Horvat Uza and Horvat Radum: Two Fortress in the Biblical Negev (Monographs) 965266023x, 965266023X, 9789652660237

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I:IORVAT cuzA AND I:IORVAT RADUM Two Fortresses in the Biblical Negev

TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY SONIA AND MARCO NADLER INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY

MONOGRAPH SERIES NUMBER25

Executive Editor: Editorial Board:

Israel Finkelstein Avi Gopher Ze 'ev Herzog David Ussishkin

Manuscript & Production Editor: Shirley Gassner

HORVAT cuzA AND HORVAT RADUM . . TWO FORTRESSES IN THE BIBLICAL NEGEV ITZHAQ BEIT-ARIEH

WITH THE PARTICIPATION OF

Bruce C. Cresson, Moshe Fischer, Liora Freud and Oren Tal Contributions by Pirhiya Beck, Ruth E. Jackson-Tal, Raz Kletter, Nili Liphschitz, Moshe Sade, Irit Ziffer

EMERY AND CLAIRE YASS PUBLICATIONS IN ARCHAEOLOGY TEL AVIV 2007

Under the auspices of the Friends of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University

Published by the Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology (Bequeathed by the Yass Estate, Sydney, Australia)

of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University

ISBN 965-266-023-x

© Copyright 2007 All rights reserved Printed in Israel by Top -@ Print

CONTENTS

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1

Itzhaq Beit-Arieh and Bruce C. Cresson

PART ONE: HORVAT cuzA Chapter 2

STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE

15

Itzhaq Beit-Arieh and Bruce C. Cresson

III. THE ROMAN PERIOD (STRATUM I)

15 15 49 57 62

IRON AGE POTTERY

77

I. THE IRON AGE (STRATUM III) THE FORTRESS THE IRON AGE SETTLEMENT (SITE 24) II. THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD (STRATUM II)

Chapter 3

Liora Freud Chapter 4

EPIGRAPHIC FINDS

122

Itzhaq Beit-Arieh Chapter 5

A GROUP OF CLAY FIGURINES

188

Raz Kletter Chapter 6

A NEG-ASSYRIAN BULLA

194

Pirhiya Beck Chapter 7

STAMPS AND STAMP SEALS I. THE IRON AGE

197 197

Irit Ziffer II. THE ROMAN PERIOD

201

Moshe Fischer and Oren Tal Chapter 8

STONE WEIGHTS

205

Raz Kletter Chapter 9

HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIOD POTTERY

211

Moshe Fischer and Oren Tal

v

Chapter 10

MISCELLANEOUS SMALL FINDS

256

I. THE IRON AGE

256

Liora Freud II. THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS

270

Moshe Fischer and Oren Tal Chapter 11

GLASS FINDS Ruth E. Jackson-Tal

279

Chapter 12

NUMISMATIC FINDS Oren Tal

286

Chapter 13

FAUNAL REMAINS Moshe Sade

289

Chapter 14

ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS

298

Nili Liphschitz

PART TWO: J:IORVAT RADUM Chapter 15

STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE Itzhaq Beit-Arieh and Bruce C. Cresson

303

Chapter 16

POTTERY AND SMALL FINDS Liora Freud

318

Chapter 17

EPIGRAPHIC FINDS

323

Itzhaq Beit-Arieh Chapter 18

INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES I. ARCHAEOBOTANICAL REMAINS Nili Liphschitz II. FAUNAL REMAINS

327 327 328

Moshe Sade

PART THREE: CONCLUSION Chapter 19

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW I. THE IRON AGE Itzhaq Beit-Arieh II. THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS

331 331 335

Moshe Fischer and Oren Tal

Vl

List ofloci - I:Iorvat «3.70

~-::::::::::::::::::: ~I ~I I I

I I I I

-qCD I

~

3.53

2.26 I

-q-q-

4.06

G'J

Ia

I

~

780

cO:

>«3.46

1 I

E

I

24

25

26

Fig. 2.33: Plan of Complex 780.

39

ITZHAQ BEIT-ARIEH AND BRUCE

c.

CRESSON

Fig. 2.34: Sections of Rooms 221 and 265 (on left) overlain by Roman wall D232, looking southwest.

