Excavations in the Western Negev Highlands: Results of the Negev Emergency Survey 1978-89 9781407313306, 9781407342931

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BAR S2684 2014

Excavations in the Western Negev Highlands

SAIDEL & HAIMAN (Eds)

Results of the Negev Emergency Survey 1978-89 Edited by

Benjamin A. Saidel Mordechai Haiman

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

B A R

2684 Saidel and Haiman cover.indd 1

BAR International Series 2684 2014

25/11/2014 10:09:09

Excavations in the Western Negev Highlands Results of the Negev Emergency Survey 1978-89 Edited by

Benjamin A. Saidel Mordechai Haiman

BAR International Series 2684 2014

ISBN 9781407313306 paperback ISBN 9781407342931 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407313306 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Dedicated to the memory of Leon Levy

Table of Contents Contributors .......................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... v List of Figures .................................................................................................................... viii Preface.................................................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1: A Methodological Overview of Mordechai Haiman’s Fieldwork .................. 1 BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL AND MORDECHAI HAIMAN Chapter 2: The Fieldwork .................................................................................................... 7 BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL AND MORDECHAI HAIMAN Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) ......................................................................................................... 7 Site 2 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 1)................................................................................ 13 Site 3 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 2)................................................................................ 16 Site 4 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 7)................................................................................ 18 Site 5 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 6)................................................................................ 18 Site 6 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 5)................................................................................ 19 Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal) ....................................... 19 Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II).......................................................... 23 Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III) ................................................................... 23 Site 10 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 4) ...................................................................... 24 Site 11 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 5) ...................................................................... 24 Site 12 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 6)................................................................................ 24 Site 13 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 7)................................................................................ 25 Site 14 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 8)................................................................................ 25 Site 15 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 9)................................................................................ 25 Site 16 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 10).............................................................................. 25 Site 17 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 11).............................................................................. 25 Site 18 (Kadesh Barnea 77-8) .............................................................................................. 26 Site 19 (Kadesh Barnea 86-3) .............................................................................................. 26

i

Site 20 (Kadesh Barnea 85-1) .............................................................................................. 27 Site 21 (Kadesh Barnea 85/4)............................................................................................... 28 Site 22 (Kadesh Barnea 95/2)............................................................................................... 28 Site 23 (Har Horesha)........................................................................................................... 29 Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8/Har Hameara Cairn Field) ........................................................... 35 Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) ................................................................................ 39 Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I).................................................................................... 40 Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1/Biq’at Hissun).............................................................................. 43 Site 28 (Har Saggi Site 2)..................................................................................................... 46 Site 29 (Har Saggi Site 3)..................................................................................................... 47 Site 30 (Har Saggi site 7) ..................................................................................................... 50 Site 31 (Har Saggi Site 4)..................................................................................................... 50 Site 32 (Har Saggi Site 6)..................................................................................................... 50 Site 33 (Har Saggi Site 5)..................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 3: The Lithic Assemblages................................................................................... 59 JACOB VARDI Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) ....................................................................................................... 60 Site 19 (Kadesh Barnea 86/3)............................................................................................... 72 Site 22 (Kadesh Barnea 95/2)............................................................................................... 76 Site 26 (Ein Hameara) .......................................................................................................... 84 Site 27, 29, 33 (Har Saggi Sites I, III and V) ....................................................................... 88 Miscellaneous Assemblages from Kadesh Barnea ............................................................... 92 Conclusions about the Assemblages .................................................................................... 94 Chapter 4: The Ceramic Assemblages .............................................................................. 99 BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL AND MORDECHAI HAIMAN The Survey Material ............................................................................................................. 99 Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) ..................................................................................................... 106 Site 2 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea/Kadesh Barnea Site 1) .................................................... 110 Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal) ..................................... 110 Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2) ...................................................................... 116 Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III) ................................................................. 117 Site 23 (Har Horesha)......................................................................................................... 119 Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8: An Early Bronze Age Cairn field at Har Hameara) .................. 127 Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) .............................................................................. 127 Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I).................................................................................. 127 Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1/Biq’at Hissun)............................................................................ 131 Chapter 5: Early Bronze Age Fauna from Three Sites in the Negev Highlands ......... 137 LIORA KOLSKA HORWITZ Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) .............................................................................. 137 Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I).................................................................................. 138 ii

Site 27 (Har Saggi 1/Tiwal 1) ............................................................................................ 139 Chapter 6: Personal Ornaments ...................................................................................... 145 OSNAT MISCH-BRANDL AND BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8/Har Hameara Cairn Field) ......................................................... 145 Site 25 (Har Saggi Site 10/Ein Hameara Site 2)................................................................. 146 Site 33 (Har Saggi Site 5)................................................................................................... 148 Chapter 7: The Ground Stone Assemblage .................................................................... 155 YAEL ABADI-REISS AND BENJAMIN SAIDEL Chapter 8: Ceramic Petrography .................................................................................... 163 ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER AND BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL Chapter 9: A Synthesis of the Early Bronze Age II in the Negev and Sinai ................ 171 MORDECHAI HAIMAN Chapter 10: Suggestions for Future Fieldwork .............................................................. 177 BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL

iii

Contributors Osnat Misch-Brandl Curator of Chalcolithic and Canaanite Periods, Israel Museum, Jerusalem ([email protected]) Mordechai Haiman Israel Antiquities Authority [email protected] Liora Kolska Horwitz National Natural History Collections, Faculty of Life Science, the Hebrew University Berman Bld., Jerusalem 91904, Israel [email protected] Yael Abadi-Reiss Israel Antiquities Authority [email protected] Benjamin Adam Saidel Department of Anthropology East Carolina University [email protected] Jacob Vardi Excavations and Surveys, Prehistory Division Israel Antiquities Authority [email protected] Anat Cohen-Weinberger Excavations, Surveys and Research Department Israel Antiquities Authority [email protected]

iv

List of Tables Table 2.1. Site names and their grid coordinates. These are the same grid co-ordinates used in the published survey maps for the Negev Emergency Survey ............................. 8 Table 2.2. Site 27, the number of petrography groups identified in each loci ...................... 46 Table 3.1. Site 1. the frequencies of waste per Loci in Areas A and B ................................ 60 Table 3.2. Site 1, the frequencies of waste per Loci in Area C ............................................ 61 Table 3.3. Site 1, the frequencies of lithic waste found in Areas A, B and C ...................... 63 Table 3.4. Site 1, core attributes ........................................................................................... 63 Table 3.5. Site 1, the frequencies of tools per Loci in Areas A, B, and C ............................ 64 Table 3.6. Site 1, attributes of simple retouched blades ....................................................... 69 Table 3.7. Site 1, metric analysis of simple retouched blades .............................................. 70 Table 3.8. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Structure 1, Area B ......................................................................................................... 70 Table 3.9. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Structure 2, Area B ......................................................................................................... 71 Table 3.10. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Area C .............. 71 Table 3. 11. Site 19, the frequencies of waste and tools....................................................... 72 Table 3.12. Site 19, major core attributes............................................................................. 73 Table 3.13. Site 19, the frequencies of major tool types ...................................................... 73 Table 3.14. Site 22, total waste frequencies ......................................................................... 76 Table 3.15. Site 22, frequencies of waste per excavation unit ............................................. 76 Table 3.16. Site 22, core attributes ....................................................................................... 77 Table 3.17. Site 22, the frequencies of major tool types ...................................................... 78 Table 3.18. Site 22, awl attributes ........................................................................................ 79 Table 3.19. Site 22, scraper delineation ............................................................................... 80 Table 3.20. Site 22, the dimensions of the blades ................................................................ 81 Table 3.21. Site 22, the dimensions of the simple retouched blades .................................... 81 Table 3.22. Site 22, the dimensions of backed blades .......................................................... 82 Table 3.23. Site 26, the frequencies of waste per locus........................................................ 85 Table 3.24. Site 26, core attributes ....................................................................................... 85 Table 3.25. Site 26, the frequency of major tool types per locus ......................................... 86 Table 3.26. Site 26, a metric analysis of the simple retouched blades ................................. 86 v

Table 3.27. Site 26, a metric analysis of backed blades ....................................................... 86 Table 3.28. Site 26, scraper attributes .................................................................................. 87 Table 3.29. Frequencies of lithic waste found at Sites 27, 29, and 33.................................. 89 Table 3.30. Cores attributes from Sites 27, 29, and 33......................................................... 90 Table 3.31. The frequencies of tool type present at Sites 27, 29, and 33 ............................. 90 Table 3.32. The frequencies of waste and tools from various sites located in the environs of Kadesh Barnea ....................................................................................... 93 Table 3.33. The frequencies of tool types from various sites situated in the Kadesh Barnea area .................................................................................................. 94 Table 4.1. The designations and periods present at the Kadesh Barnea survey sites described in this chapter ............................................................................................... 100 Table. 4.2. The quantities of pottery recovered from the Kadesh Barnea sites .................. 100 Table. 4.3. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from the Kadesh Barnea sites ...................................................................... 101 Table 4.4. The amount of pottery recovered from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) ...................... 106 Table 4.5. Site 1, the provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated diagnostic pottery ......................................................................................................... 109 Table 4.6. The amount of pottery recovered from Site 2 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea/ Kadesh Barnea Site 1) .................................................................................................. 111 Table 4.7. Site 2, the provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated diagnostic pottery ......................................................................................................... 111 Table 4.8. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal) ............................................................................ 112 Table 4.9. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal) ...... 113 Table 4.10. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II) .............................................................................................. 116 Table 4.11. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II)......................... 117 Table 4.12. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III) ...................................................................................................... 117 Table 4.13. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III) ..................... 118 Table 4.14. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 23 (Har Horesha) .................... 120 Table 4.15. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................................. 124 Table. 4.16. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8: An Early Bronze Age Cairn field at Har Hameara) ...................................................... 127 Table 4.17. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the sherd recovered from Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8: An Early Bronze Age Cairn field at Har Hameara) ............ 127 Table 4.18. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/ Ein Hameara II) ............................................................................................................ 128 Table 4.19. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) ............................................... 128 Table. 4.20. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/ Ein Hameara I) ............................................................................................................. 129 Table 4.21. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)................................................... 129 vi

Table 4.22. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1/ Biq’at Hissun)............................................................................................................... 131 Table 4.23. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1/Biq’at Hissun)............................................. 131 Table 4.24. The quantities of stoppers and work sherds unearthed by Haiman ................. 132 Table 4.25. The provenance and Munsell color of those worked sherds illustrated in Fig. 4.29.................................................................................................................... 133 Table 4.26. The number of different petrographic groups presents at settlements where more than two holemouth vessels were sampled ............................................... 133 Table 4.27. The number of different petrographic groups present at Early Bronze Age sites where more three or more samples were tested ............................................ 134 Table 5.1. Taxa represented at Sites 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) and 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) ........................................................................................ 138 Table 5.2. Goat measurements (in mm) ............................................................................. 138 Table 5.3. Sheep/goat ages based on bone fusion.Faunal remains from Sites 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) and 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) .......................... 140 Table 5.4. Sheep/goat skeletal element representation (NISP counts)* from Sites 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) and 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) .......................... 141 Table 6.1. Examples of Conus sp. beads found at other sites located in the southern Levant ...................................................................................................... 151 Table 6.2. Examples of rectangular and elongated spacer beads with double perforations found at sites in the Negev and Sinai ....................................................... 151 Table 6.3. Numbers of gold beads and beads made of other materials at selected Early Bronze Age sites ................................................................................................. 152 Table 7.1. The waste from ground stone production recovered in the course of Haiman’s excavations and surveys ............................................................................... 156 Table 7.2. Ground stone artifacts retrieved from sites which were surveyed and/or excavated by Haiman. All implements are broken ....................................................... 157 Table 8.1. The samples and their petrographic groups ....................................................... 164 Table 10.1. Comparison of number of excavated square meters in broadroom structures and courtyards/animal pens at Aradian settlements in southern Sinai ......... 178 Table 10.2. Frequency of ash layers at EB II settlements excavated in the western Negev Highlands .......................................................................................................... 179 Table 10.3. Distance between select EB II habitation sites and adjacent cairn fields in western Negev Highlands ............................................................................... 182

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List of Figures Fig. 1.1. Outline map of the Negev illustrating the location of Haiman’s survey universe, which comprises Maps 198, 199, 200, and 203 ................................................ 2 Fig. 1.2. The locations of the sites excavated by Haiman ...................................................... 3 Fig. 2.1. Site 1, plan of architectural units.............................................................................. 7 Fig. 2.2. Site 1, Area A, plan of Cairn 30 ............................................................................... 9 Fig. 2.3. Site 1, Area A, Cairn 30, view to the east ................................................................ 9 Fig. 2.4. Site 1, Area A, view of the snails in a section of the burial cist in Cairn 30 ............ 9 Fig. 2.5. Site 1, plan of Structure 1 in Area B ...................................................................... 10 Fig. 2.6. Site 1, plan of Structure 2 in Area B, Site 1 ........................................................... 11 Fig. 2.7. Site 1, plan of Area C. The grid was used to collect the dense scatter of surface finds ............................................................................................................... 12 Fig. 2.8. Site 1, Area C, view to the north of Courtyard 37 and Room 37-3 (Left Corner)................................................................................................................... 12 Fig. 2.9. Site 1, view of Locus 38 in Area C ........................................................................ 13 Fig. 2.10. Site 1, plan of Locus 37-1 in Area C .................................................................... 13 Fig. 2.11. Site 1, view of Locus 37-1 in Area C................................................................... 13 Fig. 2.12. Site 2, plan of structures 1-4 ................................................................................ 14 Fig. 2.13. Site 2, Structures 1 and 2, view to the west.......................................................... 14 Fig. 2.14. Site 2, Structure 2, view to the north. Structure 1 is visible in the background ........................................................................................................... 14 Fig. 2.15. Site 2, Structure 2 view to towards the southeast of Loci 101 and 102................ 15 Fig. 2.16. Site 2, Structure 2 view to towards the southeast of Loci 100 and 101................ 15 Fig. 2.17. Site 2, view of Locus 100 in Structure 2 .............................................................. 15 Fig. 2.18. Site 2, plan of cairn 150 ....................................................................................... 15 Fig. 2.19. Site 3, general view of the site. View towards the west ....................................... 16 Fig. 2.20. Site 3, plan of the architectural unit ..................................................................... 16 Fig. 2.21. Site 3, view to the east of Locus 200 ................................................................... 17 Fig. 2.22. Site 3, view to the southeast of Loci 201-203 ...................................................... 17 Fig. 2.23. Site 3, view to the west of Loci 200-202 ............................................................. 17 Fig. 2.24. Site 3, view of Locus 208 in Locus 201 ............................................................... 17 Fig. 2.25. Site 3, view of Locus 209 in Locus 201 ............................................................... 17 Fig. 2.26. Site 3, view of Locus 203..................................................................................... 17 viii

Fig. 2.27. Site 5, plan of architectural unit ........................................................................... 18 Fig. 2.28. Site 6, view of settlement, looking towards the northeast .................................... 19 Fig. 2.29. Site 6, plan of Structures 1 and 2 ......................................................................... 19 Fig. 2.30. The locations of Sites 7-17 in the area of Nahal Mitnan ...................................... 20 Fig. 2.31. Site 7, plan of the architectural remains and cairns.............................................. 20 Fig. 2.32. Site 7, plan of Building 115 ................................................................................. 20 Fig. 2.33. Site 7, view of Cairn 112. Locus 115 is visible in the background ...................... 21 Fig. 2.34. Site 7, burial cist 112 located in the center of Cairn 112 ..................................... 21 Fig. 2.35. Site 7, plan of Building 150 ................................................................................. 22 Fig. 2.36. Site 7, Cairn 102 and Locus 102-1, view to the east ............................................ 22 Fig. 2.37. Site 7, plan of Cairn 102 and Locus 102-1........................................................... 22 Fig. 2.38. Site 7. view to the northeast of Locus 120-1 and Cairn 120 ................................ 22 Fig. 2.39. Site 7, plan of Cairn 120 and Locus 120-1........................................................... 22 Fig. 2.40. Site 7, Wall 118.................................................................................................... 23 Fig. 2.41. Site 8, plan of the cairns and architectural units .................................................. 23 Fig. 2.42. Site 8, plan of Building 240 ................................................................................. 23 Fig. 2.43. Site 9, map of the extent structures ...................................................................... 23 Fig. 2.44. Site 9, plan of Structure 319................................................................................. 24 Fig. 2.45. Site 9, plan of Structure 320................................................................................. 24 Fig. 2.46. Site 10, map of the extent structures .................................................................... 24 Fig. 2.47. Site 12, plan of the structures recorded at this location........................................ 25 Fig. 2.48. Site 13, plan of the architectural remains ............................................................. 25 Fig. 2.49. Site 14, plan of the structures recorded at this location........................................ 25 Fig. 2.50. Site 16, plan of the constructions documented at this location ............................ 25 Fig. 2.51. Site 17, plan of the structures ............................................................................... 25 Fig. 2.52. Site 19, plan of architectural unit and cairns ........................................................ 26 Fig. 2.53. Site 20, general view of the environs of this site ................................................. 27 Fig. 2.54. Site 20, plan of the extant architecture. The squares superimposed over Areas E and W denote the locations where flint artifacts were collected ....................... 27 Fig. 2.55. Site 20, view of a cairn located in Area N ........................................................... 28 Fig. 2.56. Site 20, general view of Area W .......................................................................... 28 Fig. 2.57. Site 20, view of a room located in Area W .......................................................... 28 Fig. 2.58. Site 20, view of a cairn situated in Area W .......................................................... 28 Fig. 2.59. Site 20, general view of Area E ........................................................................... 28 Fig. 2.60. Site 23, plan of the structures and cairns.............................................................. 29 Fig. 2.61. Site 23, view towards the southwest of Building 86 and Architectural Unit 101. Visible in this photograph, right, is a portion of the Iron Age fortress of Ain Gdis ........................................................................................................ 29 Fig. 2.62. Site 23, plan of Architectural Unit 101 ................................................................ 29 Fig. 2.63. Site 23, view toward the east of Architectural Unit 101 ...................................... 30 Fig. 2.64. Site 23, view towards the east of Architectural Unit 101 ..................................... 30 Fig. 2.65. Site 23, view towards the west of Architectural Unit 101.................................... 30 ix

Fig. 2.66. Site 23, the calibration curve for radiocarbon date GrA-28787 (4570 ± 40 BP), which was unearthed in Loci 80 and 87 ............................................... 30 Fig. 2.67. Site 23, view of Room 93 in Architectural Unit 101 ........................................... 31 Fig. 2.68. Site 23, view of Loci 83, 84, and 88 in Architectural Unit 101 ........................... 31 Fig. 2.69. Site 23, view Locus 85 in Architectural Unit 101 ................................................ 31 Fig. 2.70. Site 23, view towards the east of Loci 95, 96, and 97 in Architectural Unit 101 .................................................................................................... 31 Fig. 2.71. Site 23, plan of Building 86 ................................................................................. 32 Fig. 2.72. Site 23, view towards the east of Locus 86 .......................................................... 32 Fig. 2.73. Site 23, view of stone mortar unearthed in Locus 86 ........................................... 32 Fig. 2.74. Site 23, plans of Cairns 1-10 ................................................................................ 33 Fig. 2.75. Site 23, view of Cairn 3 ....................................................................................... 33 Fig. 2.76. Site 23, view of Cairns 3 (T3) and 4 (T4) ............................................................ 33 Fig. 2.77. Site 23, view towards the east of Cairn 5 (T5) ..................................................... 34 Fig. 2.78. Site 23, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 5 (T5) .............................................. 34 Fig. 2.79. Site 23, view of Cairn 6 ....................................................................................... 34 Fig. 2.80. Site 23, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 6 ...................................................... 34 Fig. 2.81. Site 23, view towards the east of Cairn 7 (T7) ..................................................... 34 Fig. 2.82. Site 23, view of Cairn 8 (T8) ............................................................................... 35 Fig. 2.83. Site 23, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 8 ...................................................... 35 Fig. 2.84. Site 23, view of Cairn 9 (T9) ............................................................................... 35 Fig. 2.85. Site 24, plan of the site ......................................................................................... 35 Fig. 2.86. Site 24, view of Cairn 801 ................................................................................... 36 Fig. 2.87. Site 24, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 801 .................................................. 36 Fig. 2.88. Site 24, view of Cairn 802 ................................................................................... 36 Fig. 2.89. Site 24, view the burial cist inside Cairn 803 ....................................................... 36 Fig. 2.90. Site 24, view of Cairn 805 ................................................................................... 36 Fig. 2.91. Site 24, view of Cairn 806 ................................................................................... 37 Fig. 2.92. Site 24, plan of Area B ......................................................................................... 37 Fig. 2.93. Site 24, general view of Area B ........................................................................... 37 Fig. 2.94. Site 24, view of Cairn 808 ................................................................................... 37 Fig. 2.95. Site 24, view of Locus 809................................................................................... 38 Fig. 2.96. Site 24, view of Cairn 810 ................................................................................... 38 Fig. 2.97. Site 24, view of Cairn 815 ................................................................................... 38 Fig. 2.98. Site 25, general view of the architecture .............................................................. 39 Fig. 2.99. Site 25, view of Locus 200................................................................................... 39 Fig. 2.100. Site 25, view of Locus 201................................................................................. 39 Fig. 2.101. Site 25, view of Locus 202................................................................................. 40 Fig. 2.102. Site 25, plan of architectural units located on the western side of the settlement ............................................................................................................. 40 Fig. 2.103. Site 26, general view of the site ......................................................................... 40 Fig. 2.104. Site 26, plan of Areas A and B........................................................................... 40 x

Fig. 2.105. Site 26, plan of Structure 901............................................................................. 41 Fig. 2.106. Site 26, view of Locus 910................................................................................. 41 Fig. 2.107. Site 26, view of Loci 901, 902, and 907 ............................................................ 41 Fig. 2.108. Site 26, view of Locus 906................................................................................. 41 Fig. 2.109. Site 26, view of Locus 907................................................................................. 42 Fig. 2.110. Site 26, view of Locus 908................................................................................. 42 Fig. 2.111. Site 26, view of Loci 901, 908, and 909 ............................................................ 42 Fig. 2.112. Site 26, plan of Loci 903/913, 904 and 905 ....................................................... 42 Fig. 2.113. Site 26, view of Locus 903................................................................................. 43 Fig. 2.114. Site 26, view of Locus 904................................................................................. 43 Fig. 2.115. Site 26, plan of platforms 916 and 918 .............................................................. 43 Fig. 2.116. Site 27, general of the settlement ....................................................................... 44 Fig. 2.117. Site 27, plan of the architecture.......................................................................... 44 Fig. 2.118. Site 27, view of Locus 120................................................................................. 44 Fig. 2.119. Site 27, Structure 102, view towards the northeast ............................................ 44 Fig. 2.120. Site 27, view to the east of Loci 123 and 102 .................................................... 45 Fig. 2.121. Site 27, view towards the west of Locus 104 ..................................................... 45 Fig. 2.122. Site 27, view towards the south of Loci 108 and 109 ........................................ 45 Fig. 2.123. Site 27, view towards the south of Locus 108.................................................... 45 Fig. 2.124. Site 27, view of Loci 109 and 108 ..................................................................... 45 Fig. 2.125. Site 27, view to the south of Structure 106 ........................................................ 46 Fig. 2.126. Site 28, plan of the cairn .................................................................................... 47 Fig. 2.127. Site 28, view towards the southeast of cairn ...................................................... 47 Fig. 2.128. Site 28, view of burial cist 201........................................................................... 47 Fig. 2.129. Site 28, view of burial cist 203........................................................................... 47 Fig. 2.130. Site 29, plan of architectural remains ................................................................. 48 Fig. 2.131. Site 29, view of the site and its environs ............................................................ 48 Fig. 2.132. Site 29, plan of Structure 305............................................................................. 48 Fig. 2.133. Site 29, view of Structure 305 ............................................................................ 48 Fig. 2.134. Site 29, plan of Structure 306............................................................................. 48 Fig. 2.135. Site 29, view towards the northeast of Structure 306 ......................................... 49 Fig. 2.136. Site 29, plan of Structure 301............................................................................. 49 Fig. 2.137. Site 29, view towards the south of Structure 301 ............................................... 49 Fig. 2.138. Site 29, view of Structure 301 and the environs of the site ................................ 49 Fig. 2.139. Site 29, view of Structure 308 ............................................................................ 49 Fig. 2.140. Site 30, view of burial cist ................................................................................. 50 Fig. 2.141. Site 31, plan of cairn .......................................................................................... 50 Fig. 2.142. Site 31, view towards the east of the cairn ......................................................... 50 Fig. 2.143. Site 31, view of burial cist inside the cairn ........................................................ 50 Fig. 2.144. Site 33, view of the settlement and its environs ................................................. 51 Fig. 2.145. Site 33, plan of the architecture located in Areas A and B................................. 51 xi

Fig. 2.146. Site 33, plan of Structure 506 in Area A ............................................................ 51 Fig. 2.147. Site 33, view towards the northwest of Structure 501. Cairn 518 is visible to the right ........................................................................................................... 51 Fig. 2.148. Site 33, view towards the northeast of Loci 519 and 521 in Structure 501 .............................................................................................................. 52 Fig. 2.149. Site 33, view towards the southeast of the doorway leading into Structure 501 .................................................................................................................. 52 Fig. 2.150. Site 33, view towards the southwest of Loci 520-523 in Structure 501 .............................................................................................................. 52 Fig. 2.151. Site 33, view towards the north of Cairn 518 in Structure 501 .......................... 52 Fig. 2.152. Site 33, view towards the northeast of Cairn 518 in Structure 501 .................... 52 Fig. 2.153. Site 33, view of Cairns 517 and 518 .................................................................. 52 Fig. 2.154. Site 33, plan of Cairns 517 and 518 ................................................................... 53 Fig. 2.155. Site 33, view towards the northwest of Cairn 517 ............................................. 53 Fig. 2.156. Site 33, view of the burial cist in Cairn 517 ....................................................... 53 Fig. 2.157. Site 33, plan of the structures in Area A ............................................................ 54 Fig. 2.158. Site 33, view towards the west of Structure 502 ................................................ 53 Fig. 2.159. Site 33, view towards the west of Structure 504 ................................................ 54 Fig. 2.160. Site 33, detail of mill stone unearthed in Structure 504 ..................................... 54 Fig. 2.161. Site 33, view of Structure 506 ............................................................................ 55 Fig. 2.162. Site 33, view of Structure 508 ............................................................................ 55 Fig. 2.163. Site 33, plan of the structures located in Area B ................................................ 55 Fig. 2.164. Site 33, view towards the west of Structure 509 in Area B ................................ 56 Fig. 2.165. Site 33, view of Structure 510 in Area B ........................................................... 56 Fig. 2.166. Site 33, view of Structure 512 in Area B ........................................................... 56 Fig. 3.1. Borers (awl and drills). 1. awl, 2-5 borers (1, Site 22, [Area E5]; 2-4 Site 22 [Areas C 3, B 2, E 4]; 5 Site 1 [Area C]) ..................................................... 67 Fig. 3.2. Scrapers. (1, Site 58; 2, Site 22 [G 2]; 3, Site 7; 4, Site 1 [Area B]) ...................... 68 Fig. 3.3. Scrapers. 1, steep scraper [Site 19, Area A 3]; 2, tabular scraper fragment with cortical incisions [Site 1] ......................................................................... 74 Fig. 3.4. Tabular Scraper (Site 1, Area C) ............................................................................ 75 Fig. 3.5. Steep Notched Piece (Site 26, Locus 906) ............................................................. 80 Fig. 3.6. Blade tools. 1, Arched backed blade [Site 22, Area G 4]; 2, Arched backed blade (Site 7); 3, Backed blade [Site 26]; 4, Traverse arrowhead [Site 22, Area E 1]; 5, Herzliya arrowhead [Site 22, Area A 3]; 6 Retouched backed blade [Site 1, Area B]; Retouched blade [Site 1, Area B, Locus 40]) ............................ 81 Fig. 3.7: 1-2. Axes/Celts. 1, Site 22, Area E 4; 2, Site 22, Area A 4.................................... 82 Fig. 3.8. Pick (Site 22, Area D 3) ......................................................................................... 83 Fig. 3.9. The frequencies of tool types at Site 1, in Structures 1 and 2, in Area B ............... 95 Fig. 4.1. The pottery from Kadesh Barnea Site 64/1 and Site 58 ....................................... 104 Fig. 4.2. The pottery collected from Sites 62, 70, 81, 84 and 85 in the environs of Kadesh Barnea ......................................................................................................... 104 Fig. 4.3. The pottery collected from Site 89 in the Kadesh Barnea region......................... 105 Fig. 4.4. The pottery collected from Site 103 in the Kadesh Barnea region....................... 105 Fig. 4.5. The pottery collected from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) ........................................... 108 xii

