Introduction to Old Assyrian 3963270640, 9783963270642

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Kouwenberg • Introduction to Old Assyrian

Introduction to Old Assyrian N. J. C. Kouwenberg www.zaphon.de

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Introduction to Old Assyrian

N. J. C. Kouwenberg

© 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

© 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

Introduction to Old Assyrian

N. J. C. Kouwenberg With Contributions by K. R. Veenhof

Zaphon Münster 2019

© 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

Cover illustration: VAT 9235B (cf. VS 26, 15B), drawing of K. R. Veenhof.

N. J. C. Kouwenberg: Introduction to Old Assyrian With Contributions by K. R. Veenhof

© 2019 Zaphon, Münster

(www.zaphon.de)

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Printed in Germany Printed on acid-free paper ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2

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Table of Contents Preface .................................................................................................................................11 Abbreviations .....................................................................................................................13 Chapter 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................17 1.1 The Old Assyrian period ......................................................................................17 1.2 Contents .................................................................................................................18 1.3 Discovery and publication ..................................................................................19 1.4 Old Assyrian and Akkadian .................................................................................20 1.5 Bibliographical tools for the study of Old Assyrian ........................................21 1.5.1 Primary editions of Kültepe texts .............................................................21 1.5.2 Secondary text editions ..............................................................................23 1.5.3 Editions of non-commercial texts ............................................................24 1.5.4 Historical studies .........................................................................................24 Chapter 2 Syllabary and spelling ...................................................................................25 2.1 The Old Assyrian syllabary .................................................................................25 2.2 Plene spellings ......................................................................................................26 2.3 Initial plene spellings...........................................................................................26 2.4 Broken spellings ...................................................................................................26 2.5 Sandhi and crasis ..................................................................................................27 2.6 Ambiguities ...........................................................................................................28 Chapter 3 Sign list ...........................................................................................................29 3.1 General list of signs ..............................................................................................29 3.2 Alphabetical list of syllabic values and logograms .........................................39 Chapter 4 Elements of phonology.................................................................................43 4.1 Phonemes..............................................................................................................43 4.2 Loss of phonemes .................................................................................................44 4.3 Assimilation of consonants .................................................................................44

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4.4 Epenthesis .............................................................................................................45 4.5 Metathesis ............................................................................................................45 4.6 The glottal stop (ˀ ) .............................................................................................46 4.7 The labial glide w .................................................................................................46 4.8 The palatal glide y ...............................................................................................47 4.9 Vowels ...................................................................................................................47 Chapter 5 Pronouns and enclitic particles ...................................................................51 5.1 Independent personal pronouns .......................................................................51 5.2 Enclitic personal pronouns .................................................................................52 5.2.1 The enclitic pronouns of the genitive ......................................................53 5.2.2 The enclitic pronouns of the dative .........................................................54 5.2.3 The enclitic pronouns of the accusative..................................................54 5.3 Possessive pronouns ............................................................................................55 5.4 Demonstrative pronouns ....................................................................................56 5.5 Interrogative pronouns .......................................................................................57 5.6 Indefinite pronouns .............................................................................................57 5.7 Enclitic particles ...................................................................................................58 Chapter 6 Nouns and adjectives .....................................................................................61 6.1 The structure of nouns and adjectives .............................................................61 6.1.1 Nominal and adjectival patterns...............................................................61 6.1.2 Nominal derivation by means of suffixes ................................................62 6.1.3 Loan words ...................................................................................................63 6.2 The gender of nouns ............................................................................................63 6.3 The inflection of nouns .......................................................................................64 6.3.1 Case ................................................................................................................64 6.3.2 Number .........................................................................................................65 6.3.3 State ...............................................................................................................66 6.3.4 The inflection of weak nouns ....................................................................70 6.4 The inflection of adjectives ................................................................................72

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6.5 The syntax of adjectives .....................................................................................74 Chapter 7 Numerals ........................................................................................................75 7.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................75 7.2 Cardinal numbers ................................................................................................75 7.3 Ordinal numbers ..................................................................................................77 7.4 Multiplicative numbers ......................................................................................78 7.5 Distributive numbers ...........................................................................................78 7.6 Other numbers ......................................................................................................79 Chapter 8 Verbs ................................................................................................................81 8.1 General features ...................................................................................................81 8.2 The inflection of the G-stem .............................................................................. 83 8.3 The function of the primary inflectional forms ..............................................85 8.3.1 The present...................................................................................................85 8.3.2 The preterite ................................................................................................86 8.3.3 The perfect ...................................................................................................86 8.3.4 The imperative .............................................................................................86 8.3.5 The stative ....................................................................................................86 8.3.6 The Infinitive................................................................................................87 8.3.7 The verbal adjective ....................................................................................89 8.3.8 The participle ...............................................................................................90 8.4 The function of the modal forms .......................................................................90 8.4.1 The precative ...............................................................................................90 8.4.2 The prohibitive ............................................................................................92 8.4.3 The vetitive...................................................................................................92 8.4.4 The asseverative ..........................................................................................92 8.5 The function of the ventive and the subjunctive ............................................93 8.5.1 The ventive ...................................................................................................93 8.5.2 The subjunctive ...........................................................................................93 8.6 The derived verbal stems ....................................................................................94 8.6.1 The Gt-stem ..................................................................................................94

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8.6.2 The Gtn-stem................................................................................................95 8.6.3 The D-stem ...................................................................................................95 8.6.4 The Dt-stem ..................................................................................................96 8.6.5 The Dtn-stem................................................................................................97 8.6.6 The Š-stem ....................................................................................................97 8.6.7 The Št-stems .................................................................................................97 8.6.8 The Štn-stem ................................................................................................98 8.6.9 The N-stem ...................................................................................................98 8.6.10 The Ntn-stem .............................................................................................99 8.6.11 The quadriradical verbs ...........................................................................99 8.7 The weak verbs .....................................................................................................99 8.7.1 The I/w verbs .............................................................................................100 8.7.2 The I/voc verbs ..........................................................................................101 8.7.3 The I/n verbs ..............................................................................................103 8.7.4 The II/voc verbs.........................................................................................103 8.7.5 The II/aleph verbs .....................................................................................105 8.7.6 The II/gem verbs .......................................................................................105 8.7.7 The III/weak verbs ....................................................................................106 8.7.7.1 The III/ī verbs ...................................................................................106 8.7.7.2 The III/ū verbs ..................................................................................106 8.7.7.3 The III/ā verbs...................................................................................107 8.7.7.4 The III/ē verbs...................................................................................107 8.7.7.5 The derived stems of the III/weak verbs ......................................108 8.7.8 Doubly weak and irregular verbs ............................................................108 8.7.8.1 Verbs with a weak 1st and 3rd radical .............................................108 8.7.8.2 atawwum .............................................................................................109 8.7.8.3 *aḫā′um ...............................................................................................109 8.7.8.4 The “*le′ā′um group” ........................................................................109 8.7.8.5 alākum .................................................................................................110 8.7.8.6 tadānum ..............................................................................................110 8.7.8.7 izizzum .................................................................................................110

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8.7.8.8 idā′um and *išā′um ............................................................................110 Chapter 9 Elements of syntax .......................................................................................111 9.1 Cases .....................................................................................................................111 9.2 Subordinate clauses ...........................................................................................112 9.2.1 Conditional clauses ...................................................................................112 9.2.2 Relative clauses ..........................................................................................112 9.2.3 Complement clauses .................................................................................113 9.2.4 Indirect questions .....................................................................................114 9.2.5 Direct speech ..............................................................................................114 9.3 Oaths .....................................................................................................................115 Chapter 10 Verbal paradigms .......................................................................................117 Chapter 11 Glossary .......................................................................................................137 Chapter 12 Measures, dates, tariffs, etc. .....................................................................181 12.1 Measures ............................................................................................................181 12.2 The Old Assyrian calendar ..............................................................................182 12.3 Tariffs and taxes ...............................................................................................183 12.4 Interest rates .....................................................................................................185 12.5 Prices of the most common commodities ....................................................186 Chapter 13 Seals and sealing (by K. R. Veenhof) .......................................................189 13.1 Seals and sealers ...............................................................................................189 13.2 Sealed documents.............................................................................................190 Chapter 14 Personal names ..........................................................................................193 Chapter 15 A selection of texts.....................................................................................195 References .........................................................................................................................205

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© 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

Preface This book is meant as an aid to the reading and interpretation of Old Assyrian texts for students who are already familiar with Akkadian, in particular with Old Babylonian. Accordingly, it focuses on those aspects in which Old Assyrian grammar and lexicon are different from Babylonian and on the specific problems that Old Assyrian texts might pose to students of Babylonian. It is essentially a spin-off from my long-standing work on the grammar of Old Assyrian, which is reflected in A Grammar of Old Assyrian (Kouwenberg 2017). Hopefully, it will serve make the Old Assyrian texts more accessible to anyone interested, and thus contribute to an increase in the study of the archives of the Assyrian merchants in Anatolia. They acquaint us not only with one of the oldest large corpora of any Semitic language, but also with aspects of Ancient Near Eastern history, economy and society that are in many respects unique. Far too long, these archives have been the domain of too small a group of specialists. I am very fortunate to have found Klaas Veenhof willing to draw the cuneiform signs for the sign list in Chapter 3 and to write a chapter on Old Assyrian sealing practices. For these contributions I owe him a profound gratitude. I would also like to thank him for a critical reading of the entire manuscript and for discussing with me the background of sample texts B and C. I thank John Huehnergard for a critical reading of the manuscript and numerous suggestions for improvement, and Mervyn Richardson for his help in finding satisfactory English equivalents of Old Assyrian commercial terms and expressions. Bert Kouwenberg Bloemendaal, December 2018

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Abbreviations General abbreviations 1c 1p 1s 2fs 2ms 2p 3du 3fp 3mp ă Acc adj. adv. Ass Assev Bab caus. conj. Dat DN Du e.o. fact. Fem fp fs Gen Gloss. GN Imp Inf

1st p. sg. common gender 1st p. plural 1st p. singular 2nd p. feminine singular 2nd p. masculine singular 2nd p. plural 3rd p. dual 3rd p. feminine plural 3rd p. masculine plural a subject to assimilation accusative adjective (Gloss.) adverb (Gloss.) Assyrian asseverative Babylonian causative (Gloss.) conjunction (Gloss.) dative divine name dual each other factitive → § 8.6.3 feminine feminine plural feminine singular genitive (in the) Glossary geographic name imperative infinitive

intr. IPA LE LoE MA Masc mp ms n. neg. Nom Obv OA OB Obl o.s. p. Partc Perf Pl/pl pl. t. PN Prec prep. Pres Pret Proh recipr. relat. Rev

intransitive (Gloss.) International Phonetic Alphabet left edge lower edge Middle Assyrian masculine masculine plural masculine singular noun (Gloss.) negation (Gloss.) nominative obverse Old Assyrian Old Babylonian oblique oneself person participle perfect plural plurale tantum personal name precative preposition (Gloss.) present preterite prohibitive reciprocal (Gloss.) relative (Gloss.) reverse

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Abbreviations

RI SAkk Sg/sg sim. so Stat Subj

royal inscription(s) Sargonic Akkadian singular similar (Gloss.) someone stative subjunctive

tr. UE VA vb. Vent Vet

transitive (Gloss.) upper edge verbal adjective verb (Gloss.) ventive vetitive

Bibliographical abbreviations AfO

Archiv für Orientforschung (Vienna)

AKT

Ankara Kültepe Tabletleri (Ankara)

AoF

Altorientalische Forschungen (Berlin)

ArOr.

Archiv Orientální (Prague)

BIN

Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of J. B. Nies (New Haven)

BiOr

Bibliotheca Orientalis (Leiden)

CCT

Cuneiform Texts from Cappadocian Tablets in the British Museum (London)

EL

= Eisser and Lewy 1930/35

GAG

= von Soden 1995

GKT

= Hecker 1968

GOA

= Kouwenberg 2017

HSS 10

T. J. Meek, Old Akkadian, Sumerian, and Cappadocian Excavations at Nuzi,

3

volume 3. Harvard Semitic Studies 10. Cambridge: Harvard University Press ICK

Inscriptions cunéiformes de Kültepe (Prague)

JEOL

Jaarbericht van het Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap Ex Oriente Lux (Leiden)

JNES

Journal of Near Eastern Studies (Chicago)

KBo

Keilschrifttexte aus Boghazköi (Berlin)

KKS

L. Matouš and M. Matoušova, Kappadokische Keilschrifttafeln mit Siegeln aus der Sammlung der Karlsuniversität in Prag. Prague 1984: Karlsuniversität Prag © 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

Abbreviations

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kt

(see § 1.5.1 sub (3))

KT

Kültepe Tabletleri (Ankara)

KTK

N. B. Jankowskaya, Klinopisnye Teksty iz Kjul’tepe v Sobranijax SSSR. Mocow 1968: Nauka

Loanw.

= Dercksen 2007

Metals

= Dercksen 2005b

MZL

= Borger 2003

NABU

Nouvelles assyriologiques brèves et utilitaires (Paris)

OACP

= Larsen 1967

OACT

= Dercksen 1996

OAI

= Dercksen 2004a

OALex

= Veenhof 2015

OALP

= Hertel 2013

OAP

= Veenhof 2008a

OATT

= Veenhof 1972

PIHANS

Publications de l’Institut historique-archéologique néerlandais de Stamboul

POAT

W. C. Gwaltney Jr, The Pennsylvania Old Assyrian Texts. Cincinnati 1983: Hebrew Union College

Silver

= Veenhof 2014

TC 3

Tablettes cappadociennes, troisième série. Textes cunéiformes du Louvre, tomes XIX-XXI. Paris 1935/37: Geuthner

TMH 1

J. Lewy, Die Keilschrifttexte aus Kleinasien. Texte und Materialien der Frau Professor Hilprecht Collection I. Leipzig 1932: Hinrichs

TPAK

C. Michel and P. Garelli, Tablettes Paléo-Assyriennes de Kültepe, volume I (Kt 90/k). Paris 1996: De Boccard

TTAA

= Michel and Veenhof 2010

VS 26

K. R. Veenhof and E. Klengel-Brandt, Altassyrische Tontafeln aus Kültepe. Texte und Siegelabrollungen. Berlin 1992: Gebr. Mann Verlag

ZA

Zeitschrift für Assyriologie (Berlin)

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 The Old Assyrian period OA is the language of a large corpus of cuneiform texts, which largely stem from the ancient city of Kaneš, present-day Kültepe, in Anatolia in central Turkey. They come from the archives of Assyrian merchants who lived and worked there in the Middle Bronze Age, from ca 1950–1700 BC.1 During that period, Kaneš was the centre of a long-distance trade network established and maintained by these merchants. From their home city Assur in North Eastern Mesopotamia, they mostly transported tin and expensive textiles from Assur to Anatolia by means of donkey caravans. In Anatolia they traded them for silver and gold, which they shipped back to Assur, and also got involved in the inner-Anatolian trade in copper, wool and grain. The trade was important and profitable enough for merchants to settle more or less permanently in Anatolia, and in particular in Kaneš in a special “commercial quarter” or kārum at the foot of the hill on which the city and its palace were built. This became the administrative centre of the trade, where Assyrian authorities supervised and facilitated the trade and promoted the merchants’ interests with the local authorities. The OA texts found in Kültepe belong to the archaeological levels II and Ib. The great majority comes from level II, actually from a fairly short period of ca 30 years at the end of level II, from ca 1900 to 1870, which form the heyday of the long-distance trade between Assur and Kaneš (Barjamovic, Hertel and Larsen 2012: 55–80). 1 Dates are given according to the “Middle Chronology”, which places the accession of

Erišum I ca 1975 BC, the reign of Hammurabi of Babylon ca 1792–1750, and the fall of Babylon ca 1595. For a list of the kings of Assur in the OA period, see Barjamovic, Hertel and Larsen 2012: 91; for a tentative list of the Anatolian rulers of Kaneš, ibid. 40.

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In the OA period, Assur itself was just a city state that owed its wealth to the fact that it was a trading centre. As far as we know, it had no political or military influence outside its city borders, quite unlike the situation at the end of the NeoAssyrian period, when the Assyrian kings ruled over a large part of the Middle East. 1.2 Contents Almost all OA texts come from the houses of the Assyrian merchants in the lower town of Kaneš. A very small number come from the palace in Kaneš itself and from other places in Anatolia where the merchants had settled (mainly Boğazköy = Hattuša and Alişar = Amkua), see below. In Assur, the OA period has only yielded a few inscriptions drawn up by kings and other high functionaries (which are only partly written in OA), and an insignificant number of very short administrative documents and school texts. The contents of the OA texts reflect the commercial activities of the people who wrote them. Almost all of them are letters, contracts, judicial documents and administrative texts that deal with business activities. However, aspects of their family life and their natural and social environment are occasionally discussed as well. The style of these texts is unadorned and simple, and gives us a good idea of the daily language of the merchants and their families, although the more strictly commercial texts contain a lot of rather difficult specialized jargon. Other genres are only marginally represented. Among the commercial texts of the archives were also found some incantations and school texts, two copies of royal inscriptions, a single literary text (the “Sargon Legend”), four treaties and a number of eponym lists (see § 12.2). In addition, there are a few royal inscriptions from Assur, as mentioned above. See § 1.5 for references.

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1.3 Discovery and publication The history of OA studies goes back to the last decades of the nineteenth century, when the first clay tablets with OA script and language appeared on the antiquities market and were soon identified as coming from Kültepe. Here, illegal excavations by the local population brought to light some 4.000 tablets, which via the antiquities trade were scattered over countless collections of museums, institutions and private collectors. In 1925, the first regular excavations were carried out by the Czech scholar B. Hrozný, who unearthed about 1.000 tablets, which are now kept in museums in Istanbul and Prague. As a result of the illegal excavations and the incomplete records of Hrozný’s findings, the archival context of these texts has been lost, and thereby a considerable part of their value for the investigation of OA trade and society. The reconstruction of that context is a laborious and often frustrating process, because many texts are difficult to assign to a specific archive, for instance if they do not contain names or if the names they contain are carried by too many persons. In fact, homonymy was wide-spread in OA society: the use of patronymics in some contexts shows that the most common names were carried by dozens of different persons. The final phase of the exploration of Kültepe started in 1948 with the official excavations by the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu). They have so far yielded some 17,000 tablets, most of which still await publication. Since these official excavations preserve the archival context of the texts, they offer better opportunities to study and reconstruct the commercial activities of the owners of the archives. For details on the publication of the OA texts, see § 1.5 below. The beginning of the grammatical study of OA is connected with the name of Julius Lewy, who from 1922 onwards published several papers on OA grammar and lexicon (and on numerous other OA subjects). W. von Soden’s Grundriß der akkadischen Grammatik (1st edition 1952, 3rd and revised edition 1995) takes full account of the OA material then available, but only in 1968 was a fully-fledged grammar of OA published, K. Hecker’s Grammatik der Kültepe-Texte. A new grammar, which © 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

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takes into account all texts that have become available up to the end of 2016, is Kouwenberg 2017. 1.4 Old Assyrian and Akkadian OA shows a number of grammatical features that are not shared by the two other main dialects of Akkadian, Sargonic Akkadian and Babylonian. Salient ones include vowel assimilation (§ 4.9 sub (1)), the use of -ti as Dat marker in the personal pronouns instead of -šim (§ 5.1), the consistent use of -ni as an obligatory marker of subordination in all forms which do not have the subjunctive marker -u (§ 8.5.2), the 3rd person Sg independent subject pronouns šūt and šīt (§ 5.1), the 1s direct object suffix pronoun -ī ‘me’ alongside -(an)nī (§ 5.2.3), the triple set of deictic bases ann-, amm- and all- that are associated with the first, second and third person, respectively (§ 5.4), the construct states PiRaS and PuRaS, e.g. uzan from uznum ‘ear’ and šipar from šiprum ‘messenger’ alongside PiRiS and PuRuS (§ 6.3.3), PaRRvS and šaPRvS in the non-prefix forms of the D- and the Š-stem (§ 8.6), a different Prec conjugation (§ 8.4.1), and the strong forms in the conjugation of the D-stem of the II/voc verbs with the exception of the Pres (§ 8.7.4). In addition, some deverbal nouns and adjectives have a different noun pattern in OA, such as the nouns ḫašaḫtum ‘need, requirement’ (Bab ḫišeḫtum) and zakrum ‘man, male’ (Bab zikarum), and the adjectives qurbum ‘near’ (Bab qerbum), and rāqum ‘empty’ (Bab rīqum). Finally, OA shows a number of lexical items that are not shared by any other dialect, such as lapātum in the meaning ‘to write’, wanā′um ‘to cheat’, and takkīlū ‘slander’, apart from numerous commercial terms referring to specific features of the OA long-distance trade (Kogan 2006). For a more detailed account of the linguistic relationship between OA, the rest of Akkadian, and Eblaite, see GOA § 1.4.

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Introduction

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1.5 Bibliographical tools for the study of Old Assyrian 1.5.1 Primary editions of Kültepe texts Of the ca 22.500 texts that comprise the extant corpus of OA, ca 8.000 have been published at the present moment (December 2018). With regard to the publication history, the total corpus falls into three parts: •

(1) The ca 4.000 tablets illegally excavated before 1948, sold on the antiquities market and now in museums and private collections all over the world. Most of them have been published, in particular the very large collections of the J. B. Nies Collection of the Yale University Museum at New Haven (published as BIN 4 and 6), the British Museum (CCT 1–6), the Louvre (TC 1– 3), and the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin (VS 26). However, many of these publications just consist of a cuneiform copy, which obviously hampers their accessibility to non-specialists.

•

(2) The ca 1.000 tablets excavated by B. Hrozný in the 1920s, which were divided between Istanbul and Prague. They have all been published in the series ICK 1–4, of which ICK 1 and 2 just contain cuneiform copies, and ICK 3 and 4 a full edition: copy, transliteration, translation (in German) and commentary. The tablets kept in Prague (ICK 3 (= KKS) and 4) are also available in photograph on the CDLI website (see below). Even though these tablets stem from a “controlled” excavation, they have not preserved their archival context, also because part of the archaeological documentation was lost during World War II.

•

(3) The ca 17.500 tablets unearthed during the official Turkish excavations by the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) since 1948. They carry the siglum kt (Kültepe), followed by a lower case roman letter indicating the year of excavation (a = 1948 until z = 1972), or by the two final digits of the year of excavation (from 1973 onwards). This unit is followed by a slash (/) and k = kārum for tablets found in the kārum or t = tepe for tab-

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lets found on the mound of Kültepe, and finally a number identifying each individual tablet. These texts are in the course of being published in the series Ankara Kültepe Tabletleri (AKT), from volume 4 simply called Kültepe Tabletleri (KT). To date (December 2018) fourteen volumes have actually been published: (A)KT 1–5, 6A–6D, 7A, 8, 9A, 10 and 11A, comprising 2353 texts. The one exception concerns the tablets of 1990 (kt 90/k), which have been published in TPAK 1 (242 texts). The (A)KT volumes at least include a transliteration, a translation and a (more or less extensive) commentary of the texts in Turkish ((A)KT 1, 2, 4, 7A, 9A, 10 and 11A), English (KT 5, 6A-D and 8), German (AKT 3) or French (TPAK 1). In addition, a small part of the published tablets is presented as a copy (a line drawing) or a photograph. Not only the huge delay in publication (the archives of the first seasons have remained unpublished for almost 70 years!) but also the lack of a uniform standard in language, structure and quality in these volumes and the absence of a copy or a photograph for the majority of texts included are much to be regretted. In addition, countless other tablets have been published in separate articles in journals, conference volumes and Festschriften. The bullae found in Kültepe are published together in Özgüç and Tunca 2001. •

(4) Outside Kültepe, a small number of commercial OA texts have been found in Boğazköy (ancient Ḫattuša), Alişar (ancient Amkua) and Nuzi. Most of them date to the Kaneš Ib level and are thus slightly later than most Kültepe texts. The Boghazköy texts are published in different issues of the KBo series, the Alişar texts in Gelb 1935, and the Nuzi texts in HSS 10. Dercksen 2001 is a thorough discussion of the first two groups.

In order to find one’s way in this editorial and publicational chaos, Michel’s bibliography (Michel 2003) and its updates in AfO (Michel 2005/6, 2011 and 2015) are

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Introduction

23

an indispensable tool. They contain a complete enumeration of all OA tablets and bibliographical information. All published texts of groups 1 and 2, and some of the texts of group 3 have been made available on the Internet. The CDLI website (http://cdli.ucla.edu) contains transliterations, bibliographical references and (where available) a photograph and/or a cuneiform copy of all published texts. The Hethitologie Portal Mainz contains a transliteration and bibliographical references of all published texts and of the unpublished kt m/k archive made by K. Hecker (http://www.hethport.uniwuerzburg.de/altass). 1.5.2 Secondary text editions A relatively small number of texts have also been edited thematically. First, Ichisar 1981, Michel 1991 and Larsen 2002 are attempts to reconstruct the archives, and therewith the activities, of a few merchants who occur very frequently in the texts of groups 1 and 2, namely Imdīlum, Innāya and Aššur-nādā, respectively. Second, Eisser and Lewy 1930/35 is a transliteration, a (German) translation and a detailed discussion of 341 legal texts (contracts and judicial proceedings), which 80 years after its publication is still valuable. Ulshöfer 1995 is a classification, transliteration and a (German) translation with comments of 605 “Privaturkunden”, i.e. administrative texts other than legal documents. Studies of a single type of document include Larsen 1967 on caravan procedures, Nashef 1987 on itineraries, Kienast 1984 on house and slave sale contracts and Kienast 2015 on marriage contracts. Finally, Michel 2001a is a thematically arranged French translation of 400 OA letters.

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24

Chapter 1

1.5.3 Editions of non-commercial texts The non-commercial texts in the OA corpus, insignificant in quantity but of great historical and cultural importance, comprise royal inscriptions (edited in RIMA 1 = Grayson 1987), treaties (see Veenhof 2014 for a recent overview and literature), incantations (there is no comprehensive edition but see Barjamovic 2015 for a recent transliteration and translation), the Sargon Legend (see Dercksen 2005a for a recent edition and commentary), and a few school texts (see especially Hecker 1993). 1.5.4 Historical studies Most aspects of OA society, trade and history have by now been the subject of monographs and articles. Only the most important ones can be mentioned here, but additional literature can be found in them and in bibliographies. A pioneering study that was the impetus for a renewed interest in the OA period is Garelli 1963. Other general overviews are Veenhof 2008a and Larsen 2015. For specific aspects, important monographs broadly classified according to subject matter are: •

the history of OA studies: Garelli 1963: 9–27 and Larsen 2015: 18–28;

•

the history and chronology of the OA period: Kryszat 2004a and Barjamovic, Hertel and Larsen 2012;

•

the institutions of Assur and Kaneš: Larsen 1976 and Dercksen 2004a;

•

OA religion, especially as reflected in onomastics: Hirsch 1972;

•

the legal system: Hertel 2013;

•

trade: Larsen 1967; Veenhof 1972; Dercksen 1996 (the copper trade inside Anatolia); Stratford 2017;

•

the geography of Anatolia and the trade routes: Nashef 1987; Veenhof 2008c; Barjamovic 2011.

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Chapter 2 Syllabary and spelling

2.1 The Old Assyrian syllabary The OA inventory of cuneiform signs is relatively small and employs a restricted number of syllabic signs, logograms and determinatives (see Chapter 3 for a list). A specifically OA feature is the (inconsistent) use of a small vertical wedge as a word divider. The OA syllabary shows a number of features which make it more ambiguous than that of other dialects.2 •

(1) There is a systematic polyvalence of homorganic consonants: as a rule, there is only one sign for syllables containing the velars k, g and q, the dentals t, d and ṭ, the labials p and b, and the sibilants s, z and ṣ. Against this rule, there are two signs to express dental + a, TA and DA, but they are used inconsistently (i.e. TA is also and ; DA is also and ), and there are a few signs which are only or mainly used for one consonant, such as DI, which is usually just /sa/ (value ). Similarly, GU is just /gu/ and GI is just /gi/ or /ge/.

•

(2) There is no distinction between /i/ and /e/, except in the vowel signs I and E themselves: LI = /li/ and /le/, BAD = /bi/ (), /be/, /pi/ (), and /pe/ (), IM = /im/ and /em/, etc.

•

(3) There are no signs for the weak consonants ˀ and y. For the expression of ˀ (or rather the lack of it), see § 4.6; for that of y, see § 4.8.

2 In references to syllabic cuneiform signs, the name of the sign is given in capitals (BAD),

the value(s) between angle brackets (, , etc.), and the syllable indicated is placed between slashes (/be/, /bi/, etc.). In continuous transliterations (and in the sign lists of Chapter 3), syllabic signs are in italics, logograms in lower case roman type.

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Chapter 2

•

(4) Gemination of consonants and vowel length are not indicated consistently (but see § 2.2 on plene spellings).

In principle, the syllabic writing of the cuneiform script follows the syllabification of the word: i-ša-qá-al or i-ša-qal for išaqqal ‘he will pay’, iš-qú-ul or iš-qúl for išqul ‘he paid’, etc. Noteworthy exceptions are plene spelling, initial plene spelling, and broken spelling. 2.2 Plene spellings A plene spelling is a vowel (V) sign after a consonant-vowel (CV) sign with the same vowel (Ca-a, etc.). They often indicate a long vowel, especially at the end of a word (e.g., iš-pu-ru-ú ‘they sent’, i.e. išpurū), more rarely in the middle (e.g. ke-enu-um ‘true, honest’, i.e. kēnum). In many instances of plene spellings, however, there is no long vowel and the reason for its use is unclear (stress?). A plene spelling at an unusual place may be an indication that the clause is a question. Plene spellings should be carefully distinguished (insofar that is possible) from broken spellings, which indicate a syllable boundary, see § 2.4. 2.3 Initial plene spellings An initial plene spelling is a word-initial V sign followed by a VC sign with the same vowel (a-aC, etc.), e.g. a-al-qé ‘I took’, i.e. alqe, e-er-ba-am ‘come in!’, i.e. erbam. It does not seem to have a clear function, but in some words it may serve to indicate a long initial vowel, as in e-en6-kà ‘your eye’, i.e. ēnka, and ú-um-šum ‘until today’, i.e. ūmšum, or to distinguish initial i- from e-, e.g. e-eq-lu-um ‘field, countryside’, to be interpreted as eqlum rather than **iqlum. 2.4 Broken spellings A broken spelling is a V or VC sign in the middle of a word that indicates a syllable boundary, such as and in ú-kà-il5, also spelled ú-kà-i-il5, ‘he held’, i.e. /uka′′il/, and in me-er-ú ‘sons’ (Nom). When a V or VC sign follows a sign end-

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Syllabary and spelling

27

ing in the same vowel, the spelling is ambiguous: ú-kà(-a)-al ‘he holds’ may stand for /ukâl/ or /uka′′al/ (see § 8.7.4). This is especially problematic in final syllables: whereas a spelling such as i-ta-mu-ú stands for /itammu′ū/ ‘they will swear’ (a broken spelling) from the III/weak verb tamā′um, i-ša-qú-lu-ú stands for /išaqqulū/ ‘they will pay’, a plene spelling, because šaqālum is a strong verb. Accordingly, i-tamu-ú is always spelled with an additional V sign, while i-ša-qú-lu-ú is an occasional variant of i-ša-qú-lu. 2.5 Sandhi and crasis Each word is normally written as a separate unit. Sometimes, however, the spelling ignores a word boundary, which results in a “sandhi spelling” or in “crasis”. There are two types of sandhi spellings: •

(1) the final consonant of a word is taken as the first consonant of the next (vowel-initial) word, as in i-lá(-a)-bi-ni ‘the god(s) of our father’ for il abīni, and Ma-ḫu-ri-le for the month name which is more often spelled Ma-ḫu-ur-ìlé or Ma-ḫu-ur-dingir;

•

(2) a final consonant that is identical to (or assimilated to) the initial consonant of the next word is left unwritten, e.g. qá-ra-be-tem for qarab bētem ‘the middle of the house’, which apparently designates a specific room in the house, ṣa-ḫe-ra-bi4 for ṣaḫer rabī ‘small (and) great’, the name of the merchant assembly of a kārum, and the divine name Be-lá-ṣé-re-em ‘the lady of the steppe’, i.e. /Bēlaṣṣērem/ < bēlat ṣērem with assimilation of -t to ṣ-.

Crasis occurs when the final vowel of a word and the initial vowel of the next word are contracted, e.g. mì-ma-nem ‘all that’, i.e. /mimmânem/ < mimma anniem and a-ḫu-ú-a-tù-nu ‘you (Pl) are my brothers/colleagues’, i.e. /aḫḫūâttunu/ < aḫḫūa attunu.

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Chapter 2

Sandhi spellings are common in compound personal names, e.g. I-dí-na-bu-um (type 1) and I-dí-a-bu-um (type 2), which both represent Iddin-abum ‘the father has given’ (where I-dí-a-bu-um = Iddiˀ-ˀabum with assimilation of final -n to ˀ, see § 4.3. sub (1)). Other instances are Da-na-A-šur for Dan-Aššur ‘Aššur is powerful’, Ša-té-a for Šat-Ea ‘She of Ea’, and Tù-ra-mì-il5 for Tūram-il(ī) ‘come back, my god!’. 2.6 Ambiguities The ambiguous nature of the OA syllabary and spelling often provides insufficient information to establish the exact phonological shape of many OA words. This can be partly be compensated by comparison with MA and OB, which have a more accurate syllabary and spelling, and partly by internal reconstruction. Still, the exact shape of many words that have no cognates in other dialects or other Semitic languages, and of many forms that contain weak consonants is more or less uncertain and conjectural, so that it is uncertain how to normalize them in transcription.

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Chapter 3 Sign list

3.1 General list of signs The order and the numbering of the signs follows MZL2 (Borger 2010). Syllabic signs are in italics, logograms in roman and determinatives in superscript. Very rare values are in parentheses. “PN” marks values restricted to personal names, and “RI” those only found in royal inscriptions. A list of just the syllabic signs used in OA can also be found in Thureau-Dangin 1928: 4–6 (= TC 2). The list generally gives the most common form, sometimes with one or two variants added. An important source of variation is the number of small horizontal and vertical wedges (usually between 2 or 3 and 4 or 6) and small ‘Winkelhaken’ (two or more). For horizontal wedges, cf. Ú, SA, LA1, GA, ÁŠ, ŠU and NA; for vertical wedges BI, GA, IB, É and Ú, and for the ‘Winkelhaken’, signs such as IN, LI, ZI, ŠE and NAM. There is also some variation in the number of small verticals, slanting wedges or ‘Winkelhaken’ that occur inside the ‘head’ or ‘tail’ of some large signs (especially if the ‘tail’ looks like IR). The ‘heads’ of the signs AZ, UG and ANŠE also exhibit variation, whereby the distinctive marks of AZ and UG – a small ZA and and UD underneath the ‘head‘ – are unclear or absent.

MZL

sign name

1

AŠ

(aš1)

3

ḪAL

(ḫal)

6

GÍR

gír = patrum ‘dagger’

AN

an; (ìl PN); dingir = ilum ‘god’; god (d); an.na = annăkum ‘tin’; AN.ZA.BAR = zabar = siparrum ‘bronze’; → 745

10

sign

value

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Chapter 3

MZL

sign name

sign

value

14

BA

ba; pá

15

ZU

zu; sú; ṣú; dSú(.en6)

16

SU

(su)

18

ARAD

(ìr; èr); ìr = wardum ‘slave’

20

ITI

itu(.x).kam = warḫum ‘month’

22

ŠUBUR

in dNin.šubur ‘Ilabrat’; in ì.šaḫ = *nāḫum ‘lard’ → 380

24

KA

(ka; qà); níg.ka-sú ‘account’ → 859

33

PÙ

in PÙ + ŠA = puzur4 (PN)

85

LI

li; le

86

TU

(tu); sa.tu → 172; dMar.tu → 483

89

LA

la1

91

MAḪ

maḫ (PN)

98

MU

mu; mu.x.šè = šattum ‘year’

99

SÌLA

šál; sìla ‘liter’, see § 12.1

110

NA

na

111

RU

ru

112

NU

nu; (nu.bànda = *laputtā′um, an official)

113

BAD

bi4 ; be; pì; pè

115

ŠIR

šùr in (d)A-šùr

118

TI

ti; te9 ; dì; de9 ; (ṭì; ṭe6)

120

MAŠ

maš; 1/2; maš = tu′īmum ‘twin’ (PN)

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Sign list

sign

31

MZL

sign name

value

121

BAR

bar; pár; war; (marx); (TÚGbar.dul5 = kusītum (a garment))

127

AG

aG

132

ḪU

ḫu; (ḫu.sa, a quality of gold)

134

NAM

nam; (numx ; ni/emx)

136

IG

iG; eG; (GIŠig = daltum ‘door’ RI)

140

ZI

zi; ze; sí; sé; ṣí; ṣé

141

GI

gi; ge; (gi = qanuum ‘reed’)

142

RI

ri; re; tal

143

NUN

(in ì.nun = ḫimātum ‘ghee’) → 380

148

KAB

(kab, qáb)

151

SUR

šur in (d)A-šur

153

MÙŠ

d

164

EN

en; (in4)

167

DIM

di/em; ti/em; (ṭi/em; tum8 ; tàm; dum4 ; damx)

168

MUN

(mun = ṭābtum ‘salt’)

170

LÀL

(làl PN; làl = dišpum ‘honey’)

172

SA

(sa); sa.tu = šaduum (PN); ḫu.sa → 132

174

GÁN

kán; gán; qanx ; gán = eqlum ‘field’

176

GÚ

gú = biltum ‘talent’

180

GUR

(kùr PN)

181

SI

ší; šé

Inanna = Ištar (RI)

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Chapter 3

MZL

sign name

sign

value

183

DAR

tár; dar; → 670

184

SAG

sag = rēšum ‘head, beginning’; in ì.sag = rêštum ‘first-quality oil’ → 380

207

DIR

diri = watrum ‘additional, extra’

209

TAB

taB; tab.ba = tappā′um ‘partner’

221

TAG

šum

222

KÁ

ká = bābum ‘gate’

223

AB

aB1 ; (dAB = Illil)

230

URUDU

urudu = wa/erī′um ‘copper’

238

UM

um

242

DUB

dub = tuppum ‘tablet’; dub.sar = tupšarrum ‘scribe’

248

TA

ta; dá; ṭá; ta (distributive)

252

I

i

253

GAN

gan in dDagan

255

TUR

dumu = mer′um ‘son’; tur = ṣaḫrum ‘small, young’; (dDumu.zi = Tammuzi PN); (bànda → 112)

258

AD

aD

259

ZÍ

(ṣi1 PN)

261

IN

in; en6

266

LUGAL

lugal = šarrum or rubā′um ‘king’; ziqanlugal = ziqan-šarre (an ornament)

275

BÀD

(bàd.ki = dūrum ‘wall’)

296

UG

uG

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Sign list

sign

33

MZL

sign name

value

297

AZ

aZ; (uZ4 ; ašx)

298

GAB

(tuḫ in GN Tuḫ-pí-a)

304

ILLAT

illat = ellătum ‘caravan, enterprise’

309

AM

am

312

BÍL

(bíl; píl)

313

NE

bí in qibīma ‘speak!’ and PN

339

KUM

kum; qum

341

ÚR

úr (PN)

348

IL

(il1)

350

DU

tù; du; ṭù; (rá); → 724

353

ANŠE

anše = emārum ‘donkey’

354

TUM

tum; dum; ṭum; (tím; tam4 ; dàm; íb)

357

IŠ

iš; eš15 ; (ís); (in kù.babbar saḫar.ba (a type of silver))

358

BI

bi; bé; pí; pé; kaš = šikrum ‘beer’

362

ŠIM

(bappir2 = bapperum ‘beer bread’)

378

KIB

tur4 ; ṭur4

379

GAG

(GIŠgag = sikkătum ‘peg’; kakkum ‘weapon’)

380

NI

ni; né; (ì; lí; zal); NI.NI = ì-lí ‘my god’; ì.giš → 469; (ì.šaḫ → 22; ì.nun → 143; ì.sag → 184; ì.kal → 496)

381

UŠ

uš; úZ; (iZx)

385

NA4

na4

437

IR

ir; er; ir for ìr = wardum ‘slave’

438

DAG

táG

(minerals)

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MZL

Chapter 3

sign name

sign

value

464

PA

(pa); PA.DU or PA.SUḪUŠ = maškim = rābiṣum ‘attorney’; (ugula = waklum ‘overseer’; PA.TE(=en5).si or ensi2 = iššiakkum ‘city-ruler, ensi’ (RI)

468

SIPA

sipa = rē′ium ‘shepherd’ (PN)

469

GIŠ

iZ; eZ; iš6 ; GIŠ (wooden objects) ; in ì.giš = šamnum ‘oil’

472

GU4

gu4 = alpum ‘ox’

474

AL

al

483

MAR

mar; dMar.tu ‘Amurrum’

484

KID

d

486

MES

kišib = kunukkum ‘seal’

490

Ú

ú

491

GA

kà; ga; qá

494

LUḪ

(sukkal = sukkallum (an official) PN)

495

É

(é); é = bētum ‘house’; é.gal = ekallum ‘palace’; (é a.ba = bēt abem ‘paternal estate’)

496

KAL

dan; (guruš = eṭlum ‘(young) man; in ì.kal = *nāḫum(?) ‘lard’ → 380)

498

E

e

499

DUG

dug = karpătum ‘jar; a capacity measure’ → § 12.1

501

UN

un

504

UB

uB

511

RA

ra

512

DÙL

andul = ṣulūlum ‘shade, protection’ (PN)

En.líl ‘Illil’

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Sign list

sign

35

MZL

sign name

value

514

LÚ

(lú in PN); lú = awīlum ‘(gentle)man’

535

ŠEŠ

(ṣarx); šeš = aḫum ‘brother’

541

SAR

šar

543

GÀR

kàr; gàr; qar; in dam.gàr → 889

548

ÁŠ

áš; (áZ)

549

BANEŠ

baneš = ṣimdum (30 sìla → § 12.1)

552

MA

ma

553

GAL

kál; gal; qal; gal = rabium ‘big, old’ + Gen rabi … ‘overseer of …’

558

GIR

(ki/er; qi/er)

559

BUR

bur; pur

560

Á

iD; eD

561

DA

da; tá; ṭa

566

ŠA

ša; → 33

567

ŠU

šu; (šu.i = gallābum ‘barber’)

567*

ŠUNIGIN

šunigin = ištêniš ‘in total, together’

578

KUR

kur; (qúr; gur16)

579

ŠE

še = še′um(?) ‘barley’; uṭṭătum = 1/180 shekel → § 12.1; (dŠE.NAGA = dNisaba ‘Nisaba’)

580

BU

bu; pu

583

UZ

uZ; (uš10); (MUŠENuz = usḫium ‘duck’ RI)

585

MUŠ

muš; (rik13 ; ṣer PN); dNiraḫ ‘Niraḫ’

589

TE

(te; ṭe4 ; di12)

596

UD

uD; (u4); u4 = ūmum ‘day’; dUtu(-ši) = ‘Šamaš; sun; day’; in kù.babbar ‘silver’ → 745

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Chapter 3

MZL

sign name

598

PI

wa; wi; wu; (aw; iw; pi1)

599

ŠÀ

šà.ba ‘thereof’

631

ḪI

ḫi; du10 = ṭābum ‘good, pleasant’; ḫi(.a) = plural marker

633

TÍ

tí; dí; ṭí; té; de8 ; ṭé

636

AḪ

aḫ; iḫ; eḫ; (uḫ)

638

AḪ.ME

gudu4 = kumrum ‘priest’