ROOMS ALONG THE EASTERN WALL

Squares K-G/27-28 were excavated here, revealing parts of five to six rooms (Fig. 2.37). These buildings form a ca. 7m-wide strip between the eastern wall of the fortress and the street that runs parallel to it on the west. The foundations of Roman buildings in this area were deep, and severely damaged the buildings underneath. As the Roman buildings were not dismantled, only parts of the earlier buildings were uncovered. RooM 693 This is the northernmost of this row which was excavated, and then only its western part. Thus it is not known whether it was divided internally but it is reasonable to assume that the paved section (Locus 1323) rested against a wall. Although no walls were exposed along their entire length, it appears that they reached the fortress wall, and that the room thus measured 4.5 x 7 m. Stairs facing the street at the entrance to the room explained the difference in elevation of 0.40 m between the room and the higher street (Fig. 2.38). RooM 654 The southern wall (H286), uncovered almost along its entire length, runs up against the fortification wall. Two stretches of earthen floor in Loci 625 and 628 meet the walls of the room and the fortification wall. The front part of the room which measures 4 x 7 m was not excavated and it is possible that it was internally divided. 40

CHAPTER

2:

STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 2.35: Room 286 which contained installations, looking northwest. It backs onto the street (Locus 707).

Fig. 2.36: Complex 780, looking south. Iron Age stratum (marked in white) overlaid by Roman period walls (marked in black).

41

ITZHAQ BEIT-ARIEH AND BRUCE C. CRESSON

27

28

K272

j

j 654 %3.50

f

1309

H

625

ao

[2.42

ouoauug

rg0

0

628 %3.83

2.70 3.58

H

oOO CY--3.37

o~JPag1342

[JD{)O r::::::,DOQ 1

-

·

G

-

'~92 ~D gOo:s 684 ~.21 Q 630 6D,~ >«3.88 3.o7--fJo 00 0 >«3.73 00 E? DO g

86

690Q,ooU

Q "'

00

3o;Q~dL~~9s G282 629 %3.73 I

QIJDVm 1o(51}5.:-_-~-...:-_-...:-_-_-_:-_-_ F271

-to

0

27 Fig. 2.37: Plan of rooms along the eastem wall. 42

28

G

CHAPTER

2:

STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE

RooM 1342 Almost half of this 2.5 x 7.5 m room was excavated, but it is not clear whether it was internally divided. A great deal of pottery was found in the stone-paved street onto which it faced (Locus 642) (Fig. 2.39). Two steps in the doorway led up from the street to the floor level of Room 684, 0.40 m below. The front part of the room was paved with beaten lime, and there was a stone bench along the southern wall. RooM 684 The southern wall (G282) of this 2 x 7 m room joins the fortification wall but only the western part of the northern wall was excavated. In the corner to the left of the entrance three flat slabs, possibly steps leading to an upper storey, have survived (Fig. 2.41). Next to them stood a tabun with fragments of a cooking-pot beside it (Fig. 2.42). The back of the room (Locus 630) is paved with stone slabs. In the eastern section, a pillar (0.90 m) of stone drums was uncovered (Fig. 2.43) to support the roof of this section of the room. An ostracon (No. 22) found in a higher level of debris (Locus 690) (Fig. 2.40). RooM 1341 This room (Loci 1341 and 629) which adjoins Room 684 to the south was only partly excavated. The eastward continuation of its southern wall (F271) was not excavated, but it is clear that its measurements (2 x 7 m) and its plan resemble the other rooms in this area. The entrance is through the western wall, facing onto the street, with two steps leading down into the room. One ostracon (No. 26) was found here. RooM 668 This small room (inner measurement: 2.5 x 1.5 m) lies in the southeastern corner of the fortress against the tower. The western wall (D282), preserved to a height of0.40 m, is 0.80 m thick, i.e., ca. 50% thicker than most of the other walls of the buildings. Founded on a fill covering an earlier floor (Locus 668), it joins wall D281 at 90° (Fig. 2.44) and was apparently designed to strengthen this corner of the fort. Only the eastern portion of the latter wall was excavated to where it connects with the fortification wall. D281 is also 0.80 m wide was preserved to a height of 1.5 m. The southern face was completely exposed revealing that, unlike D282, it was founded on bedrock. It is therefore evident that this room has two clearly-defined phases and that changes were made to it throughout its period of use. In the earlier phase (Locus 668) the floor was laid slightly above bedrock and extended west ofD282 (Locus 664). A rock-hewn pit (Locus 671) in the corner of the room must belong to this phase since D282 lies above it (see section B-B and section E-E in Roman plan). This wall was built in the second phase and divides the earlier room into Rooms 666 and 664 whose floor was laid on a 0.75 m thick fill. The latter room was not excavated in its entirety so its length is unknown and it may be part of Complex 780. An opening into Room 664 was cut through the foundation of wall D281 of the earlier phase. The floors of the two phases and the early pit yielded a few Iron II sherds, a complete lamp and several loom weights. THE WESTERN SECTOR