Fig. 4.6. The pottery collected from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) ........................................... 108 Fig. 4.7. The pottery unearthed from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) .......................................... 110 Fig. 4.8. The pottery unearthed from Site 2 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 1)................... 112 Fig. 4.9. The pottery retrieved from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/ Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal)..................................................................................................... 115 Fig. 4.10. The pottery retrieved from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/ Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal)..................................................................................................... 115 Fig. 4.11. The pottery retrieved from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/ Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal)..................................................................................................... 116 Fig. 4.12. The pottery retrieved from Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/ Halufi II) ....................................................................................................................... 116 Fig. 4.13. The pottery retrieved from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/ Halufi III) ..................................................................................................................... 119 Fig. 4.14. The pottery retrieved from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/ Halufi III) ..................................................................................................................... 119 Fig. 4.15. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 121 Fig. 4.16. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 121 Fig. 4.17. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 122 Fig. 4.18. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 122 Fig. 4.19. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 122 Fig. 4.20. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 122 Fig. 4.21. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 123 Fig. 4.22. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha) ............................................. 123 Fig. 4.23. The pottery retrieved from Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8/ Har Hameara Cairn Field) ............................................................................................ 127 Fig. 4.24. The pottery retrieved from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) ................... 128 Fig. 4.25. A lid unearthed at Site 25 ................................................................................... 128 Fig. 4.26. The pottery retrieved from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) ...................... 130 Fig. 4.27. The pottery retrieved from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) ...................... 130 Fig. 4.28. The pottery retrieved from Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1The Site of/Biq’at Hissun) ............................................................................................ 132 Fig. 4.29. Examples of “worked” pottery as identified in the ceramic assemblages from Haiman’s fieldwork ............................................................................................. 133 Fig. 4.30. The number of Early Bronze Age Vessel types per site as indicated by the diagnostic sherds................................................................................................ 134 Fig. 4.31. The petrographic groups used to make Early Bronze Age holemouth vessels, which were found at Haiman’s sites .............................................. 134 Fig. 5.1. Box plots showing the range and mean of ibex (three samples on the left) and goat (three samples on the right) proximal phalanx proximal breadth measurements (in mm) ................................................................................................. 139 Fig. 6.1. Personal ornaments from Site 24: 1: faience bead from burial cist in Tumulus 801, Area A; 2: cowrie shells from burial cist in Tumulus 813, Area B ...................... 145 Fig. 6.2. Gold beads from Site 25 Locus 201: 1: IM No. 88-7/1; 2: IM No. 88-7/2; 3: IM No. 88-7/3 ........................................................................................................... 146 Fig. 6.3. Loops on gold beads from Site 25 Locus 201: 1: IM No. 88-7/1; 2: IM No. 88-7/2; 3: IM No. 88-7/3.............................................................................. 146 xiii

Fig. 6.4. The elemental composition of gold bead IM Number 88-7/1 unearthed in Locus 201, Site 25 .................................................................................................... 147 Fig. 6.5. The elemental composition of gold bead IM Number 88-7/1 discovered in Locus 201, Site 25 .................................................................................................... 147 Fig. 6.6. The elemental composition of gold bead IM Number 88-7/1 unearthed in Locus 201, Site 25 .................................................................................................... 148 Fig. 6.7. The elemental composition of gold bead, IM Number 88-7/2 found in Locus 201, Site 25 .................................................................................................... 148 Fig. 6.8. The elemental composition of gold bead, IM Number 88-7/3, found in Locus 201, Site 25 .................................................................................................... 149 Fig. 6.9. The elemental composition of gold bead, IM 88-7/3 retrieved from Locus 201, Site 25 ........................................................................................................ 149 Fig. 6.10. Personal ornaments from Site 33: 1: blue glass bead from burial cist of Tumulus 518............................................................................................................. 150 Fig. 7.1: 1, 2. Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), two fragments of metamorphic sandstone mill stones unearthed in Locus 37, Area C, (Table 7.2: 3, 4) ....................................... 158 Fig. 7.2. Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), an upper stone unearthed in Building 2, Area B (Table 7.2:1) ..................................................................................................... 158 Fig. 7.3. Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal), a broken upper stone made of metamorphic standstone (Table 7.2:14) ....................... 158 Fig. 7.4. Site 250, survey Map 200, three conjoinable basalt fragments that form part of a basalt rotary grinding (Table 7.2:6) ....................................................... 159 Fig. 7.5. Site 304, Survey Map 200, two conjoinable basalt fragments that form part of a rotary grinding from (Table 7.2:8)......................................................... 159 Fig. 7.6. Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), a fragment of basalt rotary grinding stone (Table 7.2:11) ....................................................................................... 159 Fig. 10.1. Stone walls, in black, of Building 115 at Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1), most likely post-dating construction of burial cairns, and considered to be intrusive ............................................................................................. 181 Fig. 10.2. Spatial extent of ash deposits, in black, in Structure 901 at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara II) ....................................................................................... 181

xiv

Preface This volume presents the results of the surveys and excavations carried out under the aegis of the Negev Emergency Survey by Mordechai (Motti) Haiman. He suggested that we apply together for a grant from the Shelby White and Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications to publish this research. We are deeply grateful to the WhiteLevy Program not only for funding this publication, but for its forbearance in allowing us to bring this overdue project to fruition. We also thank our contributing authors for their efforts in producing their excellent respective chapters. The publication of this volume is also an opportunity to honor the memory of Leon Levy. Saidel’s participation in the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon as a graduate student of Lawrence Stager of Harvard University enabled him to learn the basics of field archaeology, the foundation from which he could branch out and ultimately conduct his own projects. Thanks go both to Larry Stager and the late Leon Levy for this opportunity. Saidel’s position as the Laboratory Director in Ashkelon for the Leon Levy Expedition from 1999 to 2000 also provided a wealth of training and experience, for which additional thanks are due to Larry Stager and the late Leon Levy. The preliminary transcription of Haiman’s field notes and the analysis of the pottery were carried out at the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research in Jerusalem. This research coincided with Saidel’s tenure (2002-2005) as the Ernest S. Frerichs Fellow and Program Coordinator at the W. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research.Saidel extends his thanks to AIAR fellowship committee and Director Seymour Gitin for providing the space necessary to conduct this research. As a resident at the Institute, 24hour-a-day access to the library facilities was especially helpful. In conclusion, the fieldwork described herein represented the “state-of the art” in archaeological excavation as it was practiced in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai in the late 1970s–early 1980s. It is our hope that our colleagues will find this publication informative and that it can be used as a baseline for subsequent research. Benjamin Saidel and Mordechai Haiman Greenville, NC, and Beersheba, Israel 2014

xv

CHAPTER 1: A METHODOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF MORDECHAI HAIMAN’S FIELDWORK

Chapter 1: A METHODOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF MORDECHAI HAIMAN’S FIELDWORK BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL AND MORDECHAI HAIMAN The Negev Emergency Survey was executed by 12 teams operating from four centers: Beersheva, Mizpe Ramon, Sapir/Ha’Arava, and Eilat (Fig. 1.1). In this project a standard survey universe, or “map,” measured 100 sq. km. This was the same standard unit of measure used by the Archaeological Survey of Israel. Each archaeological site was numbered consecutively from north to south, and marked on a topographic map with a scale of 1:20,000. Participants in the project included archaeologists trained in the various sub disciplines of archaeology, such as prehistory and biblical and classical archaeology.2 The range and diversity of training among these archaeologists is reflected in the number of sites recorded from the prehistoric and historical periods.3 Prehistoric sites in the Negev Highlands and parts of the western Negev typically comprise scatters of lithic artifacts (e.g., Goring-Morris 1987: 9, 45; Rosen 1994: 14*-15*). Among published survey maps Rosen (1994: 14*-15*, 26*) identified the largest number of prehistoric sites on the edge of and inside of the Makhtesh Ramon. Another significant concentration of prehistoric sites were identified by Haiman (1999: 7*-8*, 18*) on Har Ramon (Fig. 1.2). Prehistorians not only identified lithic assemblages, but they also recorded ceramic assemblages and architectural remains even if they were unfamiliar with them; since this material cultural could be dated by colleagues (e.g., Rosen 1987a). In contrast, archaeologists schooled in historical periods often did not have the training necessary to recognize lithic assemblages, and as a result, prehistoric sites were frequently under reported or not identified.

INTRODUCTION The data presented in this volume derive from the surveys and excavations directed by Mordechai Haiman in the course of the Negev Emergency Survey. This chapter provides an overview of this salvage project, as well as the methodology, theory, and logistics behind Haiman’s archaeological fieldwork. The Negev Emergency Survey was undertaken as a result of the Camp David Peace Accords. As stipulated in this peace treaty Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, and relocated its military bases to the Negev (e.g., Rosen 1987a: 29-30, footnote 4; 1987b). In preparation for the construction of these facilities salvage excavations and surveys were initiated under the aegis of the Negev Emergency Survey. This project began in 1978 and concluded in 1989 (Haiman 1989: 173). In broad strokes this salvage operation was launched with the following three objectives in mind (Cohen 1986: 5*): 1. A systematic and comprehensive archaeological survey of the Negev, its aim being to locate hitherto unknown sites, and to chart and register their finds. … 2. Unceasing vigilance in the field in order to prevent damage to the sites during the work of redeployment. 3. Salvage excavations of those sites whose destruction could not be forestalled, in order to extract as much information as time allowed. The Negev Emergency Survey was conducted under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of Israel, and it was directed by Rudolph Cohen, then the chief archaeologist of the southern district for the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums.1

At the time of the Negev Emergency Survey archaeological remains of “Bedouin” occupations, as well 2 The project also made a significant contribution in providing training and employment for many young archaeologists in a country in which the number of academic positions in archaeology is limited. 3 The time-span of the prehistoric sites is defined as ranging from the Lower Paleolithic through the Chalcolithic periods (Levy and Bar-Yosef 1995: xv, fig. 2).

1

In 1989, the Department of Antiquities and Museums became a governmental authority under the “Antiquities Authority Law” passed by the Knesset, and was designated the Israel Antiquities Authority. For additional information on this subject, the reader is referred to Baruch and Vashdi (n.d.).

1

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 1.1. Outline map of the Negev illustrating the location of Haiman’s survey universe, which comprises Maps 198, 199, 200, and 203. Although the environs of ‘Ein el-Qudeirat and ‘Ein Qadis were surveyed, this area was not assigned a “map” number (e.g. Haiman 2007). Select modern localities (solid squares) and water sources (circles) are included as reference points. Numbers 1-3 denote the locations of the Makhtesh Ramon (1), Makhtesh Hagadol (2) and Makhtesh Haqatan (3).This map is adapted from and redrawn after Haiman (1989:174, Fig. 1; 1992b:96, Fig. 3)

as sites from the Ottoman and Mandate periods, were considered by many to be outside the purvey of mainstream archaeological research (e.g., Rosen 1987a: 30; Schick 1997-1998: 563-564; Baram 2000: 146-147). Fortunately, however, a number of surveyors did record Bedouin occupations as well as the presence of sites

dated to the Ottoman and Mandate periods (e.g. Rosen 1981; 1994: 21*-22*; Haiman 1986: 24*; Avni 1992a: 21*; 1992b; Gazit 1996: 18*-19*; Baumgarten 2004: 20*-21*). Nevertheless, sites from these periods are even more under reported in publish surveys than those from prehistoric periods. 2

CHAPTER 1: A METHODOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF MORDECHAI HAIMAN’S FIELDWORK

Fig. 1.2. The locations of the sites excavated by Haiman

The majority of sites in most of the published survey maps are dated between the Early Bronze Age and Early Islamic periods, or up to or through the 8th century C.E. (Cohen 1981: vii, 1985: vii; Haiman 1986: 33*-34*, 1991: 26*, 1993: 21*-22*, 1999: 18*, 2007: 307-311; Lender 1990: xxix-xxxi; Avni 1992a: 24*; Rosen 1994: 26*-27*). By the end of the Negev Emergency Survey, a total area of 3,500 km was surveyed and 12,000 sites were identified (Haiman 1989: 173, footnote 1). Twentyeight survey maps were completed and 25 partially completed.

HAIMAN’S SURVEY From 1979 to 1989 the team directed by Mordechai Haiman surveyed some 450 kilometers in the western Negev Highlands, and identified 1,500 sites (Haiman 1986, 1989: 173, 1991, 1993, 1999, 2007) (Figs 1.1, 1.2). The topography of his survey area is characterized by plateaus and highlands, and the major topographical unit within the area of Maps 198 and 199 is the Ramat Barnea plateau (Haiman 1989: 173). This plateau measures 30 km in length east-west, and ranges from 2-8 km in width, 3

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

north-south, and its elevation varies from 500 to 600 m. above sea level (Haiman 1986: 12*, 1993: 11*). Among the major nahals (wadis) that etch their way across the plateau are the Nahal ‘Aqrav, Nahal Horesha, Nahal Nissana, and Wadi el-Gudeirat (Haiman 1986: 12*, 1989: 175, 1993: 11*). Both Maps 198 and 199 are bordered by highlands on the south and southeast, respectively. Some of the peaks in these survey maps are as high as 900 m above sea level (Haiman 1986: 12*, 1993: 11*). Abutting the eastern edge of Map 199 is Map 200, the topography of which is characterized by mountainous terrain, as seen in the difference in elevation, between, Har Zin on Map 199 at 750 m above sea level, and Har Hemet on Map 200, at 900 m above sea level (Haiman 1991: 13*). Map 203 to the south of Map 199 is also characterized by mountainous topography with its two highest peaks, Har Romem and Har Ramon, reaching elevations of 1,022 m and 1,037 m above sea level, respectively (Haiman 1999: 7*). Some of the dry water courses in Map 203 that drain from north to south are Nahal ‘Aqrav, Nahal Elot, and Nahal Nessana (Haiman 1999, Har Ramon Map 1:20,000).

recognized that these “Cities of Circles” were actually Early Bronze Age habitation sites (Haiman 1992a: x). As a result, he implemented a modified survey technique that focused on describing and recording the construction techniques and architectural layout of sites he encountered in the course of his survey. This approach proved to be particularly important for settlements with artifacts and architecture from multiple periods (Haiman 1986: 12*-13*; 1992a: xii; see Joffe 1993: 15, Fig. 3). A similar methodological approach was used by other participants in the Negev Emergency Survey, although their survey methodologies were not influenced, at least overtly, by travel accounts and archaeological surveys from the late 19th and early 20th centuries (e.g., Avni 1992a: 12*-13*; Rosen 1994: 12*-13*).4 From 1979-1989 Mizpe Ramon served as a logistical base for Haiman’s survey team, as well as for three additional survey crews. The research center in Mizpe Ramon contained an office, a store, and a radio station to maintain contact with the teams as they initially lived in the field. By the mid-1980s the presence of a paved road enabled Haiman’s team, and others, to live in Mizpe Ramon and commute to the field. Fieldwork began on Sunday and concluded on Thursday. A typical day in the field lasted from 8 to 10 hours, excluding the two hour roundtrip drive from Mizpe Ramon to the survey area. Friday was set aside in order to process the small finds and to plot the location of sites on a 1:20,000 topographical map.

As a topographical unit the Ramat Barnea plateau extends from the Negev Highlands into Sinai where it abuts the plateau of northern Sinai (Haiman 1986: 12*). At this juncture, the Ramat Barnea plateau terminates as a cliff, varying in height from 20-100 m. Located before this juncture are the springs of 'Ein el-Gudeirat and Ein Qadeis. In order to include the rest of the Ramat Barnea plateau in his project, Haiman extended his survey universe 50 kms to the west of Map 198 (Haiman 1986: 12*, 1989: 175, 2007).

The pedestrian survey consisted of two to three persons walking at a distance of 50 to 100 m apart. The distance between each surveyor obviously varied due to topographical conditions. The teams were able to cover 1 km2 per day, which in fact required walking 5 to 10 km per day. All survey equipment, including food and 3 to 5 liters of water, was carried by each member of the team. Some of the equipment included a camera, drawing equipment and 1:50,000 topographical map.

The annual rainfall in the central Negev Highlands varies from 75-150 mm and as a result, this region is categorized as an arid degraded steppe (Rosen 1992: 1061). In this area, the potential for agriculture is limited to the exploitation of seasonal water channels (e.g., Mayerson 1961: 21-32; Avni 1992b: 250). Identified water resources are limited and primarily located around the edges of the Negev Highlands (Haiman 1989: 174175) (Fig 1.1). In the vicinity of Har Hemat the nearest water sources are 15 km away (Haiman 1989: 174-175).

The areas surveyed by Haiman, as elsewhere in most of the Negev, are characterized by a high density of wellpreserved archaeological sites. Their preservation is broadly attributed to three contributory factors that are not mutually exclusive: the use of stone as construction material, the absence of continuous reoccupation over multiple periods, and the fact that many sites were not buried under sediments. Given the density and spatial relationships of the sites in the survey area, it was initially difficult for Haiman to clearly define site boundaries (Haiman 1989: 175, 177):

Haiman’s methodological approach to this salvage project was influenced in part by the travel literature and archaeological publications from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.4 He recognized that variations in the architectural layout of sites as described in the publications of Palmer (e.g. 1871/1977) and Woolley and Lawrence (1915) provided a means to identify different archaeological cultures in the Negev Highlands and in parts of Sinai. For instance, Palmer described a “culture” located in the Tih plateau that was characterized by “Cities of Circles” (1871/1977: 134-139). Haiman

In certain cases, an installation belonging to a settlement from one period was found closer to a settlement from another period. Certain installations, such as animal pens and silos, are of crucial importance in determining how the inhabitants of the site earned their livelihood; if they are attributed to the wrong sites it is easy to form a mistaken impression of the character and livelihood of the population. The most important task, then, is to

4 Similar methods have been employed by some North American and European archaeologists who worked in the larger Near East (e.g., Whallon et al. 1981: 50-51; Wilkinson 2003:11; 41-42, 172-183; Zarins et al. 1980). Based on their publications, however, it is apparent that their survey methods developed for reasons which were independent from Haiman.

4

CHAPTER 1: A METHODOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF MORDECHAI HAIMAN’S FIELDWORK

Emergency Survey employed similar survey techniques that focused on the layout and construction of architectural remains, however, they were influenced by survey methods based in Anthropology and Prehistory (e.g., Avni 1992a: 12*-13*; Rosen 1994: 12*-13*). Haiman’s emphasis on recording the architectural layouts and construction techniques of archaeological sites provided a method by which to determine their date and function, which in turn allowed for a diachronic reconstruction of the socio-economic organization of the population of the western Negev Highlands (Haiman 1986: 14*-24*; 1989: 177-191; 1991: 14*-24*; 1995; 1999: 8*-13*; 2007: 307-311). His excavations conducted in the course of the Negev Emergency Survey sampled a variety of archaeological sites, such as cairns, tumuli, habitation sites, and what appear to be open airshrines (see Chapter 2). This data provides a wealth of information on arid zone populations in the southern Levant.

unravel the intricate confusion of artefacts [sic] and determine which settlements and installations are associated, so that they can be correctly attributed to the proper period. Therefore, separate groupings of architectural remains and their associated artifacts were recorded as individual sites, with their dating uncertain but suggested by architectural comparanda. This method enabled Haiman to attribute recorded archaeological sites to specific periods based upon their architectural layout and the nature of their construction. Using this methodological approach it was also possible to associate the pottery found on the surface with the architectural remains. Based on his fieldwork and subsequent analysis of the data, Haiman concluded that physical proximity between different structural remains does not necessarily indicate they should be attributed to the same chronological period. It became apparent from the analysis of the survey data that each period has its own settlement pattern with distinctive architectural features and installations that reflected various functions. Differences in settlement patterns and functions can be ascertained for many chronological periods, since the sites are numerous, well preserved, and documented in detail.

References AVNI, G. 1992a – Map of Har Saggi Northeast (225). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

In light of the excellent preservation it was possible at many sites to record the plan and dimensions of the architecture. On average, there were 5 sites per 1 km, and each required about 45 minutes to record. Documenting a site included a description of the extent architectural remains and/or artifact scatters, as well as physical location of the site on the landscape. Grid coordinates for the Israel grid as well as UTM coordinates were recorded for each archaeological site. Based on the nature of the architectural remains and the extent surface finds survey teams determined and/or interpreted the function and date/s of the site. Sites were dated based upon surface finds. As a rule, only 15 minutes were allocated for collecting pottery, and only indicative sherds were collected. In some instances, pottery and flint artifacts were collected within a 1 sq. m grid. Archaeological sites were not drawn in the course of the survey, because of the large amount of equipment that would have had to be transported to the field. Instead, after the completion of each survey map, two months were required in order to draw detailed site plans. Due to the diversity of the archaeological sites encountered, sites were drawn at varying scales. Thus, cairn fields and agricultural systems were drawn at a scale of 1:500 or 1:2500 since these types of sites could spread over an area of 2 to 3 km. In contrast sites varying in size from one to five dunams were drawn on a scale of 1:250, while individual features and installations were illustrated at a scale of either 1:20 or 1:50.

AVNI, G. 1992b – Survey of Deserted Bedouin Campsites in the Negev Highlands and its Implications for Archaeological Research. Pp. 241-254 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press. BARAM, U. 2000 – Entangled Objects from the Palestinian Past. Archaeological Perspectives for the Ottoman Period, 1500-1900. Pp. 137-159 in A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire. Breaking New Ground, eds. U. Baram and L. A. Carroll. New York: Kluwer Academic-Plenum Publishers. BARUCH, B. and K.V ASHDI n.d. – From the Israel Department of Antiquities to the Founding of the Israel Antiquities Authority. http://www.antiquities. org.il/article_Item_eng.asp?sec_id=38&subj_id=154# MMMas (accessed 8 January 2014). BAUMGARTEN, Y. 2004 – Map of Shivta (166). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. COHEN, R. 1981 – Map of Sede Boqer-East (168) 13-03. Jerusalem: The Archaeological Survey of Israel. COHEN, R. 1985 – Map of Sede-Boqer-West (167). Jerusalem: Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel. COHEN, R. 1986 – Preface. Pp. 5*-7* in Map of Har Hamran-Southwest (198), ed. M. Haiman. Jerusalem: The Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem.

CONCLUSIONS The methodological foundation of Haiman’s survey methodology is unique in Levantine and Near Eastern Archaeology. Some of his colleagues in the Negev

GAZIT, D. 1996 – Map of Urim (125). Jerusalem: Archaeological Survey of Israel. Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel. 5

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

GORING-MORRIS, A. N. 1987 – At the Edge. Terminal Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherers in the Negev and Sinai. BAR International Series 361 (i-ii). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

4.

LENDER, Y. Y. 1990 – Map of Har Nafha (196). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

HAIMAN, M. 1986 – Map of Har Hamran-Southwest (198) 10-00. Jerusalem: The Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

LEVY, T. E. and O. BAR-YOSEF 1995 – Preface.Pp. ix-xvi in The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land, ed. T. E. Levy. New York: Facts on File.

HAIMAN, M. 1989 – Preliminary Report of the Western Negev Highlands Emergency Survey. Israel Exploration Journal 39: 173-191.

MAYERSON, P. 1961 – The Ancient Agricultural Regime of Nessana and the Central Negeb. London: Colt Archaeological Institute.

HAIMAN, M. 1991 – Map of Mizpe Ramon Southwest (200). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

PALMER, E., Henry 1871/1977 – The Desert of the Exodus. Reprinted edition. New York: Arno Press. ROSEN, S. A. 1981 – Observations on Bedouin Archaeological Sites near Ma’aleh Ramon, Israel. Forum for Middle East Research in Anthropology 5 (2): 11-14.

HAIMAN, M. 1992a – Early Settlement Patterns of the Negev Highlands: Analysis of the Findings of the Negev Emergency Survey 1979-1989. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

ROSEN, S. A. 1987a – Byzantine Nomadism in the Negev: Results from the Emergency Survey. Journal of Field Archaeology 14: 29-42.

HAIMAN, M. 1992b – Sedentarism and Pastoralism in the Negev Highlands in the Early Bronze Age: Results of the Western Negev Highlands Emergency Survey. Pp. 93-104 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press.

ROSEN, S. A. 1987b – Demographic Trends in the Negev Highlands. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 266: 45-58. ROSEN, S. A. 1992 – Negeb.Pp. 1061-1064 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D. N. Freedman.Volume 4 K-N. New York: Doubleday.

HAIMAN, M. 1993 – Map of Har Hamran Southeast (1999). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

ROSEN, S. A. 1994 – Map of Makhtesh Ramon (204). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

HAIMAN, M. 1995 – An Early Islamic Period Farm at Nahal Mitnan in the Negev Highlands. 'Atiqot 26: 113.

SCHICK, R. 1997-1998 – The Archaeology of Palestine/ Jordan in the Early Ottoman Period. ARAM 9-10: 563575.

HAIMAN, M. 1999 – Map of Har Ramon (203). Jerusalem: Archaeological Survey of Israel. The Israel Antiquities Authority, the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

WHALEN, N., A. KILLICK, N. JAMES, G. MORSI and M. KAMAL 1981 – Saudi Arabian Archaeological Reconnaissance 1980. Atlal 5: 43-84.

HAIMAN, M. 2007 – Archaeological Survey of the Kadesh Barnea Vicinity: 'Ein el-Qudeirat and 'Ein Qadis.Pp. 307-351 in Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

WILKINSON, T. J. 2003 – Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: University of Arizona. WOOLLEY, L., T. E. LAWRENCE 1915 – The Wilderness of Zin. Annual Palestine Exploration Fund III (19141915). ZARINS, J., N. WHALEN, M. IBRAHIM, A. J. MURSI and M. KHAN 1980 – Comprehensive archaeological Survey Program. Preliminary Report on the Central and Southwestern Provinces Survey: 1979. Atlal 4: 9-36.

JOFFE, A. H. 1993 – Settlement and Society in the Early Bronze I & II Southern Levant: Complementarity and Contradiction in a Small-scale Complex Society.

6

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Chapter 2: THE FIELDWORK BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL AND MORDECHAI HAIMAN Negev Highlands (Figs. 1.2, 2.1). It was previously surveyed by Y. Aharoni in 1959 (Aharoni et al. 1960: 26, fig. 1, Site 111) and later by Y. Lender in 1978 under the aegis of the Negev Emergency Survey. This site covers an area of 100 x 200 m, and it is divided into three discrete locations identified as Areas A, B, and C, which were excavated in October 1979.

INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the excavations carried out by Haiman in the course of the Negev Emergency Survey. Since it represents the final publication of this material, Haiman has in some instances redrawn the boundaries of sites, as a result of which they differ from their preliminary publication, necessitating that the sites be renamed in this report (Table 2.1). The previously used site name appears in parentheses after the new designation in the headings. The site descriptions below are given in order of north (Site 1) to south (Site 33).

Area A This area consists of seven cairns located on the top and slope of a hill (Fig. 2.1). Six of the seven cairns are uniformly constructed, and vary in size from 5-9 m in diameter. Their exterior is demarcated by a ring of upright standing stones that typically measure 1 m in height. The space between the frame and the burial cist in the center is filled with small stones. The tops of these six cairn are characterized by a level surface. All seven cairns are interpreted as evidence of a burial cult.

SITE 1 (RAMAT MATRED 3) This settlement (map ref. 11920/02215) is located at the northern end of the Ramat Matred plateau in the central

Fig. 2.1. Site 1, plan of architectural units. Redrawn and modified after Haiman (1994:23, Plan 1) 7

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 2.1. Site names and their grid coordinates. These are the same grid co-ordinates used in the published survey maps for the Negev Emergency Survey. This grid system has been revised by Israeli government New Site Name

PreviousSite name

Latitude

Longitude

1

Ramat Matred 3

119200

1022150

2

Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 1

101250

1010350

3

Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 2

101200

1010050

4

Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 7

100700

1009990

5

Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 6

100500

1009990

6

Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 5

100150

1009990

7

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal

101900

1009200

8

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II

101400

1008950

9

Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III

101450

1008200

10

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 4

102200

1008550

11

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 5

102200

1007950

12

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 6

103500

1008000

13

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 7

102500

1007200

14

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 8

103150

1007400

15

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 9

103500

1007500

16

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 10

103100

1007050

17

Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 11

103500

1006750

18

Kadesh Barnea 77-8

97050

1007250

19

Kadesh Barnea 86-3

98100

1006500

20

Kadesh Barnea 85-1

98800

1005700

21

Kadesh Barnea 85/4

98250

1005700

22

Kadesh Barnea 95/2

99150

1005100

23

Har Horsha

104000

1000500

24

Har Saggi Site 8/Har Hameara Cairn Field

107450

981750

25

Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II

107100

980600

26

Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I

106750

980250

27

Har Saggi Site 1/Biq’at Hissun

115850

976250

28

Har Saggi Site 2

115450

976300

29

Har Saggi Site 3

115400

976500

30

Har Saggi site 7

114750

976600

31

Har Saggi Site 4

114500

976650

32

Har Saggi Site 6

114200

976550

33

Har Saggi Site 5

114300

976300

of the cairn (Fig. 2.4). The majority of the snail shells were cracked, indicating that they had been eaten by rodents.