640

KAM

kam; qám; gám; kam after numerals

641

IM

im; em; dIM = dIškur = Adad

644

ḪAR

ḫur; mur

670

U-DAR

(d)Iš8-tár (or (d)Ištar)

672

ÁB

áB

678

KIŠ

(kis PN)

681

MI

(mi PN; gi6 = ṣillum ‘shade, protection’ PN)

682

GUL

kúl; gul; qúl

690

NIM

ni/em; num; nàm; (ni7)

693

LAM

lam; (lum4 ; lì/èm)

695

AMAR

ṣur; (ṣár; zarx)

698

UL

ul

705

GIG

gig = aršātum ‘wheat’

708

MAN

púzur (PN)

711

EŠ

eš; ìš

IGI

lim; lúm; lam5 ; ši in (d)Utu-ši ‘šamšī ‘my sun’ (PN) and ina (d)Utu-ši ‘on the day that’; igi = maḫar ‘before’; (igi.du = pālilum ‘leader’ PN)

724

sign

value

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Sign list

sign

37

MZL

sign name

value

726

AR

ar

729

SIG5

sig5 = damqum ‘good’

731

Ù

ù

736

DI

sá; (šax ; ṣax ; di PN) (silim = šalim ‘sound’ PN)

737

KI

ki/e; qí/é; gi/e5 ; ki = ište; KI after GNs; (ki.lá(.be/bi) = šuqultum ‘weight’)

745

KUG

kù(.babbar) = kaspum ‘silver’; kù.gi/ki = ḫurāṣum ‘gold’; kù.an = amuttum or ašī′um ‘meteoric iron’

748

DIŠ

m

750

LAL

lá; lá = minus in quantities (maṭi)

751

LÁL

(la5)

753

ME

me; mì

807

IB

iB; eB

808

KU

ku; gu5 ; qú

809

TÚG

túg = ṣubātum ‘textile’; túg (textiles)

810

ŠÈ

in mu.x.šè = šattum → 98

812

LU

lu; udu = emmerum ‘sheep’

816

SÍG

síg = šāptum ‘wool’

828

UR

ur; liG; taš; (téš = ba′aštum ‘dignity’ PN; ūrum ‘genitalia’ RI)

836

GÍN

gín = šiqlum ‘shekel’

839

A

a; (A-ENGUR = íd = nārum ‘river’)

851

ZA

za; sà; ṣa; NA4za.gìn = ḫusārum ‘lapis lazuli’; NA4 ZA.GUL = NA4gug = sāmtum ‘carnelian’

(rare)

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Chapter 3

MZL

sign name

856

ḪA

ḫa; (ku6); (ḫa.lá = zittum ‘share’)

859

NÍG

ninda = aklum ‘bread’ (TÚGníg.lám = namašuḫum (a textile)); níg.ka-sú/sé → 24

883

MUNUS

in dumu.munus = mer′ătum ‘daughter’

884

ZUM

(súm; ṣum)

NIN

(nin = bêltum ‘lady, mistress’ (RI); nin.dingir or dingir.nin = gubabtum (a priestess)

889

DAM

dam; ṭam; tám; tum10 ; (ti/emx ; di/emy); dam(.munus) = aššătum ‘wife’; dam.gàr = tamkārum ‘merchant’

890

GÉME

géme = amtum ‘slave-girl; wife’

891

GU

gu

896

KÚŠU

ùḫ

899

EL

il5 ; el

900

LUM

(lum1)

905

SIG4

(sig4 = libittum ‘brick’ RI)

887

sign

value

Table of numerical signs MZL

sign name

sign

value

1

AŠ

digits, only with gú ‘talent’ and mu.x.šè ‘year’

120

MAŠ

1

/2

594

1

/4

630

1

/6

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Sign list

sign

39

MZL

sign name

value

661

U

tens

748

DIŠ

digits (rarely diš = 100)

750

LAL

lá = maṭi ‘minus’

826

ŠUŠANA

1

/3

832

ŠANABI

2

/3

838

KINGUSILA

5

/6

3.2 Alphabetical list of syllabic values and logograms Syllabic values are in italics, logograms in roman type; numerical signs have not been included. a

839

aZ

297

dá

248

du

350

aB1

223

áZ

548

dam

889

du10

631

áB

672

ba

14

dàm

354

dub

242

aD

258

bàd

275

damx

167

dug

499

aG

127

baneš

549

dan

496

dum

354

aḫ

636

báppir

362

dar

183

dum4

167

aḫ.me

638

bar

121

de8

633

dumu

255

al

474

be

113

de9

118

e

498

am

309

bé

358

di

736

é

495

an

10

bi

358

dí

633

en

164

andul

512

bí

313

dì

118

en6

261

anše

353

bi4

113

di12

589

en.líl

484

ar

726

bíl

312

dim

167

eš

711

aš1

1

bu

580

dingir

10

eš15

357

áš

548

bur

559

diri

207

ga

491

ašx

297

da

561

diš

748

gag

379

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Chapter 3

gal

553

il1

348

kúl

682

muš

585

gám

640

il5

899

kum

339

mùš

153

gan

253

illat

304

kur

578

na

110

gán

174

im

641

kùr

180

na4

385

gàr

543

in

261

la1

89

nam

134

géme

890

in4

164

lá

750

nàm

690

gi

141

ir

437

la5

751

né

380

gi5

737

ìr

18

làl

170

ni

380

gi6

681

iš

357

lam

693

ni7

690

gig

705

ìš

711

lam5

724

níg

859

gín

836

iš6

469

li

85

nim

690

gír

6

Ištar

670

lí

380

nimx

134

gu

891

itu

20

liG

828

nin

887

gú

176

iZ

469

lim

724

nu

112

gu4

472

íZ

357

lu

812

num

690

gu5

808

iZx

381

lú

514

numx

134

gul

682

ka

24

lugal

266

nun

143

gur16

578

ká

222

lum1

900

pa

464

ḫa

856

kà

491

lúm

724

pá

14

ḫal

3

kab

148

ma

552

pár

121

ḫi

631

kál

553

maḫ

91

pé

358

ḫu

132

kam

640

mar

483

pè

113

ḫur

644

kán

174

marx

121

pí

358

i

252

kàr

543

maš

120

pì

113

ì

380

ki

737

me

753

píl

312

iB

807

kir

558

mi1

681

pu

580

íB

354

kis

678

mì

753

pur

559

iD

560

kišib

486

mu

98

púzur

708

iG

136

ku

808

mun

168

puzur4

33

igi

724

kù

745

munus

883

qá

491

iḫ

636

ku6

856

mur

644

qà

24

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Sign list

41

qal

553

ṣa

851

tal

142

ṭì

118

qám

640

ṣax

736

tám

889

ṭim

167

qanx

174

ṣár

695

tàm

167

ṭù

350

qar

543

ṣarx

535

tam4

354

ṭum

354

qí

737

ṣir

585

tár

183

ṭur4

378

qir

558

ṣum

884

taš

828

ú

490

qú

808

ṣi1

259

te

589

ù

731

qúl

682

ṣí

140

té

633

uB

504

qum

339

ṣú

15

te9

118

uD

596

qúr

578

ṣur

695

téš

828

uG

296

ra

511

ša

566

ti

118

uḫ1

636

rá

350

šà

599

tí

633

ùḫ

896

ri

142

šax

736

tim

167

ul

698

rik13

585

šál

99

tím

354

um

238

ru

111

šar

541

tímx

889

un

501

sa

172

še

579

tu

86

ur

828

sá

736

šè

810

tù

350

úr

341

sà

851

šeš

535

túg

809

urudu

230

sag

184

ši

724

tuḫ

298

uš

381

sí

140

ší

181

tum

354

uš10

583

síg

816

šu

567

tum8

167

uZ

583

sig4

905

šubur

22

tur

255

úZ

381

sig5

729

šum

221

tur4

378

uZ4

297

sìla

99

šunigin 567*

ṭa

561

wa/i/u

598

silim

736

šur

151

ṭá

248

war

121

sipa

468

šùr

115

ṭam

889

za

851

su

16

ta

248

ṭé

633

zal

380

sú

15

tá

561

ṭe4

589

zarx

695

sukkal

494

taB

209

ṭe6

118

zi

140

súm

884

táG

438

ṭí

633

zu

15

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Chapter 4 Elements of phonology

4.1 Phonemes As far as the syllabary allows us to see, the OA inventory of phonemes is not substantially different from that of other dialects of Akkadian. It comprises the vowels a, i, e, and u and the consonants ˀ, b, d, g, ḫ, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, ṣ, š, t, ṭ, w, y, and z, of which ˀ, w and y are the “weak” consonants, see §§ 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8, respectively. Vowels can be long and short, and consonants can be “simple” and geminate (but see § 2.1 sub (4)). The following points are noteworthy: •

(1) ˀ (the glottal stop) is the only surviving guttural consonant and a merger of Proto-Semitic *ˀ and *ˁ (see § 4.6). The other Proto-Semitic gutturals (*h, *ḥ and *ġ) have become glides, long vowels or ḫ.

•

(2) The sibilants were doubtless affricates, as in other dialects: s = /ts/, z = /dz/, and ṣ = /ts′/ (GAG3 § 30*).

•

(3) The so-called “emphatic” consonants were actually glottalized, i.e. pronounced with a following (co-articulated) glottal stop: q = /k′/, ṭ = /t′/, and ṣ = /s′/ (see also § 4.6).

•

(4) The phonetic nature of š is controversial, but it is more likely to be the basic sibilant /s/ than a lateral /ś/ (IPA /ɬ/); it is unlikely that it was a (palatal-)alveolar fricative /š/ (IPA /ʃ/).

•

(5) Alternation of different consonants is mainly attested for s and š, e.g. parās/šum ‘to separate, to divorce’, š/sabāsum ‘to be(come) angry’, and ḫuš/sā′ū ‘metal scraps’. For alternation of vowels, see § 4.9.

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4.2 Loss of phonemes Word-final m that is part of a grammatical morpheme may be dropped. This applies to mimation in nouns and adjectives (§ 6.3.1), the ventive markers (§ 8.5.1), dative suffix pronouns (§ 5.2) and adverbial suffixes, e.g. šattiša ‘every year’ instead of šattišam. Loss of word-final n may occur in the Obl Du ending -ēn (§ 6.3.1). Loss of other word- or syllable-final consonants is found sporadically, especially of š, r, and l, but it is unclear to what extent these are scribal errors. 4.3 Assimilation of consonants Assimilation of adjacent consonants is regular in the following situations: •

(1) n assimilates to any following consonant, including ˀ, e.g. lamuttum < *lamuntum, Fem of lamnum ‘bad, evil’; a-da-šum ‘I will give him’, i.e. addaššum < addan-šum; a-am-tí-šu ‘for his slave-girl’, i.e. a′′amtīšu < an(a) ˀamtīšu; and the PN I-dí-A-šur, i.e. Iddiˀ-ˀAššur < Iddin-ˀAššur ‘Aššur has given’ (§ 2.5). As the last two examples show, this assimilation may also operate across a word boundary, especially in the case of proclitics like the prepositions ana and ina and in compound words.

•

(2) Syllable-final m that is part of a grammatical morpheme assimilates to any following consonant, e.g. ṭurdaššu ‘send him here!’ < ṭurdam-šu; ša tašpuranni ‘what you wrote to me’ < tašpuram-ni; and (silver for which PN) qātātunni ‘is guarantor’ < qātātum-ni.

•

(3) A cluster of a stem-final dental or sibilant and the initial š of the 3rd person suffix pronouns becomes -ss-: qá-sú ‘his hand’, i.e. qāssu < qāt-šu from qātum; a-ḫa-sí ‘I will marry her’, i.e. aḫḫassi < aḫḫaz-ši, phonologically /qātstsu/ and /(ˀ)aḫḫatstsu/, in accordance with § 4.1 sub (2).

•

(4) A cluster of a stem-final š and the initial š of the 3rd person suffix pronouns remains -šš-: lu-bu-šu ‘his clothing’, i.e. lubūššu < lubūš-šu.

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Elements of phonology

•

45

(5) In verbal forms a stem-final b may assimilate to m of the enclitic particle -ma: ṣí-im-ma ‘add (and)!’, i.e. ṣim-ma < ṣib-ma from waṣābum, and né-ruma ‘we entered (and)’, i.e. nērum-ma < nērub-ma.

•

(6) If the first radical of the verb is a dental or a sibilant, the t-infix of the perfect (§ 8.2) assimilates to this radical, e.g. iṣṣabat ‘he has seized’ < *iṣt-abat from ṣabātum, and uddapper ‘he has gone away’ < *ud-t-apper from dappurum. It is likely that this also applies to g, e.g. igdamar ‘he has spent’ < *ig-t-amar from gamārum, although spellings such as ig-TA-ma-ar are not uncommon (with TA = ?).

•

(7) In the Š-stem of verbs starting with a sibilant, the causative prefix ša- may appear as sa-: Pres usasḫar from saḫārum Š ‘to delay’ and usazkar (doubtless realized as /usaskar/) from zakārum Š ‘to make sb swear’.

4.4 Epenthesis Clusters of consonant plus n, l, r, and m, and clusters of ḫ plus consonant may be broken up by means of an epenthetic vowel i or u, e.g. ú-zi-ni for uznī ‘my ear’, šu-qú-lu-um for šuqlum ‘package’; gi-mì-lá-ni for gimlāni ‘do (Pl) me a favour!’ from gamālum; and i-ḫi-da(-ma) for iḫdā(ma) ‘take (Pl) care and …!’ from naḫādum. 4.5 Metathesis In verbs starting with a sibilant and š, the t-infix of the Perf and the derived stems changes places with the first radical. This is obligatory for sibilants (tuzakki ‘get cleared!’ instead of **zutakki, Imp ms of zakā′um Dt ‘to be cleared (of obligations)’), but optional for š (šitamme and tišamme ‘hear!’, Gtn Imp ms of šamā′um ‘to hear’).

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Chapter 4

4.6 The glottal stop (ˀ) Because of the lack of a sign for ˀ, the presence of ˀ can only be reconstructed from broken spellings (§ 2.4) and etymological considerations. In transcriptions, it is therefore replaced by a prime (′), which just indicates a syllable boundary, which may be ˀ or an (other) glide. The aleph sign ˀ is only used in reconstructed and etymological forms. ˀ can stand between vowels and after a consonant (e.g. in ša′āmum and iš′am, Inf and 3ms Pret of ša′āmum ‘to buy’, respectively), and perhaps at the beginning of a word as a non-phonemic variant of a word-initial vowel. After a vowel, ˀ was presumably dropped with lengthening of the vowel, e.g. merāšu ‘his son’ < *meraˀšu from mer′um (see § 6.3.3.2 sub (4)). Also in forms in which it is usually preserved, it seems to be dropped from time to time, as is suggested by spellings that ignore ˀ, such as the Gen Ṣí-Be-em alongside Ṣí-iB-em of the month name ṢiB′um. After a glottalic consonant, ˀ may be omitted in the spelling (ku-ṣú-um ‘winter’ for /kuṣˀum/) alongside ku-uṣ(-ú)-um. Similarly, a cluster of dental plus ˀ may be written as a glottalic dental (ṭ), e.g. the 1s Stat nad′āku ‘I have deposited’ from nadā′um ‘to put down, to deposit’ may be written as na-DA-ku, where DA = , i.e. /nat′t′āku/ (alongside regular na-ad-a-ku); and the Imp + Vent rid′am ‘bring here’ from radā′um may be written as ri-DAM, i.e. /rit′t′am/ alongside ri-id(-a)-am. 4.7 The labial glide w OA uses the sign PI for , , and perhaps for and , but a labial glide after u may also be expressed by a broken spelling, e.g. i-tù(-a)-ar ‘he will return’ alongside i-tù-wa-ar (§ 8.7.4). In word-initial position, w is occasionally written with the signs for b, in particular for /war/, e.g. BAR-ki-um for warkium ‘later’.

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Elements of phonology

47

w is a typical weak consonant in that it is dropped in the following circumstances: •

(1) Word-initial wă- may (optionally) become u-, e.g. urdum ‘slave’ alongside wardum, and uṣā′um ‘to go/come out’ (Inf) alongside waṣā′um.

•

(2) Word-initial wā- sporadically becomes ā-, e.g. ābilum ‘carrying’ instead of normal wābilum, Partc of wabālum.

•

(3) In word-initial we- and wē-, w- is sometimes dropped and sometimes not, e.g. ēṣum ‘few, little’ < *wayṣum versus wēdum ‘alone’ < *waḥdum. Instances of wi/ī- do not seem to occur. Spellings such as (e-)er-dum for wardum ‘slave’ and (e-)er-qú-um for warqum ‘green’ reflect a development wardum > *werdum (§ 4.9 sub (4)) > erdum.

4.8 The palatal glide y There is no sign specifically for the palatal glide y, but it can be expressed by several means depending on its place in the syllable: intervocalic or post-consonantal: Between vowels y can be expressed by the vowel sign I, e.g. me-er-ú-i-a ‘my sons’ (rare); by a broken spelling (e.g. ša a-bi-a ‘of my father’, i.e. /abīa/); and by the sequence A-A alongside simple A, e.g. da-a(-a)-num ‘judge’ (dayyānum) and the PN Agi(-a)-a, i.e. presumably Agīya or Agiyya. Post-consonantal y may be expressed by a broken spelling (§ 2.4) or a “glide spelling”, i.e. the use of a Ci sign, e.g. qí-ib-a = qí-bi-a ‘speak!’ (Pl), i.e. qibyā or qibiā from qabā′um (§ 8.7.7.1). 4.9 Vowels OA has the four short vowels a, i, u and e, and the corresponding long vowels ā, ī, ū and ē. The vowel e/ē is secondary and is usually the reflex of a in contact with an original * ˁ, *ḥ or r, or a reflex of the diphthong ay (bētum ‘house’ < *bayt-,

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Chapter 4

etc.). Short vowels are subject to vowel syncope under the same conditions as in other varieties of Akkadian (GAG § 12). The following aspects of OA vowels are noteworthy: •

(1) Vowel assimilation – a specifically Assyrian phenomenon – dictates that a short ă in the penultimate syllable assimilates to the vowel of the final syllable, e.g. Nom karputum, Gen karpetem, Acc karpatam from *karpătum ‘jar’. Exceptions are fairly common, however, at least in the spelling.

•

(2) In so far as the vowels i and e can be distinguished (which is mainly at the beginning of a word or a syllable), they alternate indiscriminately in several words. This applies to both short and long i and e, e.g. ilum and elum ‘god’; eriqqum and iriqqum ‘wagon’; ettiq and ittiq ‘he will cross’ from the I/e verb etāqum (§ 8.7.2); and in PNs, such as E-dí-in-A-šùr ‘Aššur has given’ alongside Iddin-Aššur; Īnaḫ-ilī and Ēnaḫ-ilī ‘He has had enough, my god!’, with the 3ms Pret ī/ēnaḫ from anāḫum; and the royal name Erīšum alongside Irīšum (which may also belong under (3)).

•

(3) Short ĭ becomes ĕ before r, as is shown by spellings such as ú-ta-e-er ‘he gave back’ versus ú-kà-i-il5 ‘he held’ and occasional plene spellings such as lu-ṣa-ḫe-e-er ‘let him deduct’ for luṣaḫḫer, 3ms Prec of ṣaḫārum D.

•

(4) Short ă often becomes ĕ before r, but this is optional, cf. alternations such as našpertum = našpartum ‘message’ and wardum = (w)erdum ‘slave’ in Akkadian words, and erēnum/arēnum ‘cedar’, kerānum/karānum ‘grape, wine’, kišeršum/kišaršum ‘prison’, and perekannum (or the like) alongside parakannum (a textile) in nouns of foreign origin.

•

(5) The vowel i of the original case ending -im and presumably also the original ventive morphemes -im (-īm?) and -nim (§ 8.5.1) appears as e in OA: Gen Sg tuppem, Obl Pl Fem -ātem, Vent -em (-ēm?), -nem, etc.

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Elements of phonology

•

49

(6) Long ī and ē may also alternate indiscriminately, e.g. the Pl Obl tuppī alongside (far more common) tuppē (§ 6.3.2). An original ī often appears as ē after ˀ, e.g. ik-le-e ‘he held me back’, i.e. ikle′ē < *ikla′ī, 3ms Pret of kalā′um; ša-áš-mì-e ‘let me hear!’, i.e. šašmi′ē for šašmi′ī, Imp ms of šamā′um Š + the 1st p. Sg Acc suffix pronoun (§ 5.2.3).

• (7) As a rule, there is no vowel contraction in OA, but exceptions are not uncommon, especially of identical vowels, e.g. a + ā in la tù-ṭá-ḫa-nem ‘do (Pl) not bring near!’, i.e. tuṭaḫḫânem < tuṭaḫḫa′ānem, 2p Proh of ṭaḫā′um D, and u + ū in la ú-šé-lu ‘they must not bring up’, i.e. ušellû < ušellu′ū (< ušella′ū through vowel assimilation), 3mp Proh of elā′um Š. Contraction of different vowels is rare and erratic, e.g. awīlū a-nu-tum ‘these men’ instead of anniūtum (§ 5.4), and ina wa-ṢÍ-a ‘when I left’, i.e. probably waṣêa instead of waṣā′īa, Inf of waṣā′um ‘to go/come out’.

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Chapter 5 Pronouns and enclitic particles

5.1 Independent personal pronouns 5.1.1 The personal pronouns comprise two categories, independent and suffixed. The independent personal pronouns distinguish person (first, second and third), number (Sg and Pl), gender (Masc and Fem), and case (Nom and Obl), see Table 5.1. The Obl corresponds to Gen, Dat and Acc in the nominal declension. 1c Sg Pl

2m

2f

3m

3f

Nom.

anāku

atta

atti (-ī?)

šūt

šīt

Obl.

iāti

kuāti

kuāti

šuāti

šiāti

Nom.

nēnu

attunu

attina

šunu

šina

Obl.

niāti

kunūti

kināti

šunūti

šināti

Table 5.1: The independent personal pronouns

The final vowels are occasionally written plene (a-na-ku-ú, šu-a-tí-i, etc.), especially in questions, but normally they seem to be short, except perhaps the Nom 2fs, which fairly often shows a plene spelling. It is likely that a final vowel is always lengthened before an enclitic particle, as in umma šunū-ma ‘they spoke as follows’. 5.1.2 The independent personal pronouns are employed in the following circumstances: •

(1) For emphasis and contrast, with the Nom referring to the subject of a verbal clause (kaspam anāku ašaqqal ‘it is I who will pay the silver’, or ‘I will pay the silver myself’) or to any other constituent when it is fronted (atta tuppaka la ittalkam ‘as to you, no letter from you has arrived here’); and the Obl referring to the direct or indirect object (kuāti uqa′′āka ‘I am waiting for you’; ṣubātē niāti ipqidūniāti ‘it is to us that they have entrusted the textiles’). As the examples show, the Obl independent pronoun usually occurs

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in addition to the suffix pronoun. For cases where no emphasis and contrast are involved, see § 9.1 sub (4); •

(2) in coordinated constituents, such as anāku u šūt ‘he and I’ and ana PN u iāti ‘to/for PN and me’;

•

(3) after prepositions that cannot take a suffix pronoun (kīma, ašar, ana and šumma la), e.g. šumma la kuāti ‘apart from you’;

•

(4) in apposition to a cardinal number, e.g. šalāšat attunu ‘the three of you’ (subject); ište arbe′et kunūti ‘with the four of you’; and ana šitta kināti ‘to the two of you (Fem)’. With three to nine, gender polarity applies (§ 7.2.2), but not consistently.

•

(5) The 3rd person forms can be used as anaphoric pronouns, referring to an entity mentioned before, either independently (‘he’, ‘him, ‘it’, etc.) or attributively (‘that, those, the aforementioned’). In the latter case, they agree with the noun in gender, number and case, e.g. luqūtum šīt ‘that merchandise’ (subject); tuppē šunūti ‘those tablets’ (direct object);

•

(6) The Nom is used as subject in non-verbal clauses with a pronominal subject (bēlī atta ‘you are my lord’).

5.2 Enclitic personal pronouns The enclitic (or suffixed) personal pronouns (see Table 5.2 on the next page) make the same distinctions of person, number and gender as the independent pronouns, but differ in case: they do not have a Nom, and instead of the Obl there are (partly) separate forms for Gen, Dat and Acc. The final vowel of the suffix pronouns seems to be generally short, except -(an)nī and -ī/ē of 1s and perhaps -kī of 2fs. However, plene spellings are not infrequent, especially in questions, but also elsewhere for no obvious reason. It is likely that a final vowel is always lengthened before an enclitic particle (iṣbatkā-ma ‘he seized

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you and’). The 1s form is basically -ī, with -ē occasionally replacing it, mainly after ˀ (§ 4.9 sub (6)) and w, e.g. tuppī ‘my tablet’ versus mer′ē ‘my son’ (alongside far more common mer′ī); tētapšī ‘you have treated me’ (epāšum) versus la takalle′ē ‘do not detain me!’ (kalā′um). 1c Sg

Pl

2m

2f

3m

3f

Gen

-ī/ē, -a

-ka

-ki (-kī?)

-šu

-ša

Acc

-(an)nī, -ī/ē

-ka

-ki (-kī?)

-šu

-ši

Dat

-am/-nem/-m

-(ak)kum

-(ak)kem

-šum

-šem

Gen

-ni

-kunu

-kina

-šunu

-šina

Acc

-niāti

-kunu

-kina

-šunu

-šina

Dat

-niāti

-(ak)kunūti

-(ak)kināti

-šunūti

-šināti

Table 5.2: The suffix pronouns

5.2.1 The enclitic pronouns of the genitive The Gen is used after nouns to indicate the possessor and after (some) prepositions. In the 1s, -ī/ē comes after a noun in the Nom or Acc, e.g. abī ‘my father’, -a (= /-ya/) after a long vowel, i.e. a noun in the Gen Sg (ša abīa ‘of my father’), in any Du or Pl form (ēnāya ‘my eyes’ (Nom); ēnēa ‘my eyes’ (Obl); aḫḫūa ‘my brothers’ (Nom), aḫḫēa ‘my brothers’ (Obl)); and after those prepositions that can take suffix pronouns (ištēa ‘with me’; balūa ‘without me’, etc.). The Gen suffix pronouns -kunu, -kina , -šunu and -šina may be shortened to -knu, -kna, -šnu and -šna, when they are preceded by a short vowel, e.g. libbaknu ‘your (Pl) heart’ and šuqultašna ‘their (Fem) weight’ instead of and alongside libbǎkunu and šuqultǎšina. This only occurs if the noun is in the Nom or the Acc, never in the Gen, where the suffix pronoun is always preceded by a long vowel: libbīkunu, šuqultīšunu.

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5.2.2 The enclitic pronouns of the dative The Dat suffixes (of which the 1s is identical with the ventive ending, see § 8.5.1) can only be attached to finite verb forms and have dative, allative and benefactive function: iddinū-nem ‘they gave me’; ašpur-šum ‘I wrote to him’; liš′am-niāti ‘may he buy for us’. In accordance with § 4.2, they sometimes lack their final -m. The Dat suffixes of the 2nd person are usually preceded by the ventive marker -am, -m, -nem (§ 8.5.1), e.g. addin-ak-kum ‘I gave you’, iddinū-nek-kum ‘they gave you’. This is also found with the 3rd person and 1p forms (-aššum, -aššem, -anniāti), but only rarely, e.g. ušēbil-aš-šum alongside more common ušēbil-šum ‘I sent (to) him’. The Dat suffixes of the 1st and 2nd person Sg may be followed by a 3rd person Sg or Pl Acc suffix pronoun, e.g. dinaššu ‘give it to me’ < din-am-šu; ašapparakkuššu ‘I will send him to you’ < ašappar-am-kum-šu; naš′akkuššina ‘he is bringing them (Fem) to you’ < naš(i)′-am-kum-šina , 3ms Stat of našā′um ‘to bring’. 5.2.3 The enclitic pronouns of the accusative The Acc suffixes (which are identical to the Gen suffixes, except in 1s, 3fs and 1p) can only be attached to finite verb forms and basically indicate the direct object. Of the three forms of the 1sc Acc suffix, -nī is used after the gender and number endings -ū, -ā and -ī; -annī is used directly after the stem; and -ī/ē can be used directly after a stem ending in a consonant (including ˀ). Thus after a consonant -ī/ē and -annī are used interchangeably, e.g. iṣbitī = iṣbatannī ‘he seized me’, šašmi′ē = šašmi′annī ‘let me hear’. Note the polysemy of the suffix spelled -NI: (1) the 1s Acc suffix ‘me’ after finite verbs; (2) the 1p Stat ending ‘we’; (3) the ventive marker -nem, when it is spelled without final -m (to be interpreted as /-ne/); (4) the 1p possessive suffix ‘our’ after nouns; (5) the subjunctive marker. The subjunctive marker can also come after the suffixes (1) to (4), resulting in -NI-NI.

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5.3 Possessive pronouns Alongside the suffix pronouns of the Gen, possession can also be expressed by a set of independent possessive pronouns. They consist of the stem of the oblique cases of the independent personal pronouns (iā-, kuā-, kunū-, etc., see Table 5.1), to which the regular gender and number markers of the adjective are added. When these start with a vowel, they are separated from the stem by a glide, presumably ˀ after ā, w or ˀ after ū. Table 5.3 shows the Nom of šuā′um ‘his’ and šunū′um ‘their’. Corresponding forms in OB and MA suggest -tt- (with shortening of the preceding vowel?) rather than simple -t- in Fem and Pl forms, but OA orthography does not show this. Like šuā′um are inflected šiā′um ‘her’, kuā′um ‘your(s)’ (Sg Masc and Fem), iā′um ‘my/mine’ and niā′um ‘our’; like šunū′um is inflected kunū′um ‘your’ (Pl). Sporadically, contracted forms are found, e.g. iâtum instead of iā′ātum ‘my’ (Nom Pl Fem). Msc Sg

Fem Sg

Masc Pl

Fem Pl

his

šuā′um

šuātum or -attum

šuā′ūtum or -′uttum

šuā′ātum or -′attum

their

šunū′um

šunūtum or -uttum

*šunū′ūtum or -′uttum

šunū′/wātum or -′/wattum

Table 5.3: Partial paradigm of the possessive pronouns

The possessive pronouns indicate the possessor in addition to or instead of the suffix pronouns of the Gen. Like all adjectives, they can be used attributively to qualify a noun, predicatively and independently. When used attributively, they may either precede or follow the head noun, e.g. bētum kuā′um or kuā′um bētum ‘your (Sg) house’. When they precede it, the head noun usually has a suffix pronoun as well, e.g., kuā′um bētka. Used predicatively, they form a nonverbal clause (ṣubātū iā′ūtum ‘the textiles are mine’). When they are used independently, they serve as a substantive, e.g. kuā′um or kuātum ‘what is yours’, ‘your interest’; niā′ūtum ‘our people’.

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5.4 Demonstrative pronouns OA has three demonstrative pronouns: annium ‘this’ (near the speaker), ammium ‘that’ (in principle, near the addressee but also used for ‘far deixis’ in general), and a very rare allium ‘that’ (away from speaker and addressee). They are mostly used anaphorically, referring to an entity mentioned earlier in the text. The demonstrative pronouns are inflected as adjectives (§ 6.4). They can be both attributive, almost always following the head noun (awâtum anniātum ‘these words/affairs’), and independent: mīššu annium ša ‘why is this, that …?’; annītam nišpurakkum ‘this is what we wrote to you’. The far deixis pronouns compete with the 3rd person of the independent personal pronouns: kaspum ammium and kaspum šūt seem to be used interchangeably for ‘that (the aforementioned) silver’. Corresponding to annium and ammium are two presentative particles: anna and amma, by means of which the speaker can draw the addressee’s attention to an enity: “here is …”, “this is …”, “voici …”. The entity may follow the particle in the Nom, e.g. amma tuppūka ‘here are your tablets’; anna ūm eṭārem ‘here is the day of saving’, i.e. ‘now is the moment to save (me)’. More frequently, the particle is followed by a clause and serves to draw or renew the addressee’s attention to an important (part of the) message or to underline the urgency of a plea or a question. Possible translation equivalents are “look!”, “take note!”, “indeed”, “surely”, “please”, etc., e.g. amma awīlū anniūtum lu ideū ‘surely these gentlemen know (this)!’, and amma tuppušu šitamme ‘please, listen to his tablet!’. For the locational adverbs derived from the same bases as the demonstrative pronouns, see the Glossary.

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5.5 Interrogative pronouns The interrogative pronouns comprise mannum, mīnum and ayyum. mannum ‘who(m)?’ and mīnum ‘what?’ are declined as a Sg noun (Nom mannum, Gen mannem, Acc mannam), are neutral with regard to the number and gender of their referent, and are treated as Masc Sg when qualified by an adjective (mannum šanium ‘who else?’). They may be strengthened by the emphatic interrogative particle -Ba, see § 5.7. mīnum can be combined with a Gen suffix pronoun (mīkka ukâl ‘what of yours do I possess?’ (< mīn-ka); ana mīnīa ‘for which of my affairs?’), but actual instances are very rare. Similar forms are also attested for mannum (e.g. mannušu), but they are even rarer and the function of the suffix is unclear. ayyum ‘which?’ is an interrogative adjective with adjectival inflection (Masc Sg ayyum, Pl ayyūtum; Fem Sg ayyī/ētum; Pl ayyātum). It is mainly used attributively, usually preceding the head noun, e.g. ayyum tuppī ‘which tablet of mine?’; adi ayyem ūmem ‘until which day?’, i.e. ‘for how long?’. More rarely, it is used independently, especially in ana ayyī/ētem ‘why?’, and predicatively (ayyum šumšu ‘what is his name?’). 5.6 Indefinite pronouns There are two indefinite pronouns: mamman and mimma. mamman (< *man-man, cf. mannum) refers to persons and is used both independently ‘somebody, anybody’, with a negation ‘nobody’, and in apposition to a noun ‘one, a certain, some, any’, with a negation ‘no, not any, not a single’, e.g. tamkārka mamman ‘some agent of yours’. It is invariable (ana mamman ‘to/for someone’; bēt mamman ‘someone’s house’) and treated as Masc Sg for agreement (mamman šanium ‘someone else’). It can be the head of a construct Gen (mamman libbīka ‘someone of your choice’ (lit. ‘heart’)) and of a relative clause (mamman ša

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‘someone who’, but also without ša, see § 9.2.2). A rare alternative form is mammana (or mammāna?). mimma (cf. mīnum) is the non-personal counterpart of mamman: used independently it means ‘something, anything, everything’, with a negation ‘nothing’; qualifying a noun, it means ‘one, a certain, some, any, every, all’, with a negation ‘no, not any, not a single’. With a noun, it may be used in apposition to the noun (kaspum mimma ‘some/any silver’; tuppēa mimma ‘any tablets of mine’), and as the head of a construct Gen (mimma luqūtīa ‘all my merchandise’; mimma anniem ‘all this’). The latter construction is preferred for the expression of ‘every, all, each’. Mimma is treated as Masc Sg for agreement (mimma šanium ‘something else’) and can be the head of a relative clause (mimma ša ‘everything which’, but also without ša, see § 9.2.2). mimma is invariable, but there are rare instances of a derived noun mimmā′um, construct state mimmā(ˀ), e.g. mimmāka ‘anything belonging to you’. Extended forms are mimmāma, mimmāšāma and mimma šumšu (rarely mimma šumīšu) ‘anything at all’. Šumšu by itself can also serve an an indefiniteness marker, as in tuppum šumšu ‘any tablet’ and mera(ˀ) Aššur šumšu ‘any Assyrian’. mimma is frequently used to strengthen a negation, e.g. mimma la tapallaḫ ‘do not worry at all!’ 5.7 Enclitic particles Apart from the Subj marker -ni (for which see § 8.5.2), three enclitic particles are in common use: -men, -Ba and -ma. -men (rarely -me) indicates non-real (irrealis) events, especially in conditional clauses with šumma. Usually it is attached to šumma and repeated in the apodosis (§ 9.2.1), e.g. šummāmen kaspam nilqe kīmaṣīmen ṣibtam nuṣib ‘if we had borrowed money, how much interest would we have paid?’, but different configurations are also found. Note also šummāmen la ‘if it were not for, without’. © 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

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-Ba (i.e. /-ba/ or /-pa/) adds urgency to a question, and is mostly attached to a question word (e.g. mīššu-Ba ‘why on earth?’), an independent pronoun (e.g. anāku-Ba, presumably realized as /anākūBa/ in accordance with § 5.1.1), or a conjunction (e.g. šumma-Ba ‘if really’, i.e. /šummāBa/?) in the interrogative clause. The ubiquitous enclitic particle -ma has three main functions: •

(1) It gives emphasis to the word it is attached to (-ma = ‘self, only, just, still, already’, etc.), e.g. attāma ‘you yourself, only you’ and awātamma la uta′′eram ‘he did not even give me an answer!’

•

(2) Added to a word referring to an entity already mentioned previously, it underlines the identity of the referents or the similarity of the situation (-ma = ‘also, the same’), e.g. šāpātem ana PN din u ṣubātē ana PN-ma din ‘give the wool to PN and give the textiles also to PN’, or: ‘to the same PN’.

•

(3) It combines clauses that are syntactically independent but logically connected, without specifying the nature of the connection. The clauses may be equivalent, e.g. šuqlī ipṭur-ma annikī ilqe ‘he opened a package of mine and took my tin’, but often one clause (mostly the initial one) is semantically subordinate to the rest and equivalent to a subordinate clause (circumstantial, temporal, causal, consecutive, final, etc.), e.g. PN kunukkam la īšū-ma ula iknuk ‘(because) PN has/had no seal, he has not sealed’; mīnam PN ḫabbulakkum-ma kasapšu talqē ‘what does PN owe you that you have taken his silver?’

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Chapter 6 Nouns and adjectives

6.1 The structure of nouns and adjectives 6.1.1 Nominal and adjectival patterns As regards the structure and the derivation of nouns and adjectives, OA essentially shows the same features as other dialects of Akkadian. Nouns generally show the same vocalic patterns (see GAG § 55–56), but there are some differences of detail. A typical feature of OA is a certain predilection for the vowel a where Bab has i, e.g. in the primary nouns barkum ‘knee’ for Bab birkum and daš′um ‘spring’ for Bab dīšum (< *dišˀum), and in the deverbal nouns ḫašaḫtum ‘need’ for Bab ḫišeḫtum and šabartum ‘piece, lump’ for Bab šibirtum. The adjectival patterns attested in OA agree with those in other dialects of Akkadian, with the following exceptions: •

The pattern PaRuS is very rare in OA (and often indistinguishable from PaRRuS): lamnum ‘bad, evil’ and zakûm ‘clean, clear, free (of claims)’ may belong here. Most Bab PaRuS adjectives appear as PaRiS (e.g. narbum ‘moist, soft’, Fem naribtum, cf. Bab narubtum) or PuRuS (e.g. qurbum ‘near’; kuzbum ‘nice, friendly’, cf. Bab qerbum, Fem qerubtum, and kazbum, Fem kazubtum).

•

Adjectives of II/ī roots tend to show ā instead of Bab ī: rāqum ‘empty’ for Bab rīqum (and similarly pāqum and sāqum ‘narrow’, which are only attested in later Ass).

•

Adjectives with exceptional patterns are kayyānum ‘constant, regular’ (cf. kuānum ‘to be(come) firm, stable, true’), lil(l)um or lil′um ‘dumb, stupid’, tardium ‘of second quality, of smaller size; younger (son)’ (cf. radā′um ‘to follow, to accompany’), ersuum ‘ready’ (quadriradical), and ZA-lá-mu-um, which qualifies donkeys and copper and is conventionally normalized as

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ṣallāmum and interpreted as ‘black’ on the basis of its root-identity with ṣalmum ‘black’. Since it has a nominal plural ṣallāmū/ē, it is strictly speaking not an adjective. 6.1.2 Nominal derivation by means of suffixes There are three common word-building suffixes: -(a)t, -utt, -iy/ī, and two rare ones: -ān- and the distributive suffix -ā (for which see § 7.5). •

-(a)t- (i.e. -at if the stem of the noun ends in a cluster or a geminate, -t elsewhere) indicates female persons and animals. In inanimate nouns, the function of -(a)t- varies with the meaning of the source noun: with numerals, it denotes a group (ḫamištum ‘group of five’); with infinitives, it creates abstract verbal nouns (pazzurtum ‘smuggling’ from pazārum D ‘to smuggle’). In some cases, the semantic relation to the source noun is opaque (wabartum ‘trading post’ from wabrum ‘foreigner’, collective?), or Masc and Fem form seem to be synonymous (naḫlăpum and naḫlaptum ‘garment, cloak’; rāmănum and rāmattum ‘self’).

•

-utt- derives abstract nouns from nouns and adjectives, e.g. šēbuttum ‘testimony’ from šēbum ‘witness’, amtuttum ‘status of a slave girl’ from amtum ‘slave girl’, and lamnuttum ‘evil deed, crime’ from lamnum ‘bad, evil, unfortunate’. Some of these nouns may perhaps (also) have collective meaning (tamkāruttum ‘merchants’).

•

-iy/ī derives adjectives (traditionally called “nisbe adjectives”) from nouns and other kinds of words, e.g. panium ‘first, previous, earlier’, warkium ‘later’, qablium ‘middle, of medium quality’, and qerbium ‘inner’. The largest group by far consists of derivations of geographic names, such as Kanešium ‘belonging to/originating from Kaneš, Kanešite’, and Zalpā′ium ‘from Zalpa’.

•

-ān- creates derived nouns that characterize a person according to some salient feature, especially in names, e.g. Ḫurāṣānum (cf. ḫurāṣum ‘gold’, i.e. ‘the

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golden one’) and Qaqqadānum (cf. qaqqădum ‘head’, i.e. ‘having a big head’?). An exceptional instance of -ān- not referring to a (type of) person is šaduānum/šadwānum ‘hematite’ from šaduum/šadwum ‘mountain’. For -ānas an inflectional morpheme, see § 8.3.8. 6.1.3 Loan words A prominent feature of OA is the adoption of loan words from various sources (only nouns). Apart from the numerous Sumerian loan words (doubtless adopted via Babylonian), the OA spoken in Anatolia also counts many nouns borrowed from the language(s) spoken by the indigenous population of Anatolia. They generally refer to mundane objects and commodities that the Assyrians became acquainted with in Anatolia: utensils (kulupinnum, a tool to chop straw), containers (šaršarannum, a vessel and a capacity measure, see § 12.1), and a few types of food (marnuattum, a kind of beer), see Dercksen 2007. It seems likely that most Anatolian loan words were specific to the OA spoken in Anatolia as opposed to that of Assur, but the scarcity of texts from Assur makes it impossible to verify this. Alongside Sumerian and Anatolian, there can be little doubt that the Assyrians borrowed many words from Babylonian, but these could easily be adapted to Assyrian norms and are therefore difficult to recognize. In addition, there is a handful of loan words from Hurrian and perhaps from Amorite. 6.2 The gender of nouns Like in other Semitic languages, OA nouns are Masc or Fem. Masc nouns are unmarked, Fem nouns are marked by the suffix -t, except for a few nouns referring to prototypical female beings, of which ummum ‘mother’ and ezzum ‘goat’ are attested in OA. However, some unmarked inanimate nouns are also Fem, especially nouns referring to paired body parts, containers and other concrete objects, such as ēnum ‘eye’, naruqqum ‘sack’ and kussium ‘chair, throne’. Most of these show a Fem Pl -ātum (§ 6.3.2). Some unmarked nouns occur both as Masc and as Fem (šuqlum ‘package’). The nouns eqlum ‘field’, qaqqădum ‘head, person’ and bētum

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‘house’ are Masc in the Sg, even though they have a Fem Pl: eqlātum, qaqqadātum and bētātum (alongside bētū). 6.3 The inflection of nouns 6.3.1 Case Nouns are inflected for number (Sg, Du and Pl) and case (Nom, Gen and Acc). In the Du and the Pl, Gen and Acc are always identical and can be subsumed under the term “oblique” (Obl). The Dat of nouns is expressed by means of the preposition ana + Gen, unlike that of the enclitic personal pronouns (see § 5.2). Nouns also distinguish three “states”: the independent state, the construct state and the absolute state, see § 6.3.3. Nouns are not marked for (in)definiteness: tuppum is ‘a tablet’ or ‘the tablet’ depending on the context. Table 6.1 shows the inflection of nouns by means of tuppum ‘tablet, letter’ for Masc nouns, našpertum ‘document, missive’ for Fem nouns with the suffix -t, and raqqătum ‘thin garment’ for Fem nouns with the suffix -ăt, where ă is subject to vowel assimilation (§ 4.9 sub (1)). For some aspects of the functions of the cases, see § 9.1.