Excavation was limited to the northern part of this sector, between the gatehouse and the western fortification wall. This area was occupied by a large complex of which only the eastern wing and the northern part of the western wing were excavated. However, its plan can be reconstructed from the remains exposed. 43

lTZHAQ BEIT-ARIEH AND BRUCE

c.

CRESSON

COMPLEX 413 The complex measures 18 x 23m and extends over 414m 2 or 20% of the area of the fortress (Fig. 2.3). The walls of the eastern wing were almost completely uncovered (Loci 413 and 434), but only small sections of the plastered floor were exposed as the Hellenistic wall (D221) runs through it and was not dismantled (Fig. 2.45). The width of the eastern enclosing wall of the complex (L233) is identical to that of the eastern wall of Room 802 (Ll91). They are unusually thick (ca. 1m), being equal in width to those of the gatehouse.

Fig. 2.38: Room 693, looking west, showing steps leading up to the street.

Fig. 2.39: Locus 642, stone-paved street with a great deal of pottery.

44

Fig. 2.40: Locus 690, looking east. Steps leading down into Room 684.

Fig. 2.41: Room 684, looking north. Note the steps in the far left comer.

Fig. 2.42: The tabun next to the steps in Room 684.

Fig. 2.43: Room 684 on the right, looking west. Note the paved floor and stone pillar.

45

lTZHAQ BEIT-ARIEH AND BRUCE C. CRESSON

Fig. 2.44: Room 668 on the right, looking north with Room 664 on the left.

Furthermore, the inner walls of this wing (L221) are thicker (0.8 m) than those of the buildings in Area A. It would appear that the entrance to the complex was through a doorway in wall L233, which opened onto the gateway. The complex was divided into a number of rooms possibly with a second storey as deduced from the presence of stairs (Locus 422) built against wall K221 next to the doorway of Locus 437 (Fig. 2.46). Most of the centre of Complex 413 remains unexcavated but it seems to have been an open courtyard. In the western wing only Room 802 (Figs. 2.47, 2.48), in the northwestern corner of the fortress, was entirely exposed while Room 807, to its south, was only partially uncovered. Room 802 (2.5 x 4.75m inner measurements) has massive walls, the eastern (L191) being 1 m thickand the southern (Kl91) 0.8 m thick. Both walls were founded on bedrock. Ll91 is preserved to a maximum height of 2.14 m and K191 up to 1.6 m. The room has a beaten lime floor laid on the bedrock. A few sherds, mostly from the Israelite period and a few from the Hellenistic period were found here. Over this floor lay a thick layer of earth. A similar situation was found in Room 807 to the south, apparently an intentional fill. Part of an additional room (803) as well as a narrow passage (Locus 804) that apparently led to the top of the fortification wall were revealed in a narrow strip on the other side of L191. The unusually poor finds in these rooms, like those from Room 1337 in Square D21, and the mixed sherds on the floors, are evidence that these rooms were cleaned out during the Hellenistic period but never utilized. Only a small part of the southern wing was excavated. Complex 413 was probably bordered on the south by a street (Locus 217), to the south of which may have been an additional building or buildings of which wall G232 was the eastern limit. The area west of this was not excavated. In Square D21 part of a room built against the fortification wall was excavated (Locus 1337). Its western wall (D212) is 1 m thick. A small quantity ofiron Age pottery as well as a few Hellenistic sherds, similar to those from Rooms 802 and 807, were recovered from the floor which was paved with stone slabs. This complex, larger and more massive than the other building complexes in the fortress, played a defensive role as indicated by its location across from the inner gate and proximity to the outer gate. 46

CHAPTER

2:

STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 2.45: Complex 413, looking south. The entrance from the gate passage (Locus 324) into Complex 413 through Iron Age wall L23 3 under the Hellenistic Rooms 13 8 and 171.