Excavations were conducted in Cairns 30 and 61. The former is representative of the six cairns, while the latter differs in construction and plan. Positioned on top of a hill, Cairn 30 is oval in shape (7 x 9 m) and it stands to a height of 0.80 m (Fig. 2.2). The oval burial cist in the center measures 0.8 x 1.60 m (Fig. 2.3). The southern end of the burial cist is sealed with a capstone that was clearly visible prior to the start of the excavation. The burial cist was filled with yellow loess that was devoid of material culture. Significant quantities of snails were found in the loess inside the burial chamber and in between the stones that filled the core

At a later time a small stone pile, 2.0 m in diameter and 0.40 m in height, was constructed on top of the western side of Cairn 30. This small stone pile contained a depression as if to accommodate a burial, however, no human remains were recovered. This phenomenon is found at other cairn fields located in the western Negev Highlands (e.g., Haiman 1986: 123*, Sites 367, 222, and 367). 8

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Cairn 61 is located approximately 30 m to the south of Structure 2 in Area B. The cairn measures approximately 3 x 4 m and stands 0.54 m in height. Its eastern half lacks the typical exterior frame of standing stones and is instead largely demarcated by a stone fill containing a few large stones. It is possible that some of the other large stones had been robbed from Cairn 61 for the construction of Structure 2. There are two adjoining burial cists in the center of the cairn, both sealed with a single course of large stones. These chambers are built of large standing stones, 1 m in height, arranged in a circular pattern. The northern and southern burial cists measure 0.66 m and 0.50 m in depth, respectively. Their otherwise sterile fill of loess contained large quantities of cracked snail shells. Area B Area B contains two architectural units, Structure 1 and Structure 2, positioned on a steep slope (Figs. 2.1, 2.5). In order to compensate for the steepness of the slope, portions of both structures were built on two terraces that vary from 1-2 m in elevation. The layout of both structures was clearly visible prior to the excavation. Fieldwork carried out in both architectural units often reached virgin soil approximately 0.40 m below the surface of the ground.

Fig. 2.2. Site 1, Area A, plan of Cairn 30. Redrawn after Haiman (1994: 24, Plan 2)

Structure 1 measures 20 x 25 m (Fig. 2.5), and the preserved stone walls vary from 1-3 courses, or 0.50-0.80 m in height. In order to compensate for the slope of the hill a terrace wall divided Structure 1 into two unequal portions. The terrace wall also functioned as the southern wall for Loci 52, 53, 56 and 57 (Fig. 2.5). The walls of these rooms are made of fieldstones of varying size. For example, the northern, western, and southern walls of Room 52 (4 x 3) were built of large stones that measured up to 1 m in length, whereas the eastern wall was constructed of small fieldstones. The doorway of Locus 52 is situated in the eastern wall, and it opened onto Courtyard 43. Fieldwork inside Room 52 exposed a floor made of white chalk, which was located 0.10 m below the walls that enclosed this locus. Among the material culture unearthed on this floor was EB II pottery. Very large stones, up to 2 m in length were used to construct the northern wall of Locus 53, while smaller stones were used to build the remaining walls of this room (Fig. 2.5). Excavations inside this Locus 53 failed to identify a floor.

Fig. 2.3. Site 1, Area A, Cairn 30, view to the east

Room 56 measures 6 x 3 m and the Room 57 measures 4 x 5 m. The exterior walls of both rooms are built of large stones of up to 2 m in length, while much smaller stones were used for constructing the interior walls. The earthen floors inside Rooms 56 and 57 contained EB II pottery and lithics (see Chapters 3 and 4, this volume). Room 55 (2.5 x 3 m) abutted the western wall of Room 56. Large boulders were used to construct the northern wall of Locus 55, while stones smaller than 1 m were used for the remaining walls. Excavations inside this locus unearthed lithics on which were laying on an earthen surface (see Chapter 3, this volume).

Fig. 2.4. Site 1, Area A, view of the snails in a section of the burial cist in Cairn 30 9

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.5. Site 1, plan of Structure 1 in Area B. Note that the heavy black line demarcates the upper and lower terraces in this architectural unit 3 m in width and functions as a terrace wall between the upper and lower parts of this structure. The difference in elevation between the upper and lower terraces is 2 m. The upper level includes Courtyard 47 (4 x 8 m), in which an earthen floor was identified 0.20 m below ground level. Flint chips were found lying horizontally on this surface. A small stone cist, Locus 49 (1 m in diameter and 0.15 in depth), was built into the eastern wall of Courtyard 47. Locus 46 (2.5 m in diameter) is a circular room that was built into the northern wall of Courtyard 47. The walls of Room 46 are haphazardly constructed of up to three courses of small stones, and earthen floor was exposed 0.10 m below the walls. The entrance into this enclosed space was located in the northern wall.

The lower terrace of Structure 1 contained a series of courtyards and rooms. Three small courtyards, Loci 41, 43 and 54, covered an area that measured 8 x 15 m (Fig. 2.5). Excavations in Courtyard 54 continued until bedrock was reached. A hearth measuring 0.5 m in diameter and 0.10 m in depth was exposed in the eastern end of Locus 54. The color of the ash was very dark and it contained chips of flint. A small amount of EB II pottery were scattered around this hearth. Structure 58 is a poorly preserved construction that is defined by the southwestern wall of Courtyard 54 and an east-west wall that measured 3 m in length. Excavations in Structure 58 exposed a hearth, 0.5 m in diameter, in the center of this locus. Room 42 is circular in shape, 2.5 m in diameter, and it is attached to the eastern wall of Courtyard 43. No fieldwork was conduct in this locus. Excavations inside Room 40 (3 x 3 m), which is attached the exterior face of the wall enclosing Courtyard 43, removed 0.13 m of sterile sediment.

To the west of Courtyard 47 is Courtyard 48 (Fig. 2.6) which measures approximately 5 x 5 m. Excavations in Courtyard 48 identified an earthen surface 0.20 m below ground level. No patches of ash were found on this floor, however, flint chips and a sherd were found lying horizontally on it. In the southwestern end of Courtyard 48 there is a small room, Locus 44, which measures 1 x 3 m. The walls of this small room are made of small stones, and this locus is interpreted as a storage area.

Structure 2 is located 30 m to the south of Structure 1 (Figs. 2.1, 2.6). Structure 2 contains three courtyards that are surrounded by ten rooms and niches, which cover an area of 15 x 15 m. It is assumed that the larger rooms were used for habitation and the smaller loci for storage. The wall that divides Courtyards 39 and 47 varies from 210

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Fig. 2.6. Site 1, plan of Structure 2 in Area B, Site 1. Note that the heavy black line demarcates the upper and lower terraces in this architectural unit Structures 1 and 2 encompass an area of 700 sq. m. Within both architectural units the space set aside for courtyards and/or animal pens totals 350 sq. m. In Structures 1 and 2 the following well-built loci are believed to have functioned as dwelling units: 35, 36, 40, 42, 51, 53, 55, 56, and 57. The area of these rooms is 150 sq. m, averaging 15 sq. m per dwelling unit. Rooms that are smaller in size than the dwellings units, such as Loci 31-1 and 44, collectively measure 100 sq. m, and most likely were used for storage. The remaining area is covered by terrace walls which collectively measure 100 sq. m.

Room 51 is a round dwelling measuring 3.50 m in diameter. Rather than opening into Courtyard 47 or Room 59 the entrance to Room 51 is located in the southern wall. Room 59 is built against the exterior face of the wall that enclosed Courtyard 47. To the east of Room 59 is a large circular structure, Locus 201 that was built on top of the collapsed Early Bronze Age architecture. This circular structure measures 4 m in diameter and it is constructed of small stones. The walls that enclosed this locus measure 1 m width, and they are preserved to a height of 1 m. Test excavations were conducted in various loci in the lower terrace of Structure 2. Fieldwork was conducted in Locus 60, in the northern end of Courtyard 39, and this work yielded nothing of note. Room 35 is an oval shaped locus (2 x 4 m) that is built of three courses of small stones. A living surface was identified 0.20 m below ground level, and EB II material culture was found on it. A single bone from a sheep or goat was also unearthed on this surface. Room 31, measuring 2 m in diameter, is located in the southeastern corner of Courtyard 47. Its entrance is on the east side of this dwelling and it opened onto the exterior of Structure 2. Inside Room 31 there are two cists, Loci 31-1, 31-2, located in the northeastern end of this locus.

Area C Structure 37 contained a circular courtyard (10 m in diameter), a circular room, and four installations (Figs. 2.7, 2.8). The courtyard is partially enclosed by a wall made of large stones measuring 1 m in length. The surface of Courtyard 37 was covered with a dense scatter of material culture including: grinding stones, lithics, ostrich-egg shells, pottery and fauna remains such as sheep and/or goat bones. Depending on the density of surface finds, the artifacts were systematically collected in quadrants, in some cases as small as 1 m. In quadrant C2/12 (L37-5), test excavations reached bedrock after 11

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.7. Site 1, plan of Area C. The grid was used to collect the dense scatter of surface finds

its walls were made of large stones of 1 m in length (Fig. 2.8). On the surface of this locus was a scatter of Black/Grey Gaza ware sherds which are indicative of occupations from the Ottoman and/or British Mandate periods. Fieldwork inside this locus removed 0.60 m of ash which contained the following types of material culture: a flint hammer stone, fragments of sandstone grinding stones, and EB II pottery. Installation 38 is located 30 m to the north of Structure 37, and contains two abutting cists measuring 1 and 2 m in diameter, respectively (Fig. 2.9). Removal of the sediments in each cist exposed a floor covered with ash and flint chips. Installation 37-1, located 10 m to the east of Courtyard 37 (Figs. 2.10, 2.11), is built with upright stones and the floor paved with flat stones. It might have functioned either as a silo or an oven. In the Negev Highlands this type of installation appears at sites as early as the Neolithic period (e.g., Kochavi 1969:73; Bar-Yosef 1980:35, fig. 9).

Fig. 2.8. Site 1, Area C, view to the north of Courtyard 37 and Room 37-3 (Left Corner)

0.20 m of sediment were removed, however, the sediments were sterile.

The finds of hammer stones, grinding stones, numerous flint tools in Area C indicate that the economy of the inhabitants may have been based on a specialized

Circular Room 37-3 is attached to the northern end of Courtyard 37. This locus measures 2.5 m in diameter and 12

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

proposed that this part of the site may have been used for leather production. The presence of sickle blade segments indicates that there may also have been agricultural activity, albeit on a limited scale (e.g., Rosen 2010: 209, 211-212). The dearth of animal pens at Site 1 suggests that animal husbandry was not an important economic activity. Site 1 is typical of many EB II sites dispersed throughout the Negev Highlands and Sinai (e.g., Haiman 1992a). The presence at this site of rope decorated holemouth vessels (see Chapter 4, this volume), may indicate that the EB II settlement pattern in the Negev Highlands may have started at the end of the EB I, corresponding with stratum IV at Arad. Site 1 is classified as a permanent site on the basis of the relative solidity of the construction, the high ratio of dwelling areas to the total area of the structures, and its proximity to a cairn cluster. In contrast to other permanent sites, Site 1 is not situated next to a source of water, the nearest of which are ‘En Avdat 9 km to the east, and Be’er Nahal Lavan 10 km to the south. In the Negev Highlands, sites located so far from a water source are usually defined as seasonal sites. Site 1 may have been in use for only a brief period of time as suggested by its distance from water sources, the lack of clearly marked floors, the paucity of ash layers, and the scanty amount of material culture and faunal remains.

Fig. 2.9. Site 1, view of Locus 38 in Area C

SITE 2 (SHELUHAT KADESH BARNEA SITE 1) Site 2 is located on a steep spur extending northward from the ridge of Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea (Old Israel Grid 10125 01035) (Figs. 1.2, 2.12). The site contains four poorly preserved architectural units (Fig. 2.13). Structure 1 (33 x 25 m) contains five courtyards and/or animal pens and seven rooms (Fig. 2.12). The walls were built of unhewn stones as large as 0.60 m in length. The meager amount of stone fall inside Structure 1 indicates that the height of the walls did not exceed 0.80 m. The loci identified as courtyards and/or animal pens (Loci 107, 112, 113, 114, and 117) were unlikely to have functioned as dwellings as these spaces were too large to be roofed. Loci measuring 2-4 m in diameter are identified as dwelling rooms and/or storage areas.

Fig. 2.10. Site 1, plan of Locus 37-1 in Area C

Excavations were carried out in Loci 106 and 107 (Fig. 2.12). Locus 106 is an oval shaped room (3.5 x 4.5 m), with walls made of unhewn stones up to 0.50 m in length, and preserved up to two courses in height. No entranceway was found. The floor was covered with stone fall and sediments to a height of ca. 0.50 m. This earthen surface measured 0.10 m. in depth, and it extended up to the basal course of the wall that enclosed this locus. Finds include six chisels (axes), Early Bronze II pottery sherds, flint tools and waste, and a grinding stone.

Fig. 2.11. Site 1, view of Locus 37-1 in Area C

Fieldwork was conducted in the northern part of Locus 107, a courtyard measuring 8 m in diameter (Fig. 2.12). The limited amount of stone fall both inside and outside of the courtyard indicates that the enclosing wall did not

industry that required the use of these implements (see Chapter 3 and 7, see volume). Cohen (1986:228) has 13

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.12. Site 2, plan of structures 1-4

Fig. 2.13. Site 2, Structures 1 and 2, view to the west

Fig. 2.14. Site 2, Structure 2, view to the north. Structure 1 is visible in the background

exceed 1 m in height. The earthen surface extended to the basal level of the enclosing stone wall, and it was sealed with 0.3 m of sediments and a meager amount of stone fall. A few ash lenses were exposed on top of this earthen floor, and flint artifacts and pottery sherds were unearthed in these sediments.

suggests that its original height was approximately 1 m. An earthen floor was found underneath 0.2 m of sediment and it extended to the bottom of the enclosing wall. The material culture found on this surface includes flint tools, debitage and EB II sherds. Rooms 120 and 121 abutted the wall of Courtyard 105, and their entrances opened onto this courtyard. Room 121 is rectangular in shape, measuring 3 x 3.5 m, and Room 120 is trapezoidal in shape, measuring 2.8 x 3.2 m and both are constructed with small stones

Structure 2 measures approximately 17 m in diameter and contains four courtyards and/or animal pens (Loci 102, 103, 105 and 122) and eight rooms (Figs. 2.12, 2.14). The excavations exposed entrances to both dwellings units and courtyards. Based on its plan, specific rooms were associated with specific courtyards. Courtyard 105 is oval in shape, measuring 9 x 7 m, with its entrance located in the northern wall. The stone walls demarcating the courtyard are preserved to a height of 2 courses; but, the large amount of stone fall along the line of the wall

Courtyard 103 and Room 104 abutted the western wall of Courtyard 105 (Fig. 2.12). Excavations in both loci failed to identify entrances. Courtyard 103 is oval in shape, measuring 3.8 x 6.5 m. Finds from the sediments include EB II pottery, lithic artifacts, and bronze fragments. 14

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Fig. 2.15. Site 2, Structure 2 view to towards the southeast of Loci 101 and 102

Fig. 2.16. Site 2, Structure 2 view to towards the southeast of Loci 100 and 101

Fieldwork inside Room 104, 3.8 m in diameter, unearthed lithics and EB II sherds which were lying on top of an earthen surface. Courtyard 102 measures 8 x 8 m (Fig. 2.15), and its entrance is located in its western wall. Rooms 118 and 119 abut the exterior face of the wall that enclosed Courtyard 102. Room 118 is oval in shape (3.5 x 2.5 m), with walls constructed of unhewn stones, up to 0.60 m in length, preserved up to 2 courses in height. The room was filled with stone fall. Although excavations were not conducted, it was nevertheless possible to identify a doorway leading from Room 118 into Courtyard 102. Room 119 was partially preserved. It is oval in shape (2 x 4 m) with walls built of unhewn stones up to 0.6 m in length.

Fig. 2.17. Site 2, view of Locus 100 in Structure 2

Courtyard 122 is circular in shape, 6 m in diameter with two entrances, one on its western and eastern sides. Abutting the northern wall of Courtyard 122 were Rooms 100 and 101 (Fig. 2.16). Room 100 is oval in shape and measures 2.8 x 3.8 m (Fig. 2.17). Abutting the west side of Locus 100 is a small room identified as Locus 130. The interior of this locus was filled with stone fall. Room 101 is oval in shape and it is constructed of unhewn stones. This locus measures 2 x 3 m and fieldwork failed to locate an entrance into this structure (Fig. 2.16). Structure 3 is constructed of unhewn stones up to 0.6 m in length, and the walls are preserved to a height of one course (Fig. 2.12). The courtyard, Locus 123, measures 5.8 m in diameter, and excavations were not carried out in this space.

Fig. 2.18. Site 2, plan of cairn 150

Structure 4 consists of several poorly preserved courtyards and rooms (Fig. 2.12). This architectural unit measures 17 x 12 m and its walls are made of stones heaped on top of one another to form walls that are broad at the base and narrower as they increase in height. The base of the walls typically measure 0.8 m in width and they are preserved to a height of 0.6 m. Structure 4 contains a courtyard (7 m in diameter) identified as Locus 125 with walls preserved to one row in height made of stones measuring 0.4 m in length. The scatter of stones inside and outside of Locus 125 indicates that the original

height of the walls did not exceed two or three courses. Locus 127 is a small construction in Structure 4 that measures 3 m in diameter. Although Structure 4 is damaged, it is assumed that the plan of this construction is similar to the other architectural units at this site. Cairn 150 is situated on top of a hill approximately 70 m south of Structures 1-4. It is oval in shape measuring 5.5 x 6.5 m and 0.70 m high (Fig. 2.18). Each of the three 15

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.19. Site 3, general view of the site. View towards the west

Fig. 2.20. Site 3, plan of the architectural unit

to a height of one course. Stones of up to 0.5 m in length were used for the northern wall of the courtyard while the southern wall was constructed in a haphazard manner. Although the excavations in Courtyard 200 reached below the walls, no anthropogenic surface or surfaces were identified. The following artifacts found inside Courtyard 200 include lithic waste, a chisel/adze, and a fragment of a grinding stone.

burial cists in the center of the cairn is 1 m in diameter. The number of burial cists inside Tumulus 150 is unique, as most tumuli contain only one. SITE 3 (SHELUHAT KADESH BARNEA SITE 2) This site is located on a steep ridge (Old Israel Grid 10120/01005) that is an extension of Jebel Tiwal (Figs. 2.19-2.20). It comprises a single architectural unit approximately 25 x 15 m. Since the site is constructed on a slope, the heights of the walls and surfaces within the unit vary by as much as 1 m in elevation. Furthermore, the walls between the rooms also functioned as terrace walls, enabling the horizontal expansion of the unit on the slope of Jebel Tiwal.

Room 201 is kidney-shaped (6 x 2.5 m) (Figs. 2.22, 2.23) with walls made of unhewn stones measuring as much as 0.6 m in length. In various parts of the wall large stones were placed on end. The walls are preserved to a height of one course and the amount of stone fall inside and adjacent to the room suggests that their original height was not much higher, perhaps one more course. It is probable that the upper part of the walls and roof were constructed with organic materials. Excavations in Room 201 failed to find a surface, although, there might have

Courtyard 200 is oval in shape (5.5 x 8 m) (Figs. 2.20, 2.21) with walls constructed of unhewn stones preserved 16

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Fig. 2.21. Site 3, view to the east of Locus 200

Fig. 2.24. Site 3, view of Locus 208 in Locus 201

Fig. 2.22. Site 3, view to the southeast of Loci 201-203 Fig. 2.25. Site 3, view of Locus 209 in Locus 201

Fig. 2.23. Site 3, view to the west of Loci 200-202 Fig. 2.26. Site 3, view of Locus 203 been an earthen surface below its walls. In particular, the elevation of Installations 208 and 209 raise the possibility of a floor located 0.15 above the basal height of the stone walls. Installation 208 comprising two large stones measuring 0.5 m in length, with a flat stone on top of them measuring 0.6 x 0.9 m. This construction is interpreted as a table (Fig. 2.24). Installation 209 is a circle of stones measuring 0.7 m in diameter abutting the northwestern wall of Room 201 (Fig. 2.25). Given the solid nature of the construction of Room 201, and the presence of Installations 208 and 209, it seems that it served as a dwelling.

lithic scrapers and debitage. No ash layers or lenses were found on this surface. Rooms 201 and 202 are interpreted as loci that served a domestic function. Courtyard 203 is irregular in shape (6 x 8 m) (Fig. 2.26). The wall separating Room 202 and Courtyard 203 functioned as a terrace wall, and the difference in elevation between these two loci is 0.5 m. The walls of Courtyard 203 are made of unhewn stones stacked on top of one another to a height of 0.40 m. A leveling fill of small stones and dirt functioned as an earthen surface in Courtyard 203. Excavation of this surface exposed a concentration of ash (Locus 214), 1 m in diameter and 5 cm deep. The elevation of the ash lens is 10 cm above the basal course of the stone walls. No artifacts were found inside the courtyard.

Room 202 is horseshoe-shaped (5 x 4.5 m), open on its western side where it fronts a passageway identified as Locus 210. The walls of Room 202 are constructed of large stones measuring up to 0.6 m in length. Fieldwork inside Room 202 exposed an earthen floor that contained 17

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Courtyard 204 is oval in shape (12 x 9 m) with walls constructed of unhewn stones of various sizes. The stones on the exterior face of the wall measured as much as 0.7 m in length, whereas those on the interior face vary in length from 0.3-0.5 m. Half of the locus was excavated and the sediment was sterile. Built into the northeastern wall of Courtyard 204 are two Cells 211 and 217. Circular Cell 211 measures 1 m in diameter, is constructed of unhewn stones, with walls preserved to the height of one course. Cell 217 measures 2 x 1 m and is constructed with unhewn stones varying in length from 0.2-0.4 m. Excavations inside Cell 217 reached below the lowest course of the enclosing wall, but, the sediment was sterile. Courtyard 205 measures 14 x 9 m. Test excavations at its eastern end identified the remains of one or perhaps two courtyards, as well as circular installation (Locus 207) abutting the northern wall. Courtyard 206, located between Courtyards 204 and 205, measures 8 x 3 m (Fig. 2.20). The walls are made of unhewn stones, preserved to a height of two courses. No entrance was located.

215 are made of unhewn stones preserved to a height of one course. Fieldwork exposed a beaten earth surface that extended to the basal course of the walls enclosing the cell. The sediments inside Cell 215 were sterile.

Corridor 210 is 8 m long and 2.5 m wide; its extent surface is bedrock. It functioned as a corridor or passageway leading from the exterior to the interior of the architectural unit, and separates Loci 200-203 from Loci 204-205. Cell 212 is circular in shape, measuring 1 m in diameter (Fig. 2.20), and is constructed of large stones. It abuts Loci 200, 205, and 210. Cell 215, 1.5 m in diameter, is attached to the wall demarcating Courtyard 204 (Fig. 2.20). This cell is also located on the southern end of the entrance into Courtyard 204. The walls of Cell

Site 5 is a single architectural unit measuring 25 x 15 m (Fig. 2.27) located on a spur surrounded by steep slopes (Old Israel Grid 10050 00999). It comprises eight rooms (Loci 103-110) measuring 4 m in diameter, arranged around three Courtyards Loci 100-102, the size of which varies from 5-10 m in diameter. The walls enclosing the three courtyards are made of medium-size stones, were preserved to a height of two courses. Surface finds collected from the site include EB II pottery (Haiman 1986: 36*, Site 6, 66).

SITE 4 (SHELUHAT KADESH BARNEA SITE 7) This site comprises a single architectural unit measuring 30 x 30 m situated on steep ridge (Old Israel Grid 10070 00999). It includes nine circular rooms of up to 4 m in diameter positioned around a central courtyard that measuring 21 x 18 m. The walls demarcating the courtyard are constructed of medium-size stones, preserved to a height of two courses. Although this site was not excavated, lithics and pottery were collected from the surface, and these are attributed to the EB II (Haiman 1986: 36*, Site 7, 42,). SITE 5 (SHELUHAT KADESH BARNEA SITE 6)

Fig. 2.27. Site 5, plan of architectural unit

18

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Fig. 2.28. Site 6, view of settlement, looking towards the northeast

Fig. 2.29. Site 6, plan of Structures 1 and 2

142, 181; 1993:49). The excavations at both sites were conducted for a total of seven days in January-February 1982 (Fig. 2.30).

SITE 6 (SHELUHAT KADESH BARNEA SITE 5) Site 6 contains two structures positioned on a steep spur (Old Israel Grid 10015 00999) (Fig. 2.28). The northern architectural unit, Structure 1, includes three Rooms 101103 of 3-4 m in diameter, positioned around central Courtyard 104 measuring 21 x 12 m (Fig. 2.29). Excavations conducted in Room 101 unearthed lithic debitage and a few sherds of typical EB II holemouth mouth jars.

The architectural remains of Site 7 cover an area of 400 x 400 m (Haiman 1986: 43-45) (Fig. 2.31). This site also includes three Buildings 101, 115, and 150, 13 freestanding walls, and 40 cairns. Building 101 consists of three round Rooms (101-1, 101-2, and 101-3) arranged in a linear pattern. The walls are built of rough-hewn stones measuring up to 0.8 m in length, preserved to a height of one course. Locus 101-3 is an oval room measuring 3 x 4 m. The excavations did not unearth material culture or ash layers raising the possibility that these loci may not have been occupied. Locus 101-2 measures 8 m in diameter, it was not excavated. Locus 101-1 measures 8 x 10 m. Excavations in this large enclosed space failed to recover any material culture or stratigraphy. These factors suggest that this room may not have been occupied. Wall 101 is a freestanding wall that measures 12 m in length, 1.2 m in width, and 0.6 m in height. This construction comprises two parallel stone walls that terminate at exterior face of the wall enclosing Locus 101-1 (Haiman 1993:53).

Structure 2 consists of two Rooms, 201-202, abutting a circular Courtyard 203 (9.8 m in diameter). Room 201 was built against the interior and Room 202 against exterior of the courtyard wall. Excavations in Room 201 unearthed lithic debitage and EB II pottery sherds. Among the surface finds collected at the site are EB II lithics and pottery as well as pottery from the Early Bronze age IV/Middle Bronze Age I period (Haiman 1986: 36, Site 5, 41). SITE 7 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN FIELD CLUSTER 1/HALUFI I/ JEBEL TIWAL) The construction of a road along the Israeli-Egyptian border in 1982 resulted in salvage excavations at Sites 7 and 9 (Haiman 1986, Sites 10, 76, 80, 82, 89, 137, 141,

Building 115 contains a large courtyard, a small structure, three cairns, and a freestanding wall (Fig. 2.32). The 19

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.31. Site 7, plan of the architectural remains and cairns

Fig. 2.30. The locations of Sites 7-17 in the area of Nahal Mitnan

Fig. 2.32. Site 7, plan of Building 115

standing to a maximum elevation of 0.5 m. The structure lacked a doorway, and was sealed with a 0.2 m layer of debris, underneath was found an ash layer 0.05-0.1 m in depth. Below the ash layer is white chalk-like sediment. Cairn 113, 6 m in diameter, has a stone frame standing to a height of 1 m; with one stone of 1.2 m in height facing to the southwest. These large standing stones retained a fill of unhewn stones that comprise the core of the cairn. The burial cist in the center was filled with sterile yellowish loess. Cairn 116, 4 m in diameter, also has a frame of large stones standing to a height of 1 m. The space between the frame and the burial cist in the center

excavations revealed that the cairns were constructed first. Cairn 112 measures 4 x 5 m and stands to a height of 0.7 m (Haiman 1993:50) (Fig. 2.33). The perimeter of the cairn is constructed of a ring of upright stone slabs. The space between the stone frame and the burial cist is filled with small stones. The burial chamber of 0.6 x 1.0 m was filled with hardened yellow loess (Fig. 2.34). Several fragments of a holemouth jar containing arkose from southern Sinai were found on surface of the cairn. Locus 119, a small oval room (3 x 4 m), was constructed against the exterior of Cairn 112. The walls vary from one to two courses in height, with the extant walls 20

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Locus 115 and Locus 117 does not extend beyond Cairn 113. Removal of the sediments in Locus 114 revealed a deposit of ash, 0.05 m in depth, that contained lithics and pottery dated to the EBA. The presence of these artifacts in this locus may indicate that domestic activities occurred outside Building 115. Freestanding Wall 110, 18 m long, 1 m wide and 0.8 m in high, is constructed of two rows of large stones, the space between which is filled with soil and stone. A small oval Cell 110-1, at the eastern end of the wall measures 1 x 1.5 m. It is constructed of upright stone slabs in a similar in technique as that used in the construction of the burial cists present in the cairns. Cell 110-1 was filled with sterile yellowish loess. Toward the eastern end of Wall 110, before it abuts the courtyard wall of Locus 115, is a small oval Room 111. The walls of Room 111 are preserved to a height of two courses and are built out of roughly hewn stones ranging in length from 0.40-0.50 m. This room was filled with a 0.40 m thick layer of wall collapse that contained many snail shells, apparently introduced by rodents (Haiman 1993:61, footnote 3). An ashy floor, 0.05-0.10 m in depth, was exposed underneath the stone fall at a slightly lower elevation than the ground surface outside of this room.