Masc

Fem: suffix -t-

Fem: suffix -at-

Sg

Du

Pl

Nom

tuppum

tuppān

tuppū

Gen

tuppem

Acc

tuppam

tuppēn

tuppē

Nom

našpertum

našpertān

našperātum

Gen

našpertem

Acc

našpertam

našpertēn

našperātem

Nom

raqqutum

raqqatān

raqqātum

Gen

raqqetem

Acc

raqqatam

raqqetēn

raqqātem

Table 6.1 The inflection of the noun

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The final -m of mimation is spelled out with a fair degree of consistency, but exceptions are far from rare, especially in the case of -em (§§ 4.2 and 4.9 sub (5)). Similarly, the final -n of nunation in the Obl Du is sometimes omitted. Personal names that end in -um are regularly inflected for case, regardless of the (original) internal structure of the name: Lā-qēpum, -em, -am, Alāḫum, -em, -am, Iddi(n)-Abum, -Abem, -Abam, Šū-Kubum, -Kubem, -Kubam, etc. There are also a few instances of a directional case with the suffix -iš, which is traditionally called “terminative” or “terminative adverbial” (GAG § 67; GKT § 67) and has the same function as the preposition ana ‘to, for’. In OA, it only occurs sporadically with an infinitive, e.g. laqā′iš ‘(in order) to receive’ and muātiš (alākum) ‘(to go) towards dying’, i.e. ‘to be on one’s deathbed’, and in the personal names Aššuriš-tikal ‘rely on Assur!’ and Iliš-tikal ‘rely on the god!’. The corresponding “locative-adverbial” case with the ending -um is not attested in OA nouns. Its putative functions are rather to be assigned to the Nom. 6.3.2 Number The Sg can have collective meaning, especially in nouns referring to (groups of) persons, such as ṣuḫrum ‘children’, ZuBrum ‘slave(s), personnel’, šazzuztum ‘representative(s)’, literally ‘representation’, and tamkāruttum ‘(board of) merchants’. For agreement, they are treated as Sg, but they may take a Pl numeral, e.g. 2 šazzuztum ‘two representatives’, 5 ZuBrum ‘five slaves’ (alongside 1 ZuBrum ‘one slave’). There are many pluralia tantum, especially mass nouns, such as mā′ū ‘water’ and aršātum ‘barley’, and commercial terms, such as igrū ‘wages’, be′ūlātum ‘available funds, working capital’, and muṭā′ū ‘deficiency, loss, underweight’. Words for metals are regularly Sg, but may be used in the Pl, when they refer to metal objects, to specific amounts, or to rates of exchange or prices, e.g. siparrū ‘bronze objects’,

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kaspū ‘quantities of silver’. The Pl of bētum ‘house’ (bētātum and bētū) often seems to refer to a single house. The Du is used for two items of an entity interchangeably with the Pl. Except for natural pairs, Du forms are usually accompanied by the numeral “two” (Masc. šina , Fem šitta). Adjectives and demonstrative pronouns qualifying a Du noun usually take a Du form themselves. However, finite verb forms with a Du subject are usually in the Pl. The Masc Pl endings are the only ones without mimation or nunation. Occasionally, however, hypercorrect spellings with final -m occur, e.g. ku-ta-NIM for the Obl Pl kutānē ‘kutānum-textiles’ and u4-mu-UM for the Nom Pl ūmū ‘days’. Instead of -ē, the Obl ending sometimes appears as -ī. The following nouns have an irregular Masc Pl: abum ‘father’ → abbā′ū, emum ‘male relative by marriage’ → em(m?)ā′ū, šarrum ‘king’ → šarrānū , ālum ‘town’ → ālānū (and ālū), and eṭlum ‘(young) man’ → eṭlūtum. Comparison with Babylonian suggests that also aḫum ‘brother’ and eṣum ‘tree, (fire) wood’ have a Pl with gemination: aḫḫū and eṣṣū. The Fem Pl ending -ātum is also attached to Fem nouns that do not have the suffix -(a)t in the Sg, e.g. ḫarrānum ‘road, journey’ → ḫarrānātum and abnum ‘stone’ → abnātum, and even to some nouns that are Masc in the Sg (§ 6.2). Fem nouns with an irregular Pl are mer′ătum ‘daughter’ → mer′uātum and aḫātum ‘sister’ → aḫḫuātum (for -ḫḫ-, cf. aḫḫū ‘brothers’). 6.3.3 State 6.3.3.1 Of the three “states” of the noun, the independent state is the full form of the noun including the case and number markers. The construct state is a reduced form, usually without case marker, that comes before a noun in the Gen. The absolute state also lacks case and number marking and has various marginal, often adverb-like, syntactic uses (§ 6.3.3.6).

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The construct state is used when a noun is qualified by a “bound Gen”

(i.e., a noun in the Gen without ša) or a suffix pronoun: ṣuḫārka ‘your servant’, and ṣuḫār tamkārem ‘the merchant’s servant’ from ṣuḫārum ‘servant’ (stem ṣuḫār-). However, when a noun in the Gen Sg is followed by a suffix pronoun, it is not in the construct state but shows a long ī between stem and suffix: ana ṣuḫārīka ‘to/for your servant’ (versus ana ṣuḫār tamkārem ‘to/for the merchant’s servant’). In principle, the construct state of the Sg is the independent state without case ending and mimation, but its actual form depends on the form of the stem and on whether it is followed by a noun or a suffix pronoun. •

(1) Nouns of which the stem ends in a single consonant regularly drop the case ending: mātum ‘land, people’ → māt, qaqqădum ‘head, person’ → qaqqad , aššătum ‘wife’ → aššat. Special rules exist for nouns with a weak consonant as second or third radical (§ 6.3.4), and for two small groups of very frequent, mainly bi-consonantal nouns (see (6) and (7) below).

•

(2) Nouns with a monosyllabic stem that ends in a geminate drop the case ending and insert ă before a suffix pronoun starting with a consonant, and ĭ before a noun: libbum ‘heart’ → libbăša ‘her heart’ (but libbušu ‘his heart’ < *libbăšu with vowel assimilation); libbĭ awīlem ‘the man’s heart’.

•

(3) Nouns with a polysyllabic stem that ends in a geminate use the same rule as (2) before a suffix pronoun (kunukkum ‘seal’ → kunukkăka ‘your seal’), but before a noun they simplify the geminate (kunuk abīa ‘my father’s seal’). However, Fem nouns ending in -tt- usually add ă/ĭ in both cases (like libbum), e.g. šēbuttum ‘testimony’ → šēbuttĭni ‘our testimony’ (< *šēbuttăni ) and šēbutti PN ‘the testimony of PN’.

•

(4) Nouns with a monosyllabic stem ending in a consonant cluster insert a short vowel between the two consonants of the stem-final cluster. In PaRS nouns, the inserted vowel is ă (wardum ‘slave’ → warad); in PiRs nouns it is

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ă or ĭ (mišlum ‘half’ → mišal; milkum ‘advice, decision’ → milik); in PuRs nouns it is ă or ŭ (uznum ‘ear’ → uzan; bulṭum ‘lifetime’ → buluṭ). •

(5) Nouns with a polysyllabic stem ending in a consonant cluster are treated like polysyllabic stems that end in -tt- (see (3)), e.g. našpertum ‘message’ → našpertăka ‘your message’, ukultum ‘fodder’ → ukulti emārē ‘fodder for the donkeys’. All instances so far attested concern Fem nouns with the suffix -(a)t-. A very rare alternative is to replace the suffix -t by -at, as in nāṣerat from nāṣertum ‘female guardian’ and especially bēlat from be′eltum (or bêltum?) ‘lady, mistress’.

•

(6) In violation of rule (1), the Sg of the nouns abum ‘father’, aḫum ‘brother’ and emum ‘male relative by marriage’ and the quantifier kălu ‘all, whole’ preserve the case vowel before a suffix pronoun starting with a consonant and lengthen it (as always before a suffix): Nom abūka ‘your father’, Gen abīka, Acc abāka; kulūšunu ‘all of them’, Gen kilīšunu, Acc kalāšunu (§ 4.9. sub (1)). Moreover, abum, aḫum and emum tend to replace the Acc with the Nom, so that forms such as abūka and aḫūka can be both Nom and Acc, and to generalize the form with -ū in the construct state before a noun regardless of case: abū, aḫū and emū. The expected form ab only survives in the month name Ab šarrānē (month V), lit. ‘father(s) of the kings’ and the word for ‘grandfather’, *ababum.

•

(7) Also in violation of rule (1), a few very common biconsonantal nouns form their construct state before a noun by adding a short ĭ to the stem: ilum ‘god’ → ili (alongside il), qātum ‘hand, share’ → qāti (rarely qāt), and šumum ‘name’ → šumi (very rarely šum).

6.3.3.3 The construct state of the Du is formed by dropping nunation: qātān ‘(2) hands’ → qātāka ‘your (2) hands’; (gold) ša uznē ṣuḫārtem ‘for the girl’s ears’ (uznē cannot be Pl, which is uznātum). Before a noun, however, the construct state of the Sg is normally used: ina ēnēka u ēn Aššur ‘in your eyes and Aššur’s eyes’.

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6.3.3.4 The construct state of the Masc Pl is identical to the independent state: šiprū ‘messengers’ → šiprūkunu ‘your (Pl) messengers’, šiprū kārem ‘the messengers of the kārum’. Before a noun, the construct state of the Sg is often used, e.g. both ummiānū abīa and ummiān abīa may signify ‘my father’s investors’, without any discernible difference in meaning. 6.3.3.5 The construct state of the Fem Pl before a noun is formed by dropping the case ending: šipkātum ‘investments’ → šipkāt PN ‘PN’s investments’. Before a suffix pronoun, the Masc Pl endings ū and ē are inserted between stem and suffix, e.g. Nom našperātūka ‘your missives’, Obl našperātēka. However, in a few commercial terms, such as nisḫātum ‘nisḫātum-tax’, miḫrātum ‘equivalent, counterpart’, and be′ūlātum ‘working capital’, this insertion may be omitted, e.g. nisḫāssunu ‘their nisḫātum-tax’ < nisḫāt-šunu (alongside Obl nisḫātēšunu). 6.3.3.6 The absolute state is the independent state of the Sg and the Fem Pl without case ending and mimation, and is therefore usually identical to the construct state. It expresses a number of disparate functions, mostly adverbial in nature and often in more or less stereotyped phrases: •

Cardinal numbers are regularly in the absolute state when they qualify a noun or an independent pronoun, e.g. ṣubātū ešrat ‘(about) ten textiles’; 1 mi′at ṣubātū ‘one hundred textiles’.

•

Nouns of measures and periods of time (but not ūmum ‘day’) use the absolute state to indicate one item (naruq ‘one sack’; šanat ‘one year’ from šattum ‘year’), or a specific plural number of items after a numeral (5 naruq ‘five sacks’; 10 šanat (or šanāt?) ‘ten years’). With šattum, the absolute state alternates with the independent state: 10 šanātum.

•

It forms distributive expressions with the repetition of a noun: ana/ina kār kārma ‘to/in every kārum’; ina ḫarrān ḫarrānma ‘on every journey’.

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•

It occurs in a number of lexicalized adverbial expressions, such as ašar ištēn ‘in one place, together’ from *ašrum and ana awīl izizzum ‘to stand for one man’ from awīlum, i.e., ‘to participate in a common fund for one (full) share’.

6.3.4 The inflection of weak nouns 6.3.4.1 The OA noun for ‘mouth’ (OB pûm), which will be cited here as *pi′um (it is not attested in the Nom Sg of the independent state) shows in the inflection of the Sg the forms presented in Table 6.2 below. The reconstructed long vowel in the construct state forms results from short vowel + ˀ; whether the independent state forms (which are very rare) also have a (secondary) long vowel is hard to determine. Plural forms are exceptional, presumably Nom pi′ū, Obl pi′ē. independent state Nom Sg Gen Sg

Acc Sg

(not attested)

c. st. + suffix

c. st. + noun

pī-, pā-, pū-

pī

pi′em or pī′em, pa′e or pā′e?

pī-

pī

pi′am or pī′am, pa′am or pā′am

pī-, pā-, pū-

pī

Table 6.2: The declension of *pi′um ‘mouth’ in the singular 6.3.4.2 Nouns of the pattern PvRS with ˀ as middle radical, such as bēlum ‘lord, owner’, šīmum ‘price, merchandise, purchase’, dātum ‘road-tax’, rēšum ‘head’, and ṭēmum ‘decision, report, practice’, which regularly drop ˀ in the independent state (šīmum < *šiˀmum), may preserve ˀ in the construct state (where it is intervocalic, see § 4.6): be′el, ši′im, da′at , re′eš and ṭe′em, cf. a spelling such as da-a-sú(-nu) ‘his/their dātum’ as compared to qá-sú(-nu) ‘his/their hand’ and ma-sú(-nu) ‘his/their land’ from qātum and mātum.

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6.3.4.3 Nouns with a stem-final weak consonant are generally inflected as strong nouns but in some positions the weak consonant may cause deviations. Table 6.3 below shows the three main types of nouns with stem-final ˀ. The Du has been omitted as rare (and predictable).

Sg

Pl

tappā′um

mer′um

rādium

Nom

tappā′um

mer′um

rādium

Gen

tappā′em

mer′em

rādiem

Acc

tappā′am

mer′am

rādiam

c. st.

tappā(ˀ)

merā

rādī/ē

Nom

tappā′ū

mer′ū

rādiū

Obl

tappā′ē

mer′ē

radiē

Table 6.3: The inflection of nouns with stem-final ˀ •

tappā′um ‘partner’ represents nouns with long vowel + ˀ. There is a very large group of nouns with -āˀ-, also including G-stem infinitives of III-weak verbs (laqā′um ‘to take, to receive’, etc.) and a few other nouns (ašī′um (a kind of metal), we/arī′um ‘copper’, purū′um ‘slander’). However, there are occasional instances of loss of ˀ and vowel contraction, such as ta-pá-ni ‘our partner’ (/tappâni/) and pu-ru-šu ‘slander against him’ (/purûšu/).

•

mer′um ‘son’ represents nouns ending in consonant + ˀ (also daš′um ‘spring’, Ṣib′um (the name of month VII), kuṣ′um ‘cold, winter’, for which see § 4.6, and some others). Apart from the strong forms of the Table, occasional forms without ˀ are found for Ṣib′um (§ 4.6). mer′um actually shows a double inflection: the strong one of the Table and one without ˀ but with a in the stem, e.g. Sg Gen ana ma-ri-a ‘to my son’, Pl Nom ma-ru(-ú), Obl ma-re(-e); with suffix: Nom ma-ru-šu ‘his sons’, Obl ma-re-šu.

•

rādium ‘guide, caravan driver’ represents nouns ending in -ium, which mainly comprise participles of III/weak verbs. The realization of the syllable boundary is unclear: -i′um (if the stem originally ends in ˀ) or -iyum.

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•

The construct state of these types of nouns are tappā(ˀ), merā (< *meraˀ, see § 4.6) and rādī or rādē (< rādiˀ), respectively.

6.3.4.4 Table 6.4 below shows the inflection of nouns with stem-final y and w. Niqium ‘sacrifice’ represents PvRS nouns of III/ī verbs (mainly niqium itself) and primary nouns with stem-final y (only muš(i)um ‘night’). qanuum ‘reed’ represents the primary nouns with stem-final w: qanuum itself and šaduum ‘mountain’. The defective rendering of y and the ambiguity of many spellings make the reconstruction of several case forms highly uncertain. It is also uncertain whether Pl forms of niqium and qanuum occur. Possible instances, such as qá-nu-e and ni-qí-e may be Sg forms without mimation. An unquestionable Pl form is the Nom ša-du-ú ‘mountains’.

Sg

Pl(?)

niqium

qanuum

Nom

niqium or niqyum

qanuum, qanwum or qanûm?

Gen

niqiem? niqî/êm?

qanuem or qanwem

Acc

niqiam or niqyam

qanuam or qanwam

c. st.

niqī

qanū

Nom

*niqiū or *niqyū

qanuū, qanwū or qanû?

Obl

niqiē? niqê?

qanuē or qanwē

Table 6.4: The inflection of nouns with stem-final y and w 6.4 The inflection of adjectives Adjectives are declined for gender, number and case and have the same endings as nouns, with the exception of the Masc Pl, see Table 6.5 on the next page. There are some peculiarities in the declension of III/weak adjectives, such as rabium ‘big, old’ and zakûm ‘clear’, but these are comparable to those applying to the corresponding class of III/weak nouns described in §6.3.4.4 with Table 6.4. Nisbe adjectives are also inflected as nouns ending in -ium (Fem -ītum), e.g. Aššurium, Fem

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Aššurītum ‘Assyrian’. For the inflection of adjectives of the dannum type, see also the forms of raqqătum (which is a substantivized adjective) in Table 6.1. Sg Masc

Fem

Nom

damqum

Gen

damqem

Acc

damqam

Nom

damiqtum

Gen

damiqtem

Acc

damiqtam

Du

Pl

damqān

damqūtum

damqēn

damqūtem

damiqtān

damqātum

damiqtēn

damqātem

Table 6.5: The inflection of adjectives The adjective ṣaḫrum ‘small, young’ has plural forms with gemination: Masc ṣaḫḫurūtum (< *ṣaḫḫărūtum), Fem ṣaḫḫarātum. Perhaps this also applies to some other adjectives denoting dimensions. Nisbe adjectives derived from geographic names employ the nominal ending -ū/ē rather than the adjectival ending -ūtu/em in the Masc Pl, e.g. nuā′ū Ḫurāmā′iū ‘the native inhabitants of Ḫurāma’. The construct state of an adjective is only used when the adjective is substantivized. The most frequent instance is the designation of Anatolian officials by means of rabī + Gen ‘chief, overseer of …’, the construct state of rabium ‘big, old’, e.g. rabī maḫīrem ‘the overseer of the market’. An instance of the absolute state of adjectives is ṣaḫer rabī in the expression kārum GN ṣaḫer rabī ‘the kārum GN, small and big’, which is often conventionally translated ‘the plenary assembly’ (of the kārum). There is a productive derivation of adverbs from adjectives by means of the suffix -iš, e.g. damqiš ‘well, kindly, carefully’, mādiš ‘very, greatly’, lamniš ‘badly’, and danniš ‘strongly, very’, strengthened dannišamma ‘very strongly, very much’.

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6.5 The syntax of adjectives An attributive adjective agrees with its head noun in gender, number and case. However, collective nouns may show semantic agreement, e.g. Pl with Sg: 5 ṣābam aḫiūtem ‘a group of five strangers’ (Acc), and Masc with Fem: (the gossip) ša tanīštem la damqem ‘of people who are no good’. An attributive adjective regularly follows the head noun, but ordinal numbers normally precede it (§ 7.3). Some attributive adjectives may also be used as a complement to the subject or the direct object of a clause, especially šalmum ‘intact, in good condition’, rāqum ‘empty’ and erium ‘naked, destitute’. Examples are kutānū ištu ekallem šalmūtum urdūnem ‘the kutānum-textiles have come down from the palace in good order’, erītum uṣṣam ‘I (Fem) have come out empty-handed’, and rāqamma la taṭarradaššu ‘do not send him (back) here empty-handed (i.e. without merchandise)!’. Such adjectives are usually positioned close to the predicate. When an adjective is substantivized, Masc forms usually refer to male persons (wašbum ‘one who is present, inhabitant’, Akkidiū ‘the Akkadians’), Fem nouns to abstract concepts (lamuttum ‘evil, misfortune’, ṭābātum ‘kindness, favour’), rarely to female persons (qadištum, a woman with a special status: ‘second-rank wife, concubine’, or the like). The Masc Pl of substantivized adjectives may both be adjectival -ūtu/em and nominal -ū/ē, sometimes with a semantic differentiation (especially šēbū ‘witnesses’ versus šēbūtum ‘elders’ from šēbum ‘gray, old’).

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Chapter 7 Numerals

7.1 Introduction Our knowledge of the OA numerals is incomplete as a result of the frequency of logographic spellings. What we know is based on the extant syllabic spellings, internal reconstruction and information from other dialects. There are more or less productive and regular series for cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative, and distributive numbers. 7.2 Cardinal numbers 7.2.1 The cardinal numbers of one to ten, as attested or reconstructed, are shown in the left half of Table 7.1. cardinal numbers Masc

ordinal numbers Fem

Masc

Fem

ištên

ištêt

panium

panītum

šitta

šanium

šanītum

šalāšat and šalšat

šalāš

šalšum

šalištum

4

arbe′et or arbêt

arbe

rab′um

rebītum

5

ḫamšat

ḫamiš

ḫamšum

ḫamištum

6

*šeššat?

*šediš?

*šeššum?

šedištum

7

*šab′et or *šabêt

*šabe

*šab′um

*šabītum

8

*šamāniat?

šamāni

*šamnum

*šamittum

9

*tiš′et or *tišêt

tiše

*tiš′um or *tišium?

*tišītum?

10

ešrat

ešar

ešrum

ešartum

1

ištên

ištêt

2

šina

3

Table 7.1: Overview of the cardinal and ordinal numbers from one to ten

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For eleven to nineteen no syllabic spellings are attested, but incidental syllabic spellings of multiplicative numerals (§ 7.4) and comparison with OB (GAG § 69d) suggest that they consisted of the digit + ešar/ešrat in a more or less contracted form. Of the decades, only ešrā ‘twenty’ is attested syllabically, although indirectly (as a multiplicative, see § 7.4). Comparison with other dialects suggests that also the other decades end in a long -ā. The hundreds are mi′at or 1 mi′at , 2 mi′at, 3 mi′at , etc. This form is the absolute state of mītum (< *miˀtum). The Nom mītum is only used in mītum ḫamšat ‘five percent (tax)’ (§ 9.1. sub (1)). The thousands are written (1) li-im, 2 li-im, 3 li-me(-e), 4 li-me(-e), etc., perhaps to be normalized as li′im, līmē. 7.2.2

When a cardinal number qualifies a noun, the number is in the absolute

state and the noun in the independent state with the appropriate number and case ending; the order of noun and number varies. For the numbers three to ten, the principle of gender polarity applies (see § 5.1.2 sub (4) for an exception), so that the Fem forms are unmarked and the Masc forms contain the otherwise Fem suffix -t. Examples are šattam ištêt ‘one year’ (Acc Fem), šina lubūšē paṣiūtem ‘two white garments’ (Obl Masc), arbe šanātem ‘four years’ (Obl Fem), and ṣubātū ḫamšat ‘five textiles’ (Nom Masc). However, ištên/ištêt is inflected for case if it is followed by -ma, e.g. tuppum ištênumma ‘only one tablet’; appuḫ šitta šuqlēn ištêtamma ukallimka ‘instead of two packages he showed you only one’. There are occasional instances of the Sg after a plural number, especially with collective nouns, e.g. ṣābum 10 u 20 ‘ten or twenty people’, but more rarely also with ūmum ‘day’, e.g. adi 5 u4-me-em ‘within five days’ (if this is not a hypercorrect spelling, see § 6.3.2), and perhaps also with measures.

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The combinations ištên u šina, lit. ‘one or two’, and šina u šalāšat, lit. ‘two or three’, may express an unspecified low quantity: ‘some, a few’. 7.3 Ordinal numbers The ordinal numbers from one to ten, as attested or reconstructed, are shown in the right half of Table 7.1 in § 7.2.1. From two to nine, they usually show the pattern PaRiS. However, for “third” and “sixth” also other forms are attested: šāliš(i?)um and šadāšium (or the like), respectively. Ordinal numbers are treated as adjectives apart from the fact that they usually precede the head noun, e.g. ina šanītem šattem ‘in the second year’, ina paniūtemma ālikē ‘with the very first travellers’. Also warkium ‘later’, as the antonym of panium, may have this position. The ordinal numbers from three to ten may be used as fractions, e.g. šalšum ‘onethird’, mostly in the Fem Pl to indicate the share a merchant has in a joint-stock venture: šalšātum ‘one-third shares’, rab′ātum or rab′ētum ‘quarter shares’, ešrātum ‘tithe, tenth part’. The construct state forms šališni, rabūni and ḫamušni ‘our third/fourth/fifth (partner)’ in legal documents indicate a missing member from a group of three, four or five witnesses, respectively. Note that rabūni (< *rabuˀ-ni) and ḫamušni presuppose a pattern PaRuS rather than PaRiS. The Fem of some ordinal numbers is used as an abstract noun which indicates a group of entities, mostly persons: šalištum ‘group, committee of three’, three-man board’, and similarly ḫamištum ‘group of five’, šedištum ‘group of six’, and ešartum ‘group of ten, ten-man board’. Ešartum may also mean ‘amount of ten shekels, tenshekel weight’. For ešartum ištên ‘ten percent’, see § 9.1 sub (1). Alongside ḫamištum, there is also ḫamuštum, perhaps also a group of five, in particular, the committee that gives its name to the ḫamuštum-period used to express the term of payment in debt notes (see § 12.2).

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7.4 Multiplicative numbers Multiplicative numbers from two to nineteen are built on the cardinal numbers by means of the suffix -ēšu, rarely -īšu (but note that the difference between ē and ī is only visible after a syllable boundary). “Once” is mala, and from 20× onwards it seems that the cardinal itself is used as multiplicative. Attested forms are: 1×

mala

8×

šamāniēšu or -nêšu

2×

šinēšu, exceptionally -ši

9×

tiš′ēšu

3×

šal(ā)šēšu

10×

ešrēšu

4×

arbe′ē/īšu or arbê/îšu

14×

14-e-šu

5×

ḫamšēšu

15×

15-šé-re-šu

6×

šeššēšu

20×

ešrā

7×

šab′ēšu and šabêšu

100×

mītā

Table 7.2: Multiplicative numbers The multiplicative numbers have three functions: •

preceded by adi or ana or by themselves, they express “x times”, e.g. adi mala u šinēšu ‘once or twice’; (adi/ana) ḫamšēšu u šeššēšu ‘five or six times’;

•

preceded by ana, they may express “into x parts”, e.g. ana šinēšu zuāzum or maḫāṣum ‘to divide/split into two’;

•

preceded by ana (rarely without) and qualifying a noun, they express “x (sets of) objects”, e.g. ana šinēšu šēnēn ‘two pairs of shoes’; ana ḫamšēšu tamalakkū ‘five (sets of?) containers’. In this function, mala is replaced by *ištênium, e.g. istêniūtum tamalakkū ‘one (set of?) container(s)’.

7.5 Distributive numbers Distributive numbers, marked by the suffix -ā, are ištênā ‘one each, one by one, one at a time’, šanā ‘two each, in sets of two’, šulūšā ‘three each, in sets of three’

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and perhaps rubūā ‘four each’, e.g. (containers) ša šanā bilātem ‘of two talents each’; 4 šakūkātem ištênā din ‘sell the four girdles one by one’. The suffix -ā may also be attached to some other nouns: mišlā ‘half’ from mišlum, muttā ‘half’ from muttătum, bilā ‘one talent each’ from biltum ‘talent’, and bē/īrā ‘per double mile’ from bē/īrum. From some of the distributive numbers, a form ending in -ā′um is derived to indicate a rate of exchange (perhaps by analogy with manā′um ‘per mina’, see § 9.1. sub (1)): šanā′um ‘at a rate of one to two’, šulūšā′um ‘at a rate of one to three’, and rubūā′um ‘at a rate of one to four’. 7.6 Other numbers Other numbers or number-like words include šūšalšum ‘threefold’, the fractions mišlum ‘half’ and šinip(p)ium ‘two-thirds’, and the quantifiers kălu ‘all, whole’ and kilallān ‘both’. kălu is a noun inflected for case: Nom kulu, Gen kili, Acc kala (with vowel assimilation, see § 4.9 sub (1)), and is followed by a noun in the Gen, e.g. ana kili kaspīni ‘for all our silver’, by a suffix pronoun, e.g. kulūkunu ‘you all’ (Nom), ana mātem kilīša ‘for the entire land’, or by -ma: kalāma ‘everything’ (Acc). kilallān (Fem kilaltān) is inflected as a noun in the dual and stands either in apposition to a noun, e.g. tuppū kilallān ‘both tablets’ (Nom); kilaltēn šuqlēn ‘both packages’ (Obl), or independently, usually with a suffix pronoun attached: ana kilallēni ‘to both of us’.

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Chapter 8 Verbs

8.1 General features 8.1.1 The verbal paradigm of OA – just like that of Akkadian at large – shows the typical Semitic structure of a consonantal root, mostly with three radicals, which indicates the meaning of the form in question in a very general way, combined with a vowel pattern, which specifies its grammatical function. According to the nature and the position of the radicals, we can distinguish strong and weak roots. Strong roots consist of three strong radicals, weak roots contain one or more weak radicals (n, w/ū, y/ī and ˀ) and/or end with two identical radicals. The various types of weak roots are described in § 8.7. 8.1.2

The verbal paradigm comprises eight primary inflectional categories, as

opposed to the derivational categories mentioned in § 6.1.1 (derived noun patterns) and § 8.6 (derived verbal stems): five finite (present, preterite, perfect, imperative and stative) and three non-finite (infinitive, verbal adjective and participle), see Table 8.3 on page 82. From these primary inflectional categories, the following secondary categories can be derived: the ventive, the subjunctive, the participle with the suffix -ān-, and the modal categories of prohibitive, precative, vetitive and asseverative. For form and function of these categories, see §§ 8.3–8.5. 8.1.3 The finite categories are inflected for person (1st, 2nd and 3rd), number (Sg, Du and Pl) and gender (Masc and Fem). The “prefix conjugations” employ prefixes and suffixes, the Imp and the Stat only suffixes. Table 8.1 on the next page shows an overview. The i/a prefixes are the default prefixes, the ones with u are only used in the Pres and Pret of the I/w verbs (§ 8.7.1) and in the D-stem and the Š-stem of all verbs, including the secondary stems derived from them. The nonfinite categories of Inf, VA and Partc are basically nouns or adjectives and are inflected accordingly, see Chapter 6.

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prefix conjugations i/a

Sg

Du

Pl

u

Imp

Stative

3m

i ---

u ---

---

3f

ta ---

tu ---

--- at

2m

ta ---

tu ---

---

--- āti, -āt

2f

ta --- ī/ē

tu --- ī/ē

--- ī/ē

--- ātī (or -āti?)

1c

a ---

u ---

--- āku, -āk

3c

i --- ā

u --- ā

--- ā

2c(?)

ta --- ā

tu --- ā

1c

a --- ā

*u --- ā

3m

i --- ū

u --- ū

--- ū

3f

i --- ā

u --- ā

--- ā

ta --- ā

tu --- ā

ni ---

nu ---

2m 2f 1c

--- ā

--- ā

--- ātunu --- ātini (!) --- āni

Table 8.1: The personal endings of the verb 8.1.4 If the subject is a 3rd person Du Masc, the finite verb usually takes the 3mp ending -ū; the corresponding Du ending -ā is very rare. In the corresponding Fem form, Du and Pl are indistinguishable: both show the ending -ā. Also the 1st person Du is very rare. Instances are anāku u šūt ammigrā ‘I and he came to an agreement’ (magārum N), lātawwā ‘let us talk with each other’ (atawwum, see § 8.7.8.2), and azuzzā ‘the two of us will divide’ (zuāzum). For structural reasons, the existence of a 1st person and a 3rd person Du seems to require a 2nd person Du as well, but this cannot be ascertained, since it coincides in form with the 2nd person Pl. 8.1.5 In the Stat, the suffix pronouns of Dat and Acc (§§ 5.2.2. and 5.2.3) are only attached to the forms of the 3rd person, to the 1st person Sg (mostly in the form -āk, e.g. ḫašḫāk-šunu ‘I need them’, and naš′āk-kum ‘I am bringing to you’), and exceptionally to the 2ms (ḫabbulāt-niāti ‘you owe us’).

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8.1.6 The finite forms of the G-stem and those derived stems which have a/i prefixes show variation in vowel pattern. There are five possible configurations, the “vowel classes”, according to the stem vowel of the Pres and the Pret: a/u

a/i

a/a

i/i

u/u

Pres

iparras

ubbal

iṣabbat

ipaqqid

imaqqut

Pret

iprus

ubil

iṣbat

ipqid

imqut

Inf

parāsum

wabālum

ṣabātum

paqādum

maqātum

‘to decide’

‘to bring’

‘to seize’

‘to entrust’

‘to fall’

Table 8.2: The five vowel classes of the G-stem The stem vowel of the Perf is derived from that of the Pres (iparras → iptaras) and the stem vowel of the Imp is derived from that of the Pret (iprus → purus). The Inf and the Partc show no vowel variation. For the situation in the VA and the Stat, see § 8.2. 8.1.7 The vowel classes do not have a morphosyntactic function, but the members of a particular class tend to share certain semantic and/or syntactic features, at least as far as the strong verbs are concerned: the a/u class mainly contains transitive verbs; the a/i class only comprises a small number of irregular and weak verbs; the i/i class, which is by far the most numerous, typically contains verbs denoting punctual actions and adjectival verbs; the u/u class mainly contains atelic activity verbs, most of which are intransitive; and the a/a class typical low-transitivity verbs with a stative meaning. 8.2 The inflection of the G-stem Table 8.3 on the next page shows the eight inflectional forms that together constitute the paradigm of the basic stem, traditionally termed the “G-stem” (from German “Grundstamm”), with the strong verb parāsum (a/u) ‘to cut, to decide’ as model. For the complete paradigm, see Paradigm 1 on p. 117.

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category

finite

non-finite

form

(1) present

i-parras

(2) preterite

i-prus

(3) perfect

i-p-t-aras

(4) imperative

purus

(5) stative

paris

(6) infinitive

parās-um

(7) verbal adjective

pars-um

(8) participle

pāris-um

Table 8.3: The eight members of the Akkadian verbal paradigm The Pres of the G-stem is characterized by gemination of the second radical; the first vowel of the stem is a, the second one is determined by the vowel class, see Table 8.2: 3ms iparras, ipaqqid, etc. The Pret is characterized by the absence of a marker and only consists of the three radicals with a stem vowel determined by the vowel class: 3ms iprus, ipqid, etc. The Perf is marked by the infix -t- after the first radical and adopts the stem vowel of the Pres: 3ms iptaras, iptiqid , imtuqut, etc.; note the vowel assimilation in the last two forms. In forms with an ending, the stem vowel is syncopated: 3mp iptarsū, iptaqdū, imtaqtū, etc., see Paradigm 1 on page 117. Note that because gemination is left unexpressed (§ 2.1 sub (4)), the Perf of the G-stem (iptaras) is often indistinguishable in spelling from the Pres and Pret Gt (iptarras and iptaras, respectively) and from the Pret Gtn (iptarras). The Imp consists of the radicals plus the stem vowel, which is taken over from the Pret; the initial cluster is dissolved by copying the stem vowel after the first radical: purus , ṣabat, piqid, muqut. However, most a/a verbs insert i in the first sylla-

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ble: limad ‘learn!’, kila ‘hold!’. In forms with an ending, the stem vowel is usually syncopated: Pl pursā, ṣabtā, piqdā, muqtā, limdā. For the Imp of a/i verbs, see under the respective type of weak verb in § 8.7. The Stat is built on the stem of the VA (PaRvS) and takes the special suffixed endings listed in Table 8.1. For fientive verbs, PaRiS is the regular pattern, e.g. paqid ‘it has been entrusted’; maqit ‘he/it has fallen/arrived’. However, a few intransitive and/or stative verbs have PaRaS or PuRuS instead: wašab ‘he is sitting, staying’ from wašābum (a/i); ḫalaq ‘he/it is lost’ from ḫalāqum (i/i), balaṭ ‘he is alive’ from balāṭum (a/a); palaḫ ‘he is anxious, worried’ from palāḫum (a/a), ḫašaḫ ‘he needs, wants’ from ḫašāḫum (a/a), and na′al ‘he/it is lying’ from na′ālum (a/a) or niālum (ī). The only PuRuS stative of a fientive verb is puḫrū ‘they have come together’ from paḫārum (u/u). The Inf has the pattern PaRāS and is declined as a Sg noun: Nom parāsum, Gen parāsem, Acc parāsam, construct state parās-. In addition, there are a few instances of an Inf with the terminative ending -iš (§ 6.3.1). For the syntactic aspects of the use of the Inf, see § 8.3.6. The VA has the same pattern as the Stat and is inflected as an adjective (§ 6.4). The Partc has the pattern PāRiS. It is basically a noun and is inflected as such, i.e. the Pl Masc has the nominal ending -ū/ē rather than the adjectival ending -ūtu/em. 8.3 The function of the primary inflectional forms 8.3.1 The present The Pres usually refers to the present (normally durative or habitual) or the future. In past contexts, it may also refer to the past (usually durative or habitual); this especially applies to inherently stative verbs such as bašā′um ‘to be present/available’ and izizzum ‘to stand’ and for present forms of the “pluractional” stems (see § 8.6.2). In the rare cases that present forms of punctual verbs occur in

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past contexts, they indicate notions such as habit or intention (“he always did, wanted to do, had to do, was supposed to do”, etc.). The function of the Pres in subordinate clauses is basically the same as that in main clauses. The present also expresses modal nuances such as willingness, an intention, an obligation, an injunction, etc. For the Proh, consisting of la + Pres, see § 8.4.2. 8.3.2 The preterite The Pret refers to the past and is the only narrative tense in OA. In subordinate clauses, the Pret indicates simultaneity with, or anteriority to, a main clause that refers to the past. There are a few cases of a performative Pret: uška′′in ana tuppem ša Ālem ‘I herewith submit to the tablet (i.e., the decision) of the City’, and DN atma ‘I (herewith) swear by DN’. 8.3.3 The perfect The Perf also refers to the past and may replace the Pret when the speaker wants to emphasize the recentness or the importance of the event, or his emotional involvement in it. It is not used as a narrative tense, and there is no OA counterpart of the OB “consecutio temporum” (GAG § 156c). In questions and subordinate clauses, the Perf is rarely used, except in causal and concessive clauses with kīma and ištūma and in complement clauses (§ 9.2.3). In conditional clauses, however, it is very common, see § 9.2.1. 8.3.4 The imperative The imperative expresses a command. It is restricted to the 2nd person; 1st and 3rd person injunctions are expressed by the Prec (§ 8.4.1), and cannot be negated; for negative commands, the Proh is used (§ 8.4.2). 8.3.5 The stative The Stat basically indicates a state. The stative of adjectives serves as predicative form, e.g. šalmāku ‘I am well’. Predicative nouns may also be in the Stat, e.g. sinnišātini ‘you (Pl) are women’, but are more frequently in the independent state © 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

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in the Nom, e.g. rābiṣum atta ‘you are the attorney’. Cf. also PN qātātum (Nom) or PN qātāt (Stat) ‘PN is the guarantor’. Statives derived from verbs are in principle resultative, i.e. they denote the state that results from the event expressed by the verb: ḫalaq ‘it has been lost (and is now gone)’ from ḫalāqum ‘to be(come) lost’ and maqit ‘it/he has fallen/arrived (and is now here)’ from maqātum ‘to fall, to arrive’. Statives of transitive verbs are usually passive, e.g. tuppum kanik ‘the tablet has been sealed’ (i.e. ‘has a seal on it’), and šāḫuzāti ‘you have been informed/instructed (so now you know)’. However, the Stat of many transitive verbs, especially those which denote a low degree of transitivity, may also have active meaning, e.g. aššatam aḫiz ‘he has taken a wife’ (i.e. he is married), tupšarruttam lamdāni ‘we have learned (hence, we know) the scribal art’, and tam′āti ‘you have sworn (and therefore are now under oath)’. The active stative naši of našā′um ‘to lift, to bring, to carry’ is very common in the meaning ‘he has with him’, hence ‘he is carrying/bringing’, e.g. annakam u ṣubātē PN naš′akkum ‘PN is bringing you (is on his way to you with) tin and textiles’. For this specific meaning, the rest of the paradigm is suppleted by the N-stem of našā′um: Pres annašši, Pret inniši, Perf ittanši, Imp nanši, Inf nanšuum. The stative is neutral with regard to tense, but because of its resultative meaning usually refers to the past or the present. Statives referring to the future are much less frequent; an example is adi 2 ūmē ammākam wašbāku ‘in two days I will be there with you’. A few statives may also refer to a past event instead of or alongside their resultative meaning, especially mēt ‘he is dead’ or ‘he (has) died’ from muātum, and dēk ‘he has been killed’ or ‘he was killed’ from duākum. 8.3.6 The infinitive The Inf expresses the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun and may be construed as a noun or as a verb.

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8.3.6.1 In the nominal construction, the Inf is in the construct state and its subject or direct object follows as a dependent Gen, e.g. šaqāl kaspem ‘the payment of the silver’ (direct object), (food) ana akālīni ‘for our eating’, i.e. ‘for us to eat’ (subject), and ina erābīa ‘upon my arrival’ (subject). In the verbal construction, which is only possible for nominal constituents, the subject precedes the Inf in the Nom (e.g. PN ina tuārem ‘when PN returns’; ḫarrānum naptuum ‘the opening of the road’) and the direct object precedes it in the Acc (e.g. bētam ana kanākem ‘in order to seal the house’). In its pure form, the verbal construction is rather rare. More often, the subject or direct object noun adopts the case of the Inf (which itself is determined by its syntactic function). This is especially frequent to express the subject or direct object of an Inf that is dependent on a preposition, e.g. the subject in ana libbīka la parādem ‘in order that your heart is not worried’, and the direct object in ana naḫlaptem ša′āmem ‘in order to buy a cloak’. 8.3.6.2 The Nom of the Inf typically occurs: •

as subject of an existential clause with the meaning ‘it is (not) possible to …’, ‘there is (no) opportunity to …’, e.g. šumma šitapkum ibašši ‘if there is an opportunity for a joint deposition’, alākī laššu ‘it is not possible for me to come/go’, lit. ‘my coming/going is not present’;

•

in a paronomastic construction with a finite form of the same verb to emphasize the (non-)occurrence of a situation, in particular in cases where this is (implicitly or explicitly) questioned or denied, e.g. kaspam mimma laqā′umma la nilqe ‘we have not taken the silver at all’; kaspum ṣaḫārum liṣḫer ‘let the (amount of) silver (owed) definitely be deducted!'