Fig. 2.46: Complex 413, looking east. Note the staircase against wall K221 on the right next to the westem entrance to the complex.

47

Fig. 2.47: Room 802 in the northwestern corner of the fortress, looking north.

N

5

802

K !91

Fig. 2.48: Section A-A through the northwestern corner of the fortress .

THE REMAINS BETWEEN THE FORTRESS AND THE SETTLEMENT This area extends over 25 m along the northern border of the fortress between the outer gate and the inner gatehouse, and 12m out from the wall. A 4 m long retaining wall (N201) joins the tower of the outer gate at 45°. This wall continues eastward for about 12 m in a straight line, and part of it was uncovered to the east (Square N27) (Fig. 2.49). In probe trenches near the western gate tower a smooth plastered rampart was uncovered, sloping from the fortress wall towards the retaining wall. This passageway between the fortress and the retaining wall was the only approach to the fortress . A 5 m length of a ca. 0.50 m wide sunken drainage channel running north from the gateway towards the settlement beneath this passageway was uncovered (Fig. 2.13). Its walls were constructed of medium to large stones, mostly of two courses ca. 0.40 m high, and it was covered by medium to large stone slabs . Afterwards it was covered by a fill of grey earth. The channel crosses under the retaining wall N221 and ends at a hewn cistern (Locus 455). The cistern, whose diameter is 1 m and depth 2 m, was apparently used to store rainwater drained by the channel. It should be noted that the cistern and its surroundings (e.g. Building 450) were fo und rui ned, and it is possible that its dimensions had been larger, although this could not be clari fied since the area was not excavated.

48

CH A PT ER

2: STRATIGRAPHY

A N D ARCHITECTURE

On the slope near the cistern, 3.50 m lower than the level of the gate, is a small two-roomed building (Fig. 2.50). One room (Locus 450) was excavated. Its lower level yielded Iron Age pottery but Hellenistic and Roman pottery was found higher up. An opening in its eastern wall led to the adjoining room (Locus 453), of which two wall segments remained (0231 and 0223) . The attribution of the building to the Israelite settlement, despite the discovery of later pottery sherd s within , is based on three facts: I. Throughout the entire area of the Israelite settlement on the slope leading down to Nal:lal Qinah, no later architectural remains were found. 2. On the lowest floor level of Room 450 a small quantity of Iron Age pottery was found. 3. The discovery of late period sherds on the highest floor level of the room can easily be attributed to the fact that these were washed down the steep slope into the building after its destruction, as occurred in Complexes 571 and 568 of the Israelite settlement some 6 m south of this building on the slope of the wadi, THE IRON AGE SETTLEMENT (SITE 24) The remains of an unwalled settlement with many buildings still protruding above the surface was discerned on the southern slope ofNal:lal Qinah, below the northern border of the fortress. This is simi lar to the phenomenon found at Arad where an Iron Age II settlement was uncovered on the eastern slope below the fortress in a salvage excavation some years after the final season of systematic excavations (Goether and Amiran 1996). At I:Iorvat 'Uza these settlement remains extended over an area of some 35 x 200 m, or ca. 0.75 ha. They were surveyed and drawn and several buildings were excavated (Figs. 2.51 , 2.52). These buildings, and presumably others too, stood on artificial terraces laid out along the contours of the slope. The especially thick walls of the buildings served as retaining walls for the terraces . In a few places in the sett lement transverse alleyways bordered by buildings were discerned. On the slope in Squares V/20-30 a natural cliff with a wall in front of it was found (see Fig. 2.55) . The area enclosed by the wall was lower than its surroundings, and it is possible that it was used as a cistern to catch rainwater which flowed down from the nearby north-south alleyways . COMPLEX571