Fig. 2.33. Site 7, view of Cairn 112. Locus 115 is visible in the background

Building 150 is located at the eastern edge of the cairn cluster (Fig. 2.35). Although it was not excavated, its plan was clearly visible on the surface. The building measures 20 x 25 m and stands to a height of 0.7 m. It contains cairns, courtyards, and rooms. Three cairns are arranged in a row along the east-west axis ranging from 6 to 9 m in diameter. In the center of each cairn is a burial cist. Abutting the northern and southern ends of the central cairn are two courtyards. The four more or less circular rooms in the building measure 3-4 m in diameter. Three of the rooms are attached to cairns, while the fourth abuts the southernmost courtyard.

Fig. 2.34. Site 7, burial cist 112 located in the center of Cairn 112

of this cairn filled with small stones. The burial cist contained a deposit of yellowish loess. Excavation of the sediment unearthed a polished green diorite axe. According to Rosen this “axe is typical of Early Bronze Age assemblages in the Negev and Sinai (1993:67).”

Cairn 102 measures 8 m in diameter. The frame is made of large stones that stand to a height of 1 m (Figs. 2.36, 2.37). The space between the frame and the burial cist in the center of this cairn is filled with small stones. The burial cist measures 0.60 x 1.20 m and was filled with yellowish loess. Excavations in the cist unearthed many snail shells and fragments of an Iron Age II krater (see chapter 4, this volume). A large animal pen, Locus 102-1 (9 m in diameter) abuts the northern side of Cairn 102. Excavations in this locus failed to locate any living surfaces and the sediment was sterile.

The next stage in the construction of Building 115 is represented by the stone walls abutting each of the cairns as well as Locus 119. These walls create a large enclosed courtyard of 12 m in diameter. The construction of a dividing wall separates the large space into two smaller Courtyards 115 and 117. The dividing wall extends from the top of Cairn 113, across the courtyard, to the top of Cairn 116. The layer of debris sealing Courtyard 115 contained sherds from an EB IV/MB I jug. Underneath the debris layer, a floor level abuts the bottom of the wall that divides Loci 115 and 117. The dividing wall was apparently added at an advanced stage of the original Early Bronze Age settlement, and was not constructed during the EB IV/MB I. The floor surface also abuts the bottoms of Cairns 112, 113, and 116. Large quantities of EB II pottery and flint tools were found on this living surface.

Cairn 120 measures 10 m in diameter and is preserved to a height of 0.70 m (Figs. 2.38, 2.39). The structure is built on a foundation course of stones that extends 0.20 m beyond the base of the cairn. Large stones placed on top of this foundation formed the exterior frame and the space between the frame and the burial cist, in the center of the cairn, was filled with small stones. The burial cist is oval in shape (0.70 x 1.0 m). Removal of the sediments did not unearth material culture; only a small number of snails were found in the loess. Rooms 120-1 and 120-2 (each 3 m in diameter) abutted the southern and eastern

Excavations were undertaken in Locus 114 in order to shed light on the stratigraphic relationships outside of Courtyard 115. The fieldwork revealed that the eastern wall enclosing Locus 115 abuts the exterior walls of Cairns 112 and 113. Furthermore, the wall dividing

21

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.35. Site 7, plan of Building 150

Fig. 2.36. Site 7, Cairn 102 and Locus 102-1, view to the east

Fig. 2.38. Site 7. view to the northeast of Locus 120-1 and Cairn 120

Fig. 2.37. Site 7, plan of Cairn 102 and Locus 102-1

Fig. 2.39. Site 7, plan of Cairn 120 and Locus 120-1

sides of Cairn 120, respectively (Fig. 2.39). The walls of Room 120-1 are constructed on the stone foundation

course that extended beyond Cairn 120. Fieldwork conducted in both rooms’ unearthed EB II pottery and 22

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

flint artifactss in ashy seddiments that varied v from 0.050 0.10 m in deppth. Approximateely 50 m too the east of Cairn 1220 is freestanding Wall 118, 200 m in lengthh, 1.0 m in width, w and 0.80 m in i height (Figg. 2.40). The wall w is construucted of two row ws of large rough-hewn r stones, the space s between them m filled with soil and smalll stones. Abuutting the eastern end e of Wall 1118 is an emptty oval cist (0.50 x 1.0 m) built of stone slabs, the nature of its construuction reminiscent of o that of the burial cists inn cairns. Wall 110, located to thhe west of Building B 115 contains c a sim milar cist.

Fig. 2.442. Site 8, plann of Building 240 2 A buildings; itt is generally used to erectt freestandingg EBA wallls, such as Walls 110 and 118 at Site 7. Perhaps thiss tech hnique is assoociated with ritual structu ures, such ass those found at othher sites in thhe Negev and Sinai (Avnerr numerous EB 1984 4:125-126). Nevertheless, N E II potteryy sherrds found inside and outsidde of Building g 240 indicatee that it is contempoorary with thee cairns. E 9 (MITNA AN CAIRN FIIELD CLUST TER SITE 3/HA ALUFI III) Site 9 contains tw wo architecturral units, fourr freestandingg wallls, and 18 cairrns (Figs. 2.300, 243), spreaad out over ann areaa of 200 x 2500 m. Some of tthe architectural remains— — Arch hitectural unitts 319 and 3200, four free sttanding walls,, and seven cairns— — are arrangeed in a line on the crest off the hill, h with the remainder off the cairns sccattered alongg its so outhern slope.

Fig. 2.40. Site 7, Wall 118

AN CAIRN FIELD F SITE 8 (NAHAL MITNA CLUSTER 2/HALUFI 2 III) This site com mprises a free standing walll, two architecctural units, and 31 cairns (Figss. 2.30, 2.41)). The majority of cairns are loccated on a flaat hilltop, withh some situateed on the southern and eastern slopes s of the hill. Buildingg 238 is positionedd in a shallow depression on the westernn side of the hill. It contains sevven rooms buuilt around a small s courtyard. A freestandingg wall and Building 2400 are situated on thhe eastern sidde of the hill. Building 2400 (7 x 17 m) is parrtly built in two t rows of rough-hewn stone s (Fig. 2.42). This T construcction techniquue is unusual for

S 9, map off the extent stru uctures Fig. 2.43. Site

Arch hitectural Uniit 319 containss round Cairn n 318 (11 m inn diam meter), abutteed by a coourtyard with h two smalll adjo oining rooms (Fig. 2.44). T The frame off the cairn iss mad de of large stonnes that standd on end to a height h of 0.700 m. The T space betw ween the stonne frame and the t burial cistt in th he center of thhe cairn is fillled with smalll stones. Thee burial cist, measuuring 0.60 x 0.80 m, is built b of stonee

F 2.41. Site 8, plan of the cairns Fig. and archhitectural units ts 23

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Cairn 329, the second cairn in Architectural Unit 320, measures approximately 5 m in diameter and it has a burial cist in the center. The area between the stone frame and the burial cist is filled with small stones. Excavations in the burial cist did not unearth material culture or human remains. Room 329-1 (3.5 m diameter) is located 3 m to the northwest of Cairn 329. The walls of the room are preserved to only one course of stones. Removal of the debris layer exposed an ash floor, 0.05 m thick that abutted the bottom of the wall enclosing the room. The flint tools and holemouth jar sherds found in this ash layer are attributed to the EB II. Fig. 2.44. Site 9, plan of Structure 319

SITE 10 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN FIELD CLUSTER 4) Site 10 comprises an architectural unit, four freestanding walls, and 22 cairns positioned on flat ground encompassing an area of 350 x 400 m (Haiman 1986:89) (Figs. 2.30, 2.46). The Israeli border patrol road that passed through the center of this site damaged two of the freestanding walls (Wall 406 and Wall 414) and Cairns 401 and 408; the burial cists in both cairns were excavated, however, no artifacts were recovered. Two small rooms were attached to two of the 22 cairns. A structure situated at the western end of the cairn cluster is part of a Byzantine or Early Islamic farm (Haiman 1995).

slabs. It was filled with sterile loess. Fieldwork was conducted in Locus 319-1, a small oval room (3 x 5 m) abutting Courtyard 319. The oval room is constructed of one course of stones that typically measure 0.50 m in length. The living surface, measures 0.10 m in depth, and it contained an abundance of ash that yielded EB II flint tools and holemouth jars sherds. Architectural Unit 320 (14 x 21 m) includes two cairns, two small rooms, and three small courtyards (Fig. 2.45). Cairn 320, approximately 5 m in diameter, has a burial cist in the center. The frame of the cairn is a ring of upright stone slabs, with the area between it and the burial cist filled with small stones. Excavations in the burial cist did not unearth material culture or human remains, but did recover a small quantity of snails. Two rooms abutted the southern end of Cairn 320, and at the northern end is semicircular Room 320-1 measuring 3.5 x 4.5 m. Its walls, constructed of one to two courses of rough-hewn stones of ca. 0.50 m in length, cut into the northern wall of Cairn 320. Fieldwork inside Room 320-1 revealed a thick layer of debris, 0.40 m in depth, covering an ash-flecked floor of 0.05 in depth. The lithic tools and holemouth jar sherds found on floor dated to the EB II.

Fig. 2.46. Site 10, map of the extent structures

SITE 11 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN FIELD CLUSTER 5) Site 11 has 10 cairns and a habitation unit containing three rooms and three courtyards (Haiman 1986:119) (Fig. 2.30). Numerous EB II stone tools were collected in the course of surveying this site, including types typically found at other EB II sites in the western Negev Highlands. SITE 12 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN CLUSTER 6) Site 12 contains a freestanding wall, four structures, and 19 cairns, some have attached rooms, covering an area of

Fig. 2.45. Site 9, plan of Structure 320 24

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

250 x 500 m (Figs. 2.30, 2.47). EB II pottery and lithics were found in the vicinity of these structures, and EBIV/MB I pottery was found in the structure located at the western end of the cairn field.

SITE 16 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN CLUSTER 10) This hilltop site includes 3 freestanding walls, 6 architectural units, and 17 cairns, encompassing an area of 150 x 600 m (Fig. 2.50). The western part of the site contains a habitation unit with 2 courtyards, 2 freestanding walls, 4 cairns, and 6 rooms. A large amount of EB II material culture was found in the habitation unit.

Fig. 2.47. Site 12, plan of the structures recorded at this location

Fig. 2.50. Site 16, plan of the constructions documented at this location

SITE 13 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN CLUSTER 7) Site 13 contains 12 cairns and four freestanding walls, which are positioned on the slope and top of a hill (Figs. 2.30, 2.48). An oval cist is attached to the end of one of the freestanding walls. The area encompassed by these remains measures 100 x 300 m.

SITE 17 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN CLUSTER 11) Site 17, located at Givʻat Barnea, contains a freestanding stone wall and nine cairns (Fig. 2.51), encompassing an area of 350 sq. m (Haiman 1986:135).

Fig. 2.51. Site 17, plan of the structures

Summary

Fig. 2.48. Site 13, plan of the architectural remains

A total of 250 cairns were identified at Sites 7-17. These burial structures extend from Nahal Mitnan in Israel to Wadi el-Halufi in Egypt, an area that measures 4 sq. km (Fig. 2.30). This concentration of cairns is located 5 km to the east of 'Ain el- Qudeirat. Whether Sites 7-17 constitute a single cairn field or small independent clusters of cairns cannot be determined. Comparison with the composition of other cairn fields does not resolve this question. For example, each of the cairn clusters at Be’erotayim contains several dozen cairns, as well as freestanding walls and dwellings (Palmer 1871:359; Woolley and Lawrence 1915:24-25; Glueck 1957:19, Site 339; Cohen 1986:90). In contrast, the 100 cairns located at Har Yeruham seem to represent a single continuous cairn field (Kochavi 1967:4, 61-64). Perhaps the location chosen for the construction of a large cairn field is related to the presence of nearby water sources--in the case of Sites 7-17 the spring of ‘Ain el-Qudeirat; most, but not all, of the freestanding walls at these sites point toward the spring. Other cairn fields, including some in the Negev Highlands, are also located near water sources, such as those at ‘Ain Qadis, Be’erotayim, and Har Yeruham (Haiman 1986: Sites 367, 381, 383, 385; Erickson-Gini 2000:111*).

SITE 14 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN CLUSTER 8) Site 14 comprises two architectural units and 15 cairns scattered across a plain (Haiman 1986: 123) (Fig. 2.49).

Fig. 2.49. Site 14, plan of the structures recorded at this location

SITE 15 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN CLUSTER 9) Site 15 contains 10 cairns scattered over an area of 200 x 300 m (Fig. 2.30). Animal pens, ranging in size from 1020 m in diameter, are attached to two of the cairns. 25

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

is constructed of a ring of stones and the top of each platform is paved with flat stones. To the east of each platform is a stone pile that measures 2 m in diameter and 1 m in height. The pottery collected from the surface of this site dated to the EB IV/MB I.

As suggested elsewhere (Haiman 1992c) a distinction should be made in terms of the function of those cairns located inside EB II habitation sites, and those clustered in groups, as represented at Sites 7-17. The cairns positioned inside dwelling sites frequently contained human remains, while those excavated at Sites 7-17 were devoid of skeletal remains and material culture (Haiman 1992a: 37, table 2). The paucity of material culture and human remains in these cairns, combined with the presence of freestanding stone walls, may indicate that cairn fields were not used exclusively for burial, but rather as a setting for a mortuary cult, like the Chalcolithic cairn field at Mezad Aluf (Levy and Alon 1982).

SITE 19 (KADESH BARNEA 86-3) This site comprises a courtyard, a square tumulus, and three stone piles that are located on an adjacent cliff (Fig. 2.52). All the structures are made of unhewn fieldstones. The largest is a partially enclosed Courtyard KB86-31 measuring 28 x 24 m. There is an 8 m long gap in the southeastern wall of the courtyard. There are fragments of two walls, Walls 6 and 7, inside Locus KB86-31. Wall 6, 3 m long, abuts the interior face of the stone wall demarcating the courtyard; Wall 7, 5.5 m long, is located within 2.5 m of Wall 6. It cannot be determined whether Walls 6 and 7 had once belonged to the same structure. A small U-shaped structure identified as Locus 8, measuring 2.5 x 2 m, abutted the interior wall of the courtyard. There appears to have been internal partitioning inside this courtyard, however, the original division of space within it could not be ascertained.

SITE 18 (KADESH BARNEA 77-8) This site comprises four structures located on a plateau. One of these measures 30 x 40 m and includes 20 rooms and one courtyard. The walls of this particular habitation site are built of flat upright stones that are set on their long axis in the ground. The three architectural units contain a total of 102 rooms and one courtyard. Next to these architectural units are four circular platforms varying from 5-20 m in diameter. Their exterior

Fig. 2.52. Site 19, plan of architectural unit and cairns

26

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

culture. A pile of human remains including three skulls were excavated at the northern end and two skulls were unearthed at the southern end of the cist. Among the material culture are a limestone mortar and pestle and copper fragments.

Six constructions abutted the exterior face of the stone wall enclosing Courtyard KB86-31. Structure 1 is Ushaped, measuring 4 x 2.5 m, and was built by adding stones to the exterior face of the wall. Only the circular outline of poorly preserved Structure 2 could be demarcated: it measures approximately 2 m in diameter and it may originally have been a cairn, whose stones were robbed for the construction of Walls 6 and 7. Structure 3 is rectangular in shape with rounded corners, and it measures 5 x 4 m. Wall 4 measures 2.5 m in length and it abuts the exterior face of the courtyard wall. Structure 5 is square-shaped and measures 3.5 x 4 m. Structure 6 is a poorly preserved rectangular room measuring 10 x 4 m.

The third part of Site 19 is located 28 m to the southwest of Locus KB86-31, and comprises three stone piles on a cliff. All three measure 1.5 m in diameter and 0.50 m in height, built by stacking fieldstones in a heap. The top of this cliff overlooks the square tumulus and courtyard of Site 19. Although speculative, the size of the stone heaps and their positioning on the landscape suggest they may have been part of a shinniyot that was subsequently destroyed.

The high density of lithics found in this part of the site warranted systematic surface collection by means of a grid. The lithic assemblages are broadly dated to the Late Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic periods (see Vardi, Chapter 3, this volume). No diagnostic sherds were associated with Courtyard KB86-31. The layout of the architecture is reminiscent of the Late Neolithic/Early Chalcolithic site of Kvish Harif (Rosen 1984).

SITE 20 (KADESH BARNEA 85-1) This site encompasses approximately 30,000 sq. m and is divided into three areas: Area N (North), Area E (East), and Area W (West) (Figs. 2.53, 2.54).

The second component of Site 19 is a square-shaped Tumulus KB86-32 (4.5 x 3.5 m) located 6 m to the southwest of Locus KB86-31. The exterior of the tumulus is built with a ring of unhewn stones preserved to a maximum height of 0.50 m. The space between the frame of standing stones and the burial cist in the center of the tumulus was filled with field stones of various sizes. The long axis of the burial cist (1.4 x 2.10) is slightly off center. The cist is constructed of large fieldstones and was sealed by large unhewn fieldstones of more than 1 m in length and typically exceeding 0.30 m in width. The distance from the top of the capstones to the bottom of the burial cist is 1.45 m. Excavations inside the burial cist unearthed both human bones and material

Fig. 2.53. Site 20, general view of the environs of this site

Fig. 2.54. Site 20, plan of the extant architecture. The squares superimposed over Areas E and W denote the locations where flint artifacts were collected 27

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Area N This part of the site comprises seven tumuli situated on top of a ridge. Five of these are circular in shape, varying from 3-5 m in diameter (Fig. 2.55). The exterior walls of the tumuli are constructed of a row of upright unhewn stones that serve to retain a fill of smaller stones comprising the core of the tumulus. The other three tumuli are square-shaped measuring 4 x 4 m. The northern most square-shaped tumulus has two small parallel stone walls attached to the southern end of this construction. These walls are built of a single course of unhewn stones to the height of one course.

Fig. 2.58. Site 20, view of a cairn situated in Area W

Area E In this part of Site 20 there are 15 circular structures, two stone walls, and an oval-shaped structure, that are all arranged in a circular pattern around an open space (Fig. 2.59). The structures forming this perimeter vary from 2-10 m in diameter and the oval structure measures 10 x 2 m. The partially enclosed space measures 35 m in diameter and has numerous gaps on its northern, eastern, and southern sides; it contains a structure composed of two circular rooms arranged in the shape of a figure eight. Large quantities of lithic material were recovered from this space. A circular tumulus is located to its north.

Fig. 2.55. Site 20, view of a cairn located in Area N Area W Area W is located below Area N at the foot of the ridge (Figs. 2.56, 2.57). The architecture includes four stone walls that partially enclose a courtyard measuring ca. 35 m in diameter. Several stone circles were also recorded, which (each 10 m in diameter), are attached to the courtyard. Fieldwork recovered large quantities of lithic material. To the west of the partially enclosed courtyard is a square tumulus with two parallel small stone walls attached to its eastern side (Fig. 2.58). These walls are built of a single course of unhewn stones, which are preserved to the height of one course. In plan this square tumulus is similar to one located in Area N.

Fig. 2.59. Site 20, general view of Area E

SITE 21 (KADESH BARNEA 85/4) This site comprises three locations that are identified as Areas 1-3. Area 1, a poorly preserved architectural unit located at the foot of a cliff (‘Amrat el-Furni). This habitation unit contains 20 rooms and courtyards that enclose a circular space. Area 2, situated 200 m to the west of Area 1, contains two circular structures measuring 6 and 10 m in diameter. Area 3, located 250 m to the southeast of Area 1, contains three animal pens and two cairns, the former measuring 10 m in diameter and the latter 4 m in diameter.

Fig. 2.56. Site 20, general view of Area W

SITE 22 (KADESH BARNEA 95/2) This site is situated on the slope of ‘Amrat el-Furni, and it encompasses an area measuring 50 x 100 m. The positions of the 10 structures suggest that they originally might have enclosed or demarcated the perimeter of a

Fig. 2.57. Site 20, view of a room located in Area W 28

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

Fig. 2.60. 2 Site 23, plan p of the strructures and cairns c courtyard. The T rectangulaar structures vary in size from 2-3 x 3 m, while the cirrcular rooms measure 20 m in diameter. Soome of the strructures are buuilt of flat uppright stones, an unusual u buildiing practice for f this the Early E Bronze Age period. The entranceway e t a number of to o the rooms is flaanked by monnolithic stonee door jambs. The diagnostic litthics vary in date d from the PPNB to the EBA periods (see Vardi, Chappter 3), whereeas the potteery is dated to the EB E II. SITE 23 (HA AR HORESH HA) Fig. 2.61. Site S 23, view toowards the southwest of Building 86 and Archhitectural Uniit 101. Visible in thhis photograpph, right, is a portion p of the Iron Age fortrress of Ain Gd dis

Site 23 is located l on thhe northwesteern slope off Har Horesha, 4 km k to the eastt of the springg of Ain Qaddis. It contains twoo habitation unnits, Architecctural Unit1011 and Building 86, positioned att the foot of a mountain (10340 00050). Approximately 4000 m to the eaast of Architecctural Unit 101 are 10 tumuli, whhich were connstructed on a spur of Har Horeesha (Haimann 1986: 128**-129*, Site 384, 234,), (Figs. 2.60, 2.61). The site was first surveyeed by man in Beno Rothennberg in 1957 and subsequeently by Haim 1979 in the framework off the Negev Emergency E Suurvey (Haiman 19886, Sites 384, 385). Salvagee excavations were conducted inn 1980 under the aegis of the t Departmeent of Antiquities and a the Archaeeological Survvey of Israel.

Field dwork in Arcchitectural Unnit 101 exposed ephemerall build ding remains on top of coollapsed EBA A architecture.. Alth hough there arre no floor suurfaces associiated with thee epheemeral occupation, given tthe presence of Byzantinee potteery and the temporary naature of the construction,, Arch hitecture Unitt 101 was most likely reocccupied duringg the Byzantine B perriod.

Fig.. 2.62. Site 23,, plan of Arch hitectural Unitt 101 29

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Architectural Unit 101 (40 x 40 m) is classified as a permanent settlement (e.g., Haiman 1992b: 95, 97) (Figs. 2.62-2.63). It contains 17 rooms and four courtyards constructed of large unhewn stones of 0.60 m in length. An unusual characteristic of this architectural unit is that some of the larger stones used for the foundation course were laid in foundation trenches chiseled into the bedrock. On top of the foundations are two additional courses constructed with smaller stones. Based on the amount of rock fall within Architectural Unit 101 the walls probably reached a height of 1.50 m. Excavations were carried out in all the rooms and the floor sediments were sieved.

Fig. 2.64. Site 23, view towards the east of Architectural Unit 101

Fig. 2.63. Site 23, view toward the east of Architectural Unit 101 The earthen floors of the rooms were sealed by stone fall of 0.20-0.6 m in depth. The floors extended to the base of the walls and occasionally underneath them, a phenomenon also presented at other habitation sites in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai (Beit-Arieh 1977: 9). Most of the floors were separated from bedrock by 0.10 m of sediment. In some loci sediments were deposited on top of the bedrock to provide a level surface, however, these leveling fills never exceeded 0.2 m in depth.

Fig. 2.65. Site 23, view towards the west of Architectural Unit 101

The combined area of Courtyards 100, 101, 102, and 103 is 120 sq. m (Figs. 2.64-2.65). Their presence and size indicate that animal husbandry represented a significant part of the inhabitants’ livelihood. Since more material culture was unearthed inside the rooms than in Courtyards 100 and 101 it appears that these enclosed spaces were used for penning livestock. A gap in the northern wall of the Courtyard 103 provided access into an oval-shaped dwelling, comprising Loci 80 and 87 (2 x 3.5 m), which is slightly sunk into the ground. One of the door jamb stones of the doorway connecting Loci 80 and 87 stands to a height of 0.5 m. A 0.05 m layer of ash was found on top of a leveling fill in both loci. The top of this fill functioned as living surface. Excavation of this fill unearthed lithic waste, fragments of ostrich eggshell, and land snails. One fragment of ostrich eggshell was radiocarbon dated to the EB I (Fig. 2.66). Below this fill was a cracked bedrock surface. Abutting the eastern side of Loci 80 and 87 is a poorly preserved Room 89. The gap in the eastern wall of Room 89 presumably functioned as the entrance into this locus.

Fig. 2.66. Site 23, the calibration curve for radiocarbon date GrA-28787 (4570 ± 40 BP), which was unearthed in Loci 80 and 87

and out of Room 90/91 also exits out of Architectural Unit 101. Abutting the eastern side of Locus 91 is small Room 93 (Fig. 2.67). Its entranceway also fronts the exterior of Architectural Unit 101. One of the preserved the door jambs stand to a height of 1 m. Room 81 is located on the southwestern side of Courtyard 103. In contrast to the other rooms abutting Courtyard 103, the room is constructed in the line of the wall enclosing the courtyard. Room 81 is oval in shape (3 x 5 m), with its western wall constructed of large stones

Room 90/91 also fronts the exterior face of the northern wall of Courtyard 103. The walls of this room are built of large stones up to 0.80 m in length. The entranceway into 30

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

functioned as a beaten earth floor. Excavation of this layer ascertained that it contained ashes mix in with the sediment. No doorway into Room 85 was identified.

Fig. 2.67. Site 23, view of Room 93 in Architectural Unit 101 of up to 0.6 m in length. The eastern wall separating the room from Courtyard 103 is built of smaller stones placed on bedrock. The living surface of the room is a beaten earth floor containing a substantial quantity of ash. The fieldwork did not identify an obvious entrance into Room 81.

Fig. 2.69. Site 23, view Locus 85 in Architectural Unit 101

Two structures are incorporated into the eastern wall of Courtyard 101. One comprises Loci 96 and 97, both of which are round in shape and measure 3 m in diameter (Fig. 2.70). Their entrances are built into their eastern walls, which also functioned as the exterior walls of Architectural Unit 101. The second structure is Room 95, which measures 3 x 4 m. Fieldwork did not locate an entrance into this structure. Locus 94 is situated in the center of Architectural Unit 101. As a result, the walls of this locus partially enclose Courtyards 100, 102, and 103. The stones used to construct this room measured as much as 0.6 m in length. Room 94 measures 3 m in diameter, and it did not have a doorway. Abutting the exterior of Locus 91 is a small partially enclosed room identified as Locus 93. It measures 4 x 2 m and has two gaps in its eastern wall. A large standing stone in the southern wall, measures almost 1 m in length.

Room 82 is circular in shape measuring 3 m in diameter (Fig. 2.64). The northern and eastern wall of the room also serve as the southern and western walls of Courtyards 103 and 102, respectively. Its southern wall contains a doorway that opens onto to a structure comprising Loci 83 and 88 (Fig. 2.68). This doorway is flanked by two stones that stand to a height of 0.5 m. Loci 83 and 88 are partially separated by a short dividing wall. The eastern wall of Locus 84 functions as the western wall of Locus 88. As in other loci, the living surface of Locus 84 is probably represented by the top of the earthen leveling fill placed on bedrock. This leveling fill measured 0.2 m in depth.

Fig. 2.68. Site 23, view of Loci 83, 84, and 88 in Architectural Unit 101 Fig. 2.70. Site 23, view towards the east of Loci 95, 96, and 97 in Architectural Unit 101

Room 85 is oval in shape, measuring 3 x 4.5 m (Fig. 2.69). Stones of different sizes were used to construct various segments of the wall that enclosed this room. For example, the southern wall, which also functions as the exterior perimeter wall of Architectural Unit 101, is made of large stones. In contrast, smaller stones were used to construct those portions of the wall that also enclosed Courtyards 101 and 102. The floor of Room 85 was covered with a levelling fill, and the top of this layer

A survey of the exterior of Architectural Unit 101 identified concentrations of artifacts along the exterior of this building. Scatters of artifacts and ephemeral occupation levels were found in the following loci outside of Architectural Unit 101: 81, 82, 84, 85, 88, 92, and Courtyard 100.

31

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

The variation in the nature of construction within Architectural Unit 101 indicates that some loci functioned as dwellings and others as storage and work areas. For example, small carelessly constructed spaces such as Loci 83, 84, and 88 were most likely used for storage. This interpretation is supported in part by the large quantity of stone tools found in Locus 88, representing one third of all the lithics tools found inside Architectural Unit 101. Based on the layout of the courtyards and rooms, Architectural Unit 101 can be divided into the four clusters, each of which comprises a series of rooms concentrated around a courtyard. Group 1 comprises Loci 90, 91, 93, and 94 positioned around Courtyard 100; Group 2 contains Loci 85, 92, 95, 97, and 98 surrounding Courtyard 101; Group 3 includes Loci 82, 83, 84, and 88, which are associated with Courtyard 102; and Group 4 comprises Loci 80, 81, 87, and 89, which are situated around Courtyard 103. Based on the plan and organization of space within Architectural Unit 101, these four clusters may represent the number of extended families that resided in this settlement (e.g., Beit Arieh 1977: 89-90).