8.3.6.3 The Gen of the Inf occurs after prepositions (e.g. ina maqāt kaspīka ‘at the arrival of your silver’), after nouns (e.g. anna ūm gamālem ‘this is the day to do

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(me) a favour’, see § 5.4), and after the determiners ša, mala, ašar, and ale in the following constructions: •

in a paronomastic construction with a finite form of the same verb, e.g. kaspam mala laqā′em liqe ‘obtain whatever silver can be obtained’, ‘obtain as much silver as possible!’; ašar alākem lallik ‘I am prepared go wherever I have to go’;

•

as direct object of epāšum ‘to do, to act’ with the nuance of ‘to do one’s best’, e.g. ša laqā kaspīka epuš ‘do your best to collect your silver!’, and some other verbs, such as malākum ‘to consider, to decide, to advice’ (e.g. ašar kaspem laqā′em lu nimlik ‘let us consider where we can best obtain silver’) and alākum in ḫarrānam ašar šalāmīšu lillik ‘let him make a business trip in order to become (financially) sound’ (lit. ‘where he can become …’);

•

in a wide variety of expressions with ša + Gen, such as (copper) ša masā′em ‘that is to be refined’, (clothes) ša litabšīa ‘for me to wear’, and (a trader) ša la šaḫātem ‘who is not to be worried about (i.e. who is reliable)’.

8.3.6.4 The Acc of the Inf mainly occurs as direct object, especially of the verbs *le′ā′um ‘to be able’, la muā′um ‘not to want, to refuse’ and qabā′um ‘to say’ in the Stat, which either means ‘to be ordered’ or ‘to have promised’; as complement of other verbs (§ 9.2.3); and in disjunctive indirect questions (§ 9.2.4). When an Inf dependent on *le′ā′um, la muā′um, or qabā′um requires a Vent ending or a Dat or Acc suffix pronoun, this element may be attached to the finite verb, even though it notionally belongs to the Inf, e.g. alākam la imtū′ūnem ‘they did not want to come here’, and kaspam šaqālam qabiākkum ‘I have promised to pay the silver to you’. 8.3.7 The verbal adjective The VA expresses the result of the action expressed by the verb in the form of an adjective. Most VAs come from transitive verbs and have passive meaning, e.g.

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ṣubātū tadnūtum ‘sold textiles’, awātum gamertum ‘a finished affair’, kaspum ṣarrupum ‘refined silver’. 8.3.8 The participle The Partc indicates: •

(1) a person that habitually performs or performed the action or activity expressed by the verb, which makes it eminently suitable as an agent noun, e.g. ālikum ‘traveller’ from alākum ‘to go/come’, rādium ‘escort, guide’ from radā′um ‘to follow, to accompany’, and sāridum ‘donkey driver, transporter’ from sarādum ‘to load’;

•

(2) a person who actually performs the action in question at a given moment, usually in the past, e.g. gāmer awātem ‘the one(s) who has/have settled the case’, and šā′im bētem ‘the buyer(s) of the house’ (see § 6.3.3.4 for the ambiguity in number). Verbs that do not express an action or an activity do not have a Partc.

From the Partc and the VA a secondary form can be derived by means of -ānum to denote a specific person who has performed an act previously referred to (e.g. lāqiānum ‘the one who has taken’ from laqā′um), or to whom a property mentioned before applies (ḫabbulānum ‘the (actual) person who is indebted’ from ḫabbulum ‘indebted’). 8.4 The function of the modal forms 8.4.1 The precative The Prec is built on the Pret by means of a prefix l- when the personal prefix starts with a vowel, and a proclitic particle lu, when it starts with a consonant, see Table 8.4 below and Paradigm 2 on p. 118. The 2nd person is normally replaced by the Imp and only occurs exceptionally.

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The Prec expresses a broad range of modal nuances such as a wish or a request (Aššur u il abīni liṭṭulā ‘may Aššur and our father’s (personal) god be witnesses (lit. watch)’; an injunction to a 3rd person (PN unūtī liknukma lušēbilam ‘let PN seal my goods and send them here!’); an intention or promise (lašqulakkum ‘I will pay you’), and an exhortation (ammala šīmat abīni lu nēpuš ‘let us act in accordance with our father’s will’). In questions starting with a question word, the Prec expresses a dubitative or a potential, e.g. mīnam mādātem lulappitakkum ‘why would I write a lot of words to you?’; mīnam lu nēpuš ‘what can we do?’. i/a prefixes Pret

Prec

u prefixes Pret

Prec

3ms

iprus →

liprus

uparris →

luparris

3fs

taprus

lu taprus

tuparris

lu tuparris

1s

aprus

laprus

uparris

luparris

3du

iprusā

liprusā

uparrisā

luparrisā

3mp

iprusū

liprusū

uparrisū

luparrisū

3fp

iprusā

liprusā

uparrisā

luparrisā

1p

niprus

lu niprus

nuparris

lu nuparris

Table 8.4: The forms of the precative Many Prec instances express the purpose or the consequence of a previously mentioned clause and can suitably be translated as final (‘in order to’) or consecutive (‘so that’), e.g. luqūtam ana PN dinma lublam ‘give the merchandise to PN so that he can bring it here’. The particle lu is also used with a Stat, with the defective verbs idā′um ‘to know’ and *išā′um ‘to have’ (which do not have a regular Prec), and in non-verbal clauses. In these cases, it also includes the 2nd person. Examples are libbaka lu ḫadi ‘may your heart be glad!’; amma attunu lu tīdeā ‘beware, you (Pl) must know this!’; and anāku lu aḫūka ‘may I be your brother’.

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For lu as part of the asseverative, see § 8.4.4. Note that lu can also be a conjunction ‘or’ or ‘and’. 8.4.2 The prohibitive The prohibitive consists of la + Pres or Stat. The 2nd person is the negative counterpart of the Imp, e.g. ūmakkal la tabīat ‘do not rest for a single night!’; ammākam la wašbāti ‘do not stay there!’. The other persons are the negative counterpart of the Prec, e.g. la nibta′′ar ‘let us not fall out with each other’ from ba′ārum Gt, and ṣuḫārū la isaḫḫurū ‘let the servants not be delayed’. 8.4.3 The vetitive The Vet consists of the proclitic particle e + Pret and typically expresses negative wishes, requests and appeals in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person. It does not seem to be used for negative commands. Typical examples are libbaka e ušamriṣ ‘may I not make you (lit. your heart) angry’; apputtum e taštupu ‘please, do not remain silent’; and kaspum e irūqanni ‘may the silver not be lost for (lit. from) me!’, i.e. ‘may I not lose my silver!’ The Vet may be combined with the negation la to convey an emphatic request, typically after the same request in a positive formulation, as in tib′amma attalkam (...) e la tallikam ‘stand up and come here (...); do not fail to come here!’. Just like the Prec, the Vet is used in final and consecutive clauses, e.g. šîtti kaspīa šēbilamma libbī e imraṣ ‘send me the rest of my silver so that I will not be upset’. 8.4.4 The asseverative The particle lu may also have ‘asseverative’ function, when it precedes a Pres, Pret, Perf, or Stat, and in non-verbal clauses. The Assev indicates a strong assertion, especially to state emphatically something that has been denied or questioned by another party. Unlike lu of the Prec, asseverative lu is always separate from the verb form, but forms consisting of lu + Pret are ambiguous, so that Prec and Assev can only be distinguished from the context. Examples of the Assev are

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kaspam mādam lu tuštagmeranni ‘you certainly forced me to spend a lot of silver!’, and kēna ippanītem lu ašpuraššum ‘yes, in the past I did write to him (but now I don’t any more)’. 8.5 The function of the ventive and the subjunctive 8.5.1 The ventive The Vent is marked by the suffixes -am (directly after the stem), -m (after -ī/ē of the 2fs) and -nem (after the gender and number markers -ū and -ā), see Paradigm 2 on p. 118 (for -nem rather than -nim and for -ēm, see § 4.9 sub (5)). In the Stat, the Vent ending is only attached to 3rd person forms, except the 3fs: 3ms naš′am, 3mp naš′ūnem, 3fp naš′ānem ‘he/they is/are bringing here’ (but not **naš′atam). Final -m assimilates to a following suffix pronoun (§ 4.3. sub (2)), e.g. ṭurdaššu ‘send him hither!’ < ṭurdam-šu, and is dropped occasionally (§ 4.2). The Vent expresses the 1s person Sg Dat ‘to me, for me’ (iddinam ‘he gave me’; kurbam ‘pray for me!’), and in motion verbs indicates that the motion is directed towards the speaker(s) and/or the addressee(s) (‘hither, to me, to us, to you’), e.g. ušēbilam ‘he sent here/to me/us’; aṭrudam ‘I sent to you’. In a small group of other verbs, especially verbs of obtaining, the Vent may have indirect reflexive function, e.g. rābiṣam iṣbatam or ēḫuzam ‘he took/hired an attorney (for himself)’; tuppam ša Ālem liqiam ‘obtain a tablet of the City (for yourself)’. 8.5.2 The subjunctive The function of the Subj is to mark a clause as subordinate (after a conjunction or a relative marker) or as an oath (after verbs of swearing or equivalent expressions, see § 9.3). The Subj has two markers: the inflectional ending -u and the enclitic particle -ni. -u can only stand directly after the stem of a finite verb form, e.g. allik ‘I went’ → ištu alliku ‘after I had gone’, iqbi ‘he said’ → ša iqbiu ‘what he said’. The use

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of -u is obligatory; instances where it is lacking are very rare and presumably errors. -ni is attached to the final word of a subordinate clause or an oath. When -u is present, -ni is optional; thus alongside alliku and iqbiu one also finds allikūni and iqbiūni. When -u is not present, -ni is obligatory, e.g. after a Pl or Fem ending (ša iqbiūni ‘what they said’; ša tēpušīni ‘what you (Fem) did’), after a Vent (ištu allikanni ‘after I had arrived’), after most Stat endings (inūmi annākam wašbātunūni ‘when you (Pl) were here’, after any clause-final word that is not a final verb, such as a noun (kīma ina Ḫaḫḫem siḫītunni (< siḫītum-ni) ‘because there is unrest in Ḫaḫḫum’); or a pronoun (the person ša luqūtum ana ṣērīšūni ‘to whom the merchandise is addressed’). However, instances where -ni is lacking are not infrequent, and it is possible that the rule about -ni is actually less strict than formulated above. Exceptions especially concern Stat forms (awīlū ša dēkū ‘the men that have been killed’ (for dēkūni), and forms with suffix pronouns (mala ašpurakkunūti ‘everything I wrote to you (Pl)’ (for ašpurakkunūtīni). For the full paradigm of the Subj, see Paradigm 2 on p. 118. 8.6 The derived stems (Paradigm 3 on p. 119) 8.6.1 The Gt-stem (Paradigm 4 on p. 120) The Gt-stem is marked by the infix -t- after the first radical. It is sensitive to vowel class in the Pres, Pret and Imp: their stem vowel is identical to that of the corresponding G present. In the Stat, the Inf and the VA the stem vowel is always u, in the Partc it is always i. In forms without personal prefixes, stem alternation is caused by the vowel syncope rule: Imp Sg *pĭtăras > pitras, but Pl *pĭtărăsā > pitarsā. For the (optional) metathesis of š and t in verbs starting with š (tišapkum alongside šitapkum, Inf of šapākum Gt ‘to store, to deposit jointly’), see § 4.5.

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Most Gt-stems are reciprocal or reflexive, e.g. ša′ālum Gt ‘to deliberate, to reflect’ (G: ‘to ask’); mašālum Gt ‘to resemble each other’, ragāmum Gt ‘to sue each other’, and pašāšum Gt ‘to anoint oneself’. They include a few “technical terms”, such as šapākum Gt ‘to store or deposit jointly’ (a “collective” reciprocal), napālum Gt ‘to balance with each other’, naṭālum Gt ‘to look at each other, to be face to face’ (mainly the Inf itaṭlum in ana itaṭlem tadānum ‘to sell for cash’), and lapātum Gt ‘to be registered, have oneself registered (as a guarantor)’. There are also a few “lexicalized” Gt-stems, especially alākum Gt ‘to start going, to set out’, and šapā′um Gt ‘to become silent’ (no G-stem attested). 8.6.2 The Gtn-stem (Paradigm 4 on p. 120) The Gtn-stem is marked by gemination of the middle radical and an infix after the first radical: -tan- in the Pres (iptanarras) and -t- elsewhere, e.g. Pret iptarras, Imp pitarras, etc. The stem vowels are the same as in the Gt-stem. Note that the Gtn Pret is often indistinguishable in spelling (ip-ta-ra-as) from the Gt Pres, the Gt Pret and the G Perf. The Gtn-stem – and the tan-stems in general – express verbal plurality: they are “pluractional” derivations of the corresponding primary stem, such as iterative (alākum Gtn ‘to go to and fro’; rapādum Gtn ‘to run around’), frequentative (alākum Gtn ‘to go/come repeatedly’; šapārum Gtn ‘to write time and again’), continuous (epāšum Gtn ‘to keep doing’), and distributive (erābum Štn ‘to bring sth in bit by bit’). They also indicate plurality, mostly of the direct object (ša′āmum Gtn ‘to buy many different things’, and carefulness (especially šamā′um Gtn with tablets and equivalent nouns as object: ‘to read carefully’). 8.6.3 The D-stem (Paradigm 5 on p. 121) The D-stem is marked by gemination of the middle radical and u as prefix vowel. There are no differences in vowel class. If the G-stem is intransitive or has a low degree of transitivity, the corresponding D-stem is “factitive’: it indicates the corresponding transitive action with an agen-

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tive subject, e.g. ḫadā′um ‘to be(come) glad, to rejoice’, D ‘to make glad’, lamādum ‘to learn’, D ‘to inform, to teach’, naḫādum ‘to take care of, to pay attention to’, D ‘to inform, to instruct’. If the G-stem is transitive, the corresponding D-stem often indicates plurality of the direct object or another constituent, e.g. gamārum D + awâtem ‘to settle, to finish disputes’, and šaqālum D ‘to pay (various amounts, at different moments or places, etc.)’. A typical OA feature is the tendency to use the D-stem with mass nouns as direct object, e.g. abākum D ‘to transport (metals)’, and madādum D ‘to measure (grain)’. In other transitive verbs, there seems to be little difference in meaning between G and D, as in agārum G and D ‘to hire’. There are many D-stems without a corresponding G-stem, the ‘D tantum verbs’, e.g. ka′′ulum ‘to hold’, kallumum ‘to show’, and waššurum ‘to release’. Some of them are denominal, such as aḫḫuzum ‘to inlay’ from iḫzū ‘inlay’ and wazzunum ‘to listen carefully’ from uznum ‘ear’. 8.6.4 The Dt-stem (Paradigm 5 on p. 121) In the Dt-stem of verbs with a sibilant as first radical, the forms without ending show metathesis of the sibilant and the t-infix (§ 4.5): tuzakki ‘get cleared!’ (Imp Dt of zakā′um ‘to be(come) clear (of obligations)’) for **zutakki. In verbs starting with š, this metathesis is optional: tušabbi or šutabbi ‘recoup (your silver)’, lit. ‘satisfy yourself!’, Dt Imp ms of šabā′um). The Dt-stem is (medio)passive, reciprocal or reflexive to the D-stem, e.g. ka′′ulum Dt ‘to be held’, šabā′um Dt ‘to be satisfied’, kuānum Dt ‘to confront each other (to establish who is liable)’, zakā′um Dt ‘to clear oneself, make oneself ready’, rakāsum Dt ‘to bind oneself’, i.e. ‘to commit onself to payment’. Lexicalized Dt-stems are utaqquum ‘to wait’, nazāmum Dt ‘to complain’, and maṣā′um Dt ‘to take responsibility for, to act on one’s own authority’.

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8.6.5 The Dtn-stem The conjugation of the Dtn-stem is identical to that of the Dt-stem (see Paradigm 5, right half), with the exception of the Pres, which is uptanarras, pl. uptanarrusū . The Dtn-stem is pluractional to the D-stem, e.g. kallumum Dtn ‘to show repeatedly’, ka′′ulum Dtn ‘to hold continuously’. 8.6.6 The Š-stem (Paradigm 6 on p. 121) The Š-stem is marked by the prefix š(a)- before the stem and u as prefix vowel. For forms such as usasḫar ‘I will cause to be delayed’ instead of ušasḫar, Š Pres of saḫārum, see § 4.3. sub (7). There are no differences in vowel class. The Š-stem has causative function, making intransitive verbs transitive (erābum G ‘to enter’, Š ‘to bring in’; marāṣum G ‘to be(come) ill, angry’, Š ‘to make angry, to upset’) and transitive verbs doubly transitive (wabālum G ‘to bring’, Š ‘to cause to bring’ (hence, ‘to send’), šaqālum G ‘to pay’, Š ‘to make (so) pay’, šamā′um G ‘to hear, to listen’, Š ‘to let (so) hear’. A few Š-stems have an unpredictable meaning, e.g. naṣārum G ‘to guard’, Š ‘to guard carefully’ or the like, or do not have a corresponding G-stem, such as šamDuum ‘to warn, to threaten’ (or the like), šaklulum ‘to finish’ and šamšuum ‘to spend the night’. The latter two are denominal: from kullatum ‘totality’ (Bab) and muš(i)um ‘night’, respectively. For the Š-stem of the quadriradical verb nabalkutum, and for šuka′′unum, šupa′′ulum and *šuqallulum, see § 8.6.11. 8.6.7 The Št-stems (Paradigm 6 on p. 121) The Št1-stem (Pres uštapras) serves as (medio)passive, reciprocal and reflexive counterpart of the Š-stem in Bab, but is extremely rare in OA (e.g. erābum Št ‘to be brought in’). The Št2-stem (Pres uštaparras ) comprises derived verbs with a largely unpredictable meaning, often denominal and/or without a correponding Š-stem. OA instances are ṣabātum Št2 ‘to bring together, to prepare’ (cf. G ‘to seize’),

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marāṣum Št2 ‘to do one’s best’ (G ‘to be(come) ill, angry’), and šutēṣuum ‘to quarrel’ (cf. tēṣītum ‘quarrel’). 8.6.8 The Štn-stem The conjugation of the Štn-stem is identical to that of the Št-stem (see Paradigm 6, right half), with the exception of the Pres, which is uštanapras, pl. uštanaprusū. However, this does not apply to the Štn-stems of I/w and I/voc verbs, see §§ 8.7.1 and 8.7.2. The Štn-stem is pluractional to the Š-stem, e.g. wabālum Štn ‘to send on different occasions’, erābum Štn ‘to bring in repeatedly or bit by bit’. 8.6.9 The N-stem (Paradigm 7 on p. 122) The N-stem is marked by the prefix n(a)- before the stem; n assimilates to the first radical when the two are adjacent (i.e. after the personal prefixes and mu- of the Partc), e.g. Pres ipparras < i-n-parras, etc. In the Pres and the Perf, the stem vowel copies that of the G Pres (iparras → ipparras , etc.). The other forms have a fixed stem vowel independent of vowel class. In the Pret *ipparis, vowel assimilation changes a to i, which becomes e before r (§4.9 sub (3)), hence ipperis versus iššiqil from šaqālum ‘to pay’. The resulting vowel has spread to all other persons: 3mp ippersū, iššiqlū, 2p tappersā, taššiqlā, etc. In transitive verbs, the N-stem is (medio)passive and reciprocal to the G-stem, e.g. patā′um N ‘to be opened’, ṣabātum N ‘to quarrel’, lit. ‘to seize each other’, and magārum N ‘to reach an agreement’. An important exception is našā′um N ‘to transport’, which supplements the very common Stat naši ‘he is bringing, he has with him’, see § 8.3.5. The few instances attested of N-stems of intransitive verbs have ingressive (inchoative) meaning. Fairly common are bašā′um N ‘to come into existence, to become available’, ḫabālum N ‘to become indebted’ and takālum N ‘to put one’s trust in’.

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A few N-stems do not have a corresponding G-stem, such as naḫdurum ‘to worry’ (intr., cf. Š ‘to worry (trans.)), nakṣudum ‘to be delayed’ (cf. D ‘to delay’) and naplusum ‘to watch’. 8.6.10 The Ntn-stem (Paradigm 7 on p. 122) The Ntn-stem is very rare. Among the strong verbs, only Pres forms are attested. The very rare Pret forms (ittapras, etc.) are indistinguishable from the N Perf. The Ntn-stem is the pluractional counterpart of the N-stem. 8.6.11 The quadriradical verbs (Paradigm 8 on p. 122) A handful of quadriradical verbs is attested in OA, of which only nabalkutum ‘to go/come across, to go up and down, to transgress’ occurs more than sporadically. nabalkutum also shows a derived pluractional Ntn-stem and a causative Š-stem. Other noteworthy quadriradical forms come from šuka′′unum ‘to prostrate oneself, to submit’ and šupa′′ulum ‘to exchange’ (Pret uška′′in, ušpa′′il; Imp šuka′′in, šupa′′il; Inf šuka′′unum, šupa′′ulum ). The verb šutersuum ‘to prepare, to make ready’, derived from the quadriradical adjective ersuum ‘ready’, has modelled its paradigm on that of the Štn-stems of I/voc verbs (§ 8.7.2): Pres ušteressa, Pret uštersi, etc. Isolated forms of other quadriradical verbs include the 3ms Pres iš-qá-lá-al, which is said of copper, perhaps ‘to be imminent, to arrive at any moment’ (cf. Bab šuqallulum ‘to hang, to be suspended’), and ú-ta-na-na-an ‘I keep supplicating’ (cf. Bab utnēnum ‘prayer’). 8.7 The weak verbs Weak verbs are verbs with one or more weak radicals (ˀ , w, y, n, or a vowel). Two types of weak verbs can be distinguished: •

“original” weak verbs, i.e. with one or more vocalic or semivocalic radicals. They comprise the I/w verbs, the I/*y verbs, the I/n verbs, the II/gem

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verbs, whose R2 and R3 are identical, the II/ī verbs, the II/ū, the III/y verbs, and the III/w verbs; •

verbs with gutturals, which have or once had one or more guttural consonants among their radicals, i.e. one of laryngeals and pharyngeals inherited from Proto-Semitic but largely lost in OA (§ 4.1). They include the I/voc verbs, the II/aleph verbs, and the III/aleph verbs.

Another possible classification is based on the place of the weak radical: I/weak, II/weak and III/weak verbs. The following description is arranged according to this principle. 8.7.1 The I/w verbs (Paradigms 9–12 on pp. 123–24) The I/w verbs fall into two subtypes, each with its own paradigm: fientive (dynamic) verbs and adjectival verbs. The class of fientive I/w verbs comprises several common verbs, such as wabālum ‘to carry, to bring’, warādum (a/i) ‘to go/come down’, waṣābum (a/i) ‘to add’, waṣā′um (i/i) ‘to go/come out’, and wašābum (a/i) ‘to sit down, to settle, to stay’, and a fair number of less common ones. The forms of the G-stem are Pres ubbal, Pret ubil, with u as prefix vowel (§ 8.1.3), but the Perf is ittabal. The Imp lacks the initial radical: bil, bilī, etc., but wašābum also has tašab alongside šib. The other G forms are the same as in the strong verb: Stat wabil, VA wablum, Inf wabālum and Partc wābilum. In accordance with § 4.7, however, initial wă- often becomes u- (ušbum, etc. from wašābum) and wā- sporadically appears as ā- (ābilum). See Paradigm 9 on p. 123. Of the very small group of adjectival I/w verbs, mainly watārum ‘to exceed, to surpass’ (cf. watrum) and waqārum ‘to be(come) precious, rare, expensive’ (cf. waqrum) are attested in OA. They are conjugated as I/y verbs, along with the original I/y verb išārum ‘to be(come) straight, normal’: Pres iššer, Pret īšer, Perf ītešer (with -er < -ir in accordance with § 4.9 sub (3)). Mainly 3rd person forms are attested. In the

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non-prefix forms, however, išārum has i-, whereas the adjectival I/w verbs have wa-: Inf išārum vs. watārum, Stat išar vs. watar, Adj išrum vs. watrum. See Paradigm 10 on p. 123. No Gt-, N- and Ntn-stems of I/w verbs are attested. Gtn forms do exist, mainly from wabālum, see Paradigm 11, left column. It usually seems to mean ‘to keep sb on a string’, perhaps from iterative ‘to carry around’. The D-stem is basically conjugated as a strong verb, e.g. from waššurum ‘to release’: Pres uwaššar, etc., see Paradigm 11 on p. 124, middle column. However, there are also forms in which -wa- after a prefix has been dropped (Pres uššar, Pret uššer); and initial wa- often becomes u- in accordance with § 4.7: Imp uššer, Stat uššur, etc. Paradigm 11 also shows the (largely reconstructed) conjugation of the very rare Dt- and Dtn-stems. The Š-stem of I/w verbs comprises several extremely common verbs, such wabālum Š ‘to cause to bring’, hence ‘to send’, waṣā′um Š ‘to cause to go/come out’, and warādum Š ‘to cause to go/come down’. It consistently shows e/ē after š of the prefix but otherwise conforms to the strong Š paradigm: Pres ušebbal, Pret ušēbil, Perf uštēbil, Stat šēbul, Imp šēbil, Inf/VA šēbulum, see Paradigm 12 on p. 124. Št-stems (presumably Št2) are wabālum Št ‘to do business, to trade with(?)’ or the like, and šutēṣuum ‘to quarrel’ mentioned in § 8.6.7. A Štn-stem is attested for wabālum and waṣā′um (Pres ušteneṣṣa), see Paradigm 12 on p. 124. 8.7.2 The I/voc verbs (Paradigms 13–17 on pp. 125–27) The I/voc verbs can be divided into I/a and I/e verbs according to the initial vowel of the Inf. I/a verbs include amārum ‘to see’, akālum ‘to eat’, apālum ‘to answer, to pay’, and many others. Common I/e verbs are epāšum, to make, to do, to treat’, erābum ‘to enter’, ezābum ‘to leave’, etc. The personal prefixes show a long vowel resulting from the loss of the original guttural, e.g. Pret āmur < *ˀaˀmur ‘I saw’, ēpuš < *ˀaḥpuš (or the like) ‘I did’. It is like-

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ly that also the Pres, where the guttural was intervocalic, has a long prefix vowel: āmmar, replacing *ˀaˀammar, but since OA orthography does not show this, it is not indicated in the transcription. In the 3rd person, ī- rarely occurs instead of ē-, e.g. īzib ‘he left behind’ for ēzib and illiam ‘it will come up’ for elliam. Forms without prefixes start with a- or e- according to the nature of the original guttural, e.g. Imp amur < *ˀamur versus erub < *ˁarub ‘enter!’. See further Paradigm 13 on p. 125. The I/a verb alākum a/i ‘to go/come’ shows several peculiarities and will be discussed separately in § 8.7.8.5. Apart from the irregular verbs atawwum ‘to speak, to negotiate’ and alākum Gt ‘to start going, to set off’ (see §§ 8.7.8.2 and 8.7.8.5, respectively), Gt-stems of I/voc verbs are akālum Gt ‘to accept a certain rate of exchange(??)’ and emādum Gt ‘to join with each other’, of which a VA etamdum ‘joined, collected’ is attested. They allow us to reconstruct the paradigm shown in Paradigm 14, left half, on p. 126. For the paradigm of the D-stem and the Dt-stem, see Paradigm 15 on p. 126. Not indicated in the table is that the non-prefix form of the D-stem show fluctuation between e/a and u in the first syllable: aḫḫuzum alongside uḫḫuzum ‘inlaid’ and a/ekkušum alongside ukkušum ‘cancelled, invalidated’. Of the Dt-stem, only Pres and Pret forms are currently attested. No Dtn forms are known, but they can be reconstructed as Pres ūtanappaš , Pret ūtappiš. For the paradigm of the Š-stem, the Št-stem and the Štn-stem, see Paradigm 16 on p. 127. The vowel after the prefix Š is ā in the I/a verbs and ē in the I/e verbs. Št- and Štn-stem forms other than Pres and Pret are hardly attested but can easily be reconstructed. The paradigm of the N-stem of the I/voc verbs differs markedly from that of the strong verb: it shows a long vowel ā or ē after the n-prefix, see Paradigm 17 on p. 127. The Pret always has i as stem vowel (> e before r), and i/i verbs like ezābum ‘to leave’ and eṭārum ‘to take away’ have i also in the Pres and the Perf: Pres innez-

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zib, inneṭṭer; Perf ittēzib, ittēṭer. An isolated Ntn form may be the Pres (ēnāya) ittanakkilā ‘my eyes keep getting dark’ from ekālum (i/i) ‘to be(come) dark’. 8.7.3 The I/n verbs (Paradigm 18 on p. 128) The I/n verbs are basically conjugated as strong verbs, with two exceptions: •

When in forms without prefixes n is followed by i or u according to the strong paradigm, it is dropped, e.g. uṣur ‘guard!’ and idi ‘lay down, deposit!’ instead of **nuṣur and **nidi as G Imp of naṣārum and nadā′um, respectively. Similarly, itaṭlum ‘to look at each other’, Gt Inf of naṭālum for **nitaṭlum and itaddi ‘lay down (repeatedly)!’, Gtn Imp of nadā′um for **nitaddi.

•

In accordance with § 4.3 sub (1), n assimilates to a following consonant, e.g. 3ms Pret iṣṣur ‘he guarded’ < *inṣur, and 3ms Perf ittaṣar < *intaṣar. However, in some forms of the N-stem and the Š-stem assimilation may be blocked (or reversed?) to ensure transparency, e.g. nanši ‘transport!’, N Imp of našā′um, nanduum ‘to be layed down’, N inf of nadā′um; note also ittandin ‘it has been sold’, 3ms Perf of *nadānum (§ 8.7.8.6).

For a survey of the derived stems of the I/n verbs, see Paradigm 18. 8.7.4 The II/voc verbs (Paradigms 19–20 on pp. 129–30) The II/voc verbs comprise the large classes of II/ū and II/ī verbs and the marginal classes of II/ā and II/ē verbs. The latter two consist of verbs which originally had a guttural as middle radical. Paradigm 19 shows the G-stem of the II/ū verbs with muātum ‘to die’ as sample verb. Note especially the alternation of two inflectional stems: in the Pres, forms without ending show mū(w)at- (with w as a glide, spelled -mu-at, -mu-a-at or -muwa-at), and forms with an ending show mutt-: 3ms imū(w)at versus 3mp imuttū, and the Perf shows alternation of muat- (mŭat-?) without ending versus mūt- with ending. The Pret and the Imp have a single stem mūt-.

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The II/ī verbs are in all respect parallel to the II/ū verbs, with the difference, however, that the glide y never appears in the spelling: Pres iqīap (spelled i-qí(-a)áp), iqippū; Pret iqīp, iqīpū, Perf iqtiap (iqtĭap?), iqtīpū, etc. The II/ē verbs show the same forms as the II/ī verbs, but it is possible that we have to read e/ē where the II/ī verbs have i/ī , e.g. Pres ibēar, Pret ibēr, Imp bēr, Inf beārum, etc., from be/iārum ‘to choose, to select’. The lack of distinction between e and i in the spelling makes it hard to decide. The II/ā verbs are mainly represented by a few forms of ba′āšum (? or bâšum?) ‘to come to shame’: Pres 3ms ibâš or iba′′aš, 3mp ibaššū, Pret 3ms ibāš, Perf 3ms ibtāš or ibta′aš ; D Pres 3ms ubâš or uba′′aš , 3mp ubaššū, Pret 3ms uba′′iš, and further strong forms like those of Paradigm 20. There are no certain Gt forms of II/voc verbs. The Gtn-stem is represented by a few Pres forms of qiāpum (3ms iqtinīap, 3mp iqtinippū ) and tuārum ‘to return’: 3ms ittunūar and ittanūar. Outside the Pres, the D-, Dt- and Dtn-stem of all II/voc verbs have a strong paradigm with a geminate aleph (or -yy-?) as middle radical: Pret uka′′in, Perf ukta′′in, Inf ka′′unum, etc. The Pres, however, follows the scheme of the Pres of the G-stem: gemination of the final radical in forms with an ending (e.g. 3mp ukannū), and elsewhere either an uncontracted -a′′a- (uka′′an) or a contracted -â- (ukân); which of the two remains to be established. A few D-stems, of which re′′uqum ‘to keep away, to take away’ is the most important, show e in the first syllable of the stem. For the Š-stem, only a handful of forms is attested; II/ū and II/ī verbs seem to have the same paradigm. With muātum Š ‘to cause to die, to kill’ as example, we may posit Pres 3ms ušmīat , 3mp ušmittū, Pret 3ms ušmīt, 3mp ušmītū, Perf 3ms uštimīt (< *uštamīt), 3mp uštimītū.

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8.7.5 The II/aleph verbs (Paradigm 21 on p. 130) The II/aleph verbs are basically conjugated as strong verbs, with the possible exception of those forms where ˀ is syllable-final; in this position it is presumably dropped with lengthening of the preceding vowel (§ 4.6). This applies to all forms affected by vowel syncope, i.e. the forms with an ending of the G Perf, Stat, Imp and VA and of the N Pret: 3mp Perf ištāmū < *ištaˀmū ‘they have bought’, Imp Pl šāmā < *šaˀmā ‘buy!’, and N Pret 3mp iššīmū < *iššiˀmū ‘they were bought’, all from ša′āmum a/a ‘to buy’. All other forms are strong, both of the G-stem (see Paradigm 21), and of the derived stems (Gtn Pres ištana′′am, Pret išta′′am, Š Pres ušaš′am, Pret ušaš′im; D Pres uša′′al, Pret uša′′il from ša′ālum ‘to ask’, etc.). II/aleph verbs of the vowel class i/i are ma′ādum ‘to be(come) much’ (Pres ima′′id , Pret im′id , Perf 3ms imti′id , 3mp imtīdū, Stat 3ms ma′ad , 3mp mādū), and ḫa′āṭum ‘to watch over, to check’ (Pres iḫa′′iṭ , Pret iḫ′iṭ, Imp ḫi′iṭ, etc.). The II/aleph verb be′ālum ‘to possess, to have at one’s disposal’ shows e instead of a in the first syllable, since it originally had *ˁ as middle radical (§ 4.1), and the stem vowel fluctuates between e and i: Pres ibe′′el or ibe′′il, Pret ib′el or ib′il. Be′ālum is often used in the N-stem (Pret 3ms ibbi′il, 3mp ibbīlū, Perf 3ms ittab′el) with silver as subject and often an Acc suffix pronoun with ablative meaning: ‘the silver is possessed away from me’, i.e. ‘is out of my control (for a certain period)’ (Veenhof 1972: 407–12). 8.7.6 The II/gem verbs The II/gem verbs, whose second and third radicals are identical, are conjugated as strong verbs in Akkadian, e.g. from madādum ‘to measure’: Pres 3ms imaddad , Pret 3ms imdud , Perf 3ms imtadad , 3mp imtaddū, Imp ms mudud , Pl muddā, Stat 3ms madid, 3mp maddū, Partc mādidum, etc. However, adjectival II/gem verbs, such as danānum ‘to be(come) strong, severe’, have a monosyllabic stem in the Stat (as in the corresponding adjective): dann-, e.g. Stat 3ms dan (or dān?), 1s dannāku, 3mp dannū, etc., and similarly el (ēl?), ellū from elālum ‘to be(come) pure’ and sar (sār?), sarrū from sarārum ‘to be false, invalid’.

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8.7.7 The III/weak verbs (Paradigms 22–26 on pp. 131–33) The III/weak verbs fall into four types according to the final vowel of their inflectional stem: III/ī, III/ū, III/ā, and III/ē verbs. This final vowel is originally long, and is still long when it is followed by an ending or an enclitic element, but in all likelihood it is shortened in actual final position, even though plene spellings are quite common. Since there is no general rule of vowel contraction in OA (§ 4.9 sub (7)), final vowel and ending are usually distinct: iqbiam ‘he said to me’, ilqeū ‘they received’, ikla′anni ‘he detained me’, etc. The conjugations of all types of III/weak verbs are widely parallel, and such differences as there are largely result from the interaction between the respective final vowel of the stem and the vocalic ending. The derived stems of all III/weak verbs are described together in § 8.7.7.5. 8.7.7.1 The III/ī verbs (Paradigm 22 on p. 131) In the conjugation of the III/ī verbs, it is not clear to what extent final -i(y)ī/-i′ī of the 2fs contracts to -î; unambiguous instances of contraction are mainly found for the Imp, e.g. li-qí ‘take! (Fem)’. The class of III/ī verbs is an amalgam of original III/y verbs, such as qabā′um ‘to speak, to order’, and III/aleph verbs of the i/i class, such as nadā′um ‘to put down, to deposit’ and našā′um ‘to carry’. The difference is still visible in forms affected by vowel syncope: whereas the original III/aleph verbs show broken spellings, such as the Stat 1s na-áš-a-ku and the Imp Pl id-a, the original III/y verbs mostly show “glide spellings” (see § 4.8), such as Stat 1s qí-bi-a-ku and Imp Pl qí-bi-a, and only rarely broken spellings (qí-ib-a-ku, qí-ib-a). For spellings such as na-TA-ku and i-TA from nadā′um, see § 4.6. 8.7.7.2 The III/ū verbs (Paradigm 23 on p. 131) In forms with an ending that starts with u (3mp and the Subj), it is uncertain to what extent vowel contraction operates: almost all forms are spelled plene and thus ambiguous (e.g. Pres 3mp i-ta-ru-ú) but enough simple spellings occur (e.g.

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Pres 3mp i-ta-ru) to show that contracted forms exist as well, but it is impossible to determine how wide-spread contraction is. In forms with vowel syncope, the final radical may be spelled with the sign (e.g. ta-ar-wa-am ‘bring here!’, i-ta-ar-wa-am ‘he has brought here’), but is more often spelled with a glide spelling (ta-ru(-a)-am, i-ta-ru(-a)-am). The regular Imp has u in the first syllable (ḫudu ‘rejoice!’ from ḫadā′um u/u; munu ‘count!’ from manā′um u/u), but tarā′um ‘to take/bring along’ has both turu and taru. 8.7.7.3 The III/ā verbs (Paradigm 24 on p. 132) The III/ā verbs go back to Proto-Semitic verbs with the root vowel a and ˀ as final radical. Since ˀ behaves like a strong radical in OA except in syllable-final position (§ 4.6), the III/aleph verbs are essentially conjugated as strong verbs, with a broken spelling occupying the place of the third radical. In accordance with § 4.9. sub (6), ī (of the 2fs ending and the 1s Acc suffix pronoun ‘me’) often becomes ē after aleph, e.g. tašamme′ēni ‘you (Fem) hear (Subj)’ and la takalle′ē ‘do not detain me!’. Loss of ˀ is exceptional; an example is the Imp Pl ki(-i)lá-šu-nu ‘detain them!’ instead of kil′āšunu. 8.7.7.4 The III/ē verbs (Paradigm 25 on p. 132) The III/ē verbs go back to Proto-Semitic verbs with *ˁ or *ḥ as original final radical and the root vowel a. Since *ˁ has become ˀ in OA with the raising of an adjacent a to e, the verbs with original *ˁ (such as šamā′um ‘to hear, to listen’, radā′um ‘to bring, accompany’, and tabā′um ‘to stand up’) are conjugated like the III/ā verbs (see Paradigm 24), but with e instead of a before ˀ (and therefore no vowel assimilation), e.g. Pres 3ms išamme (≈ ikalla), 3mp išammeū (≈ ikallu′ū), Imp ms šime (≈ kila), Pl šim′ā (≈ kil′ā), etc. Loss of ˀ is occasionally attested in the Imp: ší-ma ‘hear!’ (Pl) instead of šim′ā, ší-mìi ‘hear!’ (Fem) instead of šim′ī, and tí-ba(-ma) ‘stand up!’ (Sg + Vent) instead of

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tib′am(ma). It is not clear how to normalize such forms: /šimmā/, /šīmā/, or simply /šimā/? The verbs with original *ḥ, mainly laqā′um ‘to take, to obtain’ and patā′um ‘to open’, differ from those with original *ˁ in that they have a palatal glide y where the latter show ˀ , e.g. Perf 3mp iptatiū (≈ ištam′ū), Imp Pl pitiā ‘open!’ (≈ šim′ā), and Stat 1s laqiāku (≈ šam′āku). Accordingly, the pertinent forms usually show glide spellings (pí-tí-a, lá-qí-a-ku) and only rarely broken spellings (pí-it-a, lá-aq-a-ku). Moreover, there are more instances of vowel contraction, especially in the 2fs: Pres. talaqqî ‘you will take’ (for talaqqeī), Imp fs liqî ‘take!’ (for liqiī), etc. 8.7.7.5 The derived stems of the III/weak verbs (Paradigm 26 on p. 133) Since the markers of the derived verbal stems do not interfere with the final weak radical, little needs to be said about their paradigms. The forms are the same as in the strong verb, but with a broken spelling in the position of the final radical. As a general rule, there is no contraction of stem vowel and ending, although there are occasional exceptions, especially in fairly long verb forms when both vowels are identical. Hence forms such as tù-za-kà-ni ‘you will make available’ (Subj), i.e. tuzakkânni < tuzakka′anni , Pres D of zakā′um, ú-šé-lu-nem ‘they must bring up here’, i.e. ušellûnem < ušellu′ūnem, Pres Š of elā′um, and uš-té-né-ṣú-ni ‘they cause to go out all the time’ (Subj), i.e. ušteneṣṣûni < ušteneṣṣu′ūni, Pres Štn of from waṣā′um. 8.7.8 Doubly weak and irregular verbs 8.7.8.1 Verbs with a weak 1st and 3rd radical (Paradigm 27 on p. 133) Doubly weak verbs with a weak 1st and 3rd radical, such as waṣā′um ‘to go/come out’ (I/w and III/ī) and elā′um ‘to go/come up’ (I/e and III/ī) simply fall under two of the types of weak verbs discussed in the preceding sections and do not require special treatment.

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Verbs with two or three adjacent weak radicals tend to treat one of them as strong, e.g. n in nuāḫum ‘to come to rest’ (I/n and II/ū), w in lawā′um ‘to surround, to wrap’ and awā′um ‘to become’, etc. 8.7.8.2 atawwum (Paradigm 28 on p. 134) atawwum ‘to speak, to negotiate’, a Gt-stem of an unattested *awā′um, is both a I/a verb and a II/gem verb (root ˀww). Many forms are hard to interpret due to the inconsistent representation of the weak consonants, and especially Pres and Pret are difficult to distinguish. A plausible reconstruction is: Pres 3ms ētawwū, 3mp ētawwû, 2p tātawwâ; Pret 3ms ētuwu or ētawu, 3ms + Vent ētawwam, 3mp ētawwū; Imp ms atwū, Pl atawwā, Inf atawwum. In many forms, w or ww may be replaced by a broken spelling, perhaps showing dissimilation of w to ˀ. There are also a few N forms, apparently with the same meaning: Pret 3ms innāwi, Stat 1s nāw(w)âku(or the like). 8.7.8.3 *aḫā′um (Paradigm 28 on p. 134) The denominal verb *aḫā′um (u/u) ‘to be(come) a brother or colleague’ only occurs in the Gt Stat: 1p ataḫwāni (or ataḫuāni) ‘we are brothers’, 3mp ataḫû (< *ataḫu(w)ū ), and cf. the derived noun atḫû (Pl) ‘brothers, colleagues’. 8.7.8.4 The “*le′ā′um group” (Paradigm 28 on p. 134) The verbs *le′ā′um ‘to be able, to prevail’, še′ā′um ‘to look for, to sue’ and *re′ā′um ‘to tend (sheep)’ go back to III/*y verbs of the a/a class, e.g. 3ms Pres iše′′e (< *iθaˁˁay), 3mp iše′′eū, 3ms Pret iš′e, 3mp iš′eū, Imp ms ši′e, Inf še′ā′um, etc. A pecularity is that stem-final e may (optionally) be contracted with (or syncopated before?) the vowel of the ending, especially when an additional ending or suffix is present: iše′′eanni and iše′′ânni ‘he will sue me’, tale′′eāni and tale′′âni ‘you (Pl) are able’ (Subj), and iše′′eūni and iše′′ûni ‘they will sue me’; very rarely also when there is no additional element: tale′′â ‘you (Pl) are able’.