This is one of two complexes excavated. It measures 6 x 14 m and is divided into two wings, each opening onto the bordering streets (Figs. 2.51-2.54). The western wing is divided into two longrooms (Loci 571 and 572) and two small rooms (Loci 542 and 554). The entrance to the building is from the west through two openings. Two phases of construction were recognized. In the first phase a row of five columns divided the room along its length. The northern part (Locus 572) was paved with large pebbles, while the southern room had a lime floor. The southern wall of the structure (Q211), 0.60 m wide and preserved to a height of 1.5 m, was soundly built of medium to large stones, and served as the southern retaining wall of the terrace upon which the complex was built. In the second phase a ca. 0.60 m wide wall (Q201) which incorporated the row of columns was built the length of the room. The construction of thi s wall is different in quality from that of the other walls of the building. It was flimsily built and the found ations were laid directly on the stone floor of Locus 572 of the first phase. It apparently functioned as a low partition wall with the pillars integrated into it continuing to function as roof supports in th e second phase. An opening in the western part of this wall connects the two long rooms. From the southern room there was an opening into Locus 554 at the end of the building. The broad room had an earthen floor and was divided into two by wall Q213 . 49

ITzHAQ BmT-ARIEH AND BRUCE C. CRESSON

Fig. 2.49: Retaining wall N201, looking east.

Fig. 2:50: Room 450, looking east.

50

Fig. 2.51: Plan of the excavated area of the settlement (Site 24).

Fig. 2.52: Aerial view of the excavated area of the settlement (Site 24), looking south, and its relation to the fortress (in background).

51

lTZHAQ BEJT-ARIEH AND BRUCE C. CRESSON

The northern wall of the building (R211), 0.55 m wide, was shared by adjoining Building 568, which stood on a terrace ca. 2 m lower. The southern wall, built of medium to large stones, formed a retaining wall for the upper terrace. The eastern wing of this complex (Locus 549) consisted of a broadroom with inner measurements ca. 2 x 5.5 m and a beaten lime floor. Two monoliths stood on either side of the entrance which faced east. Between them a smoothed limestone threshold slab and a door socket were found in situ (Locus 540). Outside the room, to the left of the doorway, a tabun was uncovered. The finds from the complex were mainly Iron II sherds, including types similar to those found in the fortress. In Room 549, a Hebrew ostracon was found and in Room 554 an inscribed weight was uncovered. After the destruction of the settlement (and the fortress), the complex was covered by a layer of earth and sand on top of which Hellenistic and Roman sherds were found. They had apparently been washed down, since no later occupation levels were discerned in the rooms. COMPLEX568

This building adjoins Complex 571 on the north. Its inner measurements are 5 x 10 m. It was founded on a low terrace that was retained by the long walls of the buildings (R211 and S251). Only a small area of the building was excavated. In this area a beaten lime floor was discerned. The building was divided into two rooms. The entrance was through a 1.10 m.-wide opening in the western wall (R201). From the first room (Locus 568), the larger of the two, one entered the second smaller room (Locus 566). It seems that the builders of the settlement went to great efforts to construct the terraces and the retaining walls of the structures on the slope of the wadi. In this building, as in the buildings previously discussed, mainly Iron Age sherds were retrieved. Here, too, on the fill over the Iron Age stratum, a few Hellenistic and Roman sherds were collected.

Fig. 2.53: Complex 571, looking west. Room 549 in the foreground.

52

CHAPTER

2:

STRATIGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 2.54: Complex 571, looking east. Note the pebble floor of Locus 572 and the beaten lime floor of Locus 571.

THEASHDUMP On the slope at the western end of the settlement, in a more or less straight line with the western wall of the fortress and ca. 50 m away from the corner, a long band of darker-coloured earth was discerned (Figs. 2.55, 2.56). Close examination revealed this to be a large dump (20 x 50 m.) of black earth containing many sherds. Most of the sherds collected on the surface were Iron II, similar to material from the fortress, with a small number of Hellenistic and Roman sherds. A probe trench of one square (5 x 5 m) in the centre of the dump (Locus 555) revealed the depth of the dump at its mid-point to be 1 m, and all the pottery was dateable to the Iron Age. An attempt at restoration of the ceramics from the excavated square was unsuccessful, but there was a rich variety of types. Aside from the pottery, the debris contained three loom weights, figurines (Chapter 5), ten buttons, other small worked sherds, a rattle (Chapter 10), and a Neo-Babylonian-style bulla (Chapter 6). The discovery of the dump with Iron Age pottery near the fortress explains the phenomenon of the empty rooms excavated, mainly in the western part of the fortress. Apparently during the Hellenistic period that part of the fortress was cleared out and the debris dumped down the slope in the direction of the settlement.