Fig. 2.72. Site 23, view towards the east of Locus 86

Fig. 2.73. Site 23, view of stone mortar unearthed in Locus 86

a surface of flat stones. Pottery sherds and lithic and stone artifacts were found on the limestone floor. Given the size of this construction it is suggested that this dwelling was inhabited by a nuclear family. The doorway into the broadroom is located in southern wall, and opens onto a courtyard. The entranceway is demarcated by a stone doorpost that stands 1.1 m in height. The courtyard measures 8 x 10 m, and its walls are made of small stones. There is no stratigraphy or evidence of internal phasing inside Architectural Unit 101 and Building 86. This combined with the small amount of material cultural is interpreted as evidence that these building were in use for only a short period of time. The working hypothesis is that Site 23 was inhabited when exchange flourished between Arad and southern Sinai (e.g., Amiran et al. 1973). That is to say that Architectural Unit 101 is part of a larger EB II settlement pattern of found in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai. Such sites as Architectural Unit 101 most likely represent the northern movement of people from southern Sinai to the Negev Highlands as a result of exchange with Arad (Haiman 1992b: 101-102). The suggestion that the inhabitants of Har Horesha came from southern Sinai is based on two factors: first, the frequency of sherds that contain granitic sand from southern Sinai; second, the lithic took found at this site, and other arid zone settlements, differs from those unearthed at Arad and villages to its north.

Fig. 2.71. Site 23, plan of Building 86

Located 30 m to the north of Architectural Unit 101 is Building 86 (3 x 5 m) (Figs. 2.71-2.72). The walls, preserved to a height of one course, are made of large stones of up to 1 m in length. The excavations exposed a floor made of crushed limestone that had patches of ash on the surface. A stone mortar measuring 0.25 m in diameter, with a socket for a pestle measuring 0.1 m in diameter, was unearthed in the western side of the room (Fig. 2.73). A bench measuring 0.4 in width and 0.2 m in height abuts the eastern wall. The outer edge of the bench is made out of stones that retain an earthen fill, sealed by

Broadroom structures, such as Building 86, are commonly located in the agricultural portions of EB II 32

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

sediment which was located underneath the limestone floor. The 0.8 m of sediment removed from this cist was devoid of artifacts.

Palestine. (e.g., Amiran 1978: 14-17; Ben-Tor 1992: 6264). The presence of broadroom structures in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai is often interpreted as evidence for the movement of northern populations into the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai for economic purposes (e.g., Beit-Arieh 2003: 102-107, 444).

Cairn 2, 6 x 7 m, is preserved to a height of 0.5 m (Fig. 2.74). The exterior is demarcated by frame of stones standing on end to a height of 0.5 m. The area between the stone frame and the burial cist is filled with small stones. This fill is in turn covered with a pavement of small stones. The burial chamber, 1 m in diameter, is constructed of small stones, and its floor is paved with small stone slabs. No artifacts were revealed in the excavation of the cist. Cairn 3, 7 x 5 m in size, is preserved to a height of 0.50 m (Figs. 2.74-2.75). The exterior frame consists of two to three courses of stones that typically measure 0.3 m in length. The space between the stone frame and the burial cist at its center is filled with small stones. In turn, the top of the cairn, including the burial chamber, is paved with a layer of unhewn stones arranged in concentric circles. The burial cist, 1 x 1.5 m in size, is constructed of stones of up to 0.5 m in length. The bedrock underneath the cairn functioned as a floor. The burial cist was devoid of material culture.

Fig. 2.75. Site 23, view of Cairn 3 Fig. 2.74. Site 23, plans of Cairns 1-10 Approximately 400 m to the east of the habitation sites are 10 cairns positioned on a narrow spur of Har Horesha (Fig. 2.60). These constructions cover an area measuring 150 m in length and they are separated from each other by 50 m intervals. Cairn 1, 4.5 x 5.5 m in size, is preserved to a height of 0.6 m (Fig. 2.74). The frame of the cairn is constructed of large standing stones, 0.7 m in length that are partially sunk into the original ground surface. On top of this foundation are 2-3 additional courses of smaller stones. The area between the stone frame and the burial cist in the center of the cairn is filled with small stones. The stones used to construct the cist were visible prior to excavation, as they protruded above the surface of the cairn. The burial cist measures 1 x 1.5 m, constructed with stones as large as 0.5 m in length, preserved to a height of two courses. The floor of the burial cist was paved with thin limestone slabs, some of which were crushed. Excavations reached the natural

Fig. 2.76. Site 23, view of Cairns 3 (T3) and 4 (T4)

Cairn 4, 6.5 m in diameter, is preserved to a height of 1 m and its exterior frame is constructed of standing stones measuring 0.4 m in height (Figs. 2.74-2.76). On top of this foundation course are two-three additional courses of smaller stones. The area between the stone frame and the 33

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

oval burial cist (1 x 1.5 m) in the center of the cairn is filled with small stones. The sides of this burial cist are made of small stones and its bottom is paved with small stone slabs. This burial chamber s cut by a later pit measuring 3 m in diameter. The sediments in the pit contained pottery sherds, however, it cannot be determined whether they should be associated with the burial cist. Thick, crumbly and poorly fired sherds from a crudely made holemouth jar found in the pit are made in a technique similar to that used for Iron Age “Negbite” pottery (e.g., Haiman and Goren 1992). Fig. 2.79. Site 23, view of Cairn 6

Cairn 5 measures 6.5 m in diameter and stands to 1 m in height (Figs. 2.74, 2.77, 2.78). The exterior frame is made of standing stones of 0.4 m in height, on top of which are three-four courses of smaller stones. The central burial cist measures 0.7 x 1.3 m and is constructed of stones of 0.5 m in length (Fig. 2.81).

Fig. 2.80. Site 23, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 6 covered with a layer of unhewn stones. Some time at a later point a smaller circular cairn was constructed on top of this layer. It measures 2.5 m in diameter and stands to a height of 0.7 m in height. A partial skeleton, excavated in the small later cairn probably represents a subrecent Bedouin burial.

Fig. 2.77. Site 23, view towards the east of Cairn 5 (T5)

Cairn 7 measures 0.7 m in height and 7 m in diameter (Figs. 2.74, 2.81). The exterior frame is made unhewn stones, measuring 0.6-0.7 m in length, placed on end. The space between the frame and the oval burial cist (1 x 1.1 m) in the center is filled with small stones. The burial cist was partially sealed by a flat stone that was found in situ. Its floor is paved with flat stones and its sides built of large stones stacked in two courses.

Fig. 2.78. Site 23, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 5 (T5) Cairn 6 measures 6 m in diameter and is preserved to a height of 0.7 m (Figs. 2.74, 2.79). Its exterior frame is constructed of stones that stand to a height of 0.5 m. The area between the stone frame and the central oval burial cist (1 x 1.5 m) is filled with small stones (Fig. 2.80). The cist is made of stones measuring 0.4 m in length stacked in two-three courses. The top of the burial cist had been sealed with two stone slabs. One stone slab still covered the western part of the chamber; and the second slab had fallen into it (Fig. 2.80). The bottom of the burial cist is paved with small stones. The surface of the cairn, including the slab sealing a part of the burial cist, was

Fig. 2.81. Site 23, view towards the east of Cairn 7 (T7) Cairn 8 measures 5 x 5.5 m and stands to a height of 1 m (Figs. 2.74, 2.82). Its exterior frame is built of two 34

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

Cairrn 10 measurees 6 m in diam meter and is preserved p to a heig ght of 0.7 m (F Fig. 2.74). Thhe exterior fram me comprisess one--three coursers of stones stacked onee on top off anotther. These sttones are placced on end, and a they typi-cally y measure 0.5 m in length. Stones measu uring 0.5 m inn leng gth were also used u to constrruct the burial chamber, thee botto om of which was w paved witth flat stone sllabs.

courses of stones. s Prior to t excavationn, the sides of o the burial chambber were vissible above thhe surface off the cairn. The burial b cist, 1 x 1.5 m, is constructed with stones that tyypically meassure 0.5 m inn length. The sides of the burial chamber stannd to a height of o two courses and the floor is paved p with sm mall stone slabbs (Fig. 2.83).. The burial cist coontained no maaterial culturee.

Walll 11 to the souuthwest of theese cairns meaasures 30 m inn leng gth and 0.5 m in width. It iss made of smaall stones andd preserved to a heeight of one ccourse. Similaar walls havee been n found adjaccent to other ccairn concentrations in thee Neg gev and Sinai (Haiman ( 19866: 15; 1992b:3 32). The working hyppothesis is thhat Architectu ural Unit 101 and Building 86 are a contemporary with the cairns on thee ridge based on the t configurattion of Early Bronze Agee habiitation sites at a the foot oof escarpmentts with cairnn field ds on the riddges immediattely above th hem (Haimann 1992 2b: 31-35). Furthermore, F the absencee of materiall cultu ure in the 100 cairns is tyypical of man ny excavatedd cairn ns located in the t Negev andd Sinai (Haimaan 1992b:37).. The empty cairrns on the ridges abovee settlementss prob bably fulfilledd a symbolic function simiilar to that off Chalcolithic tumuuli at Mezad Aluf (Haimaan 1992b: 37-38; Levy L and Alon 1982).

Figg. 2.82. Site 233, view of Cairrn 8 (T8)

SITE E 24 (HAR SAGGI S SITE 8/HAR HAM MEARA CAIIRN FIELD) Site 24 is located on a steep riddge with two peaks knownn colleectively as Har Hamearra. The two o peaks aree designated Areas A and B, annd are separatted from eachh otheer by a saddle, referred to ass Area C (Fig.. 2.85).

Fig. 2.83. Site S 23, view of the burial ciist inside Cairrn 8

Cairn 9 is prreserved to a height h of 0.7 m and measuures 6 x 7 m (Figs. 2.74, 2.84). The exteriorr frame is buiilt of small unhew wn stones laid in courses. Excavations E o the of burial cist (00.7 x 1.5 m) inn the center of o the cairn didd not recover any material m cultuure.

Fig. 2.85. 2 Site 24, pplan of the sitte

Figg. 2.84. Site 233, view of Cairrn 9 (T9) 35

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Area A The western peak of Har Hameara (Area A) is steeper than the eastern peak. Tumulus 801, in the center of Area A is a square shaped construction measuring 3.3 x 3 m and standing to a height of 1.5 m (Fig. 2.86). The frame of the tumulus is built of large, square unhewn stones measuring approximately 0.50 m in length. The space between the exterior frame and the rectangular burial chamber is filled with field stones of various sizes. The burial cist is positioned off center and measures 0.6 x 0.8 m and is 0.80 m in depth (Fig. 2.87). It was sealed by a large flat stone measuring 1.4 x 0.7 m and 20 cm in depth. Removal of the accumulated loess inside the burial chamber unearthed a turquoise bead at the bottom of this locus (Fig. 6.1:1).

Fig. 2.88. Site 24, view of Cairn 802 frame and the burial cist is filled in with stones of various sizes. The burial cist measures 0.8 m x 1.7 m and is constructed of unhewn stones 0.40 m in length (Fig. 2.89). Excavations inside the burial cist did not yield material culture.

Fig. 2.86. Site 24, view of Cairn 801

Fig. 2.89. Site 24, view the burial cist inside Cairn 803 Tumulus 804 is an oval-shaped cairn measuring 3 x 4 m. The exterior is partially encircled by a frame of large standing stones preserved to 1-3 courses in height. In center of the tumulus, is an ill-defined depression which seems to represent an attempt to imitate a burial cist. Excavation carried out in the burial cist failed to recover any material culture. Tumulus 805 measures 2 x 2 m and its exterior is constructed of flat standing stones that retain a fill of earth and stones (Fig. 2.90). Excavations yielded numerous land snails, but the sediments were devoid of material culture.

Fig. 2.87. Site 24, view of the burial cist inside Cairn 801

Tumulus 801 is flanked on the east and south by six circular cairns. Cairn 802 is oval in shape and measures 4 x 5 m. In contrast to other cairns at the site, it does not have an exterior frame of standing stones. Instead, the frame is made of stones stacked to a height of 1-2 courses (Fig. 2.88). The oval burial cist in the middle of the cairn measures 1 x 1.5 m and is 0.30 m in depth. It is made of only one course of stones, and the sediments within it were sterile. Tumulus 803 is a poorly built circular cairn measuring 5 m in diameter. The exterior frame of stones is preserved to 1 course (0.30 m in height). The space between the

Fig. 2.90. Site 24, view of Cairn 805 36

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

Tumulus 8066 is oval in shhape and meassures 4 x 6 m (Fig. 2.91). The exterior e consists of a partiial frame madde of large standinng stones. Thhis structure is constructeed of unhewn stonnes, preservedd to a maxim mum height of 3 courses or 0..50 m. The buurial cist (70 cm c in diameteer) is constructed with w flat standing stones placed p on beddrock. This chambeer was filled with w loess and excavations innside it failed to reecovery any material m culturee.

ularly shapedd soutthern and weestern ends of an irregu courrtyard identifiied as Locus 812. The sou uthern end off Stru ucture 812 is demarcated d byy Tumulus 80 08 and Room m 809.. Tumulus 808 is a circularr cairn measu uring 5.5 m inn diam meter construccted against tthe eastern wall w of Room m 809 (Fig. 2.94). The T outer edgee of the tumu ulus is built off flat standing stoones placed oon end that form a ringg apprroximately 0.40 m in heeight. The in nterior spacee betw ween the fram me and the buurial cist was filled in withh smalller stones. Thhe circular buurial cist in thee center of thee tumu ulus measuress 0.8 m in diam meter. The top p of the buriall cham mber is flushh with surfacee of the tum mulus, and itss outliine was clearlly visible prioor to excavatio on. The buriall cist was filled witth wind-blownn loess, and th he excavationn of th his sediment yielded y no matterial culture.

Fig. 2.991. Site 24, vieew of Cairn 8006. The white arrow points p to the location l of thee photo scale Tumulus 8077 is an oval-sshaped cairn measuring m 4 x 4.5 m. It presenttly stands 0.440 m above thhe ground surrface. The exterior frame is madde of large stonnes placed onn end. The size of the unhewn stones used to build the cairn varies from 0.20-0.50 0 m. The T rectangulaar burial cist in i the center measuures 0.8 x 2 m. m It was filledd with loess annd no material cultuure was foundd.

Fig. 2.93.. Site 24, geneeral view of Arrea B

Area B Area B is loocated on the eastern peakk of Har Ham meara. This part of the site is surrrounded by cliffs, c and offfers a 2 commandingg view of the Negev Highhlands (Figs. 2.922.93). Structuure 812 locateed on the top of the peak coovers an area of 155 x 25 m. Thee structure parrtially enclosees the

Fig. 2.994. Site 24, viiew of Cairn 808 8

Fig. 2.92.. Site 24, plan n of Area B 37

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Circular Room 809 measures 4.1 m in diameter (Fig. 2.95). Its walls, built of unhewn stones of up to 0.40 m in length, are preserved to a height of 0.6 m or 1 course. Based on the amount of stone fall inside and outside of the room, it is estimated that the original walls comprised 3 courses and stood to a height of 0.6 m. A concentration of jumbled stones in the northern wall of the room may represent a blocked doorway, however, it was not excavated. Fieldwork in Room 809 exposed a thin layer of ash, 0.03 m in depth, resting on an earthen surface. The material culture found in the ash layer included pieces of carbon, chips of flint, stone tools, and holemouth jar sherds.

Courtyard 812 is irregular in shape, measuring 15.5 m in length and 11 m in width. In the center of the courtyard is square Tumulus 813 (2.5 x 2.5 m) built on top of bedrock. The framing wall of the tumulus is made of unhewn square stones that measure 0.60 m in length. The wall on the western side is preserved to 4 courses (1.5 m in height), while the eastern wall is preserved to only one course, 0.30 m in height. The space between the exterior frame of the tumulus and the square burial cist (1 x 1 m) in the center is filled in with stones of various sizes. The cist walls are made of small unhewn stones. An accumulation of loess inside the burial chamber measures 0.20 m in depth. At the bottom of the chamber, which was damaged, fragments of human remains in poor condition were found; with three cowrie shells together with fragments of a bronze pin (Fig. 6.1:2). Excavations carried out in the courtyard and to west of Tumulus 813 exposed a layer of ash that arched towards Tumulus 814. It rested on top of an earthen surface that measured 0.05 in depth. The horizontal extent of the ash layer was most likely demarcated by a stone wall that previously enclosed this part of Courtyard 812. The western parts of the courtyard and an estimated one third of Tumulus 814 were damaged by water erosion. In particular, it is estimated that one third of Tumulus 814 was damaged through water erosion. In its present condition, Tumulus 814 measures approximately 3.5 x 3 m. The exterior is built of one course of flat standing stones approximately 0.30 m in height. The space between this frame and the oval burial cist (1. 1.3 m) in the center of the tumulus is filled in with stones of various sizes. The burial cist is constructed of flat unhewn stones measuring 0.3 m in length, which were placed directly on bedrock. The floor of the burial cist was destroyed by water erosion, and no material culture was found in this part of the tumulus.

Fig. 2.95. Site 24, view of Locus 809

Rooms 809 and 810 (Fig. 2.92) are connected by a wall measuring 3.5 m in length. Preserved to one course in height, the wall is constructed of large stones measuring 0.5 m in length. Room 810 (3.5 x 3.5 m) is constructed of stones of up to 0.40 m in length (Fig. 2.96). The walls are preserved to 1 course or 30 cm in height. No doorway into this structure was found. Excavation of the sediment inside the room exposed a layer of ash, 0.05 m thick, on top of an earthen surface that in turn rested on bedrock. The surface ran up to the walls enclosing the room. No artifacts were found in the excavation of the room.

To the north of Structure 812 and Tumulus 814 is Tumulus 816. This circular tumulus stands 0.5 m above the ground surface and measures 3.5 m in diameter. It was not excavated. Circular Tumulus 815 is positioned to the south of Structure 812 (Fig. 2.97). It measures 4.3 m in diameter and it is constructed of flat unhewn stones placed on end that stand 0.35 m in height. The space between the exterior wall and the burial chamber in the center of the tumulus is filled with stones of various sizes. This oval burial cist (0.45 x 0.90 m) is made of flat unhewn stones.

Fig. 2.96. Site 24, view of Cairn 810

Rooms 810 and 811 are connected by a stone wall that was partially destroyed by water erosion. The walls of oval-shaped Room 811 (3 x 4 m) stand to one course in height and are constructed with stones that measure 0.3 m in length. Its entrance is on the eastern side. The sediments inside of the room were partially eroded, the excavation did not recover any material culture.

Fig. 2.97. Site 24, view of Cairn 815 38

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

Area C Area C is a saddle s betweeen the eastern and western peaks p of Har Hameeara (Fig. 2.855). This part of o the site conntains two open-aiir shrines annd three cairnns that weree not excavated. Structure S 819 is an open--air shrine with w a crescent-shapped courtyardd that measurres 10 m in width w and 22 m in length. The T stone wall w enclosingg the courtyard meeasures 1 m in width. Vaarious construuction techniques were w used to build b the couurtyard wall: some s parts are buuilt of stackedd stones, whiile other parts are made by heapping stones onn top of one another. a The sttones used to consttruct the courttyard wall measure up to 0.30 m in length. Thhe second oppen-air shrine,, Structure 8220, is similar in shape and construction. c The stone wall enclosing itss courtyard meeasures 1 m in i width and 20 2 m in length, annd stands to a maximum height of 0.5 m. m In contrast to Structure S 819, small stoness measuring 0.1 0 m in length weere used to buuild the wall that enclosedd the courtyard off Structure 8220. Very poorrly preserved Wall 821 may indiicate the locattion of a third open-air shrinne.

Fig. F 2.98. Sitee 25, general vview of the arcchitecture

Tumulus 8177 is oval in shhape and meaasures 4.3 x 5.2 m. The exteriorr frame is made m of a rinng of unhewnn flat stones placedd on end, meeasuring 0.60 m in height.. The space betweeen the frame and the rectaangular buriall cist (0.60 x 1.755 m) in the ceenter was fillled with stones of various sizes. The buriall cist is connstructed withh flat stones placedd on end, andd each one stannds approxim mately 0.45 m in heeight. The topp of the buriall cist is flush with the surface of o the tumuluus was clearlly visible prior to excavation. The burial cist containned sterile loess. l Tumulus 8188 consists of two t attached cairns in the form of figure eighht. Each cairnn measures 3.55 m in diameteer.

Fig. 2.999. Site 25, viiew of Locus 200 2

Summary The cairn fieeld at Site 24 is unusual inn that it contaains a variety of arrchitectural eleements rarelyy found in a single s location. Thee six round tumuli t in Areea B are less well constructed than t those fouund in larger cairn c fields at other locations of the Negev Hiighlands. Althhough speculaative, it is possiblee that the peoople who consstructed the round r cairns in Arrea B imitateed those founnd at other Early E Bronze Age sites in the reggion.

Fig. 2.1100. Site 25, view of Locus 201 2

surro ounded by thhree Loci 2044, 205, and 206. 2 What iss preserved of Locuus 219 is ellipptic in shape and measuress 3 x 4 m. The waalls are built of field ston nes measuringg apprroximately 0..40 m in lenngth preserved up to twoo courrses. One off the walls oof Locus 219 9 contains a mon nolith measuriing 0.50 m inn height, and it is not clearr wheether this largee stone functiooned as a doorrpost.

SITE 25 (HA AR SAGGI 10/ 1 EIN HAM MEARA II) This Early Bronze B Age siite is located on both sidess of a wadi (Fig. 2..98). Althoughh the central part p of the sitee was destroyed byy water erosioon, the layoutt of the remaining architecture is well preserrved and couuld be documeented without excaavation. Theree are four archhitectural unitss that cover a total area of 500 sq. m, with eacch unit comprrising an animal pen p surroundeed by rooms. Test excavaations were carriedd out in the eaastern and weestern areas of o the site.

Locu us 202 is ellipptical in shapee (3.5 x 5.5 m)) (Fig. 2.101).. At th he southern ennd of this locuus there is a sm mall enclosedd spacce, 1 x 2 m, which w is identtified as Locu us 205. Locuss 205 most likely functioned aas a storage compartment, c , since it is too sm mall to serve as a dwelling. Locus 206 iss partiially built intoo the wall thaat encloses an nd demarcatess Locu us 202. The excavations indicated thaat this poorlyy preserved locus might m have been divided intto three parts.. The walls that deemarcated this space are preserved p to a heig ght of one courrse.

In the easternn part of the site Architecttural Unit 2022 was completely excavated e (Figgs. 2.99-2.1000). It contains one, perhaps twoo courtyards (Loci 202 annd 219) that are

39

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.102. Site 25, plan of architectural units located on the western side of the settlement basal course of the stone walls enclosing this space. A relatively large quantity of artifacts were unearthed in the ash layer including faunal remains, pottery, grinding stones, eight hammer stones, lithics, a fragment of a stone bowl, and three gold beads (Figs. 6.2-6.3). SITE 26 (HAR SAGGI 9/EIN HAMEARA I) Site 26 is located on a wide wadi terrace 50 m to the southwest of the spring of Ein Hameara (Fig. 2.103). The two concentrations of architectural remains on the terrace cover an area measuring 70 m in length and 30 m in width (Fig. 2.104). Area A measures 25 x 35 m and Area B measures 10 x 30 m. The architecture in both parts of the site was constructed of wadi cobbles and pebbles.

Fig. 2.101. Site 25, view of Locus 202 On the western side of the site, test excavations were conducted in Architectural Units 209 and 210 (Fig. 2.102). Architectural Unit 209 contains an animal pen (Locus 209) with two rooms (Loci 201 and 212), attached to its northern and northeastern sides, respectively. Locus 201 is a rectangular structure measuring 2.5 x 3.5 m. The walls are preserved to a height of two courses, or approximately 0.60 m. The interior of the locus was filled with stone fall, and given the amount of stone collapse, the original height of the walls most likely reached three courses or 1.5 m. An entrance into the structure was not identified but given the lack of stone fall at its southern end the doorway might have been located in this part of the locus. The earthen floor was demarcated by a layer of ash, 0.10 m in depth that extended across the floor to the

Fig. 2.103. Site 26, general view of the site

Fig. 2.104. Site 26, plan of Areas A and B 40

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Area A Structure 901 is irregularly shaped and has an oval courtyard (Fig. 2.105). It is built of stones measuring approximately 0.40 m in length, and the walls are preserved from one to two courses, the latter standing to a maximum height of 0.5 m. The large quantities of stone fall inside the structure suggest that the original height of the walls exceeded 1 m. Courtyard 901 measures 13 x 10 m. There is a 1.1 m wide gap in the eastern wall enclosing the courtyard. The excavations exposed an ash layer of 0.1 m in depth extending across the entire courtyard. The material culture unearthed in the ashy sediments includes faunal remains, flint artifacts, and a grinding stone.

Fig. 2.106. Site 26, view of Locus 910

Fig. 2.107. Site 26, view of Loci 901, 902, and 907 There is a gap in the wall separating it from Room 901 that may have functioned as an entranceway, alternatively the doorway between these rooms it might have been at a higher elevation than the preserved architecture, which would explain the absence of a door socket. Room 906 is a semi-circular structure measuring 3.8 m in diameter (Fig. 2.108). The thickness of the wall demarkating the room, 1.5 m in width and preserved to a height of one course, is atypical for most EBA sites in the Negev Highlands. Excavations in Room 906 exposed an ash layer, 0.10 m in depth, running up to the bottom of the wall enclosing the room. This ash layer is interpreted as evidence of a floor, and it contained faunal remains, lithic artifacts and waste, snail shells, sherds, and a hammer stone.

Fig. 2.105. Site 26, plan of Structure 901 Three Rooms 910, 911, and 912 are attached to the interior face of the wall enclosing Courtyard 901 (Fig. 2.106). These loci are built of stones measuring up to 0.30 m in length. The walls of the rooms are generally preserved up to three courses or a maximum height of 0.40 m. Room 910 is oval (2 x 4 m), Room 911 is rectangular (1.2 x 3.5 m), and Room 912 is semi-circular (2 m in length and 1 m in width). Excavations in Rooms 911 and 912 determined that both floors were covered with a layer of ash, but these sediments were devoid of artifacts. Five rooms abutted the exterior face of the wall enclosing Courtyard 901. Room 902 is semi-circular in shape and measures 5.1 m in length and 3.2 m in width (Fig. 2.107). Its walls are made of unhewn stones approximately 0.40 m in length, are preserved to a height of one course or approximately 0.40 m. The earthen floor of Room 902 is covered by an ash layer, 0.10 m in depth, which contained faunal remains, lithic artifacts, and pottery sherds.

Fig. 2.108. Site 26, view of Locus 906 41

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Room 907 abuts the exterior face of the western wall enclosing Courtyard 901 (Fig. 2.109). It is an irregularlyshaped room measuring 7.5 m in diameter. The walls demarcating the locus are constructed of unhewn stones that measure 0.7 m in width and are preserved to one to two courses or a maximum height of 0.30 m. Based on the amount of stone fall inside and outside of Room 907, the original height of the walls most likely exceeded 1 m. Excavations in Room 907 exposed an earthen floor, 0.1 m in depth, that extended beneath the walls of the room. Patches of ash were found on the surface. The earthen surface yielded faunal remains, flint artifacts, pottery sherds, ground stone fragments, and an unidentifiable metal artifact.

Fig. 2.111. Site 26, view of Loci 901, 908, and 909 that depth that extended to the bottom of the stone wall enclosing this room. This ash layer contained faunal remains, flint tools, and pottery sherds. Structure 903 comprises Rooms 903 and 913 (Figs. 2.112-2.113). Room 903 is semi-circular in shape and measures 3.85 m in length and 2.70 m in width. The walls are preserved to a height of two courses or 0.70 m, and are constructed of stones measuring 0.50 m in length. The floor, composed of gray-black ash, 0.05 m in depth, abuts the basal level of the walls. The only material culture recovered from this ash layer is flint chips. The walls of the room may have continued southwards, however, rock fall and temporal constraints prohibited continued excavation. Room 913 is oval in shape and measures 1.5 x 3.0 m. The walls are preserved to a maximum of three courses or a height of 0.60 m, and the stones used to construct the walls are 0.30 m in length. This room was not excavated.