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8.7.8.5 alākum (Paradigm 29 on p. 134) alākum ‘to go/come’ is a I/a verb of the a/i class. It differs from the other I/a verbs in that it shows i- in the persons where the latter normally have e- (e.g. Pres 3ms illak versus emmar, see § 8.7.2) and double -tt- instead of single -t- in forms with infixed t, such as the Perf (3ms ittalak versus ētamar) and the Gtn-stem (3ms ittanallak versus ētanammar). Alākum also has a very common Gt-stem ‘to set out, to depart’ (Pres 3ms ittallak, Pret 3ms ittalak, Imp ms atlak, fs atalkī, Pl atalkā, Inf atalkum). 8.7.8.6 tadānum (Paradigm 30 on p. 135) tadānum ‘to give, to sell’ is the OA counterpart of Bab nadānum (i/i), but only in the G-stem. All derived stems come from an I/n stem *nadānum: Gtn Pres 3ms ittanaddin, Pret 3ms ittaddin, Imp ms itaddin, Inf itaddunum; Š Pres 3ms ušaddan, etc.; N Pres 3ms innaddin, Pret 3ms innidin, 3mp innidnū. 8.7.8.7 izizzum (Paradigm 30 on p. 135) Apart from izizzum ‘to stand (up)’ itself, there is a common causative Š-stem šazzuzum with a regular conjugation: Pres ušazzaz, Pret ušazziz, etc. 8.7.8.8 idā′um and *išā′um (Paradigm 31 on p. 135) The “defective” verbs idā′um ‘to know’ and *išā′um ‘to have’ have only one prefix tense, which is semantically a stative but historically a (resultative) preterite. Note especially the long ī as prefix vowel in all persons.

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Chapter 9 Elements of syntax

9.1 Cases Concerning the use of the cases the following features of the case system are sufficiently specific to OA to require comment: •

(1) In commercial jargon, the Nom is commonly used as the standard in interest rates and percentages, in expressions such as (1) manā′um x mana ‘x mina (extra) per mina’; ešartum ištên ‘one per ten’, i.e. ‘10 percent’; mītum ḫamšat ‘five per hundred’, i.e. ‘five percent’, and biltum ‘per talent’ (rare). An alternative is the use of ana: ana manā′em, ana ešartem, ana biltem.

•

(2) If the nominal dependent of a Gen construction is human, and in particular a personal name, a “double Gen” is often used, i.e. kasapšu ša PN ‘PN’s silver’, lit. ‘his silver, (namely that) of PN’, and ummaša ša amtem ‘the mother of the slave girl’.

•

(3) Several intransitive verbs may take an Acc suffix pronoun (mostly the 1st p. Sg) with separative meaning, especially with ‘silver’ as subject, e.g. ḫalāqum ‘to be(come) lost’ (kaspum iḫtalqī ‘silver has got lost from me’ > ‘I have lost silver’) and be′ālum N ‘to be managed away from’ > ‘to be out of one’s control’ (kaspum ibbīlannī ‘the silver has got out of my control’). Similar idioms are found with ruāqum ‘to get far away from’, našā′um ‘to bring away from’, ḫadārum N ‘to begrudge sb a (respite of) a certain period of time’, and abātum ‘to flee away from’. A related phenomenon is the use of Acc suffix pronoun in an expression such as kaspam ītaqrannī ‘the silver has become too expensive for me’ (waqārum, see § 8.7.1).

•

(4) When the direct or indirect object is an entity with a high perceptual salience (basically, when it is human, concrete and highly individuated (referential)), and/or when it is an entity which plays in a prominent role in

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the context, there is a tendency to refer to it with both a noun and a suffix pronoun (when it is nominal), or an independent plus a suffix pronoun (when it is pronominal). An example of noun and suffix pronoun is ṣuḫāram and -šu in ište paniūtem ṣuḫāram ṭurdaššu ‘send the servant to me with the first opportunity’; an example of an independent and suffix pronoun is iāti and -annī in miššum PN iāti ukallannī ‘why is PN detaining me?’ (where ‘me’ is not emphatic or contrastive, cf. § 5.1.2 sub (1)). •

(5) It is not uncommon for a direct object to be in the Nom, especially at the beginning of a clause and in enumerations of commodities. Also other deviations from the regular use of the cases occur sporadically but are presumably due to scribal negligence.

9.2 Subordinate clauses 9.2.1 Conditional clauses The usual way to express a conditional clause is the use of šumma ‘if’, followed by a protasis with an indicative finite verb, as in the rest of Akkadian. Other options are a paratactic protasis without conjunction but followed by -ma, e.g. ana šina warḫē išaqqal-ma amtum amassu ‘if he pays within two months, the slave girl will be his slave girl’, and the use of a Prec or a Vet, e.g. e tallikam-ma la mer′ī atta ‘if you do not come here, you are not my son (any longer)!’ In conditional clauses, the tenses are used as in main clauses, apart from the fact that in the protasis the Perf usually refers to the future (šumma luqūtum ētarbam ‘if the goods arrive here’) and that the Pret may also refer to the future if it is negated, e.g. šumma la išqul ‘if he does not pay (within the term agreed)’. 9.2.2 Relative clauses Relative clauses can be introduced by ša (general: ‘who(m), which, that’), mala (generalizing: ‘whatever, everything which’), ašar (locational: ‘where’, but also

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generalizing: ‘to/for/with the persons who’), ale ‘where’ (used exactly like ašar), mimma ‘everything which’, and mamman ‘everyone who’. Relative clauses without ša but with the antecedant in the construct state (OB bīt ēpušu ‘the house that I built’) are not used in OA. In relative clauses with ša, there is a tendency for the antecedant to adopt the case required in the relative clause, if that is different from the case it should have in the main clause, e.g. the Acc kutānē in kutānē ša addinakkunni ale ‘where are the kutānum-textiles that I gave you?, and the Nom in annuqū ša ibaššiūni šaṣṣer ‘guard well the rings that are present!’ In relative clauses, a resumptive pronoun is used when the head noun is the indirect object of the relative clause or a genitive dependent on a noun or a preposition, e.g. kaspum ana abīni ša ḫabbulākšunni ‘silver for our father, to whom I owe it’, lit. ‘who – I owe it to him’ (ḫabbulāku + -šum + -ni), and awīlum ša bētūšu tadnūni ‘a man whose house has been sold’, lit. ‘a man, who – his house has been sold’. However, if the resumptive pronoun should come after ana or ina, the entire prepositional phrase is omitted, as in kaspum ša qāti PN šaknatni ‘the silver on which PN’s hand has been laid’ (i.e. that is claimed by PN), where ina + resumptive pronoun might be expected. 9.2.3 Complement clauses Complement clauses (“that-clauses”) are frequently used after verbs of manipulation (qabā′um ‘to order’, naḫādum D ‘to instruct, to order’, etc.), perception (šamā′um ‘to hear’, dagālum ‘to see’, etc.), cognition (idā′um ‘to know’, ka′′ulum ‘to keep in mind’), and modality ((la) muā′um ‘not to want, to refuse’, *le′ā′um ‘to be able’, etc.). The most important ways to mark a complement clause are kīma + Subj, especially with cognition verbs (idā′um kīma ‘to know that’); coordination with -ma, especially with perception verbs (šumma tadaggal-ma ‘if you see that’; aštanammē-ma ‘I

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keep hearing that’), and the use of the Inf, especially with modality verbs. There is, however, a considerable degree of fluctuation. A complement clause may also be dependent nouns such as tuppum ‘tablet’, našpartum ‘missive’ and šēbum ‘witness’ to express the contents of the document or the testimony. In that case, the complement is mostly introduced by ša, kīma, or ša kīma, e.g. tuppum ša kīma kaspam ušēbilakkunni ‘a tablet (stating) that I sent you the silver’ 9.2.4 Indirect questions Indirect questions with a question word are usually introduced by the relative markers mala ‘how much?’, ašar ‘where?’, and ale ‘where?’, e.g. mala uṭṭutum abbikītem iggimru uznī pitiā ‘inform (Pl) me how much grain has been spent for the mourning ritual’, and (let a message from you come to me) ašar ṣubātēa tēzibu ‘where you left my textiles’. Polar indirect questions (yes-no questions) can be formulated as a conditional clause with šumma, e.g. šumma kaspam utarrakkum tuppušu amur ‘check his tablet whether he (already) has to pay back the silver to you’; as a disjunctive question with repetition of the verb, e.g. (tell us in front of these witnesses) ana bēt abīni tērub la tērub ‘whether you entered our father’s house or not’; with lu … lu, e.g. (provide evidence to these witnesses) lu ana PN kaspam tašqul lu ana mer′ē PN tašqul ‘whether you paid the silver to PN or whether you paid (it) to PN’s sons’; or as a combination of these strategies, e.g. with šumma plus repetition: (let a message from you come to me) šumma kaspam talqe la talqe ‘whether you have received the silver or not’. 9.2.5 Direct speech The standard way to formulate direct speech is a verbatim quotation introduced by the quotative particle umma. Less often direct speech is inserted in a clause without any introduction, either before or after the verb, e.g. ašpurakkunūti 1 bilat

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annakam dināma šannātem šāmānem ‘I wrote to you (Pl): “spend one talent of tin and buy kettles for me’, and ippane šuqlātem ša tamkārem lapit ‘on top of the packages is written “(property) of the tamkārum” ’. Indirect speech is rarely used after speech verbs and mainly represented in oaths (§ 9.3) and in some types of complement clauses (§ 9.2.3). 9.3 Oaths Formal oaths are introduced by a form of the verb tamā′um ‘to swear’ and (usually) a reference to a divine symbol, mostly a patrum (gír) ‘dagger’ or a šugar(r)iā′um (Veenhof 2014/15); the wording of the oath is in indirect speech with the verb in the Subj and preceded by lu in affirmative oaths and la in negative oaths, e.g. itamma PN ina patrem ša Aššur 36 ṣubātūšu lu ḫalqūni ‘PN will swear by the dagger of Aššur that his 36 textiles are lost’. However, when nīšum ‘oath’ is the direct object of tamā′um, the oath has the form of a complement clause introduced by -ma (§ 9.2.3), and thus no Subj, e.g. nīš Ālem itmu′ū-ma aḫum ana aḫem ana mimma šumšu la itūwar ‘they have sworn an oath by the City that they will not raise claims against each other for whatever reason’. Informal oaths are mostly introduced by the Prec of naṭālum ‘to watch’, hence ‘to witness’, with one or more (usually two) deities as subjects, e.g. Aššur u il(i) abīka liṭtulā ‘may Aššur and the god of your father be witnesses that …’. The use of the Subj and of lu is optional. A less common alternative to naṭālum are the problematic verb forms li-DÍ-a- and lu i-DÍ-a-, which may come either from idā′um ‘to know’ or from nadā′um in the meaning ‘to reject’, and where lu may indicate a Prec or an Assev, e.g. Aššur u Amurrum li-dí-a-ni ṣibtam ina ṣērīšu alqeu ‘may Aššur and Amurrum reject me (if it is not true that) I have charged him interest’ (or: ‘know’ > ‘be witnesses that …’?).

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Chapter 10 Verbal paradigms

The following paradigms are theoretical constructs and also contain forms that are actually unattested. Forms that are theoretically possible but extremely rare or unattested are between parentheses. Empty slots indicate forms that do not exist. Paradigm 1: The inflection of the strong verb (§ 8.2) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

parāsum

3ms

iparras

iprus

iptaras

paris

3fs

taparras

taprus

taptaras

parsat

2ms

taparras

taprus

taptaras

parsāt(i)

purus

2fs

taparrisī

taprusī

taptarsī

parsāti/ī

pursī

1s

aparras

aprus

aptaras

parsāku

3du

iparrasā

iprusā

iptarsā

parsā

2du?

taparrasā

taprusā

taptarsā

1du

(aparrasā)

(aprusā)

(aptarsā)

3mp

iparrusū

iprusū

iptarsū

parsū

3fp

iparrasā

iprusā

iptarsā

parsā

taparrasā

taprusā

taptarsā

niparras

niprus

niptaras

2mp 2fp 1p

Inf

Partc pārisum

pursā

parsātunu parsātini

VA parsum pursā

parsāni

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Paradigm 2: The strong verb: precative (§ 8.4), ventive and subjunctive (§ 8.5) Prec i/a

Prec u

Pret+Vent

Imp+Vent

Subj

3ms

liprus

lubil

iprusam

iprusu or -ūni

3fs

lu taprus

lu tubil

taprusam

taprusu or -ūni

2ms

(lu taprus)

(lu tubil)

taprusam

pursam

taprusu or -ūni

2fs

(lu taprusī)

(lu tublī)

taprusēm

pursēm

taprusīni

1s

laprus

lubil

aprusam

aprusu or -ūni

3du

liprusā

lublā

iprusānem

iprusāni

3mp

liprusū

lublū

iprusūnem

iprusūni

3fp

liprusā

lublā

iprusānem

iprusāni

2p

(lu taprusā)

(lu tublā)

taprusānem

1p

lu niprus

lu nubil

niprusam

pursānem

taprusāni niprusu or -ūni

By way of example, the Vent is shown here attached to the Pret and the Imp, but it can also be attached to the Pres, the Perf and the Prec. Of the Du, only the 3rd person is included. The Prec paradigm of the I/w verb wabālum, lubil, etc. (see Paradigm 9), also applies to the derived stems with u as prefix vowel, see Paradigms 5 and 6.

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Paradigm 3: Overview of the derived stems of the strong verb (§ 8.6) Pres

Pret

G

iparras

iprus

Gt

iptarras

Gtn

Perf iptaras

Inf/VA/Stat

Imp

Partc

par(i)/āsum

purus

pārisum

iptaras

pitarsum

pitras

muptarsum

iptanarras

iptarras

pitarrusum

pitarras

muptarrisum

D

uparras

uparris

parrusum

parris

muparrisum

Dt

uptarras

Dtn

uptanarras

putarrusum

putarris

muptarrisum

Š

ušapras

šaprusum

šapris

mušaprisum

Št

uštap(ar)ras

Štn

uštanapras

šutaprusum

šutapris

muštaprisum

N

ipparras

ipperis

naprusum

napris

mupparsum

Ntn

ittanapras

ittapras

itaprusum

itapras

muttaprisum

uptarris

uptarris ušapris

uštapris

uštapris ittapras

In all derived stems, the Inf, VA and Stat have the same stem; the table gives the Inf = VA form; for the Stat, the case ending has to be subtracted (Gtn pitarrusum → pitarrus, etc.). For the Gt form, the resulting form is subject to vowel syncope: Inf and VA pitarsum, Stat 3ms pitras, 3mp pitarsū, Imp ms pitras, Pl pitarsā, etc., see § 8.6.1. Verbs of other vowel classes than a/u may have different stem vowels in derived stems with the a/i prefix type, see under the individual stems.

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Chapter 10

Paradigm 4: The Gt-stem and the Gtn-stem of the strong verb (§§ 8.6.1 and 8.6.2) Gt-stem (a/u, a/a and a/i) no ending

+ ending

Gtn-stem (a/u, a/a and a/i) no ending

+ ending

Pres

iptarras

iptarrusū

iptanarras

iptanarrusū

Pret

iptaras

iptarsū

iptarras

iptarrusū

Imp

pitras

pitarsā

pitarras

pitarrasā

Stat

pitrus

pitarsū

(pitarrus)

(pitarrusū)

Inf

pitrus

pitarsum

pitarrus

pitarrusum

VA

(pitrus)

pitarsum

(pitarrus)

(pitarrusum)

Partc

(*muptăris)

muptarsum

muptarris

muptarrisum

The table shows a partial paradigm of the Gt-stem and the Gtn-stem of parāsum (a/u). The forms also apply to the a/a and a/i verbs. The i/i and u/u verbs have i and u, respectively, as stem vowel of the Pres, the Pret and the Imp, e.g. Gt iptaqqid , iptiqid , pitqid ; imtaqqut, imtuqut, mitqut ; Gtn iptanaqqid , iptaqqid , pitaqqid ; imtanaqqut , imtaqqut, mitaqqut. The Stat, Inf, VA and Partc are the same for all vowel classes. Perfect forms do not exist.

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Paradigm 5: The D-stem and the Dt-stem (for all vowel classes) (§§ 8.6.3 and 8.6.4) D-stem no ending

Dt-stem + ending

no ending

+ ending

Pres

uparras

uparrusū

uptarras

uptarrusū

Pret

uparris

uparrisū

uptarris

uptarrisū

Perf

uptarris

uptarrisū

Imp

parris

parrisā

putarris

putarrisā

Stat

parrus

parrusū

(putarrus)

(putarrusū)

Inf

parrus

parrusum

putarrus

putarrusum

VA

(parrus)

parrusum

(putarrus)

(putarrusum)

Partc

(muparris)

muparrisum

muptarris

muptarrisum

Paradigm 6: The Š-stem and the Št-stems of the strong verb (for all vowel classes) (§§ 8.6.6 and 8.6.7) Š-stem no ending

Št-stem + ending

no ending

+ ending

Št1 uštapras

uštaprusū

Št2 uštaparras

uštaparrusū

uštapris

uštaprisū

šaprisā

šutapris

šutaprisā

šaprus

šaprusū

šutaprus

šutaprusū

Inf

šaprus

šaprusum

šutaprus

šutaprusum

VA

(šaprus)

šaprusum

(šutaprus)

(šutaprusum)

Partc

(mušapris)

mušaprisum

(muštapris)

muštaprisum

Pres

ušapras

ušaprusū

Pret

ušapris

ušaprisū

Perf

uštapris

uštaprisū

Imp

šapris

Stat

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Paradigm 7: The N-stem and the Ntn-stem of the strong verb (§§ 8.6.9 and 8.6.10) N-stem (a/u, a/a) no ending

+ ending

Ntn-stem (a/u, a/a) no ending

+ ending

Pres

ipparras

ipparrusū

ittanapras

ittanaprusū

Pret

ipperis

ippersū

ittapras

ittaprusū

Perf

ittapras

ittaprusū

Imp

napris

naprisā

(itapras)

(itaprasā)

Stat

naprus

naprusū

(itaprus)

(itaprusū)

Inf

naprus

naprusum

(itaprus)

(itaprusum)

VA

(naprus)

(naprusum)

(itaprus)

(itaprusum)

Partc

(*muppăris)

(mupparsum)

(muttapris)

(muttaprisum)

Verbs of the i/i class have i in all forms of Pres, Pret and Perf, e.g. Pres ippaqqid , Pret ippiqid , Perf ittapqid from paqādum (i/i) ‘to entrust’. In the Pret, -er- < -ir- in accordance with § 4.9 sub (3). Clear instances of u/u verbs are lacking.

Paradigm 8: The quadriradical verbs of the nabalkutum group (§ 8.6.11) N

Ntn

Š

Štn

Pres

ibbalakkat

ittanablakkat

ušbalakkat

uštanablakkat

Pret

ibbalkit

ittablakkat

ušbalkit

uštablakkit

Perf

ittabalkat

Stat

nabalkut

(itablakkut)

ša/ubalkut

(šutablakkut)

Imp

nabalkit

(itablakkit)

ša/ubalkit

šutablakkit

Inf/VA

nabalkutum

(itablakkutum)

ša/ubalkutum

(šutablakkutum)

Partc

(mubbalkitum)

(muttablakkitum)

(mušbalkitum)

(muštablakkitum)

uštabalkit

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Paradigm 9: The G-stem of the fientive I/w verbs with wabālum ‘to carry, to bring’ (§ 8.7.1) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

ubbal

ubil

ittabal

wabil

3fs

tubbal

tubil

tattabal

wablat

2ms

tubbal

tubil

tattabal

wablāt(i)

bil

2fs

tubbilī

tublī

tattablī

wablāti/ī

bilī

1s

ubbal

ubil

attabal

wablāku

3du

ubbalā

ublā

ittablā

wablā

3mp

ubbalū

ublū

ittablū

wablū

3fp

ubbalā

ublā

ittablā

wablā

tubbalā

tublā

tattablā

nubbal

nubil

nittabal

2mp 2fp 1p

Inf wabālum

VA wablum

Partc

wablātunu

bilā

wablātini

wābilum

wablāni

Paradigm 10: The G-stem of the adjectival I/w verbs with watārum ‘to exceed, to surpass’ and išārum ‘to be(come) straight, normal’ (§ 8.7.1) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

3ms

itter

īter

īteter

watar

3mp

itterū

īterū

ītatrū

watrū

3ms

iššer

īšer

ītešer

išar

3mp

iššerū

īšerū

ītašrū

išrū

Adj

Inf

watrum

watārum

išrum

išārum

Mainly 3rd person forms are attested; the vowel class is i/i, with i > e before r (§ 4.9 sub (3)).

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Chapter 10

Paradigm 11: Partial paradigm of the Gtn-stem with wabālum Gtn, and of the D-stem, the Dt-stem and the Dtn-stem of the I/w verbs with waššurum ‘to release, to let go’ (§ 8.7.1) Gtn-stem

D-stem

Pres

ittanabbal

u(wa)ššar

Pret

ittabbal

u(wa)ššer

Perf

Dt-stem ūtaššar

Dtn-stem ūtanaššar

ūtaššer

ūtaššer

Stat

(itabbul)

waššur (uššur)

(utaššur)

Imp

itabbal

waššer (uššer)

utaššer

Inf/VA

itabbulum

waššurum (uššurum)

Partc

(muttabbilum)

(mu(wa)ššerum)

utaššurum (mūtaššerum)

The vowel of the Pret, Perf and Partc is i (*uwaššir), which becomes e before r (§ 4.9 sub (3)). Paradigm 12: Partial paradigm of the Š-stem, Št-stem and Štn-stem of the I/w verbs with wabālum (§ 8.7.1) Š-stem

Št-stem

Štn-stem

Pres

ušebbal

uštebbal

uštenebbal

Pret

ušēbil

uštēbil

uštebbil

Perf

uštēbil

Stat

šēbul

šutēbul

(šutebbul)

Imp

šēbil

šutēbil

šutebbil

Inf/VA

šēbulum

šutēbulum

šutebbulum

Partc

mušēbilum

muštēbilum

(muštebbilum)

In the I/w verbs, there is no formal distinction between Št1 and Št2.

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Paradigm 13: The G-stem of the I/a verbs with amārum (a/u) ‘to see’, and the I/e verbs with epāšum (a/u) ‘to make, to do’ (§ 8.7.2) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

emmar

ēmur

ētamar

amer

3fs

tammar

tāmur

tātamar

amrat

2ms

tammar

tāmur

tātamar

amrāt(i)

amur

2fs

tammerī

tāmurī

tātamrī

amrāti/ī

amrī

1s

ammar

āmur

ātamar

amrāku

3du

emmarā

ēmurā

ētamrā

amrā

3mp

emmurū

ēmurū

ētamrū

amrū

3fp

emmarā

ēmurā

ētamrā

amrā

tammarā

tāmurā

tātamrā

nemmar

nēmur

nētamar

2mp 2fp 1p

Pres

Pret

amrātunu amrātini

amārum

Partc amrā

Perf

Stat

Imp

ēpuš

ētapaš

epiš

3fs

teppaš

tēpuš

tētapaš

epšat

2ms

teppaš

tēpuš

tētapaš

epšāt(i)

epuš

2fs

teppišī

tēpušī

tētapšī

epšāti/ī

epšī

1s

eppaš

ēpuš

ētapaš

epšāku

3du

eppašā

ēpušā

ētapšā

epšā

3mp

eppušū

ēpušū

ētapšū

epšū

3fp

eppašā

ēpušā

ētapšā

epšā

teppašā

tēpušā

tētapšā

neppaš

nēpuš

nētapaš

1p

āmerum

amrāni

eppaš

2fp

VA amrum

3ms

2mp

Inf

epšātunu epšātini

Inf epāšum

VA epšum

Partc epšā

epšāni

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ēpišum

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Chapter 10

Paradigm 14: Partial paradigm of the Gt-stem and the Gtn-stem of the I/voc verbs with akālum Gt ‘to accept a certain rate(?)’, emādum Gt ‘to fit together’, amārum Gtn and epāšum Gtn (§ 8.7.2) Gt-stem I/a verbs

Gtn-stem I/e verbs

I/a verbs

I/e verbs

Pres

ētakkal

ētammad

ētanammar

ētanappaš

Pret

ētakal

ētamad

ētammar

ētappaš

Imp

atkal

etmad

atammar

etappaš

Stat

(atkul)

etmud

(atammur)

(etappuš)

Inf/VA

(ataklum)

etamdum

atammurum

etappušum

Partc

(mūtaklum)

(mūtamdum)

(mūtammerum)

(mūtappišum)

Paradigm 15: Partial paradigm of the D-stem, the Dt-stem and the Dtn-stem of the I/voc verbs with epāšum, anāḫum D ‘to harass, to persecute’ and ebābum D ‘to clear’) (§ 8.7.2) D-stem I/a verbs

I/e verbs

Dt-stem

Dtn-stem

I/a = I/e

I/a = I/e

Pres

unnaḫ

ubbab

ūtappaš

ūtanappaš

Pret

unniḫ

ubbib

ūtappiš

ūtappiš

Perf

ūtanniḫ

ūtabbib

Imp

anniḫ

ebbib

utappiš

Stat

annuḫ

ebbub

(utappuš)

Inf/VA

annuḫum

ebbubum

utappušum

Partc

munniḫum

mubbibum

(mūtappišum)

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Paradigm 16: Partial paradigm of the Š-stem, the Št-stem, the Štn-stem and the N-stem of the I/voc verbs (§ 8.7.2) with aḫāzum Š ‘to instruct’ and erābum Š ‘to cause to go/come in, to bring in’ Š-stem

Št-stem

I/a verbs

I/e verbs

I/a verbs

I/e verbs

Pres

ušaḫḫaz

ušerrab

uštaḫḫaz

ušterrab

Pret

ušāḫiz

ušērib

uštāḫiz

uštērib

Perf

uštāḫiz

uštērib

Imp

šāḫiz

šērib

(šutāḫiz)

(šutērib)

Stat

šāḫuz

šērub

(šutāḫuz)

(šutērub)

Inf/VA

šāḫuzum

šērubum

(šutāḫizum)

(šutēribum)

Partc

mušāḫizum

mušēribum

(muštāḫizum)

(muštēribum)

Štn-stem:

I/a verbs: 3ms Pres uštanaḫḫaz; Pret uštaḫḫiz I/e verbs: 3ms Pres uštenerrab; Pret ušterrib

Paradigm 17: Partial paradigm of the N-stem of the I/voc verbs with amārum N ‘to be seen, to see each other’ and epāšum N ‘to be made/done’ (§ 8.7.2) N-stem I/a verbs (a/u)

I/e verbs (a/u)

Pres

innammar

inneppaš

Pret

innāmer

innēpiš

Perf

ittāmar

ittēpaš

Imp

nāmer

nēpiš

Stat

(nāmur)

(nēpuš)

Inf/VA

nāmurum

nēpušum

Partc

(munnāmerum )

(munnēpišum)

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Chapter 10

Paradigm 18: Survey of the derived stems of the I/n verbs with nadā′um (i/i) ‘to put down’ (§ 8.7.3) Pres

Pret

Perf

Imp

Stat

Inf/VA

Partc

idi

nadi

nadā′um/ nad′um

nādium

*ittidi

?

?

itad′um

(muttad′um)

ittanaddi

ittaddi

itaddi

itaddu

itadduum

muttaddium

Š

ušadda

ušaddi

uštaddi

šaddi

šaddu

šadduum

mušaddium

N

innaddi

innidi

ittandi

nandi

(nandu)

nanduum

ittaddi

naddi

(naddu)

nadduum

Ntn

ittanaddi

ittaddi

G

inaddi

iddi

Gt

ittaddi

Gtn

ittidi

itaddi

(itadduum)

(munnad′um) (muttaddium)

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Paradigm 19: The G-stem of the II/voc verbs with muātum ‘to die’ and qiāpum ‘to entrust’ (§ 8.7.4) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

imūat

imūt

imtuat

mēt

3fs

tamūat

tamūt

tamtuat

mētat

2ms

tamūat

tamūt

tamtuat

mētāt(i)

mūt

2fs

tamuttī

tamūtī

tamtūtī

mētāti/ī

mūtī

1s

amūat

amūt

amtuat

mētāku

3du

imuttā

imūtā

imtūtā

mētā

3mp

imuttū

imūtū

imtūtū

mētū

3fp

imuttā

imūtā

imtūtā

mētā

tamuttā

tamūtā

tamtūtā

nimūat

nimūt

nimtuat

2mp 2fp 1p

Pres

Pret

muātum

mētātunu mētātini

Partc mūtā

Perf

Stat

Imp

iqīp

iqtiap

qēp

3fs

taqīap

taqīp

taqtiap

qēpat

2ms

taqīap

taqīp

taqtiap

qēpāt(i)

qīp

2fs

taqippī

taqīpī

taqtīpī

qēpāti/ī

qīpī

1s

aqīap

aqīp

aqtiap

qēpāku

3du

iqippā

iqīpā

iqtīpā

qēpā

3mp

iqippū

iqīpū

iqtīpū

qēpū

3fp

iqippā

iqīpā

iqtīpā

qēpā

taqippā

taqīpā

taqtīpā

niqīap

niqīp

niqtiap

1p

mā′itum

mētāni

iqīap

2fp

VA mētum

3ms

2mp

Inf

qēpātunu qēpātini

Inf qiāpum

VA qēpum

Partc qīpā

qēpāni

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qā′ipum

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Chapter 10

Paradigm 20: The D-stem, Dt-stem and Dtn-stem of the II/voc verbs with ka′′ulum ‘to hold’ and re′′uqum ‘to keep away, to remove’ (§ 8.7.4) D-stem

Dt-stem

Dtn-stem

Pres

uka′′al (ukâl?) 3mp ukallū

ure′′aq ureqqū

ukta′′al (uktâl?) uktallū

uktana′′al (uktanâl?) uktanallū

Pret

uka′′il

ure′′iq

ukta′′il

ukta′′il

Perf

ukta′′il

urte′′iq

Stat

ka′′ul

re′′uq

(kuta′′ul)

Imp

ka′′il

re′′iq

kuta′′il

Inf

ka′′ulum

re′′uqum

Partc

muka′′ilum

mure′′iqum

kuta′′ulum (mukta′′ilum)

Paradigm 21: The G-stem of the II/aleph verbs with the vowel class a/a with ša′āmum ‘to buy’ (§ 8.7.5) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

iša′′am

iš′am

išta′am

ša′im

3fs

taša′′am

taš′am

tašta′am

šāmat

2ms

taša′′am

taš′am

tašta′am

šāmāt(i)

ša′am

2fs

taša′′emī

taš′emī

taštāmī

šāmāti/ī

šāmī

1s

aša′′am

aš′am

ašta′am

šāmāku

3du

iša′′amā

iš′amā

ištāmā

šāmā

3mp

iša′′umū

iš′umū

ištāmū

šāmū

3fp

iša′′amā

iš′amā

ištāmā

šāmā

taša′′amā

taš′amā

taštāmā

niša′′am

niš′am

ništa′am

2mp 2fp 1p

šāmātunu šāmātini

Inf ša′āmum

VA šāmum

Partc šāmā

šā′imum

šāmāni

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Paradigm 22: The G-stem of the III/ī verbs with qabā′um (i/i) ‘to speak’ (§ 8.7.7.1) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

iqabbi

iqbi

iqtibi

qabi

3fs

taqabbi

taqbi

taqtibi

qabiat

2ms

taqabbi

taqbi

taqtibi

qabiāt(i)

qibi

2fs

taqabbî (?)

taqbî (?)

taqtabî (?)

qabiāti/ī

qibî

1s

aqabbi

aqbi

aqtibi

qabiāku

3du

iqabbiā

iqbiā

iqtabiā

qabiā

3mp

iqabbiū

iqbiū

iqtabiū

qabiū

3fp

iqabbiā

iqbiā

iqtabiā

qabiā

taqabbiā

taqbiā

taqtabiā

niqabbi

niqbi

niqtibi

2mp 2fp 1p

Inf qabā′um

qabiātunu qabiātini

VA qabium

Partc qibiā

qābium

qabiāni

Paradigm 23: The G-stem of the III/ū verbs with tarā′um (u/u) ‘to take/bring along’ (§ 8.7.7.2) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

itarru

itru

itturu

tari

3fs

tatarru

tatru

tatturu

tariat

2ms

tatarru

tatru

tatturu

tariāt(i)

ta/uru

2fs

tatarruī

tatruī

tattaruī

tariāti/ī

taruī

1s

atarru

atru

atturu

tariāku

3du

itarruā

itruā

ittaruā

tariā

3mp

itarrû(?)

itrû(?)

ittarû(?)

tariū

3fp

itarruā

itruā

ittaruā

tariā

tatarruā

tatruā

tattaruā

nitarru

nitru

nitturu

2mp 2fp 1p

tariātunu tariātini

Inf tarā′um

VA tarium

Partc taruā

tariāni

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Paradigm 24: The G-stem of the III/ā verbs with kalā′um ‘to hold’ (§ 8.7.7.3) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

ikalla

ikla

iktala

kali

3fs

takalla

takla

taktala

kal′at

2ms

takalla

takla

taktala

kal′āt(i)

kila

2fs

takalle′ē

takle′ē

taktal′ē

kal′āti/ī

kil′ē

1s

akalla

akla

aktala

kal′āku

3du

ikalla′ā

ikla′ā

iktal′ā

kal′ā

3mp

ikallu′ū

iklu′ū

iktal′ū

kal′ū

3fp

ikalla′ā

ikla′ā

iktal′ā

kal′ā

takalla′ā

takla′ā

taktal′ā

nikalla

nikla

niktala

2mp 2fp 1p

Inf kalā′um

kal′ātunu kal′ātini

VA kal′um

Partc kil′ā

kālium

kal′āni

For the 2fs takalle′ē < takalli′ī, see § 4.9 sub (6); forms with -′ī occur sporadically. Paradigm 25: The G-stem of the III/ē verbs with laqā′um ‘to take’ (§ 8.7.7.4) Pres

Pret

Perf

Stat

Imp

3ms

ilaqqe

ilqe

ilteqe

laqi

3fs

talaqqe

talqe

talteqe

laqiat

2ms

talaqqe

talqe

talteqe

laqiāt(i)

liqe

2fs

talaqqî (?)

talqî (?)

*taltaqî(?)

laqiāti/ī

liqî

1s

alaqqe

alqe

alteqe

laqiāku

3du

ilaqqeā

ilqeā

iltaqiā

laqiā

3mp

ilaqqeū

ilqeū

iltaqiū

laqiū

3fp

ilaqqeā

ilqeā

iltaqiā

laqiā

talaqqeā

talqeā

taltaqiā

nilaqqe

nilqe

nilteqe

2mp 2fp 1p

laqiātunu laqiātini

Inf laqā′um

VA laqium

Partc liqiā

lāqium

laqiāni

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Paradigm 26: The derived stems of the III/weak verbs (§ 8.7.7.5) with nadā′um for III/ī, tarā′um, zakā′um and warā′um for III/ū, kalā′um and malā′um for III/ā, and laqā′um and radā′um for III/ē. III/ī verbs Gtn

D Š N

III/ū verbs

III/ā verbs

III/ē verbs

Pres

ittanaddi

ittanarru

iktanalla

iltanaqqe

Imp

itaddi

itarru

kitalla

litaqqe

Pres

urabba

uzakka

umalla

uradda

Pret

urabbi

uzakki

umalli

uraddi

Pres

ušadda

ušerra

ušakla

ušalqa

Pret

ušaddi

ušēri

ušakli

ušalqi

Pres

innaddi

?

ikkalla

illaqqe

Pret

innidi

?

ikkili

illiqi

Paradigm 27: The G-stem of the doubly weak verbs waṣā′um (I/w and III/ī) ‘to go/come out’ and elā′um (I/voc and III/ī) ‘to go/come up’ (§ 8.7.8.1) waṣā′um (i/i) no ending

elā′um (i/i)

+ ending

no ending

+ ending

Pres

uṣṣi

uṣṣiū

elli

elliū

Pret

uṣi

uṣ′ū (uṣṣū)

ēli

ēliū

Perf

ittiṣi

ittaṣ′ū (ittaṣṣū)

ētili

ētaliū

Imp

ṣi

ṣiā

eli

eliā

Stat

waṣi

waṣ′ū (waṣṣū)

eli ‘it is high’

eliū

Inf

waṣā′um

elā′um

VA

*waṣ′um

elium ‘high’

Partc

wāṣium

ēlium

For uṣṣū, i.e. ú-ṣú(-ú), as spelling of uṣ′ū, etc., see § 4.6.

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Paradigm 28: The doubly weak Gt verbs atawwum (I/a and II/gem, see § 8.7.8.2) and *aḫā′um (I/a and III/ū, only Stat, see § 8.7.8.3), and the doubly weak verbs of the type še′ā′um (e/e) (§ 8.7.8.4). atawwum + *aḫā′um no ending

še′ā′um (e/e)

+ ending

no ending

+ ending

Pres 3rd

ētawwū

ētawwû

iše′′e

iše′′eū

Pret 3rd

ētu/awu

ētawwū

iš′e

iš′eū

ište′e

*ište′iū

ši′e

*ši′iā

Perf 3rd Imp 2nd

atwū

atawwā

Stat 3rd

*atḫū

ataḫuū (> -ḫû) 1p ataḫuāni

Inf

atawwum

še′ā′um

VA

---

---

Partc

(rē′ium)

Paradigm 29: The irregular verb alākum G, Gt and Gtn (§ 8.7.8.5) alākum G

alākum Gt

alākum Gtn

no end.

+ end.

no end.

+ ending

no end.

+ ending

Pres

illak

illukū

ittallak

ittallukū

ittanallak

ittanallukū

Pret

illik

illikū

ittalak

ittalkū

ittallak

ittallukū

Perf

ittalak

ittalkū

Imp

alik

alkā

atlak

atalkā

atallak

atallakā

Stat Inf

alākum

atalkum

atallukum

ālikum

*muttalkum

muttallikum

VA Partc

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Paradigm 30: The irregular verbs tadānum ‘to give, to sell’ (a/i) (§ 8.7.8.6) and izizzum ‘to stand (up) (a/i) (§ 8.7.8.7) tadānum

izizzum

no ending

+ ending

no ending

+ ending

Pres

iddan

iddunū

izzāz

izzazzū

Pret

iddin

iddinū

izzīz

izzizzū

Perf

ittidin

ittadnū

ittizīz

*ittizizzū

Imp

din

dinā

izīz

izizzā

Stat

tadin

tadnū

Inf

tadānum

VA

tadnum

Partc

*tādinum

izizzum muzzizzum?

Paradigm 31: The “defective” verbs idā′um ‘to know’ and *išā′um ‘to have’ (§ 8.7.8.8). idā′um

*išā′um

3ms

īde

īšu

3fs

tīde

2ms

tīde

2fs

tīdî (?)

tīšuī

1s

īde

īšu

3mp

īdeū

Partc

3fp

īdeā

mūdeum

2p

tīdeā

tīšuā

1p

nīde

nīšu

Inf idā′um

tīšu tīšu

īšû (?) īšuā

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Chapter 11 Glossary

This glossary is limited to words that are specific to OA or have a different meaning, use or form from other dialects. It specially focuses on commercial jargon. Words that are common in Akkadian in general and may be supposed to be already familiar to students of OA and words based on uncertain readings are not included. If the exact form of a word is uncertain due to the ambiguity of OA orthography, it is listed in the form that is usually assigned to it by convention. In some of the pertinent words, a capital letter stands for a dental, velar, labial, or sibilant that cannot further be identified. The use of ă in a citation form indicates a vowel that is subject to vowel assimilation (§ 4.9 sub (1)). Noun-verb idioms are listed under the verb. Because of the countless problems in identifying the highly technical meaning of numerous OA words, some bibliographic references have been added, with ultrashort abbreviations that can be found in the list of Bibliographical Abbreviations on p. 14–15.

A ababum ‘grandfather’ abākum (a/u) ‘to transport’ abālum D ‘to dry’ (TÚG)abarnium (an expensive textile) (OATT 156ff; TTAA 219, 231) abātum (a/u) ‘to flee’ abārum ‘lead’ aBaZuḫum (an object) = apšuḫum? abnum ‘stone, weight stone; ore, lump (of metal)’

abūsum (a building or part of it) abuttum in abuttam izizzum ‘to intercede, to step in for’ aDaGurrum (a kind of vessel) (OAI 55f) aDāmum (only Stat) ‘to own a share in, to be entitled to’; N ‘to invest in’. addaḫšum (an alliaceous plant) addurārum ‘immunity, exemption (from taxes)’

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adi and (rarely) adu(m) prep. ‘until, within, during; concerning, with a view to’; adi/adum la ‘before’ adi conj. ‘until, before, as long as’; adi la ‘as long as not, before’

diate (persons)’ (OALex 220ff); + šēpēn ‘to travel, to go’ Akkidium ‘Akkadian’ (i.e. ‘Babylonian’); (ṣubātum) ša Akkidiē (an expensive textile) (OATT 98ff)

adrum ‘threshing floor’

aksuppum ‘threshold’

agannum (a bowl)

alādărum (or sim.) (a commodity?)

aḫā (or sim.) adv. ‘in parts, separate-

alaḫḫinnum and alaḫḫinnuttum (an A-

ly, in different places’ aḫam(ma) adv. ‘separately, apart, in addition’

natolian official and his function; OAP 225f: ‘steward, manager’) alaḫḫittum (a female alaḫḫinnum?)