53

ITZHAQ BEIT-ARIEH AND BRUCE C. CRESSON

Fig. 2.55: The ash dump on the slope ofNal)al Qinah. Note the excavated probe square on the right.

Fig. 2.56: Excavation of the probe square in the ash dump.

54

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FORTRESS AND THE SETTLEMENT The se ttlement on the steep slope ofNal:lal Qinah extended over an area of ca. 0.75 hectares to the north of the fortress. The pottery and ostraca retrieved from the settlement indicate that it existed during the second half of the 7th century BCE, contemporaneously with the fortress. Furthermore, it is quite clear that th ere was a direct connection between the settlement and the fortress, as evidenced by the drainage channel from the gate into the water cistern of the settlement. Const ructi on of the settlement at this topographically difficult location demanded greater logistic, technical and physical efforts than would have been required for construction on a flat plain. The quest ion therefore arises as to why the inhabitants chose to place their settlement here and not on the level plains sur rounding the fortress on its three other sides. It would see m that the only consideration in choosing this location was its defensive advantage. The steep slope wo uld have functioned as a natural barrier, providing control against enemies arriving by way of the st rea mbed below. This principle also apparently dictated the location of the gate of the fortress, which also faced the steep slope and the settlement rather than the plains that offered easy access to the fortress. Together, these facts raise the possibility that the settlement was planned so that in times of danger th e inhabitants could enter directly, and as quickly as possible, into the fortified enclosure. WATER SOURCES As far as ca n be established, the site had three sources of water: I. A run-off system that collected rainwater from the fortress. 2. Two cis ter ns outside the southern part of the fortress, now fi li ed with earth. The upper part of Cistern A (Locusl355) was excavated (Fig. 2.57). 3. Three cistern s about 300m south of the fortress, situated in a tributary ofNal:lal Qinah (Tsuk 2000:164-165). The run-off system may be attributed to the Iron Age fortress only. The two cisterns outside the southern part of the fortress and those situ ated in the Nal:lal Qinah tributary may have been exploited during the Hellenistic and Roman periods as well. ARCHITECTURAL DISCUSSION Th e towered Iron Age fortress at I:Iorvat 'Uza is not unique. Fig. 2.57: The opening of Cistern A outside the fortress. Similar, even identical, fortresses can be seen at Arad, Stratum XI (Iron Age ll) and at Kadesh Barnea. The casemate fortress at Arad is dated to the lOth century BCE and is the earliest-known fortress of this type (Aharoni 1981:5; Herzog 1997: 155 -15 8; 2002:21-26), while the upper fortress at Kadesh Barnea is dated to the 7th-6th centuries BCE (Co hen 1980:72-74; 1983; Ussishkin 1995). Although its plan is not symmetrical like the others, the Iron Age II fortress at Tel 'Azeka (Bliss 1899) (apparently from the end of the 7th century BCE), also belongs to this type (Stern 1993) and the fortress ofi:Iorvat Rogem in the northern Negev highlands dated to the 7th-6th centuries BCE (Cohen and Cohen-Amin 2004:160-172). 55

ITZ I-IAQ BElT-ARI EI-I AND BRUCE C. CR ESSON

It is interesting to note that a fortress with an identical plan (that is, with corner and side towers) from the Hellenistic period was uncovered far from the region, at Failaka island in the Persian Gulf (Callot et al. 1987:37-39), and this has significance for the origin of the type (see below). A slightly different type of fortress, in use over a long period of time, is the fortress with corner towers only. This is apparently the type of fortress of Period II uncovered at Tell el-Ful (Lapp 1981, 1993; Graham 1981), dated to the days of Saul and David or David or Solomon. Fortresses with towers were excavated recently at I:Iazeva in Stratum V, dated to the 8th century BCE, and in Stratum IV, dated to the end of the Iron Age (Cohen 1995). The main structure at I:Iorvat Ternan (Kuntillet