Fig. 2.109. Site 26, view of Locus 907 The wall of Room 908 cut the northern wall of Room 909 (Fig. 2.110). The enclosing walls are relatively thick, made of small stones, and are preserved to one or two courses, or a maximum height of 0.50 m. Room 908 is semi-circular, measuring 5 m in diameter. The western wall of Room 908 was destroyed by erosion. The excavations were unable to identify a floor surface in the room. A concentration of ash exposed beneath the stone foundation could not be traced it into the western part of the room. Pottery sherds and two hammer stones were found in the ashy sediment.

Fig. 2.110. Site 26, view of Locus 908

Fig. 2.112. Site 26, plan of Loci 903/913, 904 and 905. The reader is referred to Fig. 2.104 to see the actual spatial relationships between this loci

Room 909 is circular in shape, measuring 6 m in diameter (Fig. 2.111). The walls are preserved from 1-2 courses in height. Excavations exposed an ash layer, 0.05 m. depth, 42

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

has a diameter of 7.5 m and its walls are preserved to a height of 0.20 m. The exterior comprises a frame of unhewn stones, 0.30 m in length, placed on end, with the interior space filled with small stones. A stone platform measuring 0.3 m in height is built on top of the stone fill. The eastern part of the structure 916 is partially destroyed by water erosion.

Fig. 2.113. Site 26, view of Locus 903 Room 904 is oval in shape (3.2 x 4.2 m) (Fig. 2.114). The walls are built of unhewn stones measuring 0.40 m in length, with only one course preserved. One of the stones used in the construction is very large, standing 0.50 m in height above the other stones. The southern wall of Structure 904 has an entrance measuring 0.70 m in width. Based on the large amount of stone fall inside the room, it is suggested that the original height of the wall was approximately 0.70 m. Following the removal of the stone fall, an earthen floor was found 20 cm below ground level. This earthen surface contained small patches of ash, pottery sherds, and lithic waste.

Fig. 2.115. Site 26, plan of platforms 916 and 918

Structure 917 is a pile of stones measuring 3 m in diameter and 0.20 m in height. No material culture was found in the structure, even in the additional 0.20 m of natural sediments that were excavated. Structure 918 is an oval platform constructed of unhewn stones measuring 4 x 5.5 m. This platform stands 0.20 m above ground level. The construction of the platform seems haphazard, as it is not demarcated by a frame of standing stones and its stone fill is not as dense as those in Structures 914 and 916. Structure 919 is scatter of stones covering an area of 3.50 x 3.25 m. No artifacts were recovered in the excavation. Given the absence of artifacts and the ephemeral nature of the construction, it appears that Structure 919 is unfinished.

Fig. 2.114. Site 26, view of Locus 904 SITE 27 (HAR SAGGI SITE 1/BIQ’AT HISSUN) Room 905 is irregularly-shaped with a maximum diameter of 4.4 m. Its walls are made of unhewn stones measuring up to 0.50 m in length, preserved to a height of only to one course. No evidence for an entranceway was found. An earthen floor identified 0.20 m below ground level runs up to the basal course of the stone wall. It contains small patches of ash, lithic waste, pottery, and a grinding stone.

Site 27 is located in an area of low hills that overlook Biq’at Hissun (Fig. 2.116). The seven structures comprising this settlement (Israel Grid 97665 11585) are spread over an area of 30 x 60 m (Fig. 2.117). They are positioned between shallow water channels that follow the direction of Nahal Yafrak toward the foot of Har Saggi. The environs of Site 27 are strewn with boulders and stones, and these were used for the construction of the architecture. The walls of the buildings are typically preserved to a height of one or two courses. The limited amount of stone fall in and surrounding these structures, suggests that the original height of the walls did not exceed two courses and that their roof and superstructure were most likely made of brush and branches (e.g., BeitArieh 2003:104). The living surfaces inside the rooms were identified by ash stains and/or scatters of pottery and flint. The paucity of artifacts on these surfaces is interpreted as evidence for short term occupations at the site. Fieldwork was carried out in select parts of this settlement.

Room 914 is oval, measuring 7 x 8.5 m. Its perimeter is constructed of a frame unhewn stones placed on end and the interior was filled with small stones of various sizes. On top of this fill in the center of the structure is a stone platform standing 0.30 m in height. Area B This part of the site contains three architectural units-Structures 916, 917, and 918—covering an area measuring 10 x 30 m (Fig. 2.115). Circular Structure 916

43

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

into Room 103, measuring 0.7 m in width, is flanked by doorposts; these and the walls of this room are preserved to a height of 0.7 m or two courses of stones. A few lithic chips were excavated inside this room.

Fig. 2.116. Site 27, general of the settlement

Building 120 is a one-room structure, oval in shape (2 x 3 m) (Fig. 2.118). The extant walls are made of unhewn stones up to 0.4 m in length laid directly on the loess. A standing stone measuring 0.6 m in height, perhaps a massebah, is incorporated in the eastern wall of the building. A few flint chips were found on the floor of Building 120.

Fig. 2.118. Site 27, view of Locus 120

Building 2 consists of two structures, one comprising Rooms 102 and 103 and the other Locus 123 (Figs. 2.119, 2.120). The walls of these structures are built of unhewn stones preserved to a height of 2 courses or 0.7 m. Room 102 is irregularly-shaped measuring 3 x 5 m. The excavations exposed an earthen surface 0.05 m beneath the current ground surface, identified by a scatter of ash measuring 0.7 m in diameter and 0.05 m in depth. On the southeastern side of Room 102 is an entrance, flanked by doorposts, measuring 0.5 m in width. Room 103 abuts the northern wall of Room 102. The entrance

Fig. 2.119. Site 27, Structure 102, view towards the northeast

Fig. 2.117. Site 27, plan of the architecture 44

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

Buillding 4 compprises Room 109 and Courtyard 1088 (Fig gs. 2.122-2.124). Two diffeerent techniqu ues were usedd in itts constructioon: some wallls were builtt by stackingg ston nes, of up to 0.4 m in lenggth, in coursees and otherss weree built by heapping stones onn top of one an nother. Room m 109 is oval in shape (4 x 2 m m) with the en ntrance on thee soutthwestern sidee of the room m. The excavattions exposedd a beaten earth flooor, with ash, tthat extended to the bottom m of th he enclosing walls. Courtyyard 108 is oval o in shapee (7.5 x 10.5 m) witth an openingg measuring 2 m in width inn the southwesternn enclosing w wall. The su urface of thee courrtyard was levveled by fillinng in the depreessions in thee bedrrock with seddiment. Since no obvious living l surfacee was identified in this t locus, thee natural bedro ock may havee funcctioned as a suurface.

F 2.120. Sitee 27, view to the Fig. t east of Loci 123 and 102

Room 123 loocated immediately to the north n of Building 2 is oval in shape (1.5 x 2.5 m) (Fig. ( 2.120). The stones used in its construuction do nott exceed 0.3 m in length. The excavations identified i an earthen surfacce of loess that exxtended up too the foundattion course of the enclosing waall of the rooom, and uneaarthed a few flint chips. of most tempoorary The plan of Building B 3 is characteristic c sites in the Negev and Sinai S (Haimaan 1992:97-988); it includes Rooom 104 andd Courtyard 107, whichh are connected byy an entrancew way. Room 1004 is rectangullar (4 x 2.5 m) witth walls preseerved to 2 couurses, or 0.6 m in height (Fig. 2.121). Theirr exterior corrners are rounnded. Excavations inside the rooom exposed a layer of ash, 0.05 m in depth, extending e up to t the basal coourse of the walls. w In comparisoon to the otherr rooms at thee site, the ash layer in Room 1004 contained a relatively large numbeer of pottery sherdds. Presumablyy this ash layer rested on toop of an earthen liiving surface. Courtyard 107 1 is irregullar in shape, measuuring 13 x 12 m. The encloosing wall is made m of unhewn sttones, 0.5 m in i length, heaaped on top off one another. On the northeasstern side of the courtyardd, an 0 m beneathh the earthen livinng surface waas identified 0.2 current grounnd level. It exxtended up to the bottom of o the courtyard waall, and was iddentified by patches p of ashh and limited amouunts of lithic waste. w

Fig. 2.122. 2 Site 277, view toward ds the south of Loci 108 and 109

Fig. 2.123. 2 Site 277, view toward ds the south of L Locus 108

F 2.121. Site 27, view tow Fig. wards the westt of Locus 1044

Fig. 2.124. Site 27, view of Loci 109 and a 108 45

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTER RN NEGEV HIGH HLANDS

Table 2.2. Sitte 27, the num mber of petroggraphy groupss identified in each loci. Thhese sherds weere not samplled by Cohen-W Weinberger Locus

Arkose Group p

Dolomiticc Clay

Mozza Clay

Neg gebite Handmaade Pottery

Taqiya Marl

Total

103

0

0

0

0

1

1

104

7

6

0

6

0

19

106

1

0

0

0

0

1

108

0

1

0

0

2

3

109

0

42

6

2

9

59

110

0

2

0

0

2

4

Total

8

51

6

8

14

87

Building 5 is oval-shapeed, comprisinng a single room, r Room 110, measuring 3.5 3 x 2.5 m. m The wallss are preserved too a height off 0.5 m, corrresponding too two courses of stones s typicallly measuringg up to 0.4 m in length. The excavations e e exposed an eaarthen surface with a few ash staains on top of it. i

Baseed on the abssence of adjaccent water sou urces and thee pauccity of identifi fiable living suurfaces, it is suggested s thatt Site 27 was occuppied for only a short period of time. Des-pite the plentiful amount of fllint in the areea, only smalll ntities of flintt waste and arrtifacts were recovered, r byy quan meaans of sievingg all the seddiments from m the earthenn floorrs. Among thhe lithic tools found at the site is a drilll and scrapers. A stone axee was found on n the surface.. The lithic assem mblage is brroadly dated to the Latee Neolithic and/or Chalcolithic C pperiods (see Chapter C 3 thiss volu ume).

Building 6 inncludes up to three poorly--preserved cirrcular rooms attachhed to the nortthern end of Courtyard C 106 (Fig. 2.125). The courtyard is kidney-shapeed, measuringg 8 x 11 m. Its encclosing wall iss constructed of stones pileed on top of one annother, with laarger stones att the bottom of o the heap and sm maller stones at a the top. Thhe western paart of Courtyard 106 was excavated e too determine the stratigraphy, and exposeed a thin laayer of ash that extended up to the base off the enclosingg wall. Finds from this ash layerr include one sherd and lithhic artifacts.

The pottery assem mblage includded body sherd ds of cookingg pots, crude holem mouth vessels as well as jarrs. Of speciall interrest are sherdds which origginated from a number off geog graphical locaations in the laand of Israel. For example,, sherrds from souurces located in the Judeean hills andd Tayiiqa formationn were found in four of thee six loci thatt conttained potteryy. The preseence of Tayiiqa temperedd potteery most likely represents a continuatio on of an EBA A tradiition. The peetrographic ggroups presen nt in a givenn locu us most likelyy represent iindividual po ot drops. Forr instaance, the pressence sherds from dolomittic sources inn loci 104 and 1099 most likelyy represent in ndividual pott drop ps in these loccations. In thiss light we estiimate that thee MNI pottery vesssels at Site 277 (Har Saggi Site 1) is 133 conttainers (Table 2.2). SITE E 28 (HAR SAGGI S SITE 2) Site 28 was origiinally identifieed in the cou urse of Avni’ss surv vey of the Haar Saggi Map (Avni 1992) (Grid 976300 1154 45). It is situuated on a low hilltop th hat overlookss Biq’’at Hisun, an advantageouss topographical position ass the site s is surrounnded by higheer hills that prrovide shelterr from m the prevailiing winds. Thhe architecturre consists off two abutting circuular cairns, Caairns 201 and 203 that form m a fiigure eight (Figs. ( 2.126-22.127). The double cairnn meaasures 7.2 m in i length; Cairns 201 and 203 measuree 4.3 m and 3.8 m in width, resppectively. Their exterior iss consstructed of a ring of large stones of up p to 0.7 m inn leng gth. These largge standing stoones retain a fill f of unhewnn ston nes that comprrise the core oof each cairn.. Given that a num mber of standinng stones are m missing on th he eastern sidee of Cairn C 203, its original o widthh may have beeen similar too that of Cairn 201.

Fig. 2.125.. Site 27, view w to the south of o Structure 106 Building 7 is an oval struucture identiffied as Room 105. This construuction measurres 3 x 2 m, and its walls are made of largge stones of up u to 0.4 m inn length, preseerved to one coursee. The limitedd amount of sttone fall insidee and surrounding the structure suggests that the original height h of the stonee walls did not exceed one course. The excavations in Room 1005 unearthedd a thin layeer of ash that in some s places extended e undderneath the walls. w Finds from the t ash layer include lithicc waste and some s seeds.

46

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

wom man (25-30 years y old) (F Fig. 2.128). Based B on thee femu urs, these wom men varied frrom 161-164 cm in height.. A feemur from a thhird individuaal, who could not be sexed,, indiccated that thiis person stoood to a heigh ht of 157-1666 cm. It was not poossible to deteermine the sex x or stature off the person or persons p repreesented by th he additionall skeletal remains unearthed u in thhe burial cham mber.

Fiig. 2.126. Sitee 28, plan of thhe cairn Fig. 2.1288. Site 28, view w of burial cisst 201

Excaavations insidde the burial ccist of Cairn 203 2 unearthedd a flat stone slabb (0.6 x 0.3 m) on the floor. It hadd presumably partiially coveredd the top of o the buriall cham mber. A few limb bones ppiled in one corner of thee cham mber came froom a number of adults, butt were in suchh a po oor state of preeservation thaat they could not n be aged orr sexeed (Fig. 2.129)).

F 2.127. Site 28, view tow Fig. wards the souttheast of cairnn

Two burial chambers c meaasuring 1.5 x 0.9 m and 0.7 0 m are positioneed in the ceenter of Cairrns 201 and 203, respectively. Both burial cists measuree 0.5 m in depth. d Large standinng stones of 0.6-0.7 0 m in leength were ussed to construct thee burial cists; gaps g in their walls w were fillled in with small tightly-packeed stones. The T large sttones forming the frame of the cist extended above the suurface of the cairn, functioning as a brace for the horizzontal stone slabs thhat sealed bothh burial cham mbers.

Fig. 2.1299. Site 28, view w of burial cisst 203

Excavations in Cairn 201 revealed, a thin t layer of small s stones placeed on the flaat stone slabbs that sealedd the chamber. Thhe burial cisst was filledd with 0.5 m of windblown loess, l which was sieved. The floor of the burial chambber is the grouund surface. Scattered acrosss the bottom of thhe burial cistt were the rem mains of multiple individuals, among them m two crania, one of a young y woman (17--18 years oldd), and the other o of an adult

SITE E 29 (HAR SAGGI S SITE 3) Avn ni identified Site 29 in the ccourse of his survey of thee Har Saggi Map (A Avni 1992: 522*, 69, Site 117). This sitee com mprises eight structures arrannged in a lineear pattern forr 80 m along a tribbutary of the N Nahal Yafruq q (Fig. 2.130).. The boundaries of the site are ddelimited on the t north by a

47

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 2.130. Site 29, plan of architectural remains

slope and on the south by the wadi channel (Fig. 2.131). The entire surface area of the settlement is strewn with stones and broken flint. The preserved height of the architecture does not exceed one course and there are few signs that these constructions were reused. The general absence of stone fall indicates that the original height of the structures was not much different from that of the extant architecture, and it is likely that biodegradable superstructures were placed on top of the single course of stones.

Fig. 2.132. Site 29, plan of Structure 305

Fig. 2.131. Site 29, view of the site and its environs Structures 305 and 306 are similar in size and are interpreted as ritual in nature with a similar function to that of other open-air sanctuaries found in the Negev. In which case the plan of the architecture might have had a symbolic significance similar to that of a desert mosque (e.g., Waechter and Seton-Williams 1938: 174, Plate XXVI, square structure, Plate XLIII, top image). Building 305 is poorly preserved and was not excavated (Figs. 2.132-2.133). Its plan is broadly similar to the layout of Structure 306, and it may have had an elongated room attached to the eastern side of this architectural unit. Structure 306 (7 x 8 m) comprises a large enclosed space flanked on its northeastern side by an elongated room (Figs. 2.134-2.135). An L-shaped platform, measuring 3.5 m in length and 0.7 m in width, paved with one course of small stones, is attached to the interior face of the northeastern wall. At the southeastern end of Structure 306 is a round installation (1 m in diameter and 0.25 m in depth) built of small stones and filled with ash. A test trench in the open courtyard of Structure 306 recovered deposits of ash and a few flint chips. Architectural features common to Buildings 305 and 306 are surfaces paved with small stones, a row of standing stones sunk into the ground, and round installations made

Fig. 2.133. Site 29, view of Structure 305

Fig. 2.134. Site 29, plan of Structure 306 48

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

a to thee above-menttioned buildin ngs, there aree In addition five structures. Buuilding 301 coontains two ad djacent roomss of an a irregular ciircular shape,, measuring 2 and 3 m inn diam meter, respectiively (Figs. 22.136-2.138). The walls off Buillding 301 are built of one rrow of unhew wn stones, 0.55 m in n length, mosttly placed lenggthwise, and are generally,, preserved to onee course or 0.15 m in height. h Lithicc mateerial was locaated below thee bottom of the stone walls.. Attaached to the southern end oof Room 301 is Room 3099 (1.40 0 x 1.60 m). No material culture was found in thee room m. Outside Buuilding 301, nnear the western wall, is a squaare stone platfform measurinng 0.8 x 0.8 m, m and 15 cm m in heeight.

Fig. 2.135. Site 29, view tow F wards the northeasst of Structuree 306

of small stonnes. The layoout of both sttructures does not resemble thhe plan of Early Bronzze Age dom mestic architecture. Although moore poorly preeserved than Structures S 3055 and 306, the plaan of Structurre 307 is rem miniscent of ritual r constructionss. It contaains a courrtyard measuuring approximatelly 5 m in diaameter. The southern s walll that would have enclosed e this space s is not prreserved. Attaached to the interioor face of thee northern waall are three small s cells measurring 1 m in diameter. Exxcavation of these round installlations did noot unearth assh deposits. Finds F from the cistts include a flint f pick and some stone chips c were recoverred.

Fig. 2.138. Site 29, vieew of Structuree 301 annd the environns of the site

Fig. 2.136. Site 299, plan of Struucture 301

Fig. 2.139. Site 29, vieew of Structuree 308

Fig. 2.137. Site 29, view tow F wards the south of o Structure 301

Buillding 308 is a partially encllosed courtyarrd/animal penn with h two cells atttached to thee exterior of the enclosingg walll (Fig. 2.139)). The cell aabutting the northern n walll meaasures approxximately 0.5 m in diameter, and thatt abuttting the westeern wall 1 m iin diameter. The T excavatedd sedim ments in botth cells were sterile. Betw ween the twoo cellss, an L-shaped wall is attaached to the interior of thee north hern wall. The long axis off the wall exteends for 1.5 m in an n east-west diirection and tthen for 0.4 cm in a north-soutth direction. Three differrent constructtion methodss weree used to buiild the wall eenclosing cou urtyard/animall pen. The northernn wall is connstructed of one o course off ston nes of up to 0.4 m in lenngth. The eaastern wall iss consstructed of laarge flat stonees placed on end into thee sedim ment, some of o which had ffallen, leaving g two gaps off 1 m and 2 m, resspectively. Thhe western wall is built off

49

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTER RN NEGEV HIGH HLANDS

two rows off unhewn stonnes generally not exceedingg 0.3 m in length.. These variattions in construction technnique may represennt later reusee. Building 3008 may also have served as a ritual structuure since its plan is someewhat reminiscent of o Structures 305 3 and 306. The lithic matterial from Loci 3001, 302, 304, and 308 is broadly b dated from the 5th to thee 3rd millenniaa BC. SITE 30 (HA AR SAGGI SITE S 7) Site 30 is a cairn c measurinng 4.2 m diam meter and 0.65 m in height. Its exxterior frame is i built of a roow of flat unhhewn stones placedd on end. The area betweenn the frame annd the rectangular burial b cist is filled with stones of vaarious sizes. The burial b chamber in the ceenter of the cairn measures 0.55 x 1.7 m (Fig. 2.140). Thhe unhewn sttones used to construct the buurial cist weree laid directlly on bedrock. Thee chamber is 0.65 0 m deep and a its top is flush with the surrface of the cairn. c The seddiments insidee the burial chambber were devoiid of material culture.

Fig. 2.141. 2 Site 311, plan of cairn n

Fig. 2.142. 2 Site 31, view toward ds the east of thhe cairn

Figg. 2.140. Site 30, view of buurial cist

SITE 31 (HA AR SAGGI SITE S 4) Site 31 is ann oval tumuluus measuring 4.15 m in length, 3.10 m in width, and 0.600 m in heightt (Fig. 2.141).. It is constructed of o unhewn stoones of up to 0.60 m in length, which were piled on top of one anothher in a haphaazard manner (Fig.. 2.142). Invesstigation in thhe field ascertaained that the buriaal cist was connstructed first and the remainder of the cairnn then consttructed arounnd it. The burial b chamber in the t middle of the cairn appeears to be the only well-built paart of this consstruction. It measures m 1.1 x 0.45 m, and its lonng axis is orieented in an easst to west direection (Fig. 2.143). The stones coomprising the sides of the burial b cist protrudee above the surface of thhe cairn and were clearly visiblle prior to exccavation. The burial cist is filled f with loess, and a excavationn of these seddiments unearrthed the tibia of ann adult of an unidentified u a age.

Fig. 2.1143. Site 31, vview of burial cist inside the cairn SITE E 32 (HAR SAGGI S SITE 6) Site 32 is an anim mal pen builtt directly on bedrock. Thee partiially enclosedd space measuures 5 m in diameter and iss 50

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Fig. 2.145. Site 33, plan of the architecture located in Areas A and B

deposits and earthen surface are at the same elevation as the basal course of the stone wall that encloses this locus. There are two entranceways into Courtyard 501. The first, at the southern end of the courtyard between Installations 521 and 522 (Fig. 2.148), is 0.8 m in width and is demarcated by two stone doorposts measuring approximately 0.60 m in length (Figs. 2.149-2.150). The second is a 3 m gap in the northern wall. It could not be determined whether this gap in the wall is related to the construction of Tumuli 517 and 518.

constructed of stones of various sizes. No sediment accumulate in this animal pen. The only material culture from this site is a single sherd of EB IV/MB I pottery. SITE 33 (HAR SAGGI SITE 5) Site 33 is located on a wadi terrace to the north of a deep ravine (Fig. 2.144). The site extends for 150 m along this terrace, and the distance between Areas A and B is 70 m (Fig. 2.145). The ground surface is littered with stones that were used as construction material to build the architectural units in Areas A and B. Although their contemporaneity is uncertain, Architectural Units A and B are both dated to the Early Bronze Age. The site is protected from wind on its northern and eastern sides by a low ridge and hill, respectively. The lithic assemblage contains material from the Late Neolithic and/or Chalcolithic periods, and the Early Bronze Age period (see Chapter 3).

Fig. 2.146. Site 33, plan of Structure 506 in Area A Fig. 2.144. Site 33, view of the settlement and its environs Area A Structure 501 is an oval shaped courtyard measuring 12 x 14 m (Fig. 2.146). The wall enclosing Courtyard 501 is made of stones typically measuring up to 0.60 m in length. In its present condition, the wall varies from 0.40.8 m in height, and it rests on top of exposed and uneven bedrock. Excavation inside the courtyard exposed lenses of ash on an earthen surface (Fig. 2.147). The ash

Fig. 2.147. Site 33, view towards the northwest of Structure 501. Cairn 518 is visible to the right 51

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTER RN NEGEV HIGH HLANDS

Instaallations 519--526 and theeir function could c not bee determined.

Fig. 2.1148. Site 33, view v towards the t northeast off Loci 519 andd 521 in Structture 501 Fig. 2.1511. Site 33, view w towards the north of Cairn C 518 in SStructure 501

Fig. 2.1149. Site 33, view v towards the t southeast of the doorway leaading into Struucture 501

Fig. 2.152. Site S 33, view ttowards the no ortheast of Cairn C 518 in SStructure 501

Fig. 2.1150. Site 33, view v towards the t southwest of Loci 520-523 in Structurre 501

Fig. 2.153. Site S 33, view oof Cairns 517 and 518

Eight roundd installations, loci 519-526, abuttedd the interior face of the wall enclosing Coourtyard 501. The installations are built of one o course of stones that doo not exceed 0.30 m in length. Installation I 5220 is rectangullar in shape, measuuring 2.5 x 1 m; Locus 521 is circular in shape, and measures 1 m in diametter; Locus 5222 is partially preeserved. Locuus 523, consstructed of small s stones of up to 0.10 m in length, is sem micircular in shhape, and measures 1.8 m in lenngth and 0.90 m in width. Locus L 524 comprisees two abuttinng circles, eacch measuring 1.5 x 0.9 m. Locuss 525 is too pooorly preserveed to determinne its original plann, and Locuss 526 is recttangular in shhape, measuring 1 x 1.7 m. No N artifacts were w uneartheed in

Two o rectangularr tumuli, Tuumuli 517 and a 518, aree attacched to the waall enclosing C Courtyard 501 1 (Fig. 2.151).. The eastern sidde of Tumullus 518 abu uts the stonee encllosing wall off Locus 501 (F Fig. 2.152). It measures 3 x 4 m, and is built of stones of aas much as 0.6 m in lengthh whicch are placedd on end (Figss. 2.153-2.154 4). The spacee betw ween the buriaal cist in the ccenter and thee stone framee of th he tumulus is filled with sttones of vario ous sizes. Thee burial measures 1.2 1 m in lengtth and, 0.6 m in width, andd is 0..8 m deep. Thhe stones usedd to constructt the chamberr are 0.6 m in lenngth. Excavatiions inside th he burial cistt osed fragmentts of skull, loong bones thaat belonged too expo threee adults of unnidentified agee, and the rem mains of a twoo

52

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK K

dead d in extant strructures (e.g., Bar-Yosef ett al. 1977:81,, 86).

Fig. 2.1154. Site 33, plan p of Cairns 517 and 518 year old infaant. Among thhe artifacts asssociated with these t individuals are a a blue gllass bead andd a bone penndant (Figs. 6.10: 1, 1 4). Pottery and lithics froom the EB II were found undernneath these skkeletons. The elevation of these t artifacts is thhe same elevattion as the surrface of Courttyard 501. This raiises the questiion of whetherr the Early Brronze Age artifactss were interred with the deeceased or whhether they were on o the groundd surface whhen the buriall cist constructed.

Fiig. 2.156. Site 33, view of thee burial cist inn Cairn 517 Stru ucture 502 is a rectangularr room of 4 x 5 m (Fig.. 2.15 58). The stonees used to buuild it are 0.5 m in length,, and the walls aree preserved too a height of 0.4 m or twoo courrses. The doorway in the eeastern wall of o the room iss 0.5 m wide. The excavations iidentified an earthen e livingg surfa face 0.1 m beloow ground levvel. This floorr extended upp to th he bottom row w of stones off the enclosing g wall. In thee centter of Structuure 502 is a large flat sto one that mostt likelly functioned as a base foor a pillar that supported a rooff. A few ash lenses, lithic waste, and EB E II potteryy weree found on thee floor. Room 503 is a sm mall rectangullar room meassuring 3 x 2.55 m (Fig. 2.157). The walls aare 0.40 m in n width, andd preserved for 2 coourses, or 0.88 m in height, and are builtt of stones of up to t 0.5 m in leength. Based on the smalll amo ount of stone fall around aand inside the structure thee original height of o the walls did not exceeed 1 m. Noo doorrway into this room was identified. A beaten earthh floorr located 0.2 m below the gground surfacce contained a few ash stains; annd yielded a shell bead, lith hic waste, andd EB II I sherds (Fig.. 6.10: 3).

Fig. 2.155. Site 33, view tow F wards the northw west of Cairn 517 5

The northernn wall of Tuumulus 518 functioned ass the southern walll of Tumulus 517 (Fig. 2.155). The nortthern, eastern, and western wallls of Tumuluus 517 are slightly bent, perhaaps indicatinng that thee structure was haphazardly constructed. The burial cisst in Tumuluss 517 measures 1.8 x 0.6 m, and is built with stones that typically measure 0.6 m in i length. Thee top of the burial b cist was sealeed by stone slabs, which in turn were covvered with 0.85 m of stones. Excavation insside the burial cist exposed an almost a compleete skeleton of o a woman of o 2530 years of age a (Fig. 2.156).1 The preseence of a red glass bead inside the burial suggests s that the interred was Bedouin, peerhaps buriedd in the Otttoman or Brritish Mandate perriods (Fig. 6.110:2). In part, this suggestiion is also based on o the fact that Bedouin innterred some their

Fig. 2.158. 2 Site 33, view toward ds thhe west of Struucture 502

1

Arensburg ideentified the follow wing skeletal elem ments in this cistt: ribs, phalanges, 23 vertebra, v a sternuum, a fragment of basin, sacrum m with complete spinaa bifida, talus (R R), and a brokken female skulll with mandible.