*aḫā′um (III/ū) Gt ‘to be partners’ (only Stat) → § 8.7.8.2 aḫāzum (a/u) ‘to marry; to engage’; Š ‘to instruct’ aḫḫurum D ‘to be delayed, in arrears; to be not yet finished, sold or shipped; to be left behind’; Dt ‘to be delayed’ aḫḫuzum D ‘to inlay’ aḫītam(ma) adv. ‘aside, apart’ aḫium ‘other, foreign; outsider,

alaktum ‘behaviour’ alākum ‘to go, to come’; Gt ‘to set out, to go on one’s way’ + ana ṣibtem ‘to accrue interest’ + ana šīmātem ‘to die’ + awīluttam ‘to act like a gentleman’ + ḫarrānam ‘to make a journey’ + lamuttam ‘to do evil to, to be hostile to’ ale adv. ‘where?’; prep. + Inf → § 8.3.6.2; relat. ‘(the place)

stranger’ akaltum ‘food portion’ or the like? akālum also: ‘to enjoy, to be entitled

where’; conj. ‘in order that’ ālikum ‘traveller, group of travellers,

to (profit or interest)’; Gt ‘to ac-

caravan’ (Veenhof 2008b: 207ff)

cept a certain rate(?)’; Š ‘to feed;

allākam adv. ‘there’ (away from us)

to satisfy (a claimant)’

allānum n. ‘acorn’ or ‘hazelnut’

akāšum (u/u) ‘to go, to move’; D ‘to

allānum adv. ‘(from) there’

remove, to make invalid, to can-

allānum prep. → ellānum

cel (tablets); to exclude, to repu-

allītiš ‘the day after tomorrow’

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139

allium ‘that’ (there away from us)

ana maḫrī ‘into the presence of’

allum ‘hoe’

ana panē ‘to, towards; in front of, on

alluttum ‘crab; pincer’

top of; ahead of, before the arri-

aluārum (a container for wine)

val or departure of’

alulītum (a mineral?)

ana pī- ‘in accordance with’

alurānum (also ulurānum) (a small ob-

ana puḫ(u) ‘instead of’ (also conj.)

ject) (Loanw. 29) amma adv. ‘there is …; behold!’ → § 5.4

ana pūti- ‘by oneself, of one’s own accord; facing, opposite’; → abbuttum

ammā ‘one cubit each’ (cf. ammătum)

ana qa/erab ‘into’

ammākam ‘there’ (with you)

ana ṣēr prep. ‘to, towards, destined

ammānum ‘(from) there’ (with you)

for; on top of, in addition to; with

ammătum ‘cubit’

a view to(?)’; conj. ‘apart from

ammē(šam) ‘to you there’

the fact that; because’

ammium ‘that’ (there with you)

ana ša → ša

ammurum (a quality of silver: ‘test-

ana šumi prep. ‘in the name of, on

ed’?) (Silver 388f)

behalf of; because of, concern-

amtum ‘slave girl; amtum-wife’

ing’; conj. ‘concerning the fact

amtuttum ‘status of amtum’

that; because; in order that’

amuttum (a very expensive metal:

anaḫtum ‘toil, exertion’

meteoric iron?) (Metals 27ff)

anāḫum (a/a) ‘to toil, to suffer; to de-

ana prep. ‘to, for; with a view to; by

cay’; D ‘to harass, to persecute’

(time); per (unit); according to’ ana aB(B)i ‘on top of’? ana bāb ‘by the beginning of’ ana bare ‘jointly belonging to, available to, owned by’

a-na-ma conj. ‘when, after, since’ anāšum (i/i) ‘to be(come) weak (financially)’ anḫum ‘in poor condition’ (of textiles)

ana dinān conj. ‘in order that’

anna adv. ‘here is …, behold!’ → § 5.4

ana idi prep. ‘concerning’; conj. ‘be-

annākam ‘here’ (with me) annăkum ‘tin’

cause’ ana libbi ‘into, among’

annānum ‘(from) here’

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annăqum ‘ring’ annē(šam) ‘hither’

2

arum or artum ‘leave, branch, foliage’

anni ‘now’

arzallum (an implement)

annium ‘this’ (here with me/us)

asakkum ‘taboo’

apālum (a/u) + double Acc ‘to answer;

assurre ‘on no account, by no means’

to promise to pay, to guarantee’

(+ Vet.)

a-pí-iš conj. ‘because’

ās/šum ‘myrtle’

appārum ‘reed-bed, marsh’

ašāšum (u/u) ‘to get worried’

appulum ‘late-born(?)’

ašḫălum (or sim.) (a bronze object)

appuna, -āma ‘besides’? or = apput-

aškāpum ‘leather worker’

tum?

ašlăkum ‘washerman, fuller’

apputtum ‘please!; (it is) urgent!’ apšuḫum (a kind of knife) = aBaZuḫum?

ašar relat. ‘(at the place) where’; prep. ‘at (sb’s place)’; ašar libbi ‘according to the wish of’; + Inf →

apum ‘reed bed, reeds’

§ 8.3.6.2; conj. ‘if, in case; in order

arākum (i/i) ‘to become long’; D fact.

that; because(?); as soon as(?)’

arāšum (erāšum) (a/u) ‘to cultivate’ arā′um (i/i) ‘to be(come) pregnant’ arbe (Fem), arbe′et (Masc) ‘four’ arēnum → erēnum arḫālum (an Anatolian service obliga-

tain, to help’ ašī′um (a very expensive metal: meteoric iron?) (Metals 27ff) ašrākam ‘there’ (away from me/us)

tion, Dercksen 2004b: 140ff); →

ašrēšam ‘thereto, to that place’

also warḫālum

ašrum (išrum) ‘place’

arītum ‘shield’ arkābum (an ornament) arkum and arrukum(?) ‘long’ arnum ‘fault, guilt; punishment, fine’ arrătum ‘curse’ aršātum (pl. t.) ‘wheat’ 1

ašārum (a/u) ‘to take care of, to sus-

arum ‘hide’

aštipirum (or sim.) ‘personnel, servants’ atawwum ‘to speak, to negotiate, to litigate’; N: id. → § 8.7.8.2 atḫu(w)ū (or atḫû) (pl. t.?) ‘brothers, partners’ awātum ‘word, matter, lawsuit’, pl. awâtum also ‘stipulation, rule’

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Glossary 1

awā′um (III/ī) ‘to become’

2

awā′um (III/ī) ‘to calculate/declare an awītum’

141

ba′aštum ‘dignity, honour, (source of) pride’ 1

*ba′āšum (II/ā) ‘to come to shame’; D ‘to shame, prove wrong, repu-

awīluttum ‘status or behaviour of a

diate sb’

gentleman’ awītum ‘the value of a shipment cal-

2

ba′āšum (i/i) ‘to smell’; D fact.

culated in tin’ (OAI 148ff) →

*ba′ā′um (II/ā) ‘to come’

§ 12.3 sub dātum

bābiš conj. ‘as soon as(?)’

ayyākam ‘where?’; with -ma ‘somewhere (else)’; + neg. ‘nowhere’

BaBrum (an object) bābum ‘gate, entrance, beginning’; as prep. → ina bāb

ayyānum ‘(from) where?’ ayyartum ‘cowry shell’

balāṭum (a/a) also: ‘to be come avail-

ayyēšam ‘whereto, whither?’

able’ (of silver); D ‘to make avail-

ayyē(šam)ma ‘to some (other) place’

able, to credit’ (an amount to sb)

ayyum ‘which?’; ana ayyī/ētem ‘why?’

(Veenhof 1987: 50ff)

azamillum ‘sack, packing net’

Balītum (a garment?) (OATT 182f)

aZamrum (a kind of fruit?

balium ‘extinguished’

azapūrum ‘saffron’

Balluḫum D ‘?’ (said of tablets and silver)

aZīrum (an object or a commodity) aZurārum (or sim.) ‘?’

B -Ba → § 5.7 ba′abtum (Pl also bâbātum) ‘goods given on trust to a retailer; outstanding debt’ 1

ba′ārum (a/a) ‘to catch’

2

ba′ārum (a/a) ‘to fall out with’; Gt recipr.; D ‘to antagonize’ (Veenhof, NABU 2015/11)

balṭum ‘alive, intact, complete’ balum and balāt(um) prep. ‘without’ bapperum ‘beer bread’ baqānum (a/u) ‘to pluck’ (wool) 1

barā′um (i/i) ‘to see, to inspect’

2

barā′um (e/e) ‘to be(come) hungry’

3

barā′um (e/e) ‘to be(come) inactive, delayed, useless, to linger’ (OALex 254ff); D → barruum; Š(t?) ‘to persevere(?)’

bare and barīti prep. ‘between, among’; ša barē ‘joint property of’

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barkum ‘knee’

baṭālum (i/i) ‘to be(come) inactive,

barrumum (and barummum?) ‘multicoloured’

lazy’ (also N) BaZā′um and BaZZuum (or sim.) ‘of-

barruum D of merchandise: ‘to put on the market(?)’ (OACT 51ff)

fense, improper act’ or the like be′ālum (e/e or i/i) ‘to possess, to

Barullum (ba/erullum, burallum, ibu-

control; to dispose of’; Proh ‘to

rullum) (a kind of police officer)

keep to oneself, to be sparing

bašālum (a/a) ‘to ripen’; of merchan-

with’; N + Acc ‘to be out of one’s

dise: ‘to be ready for trade’; Š of

control’ (said of silver) (OATT

gold: ‘to melt, to refine’; of silver

407ff)

and merchandise: ‘to offer for

beārum (ē or ī) ‘to choose, to select’

sale, to make a profit from’ (Sil-

beāšum (ē or ī) ‘to give evidence, to

ver 404ff)

explain’; D id. (OALex 229ff)

batāqum (a/u) ‘to cut off; to deduct, to go beyond a certain price or

Berdum (a very expensive equid) bē/īrum (an official, perhaps ‘the

rate, to sell/buy cheap’; intr. ‘to travel separately, to take a short

chosen one’) bē/īrum ‘double mile’; bē/īrā ‘per

cut’

double mile’; bē/īra u zūza ‘one

+ awātam ‘to settle an affair’

and a half double mile’

(OATT 401ff)

bētum ‘house, estate, firm’ → § 6.3.2

batiqtum in batiqtum u watturtum ‘loss

be′ūlātum (pl. t.) ‘interest-free loan

or profit’

given to caravan personnel as

bātiqum ‘express messenger’ (Veen-

wages’ (Veenhof 1994: 183f) →

hof 2008b: 214ff)

bûlātum

batqum ‘insufficient, missing, in

1

rest’

short supply, too cheap or too expensive (for making a profit); indebted’ (OATT 404ff) battum ‘region, surroundings’ (pl. t.?) (Barjamovic 2011: 231f ) 871

biātum (ī) ‘to spend the night, to

2

biātum ‘to be profitable’ or the like? (of silver)

bibinnum (a slave mark) BiDānum ‘?’ (a part of the house?) bikītum ‘bewailing, lamentation’

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Glossary

143

bilā ‘one talent each’ (cf. biltum)

‘that’), to watch, to look at sb (for

biltum ‘load, talent’; ša biltem ‘carrier,

support); to wait for, to expect (+

porter’ (pl. ša bilātem)

Acc or ana); to have a claim on, to

Binānum (or sim.) (a foodstuff)

take as surety, to hold responsi-

biṣinnum (or sim.) ‘wick; lamp(?)’

ble’ (+ Acc)

bitiqtum ‘deficit, shortage, loss, underweight’

dalāḫum (a/u) ‘to disturb, to trouble’ dālītum ‘irrigation bucket(?)’

buārum (II/ū) ‘to be established or

damiqtum ‘good fortune, friendliness’

proven; to prove (trans.) (that sb

dammuum D ‘to bring to tears’

is liable for sth)’

damum ‘blood’; pl. damū ‘blood shed,

Buā′um (II/ū) ‘to prevail over’ (in court) (OALex 233f)

blood money’ danānum D also ‘to ensure the pres-

BuKum (or sim.) (a textile) (TTAA 239)

ence of witnesses (šēbum) or the

bûlātum (pl. t.) ‘capital or goods

availability of tablets (tuppum)’

managed by sb else’; also = be′ū-

Danā′um (i/i) ‘to despise, to neglect’

lātum (Dercksen 1999: 87f) buntum ‘daughter’

or the like? dannătum ‘harsh word, strict order;

buqūnum ‘(time of) sheep shearing’

valid document, binding agree-

(TÚG)Burā′um (a textile) (OATT 173f;

ment; hardship, distress’ (OALex

TTAA 232)

235ff)

būrum ‘well, cistern’

dannuttum ‘hard times, distress’

BušaDinnum ‘?’

dannum ‘strong, difficult, hard to ob-

bušālum ‘cooked meal’ or the like butuqqā′ū (pl. t.) ‘deficiency, loss’

tain, strict’ dappurum D ‘to go away, to absent

butuqtum ‘shortage, loss’ buṭnum ‘terebinth’; pl. buṭnātum ‘pistachio nuts’

o.s. (from a contractual duty)’ darākum (a/u) ‘to pack’ daš′um ‘spring’

D dādū (pl. t.) ‘loin cloth’ (or sim.) dagālum (a/u) ‘to see (-ma or kīma:

1

dātum ‘road tax; fee to the kārum’ (OATT 219ff) → § 12.3

2

dātum + ša′ālum ‘to take notice of’

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dēnum and dēttum ‘judgement, ver-

eb(b)āruttum (or sim.) ‘partnership’,

dict, lawsuit’

coll. ‘partners’

dim′(ăt)um ‘tear’

(

TÚG

)eBišum (iBišum) (or sim.) (a wool-

dinānum ‘substitute(?)’

len textile, blanket?) (OATT 171f;

diqārum ‘jar’

TTAA 232f)

dišpum ‘honey’

eblum ‘rope’

(TÚG)DiZāBum (an Anatolian textile)

ebrum ‘colleague, partner’

(TTAA 245)

eBūDum (ebuṭṭum?) (a kind of in-

DuGlum (a commodity)

vestment loan) (Dercksen 1999:

DulBātum (pl. t.) ‘wood of the plane

97f)

tree(?)’

ebūrum ‘harvest’

dullum ‘hardship, hard work’

edādum D ‘?’; → also waddudum D

dumqum ‘goodness, favour; valuable

edālum ‘to close’; Stat edil ‘he is bank-

property’

rupt’ or the like

dumuqtum ‘favour’

ēdium → (w)ēdium

dun(n)ā′ū (pl. t.) ‘increase, surtax,

ekāBum (i/i) ‘to be imminent, to ap-

surcharge(?)’ (OATT 67f; OACT 84f)

proach’ ekallium ‘of the palace, of palatial

duqqum ‘crushed, pulverized(?)’ (said of lapis lazuli)

quality’ (TTAA 246) ekallum ‘palace; main room (in a

durinnum (or sim.) (a room or a space in the house)

house)’ elā′um (i/i) also ‘to appear (as wit-

dūrum ‘long time, eternity’

E e prep. ‘apart from’

ness)’; Š ‘to produce (a witness)’ 1

elītum ‘top pack; upper part’

2

elītum (a kind of asset, perhaps an extra share in an inheritance)

ebābum (i/i) ‘to be cleared’ (of a claim); D ‘to clear’ (TÚG)eBāDum (an expensive garment) (TTAA 232) eBāDūnum (or sim.) (an object)

(Veenhof 2012: 183ff) 3

elītum (a copper object)

1

elium ‘high, tall’ (only Stat)

2

elium ‘upper’

e/allānum (prep.) ‘apart from’

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Glossary

el(l)ānum(ma) (adv.) ‘separately, un-

145

ennānū and ennānātum (pl. t.) + erā-

packed(?)’

šum ‘to ask a favour, for clemen-

ellătum ‘commercial enterprise, caravan’

cy’; + laqā′um ‘to grant a favour’ ēnum ‘eye; well’

ellum n. (a kind of oil)

enūtum → unūtum

ellum adj. ‘free of claims’

epinnum ‘plough’

elpătum ‘alfalfa-grass’

epāšum (a/u) ‘to make, to do, to

emādum (a/u) ‘to impose (tax or fi-

treat’

ne), to charge (expenses), to load

+ kaspam ‘to earn, to obtain’

(donkey)’; D idem; Gt → etamdum

+ tuppam ‘to draw up a document’

emārum ‘donkey’

epištum ‘deed; work, product’

emārum (i/i) ‘to pile up’

eppuqum D ‘to pack tightly(?)’ (OATT

emāṣum (i/i) ‘to be(come) hungry’; D

3f); → upqum 1

eprum ‘food ration’

emātum ‘mother-in-law’

2

eprum ‘dust, soil’

emāZum (or sim.) (a container)

epšum (< ipšum) ‘work, activity’

emerum (or sim.) ‘pile of bricks’

eqlum ‘field, terrain’; eqlam etāqum ‘to

‘to make hungry, to let starve’

ēmiqtum ‘nurse’

travel over land’

emmerum ‘sheep’

erbi tiamtem ‘shrimp’

emqum ‘wise, skilfull’

erbum (< irbum) ‘gift, gratuity, bribe’

emuātum (pl. t.) ‘wedding’

erdum → wardum

emum ‘male relative by marriage’

erēnum (arēnum) ‘cedar (wood)’

emūqattam ‘by force, violently,

ēribtum ‘entrance tax’ erimtum ‘wrap’

harshly’ emūqum ‘strength, force, violence;

eriqqum (iriqqum) ‘wagon’

capital; authority, executive

erištum ‘wish’

power’; (textile) ša emūqem ‘?’

erium ‘naked, empty, destitute’

enānum (a/u) ‘to be lenient, to have

ernittum ‘attack, siege’ or the like?? erqum → warqum

mercy’ enā′um (i/i) ‘to change’; Gt recipr.

errubum D ‘to give as a pledge (erubbātum)’

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erruum D ‘to empty, to remove(?)’ (only in qablītam erruum, a legal act accompanying a house sale)

etallum ‘authoritative, independent person’ etalluttum ‘authority’; etalluttam adv.

erruum adj. ‘unpacked’ (of tin)

‘on one’s own authority, high-

ersuum ‘ready’ (only Stat)

handedly’

erṣătum ‘earth, territory’

etamdum ‘joined, collected, unani-

1

eršum ‘bed’

2

eršum (< iršum) ‘cultivation’

etbārum ‘colleague, partner’

erubbātum (pl. t.) ‘pledge, security’

e/itinnum ‘builder, architect’

esārum (i/i) ‘to put under pressure,

ettum (or the like) (Masc!, so eDum?)

mous’ (VA of emādum Gt)

to exact payment’

‘notice, time, term’

eṣādum (i/i) ‘to harvest’

etūdum ‘ram’

eṣālum Stat + qātum ‘to be in financial

eṭammū (eṭemmū) (pl. t.) ‘spirit of a

trouble, insolvent’ eṣārum (i/i, a?/u) ‘to destine, to fix

dead person’ eṭlum ‘(young) man’

(price: šīmam); to draw up (iṣur-

ewaZum (or sim.) ‘?’

tam)’

ezibtum ‘divorce payment’

ēṣiš ‘soon, quickly’

eZiZum (or sim.) (an alliaceous plant?)

eṣum ‘wood, tree, log’

ezzum n. ‘goat’

ēṣum ‘little, few’; ēṣum (u) mādum ‘lit-

ezzum adv. ‘furious’

tle or much’, i.e. ‘whatever there is’ ešar (Fem), ešrat (Masc) ‘ten’ ešartum ‘group of ten’ → ‘ten-men board, amount of ten shekels, ten-shekel weight’; pl. ešrātum ‘tithe, tenth part’ → § 12.3 ešrum (a) ‘tenth’ eššannîmma (or sim.) ‘for the second

G GaBārum (a kind of ingot) (OACT 58f) galābum (a/u) ‘to shave’ gallābum and gallābuttum ‘barber’ and ‘profession of barber’ GalūBum (or sim.) (a valuable object) gamartum ‘final settlement; completion’

time, again, anew’

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Glossary

gamārum (a/u) ‘to spend, to use up;

147 1

ḫabālum (a/u) ‘to lend to (ana); to

to settle (a dispute)’; D id. (pl. ob-

borrow from (ište)’; D ‘to make sb

ject); Š caus.

indebted for an amount’ (Acc);

gamertum ‘full share’ (OAI 203ff)

intrans. ‘to incur debts’; Stat ‘to

gamrum ‘expense(s)’

owe’; Dt and N ‘to become in-

garā′um (i/i) ‘to approach sb agres-

debted to sb for an amount (Acc)’ 2

247ff); N ‘to quarrel, to litigate’.

ḫabārum ‘to traverse(?)’

Gārišum (a kind of messenger?) (Veenhof 2008b: 216) 1

ḫabālum (a/u) ‘to wrong’

sively, to put pressure on’ (OALex

Gaššum (a non-Assyrian dignitary) (OAP 226f)

ḫabaštum (an object) ḫabbātum ‘robber’ ḫabbulum ‘indebted; debtor’ ḫaBerum (a class of people?)

Gaššum (a part of a temple)

ḫabullum → ḫubullum

gattum ‘stature, build’

ḫaBūrum (a bronze vessel, perhaps =

2

GaZatum (or sim.) (part of a table) GaZ(Z)um (or sim.) ‘?’ (said of textiles:

ḫubūrum) ḫadārum N ‘to become worried, wea-

‘shorn’?) (TTAA 233)

ry (with)’; + ūmum ‘to begrudge

gi/ugamlum ‘animal pen(?)’

sb a (respite of) x days’; Š caus.

gimertum ‘totality; full share’

ḫaDlunum (an object)

gimillum ‘favour’

ḫaḫal(t)um ‘?’

gimrum = gamrum ‘expense(s)’?

ḫalālum (a/u) ‘to detain (a person)

gubabtum (ugbabtum) (a priestess) gušūrum ‘beam’

ḫalātum (a/u) ‘to swallow’

Ḫ ḫa′āṭum (i/i), ḫiāṭum (II/ī) ‘to check, to investigate’ (Acc or ana); + warkatam ‘to investigate a case’; D + warkātem id.

(?); to offer (a rate for goods) (?)’ ḫaliptum ‘deceit, dishonesty’ ḫalpum ‘deceitful, dishonest’ ḫalputtum ‘deceit, dishonesty’ ḫamiš (Fem), ḫamšat (Masc) ‘five’ ḫamištum ‘group of five’ ḫamrum ‘sacred precinct’ (Schwemer 2001: 245ff; Veenhof 2014/15: 110ff)

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ḫamšātum (pl. t.) ‘one-fifth share’

ḫaṭṭum ‘staff’

ḫamšum (i) ‘fifth’

ḫaṭ′um (i) ‘faulty, of poor quality’

ḫamṭum (i) ‘heated, angry’

ḫawārum (or sim.) (a container)

ḫamū (pl. t.) ‘chaff, waste, rubbish’

ḫazuānum ‘garlic(?)’

ḫamuštum ‘one-fifth; ḫamuštum-

ḫerišnannum (a textile) (OATT 178f)

week’ (Dercksen 2011b: 235ff) →

ḫermum ‘envelope of a tablet’

§ 12.2

ḫiārum (II/ī) ‘to select’

ḫappudum ‘blind’

ḫiāṭum → ḫa′āṭum

ḫarāmum (i/i) ‘to cover, to encase, to

ḫiBartum (or sim.) (an item of cloth-

certify (a tablet)’; D id. (OALP

ing?) ḫibiltum ‘injustice, crime’

138ff) ḫaribum (or sim.) ‘ruin, deserted

ḫiBšum ‘?’ ḫiddum (an ornament, perhaps

place(?)’ ḫarimtum ‘prostitute’ ḫarītum (or sim.) ‘storage container’ ḫarmum ‘enclosed in an envelope, certified’ (Pl. ḫarrumūtum) ḫarpum (sg. and pl.) ‘summer, har-

‘bead’) ḫīlātum (or sim.) (pl. t.?) ‘exudation’ or the like ḫillătum ‘imprisonment(?)’ ḫimittum ‘heat, anger’, mostly pl. ḫimṭātum ‘heated, angry words’

vest time’ ḫarrānum ‘road, trip, caravan’ ḫassuum ‘crushed’ or the like? (said

ḫimtum ‘leather pouch(?)’ and/or ‘butter, ghee(?)’ ḫi/unišannum (an object or a com-

of copper) ḫaṣṣinnum ‘axe’

modity) (Loanw. 33)

ḫašaḫtum ‘need, requirement’

ḫirišnannum → ḫerišnannum

ḫašāḫum (kašāḫum) (a/a) ‘to need, to

ḫirmum → ḫermum ḫiš(š)annum ‘pole’

want’ ḫašālum (or sim.) (an object, perhaps a piece of furniture)

ḫubullum ‘debt’ ḫubūrum (a large container for beer)

ḫašlātum (pl. t.) ‘crushed wheat’

ḫuDūlum (a bronze object)

ḫaššulum ‘crushed’

ḫuḫārum ‘?’

ḫašū′um ‘thyme’(?)

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Glossary

ḫulālum (a precious stone: chalcedony?)

149

idmātum (pl. t.) ‘investments, shares’ 1

idum ‘reason’; la idum ‘foolishness,

ḫulāpum ‘rag’ (or the like)

ignorance’; ina la idem ‘without

ḫu/iluGannum (a kind of vehicle?)

reason’; → ana idi

ḫuluqqā′um (ḫaluqqā′um) ‘(commercial) loss, lost goods’ ḫupkum (a bronze vessel)

2

idum ‘arm, strength’

3

idum (a measure of length, perhaps = 2idum) (Veenhof, NABU 2007/50)

ḫuppum ‘tambourine’

Idum (Īdum) or Id (Īd) ‘river ordeal’

ḫupšum (a person or a class of per-

igartum and igārum ‘wall’

sons) (Dercksen 2004b: 146)

igrū (pl. t.) ‘wages, hire; rent’

ḫurāṣum ‘gold’

iGrum (or eGrum?) (a kind of meat?)

ḫurātum (pl. t.) ‘ladder’

ikiltum ‘darkness’

ḫurdum ‘posthumous child’

ikkărum ‘farmer’

ḫuršiānum ‘box, bundle’

ikribum ‘prayer, vow, curse’, pl.

ḫuršum ‘storeroom, larder’

‘commercial fund entrusted to a

ḫuruBtum (or sim.) (a bronze object)

temple and therefore under di-

ḫusārum ‘lapis lazuli’

vine protection’ (OAI 79)

ḫus/šā′ū (pl. t.) ‘(metal) scraps’

ilippum ‘ship’

ḫuṣābum ‘rib of a palm-frond’

illūkum (a garment?) (TTAA 233)

ḫušaḫḫum (kušaḫḫum) ‘need, re-

illum ‘leather bag’ (OACT 66)

quirement; work, business’ ḫušālum (a bag or pouch for tablets) ḫuZinnum (or sim.) (a farming product)

imittum ‘right (hand); a piece of meat’ ina prep. ‘in, at; from, out of, on the basis of; with, by means of; per

ḫuzīrum ‘pig’

(unit)’; ina la (> illa) ‘without, by

I ibissā′ū (pl. t.) ‘commercial losses’ idā′um (e) ‘to know’ → § 8.7.8.8 iddinū (pl. t.) ‘(marriage) gift(?)’ iDinnum (or sim.) (an instrument?)

lack of’ ina bāb ‘at the beginning of, just before’ ina bare ‘among, between; out of’ ina libbi ‘in, among; out of; to the debit of, owed by’

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ina maḫar/maḫrī ‘before, in the pres-

iṣurtum ‘debt-note registering a debt

ence of’

by an Anatolian to an Assyrian;

ina panē ‘in front of, before; ahead of,

fixed rule’ (Veenhof 1995; Waal

before the arrival or departure of; personally; away from’

2012) išārum (i/i) ‘to be(come) straight, to

ina pī- ‘on the order of, on the in-

return to normal, to be appealing

stigation of’

to, to go straight towards’; Š ‘to

ina qabal/qablē ‘in (the middle of)’

put or keep in order, to make

ina qa/erab ‘in (the middle of)’

ready, to provide justice to’

ina re′eš ‘at the side or service of; at the arrival, delivery or transfer

*išā′um (u) ‘to have’ → § 8.7.8.8 išdum ‘bottom, base, stand’, Du./pl.

of’

‘foundation(s)’

ina ṣēr ‘on (top of); to the debit of, at

1

išertum (mostly pl. išerātum) ‘standard or normal weight or size’

the expense of; (away) from; con-

(Silver 407ff)

cerning(?)’

išertum ‘sanctuary’ (RI)

ina ša → ša

2

ina šamši prep. ‘on the day of, at the

išḫiulum (a commodity or an object)

time of’; conj. ‘when’

išittum ‘storeroom, inventory’

ina šapal ‘below’

iškărum ‘work assigmnent’

ina ṭiḫī ‘adjacent, next to’

išpadallum (or sim.) (an object)

in(a) ūmi prep. ‘on the day of, at the time of’; conj. ‘when’ inūmīšu(-ma) ‘then, on that day, at that moment’, + -ma often ‘on the same day, right away, immediate-

(Loanw. 36) išpuruzinnum ‘timber, beam, rafter(?)’ (Loanw. 29) išrum n. ‘belt, scarf’ (OATT 176ff; TTAA 233) išrum adj. ‘straight, correct, normal,

ly’ ipṭerum (pl. t.?) ‘ransom’

just’

irtum ‘breast, breast meat’

iššiakkum “vice-regent” (a royal title)

is/škurum ‘wax’

ištariuttum ‘the status of concubine’

iṣabtum ‘profit’

ište prep. ‘with; from’

iṣṣabtum ‘ring’

ištên, Fem ištêt ‘one; first’ → § 7.2.1

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Glossary

151

ištênā ‘one each, one by one’

+ kīma ‘to represent sb.’

ištêniš(-ma) ‘together, simultaneous-

+ šazzuztam ‘to act as agent or

ly, in one go’ ištīnum (or sim.) (a small bronze ob-

representative’; Š ‘to appoint as such’ + warke ‘to stand as guarantor

ject) ištu prep. ‘from, since, ago’; conj. ‘af-

for’; Š caus.

ter, since, as soon as’ ištūma conj. ‘if it is true that, seeing that, because’ išū (c. st.) and išū qāti- ‘possessions’, cf. *išā′um ‘to have’ itinnum → etinnum itqurum ‘spoon, ladle’ itrātum (pl. t.) ‘overweight’ (OATT 16f); ‘additional part of an inheritance’ (Veenhof 2012: 186f) iZārišam adv. ‘?’ (cf. iZārum?) iZārum (part of a temple) izizzum ‘to stand (up); to be present; to be available (of silver, donkeys, etc.); to stand at a rate of exchange’ → § 8.7.8.7; Š caus. + ana ‘to be at the disposal of; to be responsible for; to guarantee for; to stand by’ + ana + Inf. ‘to be intent upon, to be about to’ + ana nikkassē ‘to participate in the settling of accounts’ + ina re′eš ‘to serve, to take care of’; to keep an eye on’

K Ka′āšum (i/i) ‘to wrap or seal in a case or bag’ kabāsum (a/u) ‘to step or tread on; to remit, to balance, to deduct (an amount); to treat sb unfairly; to pressure sb; to resolve (an affair)’ + rāmănam ‘to do one’s utmost’ kabātum (i/i) ‘to be(come) heavy, honoured, respectable, important’; D ‘to honour, to treat with respect’; Dt ‘to act honourably(?)’ + panū ‘to hesitate, to have qualms’ kabistum ‘a foot’ (measure) kabium (or sim.) ‘dung’ kablum ‘leg’ (of furniture) kabtum (i) and kabbutum ‘heavy; mighty, influential’ kakardinnum ‘victualler’ kakkartum ‘ingot’ (OACT 59) kakkušum (a kind of flour) kalappum ‘pickaxe’

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kalā′um (a/a) ‘to hold up, to detain,

kaṣādum D ‘to delay, to keep waiting;

to withhold; to prevent from (ana

to hold back (goods)’; Dt and N ‘to

or ina); intr. ‘to be delayed, to

be delayed, to be held back’

stay, to wait’

kaṣā′um (i/i) ‘to be(come) cold’; of

kallătum ‘bride, daughter-in-law’

trade (šīmum) ‘to stagnate, to col-

kallumum D ‘to show, to offer for

lapse’

sale’

kaṣṣārum and kaṣṣāruttum ‘harnesser,

kalluṣum ‘shrivelled’ (of barley) kalmătum ‘vermin’

caravan leader’ and his function kašādum (a/u) ‘to obtain; to meet, to

kălu(-) ‘all, totality’ → § 7.6

catch up with; to arrive, to reach

kamārum (a fish?)

(ana or Acc.); to appeal to (ana or

(TÚG)kamsum (a fairly high-quality

Acc.); to manage, to be capable,

textile) (TTAA 253f)

to have sufficient means for; to

kamūnum ‘cumin’

amount to; to be sufficient’; D = G

kanaktum ‘incense tree; incense’

and ‘to chase after’; Š caus. of G

kannum (or sim.) (a kind of jar?)

+ awātam ‘to resolve successfully’

kannūtum ‘welcome, reception’

+ ḫarrānam ‘to make a business

kanūnum ‘brazier, oven, hearth’

trip’

karānum → kerānum

kašāḫum → ḫašāḫum

karpătum (pl. karpātum and karpū)

kaššum → Gaššum

‘clay pot; measure of ¼ naruqqum’ → § 12.1

kaššuum D ‘to make a profit (takšītum)’

karṣū (pl. t.) + akālum ‘to slander’

katappum (an object)

karšum ‘belly; portion of meat’

katā′um (a/a) ‘to take as security’;

kārum ‘quay, harbour, commercial quarter’

D id. ka′′ulum D ‘to hold, to possess, to of-

kasā′um (i/i) ‘to demand payment’; D ‘to arrest, to take into custody’ kāsum ‘cup, goblet’

fer; to keep in mind’ (kīma: that); Dt pass. kayyānum ‘constant, regular’ (only Stat.) kē adv. ‘how?’; kē maṣi ‘how much?’

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Glossary

153

kēna ‘yes’

kisnātum (pl.) ‘branches, firewood(?)’

kēnātem(ma) adv. ‘truly, honestly’

kīs/šum (kiššum) ‘purse, capital’; a

kēnum ‘honest, reliable’

qualification of gold (Veenhof

ke/arānum ‘grape, wine’

2010: 108f)

kēttum (mostly kēnātum) ‘truth, justice, correct behaviour’

kiṣrum ‘lump’; pl. ‘payment’(?); kiṣer libbem ‘anger’

kī prep. ‘like’

kišādum ‘neck, necklace’

kibsātum (pl. t.) ‘deduction, allow-

kiša/erānum (an object or a sub-

ance’

stance)

KiBšum (a type of pack for loading on a donkey) (OAI 279ff) KiBunannum (or sim.) (a small household object) kīdum ‘region outside a city, open

kišāma (or sim.) adv. ‘allegedly, supposedly’ (ironic) kišerrum (or sim.) ‘profit, success’ kišdātum ‘revenues, earnings; (share in) costs’ (OATT 416f) kišeršum (kišaršum) ‘prison’

country’ ki/ugamlum ‘animal pen(?)’ kilallān, Fem. kilaltān (Du) ‘both’ →

kiššănum (or sim.) (a leguminous vegetable) Kištum (an agricultural product)

§ 7.6 kilBum ‘profit(?)’

kīšum → kīs/šum

kīma prep. ‘as, like, instead of’; + Inf.

kitā′um ‘piece of linen fabric’ (TTAA

→ § 8.3.6.2; conj. ‘just as; because; in order that, so that; when, as soon as; although, whereas; as if’

216ff) kuānum (II/ū) ‘to be(come) firm, reliable, honest; to be established,

kīma ša conj. ‘just as; as if’

proved’ (ina ‘by means of’); D ‘to

kīmāma conj. ‘in the same way as’

put in place; to establish; to con-

kinattum ‘employee, servant’

firm sb’s (Acc) statement, claim,

kippum ‘rim’ (of a cup)

or liability; to bring proof against

kirissum ‘hair clasp, metal pin’

sb (Acc); to present sb as witness;

kirium ‘garden’

to secure (goods)’; Dt ‘to establish

kirrum (a container for beer)

or prove each other’s liability; to

kisibarrātum (or sim.) ‘coriander’

present o.s. as witness’

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kubāšum (a kind of bread)

kurṣum ‘bond, fetter’

kubrum ‘thickness; ripeness’

kūrum ‘crucible, kiln’

kubšum (a container?)

kurummătum ‘food allowance’

KuBuršinnum (or sim.) (a quality of

kusītum (a woollen garment) (OATT

gold)

159ff)

kuddimmu ‘mustard’ or ‘cress’

kussium ‘chair, throne, saddle’

kukkubum (a small container)

kuṣ′um ‘winter’

kukkum (a type of bread)

kušaḫḫum → ḫušaḫḫum

kukkuzānum (or sim.) ‘piglet’

kuššătum (a garment) (OATT 162f)

kukurrum (or sim.) (a kind of meat)

kutallum ‘back, rear part’

kulitannum (or sim.) (a vessel)

kutānum (a very common type of

kulūmum ‘(male) lamb’

woollen textile) (OATT 145ff;

kulu/ipinnum (gilupinnum) ‘bundle (of

TTAA 211f, 234f)

straw)’ or ‘hatchet, sickle’

1

235)

(Loanw. 34) kummum ‘cella, private room’ (of temple or palace) kumrum and kumruttum (a kind of priest and his function)

kutinum (or sim.) (a textile) (TTAA

2

kutinum (or sim.) (a jar)

kutūtum ‘(female) distrainee’ kutummum ‘covering’ kuzbum ‘nice, friendly’

kumurtum in bēt kumurtem “temple, chapel(?)” kunukkum ‘seal, seal impression, sealed document’ kuppā′um ‘snow’ kur(r)ium (or sim.) ‘short’ (of stature) kurrum ‘kor’ (a standard measure for grain) kursānum (a container) 1

kursinnum ‘lower leg, shank’

2

kursinnum ‘sack’ or ‘jar’; a small

L lab′um ‘lion’ lagabbum (or sim.) ‘block’ laḫḫuBum vb. and VA ‘?’ (said of textiles) (TTAA 254) laKānum (a kind of sheep) lāma prep. ‘before’; conj. ‘before’ lamādum also: ‘to be charged’ (with an expense: Acc); D also: ‘to charge sb’ (with an expense: Acc)

fund (Veenhof 2012: 190ff)

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Glossary

lamānum (i/i) ‘to be(come) evil; unlucky; angry’; D ‘to maltreat’; Št

155

leliātum (pl. t.) ‘evening’ lē′um ‘board, slab (of metal), ingot’

‘to be(come) embroiled with e.o.’ + libbum/ēnum ‘to be(come) angry; D ‘to make angry’

(OACT 57f) libbātum (pl. t.) ‘anger’ libēte(m) < ili bētem ‘the god of the

lamassum ‘protective goddess’

house/family’

lammunum ‘of poor quality’ (copper)

libittum ‘brick’

lamnum ‘bad, evil; enemy’

1

390)

lamnuttum ‘evil deed, sin’ la/emuttum ‘evil, wickedness; distress; anger’

liDum (a quality of silver) (Silver

2

liDum (a ritual?) (Dercksen 2011a: 59ff)

lānum ‘stature, figure, appearance’

lillidum ‘offspring’

lapānum (i/i) ‘to be(come) poor’

lil(l)um and lil′um ‘stupid’

lapātum (a/u) ‘to touch, to write, to

lil(l)uttum ‘stupidity’

register’; D id.; Gt and N + qātātum

līmum ‘(office of) eponym’ → § 12.2

‘to be registered as a guarantor’

lipittum ‘help(?)’

laqā′um (e/e) ‘to take, to receive, to

liptum ‘touch; writing’

obtain, to bring along; to borrow’

lipum ‘offspring’

(Dat or ina ṣēr: at the expense of);

liqtum (a qualification of gold)

D id. (rare)

lišānum ‘tongue’ → also *pi′um

+ ana ṣibtem ‘to borrow at inter-

litiktum ‘sample’ liwītum ‘packaging, wrapping’

est’ + ana šīmem ‘to buy by right of pre-emption’ laqium and laqquum ‘obtained(?)’ (said of silver) laššuum ‘absent’ (mostly Stat) latā′um (e/e) ‘to split, to open (the envelope of a tablet)’ lawā′um (i/i) ‘to surround, to wrap,

luāmum (II/ū) ‘to put pressure on’ lubērum ‘(old) garment’ lubuštum ‘clothing’ lubūšum ‘garment; clothing allowance’ luDium (a textile product) (TTAA 235) luḫuzinnum (a vessel) (Loanw. 34f)

to pack’

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lulā′um (lulū′um, lulī′um) ‘antimony(?)’ (Metals 29) lumnum ‘evil, adversity’; lumun libbem ‘anger’

maḫ(ḫ)urtum ‘opposite side(?)’ maḫīrum ‘market place, tariff, rate’ maḫšălum ‘pestle’ mākālum ‘food offering’

luqūtum ‘merchandise, goods’

makārum (a/u?) ‘to trade, to manage

lur(u)mum ‘pomegranate’ lutaḫannum (or sim.) ‘?’

M -ma → § 5.7 mā ‘what!?, really?, please!’; šumma … mā ‘if … and/but if …’ ma′ādum (i/i) ‘to be(come) much’ maḫar and maḫrī/ē prep. ‘before, in the presence of’

(capital)’ mākerum ‘trader’ maknăkum and/or maknākum ‘sealed container, sealed room’ makrium ‘reddish’ maksuum ‘fetter, shackles’ makūḫum (a garment) (OATT 169f; TTAA 235) mala prep. ‘in accordance with, to the full extent of’; + Inf →

maḫārum (a/u) ‘to receive; to appeal

§ 8.3.6.2; relat. ‘as much as, all or

to; to meet, to confront’; N ‘to

every … which, everything

meet’

which; how much’; conj. ‘as; in

+ ēnam ‘to appeal to, to find favour with’ maḫāṣum (a/a) ‘to strike, to smash,

order that’ mala adv. ‘once’, mostly in (adi) mala u šinēšu ‘once or twice, a few

to divide; to cost sb (Acc) an amount of silver’; Stat ‘to be badly affected’ (of trade); Gt ‘to fight, to do one’s best’ + qātam ‘to refuse to comply’ + qaqqădam ‘to claim for o.s.’ maḫ(ḫ)ātum ‘aunt’ or some other female family member maḫ(ḫ)ā′um ‘uncle’ or some other male family member

times’ 1

malāḫum ‘sailor, boatman’

2

malāḫum (an object)

mal′ānum adv. ‘fully, at the full rate of exchange’ mal′ētum ‘possibility(?)’ mālikum ‘councellor, advisor’ malkum ‘advice, decision’; malakka ‘it is up to you to decide!’

