

.SNOW

AND SNOW COVER .ICE AND FROZEN GROUNE

.......................................... ................................... Thermal aspects ........................................

General considerations 8.1.1 Hydrological aspects

173 173

8.1.2

174

Implications for agriculture in areas subject to regular seasonal snowfall

...............................................

176

Implications for agriculture in areas subject t o intermittent snowfall

177

........................................................

.. 180 References .............................................................. 181 Questions ............................................................... 182 8.4*

Additional comments on ground phenomeiia in periglacial regions

Chapter 9 9.1

9-2

9.3

.OPEF¿ATIO,NAL

AGROMETEOROLOGY .S O d E CASE STUDIES

.......................................... 9.1.1 Weather and the scheduling of the sowing of cotton . a case study ........................................... Agroclimatological surveys ...................................... Case studies .................................................... 9.3.1 Irrigation need ........................................

184

General considerations

9.3.2

Mesoclimatic study on the effects of slope and aspect

186

189 192

..

.............................................................. A selected list of studies in agrometeorology ................... 9.4.1 Macroclimatic analyeis .the determination of agricultura1 systems ................................... 9.4.2 Mesoclimatic analysis .zonation of agricultural . crops ..................................................

192 193

References

195

9.4

195

9.4.3

9.4.4

196

Agrotopoclimatological analysis .selection of suitable sites for high-value agricultura1 crops

196

Analysis of frequency of hazardous weather .provision of agroclimatic data required for the planning of agricultura1 enterprises

196

................

...............................

9.4.5

195

Calculation of potential and actual evapotranspiration . determination of water allocation .water requirement of 197 crops .irrigation practices

...........................

INDEX -

9.4.6

viii

-

-

Analysis of wind-flow characteristics design of windbreaks and ehelterbelts f o r the protection o f crops and animals

._...........................................

9.4.7

-

Analysis of temperature and radiation climate analysic of frequency and duration of critica1 temperature threstolds - the design and siting of glass-houses - f u e 1 consumptjon - selection of suitable plastir materjals for protective cropping

.................................

9.4.8

9.4.9

Microclimatic modification - to influenct? soil temperatures near the surface f o r the benefit of torticultural production

..............................................

199

Keeping quality in storage of agricultural crops - to reduce damage t o agricultural produce when in stcrage or transit

199

The effect of climate on pests of plants, and consequential effects on agricultural production - aids to the planning of efficient plant protection programmes of scheduled sprayjng and dusting cperations

199

The effect of climate on plant diseases and the consequential effect on crop production - the develcpment cf warning systems to assist in control operations

......

199

...

200

.............

200

..............................................

9.4.10

............

9.4.11

9.4.12

9.5

The effects o 1 climate on animal disease (epidernioloaj

Additional information and comments on a selection of WMO Technical Notes relating to agricultural meteorology

Questions

................................................................

Chapter 10- AGROMETEOROMGICAL OBSE3VATIONS AND INSTRUMXNTS 10.1

10.2

............................................ ....................... ................................................ ............................ .......................................... .................................. .................................... ........................ ................. ....................... .. .. . .

Fbysical observations 10.1.1 Observational networks and siting 10.1.2 Sampling 10.1.3 Observations and instnunents Biological Obsemtions 10.2.1 General considerations 10.2.2 Precise observations 10.2.3 Observatione f o r operational use 10.2.4 Observatione f o r agrocllmatological use 10.2.5 Observations of natural phenomena 10.2.6 Observations O f dsmag8 due t0 W8ath8r 10.2.7 Specific examples o f biological/phenological observatione

............................................

*

234

INDEX .i x

References Questions

............................................................. ..............................................................

Appendix 1 A p p e n d i x 11 A p p e n d i x 111 Appendix I V Appendix V

.

................. SOME NOTES ON T H E S T A T I S T I C A L A N A L Y S I S OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA ................................... U N I T S . CONVERSION FACTORS. EQUIVALENTS ................ THE WOFILD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

SELECTED LIST OF E S S E N T I A L WMO PTJBLICATIONS AND TEXTBOOKS

............................................. SUNPATII DIAGRAMS ......................................

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239

246 250

254 256 258

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