Room 504 is an irregullarly-shaped constructionn meaasuring 2.4 x 1 m (Fig. 2.1559). The wallss are made off

53

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTER RN NEGEV HIGH HLANDS

Fig. 2.157. Site S 33, plan of the structurees in Area A. See S fig. 2.145 for the spatial s relatioonships betweeen these consttructions

Fig. 2.159. Site 33, view tow F wards the west of o Structure 5004 Fig. 2.160. Site 33, deetail of mill sttone unnearthed in Strructure 504 one row of unhewn u stoness measuring 0.4 m in lengthh. No entrance was identified. The interior of the room was filled with earth and smaall stones to a depth of 0.115 m, below whichh an earthen surface was found. It didd not contain ash lenses, l but yieelded a limiteed amount of lithic waste and a mill m stone (Figg. 2.160).

Stru ucture 506 measures 14 x 5 m. Its core is i made up off two abutting loci (506-507), that are interpreeted as animall penss, which have two smaller lloci that are built b into theirr north hern and southhern sides, resspectively (Fig. 2.161). 54

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

Fig. 2.161. Site 33, view of Structure 506

Fig. 2.162. Site 33, view of Structure 508

The northern and southern loci are identified as Loci 505 and 516. The walls of this architectural unit are made of unhewn stones of up to 0.5 m in length, preserved to a maximum height of two courses. Excavations inside Loci 506 and 507 identified earthen floors 0.10 m below the original ground level that extended up to the base of the enclosing walls.

Structure 515 is rectangular in shape measuring 4.5 x 6 m (Fig. 2.157). Its walls are built of unhewn stones up to 0.50 m in length, partially below ground level, and are preserved to a height of 0.4 m. In center of Structure 515 is a large flat stone that may have functioned as a pillar base. No artifacts were found in this structure and no living surfaces were identified.

The largest enclosed space is Locus 506, which measures 9 x 5.5 m. The small amount of stone fall in and around this locus raises the possibility that the walls of the pen did not exceed three courses, 0.60 m, in height. The excavations unearthed a few flint artifacts, as well as a broken sandstone grinding stone. In the eastern wall of Locus 506 is a door jamb, 0.6 m in height, which opens to Locus 507. Locus 507 is rectangular in shape and measures 6 x 4 m. The excavations in this room unearthed a few body sherds of holemouth jars, faunal remains, and lithic artifacts. Abutting the northern and southern sides of Structure 506 are two irregularly-shaped rooms, Loci 505 and 516, respectively (Fig. 2.157). Both loci are haphazardly constructed in contrast to well-built Loci 506 and 507. For example, in order to construct the walls of Loci 505 and 516, unhewn stones were merely heaped on top of one another. Room 516 measures 2.5 x 2.5 m and Room 505 measures 2.5 x 4 m. These loci were not excavated.

Area B Structure 509 is an oval-shaped room measuring 2.8 x 4.5 m (Figs. 2.163-2.164). Its extant walls are preserved in some places to two courses or 0.4 m in height. On the basis of the limited amount of stone fall associated with this structure, this was probably the original height of the stone walls. In the center of western wall is an opening measuring 0.7 m in width that presumably served as the entrance into the structure. It contained 0.2 m of sediments that continued below the level of the stone enclosing walls but no floor surface was identified and no artifacts were recovered in these sediments.

Structure 506 may have been used for stabling livestock. This suggestion is based on two factors: first, dwellings are typically better built than the extant architecture of this structure; and second, it yielded virtually no material culture. Based on its layout of the four loci in Structure 506, may have been used for penning categories of sheep and/or goats: males, females, juveniles, and offspring. Structure 508 (2 x 3 m) is built of unhewn stones of no more than 0.3 m in length (Fig. 2.162). The enclosing wall consists of one course of stones preserved to a height of 0.4 m. No doorway was identified. Approximately 0.1 m of sediment was excavated inside Structure 508, but no floor surface was found. There was, however, a concentration of flat stones stacked against the interior face of the western wall that measured 2 x 1 m. Excavated artifacts include stone tools and lithic waste. Abutting the exterior face of the southern wall is a poorly preserved and poorly constructed wall measuring 1 m in length and built of unhewn stones.

Fig. 2.163. Site 33, plan of the structures located in Area B. See fig. 2.145 for the spatial relationships between these constructions

55

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTER RN NEGEV HIGH HLANDS

h the limitedd walll and is 0.6 m in widthh. Underneath amo ount of stonne fall insidde this stru ucture is ann accu umulation of sediments s of 00.3 in depth. Excavation E off the sediments s didd not unearth aany material culture c and noo anth hropogenic surrfaces were iddentified. Stru ucture 513 is a square buildiing with round corners thatt meaasures 3 x 3 m (Fig. 2.1663). Its wallss are built off unheewn stones off 0.4 m lengthh, and are preserved to onee courrse or 0.3 m inn height. The entrance into o the structuree is 0..5 m in widthh and is locateed in the south heastern wall.. A 0.3 0 m deep layer of acccumulated seediments wass remo oved. These sediments continued into o the naturall sedim ment. Althouugh some lithhic waste waas found thee sedim ments were byy and large steerile.

Fig. 2.164. Site 333, view towardds the west of Structurre 509 in Areaa B Structure 5100 is a one-room m trapezoidall- shaped consstruction that meeasures 4 x 3.5 3 m (Figs. 2.163, 2.165). Its walls, built of o unhewn stoones, are preseerved to the height h of one course or 0.4 m. The T lack of stoone fall insidee and outside of thhis structure may m indicate that this was the original heigght of the wallls. An entrancce, 0.6 m in width, w is located in the centeer of the eastern wall. The excavations did not unnearth any artifacts andd no anthropogeniic surface or surfaces s were identified.

Stru ucture 514 is a U-shaped buuilding measurring 5.5 x 3.55 m (F Fig. 2.163). The T walls are built of unheewn stones off vario ous sizes, soome as mucch as 0.5 m in length.. Presservation of thhe walls variess from one to three t courses,, to a maximum heeight of 0.6 m m. The doorw way located inn the eastern e wall measures m 0.6 m in width, and a is flankedd by stone s doorpoosts that stannd to a heigh ht of 0.6 m.. Excaavations of the sedimennts inside th his structuree reco overed limitedd amounts of liithic waste. Refeerences AHA ARONI, Y., M. M EVENARI, L. SHANAN N and N. H.. TADMOR 19600 – The Ancient Desert Agriculture A off the t Negev. Isrrael Exploratioon Journal 10 0: 23-36. AMIIRAN, R. 1978 – Early Arad: The Chalcolithicc Settlement S annd Early Broonze City. Ju udean Desertt Studies S I: Firrst-Fifth Seasoons of Excavvations, 1962-1966. 1 Jerusaleem: Israel Expploration Socieety.

Fig. 2.165. Site 333, view of Struucture 510 in Area B

AMIIRAN, R., I. BEIT-ARIEH aand J. GLASS 1973 – Thee Interrelationsh I hip between A Arad and Sites in Southernn Sinai S in the Early E Bronze Age II. Israeel Explorationn Journal J 23: 1993-197. AVN NER, U. 1984 – Ancient Cu ult Sites in th he Negev andd Sinai S Deserts. Tel Aviv 11: 115-131. AVN NI, G. 1992a – Map of Ha Har Saggi Norrtheast (225).. Jerusalem: J Thhe Israel Antiiquities Authority and thee Archaeologica A al Survey of Issrael. AVN NI, G. 1996 – Nomads, Farrmers, and Town-Dwellers:: Pastoralist-Se P edentist Inteeraction in the Negevv Highlands, H Sixxth-Eighth Ceenturies CE. Supplement S too the t Archaeoloogical Survey of Israel. Jeru usalem: Israell Antiquities A Auuthority. BAR R-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER, A. GOREN and a P. SMITH H 1977 1 – The Nawamis neear 'Ein Hudeerah (Easternn Sinai). S Israel Exploration E Jo Journal 27: 65-88.

Fig. 2.166. Site 333, view of Struucture 512 in Area B

BEITT-ARIEH, I. 1977 – South Sinai in the Early E Bronzee Age. A Unpubliished Ph. D D. dissertation n, Tel Avivv University. U

Structure 5122 is an oval-shaped room measuring m 3x2m (Figs. 2.163, 2.166). The walls, w built off unhewn stonnes of various sizess, the largest examples meeasuring 0.50 m in length, are prreserved to a height of twoo courses or 0.6 m. The entrancee into the struucture is locaated in the eaastern

BEITT-ARIEH, I. 20003 – Archaeeology of Sina ai. The Opherr Expedition. E Teel Aviv: Tel A Aviv Universiity, Sonia andd Marco M Nadler Institute of A Archaeology.

56

CHAPTER 2: THE FIELDWORK

BEN-TOR, A. 1992 – The Early Bronze Age. Pp. 81-125 in The Archaeology of Ancient Israel, ed. A. Ben-Tor. New Haven: Yale University Press.

HAIMAN, M. 1995 – An Early Islamic Period Farm at Nahal Mitnan in the Negev Highlands. 'Atiqot 26: 113.

COHEN, R. 1986 – The Settlement of the Central Negev in Light of Archaeology and Literary Sources during the 4th-1st Millennia B.C. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew with English summary).

HAIMAN, M. and Y. GOREN 1992 – “Negbite” Pottery: New Aspects and Interpretations and the Role of Pastoralism in Designating Ceramic Technology. Pp. 143-151 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press.

ERICKSON-GINI, T. 2000 – Map of Be’erotayim Survey. Excavations and Surveys in Israel 112: 111*-112*, 141-142. GLUECK, N. 1957 – The Fifth Season of Exploration in the Negeb. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 145: 11-25.

KOCHAVI, M. 1967 – The Settlement of the Negev in the Middle Bronze (Canaanite) I Age. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew with English abstract).

GOREN, Y. 1996 – The Southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age IV: The Petrographic Perspective. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 303: 33-72.

LEVY, T. E. and ALON, D. 1982 – The Chalcolithic mortuary site near Mezad Aluf, northern Negev Desert: A Preliminary Study. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 248: 37-59.

HAIMAN, M. 1986 – Map of Har Hamran-Southwest (198) 10-00. Jerusalem: The Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

PALMER, E., Henry 1871/1977 – The Desert of the Exodus. Reprinted edition. New York: Arno Press. PORAT, N. 1989 – Petrography of Pottery from Southern Israel and Sinai. Pp. 169-188 in L’Urbanisation de la Palestine à l’âge du Bronze ancien: Bilan et Perspectives des Recherches Actuelles, Actes du Colloque d’Emmaüs (20-24 Octobre 1986), ed. P. de Miroschedji. BAR International Series 527(i). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

HAIMAN, M. 1992a – Early Settlement Patterns of the Negev Highlands: Analysis of the Findings of the Negev Emergency Survey 1979-1989. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. HAIMAN, M. 1992b – Sedentarism and Pastoralism in the Negev Highlands in the Early Bronze Age: Results of the Western Negev Highlands Emergency Survey. Pp. 93-104 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press.

ROSEN, S. A. 1984 – Kvish Harif: Preliminary Investigation at a Late Neolithic Site in the Central Negev. Paléorient 10: 111-112. ROSEN, S. A. 1993 – Lithic Assemblages from Nahal Mitnan. ‘Atiqot 22: 62-69. ROSEN, S. A. 2010 – The Desert and the Sown: A Lithic Perspective. Pp. 203-221 in Lithic Technology in Metal using Societies, ed. B. Eriksen. Jutland Archaeological Society Publications 67. Hojberg: Jutland Archaeological Society.

HAIMAN, M. 1992c – Cairn Burials and Cairn Fields in the Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 287: 25-45. HAIMAN, M. 1993 – An Early Bronze Age Cairn Field at Nahal Mitnan. ‘Atiqot 22: 49-61.

WOOLLEY, L. and T. E. LAWRENCE 1915 – The Wilderness of Zin. Annual Palestine Exploration Fund III (1914-1915).

57

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Chapter 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES JACOB VARDI methodological and theoretical underpinnings of this study follow the research of Rosen (1997a), and Gilead and associates (Gilead et al. 1995). In particular, their typological definitions are used in order to ensure a consistency in terminology and analysis. While their research focuses on stone tool assemblages from late prehistoric and historic assemblages, it is worth noting that most of the typological definitions that they used, and that are applied here, are based upon previous studies of Paleolithic stone tool assemblages (e.g., Bordes 1988; Hours 1974; Bar-Yosef 1970).

INTRODUCTION This chapter presents an analysis of the lithic material collected by Mordechai Haiman in the course of the Negev Emergency Survey. Given the nature of his fieldwork, the lithic material is divided into individual and multi-site assemblages, respectively. The former comprises the lithic assemblages collected from Sites 1 (Ramat Matred 3), 19 (Kadesh Barnea 86/3), 22 (Kadesh Barnea 95/2) and 26 (Ein Hameara). The latter comprises two lithic multi-site assemblages from the areas of Har Saggi and Kadesh Barnea, respectively. This methodological approach was implemented due to the small quantities of lithic material collected from sites situated in both areas. Descriptions of the Kadesh Barnea sites are not discussed in this monograph as they were published by Haiman (2007: 307-351).

The lithic material in this chapter is divided into two categories, waste and tools. Based on Rosen’s criteria (1997a: 29-32), the lithic waste was sorted into three subcategories, debris, debitage, and cores. Debris is further subdivided into chips or chunks depending upon their size. In most cases, chips measure less than 15 mm in length, however, since the majority of lithic material collected by Haiman was not sieved, chips in this study are defined as stones that measure between 15-20 mm in length. Chips are small fragments of flint that can be attributed to knapping or in some cases to post depositional processes, such as burning, crushing, and rolling. Unidentifiable pieces of stone that measure more than 20 mm in length are classified as chunks. Apart from mentioning the appearance and frequency of the chips and chunks in these assemblages, there will be no further discussion of this material.

The assemblages analyzed here were retrieved within the context of salvage excavations and surveys. The large quantities of lithic waste found at some excavated sites indicates that the collection process was thorough (e.g., Site 1), and this data provides insights into the chaîn opèratoire of a specific flint industry. In contrast, the lithics from Haiman’s surveys are characterized by a large proportion of tools and a small amount of lithic waste which is indicative of the “pretty piece syndrome” as defined by Rosen (1997a:37). This type of collection method does not provide much insight into the chaîn opèratoire of a stone tool assemblage. The different collection methods employed by Haiman have limited the range of conclusions that can be drawn about the materials described herein. A selection of the tool types recovered by Haiman is illustrated in this chapter (Figs. 3.1-3.8). Given that many of these tool types are well known, only a few examples are illustrated here. METHODOLOGY

Debitage includes knapped flakes, primary elements and primary flakes. In this study, the distinction between primary flakes and primary elements is based on the frequency of cortex. For example, blanks with more than 50% cortical coverage are identified as primary flakes, blades, bladelets, and core trimming elements (for basic definitions see Inizan et al. 1992, Rosen 1997a:30-32). Cores were identified according to the type of blank that they were produced on.

The lithic material was analyzed in the same manner as other stone tool assemblages unearthed at protohistoric and historic sites in the southern Levant. The

A stone artifact is identified as a tool if it exhibits more than 20 mm of continuous intentional retouch, or if the retouch covers more than 20% of the implement’s 59

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

A large amount of the finds are patinated and the prevalent colors are brown, gray, or white. Some lithic artifacts are covered with two different color patinas that might represent two cycles of use, or alternatively the reuse of a previous tool as a blank. For instance, the unretouched portion of a tool may be covered in one color while the retouched portion of the artifact is covered by a different color patina. The reasons for patination and double patination are not well understood, however, they are probably associated with factors such as the partial exposure of artifacts, and contact with water (e.g., Rosen and Gopher 2003: 184-185). Some intrusive Paleolithic tools and Levallois flakes are covered in a khaki color patina.

circumference (Marks 1976:376). Sickle blades are exempt from this definition as they may lack retouch. In this study, the presence of sickle gloss is used as a criterion to identify an artifact as a sickle blade (Anderson 1980, Unger-Hamilton 1985, Rosen 1997a: 57). SITE 1 (RAMAT MATRED 3) Raw Materials The lithic assemblage from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) is similar in many aspects to other Early Bronze Age stone tool assemblages found in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Rosen 1990, 1991, 1993). The raw material used to manufacture the flint implements was collected from locally available sources on the Ramat Matred plateau. Judging by the flat cortex found on some of the blanks, it is assumed that the bulk of raw material came from stratified Eocene flint, also known as tabular flint. The majority of the flint is opaque in color, although banded gray and brown flints are present in very small quantities. Semi-translucent gray flint, identified as Chalcedony, which is common in assemblages from earlier periods (Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a; Roshwalb 1981) is virtually absent at Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3).

The Waste Flakes (n = 3925, 66%) (Tables 3.1-3.3): Flakes form the largest knapped type of debitage. Based on the examination of the flakes it can be stated that the flint industry is an ad hoc small flake industry with a very small blade component, none of its products are standardized. Flakes measure no more than 5 cm in length and in most cases (70%) they have flat striking platforms which indicate that core decortications have been made prior to flake removal.

Table 3.1. Site 1, the frequencies of waste per Loci in Areas A and B Area A, Locus

Chunks

Chips

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

Cores

C.T.E.

Tools

N.A.

0

0

2

0

0

0

2

0

13

30

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

31

3

3

6

3

0

0

0

0

3

32

2

12

35

0

0

0

0

0

5

33

2

1

21

3

1

0

1

0

7

34

0

2

31

0

0

0

0

0

6

35

13

122

265

43

6

1

7

3

25

36

0

2

46

3

0

1

1

0

4

39

3

2

25

0

2

0

1

1

8

40

0

21

82

10

1

3

2

0

13

41

0

1

58

0

1

0

2

3

18

42

2

7

90

8

2

1

3

0

8

44

4

26

110

15

3

0

2

0

9

45

1

5

16

8

0

0

4

0

3

46

3

14

44

2

0

2

1

0

7

48

1

17

39

1

1

0

2

0

4

50

3

3

16

3

0

0

1

0

0

51

0

5

8

0

0

0

0

0

3

52

0

5

26

4

0

0

2

0

3

53

2

1

22

6

1

0

0

0

5

54

3

16

98

0

5

0

5

2

14

55

2

10

57

4

4

0

2

3

6

Area B, Locus

60

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Area A, Locus

Chunks

Chips

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

Cores

C.T.E.

Tools

56

0

2

27

4

4

1

1

1

16

57

0

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

4

58

0

5

16

0

1

0

1

0

5

59

3

2

8

1

0

0

1

1

3

60

1

2

9

1

0

0

0

1

1

39/1

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

Subtotal

48

286

1164

120

34

11

39

11

217

Frequency

2.5

14.8

60.2

6.2

1.8

0.6

2.0

0.6

11.2

Area B

Table 3.2. Site 1, the frequencies of waste per Loci in Area C Area C, Locus

Grid Square

Chunks

Chips

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

Cores

C.T.E.

37

Bf/1

1

6

25

0

0

0

0

1

37

Bf/2

1

15

41

4

1

0

0

1

37

Bf/3

4

12

32

7

0

2

0

2

37

Bf/4

1

10

52

0

1

0

0

0

37

Bf/5

7

16

62

0

4

4

0

1

37

Bf/6

0

6

53

11

0

1

0

0

37

Bf/7

1

14

43

0

0

0

2

0

37

Bf/8

1

13

72

8

3

1

3

0

37

Bf/9

2

13

66

16

0

0

0

0

37

Bf/11

3

17

86

11

3

1

2

5

37

Bf/12

5

7

59

0

2

0

1

0

37

Bf/13

15

68

41

5

0

0

0

2

37

Bf/14

5

25

92

14

2

1

2

2

37

Bf/15

1

16

53

7

0

0

0

1

37

Bf/16

0

7

39

4

1

1

3

0

37

Bf/17

3

8

53

9

1

0

1

1

37

Bf/18

4

15

50

4

1

4

5

0

37

C-2

1

9

29

0

0

0

0

2

37

C-2/1

3

15

1

1

0

0

0

1

37

C-2/2

0

9

22

4

0

0

1

0

37

C-2/3

0

3

14

0

0

0

1

1

37

C-2/4

0

5

39

3

0

0

0

0

37

C-2/5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

37

C-2/6

0

1

13

4

0

0

1

0

37

C-2/8

3

7

8

2

1

0

0

1

37

C-2/9

1

11

26

0

0

0

0

1

37

C-2/10

0

11

15

0

0

0

1

1

37

C-2/11

2

7

32

4

0

0

0

0

37

C-2/12

0

12

18

0

2

2

1

0

37

C-2/13

1

9

30

1

0

0

0

0

37

C-2/14

0

4

10

0

0

0

0

0

37

C-2/15

3

0

56

6

0

0

0

1

37

C-2/17

1

6

21

2

2

1

0

1

61

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Area C, Locus

Grid Square

Chunks

Chips

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

Cores

C.T.E.

37

C-2/18

0

0

15

3

1

0

0

0

37

C-3/1

0

2

7

2

0

0

0

0

37

C-3/2

1

10

52

8

3

0

1

0

37

C-3/3

0

7

20

0

0

0

0

0

37

C-3/4

13

9

0

0

0

0

2

0

37

C-3/5

0

0

7

2

0

0

0

0

37

C-3/6

1

5

10

1

0

0

0

0

37

C-3/7

0

11

18

0

1

0

0

0

37

C-3/8

2

6

7

0

0

0

0

0

37

C-3/9

1

5

0

0

0

0

1

0

37

C-3/10

3

12

22

1

1

0

0

2

37

C-3/11

0

7

8

4

0

0

0

0

37

C-3/12

0

8

7

0

0

0

2

0

37

C-3/13

0

9

34

6

2

1

0

0

37

C-3/14

0

1

17

2

1

0

1

0

37

C-3/15

2

2

15

0

0

0

1

1

37

C-3/16

0

7

20

9

0

1

0

0

37

C-3/18

2

32

78

9

0

0

2

1

37

C-30/10

0

9

25

3

0

0

1

0

37

C-30/6

0

16

36

2

0

0

1

0

37

C-30/8

0

4

6

0

0

0

0

0

37

D-2/1

6

27

49

0

2

0

0

0

37

D-2/2

4

18

71

8

3

0

1

1

37

D-2/3

3

17

52

4

1

0

0

3

37

D-2/4

4

10

70

13

1

0

1

1

37

D-2/5

1

9

77

11

0

0

0

2

37

D-2/7

0

3

31

4

0

0

0

0

37

D-2/8

0

3

17

6

0

0

1

0

37

D-2/9

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

37

D-2/10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

37

D-2/11

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

37

D-2/14

3

13

64

14

0

0

1

5

37

D-2/36

0

8

52

9

0

1

1

0

37

D-3/1

1

12

31

6

0

0

2

1

37

D-3/2

1

36

65

0

3

0

3

1

37

D-3/3

2

7

25

3

3

0

3

0

37

D-3/4

0

13

45

2

1

0

0

0

37

D-3/5

9

0

34

6

0

0

0

0

37

D-3/7

1

5

36

4

0

0

1

4

9

NA

2

8

23

3

0

0

2

0

37

NA

0

7

56

4

0

1

2

0

38

NA

5

6

8

3

3

0

0

1

37-2

NA

4

15

55

7

0

0

4

0

37-2

NA

2

27

55

5

0

0

1

1

37-3

NA

11

6

89

7

1

5

3

3

37-3

NA

2

5

12

3

0

3

2

0

62

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Area C, Locus

Grid Square

Chunks

Chips

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

Cores

C.T.E.

37-4

NA

1

5

25

7

0

1

0

0

37-5

NA

0

2

7

0

0

0

0

1

37-5

NA

1

1

3

1

0

0

0

0

37-5

NA

0

1

3

2

0

0

1

1

37-1

NA

0

2

11

2

0

0

0

0

37-5

NA

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

37

Surface

1

10

35

7

5

3

2

1

Subtotal

158

815

2759

320

56

34

68

55

Frequency

3.3

17.0

57.6

6.7

1.2

0.7

1.4

1.1

Cores

C.T.E.

Area C

Table 3.3. Site 1, the frequencies of lithic waste found in Areas A, B and C Chunks 0

Chips 0

Primary Elements

Flakes 2

Blades

0

Bladelets

Area A

Subtotal

0

0

0

0

Area B

Subtotal

48

286

1164

120

34

11

39

11

Area C

Subtotal

158

815

2759

320

56

34

68

55

Total

206

1101

3925

440

90

45

109

66

Table 3.4. Site 1, core attributes

Blades and Bladelets (n = 135, 3%) (Tables 3.1-3.3): The paucity of parallel prismatic blade scars demonstrates that there is little standardization in their production. The irregular pattern of the dorsal ridges of most blades suggests that prior to their removal there has been another series of flakes or irregular blades on the core (cf. Gilead et al. 1995:235). The few bladelets present are made on the same kind of raw material as the rest of the waste. Bladelets differ from blades as they typically measure less than 12 mm in width (Tixier 1963: 36-39, fig. 7). Some blades (n = 7) are relatively wide (> 2 cm) and thin (5 mm), and lack the prismatic scars that are representative of Canaanean blade industry. The absence of evidence for Canaanean blade technology is not surprising as these blades are rarely found in lithic assemblages from the Negev Highlands (Rosen 1997a: 58-59, fig. 3.18). The flakes: blades and bladelets ratio is 29:1, demonstrating that the flint industry was geared towards the manufacture of flake blanks. Within the tool category the ratio between the flake tools: blade tools is 4:1, indicating that the flint knapper/s had a different approach towards making blade and bladelet blanks in contrast to other tool types (e.g. Rosen 2001: 110-111).

Numberof Striking Platforms

n.

%

1 (including 4 Levallois)

54

49.5

2

47

43.1

3

8

7.3

Total

109

100.0

Core Type

n.

%

Flake

78

71.6

Blade

4

3.7

Bladelet

2

1.8

Mix

21

19.3

Levallois

4

3.7

Total

109

100.0

The relatively small size of the cores, on average 5.9 cm in diameter, may be attributed to the nature of the locally available raw material. Alternatively, the diminutive size of the cores may also represent the exhaustive use of raw materials. While half of the cores have a single platform, the remainder has between two to three striking platforms demonstrating that many cores were reused extensively. This pattern of behavior is curious as there is no lack of exposed flint nodules in the wadi beds below the Matred plateau (personal observation). The presence of four intrusive Levallois cores might indicate intrusion, collection, or reuse of cores from an adjacent Middle Paleolithic site.

Cores (n = 109, 2%) (Table 3.4): The most numerous type of core are flake cores (71.5%), which were used for the production of unstandardized tools on flakes. The small frequency of blade and bladelet cores (5.5%) corresponds to the frequencies of blades and bladelets in the waste and tools categories, suggesting that they were a minor component in this lithic industry. 63

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Core Trimming Elements (n = 66, 1%): With the exception of three pieces, the core trimming elements are on broken core tablets and or on broad thick flakes. The core trim elements are highly unstandardized and do not always resemble the known core rejuvenation elements found on blades and bladelets from the Upper and EpipPaleolithic assemblages (Inizan et al. 1992; GoringMorris 1987). The lack of standardization combined with the low number of core trimming elements is evidence for a poor level of core modification.

and drills. The distinction between them is based upon the total length of retouch that modifies the point of the borer. A borer is classified as a drill if the point is 1/3 of the total tool length. Three techniques were used to make drills: first, some were made by an abrupt retouch which created an elongated point or bit; second, drills were made by knapping a single notch near the tool’s edge (awls); third, in most cases the bit was produced by making of two adjacent notches in order to create a point between them (Rosen 1997a: 68).