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Glossary

malqiātum (pl. t.?) ‘revenues’ or the

157

massuḫum and maššuḫum D ‘to treat

like

with contempt, to despise, to

mal′um (i) ‘full’ māmītum ‘oath; treaty’

criticise; to reject’; → mašḫum massuḫum adj. ‘dirty, impure’ (of

mamman, mammana → § 5.6 mānaḫtum ‘toil, work, trouble; expenditure for labour’

metal) (Silver 398f) massukum ‘impure person(?)’ massu′/wum (maswum) (a designation

manā′um ‘mina, one mina-weight’ manā′um (u/u) ‘to count; to charge;

of Anatolian rulers) maṣā′um (i/i) ‘to be enough; to be

to wait (a number of days)’

able; to be equivalent, to amount;

mannum ‘who?’ → § 5.5

to be answerable’; + laqā′um and

marā′um (i/i) ‘to be(come) slow, to

ṣabātum ‘to take or seize on one’s own responsibility’ (also Dt);

be delayed’

+ mala ‘to match’

mardātum (or sim.) (a textile) (TTAA

maṣṣartum ‘guard, guardsman;

235f)

strong room, safe’

ma/er′e/ium (merītum?) ‘pasture’ marnuattum (a kind of beer made from barley) (Loanw. 37) marrum ‘spade, shovel’ marrurum (a bitter substance, oil?) maršum ‘thong, strap’ mar′um ‘fat, fattened’ masā′um (i/i) ‘to wash, to clean, to refine (metal)’ (Silver 401ff)

1

mašāḫum (a/u) ‘to rob’; → mašḫum

2

mašāḫum (a/u) + nikkassē ‘to clear accounts’

mašārum (a/u) ‘to drag sb (to court); to postpone(?)’ mašā′um (i/i) ‘to forget’; D ‘to deprive of, to withhold from(?) (+ double Acc.)

mas/ṣḫuruttum ‘?’

maš′enum ‘(a kind of) shoe’

mas/šḫar(t)um (a container for oil or

maš′ertum (a commodity)

a meat dish?) masium ‘cleaned, refined, washed’ (copper) (OACT 34f) maslaqtum ‘cooking pot’ (of metal) masrădum ‘packing equipment’

mašḫum and maššuḫum ‘bad, unwelcome; hapless’ maškănum (a textile, (also) used as a wrapping or cover) (TTAA 236) maškānum ‘deposit’

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maškattum ‘shipment of goods through a third party’ (Dercksen 1999: 90ff)

mazlăgum (a fork or hook) maZrum (maZerum) (a kind of tin or an adjective qualifying tin)

maškum ‘hide, fleece’ mašqaltum ‘payment, installment; measuring cup’

mazzāzum ‘position; statuette (often of a god, given as a votive offering)’

mašqium ‘drinking place’

-men → § 5.7

maššītum (or sim.) (a qualification of

menuniānum (menunīnum, manuniā-

tin)

num, menuniā′um) (a type of fab-

maššuḫum → massuḫum and mašḫum

ric) (OATT 171; TTAA 236)

mate and ina mate adv. ‘when?’; adi

mēraštum ‘(time of) cultivation’

mate ‘(for) how long?’; conj. ina

mer′ătum (mar′ătum) ‘daughter’

mate ‘when’

mer′eum → ma/er′e/ium

matēma and ammatēma adv. ‘at

mer′um (mar′um, mārum?) ‘son’ →

some/any moment’; + neg. ‘nev-

§ 6.3.4.3; mera(′) Aššur ‘Assyrian’;

er’

mera(′) ummiānem ‘junior member

matliḫšum (matlišḫum) ‘pack saddle’ (or part of it) (OATT 5f; OAI 273f) maṭā′um (i/i) ‘to be(come) insuffi-

of the class of ummiānums, junior trader’ mer′uttum (mar′uttum) ‘status of son’

cient, missing, short, of lesser

mēšărum ‘justice, equity’

quality’; Š → šamDuum

mētăqum ‘road, passage(?)’

maṭium (i) ‘of inferior quality; hum-

mētum ‘dead’ migertum + tadānum ‘to grant an au-

ble’ mā′ū (pl. t.) ‘water’

dience(?)’ migrātum (pl. t.) ‘agreement, con-

ma′um ‘?’ ma′′uqum D ‘to be weak’ mayyaltum (a kind of wagon) maZārum (a/u) ‘to detain, to withhold, to delay’ (OALex 249ff) mazītum (a kind of bread or a bever-

sent’ miḫrātum (pl. t.) ‘equivalent, counterpart’ miḫrum ‘copy, duplicate, list, inventory’

age)

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Glossary

miḫṣum ‘blow, stroke, attack (of disease); woven cloth(?)’ milkum ‘advice; decision’

159

muḫḫum ‘marrow, head; self’ mulā′um ‘supplementary payment (to fill a quota)’

mil′um ‘fullness’ in milī libbem ‘anger’

mulūḫum (an object or a substance)

mimma → § 5.6

munūtum ‘amount, computed share’

mimmāšāma ‘anything at all’; + neg.

mupazzerum ‘smuggler’

‘nothing at all’

muqarribum ‘escort’

mimmā′um = mimma

murṣum ‘illness; misfortune’

mīnum ‘what?’ → § 5.5; mīnum ša also

mūrum ‘foal’

‘why?’; Acc mīnam also ‘why?’;

musarrum (or musārum?) ‘belt, girdle’

ana mīnem ‘why?’

musukkā′ū (pl. t.) (a poor quality of

miqittum ‘misfortune’

silver) (OATT 4891)

miqtum ‘fall; share (in profit)’

muṣallum (or pl. t.?) ‘siesta time’

mišḫum and mišiḫtum ‘act of robbery’

mūṣium (or sim.) (a official concerned

mi/ešītum (or sim.) ‘depot, fund, stock’ (OATT 94 ) 154

with taxes) (OAI 72; OAP 196) mūšābum ‘domicile, dwelling’

mišlā adv. ‘half’

mušālum ‘mirror’

mišlum n. ‘half, half a share’

mušarriDum (or sim.) (a profession

mīššu(m) (ša) ‘why?’

connected with trade) (OATT

mitašlum ‘resembling each other’

318439)

miṭrătum and miṭrum ‘irrigated area, marsh, wet land’ or the like muātum (ū) ‘to die; to be destroyed (of tablets)’

mušēniqtum ‘wet nurse’ muš(i)um ‘night’ mušlālum “Step Gate” (a building in Assur) (Veenhof 2014/15: 112f)

muā′um (+ lā) ‘to refuse’

muštaK(K)iDum (a profession)

mūdeum ‘expert, knowing’

mušṭum ‘comb’

mudeuttum ‘knowing, knowledge’ (al-

muttā muttā ‘half and half, in equal

ways with la) mu′ertum (or sim.) ‘commissioned

measure’ muttătum ‘half; half-pack’ mutum ‘husband’

goods(?)’ muḫālum (a foodstuff kept in jars)

mūtum ‘death’; pl. mūtānū ‘plague’

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muṭā′um (pl. t.) ‘deficit, loss, underweight’

add to; to deposit; to forsake, to

muzzizzū ‘representatives’ (also muzzazzū?)

*na′ādum(?) Št(n?) ‘to call to account, to disapprove of, to threaten’ or the like (usually with a god as subject) na′ālum (a/a) and niālum (II/ī) ‘to lie down’ nabalkutum (a/i) ‘to overturn, to go/come across, to go back and forth; to act against an agreement, to rebel’; Š caus. and ‘to copy’ nabattum ‘halting place, lodging’; adv. nabattam ‘during the night(?)’ naBBuum ‘?’ (said of silver and wool) nabītum (or sim.) (a measure of capacity, part of a karpătum) naBrītum ‘state and/or period of inactivity, winter break(?)’ 2

naBrītum (or sim.) ‘paddock, enclosed meadow’ (OAI 267ff)

3

reject; to draw up (a document)’; Stat also ‘to be present, available’

N

1

nadā′um (i/i) ‘to put onto or into, to

naBrītum (or sim.) (an object)

nabšium ‘safekeeping, deposit’ nadānum → tadānum

+ awātam/awâtem ‘to present a matter’ + ēnātem ‘to pay close attention’ + nuduā′am ‘to draw up a notification, a reminder for payment’ (OAI 228) + rigmam or rugummā′ē ‘to lodge a complaint’ + šaddu′atam ‘to pay the šaddu′ătum-tax’; Š ‘to impose the š.’ + taḫsistam ‘to draw up a memorandem’ + uznam ‘to pay attention’ naddudum D ‘to search, to investigate’ naDītum ‘deposition, statement’ nādum ‘waterskin’ nāgerum ‘herald’ (→ also nāKerum) naggārum ‘carpenter’ naggurum D ‘to denounce’ naḫādum (i/i) ‘to pay attention to, to care for (ana), to do sth carefully’; D ‘to instruct’ naḫlăp(t)um ‘garment, cloak’ (TTAA 236f) nakārum (i/i) ‘to deny’; Stat ‘to be hostile, a stranger’

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Glossary

nakās/šum (i/i) ‘to cut off; to set

161

naqrăbum ‘neighbourhood’

aside; to determine’; Gt(?) ‘to cut

narbum (i) ‘soft’ (wool and textiles)

off’ (OALex 260ff)

nargum ‘peg’

nāKerum (a kind of transporter)

narkabtum ‘chariot, wagon’

(Veenhof 2008b: 216f), partly =

narmăkum ‘ritual washing’ → § 12.2

nāgerum ‘herald’?

naruā′um ‘stele’

nakkăpum (a tool: ‘hammer’?)

naruqqum ‘sack, bag; joint-stock capi-

naKKurum adj. ‘?’

tal’ (Larsen 1977; Dercksen 1999:

naktam(t)um ‘cover, lid’

93ff); a dry measure’ → § 12.1

nam′ădum ‘the majority(?), the others, the rest’ nāmartum ‘first appearance (of the moon)’

nasāḫum also: ‘to levy (the nisḫātumtax); to be subpoenaed’ (intr.); Š ‘to subpoena’ nasis(t)um (a textile product?) (OATT

namašuḫum (or sim.) (an expensive textile) (OATT 167f; TTAA 237) namāšum (u/u) ‘to depart’

179; TTAA 237) naṣārum (a/u) ‘to guard, to protect’; Š ‘to guard closely’

nāpaltum ‘answer, statement’

naṣbătum ‘handle(?)’

napālum (a/u) ‘to pay (as compensa-

našārum (a/u) ‘to set aside, to de-

tion), to balance’ napāṣum (a/u) ‘to hurl; to clear accounts’; D = G and ‘to destroy’

duct, to save’ našā′um (i/i) ‘to carry, to bring’; N ‘to transport’

napaštum ‘throat; life, self; welfare’

+ ēnam ‘to desire’

napāšum (u/u) ‘to raise a (counter-)

+ naruqqam ‘to manage’; N ‘to ini-

1

claim, to protest’ 2

napāšum (u/u) ‘to breathe, to be relieved’; D ‘to air (textiles)’

napḫărum ‘totality’

tiate, to organize’ našlulum (N) ‘to crawl’ našpăkum ‘store (of barley)’ našpartum (na/ešpertum) ‘missive,

nappāḫum ‘blacksmith’

document with legal or eviden-

naprăṣum ‘chisel’

tiary force’ (OALP 143ff)

napṭă/erum ‘melting’ (of snow) naqbītum ‘statement’

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naṭālum (a/u) ‘to watch, to expect, to

nīšum ‘oath’

search, to check’; Gt recipr.; ana

niš′um ‘gift, present’

itaṭlem tadānum ‘to sell for cash’

nuārum ‘musician’

+ qātam ‘to look after, to control’

nuā′um ‘native (Anatolian)’

naṭā′um (i/i) ‘to hit, to beat’

nuā′uttum ‘behaviour of a nuā′um’

naṭbăḫum ‘butcher’s knife’

nuduā′um ‘notification’ → nadā′um

naṭū Stat ‘it is fitting, appropriate’

nuḫ(i)timmum ‘cook’

naZBītum (or sim.) (a religious cere-

nūḫum (a skin container for oil)

mony or festival) naZZumum D ‘to break, to remove(?)’ (tablets or envelopes) nēbăr(t)um ‘crossing, ferry’

nuk(e)ribbum ‘gardener’ nukurrā′um ‘denial, an amount that is denied or contested’ nukurtum ‘hostility’

nēmălum ‘profit’ nēpišum ‘package (of gold or silver)’ nēšum ‘lion’ nibītum ‘quantity, specification’ nibrārum (a textile) (OATT 172f; TTAA 237) niBum (or sim.) (an official) niggallum ‘sickle’ nikištum ‘decision’ (of gods or authorities, usually to prohibit sth) nikkassū (pl. t.) ‘accounts’ (OAI 192ff); → šasā′um nipiltum ‘compensatory payment, balance payment’ niqium ‘sacrifice’ nisḫātum ‘import tax’ → § 12.3 nišrum ‘installment’ nišū (pl. t.) and nišuttum ‘people, relatives’

P padallum (a copper object) (Loanw. 37) paddugānum (a festival or banquet) pa′e in ša pa′e → *pi′um paḫā′um (i/i) ‘to block, to lock, to place in storage’ paḫrum in šīmum paḫrum ‘combined purchase’ palālum (i/i) ‘to interrogate(?)’ (OALP 364ff); ‘to initiate an oath-taking ceremony(?)’ palgum ‘canal’ palilum (a textile?) (TTAA 238) pana and ina p. ‘earlier, before, in the past’; ištu p. ‘since long’; iṣṣēr ša p. ‘even more than before’ panānum ‘formerly, before’

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Glossary

panā′um (III/ū) ‘to turn to’; D ‘to forward, to transfer, to divert’

163

paršīgum (or sim.) (a headdress) (TTAA 238)

paniš prep. ‘before’

parzillum ‘iron’

panišam (or sim.) adv. ‘first; before,

parZum (a tax or other payment?)

earlier’

paṣium (i) ‘white’

panītum in ina panītem ‘in the past, earlier, at first’ panium ‘first, next; previous, earlier’ pannărum ‘?’ (interpreted as a brush,

pašallum (pašullum) (an alloy of gold, perhaps electrum) (Metals 26) pašārum (a/u) ‘to loosen, to solve; to settle (an affair)’

a textile and a foodstuff) (OAI

pāšerum ‘retailer’

265f; Dercksen, NABU 2010/69)

paššūrum ‘table’

panū (pl. t.?) ‘face, front’

pāšum ‘axe’ or ‘hatchet’

pānum ‘basket, container’

patā′um (e/e) ‘to open, to gain access

pappardalium (a precious stone)

to’; D also: ‘to inform sb’

paqādum (i/i) ‘to take care of’;

+ ēnēn ‘to encourage, to make

+ ana or ište ‘to entrust sth to sb’; + double Acc + ana ‘to entrust sth to sb1 (Acc) to bring it to sb2 (ana); D = G

happy’ + pi/a′am ‘to open the mouth, to protest’ + uznam ‘to inform’

parakannum → perekannum

patium ‘open; far away; long (term)’

parās/šum (a/u) ‘to separate, to di-

patrum ‘dagger’

vide; to decide’; N ‘to divorce’

paṭārum (a/u) ‘to loosen, to open (a

parḫum ‘offpring’

package); to redeem’; N also ‘to

pariktum (part of a city gate)

melt’ (of snow)

paris/štum and parsātum ‘secret, secret place; confidential information(?)’

pā′um (or pl. t.?) ‘chaff’ pazārum (a/u?) ‘to go into hiding’; D ‘to smuggle’

parkullum ‘seal-cutter’

pazertum ‘smuggling’

parruum (or sim.) ‘evil, improper’

pazzurtum ‘smuggling, smuggled

parṣum ‘office’; also → parZum

goods’ (OATT 310f)

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perekannum (pe/arakannum) (a rough

puzrum ‘shelter, refuge, hiding place’

or coarse woollen textile) (OATT 125; TTAA 238f) perikkum (a divine symbol) perittum ‘fear’ pêrtum (or pe′ertum?) ‘hair’ pištum ‘abuse, insult’ NA4

pitnum (a stone container)

pitqum (a part of a palace and a qualification of copper) piṭrātum ‘broken pieces (of a tablet)’ *pi′um (or sim.) ‘mouth, word, statement’ → § 6.3.4.1; ša pa′e ‘witness, testimony’; *pi′um u lišānum ‘gossip, slander’ puāgum (II/ū) ‘to take away by force’ (→ Buā′um) puḫrum ‘assembly’ puḫ(u) prep. ‘instead of’ puḫ′um (also puḫum?) ‘substitute, replacement’ puḫur adv. ‘together’ pulḫum ‘fearsome’ pūrum ‘lot, portion’ purussā′um ‘(legal) decision’ purū′um in purū(′) PN šakānum ‘to slander, to denounce’ puṣ′um (puṣium) ‘whiteness, white spot’ puṣūnum (or sim.) ‘veil’ pūtum ‘forehead; self(?)’

Q qabaltum ‘middle part’ qabārum (i/i) ‘to bury’ qablītum (a container) qablium ‘middle, of medium quality or size(?)’ (OATT 195ff; TTAA 248) 1

qablum ‘middle part, waist, belt’

2

qablum ‘battle’ in Be′el qablem

qabrum ‘grave, tomb’ qaddušum D ‘to purify (ritually)’ qade prep. ‘together with, including’ qadištum ‘second-rank wife, concubine’ qadum prep. ‘including’ qalālum D also: ‘to discredit’ qalullā′um = qulālū qanuum (qanwum) ‘reed’ qaqqădum ‘head; person, self; capital; the best of …’; pl. qaqqadātum also ‘head tax’ (OATT 264ff) → § 12.3 qaqqărum ‘ground, terrain, plot’; q. dannum ‘a difficult situation’ qarābum (u/u) ‘to come near’; D ‘to bring near, to escort’; + awātam (ištêt) ‘to commend’ qarātum (or sim.) ‘banquet, festival’ qarā′um (a/a) ‘to invite’ qa/erbum ‘inside, inner part’; qa/erab bētem ‘interior part of the house’;

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Glossary

ina qa/erbem adv. ‘therefrom’ qātum ‘hand, share’; pl. qātātum ‘guarantor’; ša qātem and qātum ‘of standard quality’ (of textiles); (līmum) ša qāti → § 12.2

165

rab′um (i and u) ‘fourth’; rab′ā/ētum ‘one-fourth share’ radā′um (e/e) ‘to bring, to transport, to escort’; D ‘to add’; Š caus. of G rādium ‘guide, escort’

qa′′uum D ‘to wait’

ragāmum (a/u) ‘to lodge a complaint’

qēmum ‘flour’

raḫābum (u/u) ‘to tremble’

qerītum ‘banquet, festival(?)’

rakāsum (a/u) ‘to tie, to bind, to ob-

qiāpum (II/ī) ‘to entrust; to believe’

lige by contract to pay’; D id.

qin′um ‘jalousy, spite’

(OALP 252ff)

qīptum ‘consignment, consigned goods, commercial trust’

rāmănum, rāmattum ‘oneself’ rapādum (u/u) ‘to run around, to

qīštum (or qēštum) ‘gift, present’

have trouble, to be upset’; D ‘to

qitpum ‘the act of picking (grapes)’

trouble’

qubūrum ‘tomb, grave’

rapšum ‘shovel’

qulālū (pl. t.) ‘dishonour, ill repute’

raqqum ‘thin, fine, frail’; (túg)raqqutum

qulqullum (a wrapping for textiles)

(a fine or thin textile) (OATT

qurbum ‘near, short (term)’

152ff; TTAA 239f)

qu′um (a measuring vessel)

R rabāšum (a/u) ‘to substantiate a claim’ rabbumma adv. ‘quietly, discreetly’ rābiṣum ‘attorney, official representative’ rābiṣuttum ‘function of attorney’ rabium (i) ‘big, old’; rabī + Gen ‘chief, overseer of …’ → OAP 220ff raBšum ‘shovel’

rāqum ‘empty, empty-handed, idle’ rašā′um also: ‘to worry, to be troubled’ or the like reāṣum (ī or ē) ‘to come to help’ *re′ā′um ‘to herd, to tend’ rē′ium ‘shepherd’ rēṣuttum ‘assistance, rescue’ rêštum (or sim.) ‘first-quality oil’ rēšum ‘head, beginning’ riābum (II/ī) ‘to compensate, to replace’ riāḫum (II/ī) ‘to be left over’

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riāqum (II/ī) ‘to be(come) empty, idle, destitute’ ribītum ‘square(?)’

1

sabā′um (i/i) ‘to brew’

2

sabā′um ‘to draw (water)’

saBītum (or sim.) ‘?’ (in ina saBītī- šaqā-

ribšum ‘complaint(?)’

lum, kaspam laqā′um, or atawwum

riGlum (a foodstuff?)

‘to pay, receive silver or negoti-

rigmum ‘legal complaint’

ate in …’)

riḫ(i)bum ‘shivering’

sābītum ‘female innkeeper’

rīḫtum (or rēḫtum) ‘remainder’

sābium ‘innkeeper’

riksum ‘bundle, small package; fetter’

sadālum (or sim.) (a copper object)

1

rīmum ‘(figure of a) wild bull’

sadārum (i/i) ‘to line up, to equip’

2

rīmum ‘love, liking’ (? in ina rīm +

saḫārum (u/u) also: ‘to be delayed; to

Gen ‘out of love for’?) riqītum ‘omasum’ (as a cut of meat)

become interest-bearing’; Š ‘to delay’; N ‘to change one’s mind’

rišī′um (or sim.) ‘worry, anxiety(?)’

saḫā′um (i/i) ‘to be in turmoil’

ruāqum (II/ū) ‘to be/go far away’

saḫertum (saḫartum) ‘sundry wares,

(+ Acc: from); D re′′uqum ‘to keep away, to remove’

retail goods’; → also ṣaḫḫă/erum saḫḫuḫum D ‘to frighten’

rubātum ‘queen, wife of a ruler’

saḫ′um ‘rebellious’

rubā′um ‘king, ruler’

sakārum (i/i) ‘to block’

rubā′uttum ‘kingship, rule’

saklum ‘dumb, stupid’

rubuā′um ‘at a four-to-one rate’

sakkukum ‘deaf’

rugummā′ū (pl. t.?) ‘legal claim’

sakpum ‘still-born baby(?)’

rupšum ‘width’

salāḫum (a/u) ‘to disturb, to bring

rupuqtum ‘rivet(?)’

into trouble(?)’

rūqum ‘far away’

salā′um (i/i) ‘to cheat, to deceive’

ru′um ‘friend, comrade’

salluum D ‘to turn to, to plead with’

S sa′artum ‘falsehood’ sa′ătum (or sim.) (a tariff) → § 12.3

sal′ū ‘fraud(?)’ samrūtum ‘nail, rivet(?)’ sāmtum ‘carnelian’

s/šabāsum (i/i) ‘to be(come) angry’

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Glossary

sanāqum (i/i) ‘to arrive; to check, to

167

siḫrātum (pl. t.) ‘additions, bonus’

establish the weight or quantity of; to put pressure on’; + Dat also

(OAI 219) sikkătum ‘nail, peg’; rabī sikketem

‘to transfer to’; D ‘to question; to

(a high official); pl. sikkātum (an

check; to transfer to’

event that disrupts trade: hostili-

sangum ‘priest’

ties? a festival? (Kryszat 2004b;

sapdinnum ‘fleecy cloth’? (OATT 170; TTAA 240) sappum (a metal object or container) saqqum (a cloth) (TTAA 240)

OAP 227ff) 1

sikkum ‘hem, fringe (of a garment)’

2

sikkum (a means of transport) (OACT 67ff) → also Zikum

sarādum (i/i) ‘to load, to pack’

silqum (a dish based on mutton)

sarartum ‘(money lost by) fraud(?)’;

simmiltum ‘ladder, stair’; rabī simmil-

pl. sarrātum ‘falsehood, lies’

tem (a high dignitary: crown

sarārum ‘to be false (of documents), to be mendacious’ sarašrānum → šaršarānum sardum (serdum) n. ‘olive (oil); olive

prince?) siniqtum ‘testing, test result’ or the like siparrum (siperrum, šiparrum) ‘bronze’ sipḫātum ‘?’

harvest’ sardum (adj.) ‘packed, loaded’

sipittum ‘mourning’

sāridum and sarrādum ‘packer, don-

sisium ‘horse’

key driver’

sissiktum ‘edge, fringe, hem’

sarrum ‘false, fraudulent’

sissinnum ‘date spadix’

sarruttum ‘falseness, mendacious-

suēnum (or sim.) ‘moon, crescent’ suḫuppum (or sim.) ‘stock, fund’

ness’ sassum ‘bottom; part of an axe’

(OACT 172)

sāsum ‘moth’

sukinnum → ZuGi/annum

seārum (ī or ē) ‘to plaster, to rub’

sukkallum (an official)

serdum ‘load’; → also sardum

sukurtum ‘blockade, suspension (of

siḫertum ‘circumference; totality’ siḫītum ‘unrest, rebellion’

travel and commerce)’ suluppum ‘date’ sūnum ‘lap, crotch’

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supū′um (or sim.) ‘prayer’?

ṣamārum D + Dat ‘to long for, to want

surrū (pl. t.?) ‘deceit, lies’

to see’

s/ṣurs/ṣuBum (a bronze vessel)

ṣapā′um (i/i) ‘to moisten, to steep’

sutuḫḫum (or sim.) ‘?’

ṣarāpum (a/u) ‘to melt down, to re-

su′um (a large stone object and a

fine; to irritate’ (Silver 399ff)

metal object, perhaps disc-

ṣarrupum ‘refined’ (of silver)

shaped)

ṣarruputtum ‘refinement, refined sil-

Ṣ ṣa′altum ‘quarrel, lawsuit’ ṣa′ālum (a/a) ‘to quarrel, to protest’; Gt recipr. ṣabātum ‘to seize, to engage’; N pass.

ver’ (Silver 406f) ṣar′um ‘snake’ ṣa′′udum D ‘to melt down’ ṣēnum ‘small cattle’ 1

ṣibat ṣibtem ‘compound interest’;

and ‘to quarrel’; Št2 ‘to collect

ṣibat tuppem ‘supplement to a tab-

(silver)’ + qātam ‘to help, to support’ + šēpē- ‘to prostrate o.s. before, to beg’ + ṭēmam ‘to make up one’s mind’ ṣabītum ‘gazelle’ ṣaḫārum (i/i) also: ‘to be deducted’; D ‘to reduce, to deduct’ ṣaḫḫă/erum ‘in small pieces’ (metal) ṣaḫrum (i) ‘small, young’ (Pl. ṣaḫḫărū/ātum) ṣalāmum (i/i) ‘to be(come) black’ + panū ‘to be(come) angry, displeased’; D fact. ṣallāmum (or sim.) ‘black’ (of donkeys and copper) → § 6.1.1 ṣal′um ‘rib’

ṣibtum ‘addition; interest’ → § 12.4;

let’ 2

ṣibtum ‘the act of seizing; handle(?)’

ṣīḫātum (or sim.) (pl. t.?) ‘worry’ ṣiliānum (ṣil′ānum) (a container) ṣimdum (a capacity measure → § 12.1) ṣītum ‘coming out; rising (of the sun); expenses’ ṣubātum ‘textile’ ṣuḫārtum ‘young woman, daughter, servant girl’ ṣuḫārum ‘boy, servant’ ṣuḫrum ‘youth, young age’; coll. ‘children’ ṣulum panē ‘anger’ ṣumlālū (pl. t.?) (an aromatic) ṣuppum (or sim.) (a kind of sheep)

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Glossary

ṣuprum ‘nail; small piece of jewellery(?)’

169

šaduānum (šadwānum) ‘hematite’ šaduum (šadwum) ‘mountain’

ṣuruptum ‘irritation(?)’

Š ša ‘of’ (Gen); + Inf → § 8.3.6.3; relat. ‘that, which’; conj. ‘that; whereas, although; because’ ša ašar = ašar ša kīma ‘everything which’

šagāšum (a/u and i/i) ‘to ruin’; + rāmănam ‘to exert o.s.’; N pass. šaḫāḫum D ‘to degrade(?)’ (of tin) šaḫarrum (or sim.) (a net for carrying?) → also šaḫe/arum šaḫātum n. ‘side; assistence, support’ 1

count)’; D ‘to clear from claims’

ana ša conj. ‘concerning the fact that; because; although’ ina ša conj. ‘because’ šabartum ‘piece, lump’ (of metal) šabārum (i/i) ‘to break’ šabāṭum (i/i) ‘to sweep’ šabā′um G in tuppum ša šabā′e ‘quittance’; D ‘to satisfy, to pay in full’; Dt ‘to satisfy o.s. (with silver), to recoup’ šabburum ‘broken, in small pieces’ (of copper) *šabe (Fem), *šab(′)et (Masc) ‘seven’ šabsūtum ‘midwife’ šadādum (a/u) ‘to haul, to transport; to produce (witnesses); to endure’; intrans. ‘to delay’; Stat ‘to be in short supply, delayed’ šadašium ‘sixth’ šaddu′ătum (a term designating several taxes or fees) → § 12.3

šaḫātum (a/u) ‘to withdraw (an ac(OAI 206ff)

2

šaḫātum (u/u) ‘to fear, to respect’

šaḫe/arum (or sim.) (only Du or Pl) (a kind of footware or part of it) šaḫittum → šiḫittum šaḫlum ‘?’ (qualifying nikkassū and words, cf. šaḫālum ‘to sift, to filter’?) šaḫṭum ‘stripped’ šaḫum (or sim.) (a vessel) šā′iltum ‘female diviner’ šakānum (a/u) ‘to place; to yield; to cost’ + ana also ‘to add to, to make into, to regard as’ + ana or ina nikkassē ‘to submit for the settlement of accounts’ (OATT 432ff) + ana šalṭem ‘to hold responsible, to blame’ (→ 2šalṭum adj.)

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+ ana šebuttem ‘to appoint sb for

šalāmum (i/i) ‘to be(come) well or

testimony, as witness’

safe, to arrive in good condition’;

+ ina libbi- ‘to be worried about’ + awātam ‘to present a case, to

D ‘to transport or deliver safely’ šala/innum (or sim.) (an object, per-

start a lawsuit’

haps a textile)

+ gimillam ‘to do a favour’

šalāš (Fem), šal(ā)šat (Masc) ‘three’

+ panam/panē ‘to go to; to pay at-

šalāšum (i/i) ‘to do for the third time’

tention to’

šalāṭum (a/u) ‘to act high-handedly;

+ qātam ‘to lay claim to’ (ina (ṣēr))

to cash in (silver and other as-

+ šēbam ‘to appoint a witness’

sets)’; Stat. ‘to be available, on

+ šēpam ‘to set out for’

hand’; D id.

+ šumam ‘to establish fame, to ac-

šalā′um (a/a or a/u) ‘to do harm to’

quire a reputation’ + ūmē ‘to set a term’

(+ ina ṣēr) šališium ‘second; of second quality or

šakāṣum ‘to be rude, to behave rude-

size’ šalištum ‘group of three; one-third

ly’

share’ (usually pl.)

šaKāTum ‘?’; Š + pūram ‘to cast a lot’ šakkanakkum (a high official)

šalmum ‘sound, in good condition, without deductions; solvent’

šaklulum Š ‘to finish’ šaklulum adj. ‘complete’

šalšum (i) ‘third’

šakṣum ‘rude, aggressive’ (of per-

šalṭum n. ‘available assets, private capital’

sons); ‘rough(?)’ (of textiles) šakūkum (or sim.) (a kind of girdle?)

1

šalṭum adj. ‘available, on hand’

šākultum ‘meal, banquet’

2

šalṭum adj. ‘authoritative, self-

šalāḫum (a/u) ‘to take out, to retrieve; to deliver safely’; + qaqqădam, rāmănam, etc. ‘to bring o.s. into safety’ šalālum ‘to behave offensively, with impudence’ (→ šillătum)

willed’ šamāḫum (u/u) ‘to break an agreement’ šamallā′um ‘assistant, trading agent’ šamāni (Fem), *šamāniat (Masc) ‘eight’ šamā′um ‘heaven’ (or pl. t.?)

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Glossary

šamDuum Š ‘to warn, to trouble, to threaten’ or the like

171

šapšă/āqum ‘hardship’ or the like šaptum ‘lip, edge, rim’

šamkānum ‘servant, retainer’

šāptum (rarely šīpātum) ‘fleece, wool’

šamšum (Fem) ‘sun, sun disk; day’

šaqā′um (i/i) ‘to give to drink, to

šamšuum Š ‘to spend the night, to go in the night’ šanā ‘two each, in sets of two’

moisten’ šāqium ‘cupbearer, steward’ *šaqlulum ‘to hang; to arrive any

šanassum(ma) ‘every year’ šanātum (or sim.) (an aromatic sub-

moment’ šarāmum (a/u) ‘to break, to slit, to

stance)

cut to size’

šanā′um adv. ‘at a two-to-one rate’

šarāqum (i/i) ‘to steal’; N ‘to be re-

šannunātum ‘accusations, libel(?)’

garded as stolen by (+ Dat!)’

šannum ‘copper or bronze kettle’

šarium ‘rich’

šapākum (a/u) ‘to pour, to store’; Gt

šarrăqum ‘thief’

recipr.: ‘to invest in a joint fund’

1

šarrum ‘king’

(OAI 132ff)

2

šarrum (šerrum) ‘(small) child’

šapālum (i/i) ‘to be(come) low, to go down’; D ‘to lower the price’ (+ Acc: ‘at the expense of’) šapartum ‘pledge’ šapattišamma ‘every half-month’ šapattum ‘15 day of the month; a th

half month’ *šapā′um (u/u) Gt ‘to be(come) silent’

šarruttum ‘royal persons, royal quality’ šarruum D ‘to begin; to do sth first’ (OAI 176ff) šar(a)šarannum (š/sarašrannum, šerešrannum) (a capacity measure of 1

/2 karpătum → § 12.1) (Loanw.

38)

šāperum ‘overseer, manager’

šaršarrătum (also šaršarrum?) ‘chain’

1

šapiltum ‘stand, support, lower part’

šârtum (or šartum?) ‘hair’

2

šapiltum ‘rest, remainder’

šārum ‘wind; idleness, falsehood’

šapium ‘padded, thick’ (of saddles and hides) šappārum (a bovid: wild ram?) šappum (a container for oil)

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šasā′um (i/i) ‘to summon, to invite; to recite; to declare publicly (a price, a rate, etc.); to settle accounts (with and without nikkassē); to borrow’; Gtn ‘to read’

šedištum ‘sixth (Fem); group of six’ šeium, šieum (or sim.) ‘?’ (in rabī š. ‘chief of the …’) šēlu′ătum ‘withdrawal, (interim) dividend’

šassā′um ‘wailer(?)’

šēnum ‘shoe’

šassūrum ‘womb, birth goddess’

šēpum ‘foot; transport, caravan’

šašannum (a metal object) (Loanw.

šerikum (or sim.) ‘?’

37)

šerqum ‘theft’

šaššărum ‘sieve(?)’

šerrum → 2šarrum

šattukkum ‘regular offering’

šeššerum ‘saw(?)’

šawerum ‘ring, bracelet’

šeššum (Fem šedištum) ‘sixth’

šawītum (a type of woman: ‘concu-

šēṭuttum in šēṭuttam laqā′um ‘to hold in contempt’

bine’?) šazzuztum ‘agency; legal representa-

še′um (? or eā′um?) ‘barley’ šiābum (ī) ‘to be(come) gray, old’

tive’ šeārum (ē or ī) ‘to go in the morning, to rise early’ šeātum (ē or ī) ‘to be left, to remain’; trans. ‘to still have, to retain’;

ši′āmātum (or sim.) (pl. t.) ‘merchandise, purchased goods’ šiāmum (ī) + šîmtam or šīmātem ‘to make a decision, a will’

+ ina libbi/ṣēr ‘to be still due to’;

šibsātum ‘anger, angry words’

trans. ‘to retain as a claim

šigārium → šugarriā′um

against’

šigărum ‘bolt’

še′ā′um (e/e) ‘to look for, to search; to sue, to take to court’ šēbultum ‘consignment, shipment’ (OATT 140ff) šēbum adj. ‘gray, old’ šēbum n. ‘witness’ (pl. šēbū) šēbuttum ‘testimony’ šēbūtum (pl. t.) ‘elders’

šiḫittum ‘clearing of obligations’ (OAI 206ff) šikittum ‘agreement(?)’ šikkătum ‘flask; string of beads’ šikkum (or sim.) (a kind of poor quality copper) (OACT 42f) šiknum (a textile: spread or cover?) (TTAA 242)

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Glossary

173

šikrum ‘beer’

šiqlānum (qualifying a PN) ‘?’

šilipkā′um (also šulupkā′um and other

šiqlum ‘shekel’

forms) (a textile) (OATT 165f;

šīrum ‘flesh, meat’

TTAA 219 , 242f)

šišītum (or sim.) ‘?’

50

šillătum ‘improper conduct, offense, loss of reputation’ šîmtum and šīmātum ‘original or fixed amount, amount agreed on; decision, disposition; will, stipulation’ šīmum ‘price; proceeds of a sale;

šišš(i)um (or sim.) (a family relationship?) šitrum (a textile: undergarment?) (OATT 174ff; TTAA 243) šîttum (or šêttum) ‘remainder, balance’

trade, commerce; ‘(right of) pre-

šiZerum (a textile?)

emption’; pl. šīmū often = sg.

šuārum n. ‘dance, dancing’

(OAT 358ff)

Šuberiattam ‘(in) the Subarian (= Hur-

šīmam ša′āmum ‘to make purchases’

rian) language’

šina, Fem šitta ‘two’

Šub(e)rium ‘Subarean’, i.e. ‘Hurrian’

šinaḫilum and šinaḫiluttum (a high

šubtum (a surface measure → § 12.1)

Anatolian official and his func-

šugarriā′um (šugarruā′um, ši/uga-

tion)

rium) (a tool and a divine em-

šinip(p)ium ‘two thirds’ šinītum ‘dyed wool or textile’ (TTAA

blem) (Veenhof 2014/15: 114ff) šuḫṭum in šuḫuṭ libbem ‘anger’ šuḫupp(ăt)um ‘boot(?)’

252f) šinun(ū)tum (a leather object)

šuḫutinnum (an alliaceous plant)

šipassum ‘clay sealing’

šukallum in rabī šukallem (a court of-

šīpātum → šāptum šipkātum (pl. t.) ‘investment(s), dividends, accumulated funds’

ficial) šuka′′unum ‘to prostrate o.s., to submit’

šiprum ‘messenger, envoy’

šukuttum ‘jewelry’

šipruttum ‘status or function of en-

šulḫum (a textile) (OATT 168f; TTAA 243f)

voy’ šiptum ‘incantation, spell’

šulūšā ‘in sets of three’

šiqītum ‘irrigation’

šulūšā′um ‘at a three-to-one rate’

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šumkū (pl. t.) ‘onions’ šumma conj. ‘if’ → § 9.2.1 šumma prep. in šumma la ‘apart from, without’ and šumma libbi ‘if it pleases …, if … wants/agrees’ šummannum (or sim.) + šakānum ‘to do a favour(?), to present with a

+ awātam ‘to grant a case, to respond, to answer in court’ + ḫarrānam ‘to dispatch on a journey’ + idē- (2idum) ‘to give assistance’ + libbam ‘to reassure, to encourage’ + pā/ī- ‘to promise’

gift(?)’ šupa′′ulum ‘to exchange, to convert’ *šuqallulum → šaqlulum šuqlum (šuqulum) ‘package (for ship-

+ šēpēn ‘to go to’ tadmiqtum “kindness”: goods or silver entrusted to friends or relatives to make a small profit, and

ping metals)’

the profit itself

šuqultum ‘weight’ šurukum (or sim.) (a textile?)

TaDum (a textile) (OATT 179f)

šūrum (a textile) (OATT 154ff; TTAA

taḫḫittum ‘order, instruction’ taḫsistum ‘memorandum’

244–45) šuruptum ‘burning material, fuel’

taḫšīmum (a foodstuff)

šūšalšum adv. ‘threefold’

takbittum ‘honour’

šutersuum ‘to prepare’ → § 8.6.11

takīttum ‘correct amount’

šutēṣuum ‘to quarrel’ → § 8.6.7

tak(k)altum (or sim.) ‘bag’ or ‘sheath’?

*šutwum(?) ‘warp’

takkilū (pl. t.) ‘slander, unfounded

T tabākătum (or sim.) (part of a kettle) tabalattum (or sim.) (a cereal and a beer made of it) (Loanw. 37) tabālum (a/a) ‘to take along, to take away; to cost’ tadānum ‘to give, to sell’ → § 8.7.8.6 + ana arnem ‘to impose a fine on sb (Acc)

talk’ takkuštā′um and takkuštum(?) (a textile) (OATT 166f; TTAA 21950, 245) takšertum ‘repair’ takšītum ‘profit’ taktītum ‘judicial appropriation’ talānum (or sim.) (a kind of shoe) tamalakkum (or sim.) (a container, esp. for tablets) tāmartum ‘audience-gift’

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Glossary

tamgertum ‘agreement’ tamkārum ‘merchant; money lender, creditor; retail-seller, agent’ tamkāruttum ‘commercial transaction’; coll. ‘merchants’ tamlī′ătum (or sim.) ‘supplement; reparation(?)’ tamlī′um ‘inset, inlay(?)’ tanīḫtum ‘relief, reassurance’ tanīštum (or sim.) ‘mankind(?)’ tapḫīrum ‘goods or payments collected for a temple’ (Veenhof 2010: 97f)

175

tarkistum ‘payment contract’ (a formal promise by a protesting party to pay 2× or 3× the amount due, if he is proved wrong later) (OALP 252ff) taskarinnum ‘box tree, box wood’ taslī(′ă)tum ‘prayer, request’ tašbītum ‘satisfaction, full payment, final installment’ tašīmtum ‘deliberation; judicial decision; estimate; (u)la t. ‘foolish person’ taššiātum (pl. t.) ‘transport costs’

tappātum ‘matching object’

tawnītum ‘deceit, fraudulence’

tappā′um ‘partner, companion’

tazzimtum ‘complaint’

tappā′uttum ‘partnership’

tēbibtum ‘clearance’

tapšuḫum (a bronze object)

tērum ‘coil’ (of silver)

tapšukkum ‘basket’

tēṣītum ‘conflict, discord’

taqānum (u/u) ‘to be(come) stable,

tēṣubū (mostly pl.) ‘supplementary

1

to settle down’ 2

taqānum ‘to provide with a tiqnumornament’

payment, gratuity(?)’ → § 12.3 tē′um (or sim.) ‘spell, incantation’ tiārum (a conifer)

taqdīšum ‘purification’ or the like

tibkum ‘layer’

taqrībătum (a ritual?)

tibnum ‘straw’

tarāṣum (a/u) ‘to stretch, to succeed’

ti′irtum (or sim.) ‘message, instruc-

tarā′um (u/u) ‘to take/bring along’

tion; consignment, shipment,

tarbītum ‘(cost of) upbringing’

commercial goods’

tardium ‘of lower quality; of smaller

tillum ‘mound, hill, tell’

size’ (OATT 197f; TTAA 247)

tiqnum (an ornament)

targum(i)annum ‘interpreter’

tiriptum ‘discoloration’ or the like

tārītum ‘dry nurse, nursemaid’

tiše (Fem), *tiš′et (Masc) ‘nine’

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tīttum ‘fig’ (mostly pl. tīnātum)

ṭaḫā′um (e/e) ‘to approach (a per-

titurrum ‘bridge, causeway’

son), to claim (an amount); to add

tuārum (ū) ‘to go back; to do again; to

to’; D ‘to bring near to (ana), to

become, to be converted into; to

bring into contact with (ište); to

raise a claim’; D ‘to give back; to

present; to add to’; Stat ‘to be in-

transfer; to change or convert in-

volved’

to’

ṭaḫdum ‘abundant’ (? only as a quali-

tūdittum ‘toggle-pin’

fication of silver)

tuḫḫum (or pl.?) ‘bran’

ṭapālum (a/u) ‘to slander, to insult’

Tuḫtuḫannum (a festival) (Loanw. 38)

ṭapšum ‘of poor quality’

tu′im(t)um ‘one of a twin’

ṭeānum (ē or ī) ‘to grind’

tukultum ‘trust, mainstay’

ṭē′ittum ‘(female) miller’

tuppum ‘tablet, letter’

ṭēmum ‘decision, report, practice’

tupšarrum ‘scribe, secretary’

ṭiābum (ī) ‘to be(come) good, pleas-

tupšarruttum ‘profession or position of scribe’

ing, friendly (ište ‘with’), satisfied’; D fact. and ‘to refine’ (oil)

tūr adv. ‘again’

ṭīdum (or sim.) ‘clay’

turuḫtānum (a container for beer)

ṭīri (of silber) → tērum

tuttubā′um (a textile?)

ṭupultum ‘insult’

tuZinnum ‘agricultural land on which

ṭurrum ‘yarn, twine’

a service obligation rests, and the person(s) responsible for it’ (Dercksen 2004b: 148f)

Ṭ ṭābātum (pl. t.) ‘kindness, favour’ ṭabā′um (u/u) ‘to sink’; D ‘to sink

U (see also wă-) ubadinnum ‘estate, royal land-grant’ (Dercksen 2004b: 150f) ugbabtum → gubabtum uGurtum (pl. uGruātum?) (a valuable object, cf. waqārum?)

(trans.); to cancel; to hide’;

uḫultum ‘alkali’

+ awātam ‘to settle an affair’

ukāpum ‘saddle rug, (part of a) pack

ṭ/taBBuum adj ‘?’ (said of copper) ṭābtum ‘salt’

saddle’ (OAI 272) ukultum ‘food, fodder’

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ulurānum → alurānum

2

ūmakkal ‘a single day, a whole day’;

ur(uz)zannum (a kind of table)

+ negation ‘(not) a single day’ ūmam adv. ‘today’; ūmam urram ‘to-

ūrum ‘vulva, vulva-shaped emblem’

urzimikkum (urzinikkum) ‘?’ us′um (or sim.) ‘duck’

day (or) tomorrow, any moment,

ušḫium ‘lamp’

as soon as possible’

utḫărum ‘sign, mark, character’ (Der-

ummănum ‘army, troops’ ummiānum ‘investor, financier, money-lender, creditor’; → mer′um

cksen, NABU 2004/9) *utnannum (or sim.) ‘to pray, to supplicate’

ummum also ‘original document’

utukkum (a kind of demon)

umṣum (a foodstuff, perhaps (a piece

utuptum ‘household goods’

of) dried meat) (Dercksen, NABU

uturrā′ū (pl. t.) ‘overweight, surplus’

2010/69)

utū′um ‘gate keeper’

ūmšum(ma) ‘until today, until now’

uṭṭătum ‘grain’ (wheat and barley)

ūmum ‘day; term, period; weather’

ūṭā ‘one half cubit each’ (cf. ūṭum)

unuKum (or sim.) ‘?’

ūṭum ‘half-cubit, span’ → § 12.1

unuššum (a kind of service obliga-

uznum ‘ear; attention’

tion) (Dercksen 2004b: 140ff) unūtum (rarely enūtum) ‘merchandise, goods, equipment’ upqum (a type of package to load on a donkey) (OAI 279ff) uraḫazum (uriḫašum) (or sim.) (perhaps the name of a stone) urākum ‘(long) strip, rod, wire’ urbum ‘entry, arrival, inflow (of silver or merchandise)’ urkum ‘length’ urrum ‘daytime, the day of tomorrow’; adv. urram ‘tomorrow’ 1

ūrum ‘roof’

uzum ‘alas!’ Uzumū (a festival)

W (N.B. wă- > often u-) wabālum (a/i) ‘to bring, to take; to yield, to be worth’; Gtn ‘to keep sb on a string’; Št2 ‘to trade(?)’ + awātam ‘to instigate a lawsuit’ + panē ‘to favour, to be lenient to’ + qātam ‘to reach out to, to involve o.s. with’ wabartum ‘trading station’ wabrum ‘foreign resident’; bēt wabrem ‘guest house’

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wabruttum ‘status of foreigner’ waddudum D ‘to provide with a → tūdittum’

warqum (i) (erqum) ‘yellow, green’; pl. warqū ‘vegetables’ waršum (a) ‘dirty’

wadduum D ‘to mark, to indicate, to identify, to assign’ wadi adv. ‘already; certainly(?)’ waklum ‘overseer’ (as a royal title)

war′um ‘branch (of a date palm)’ wasmum (i?) and wassumum ‘fitting, proper, of fair quality’ waṣā′um (a/i) ‘to go/come out’; Š

wamā′um (a/a) ‘to swear’

caus. and ‘to obtain’ (of goods

wanā′um (a/i?) ‘to cheat’ (also D?)

and tablets); Št → šutēṣuum

wanium ‘unruly(?)’ (of donkeys)

+ ina libbi ‘to forget; Š caus.

waqārum ‘to be(come) expensive’; Š Proh. ‘to attach (too) much value to’ (OATT 443ff)

wāṣītum (an export tariff) (OATT 231) → § 12.3 waṣpum ‘sling’

waqā′um Dt ‘to wait’ (G uncert.)

wašbum (adj.) ‘present, resident’

wardătum ‘girl’

wašium ‘?’ (said of wool)

wardum (urdum, erdum) ‘slave’

waš(š)abtum ‘inhabitants(?)’

warduttum (erduttum) ‘status of slave’

waššābum ‘resident, tenant’

warḫālum (arḫālum) (an object)

waššābuttum ‘status of a tenant’

warḫum ‘month’

waššurtum ‘permission(?)’

wa/erī′um ‘copper’

waššurum D ‘to let go, to release; to

warka, warkāma, warkānum, warka-

allow, to admit; to sell (goods) at

tam(ma), warkītam(ma) ‘after-

credit; to make (a road) accessi-

wards, later’

ble’

warkat prep. ‘after (the departure or death of); in pursuit of’ warkătum ‘rear side; future, sequel; legacy, estate’ warke prep. ‘behind, after, in pursuit

watartum ‘surplus, lie(?)’ watārum (i/i) ‘to exceed, to surpass’; D ‘to add’ watā′um (a/a) ‘to find’ watmanum (or sim.) (part of a temple) watrum (a) and watturum ‘additional;

of’ warkium ‘last, later’ warnuālum (a foodstuff?)

of extra good quality’’ wazzunum D ‘to listen’

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watmanum (or sim.) (part of a temple)

zarā′um G and D ‘to scatter’

watturtum ‘profitable sale, profit’

zartānum ‘olive(s)(?)’ → sardum

1

wēd(i)um ‘alone’

zar′um ‘seed’

2

(w)ēdium ‘simple, single-layered(?)’

Zawwuum Dt ‘to be aware, conscious

(of hides, textiles and saddlecloths)

(that)’ (or the like) zeārum (ē or ī) ‘to hate’

Z ZaBrum ‘?’ (a qualification of rings) zakā′um (u/u) ‘to be(come) clean, free, available; to obtain clearance’; D ‘to clear, to make available, to make ready (for departure)’ zakrum, zakkārum ‘male, man’ zakûm ‘clean; free of claims, cleared; clear, plain; pure, refined (of metal)’ zakūtum ‘clarity, clear information’ Zalamtum (or sim.) ‘?’ Zamalum (or sim.) (mostly pl.) (a

ZiBarātum (pl. t.) (a household utensil) zibbătum ‘tail’ ZiBiBirum (an intercalary month? → § 12.2 zîbtum ‘sweating, toil, worry’ Zikuḫum (or sim.) ‘?’ ZiKuKum (or sim.) ‘wine skin’? 1

(Dercksen 2005a: 115f) 2

of sth’ (OAI 215ff) zammuum D ‘to lack, to be deprived of’ zanānum (a/u) ‘to provide food, to sustain’ zanā′um (i/i) ‘to be(come) angry’ zappum ‘bristle’ zaqqunum D ‘to have a beard’

Zikum (or sim.) (a container for beer?) → also sikkum

zimizzum (a kind of bead) ziqan šarre(m) (ziqaššarre(m), ziqiššarre(m), etc.) “king’s beard”, an

household utensil) Zamārum (i/i) ‘to calculate the value

Zikum (or sim.) in Zi-Ki šamā′ē ‘?’

ornament with beads ziqnum ‘beard’ 1

Zī/ērum (or sim.) ‘cauldron’

2

Zī/ērum (or sim.) (a textile) (TTAA 245f)

3

Zī/ērum (or sim.) (a commodity)

4

Zī/ērum in rabī Zi-re(-e), an Anatolian official (OAP 224)

zittum ‘share’ zuābum (ū) ‘to sweat, to toil’

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zuāzum (ū) ‘to divide, to obtain a share in’

ZuKi/annum in ḫarrān ZuKi/annem (a by-road) (Barjamovic 2011: 169ff)

ZuBannum (a container) (Loanw. 33)

ZuKum ‘?’

ZuBārum (a foodstuff?)

Zuršum (a metal cup)

ZuBrum ‘personnel, servants’

zurzum ‘twin-pouch made of goat

ZuDrum (an object)

hair’ (OAI 274f)

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Chapter 12 Measures, dates, tariffs, etc.

12.1 Measures Measures basically consist of a quantity, a measure noun and a quantified item. The quantified item is in the independent state with the appropriate case and number ending; it is the head of the noun phrase and determines agreement. The measure noun is mostly in the absolute state, e.g. 6 naruq qēmum ezib ‘6 “sacks” of flour have been left’, where qēmum is the subject and the 3ms stative ezib agrees with qēmum rather than with naruqqum, which is Fem. More rarely, the measure noun is also in the independent state, especially when it follows the quantified item; this is mainly attested for manā′um ‘mina’ and biltum ‘talent’, e.g. aššumi kaspem 5 manā′ē ‘concerning five minas of silver’; ana 1 biltem annekem ‘concerning one talent of tin’. The most important weights and measures of OA are: •

Weights: 1 biltum (gú) “talent” (±30 kg.) = 60 minas; 1 manā′um (ma-na) “mina” (±500 grams) = 60 shekels; 1 šiqlum (gín) “shekel” (±8.3 grams) = 180 uṭṭătum (še) “grain” (see Dercksen 2016).

•

Capacity measures: 1 naruqqum “sack” (±120 liters) = 4 karpătum “jar” (±30 liters); 1 karpătum (dug) = 2 šaršarannum; 1 šaršarannum = 15 sìla (sign QA, = ±1 liter). An additional measure apparently outside this system is the baneš (i.e. 3 bán), sign ÁŠ, syllabically ṣimdum(?) = 30 sìla (thus = 1 karpătum?).

•

Surface measures: naruqqum (indicating the surface which can be cultivated with one naruqqum of seed); šubtum, presumably corresponding to a musarû in Bab, i.e. ±36 m2.

•

Length measures: bē/īrum “double mile” (±10.8 km.); ammătum “cubit” (±50 cm.); ūṭum “half-cubit”; idum, lit. ‘hand’; ubānum lit. ‘finger’.

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12.2 The Old Assyrian calendar In the OA period, the Assyrians used a lunisolar calendar of 12 months of 29 or 30 days; for bureaucratic purposes, a standard year of 360 days was used, with 12 months of 30 days each.3 In all likelihood the new year started at the winter solstice (22 December in our calendar). The names of the 12 months are:4 I

Bēlat ekallem (usually Bēltekallem)

VII

ṢiB′um

II

(Narmak Aššur) ša sarrātem

VIII

Qarra′ātum

III

(Narmak Aššur) ša kēnātem

IX

Kanwarta(n)

IV

Maḫḫur ilē

X

DÍ-i-na-tum (later Suen)

V

Ab šarrānē

XI

Kuzallū

VI

Ḫubur

XII

Allānātum

To function properly, this system requires an intercalary month (perhaps called zibibe/arum) about every three years, but the details of how this system worked are obscure and controversial (Veenhof 1995/96: 13–15; Stratford 2015). If OA documents carry a date (mainly debt notes), they are dated with year and month. The years are named after an eponym (līmum, less likely limmum), an annually elected official who gave his name to the year. The names and the order of the eponyms of the OA period are known from eponym lists found in the archives of several merchants. The līmum Innāya son of Amurāya, for instance, is No. 102 in the “Kaneš Eponym List” (KEL) A and No. 103 in the “Revised Eponym List” (REL)

3 Lit. on the OA calendar includes Dercksen 2011b; Stratford 2015; M. Cohen 2015: 305-14. 4 The names usually occur in the genitive after itu.kam = waraḫ ‘month’, e.g. waraḫ

Allānātem. Insofar as their etymology is unclear, the exact form of the month names remains uncertain, most acutely in Ṣib/p′um, rarely Gen Ṣí-be/bé-em (VII) and DÍ-i-na-tum (X). The latter is generally interpreted as the “month of the figs” (normally tīnātum). However, the almost consistent broken spelling with -i- suggests a syllable boundary rather than a long vowel. In the Kaneš Ib period and in Middle Assyrian, this month is called “the month of Suen”. The name Kanwarta(n) is a loan word of unknown background.

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Measures, dates, tariffs, etc.

183

reconstructed in Barjamovic, Hertel and Larsen 2012, and corresponds to ca 1870 BC. Since the succession of a new līmum happened in the middle of winter, when contact between Assur and Anatolia was not possible because the passes over the Taurus mountains were inaccessible, his name often remained unknown in Anatolia until the beginning of spring. During this period, documents were dated by means of “successor eponyms”, which give the name of the old līmum in the formula “the līmum who has taken over from PN” (līmum ša ina qāti PN ilqeu or iṣbutu), where PN is the old līmum. This formula is usually abbreviated to līmum ša qāti PN. Another common term used in debt notes is ḫamuštum. The term of a debt is usually indicated by the phrase ana x ḫamšātem ‘for x ḫamuštums’ and its beginning by the phrase ištu ḫamuštem ša PN1 (u PN2) ‘from the ḫamuštum of PN1 (and PN2)’ (see text A). Like the līmum, the ḫamuštum is an office held by two persons until REL 98, and by one person after REL 98, but the term of office, and thus the term of most debt notes, is a matter of debate: the most likely options are six, seven or ten days, but in some texts a ḫamuštum seems to equal a month.5 Around REL 125, the system seems to have fallen into disuse. Another way of expressing debt terms is by reference to seasonal events: religious festivals (ana ša Parka ‘by (the festival) of Parka’) or agricultural activities (ina ṣibit nigallem ‘at the holding of the sickle’, i.e. in harvest time). This is especially (but by no means exclusively) found in contracts involving Anatolians. See Veenhof 2008a: 234–45 for a study and lists of both types. 12.3 Tariffs and taxes A large part of the business correspondence of the OA merchants is concerned with financial issues, such as the prices of goods, the expenses for taxes and duties 5 See Veenhof 1995/96 about the ḫamuštum and Dercksen 2011b for a recent discussion.

Kryszat 2004a contains an alphabetical list of ḫamuštum office holders then known.

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and the costs of borrowing and loaning capital. Therefore, a basic knowledge of the amounts involved is helpful for a correct interpretation of many passages.6 The most common taxes and duties levied on goods in the trade between Assur and Anatolia are in alphabetical order: •

dātum, ‘road-tax’ or ‘toll’ (Veenhof 1972: 219–69), is levied over the value of a shipment from Assur to Anatolia expressed in tin; this value is called awītum. Tariffs vary, but for the entire stretch from Assur to Kaneš usually amount to between 5 and 10 % (Veenhof 1972: 238).7

•

ešrātum (išrātum) (from ešrum ‘tenth’ or ‘one-tenth’) indicates a “tithe”, a ten percent tariff on arriving textiles levied by the palace in Kaneš. It seems to be the same as the right of pre-emption (šīmum, ša šīmem) the palace had, i.e. the right to buy a certain number of textiles at a reduced rate (Veenhof 1972: 369). Another ešrātum was a tithe on meteoric iron levied first by the authorities in Assur but later payable to the kārum-office in Kaneš (Dercksen 2004a: 173–75; Veenhof 2010: 82–85).

•

nisḫātum (pl. t.), a deverbal noun of nasāḫum ‘to pull out, to take away’, is an import tax of 1/20 on textiles, and 2/65 on tin arriving in Anatolia,8 and of 1/24 on silver arriving in Assur.

6 The information on tariffs and prices collected here is based on Garelli 1963: 265-317,

Larsen 1967, Veenhof 1972 and 1988, and Dercksen 2014: 70–108. 7 The noun dātum is also used in another meaning: for a (fairly large) amount of silver

and/or goods deposited at the kārum Kaneš by a select group of merchants, who are thereby characterized as “dātum-payers” (šāqil dātem). See Veenhof 1972: 270–78; Dercksen 2004: Chapter 7. 8 Sixty-five minas was a standard amount of tin, called šuqlum ‘package’ or muttătum, liter-

ally ‘half-pack’ (Veenhof 1972: 15–16). A donkey could carry two “half-packs” of tin (±130 minas) apart from packages of textiles. Thus the nisḫātum on tin was 4 minas per donkey.

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•

185

qaqqadātum, plural(?) of qaqqadum ‘head’ is a “head tax”, a toll levied on the persons accompanying a caravan of 10 to 15 shekels of tin per person (Veenhof 1972: 264–69).

•

sa′ătum (or the like) is an obscure tariff related to the transport of textiles (but it seems to refer to a container or a fund as well); it amounts to ca 1/2 % (Larsen 1967: 152; CAD S 1–2 s.v. *sa’atu).

•

šaddu′ătum, a deverbal noun derived of nadā′um Š, usually represents a transport tariff of 1/60 on shipments from Anatolia to Assur and on shipments inside Anatolia (Dercksen 2004a: 110). In addition, there are references to a “šaddu′ătum of the kārum Kaneš” of 3/60 levied in Anatolia (Dercksen 2004a: 112–17; Veenhof 2010: 85–86).

•

tēṣubū (pl. t.), apparently a deverbal noun of waṣābum ‘to add’ may be a kind of gratuity or supplementary payment given to transporters (CAD T 372–73 s.v.), of which the amount varies greatly (Larsen 1967: 151).

•

wāṣītum, Fem Partc of waṣā′um ‘to go/come out’, is an “export tariff” amounting to 1/120 of the value levied by the authorities in Assur on departing caravans (Larsen 1967: 152).

12.4 Interest rates The most frequently occurring interest rate for loans among Assyrians is 30 % per year, formulated as “1 1/2 shekel per mina per month” or as kīma awāt kārem ‘in accordance with the rule of the kārum’, because 30 % is also the rate that the kārum Kaneš charges to its debtors (Dercksen 2014: 95). However, also other rates are occasionally found, ranging from 10 % to 120 %, apparently depending on the solvability of the debtor and the relationship between debtor and creditor. Assyrians impose slightly higher interest rates on loans to Anatolians. The rates current among Anatolians (which usually concern agricultural produce rather than silver)

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are significantly higher (40 % and more) (Garelli 1963: 258–63; Veenhof, forthcoming). 12.5 Prices of the most common commodities The prices of the commodities traded by the OA merchants are dictated by the laws of supply and demand and therefore tend to show a wide variation. The following data is meant to give a general idea of the cost and the yield of the most commonly traded kinds of merchandise in Assur and in Anatolia. •

Tin was bought in Assur for 12 to 17 shekels of tin for 1 shekel of silver. More than 15 shekels was regarded as cheap, less than 15 as expensive. The usual sale price in Anatolia was 6 to 10 shekels of tin for 1 shekel of silver (Veenhof 1988: 253–54; Dercksen 2005b: 20; 2014: 81, 106–8).

•

Copper was only traded inside Anatolia. Its price starkly varies according to quality. On average, in Anatolia 1 mina of silver equals between 60 and 120 minas of copper or 6 minas of tin (Dercksen 2004a: 120; 2005b: 24). Sometimes a standard rate copper : tin : silver = 60 : 6 : 1 is employed (Dercksen 2004a: 153).

•

For gold, both in Assur and Anatolia the rate was 8 to 10 shekels of silver for 1 shekel of gold (Larsen 1967: 141; Derksen 2005b: 26). In naruqqumcontracts, a rate of 4 : 1 is employed, but this is artificial and aimed at garanteeing a one hundred percent profit (Larsen 1977: 140; Dercksen 2004a: 83–84; 2014: 90–91).

•

For “meteoric iron” (amuttum or ašī′um), rates vary greatly according to quality and shape, but it is always extremely expensive. Attested are rates between 25 : 1 and 140 : 1 against silver, with far higher rates occurring by way of exception (Dercksen 2005b: 28; Veenhof 2008a: 85 n. 356).

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Measures, dates, tariffs, etc.

•

187

Lapis lazuli as a raw mineral costs about half the price of silver in Assur, but two to three times as much as silver in Anatolia. If it is made into ornaments or seals, it is worth many times more (Michel 2001b: 349–50).

•

Wool, only traded inside Anatolia, mainly as a subsidiary means of earning silver, has an average price of 6 minas of wool for 1 mina of silver (Michel and Veenhof 2010: 215).

•

Donkeys cost about 16 to 20 shekels both in Assur and in Anatolia (Dercksen 2004a: 260; 2014: 78–79), but 22 to 25 shekels according to Veenhof 1988: 250, but this includes harness and fodder. Equipment (unūtum) by itself cost 2 to 3 shekels of silver (Dercksen l.c.).

•

Textiles show a wide variation in price depending on origin, quality and shape. Most types were produced in Assur and shipped to Anatolia. Among these, the most common type was the kutānum, which cost 3 to 7 shekels apiece when bought in Assur (Veenhof 1972: 82–85; 1988: 254; Dercksen 2014: 77–78), and yielded some 15 to 30 shekels apiece when sold in Anatolia (Veenhof 1988: 251; Dercksen 2004a: 153). šūrum-textiles were 30 to 50 % cheaper: their sales price fluctuated between 8 and 15 shekels (Veenhof 1972: 154–55; Michel and Veenhof 2010: 244). Expensive imported textiles that are frequently mentioned in the texts are Abarnium-textiles (purchase price in Assur 10 shekels of silver, sales price in Anatolia from 20 to 45 shekels (Veenhof 1972: 157)) and “Akkadian-style” textiles (ša Akkidiē, i.e. imported from Babylonia), with a sales price from 17 ¼ to 45 shekels of silver (o.c. 158). The Assyrian merchants also traded in textiles locally produced in Anatolia, which were generally cheaper than the imported ones. The most common type are the perekannum-textiles, which cost from about 1 to 4 shekels apiece depending on quality (Veenhof 1972: 126; Michel and Veenhof 2010: 238).

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Chapter 13 Seals and sealing (by K. R. Veenhof)

13.1 Seals and sealers We now know ca 2000 impressions of different seals (Sg kunukkum). Art historians distinguish them on the basis of their style, the technique of engraving and their iconography in various categories, usually designated as Old Assyrian, Anatolian, Old Syrian and Old Babylonian. See especially Teissier 1994 and Lassen, forthc., for a study of OA seals and their iconography. Seals can be identified by a numbering system that was introduced by Özgüç and Tunca 2001. It consists of the abbreviation CS for cylinder seals and St for stamp seals, followed by a number. Many photos and drawings are found in N. Özgüç 2006 and in the text editions of KT 5 and following. The persons who sealed either rolled their cylinder seal over the tablet (usually Assyrians, but also some Anatolians), or impressed their stamp seal on it (Anatolians). They were identified by the words kišib A dumu B ‘seal of A son of B’, the socalled “sealing notation”. Thus OA sealing notations are different from the “captions” found on sealed Old Babylonian tablets, which identify the owner of the seal in small script directly underneath or next to the impression. The order in which the seals are impressed on the envelope is the same as that of the writing on the tablet: obverse, lower edge, reverse, upper edge, left edge and occasionally right edge. At the end of the tablet inside the sealed envelope the persons who had sealed figure as those “in whose presence” (igi = maḫar) the transaction had been performed. Encasing a record in a sealed envelope is called tuppam ḫarāmum, the result is a tuppum ḫarmum ‘valid tablet’, and the sealed envelope can be designated as ḫermum (< *ḫirmum, see § 4.9 sub (3)): words are said to be written ippāni ḫermem. A person who has sealed such a record can be said “to lie on” it (ina tuppem na′al). © 2019, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-064-2 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-065-9 (E-Book)

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Breaking the seals of a tablet is called šarāmum, opening a package by breaking its seal paṭārum. The verb latā′um ‘to split’ means keeping the tablet and discarding its envelope. The expression tuppē patā′um ‘to open tablets’, does not refer to the tablets themselves, but to the opening of the sealed container or strong room (maknăkum) where they are kept. Only a small minority of the Old Assyrian cylinder seals bears an inscription, in nearly all cases of the type “(seal of) A, son of B”, (kišib) A dumu B. This explains why judicial records may demand persons, often relatives of a dead trader, “to identify” (wadduum) his seal impression. If the name of the seal owner is inscribed on the seal, it does not always match that of the person who used it, because seals were inherited, occasionally transferred to persons with the same profession, or sold, whereby the new owner did not always (immediately) change the inscription. In contracts with Anatolian debtors the number of seal impressions may not match the number mentioned in the sealing notation, usually because Anatolian married couples used one seal, whereas both husband and wife are listed as sealers. 13.2 Sealed documents The majority of the OA texts – legal documents and letters – were originally encased in a sealed clay envelope. Seals on envelopes protected letters against unauthorized reading. Since they had to be broken to read the tablet inside, we only have few of such envelopes. The text on them adds to the “sealing notation” (see above) the words ana C dumu D ‘to C, son of D’, who is the addressee. Occasionally a short summary or an addendum to the letter was written on the envelope. A few times it carries words ṣibat ṭuppem ibašši ‘there is a supplement to the tablet’, which warns the addressee that the envelope also contains a flat, round piece of clay, inscribed on one side only. Legal texts were sealed by the witnesses of the transaction recorded and by the persons directly involved, who thereby acknowledge their agreement with what

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was done or declared. Depositions are sealed by persons who made them, who gave a testimony, made a promise, or accepted a liability; debt notes by the debtor and, if applicable, a guarantor; quittances by (a representative of) the creditor; deeds of sale (of slaves and houses) by the seller, who thereby declares to be satisfied (šabbu) with the price paid; and last wills by the person who made them and by the testamentary executors (bēlū šīmātem). Furthermore, judicial records bear the seals of parties, witnesses, mediators, arbitrators and judges, and testimonies given under oath and recorded “in the gate of the god” (bāb ilem) are sealed by those who testified and/or by court witnesses “who heard their statement” (ša pā/ūšunu išmeū(ni); see Hertel 2013: 198–200). Envelopes of official letters and verdicts by colonial authorities only mention “the seal of the kārum/wabartum GN” and they usually contain five to seven impressions of the seals of persons who represent it as administrators or judges, but who are not mentioned by name (e.g. TPAK 44a/b and EL 274a/b, see Hecker 2003). Various other items were also sealed, in the first places the so-called bullae, small clay balls, tags or labels, called šipassum ‘clay sealing’, on which the seal impression is often accompanied by a short text. Many were attached to packets and bags containing written documents, whose nature they mention (most frequent is našpertum ša PN, ‘missive of PN’, usually a letter with evidentiary value). Bullae were also used to seal bags and packets (naruqqum, riksum or šuqlum) containing merchandise shipped from Assur in order to protect their contents. Very common is the mention of “tin sealed in the city” (annukum ša kunuk ālem). Seals were also impressed on the fringes (sissiktum) of individual pieces of textile to identify their owners and to doors of strong rooms and the various containers with merchandise or tablets kept there. Usually ropes or strings were passed through them, but they could also be stuck to baskets.

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Chapter 14 Personal names

Thousands of personal names (hence: PNs) occur in the OA corpus. Apart from a spattering of Hurrian and Amorite names, and a large number of names that are etymologically unclear, they broadly comprise two groups: native Assyrian and Anatolian names. The native Assyrian names generally show the structure familiar from Akkadian names in general. The main commonalities are with Akkadian PNs from the Sargonic Akkadian and Ur III periods in the later 3rd millennium, rather than with OB names. This suggests that along with the numerous Sumerian loan words many of the OA PNs were also borrowed from a prestigious pre-OB southern variety of Akkadian, such as that of the Ur III empire. Pertinent examples are Mammāḫer, Issu(a)rik, I/Eṭībšināt, Alābum, Alāḫum, and the various PNs with Ennam and Puzur. In theophoric names, the god Aššur and an anonymous “my god”, spelled dingir, ìlí or il5, which is doubtless the family god (in other contexts referred to as il abīa/ni ‘the god of my/our father’) are most frequently mentioned. Also several of the well known Babylonian gods occur, such as Adad, Dagan, Ištar, Suen and Šamaš, but others are conspicuously absent, such as Marduk (not surprising), Nergal and Nabium. Numerous other deities are used as theophoric elements more rarely, including some deified geographic or abstract entities, e.g. šaduum ‘mountain’ (often spelled sa.tu), tiamtum ‘sea’, and mēšărum ‘justice’. Another type of theophoric element consists of terms referring to deceased relatives: nouns like abum ‘father’, aḫum ‘brother’, etc., and adjectives such as kēnum ‘true, legitimate’, ṭābum ‘sweet, pleasant’ and waqrum ‘precious, dear’: Abī-ilī ‘my father is my god’; Ayyu(m)-kēn ‘which is the true one?’; Al-ṭāb (< Ale ṭāb(um)) ‘where is the sweet one?’; Aḫu(m)-waqar ‘the brother is dear’, often contracted to Aḫūqar). Hirsch 1972 is an exhaustive study of the theophoric names then known. Special categories of PNs are abbreviated names and nicknames. In abbreviated (hypocoristic) names, the final theophoric element is replaced by a vocalic ending, mostly -āya (Iddināya for Iddin-Aššur ‘Aššur has given’), -ia (or -īa?) (Ikūppia for Ikūn-pī-DN ‘DN’s word has come true’), or -ānum (Pilaḫānum for Pilaḫ-Aššur ‘vener-

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ate Aššur!’). In other cases, the second element is suppressed entirely and the first element nominalized (Ikūnum for Ikūn-pī-DN; Wardum for Warad-DN ‘servant of DN’). Sometimes a nickname or sobriquet replaces the “official” name of a person. For instance, one of the many persons with the name Šu-Ištar is also called ZurZur, perhaps to identify him more unambiguously, and several persons are occasionally referred to as Ṣallāmum ‘Blacky’. Compound PNs, which consist of two or three elements that form a syntactic unity, are often liable to compression by means of sandhi and crasis (see § 2.5), vowel contraction (Šu-da-ad < Šu-Adad), assimilation (A-ḫa-na-ar-ší < Aḫam-narši ‘we have got a brother’), degemination (Id-na-A-šur < Iddin-Aššur), vowel syncope (Šalmăḫum < Šalim-aḫum), and omission of the case ending (Lā-qēp alongside Lā-qēpum). PNs that end in -um are regularly inflected for case, not only those that consist of a single noun (Ḫurāṣānum, -nem, -nam), but also abbreviated names that go back to a verb form (Ikūnum, -nem,-nam), and compound names that end in a noun (Iddinabum, -abem, -abam), even when this noun is syntactically not a Nom, as in ŠuBēlum (-bēlem, -bēlam), where bēlum is originally in the Gen: “He of the Lord’. The basic study of Akkadian names and name-giving is Stamm 1939. Still useful (but all more or less outdated) studies and lists of OA PNs are Stephens 1928, Garelli 1963: 127–68, and Hirsch 1972. The Anatolian names linguistically belong to one or more of the Indo-European languages spoken in the Anatolian Early Bronze Age, most probably an early stage of Hittite and perhaps Luwian. They show certain recurrent features, such as -uman and -ḫšu in masculine, and -ḫšušar and -niga in feminine names. The wide variation in the way the Assyrians spell these names shows how unfamiliar they were to them, especially in the spelling of vowels and consonant clusters. For a (now fairly outdated) list of Anatolian names in OA texts, see Laroche 1966 and 1981; a comprehensive study is Kloekhorst, forthc. For a list of Anatolian deities in OA texts, see Veenhof 2008a: 235–37.

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Chapter 15 A selection of texts

Three OA documents are presented here in transliteration, translation and commentary as examples of three major genres in the OA corpus: a debt note (TC 3, 230), a legal protocol (VS 26, 107) and a private letter (CCT 5, 47c). A) AO 8280 A standard debt-note; TC 3, 230 (see http://cdli.ucla.edu/search under No. P357796 for a photograph and a copy). Obv 1

⅓ ma-na 5 gín kù.babbar

25 minas of refined

ṣa-ru-pá-am i-ṣe-er

silver is owed by

I-dí-A-šùr dumu Ú-zu-a

Iddin-Aššur, son of Uzua,

en.líl-ba-ni

5

d

to Illil-bāni,

dumu A-šùr-ma-lik : i-šu

son of Aššur-mālik.

iš-tù ḫa-mu-uš-tem

From the ḫamuštum

ša I-ku-pì-a dumu Šu-A-nem

of Ikūppīa, son of Šu-Anum,

itu.1.kam A-lá-na-tem

month (of) Allānātum (XII),

li-mu-um

līmum

LoE 10 I-na-Sú-en6 Rev

15

20

Inna-Suen,

dumu Šu-A-šùr

son of Šu-Aššur (REL 107)

a-na 25 ḫa-am-ša-tem

within 25 ḫamuštum-weeks

i-ša-qal šu-ma

he will pay (back). If

lá iš-qú-ul

he does not pay,

1 /2 gín.ta a-na

1 1/2 shekel per

ma-na-em i-na itu.1.kam

mina per month

ṣí-ib-tám ú-ṣa-áb

interest he will add.

igi Ku-ra

In the presence of Kura,

dumu A-šùr-ma-lik

son of Aššur-mālik

igi Sú-en6-SIG5

In the presence of Suen-damiq,

1

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UE

dumu A-šùr-i-mì-tí

son of Aššur-imittī

1–5:

The standard formula introducing a debt note is structured as follows: ina ṣēr īšu, literally ‘ has to the debit of ’, i.e. owes to . The amount is usually specified as kaspum ṣarrupum ‘refined silver’.

5:

The double colon represents the word divider, see § 2.1

5–6:

Illil-bāni, son of Aššur-mālik, is a well known trader, see Larsen 1967: 15– 18. Iddin-Aššur, son of Uzua, is hard to identify among the dozens of namesakes, when they are mentioned without patronymic, but at least occurs in BIN 4, 211 (= EL 163, same year) as the holder of a be′ūlātum, an interest-free loan extended to caravan personnel by way of salary.

6.

For the ḫamuštum formula, see § 12.2. The ḫamuštum Ikūppīa, son of ŠuAnum also occurs in POAT 4: 45 in the same year (REL 107) and month (XII).

10:

I-na-Sú-en6 is also called Enna-Suen, e.g. POAT 4: 46, → § 4.9. sub (2).

13–14: šumma la išqul : for the Pret, see § 9.2.1. 15–17: The “standard” interest of 30 % per year → § 12.4. 18–21: The witnesses, usually two or three, are introduced by maḫar ‘before’, in this context always spelled with the logogram igi. Suen-damiq, son of Aššur-imittī, also occurs in BIN 4, 211 (cf. line 5–6 above). Kura, son of Aššur-mālik, is not further attested (Kura is a fairly common name, but of unclear etymology). B) VAT 9248 A legal protocol, edited in copy in VS 26, 107 by K. R. Veenhof and available as a photograph on http://cdli.ucla.edu/search under No. P333921. The tablet is also transliterated, translated and discussed in Eisser and Lewy 1930/35, II 7–8 as No. 295, and translated in Michel 1991: p. 417–19 note c.

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A selection of texts

Obv 1

Bu-za-zu a-na

Buzāzu seized us

En-um-A-šur iṣ-ba-at-

against Ennum-Aššur and

ni-a-tí-ma um-ma Bu-za-zu-ma

Buzāzu (spoke) as follows:

1

5

/2 ma-na kù.gi ša

‘(For) the 1/2 mina of gold that

Dan-A-šùr a-ḫu-kà

your brother Dan-Aššur

a-na A-šur-gal a-ší-a-ma-/tem

gave to Aššur-rabi for purchases

i-dí-nu-ma 20 túg ša qá-/tem

– 20 textiles of standard quality,

3 túg sig5 : 1 anše

3 good textiles (and) 1 black

ṣa-lá-ma-am iš-tù

donkey he brought out of

A-lemKI ú-šé-ṣí-a-ma

the City, I took over

lu-qú-tám i-na

the goods in

LoE

Ḫa-mì-za-nem

in Ḫamizānum

Rev

aṣ-ba-at-ma

and

A-šur-gal tup-pí

Aššur-rabi drew up a certified

iḫ-ri-im lu-qú-tám

tablet for me –

a-ta tal-qé : um-ma

have you received the goods?’ Thus

En-um-A-šur-ma : ke-na «eras.»

(spoke) Ennum-Aššur: ‘yes,

lu-qú-tám ša /2 ma-na

I have received goods worth

kù.gi al-qé

half a mina of gold.

tup-pá-kà li-dí-na-ku-/ma

Let him give you your tablet,

du-uk : igi Ḫu-NI-a

(and) destroy (it)!’ Before Ḫu-NI-a,

10

15

1

20

197

dumu A-šur-i-mì-tí

son of Aššur-imittī;

igi I-ku-nem dumu Utu-ba-/ni

before Ikūnum, son of Šamaš-bāni,

UE

igi I-ku-pì-A-šur

before Ikūn-pī-Aššur,

25

dumu Puzur4-Ištar

son of Puzur-Ištar

d

This legal protocol records a private summons before witnesses (type 3b in the typology of Veenhof 1991: 444–46). The background of the affair can only be reconstructed from this text itself and from text C below, a letter that deals with the same transaction. For an explanation, see the comments to text C.

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A line break in the middle of a word without an indent in the next line, as here, is very unusual. iṣbatniāti: ṣabātum is the technical term for calling in persons to witness the proceedings and impress their seals on the written report, so that, if necessary, it can be used as evidence in a later stage. So “us” refers to the witnesses mentioned in 21–25.

7:

iddinūma: the presence of -ma shows that the relative clause introduced by ša in 4 is not finished; in fact, it continues until iḫrim in 15, even though the following clauses do not syntactically depend on ša and the verbs are not in the subjunctive; see GOA § 26.2.4.

12:

Ḫamizānum, mentioned a few times in the OA corpus as a stop on the road from Assur to Kaneš and unattested in other sources, has not been localized with any precision but lay somewhere in the western part of the Jazirah.

13:

aṣbat “I took over” the goods, with ṣabātum in its “non-violent” meaning of taking over or taking hold of. Note that Ennam-Aššur in addressing Aššur-rabi refers to the same event with “you gave him”.

14:

Lit. ‘my tablet’.

15–16: Only the context indicates that luqūtam atta talqe is a question. 20:

The subject of liddinakkum is Aššur-rabi, who drew up the document with Buzāzu’s statement that he received the goods specified and kept it in his possession. Now that Buzāzu has delivered the goods, this document must be returned to him, so that he can destroy it.

21:

duākum ‘to kill’ is the technical term for destroying a debt note after the debt has been payed back, see Veenhof 1987: 46–50. Ḫunia or Ḫulia? Cf. Ḫu-li-a CTMMA 1, 85A: 1 // B: 3 = Ḫu-NI-a CCT 5, 18b: 2.

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C) BM 113572 and BM 113572a A letter with its envelope; both are edited in copy as CCT 5, 47c, reproduced here on p. 200 as plate 1; the copy has been collated from photographs that were kindly made for me by Jeannette Fincke. A photograph of the envelope can be found in CCT 1 after p. 26 with the wrong number BM 113574a, and a drawing of EnnamAššur’s seal in CCT 6, plate 57 No. 74 (reproduced here on p. 201 as plate 2) and Teissier 1994: 219 No. 190. The letter is also translated in Michel 1991: 417–18 as No. 298. Tablet Obv 1

5

um-ma En-um-A-šur-ma

Thus (speaks) Ennum-Aššur:

a-na Bu-za-zu A-šur-gal

speak to Buzāzu, Aššur-rabi

ù A-zi-a qí-bi-ma

and Azia, and

a-na A-šur-gal qí-bi-ma

(in particular) to Aššur-rabi:

i-na /2 ma-na kù.ki

from the one half mina of gold

ša Dan-A-šur i-dí-na-ku-ni-/ma

that Dan-Aššur gave to you, and

a-na A-lem a-na ší-a-ma-tem

(which) you brought to the City for

tù-ub-lu šà.ba 20 ku-ta-né

purchases (and for which) you gave

ša qá-tem 3 ku-ta-né

20 kutānums of standard quality,

sig5 ku-nu-ke-kà

3 good kutānums with your seals (and)

1 anše ṣa-lá-ma-am

1 black donkey

ù ú-nu-sú i-na

with its equipment in Ḫamizānum

Ḫa-⌈mì-za⌉-nem a-na Bu-za-zu

to Buzāzu (and for which)

ta-[dí-n]u-ma ⌈tup-pu⌉-šu

you gave him a (lit. his) certified tablet:

ta-[aḫ]-ri-mu a-[n]a-kam

here, Buzāzu has given me

20 ku-ta-né ša ⌈qá⌉-tem

20 kutānums of standard quality,

3 túg (sign KU) sig5 1 anše

3 good kutānums and 1 black donkey

1

KI

10

Rev 15

!

\ṣa-lá-⌈ma⌉-am

20

ù ú-nu-sú Bu-za-zu

with its equipment.

i-dí-nam a-ma-kam tup-pá-am

There, give him the tablet

ša ku-nu-ke-šu dí-šu!(sign KU)-ma

with his seals so that he can

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li-du-uk a-na ša ki-ma

destroy it. Say to my representatives:

i-a-tí qí-bi-ma a-ma-kam!

“There,

ma-mì-tám id-a-šu-ma

impose an oath upon him, so that

i-le i-ṣé-ri-šu

he is answerable to the gods(?)”

lu ⌈i⌉-šu

Plate 1

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Envelope O. 1

(seal impression, see pl. 2) kišib En-um-A-šur dumu Šál!-maḫ! Seal of Ennum-Aššur, s. of Šalim-aḫum. a-na Bu-za-zu : A-šur-gal

(Addressed) to Buzāzu, Aššur-rabi,

dumu En-na-nem

son of Ennānum,

ù A-zi-a

and Azia. (seal impression, see pl. 2)

Plate 2 1–4:

This is the OA formulation of what we would call a “message to Aššur-rabi with a cc to Buzāzu and Azia”.

6:

The sign on the copy that looks like MAN or 20 is actually a clear DÍ.

6–15:

The long relative clause accurately reproduces its counterpart in text B, but keeps the verbs in the subjunctive.

14–15: Lit. ‘you encased (> certified) his tablet’. 21–25: The background of this instruction to Ennum-Aššur’s representatives in Assur is unclear. It seems that the 3rd person referred to is Buzāzu, but it is not obvious what kind of further obligations he might have towards Ennum-Aššur or Dan-Aššur, at least not as regards this affair. It would seem that the whole affair is settled once he has got his debt note back. Moreover, it is unclear what the expression i-le iṣṣērīšu īšu, which recurs in

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several other places, means: literally ‘he has (or I have?) (the) gods to his debit’ (see the comments to lines 1-5 of text A). General comments on texts B and C Dan-Aššur, Ennum-Aššur and Azia are sons of the well known merchant Šalimaḫum, as stated in line 1 of the envelope, see Michel 1991: 403–18 on this family. The role of Azia, one of the addressees of (C), in this affair remains unspecified, see Michel 1991: 416–17. The name Aššur-rabi is borne by several persons; the one mentioned here, the son of Ennānum, is mentioned a few times as a debtor or a witness, but occurs as a transporter also in kt a/k 1080: 3–4, quoted in Dercksen 1996: 158 note 49. Among the bearers of the name Buzāzu, the best known is the son of Pūšu-kēn (Michel 1991: 425–26), but it is not certain that he is meant here. Essentially, these two texts reflect the standard practice of OA trade: the transport of tin and textiles from Assur to Anatolia, their exchange in Anatolia for silver and gold, and the transport of these metals back to Assur. In the present case, Dan-Aššur (in Anatolia, perhaps in Kaneš) gave half a mina of gold to the transporter Aššur-rabi. Apparently, this gold came from his brother EnnumAššur, since he is the one who receives the goods bought (text B: 17–19). Aššurrabi brought it to Assur and bought for it the 23 textiles mentioned in both texts. Normally, Aššur-rabi would then join a caravan from Assur to Anatolia and bring back the goods (which formed one donkey load) himself. In the present case, however, he met a certain Buzāzu (whose relationship to the other persons involved is unknown) in Ḫamizānum, and handed them over to him for reasons that are not specified. Was Buzāzu going to Anatolia anyway and could he easily take along the extra donkey, so that Aššur-rabi could return to Assur? That Aššur-rabi did return to Assur is suggested by Ennam-Aššur’s letter, which was doubtless sent from Anatolia (Kaneš?) to Assur. The extant tablet, found in Kaneš with its envelope intact, may have been a copy sent or given to Buzāzu (in Kaneš) as co-addressee and interested party, which he did not bother to open be-

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A selection of texts

203

cause he already knew the contents. Because it is an “old text”, i.e. illegally excavated before 1948 (see § 1.5.1), it is more likely to come from Buzāzu’s archive than from that of Ennam-Aššur: the latter’s archive was only excavated in 1970 (partly published in AKT 3), see Michel 2003: 93. As proof that Aššur-rabi ceded the goods to Buzāzu, he drew up a certified document (a tuppum ḫarmum) sealed by the latter, either a debt note or a deed confirming the transfer of the goods. In the present letter to Aššur-rabi, Ennum-Aššur informs him that Buzāzu has given the goods to him so that this document must be returned to him (Buzāzu) in order to be destroyed. The interrogation of text B suggests that this (more or less standard) procedure did not go quite smoothly, and that Buzāzu had to “seize” Ennum-Aššur and compel him in front of witnesses to acknowledge that he, Buzāzu, had delivered the goods to him, and to promise to have the debt note returned to Buzāzu.

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