Tools

There are five drills in this assemblage. Two are made on blades, two are on elongated flakes while the fifth one is represented by a broken bit. There is one fairly large drill, measuring 10.37 x 4.84 x 1.36 cm, that is made on a flake. The bit on this particular implement measures 0.7 x 0.6 cm. A second drill is similar in shape to some of the

Borers (n = 74, 10.0%) (Table 3.5) (Fig. 3.1: 5): Borers are not standardized in their manufacture, and many of them are made on flakes that lack cortex on their dorsal face. Within this category there are two sub types, awls

Table 3.5. Site 1, the frequencies of tools per Loci in Areas A, B, and C Area A, Locus

Excavation Notches and Borers Grid Denticulates

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Sickles

Retouched Flakes

Total 13

NA

0

1

2

5

0

1

0

4

30

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

Subtotal

0

1

4

5

0

1

0

4

15

Frequency

0

6.0

27.0

33.0

0

7.0

0

27.0

100.0

31

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

3

32

0

0

2

0

0

1

0

2

5

33

0

1

1

0

0

2

0

2

6

34

0

2

3

0

1

0

0

0

6

35

0

2

13

0

2

5

0

3

25

36

0

0

3

0

0

1

0

0

4

39

0

3

1

0

0

1

0

3

8

40

0

0

2

1

0

5

0

5

13

41

0

2

7

0

1

2

0

6

18

42

0

0

3

0

1

1

0

3

8

44

0

1

6

0

0

1

0

1

9

45

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

3

46

0

1

1

0

0

2

0

2

6

48

0

0

3

0

1

0

0

0

4

51

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

1

3

52

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

2

3

53

0

0

4

0

0

1

0

0

5

54

0

0

6

0

0

2

0

6

14

55

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

3

6

56

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

12

14

57

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

1

4

58

0

0

3

0

1

0

0

1

5

59

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

3

60

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

Surface collection

0

4

6

9

5

8

0

1

33

Area B, Locus

64

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Area A, Locus

Excavation Notches and Borers Grid Denticulates

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Sickles

Retouched Flakes

Total

Area B Subtotal

17

76

13

12

35

0

56

209

Frequency

8.1

36.4

6.2

5.7

16.7

0.0

26.8

100.0

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

2

5

37

0

1

37

Bf/1

37

Bf/11

3

37

Bf/12

3

37

Bf/13

37

Bf/16

37

Area C, Locus 9

9

9

7

19

0

2

95

2

0

0

3

0

6

11

10

0

0

0

0

15

28

6

0

0

1

0

0

10

8

1

0

3

0

7

19

1

3

0

0

2

0

1

7

Bf/18

1

5

0

0

1

0

5

12

37

Bf/2

1

4

0

0

0

0

4

9

37

Bf/3

2

2

0

0

3

0

2

9

37

Bf/4

2

2

0

0

1

0

5

10

37

Bf/5

1

0

0

0

0

0

3

4

37

Bf/6

1

4

0

0

0

0

5

10

37

Bf/7

1

7

0

0

0

0

2

10

37

Bf/9

0

3

0

0

1

0

0

4

37

C-2

0

4

0

0

1

0

8

13

37

C-2/1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

37

C-2/10

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

2

37

C-2/11

1

1

0

0

1

0

4

7

37

C-2/12

0

2

0

0

2

0

1

5

37

C-2/13

1

3

0

0

1

0

3

8

37

C-2/14

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

37

C-2/15

0

3

0

0

0

0

2

5

37

C-2/17

2

1

0

0

0

0

1

4

37

C-2/18

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

3

37

C-2/2

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

3

37

C-2/3

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

3

37

C-2/5

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

37

C-2/6

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

3

37

C-2/8

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

37

C-2/9

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

4

37

C-3/11

0

0

1

0

1

0

2

4

37

C-3/12

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

37

C-3/13

2

0

0

0

0

0

1

3

37

C-3/14

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

C-3/15

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

C-3/16

0

1

0

0

0

0

2

3

37

C-3/18

0

0

0

0

1

0

3

4

37

C-3/4

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

2

37

C-3/5

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

C-3/7

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

C-3/8

0

2

0

0

0

0

2

4

65

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Area A, Locus

Excavation Notches and Borers Grid Denticulates

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Sickles

Retouched Flakes

Total

37

C-3/9

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

D-2/10

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

D-2/11

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

37

D-2/14

0

2

0

0

0

0

6

8

37

D-2/3

2

0

0

0

3

0

4

9

37

D-2/36

0

2

0

0

2

0

2

6

37

D-2/4

1

1

0

0

1

0

7

10

37

D-2/5

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

2

37

D-2/7

0

4

0

0

1

0

5

10

37

D-2/9

3

2

0

1

1

0

1

8

37

D-3/3

0

0

0

1

2

0

3

6

38

NA

0

7

8

3

10

0

1

29

37/2

NA

0

3

0

0

0

0

1

4

37/2

NA

2

1

0

0

1

0

3

7

37/3

NA

0

4

0

0

3

0

4

11

37/3

NA

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

37/4

NA

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

37/5

NA

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

37/5

NA

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

3

37/5

NA

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

37

Bf/14

3

9

0

0

3

0

8

23

37

Bf/15

0

3

0

0

2

0

1

6

37

Bf/17

2

5

0

0

1

0

7

15

37

Bf/8

0

4

0

0

0

0

2

6

37

C-3/3

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

37

C-30/10

1

2

0

0

0

0

1

4

37

C-30/6

2

2

0

0

2

0

3

9

37

C-30/8

2

1

0

0

0

0

3

6

37

D-2/1

0

4

0

0

3

0

3

10

37

D-2/2

1

5

0

0

1

1

2

10

37

D-2/8

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

3

37

D-3/2

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

3

37

D-3/4

0

2

0

0

1

0

1

4

37

D-3/7

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

3

General

NA

3

3

0

0

4

0

4

14

Area C Subtotals

NA

56

169

20

12

92

1

173

523

Frequency

NA

10.7

32.3

3.8

2.3

17.6

0.2

33.1

100.0

Total for Entire Site

74.0

249.0

38.0

24.0

128.0

1.0

233.0

747

Frequency

10.0

34.0

5.0

3.0

17.0

0.001

31.0

100

awls in this assemblage, however, it is classified as a drill as its bit measures more than 1/3 of the total length of the tool. The bit on this drill measures 2.8 x 0.9 x 0.8 cm, and the overall size of this tool is 5.9 x 3.4 x 0.9 cm. Of the five drills there is one on a blade which has two points on

its proximal and distal edges, respectively. This implement measures 5 x 1.7 x 0.6 cm. There are 69 awls in the assemblage and most of them were fabricated on medium or large flakes (n = 59). Five 66

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Fig. 3.1. Borers (awl and drills). 1. awl, 2-5 borers (1, Site 22, [Area E5]; 2-4 Site 22 [Areas C 3, B 2, E 4]; 5 Site 1 [Area C]). Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

creates a 45˚ angle and covers at least 50% of one side of the tool (Movius et al. 1968). Within this assemblage there is very little standardization in the manufacture of these implements. Scrapers are subdivided into two categories end and side scrapers. In most cases the retouch on end scrapers (n = 24) primarily covers the distal end of the blank, however, retouch can also be present on the left and/or right sides of the implement. In contrast, (n = 11) the active edge on side scrapers is often found on one, or in some instances, both sides of this tool. There are four scraper fragments that could not be identified as either an end or side scrapers.

awls were made on very small flakes and therefore they are classified as micro awls, however, they do not resemble the micro borers or micro drills defined by Rosen and Gilead (Gilead et al. 1995: 245, 248 fig. 5.16:1; Rosen 1997b). The remaining tools in this category were produced on blades (n = 4), primary elements (n = 5), and on a ridge blade (n = 1). The majority of awls were made by knapping two notches in proximity to one another. As a result, the point of this tool is usually made on the distal part of the blank. The bit on several awls (n = 16) was made by a single notch on one side of the tool and retouch on the other side. There are five awls that have more than one point. One awl is actually a multi-function tool made on a tabular scraper, and it measures 9.1 x 3.85 x 0.9 cm.

The following types of blanks are used for the production of scrapers, massive blades (n = 12), flakes (n = 15), and primary elements (n = 11). There is one tongue end scraper, measuring 8.3 x 5.4 x 1.3 cm, which is made on a wide flake that is banded pink/purple in color (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 88, fig. 3.44-1). This type of raw material, with

Scrapers (n = 38, 5.0%): Scrapers are defined as those implements that have scalar or stepped retouch that

67

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 3.2. Scrapers. (1, Site 58; 2, Site 22 [G 2]; 3, Site 7; 4, Site 1 [Area B]). Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

retouched. The narrower proximal edge of this tool has a facetted butt and a pronounced bulb of percussion. The remainder of the tabular scrapers is broken and only two of them merit our attention. One has a bifacially retouched active edge and the other has a geometric incision in the shape of # on its cortex. Similar shaped geometric incisions are found on tabular scrapers from the following sites: Horvat I’llin (Marder et al. 1995: 7982, fig. 11-13), Tell Esdar (Cohen 1999: 49, fig. 28), Gezer (Macalister 1912, pl. CXXXIX: 22), Arad (Schick 1978, pl. 87: 6) and Mizpe Shalem (Greenhut 1989: 6079, pl. 12-27).

the exception of this implement, is totally absent from this assemblage and it was most likely imported to this site. There are 22 scarpers that have either single or double patination. Nine scrapers are completely covered in a patina that varies in color from light gray to light blue. These artifacts are believed to be intrusive, and presumably, the inhabitants of this site collected them elsewhere and returned with them to this settlement. There are 13 scrapers with double patination, one color is present on the active edge, and another color is present on the remainder of the tool. These two different shades of patina are interpreted as evidence for the reuse of older artifacts.

Notches and Denticulates (n = 249, 34.0%): Notches have one or two retouched concavities, whereas denticulates have more than three notches in a row. Within this category notches (n = 193, 25%) outnumber denticulates (n = 58, 7.6%). Approximately one third of the denticulates were made on thick blanks, therefore they

Tabular Scrapers (n = 24, 3.0%) (Table 3.5): There is one intact fan shaped tabular scraper (Neville 1934: 58-60, fig. 18) with a wide arched (convex) active edge that is

68

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

standardization in the manufacture of simple retouched blades. Most blades have irregular scars on their back indicating that the blanks used for their manufacture were not produced from blade cores. Approximately 25% of the retouched blades have cortex indicating that this tool type could be produced on plain blades with or without cortex. Cross sections of the simple retouched blades are in most cases triangular or trapezoid in shape. A small number of the blades have a twisted profile (n = 7). Most blades that have a trapezoidal cross section have prismatic blades on their dorsal face, indicating that prior to their removal a primal series of blade blanks were removed. In most instances the retouch is direct. The distal end of some retouched blades that are truncated.

are identified as denticulated scrapers (Tixier 1963), even though they lack scalar retouch. There is no evidence for standardization in the manufacture of either notches or denticulates. Both tool types are made on flakes (n = 192, 76%), however, cores (n = 2, 0.8%), core trimming elements (n = 14, 5.6%), primary elements (n = 35, 14.1%), and pebble chunks (n = 2, 0.8%) were also used to manufacture notches and denticulates. Six notches are on truncated flakes that have concave (n = 1), oblique (n = 2) and straight (n = 3) truncations. Lastly, two notches made on Levallois flakes. There are 35 implements (13.9%) that have two different shades of patina, which is indicative of two cycles of use. As a rule one shade of patina is present on the retouched edge, while a different colored patina covers the rest of the tool. Denticulates and notches were most likely used for tasks associated with cutting, plant processing, and wood working (McConaughy 1979: 288-289, 317-318, 324, 334).

Backed Blades (n = 15, 11% of the blade tools group): Most of the backed blades are broken (n = 12, 85.7%). Seven of them have full retouched backing, while five are partially backed, and three (n = 3, 21.4%) have a natural back. The three natural back tools have been included in this sub group since they are similar in shape to the others and they have 90˚ triangular cross sections. Three of the backed blades have an arched back, however, they do not resemble the macro-lunettes that are found in other Early Bronze Age lithic assemblages (Rosen 1989, 1997b). Five of the backed blades lack a bulb of percussion. Three backed blades have a single oblique truncation. The average width of the backed blades is 22.6 ± 3.9 mm and the average thickness is 7.1 ± 2.2 mm.

Retouched flakes and pieces (n= 233, 31%): To be included in this category a tool must have retouch that extends for over 1 cm in length. Retouched flakes and pieces are made on partially retouched blades and elongated flakes (n = 12), however, the majority are made on flakes (n = 181). Other miscellaneous trimmed tools include a ridge blade (n = 1) and a large number of primary elements (n = 34). Some of the artifacts (n = 17) have oblique (n = 7) or straight (n = 10) truncations. This category also contains five backed flakes that have abrupt backing retouch extending over one side while the other has a low angle of retouch. Based on use ware analysis it is believed that some sharp retouched flakes were used as cutting implements while others were used for whittling and scraping (McConaughy 1979: 347, 357).

Retouched bladelets (n = 14, 9.8%): This type of tool is made on a small blade that typically measures about 1 cm in width (cf. Tixier 1963: 36-9). The bulb of percussion is missing on half of the retouched bladelets, and it is assumed that this part of the blade is broken. On average retouched bladelets measure 10.2 ± 1.7 mm in length, and is 0.9 ± 1.1 mm in thickness. One of the retouched bladelets is backed and the delineation is straight. This particular tool is completely covered with white patina and its back is modified by a bipolar retouch. Two other retouched bladelets have truncations on their distal edge, one is oblique and the other is straight, both of these bladelets are also partially backed. The retouch on the working edge is made by fine direct retouch. There are two bladelets that have inverse retouch on their working edges. Double patination is present on two retouched bladelets indicating that they were rejuvenated and/or that they were rolled.

A small number of retouched flakes and pieces exhibit double patination (n = 13, 5.5% of the retouched flakes). There are four intrusive retouched Levallois flakes that are totally covered with patinas that vary in color from dark brown to khaki. Retouched Blades and bladelets (n = 128, 17.0%) (Tables 3.6, 3.7): There are several sub groups within this tool category. Simple retouched blades (n = 99, 77.0%): Within this group only one fourth (n = 25) of the simple retouched blades are intact, the remainder are broken (n = 74) and lack either their proximal or distal edges. This tool type is dominated by blades that have regular retouch covering one or both sides of the blade. There is no Table 3.6. Site 1, attributes of simple retouched blades Retouch Position

Number

Truncations

Number

Bulb (All Retouched Blades)

Number

Cortex

Totals

Direct

83

Strait

4

Absent

48

Yes

74

Inverse

12

Oblique

6

Retain

55

None

29

Alternate

8

Double oblique

4

Complete

0

Total

103

Total

103

Rectangle

1

Absent

5

Convex

1

Retain

21

Total

16

69

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 3.7. Site 1, metric analysis of simple retouched blades Dimensions (mm)

Average

S.D

Length (n=26)

54.3

18.8

Width (n=103)

20.2

5.3

Thickness (n=103)

1.7

2.6

Spatial Analysis Although the flint assemblage is described as one corpus, it came from three different parts of the site identified as Areas A, B, and C. A study of the density and general distribution of lithic artifacts can indicate which areas of Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) were or were not used for nondomestic activities. This site, however, was only partially excavated and any conclusions derived from this analysis should be considered accordingly. Area A is a cairn field which was surveyed and partially excavated by Haiman (1994: 23-24). Within the lithic assemblage from this part of the site there are five scrapers whose “whereabouts” within Area A cannot be determined.

Sickle Blade (n = 1, 0.001%) (Table 3.5): The single sickle in the assemblage is defined based on its morphology as simple retouched blade with sickle gloss covering its dorsal face. This sickle blade measures 19.3 mm in width and 3.9 mm in thickness.

Anvil (n = 1): There is a rectangular shaped anvil, measuring 27 x 18 x 9 cm, that is made on a large nodule of tabular flint. One side of this anvil is totally covered with scars indicative of pecking, while the other side is flat and covered with cortex.

In Area B, there are two structures which are located approximately 30 meters from one another (Haiman 1994: 24; Chapter 2). Excavations in Structure 1 yielded a total of 1,738 lithic artifacts including 92 tools (Table 3.8), whereas fieldwork in Structure 2 unearthed 1,080 artifacts of which 88 are tools (Table 3.9). The frequency of tools in Structures 1 and 2 is similar for all major tool types, however, the frequency of retouched flakes in Structure 1 is slightly lower than that of Structure 2 (Fig. 3.9). The variation in the frequency of retouched flakes in Structures 1 and 2 may represent two different levels of activity. In both structures most of the tools were found in small rooms surrounding a central courtyard. The ratio of lithic material per square meter between the small rooms and the courtyards is ~3:1. The significance of this ratio has to be tempered by the knowledge that the central courtyard (or animal pen) was only partially excavated.

Hammers (n = 4): There are four hammers are on fist size pebbles with pecking marks covering most of these implements. One hammer is in the shape of a flatten disk. The anvil mentioned above and the hammers are usually omitted from typological lists since they do not form part of chaîn opératoire process (see Inizan et al. 1992: 38, for the definition of chaîn opératoire). The hammers are included in this study because they are made of the same raw material as the rest of the assemblage.

In Area C, lithic artifacts were found in several structures and installations (Table 3.10). The majority of lithic material was unearthed in Locus 37, which is described as a large circle made of field stones (see Chapter 2). The lithic artifacts from this locus came primarily from surface collection as Haiman only excavated a small portion of this locus. The material from Locus 37 was collected using a grid that covered an area measuring 100 sq. m. The individual excavation units varied in size from

Varia Burins (n = 5): Five burins are made on flakes. One of them is an angled burin, while another one is a dihedral, and three are on a natural break (Bar-Yosef 1970: 214215, fig. 5: 24-25). Burins are quite rare in Early Bronze Age assemblages especially in the desert regions (Rosen 1997a: 100). Therefore, it is possible that, some, or all of these tools are intrusions.

Table 3.8. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Structure 1, Area B Area B, Structure 1, Locus

Area in sq. m.

Waste and Tool

Density/sq. m.

Tools

Density/sq. m.

40

7.5

131

17.5

13

1.7

41

15

83

5.5

18

1.2

42

13.5

121

9.0

8

0.6

52

7.5

40

5.3

3

0.4

53

2.2

37

16.4

5

2.2

54

13.7

143

10.4

14

1.0

55

3.5

88

25.1

6

1.7

56

20

56

2.8

56

2.8

57

12

10

0.8

4

0.3

58

2

29

14.5

5

2.5

70

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 3.9. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Structure 2, Area B Area B, Structure 2, Locus

Area in sq. m.

Waste and Tools

Density/sq. m.

Tools

Density/sq. m

31

4

18

4.5

3

0.8

32

No Data

54

0

5

0

33

No Data

36

0

7

0

34

1

39

39.0

6

6.0

35

8

485

60.6

25

3.1

36

2

57

28.5

1

0.5

39

40

42

1.1

8

0.2

44

3

169

56.3

9

3.0

45

No Data

37

0

3

0

46

6

73

12.2

6

1.0

48

28

65

2.3

4

0.1

51

10.5

16

1.5

3

0.3

59

5

19

3.8

3

0.6

60

7.1

15

2.1

1

0.1

39/1

No Data

2

0

0

0

Table 3.10. Site 1, the frequencies of waste and tools per square meter in Area C Area C, Locus

Area in sq. m.

Waste and Tools

Density/sq. m.

Tools

Density/sq. m.

37

100

4,255

42.6

461

4.6

37/1

1

15

15.0

0

0

37/2

1.5

187

124.7

11

7.3

37/3

5

164

32.8

12

2.4

37/4

1.5

41

27.3

2

1.3

37/5

No data.

40

0

4

0

38

6

55

9.2

29

4.8

9

No data.

43

0

5

0

m in size, yielded a high proportion of waste and tools. Given the high density of lithic artifacts per sq. in these loci, it is possible that these locations functioned as activity areas.

1 to 2 sq. meters. In this locus, the density of the lithic artifacts per sq. is 42.5, and the density of tools per 1 sq. is 4.6 (Table 3.10). In comparison to the structures in Area B, the density of lithic material is much higher in Locus 37 (see Tables 3.8-3.9). Based upon this information, it is possible non-domestic activities were carried outin Locus 37. Lithic material was also collected from small installations that surrounded Locus 37. Since most of this material was collected as surface finds these lithics cannot be subjected to a spatial analysis.

Summary and Conclusions Lithic analysis has to take into consideration the excavation methods employed by the director of the project. It is apparent from the ratio of waste to tools that the finds at Site 1 were systematically collected. In other words, the collection method known as the “pretty tool syndrome” was not practiced at this site (Rosen 1997a: 37). Another issue that should be taken into consideration is the contemporaneity and occupational phasing of the architecture in Areas A, B, and C. Although the architectural units described by Saidel and Haiman (Chapter 2) are physically close to one another, they are not necessarily chronologically contemporary. Furthermore, the lithic evidence alone cannot be used to establish chronological contemporaneity in Areas A, B

Large numbers of scrapers were found in portions of Area C. For example, in Structure 38, one third of all the tools were scrapers. Of the 10 scrapers unearthed in Locus 38, three are tabular scrapers and seven are simple scrapers. Scrapers are typically associated with wooding and leather working (McConaughy 1979). No cores were found in Structure 38. Therefore it is possible that blanks were brought to Structure 38 in order to manufacture tools. No cores were unearthed in Loci 37/2, 37/3, 37/4. Excavation inside these small installations, less than 2 sq. 71

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

fig. 3.17). Instead, this lithic assemblage is similar to other stone tool assemblages found at other Early Bronze Age sites situated in the Negev Highlands. Based on the incised tabular scraper as well as the ceramic evidence, the lithic industry in general and the tool kit in particular are broadly attributed to the Early Bronze Age.

and C. While tabular scrapers appear in almost every Early Bronze Age flint assemblage, they are also present in assemblages from earlier periods (Neuville 1934; Gilead et al. 1995). Incised geometric patterns such as the one from this site, are a chronological marker for an Early Bronze Age I-II occupation (e.g., Schick 1978, Greenhut 1989; Marder et al. 1995). Rosen, who initially examined the finds from Locus 37, suggested that tabular scrapers were brought to the site (Haiman 1994: 30, 31, footnote 5). In part, this observation is based on the absence of tabular flint cores. This subsequent re-examination of the waste from the entire site identified several tabular primary elements. The presence of primary elements combined with the exposure of tabular flint in the wadis below RamatMatred 3 raise the possibility that tabular scrapers were manufactured within proximity to this site. This suggestion is proposed as an alternative to the trade model posited by Rosen (1989, 1997a) and others (e.g., Quintero 2002). Additional research in the vicinity of Ramat Matred 3 is necessary in order to determine if the tabular scrapers were made from locally available stones.

SITE 19 (KADESH BARNEA 86/3) The flint collection from Site 19 comprises tools and cores. Raw Material Most of the lithic material is made of medium grained flint that is either gray or light brown in color. An exception is an ax made of an unusual fine grained translucent flint that is either imported and/or intrusive. Waste The flakes are small (~5 cm) in size and irregular in shape (Table 3.11). The absence of blades and bladelets is peculiar, and it may be attributed to sampling biases, and/or the fact that blades were not present on site. The total amount of lithic waste is too small to provide any substantive information on the reduction sequences carried out at this site (Table 3.11).

Based on the wide range of ad hoc tools, most of the activities conducted at Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) were domestic in nature (McConaughy 1979, 1980). For example, the scrapers were most likely used for processing leather and/or wool. The function of tabular scrapers is open to various interpretations (McConaughy 1979, 1980; Henry 1995: 372-373; Baird 2001: 649); suffice it to say that this type of implement is found in large quantities at arid zone settlements. Typically, tabular scrapers are present at settlements believed to have been inhabited by pastoral populations (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 90). The presence of one retouched blade with sickle gloss indicates that some of this site’s inhabitants might have harvested cereals. The assemblage from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3) exhibits no Mediterranean characteristics such as Canaanean blade technology or large numbers of sickle blades (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 57-58,

Cores (n = 82, 18.9%) Most of the 82 cores are irregular in shape (Table 3.12), suggesting, perhaps, extensive use of this raw material. Among the cores are some reused Levallois cores that are covered in a khaki patina. The exterior marks on these khaki colored cores are indicative of rolling. The majority of cores were used for the production of flakes, however, 14 (15.2%) were also used to make blades and bladelets. The production of blades and bladelets is similar in scale

Table 3.11. Site 19, the frequencies of waste and tools Square

Chips

Chunks

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades and Bladelets

C.T.E

Cores

Hammers

Tools

Totals

A1

0

0

4

0

0

3

4

0

14

25

A2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

A3

0

4

8

0

0

0

7

0

25

44

B1

1

0

0

1

0

0

9

2

16

29

B2

1

5

18

0

0

1

21

0

43

89

B3

0

5

10

1

0

5

7

4

98

130

C1

0

2

3

1

0

0

5

0

9

20

C2

1

0

6

1

0

1

11

0

20

40

C3

1

3

9

3

0

0

18

1

20

55

n.

4

19

58

7

0

10

82

7

246

433

%

0.9

4.4

13.4

1.6

0.0

2.3

18.9

1.6

56.8

100.0

Totals

72

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

total length of the tool. Three drills are made onelongated flakes which may indicate that these pieces were originally intended to be used as blades. One drill was made on a bladelet. The bit on five drills was produced by modifying the distal part of this tool. The point of one drill was produced by modifying the proximal edge of this implement.

Table 3.12. Site 19, major core attributes Core Type

n.

%

Flake

70

76.1

Mixed-flake / blade

9

9.8

Mixed-flake/ bladelet

5

5.4

Levallois

8

8.7

Total

92

100.0

No. of Striking Platforms

n.

%

1

43

46.7

2

31

33.7

2 Opposed

7

7.6

More than 3

11

12.0

Total

92

100.0

Shape

n.

%

Amorphous

74

80.4

Cylindrical

1

1.1

Discoid

1

1.1

Flat

6

6.5

Pyramidal

9

9.8

Rounded

1

1.1

Total

92

100.0

There is one massive drill, measuring 104 x 65 x 25 mm, which is classified as a heavy duty tool. The bit on this implement is trapezoidal in cross section and it measures 19 x 12 mm. The knapper made the bit by double backing and there is scaled retouch on both sides of it. The bit is separated from the lower portion of the tool by large concavities, thus creating the appearance of a “winged shaped drill.” Given the large size of this implement it is assumed that this drill was not hafted, but rather it was used manually. Awls (n = 42): Awls represent the majority of implements within the borer category. Awls have shorter bits than drills, and the bits on the awls are flanked by two notches. Most awls (n = 33) are made on flakes, however some are made on following types of platforms: blades (n = 2), core tablets (n = 2), primary elements (n = 5) and a pebble chunk (n = 1). The presence of basal modification on one awl may be evidence that this particular implement was hafted (e.g., Stocks 1989, 2003).

to other lithic assemblages found at Early Bronze Age and EBIV/MBI sites located in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Rosen 1991, 1993; Hermon et al. 2011; Vardi 2005).

One awl was made on an end scraper while another one has a burin blow on its right side suggesting that this particular tool had a second stage of reuse. Nevertheless, both tools were primarily used as borers. Four awls exhibit lateral denticulation, however, these four implements are not identified as dual use tools as they were primarily used as borers. There are two heavy duty awls made on a large flake and on a primary element, respectively. The former measures 92 x 74 x 32, and the dimensions of its bit are 11 x 5 x 7.5 mm. The latter

Tools (n = 246, 56.8%) Borers (n = 48, 19.5%) (Table 3.13): This category comprises both awls and drills. Drills (n = 6) have a long and narrow bit whose length is more than one third the Table 3.13. Site 19, the frequencies of major tool types Square

Borers

Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Bifacials

Retouched Flakes

Varia

Totals

A1

2

4

3

1

0

0

2

2

14

A2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

A3

5

6

4

4

0

0

5

1

25

B1

3

5

1

3

0

0

4

0

16

B2

6

13

3

4

0

2

14

1

43

B3

24

37

10

6

2

0

18

1

98

C1

0

4

2

0

0

0

3

0

9

C2

4

4

4

0

1

2

6

1

20

C3

2

8

5

0

1

2

2

0

20

NA

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

n.

48

81

33

18

4

6

54

5

246

%

19.5

32.9

13.4

7.3

1.6

2.4

22.0

2.0

100.0

Totals

73

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 3.3. Scrapers. 1, steep scraper [Site 19, Area A 3]; 2, tabular scraper fragment with cortical incisions [Site 1]. Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

with one shade of patina, while the remainder of the tool is covered with a different color of patina. In four cases the double patination is the result of two cycles of modification which were carried out in two different chronological periods.

measures 74 x 40 x 35 mm, and the bit measures 8.5 x 8 mm. Notches and Denticulates (n = 81, 32.9%): These tools are unstandardized in terms of manufacture and the majority of them are made flakes (n = 62), with the smaller number made on primary elements (n = 11). All implements have one or more concavities which were made by intentional retouch. Tools with one to two concavities in a row are classified as notches (n = 44), while those that have three to eight notches are identified as denticulates (n = 37). Three notches and eleven denticulates have the following types of truncations: convex (n = 2), concave (n = 5), straight (n = 3) and oblique (n = 4). The formation of the truncations is highly irregular. For example, one steep denticulate has signs of bulbar thinning which may have been made in order to hold, or perhaps to facilitate the hafting of this implement.

Scrapers (n = 32, 13.4%) (Fig. 3.3: 1): The common delineation of the working edge on these scrapers is convex (n = 19). The retouch position for all scrapers is direct. The majority of scrapers are made on flakes (n = 25), however, some are made on core trimming elements, and three are knapped from primary elements. Within this assemblage there are two pieces exhibiting scalar retouch, however, their fragmentary condition prohibited further typological identification of these artifacts. Scrapers are subdivided into one of two categories, end and side scrapers, respectively. End scrapers have retouch that covers the distal extremity. In this assemblage there are four end scrapers exhibiting rectilinear working edges (for further description see Inizan et al. 1992: 85, fig. 35).

Double patination is present on 17 notches and denticulates. Typically, the working edges are covered

74

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Retouched Blades (n = 4, 1.6%): These implements are simple irregular, non-prismatic, retouched blades with one lateral working edge. One of the four retouched blades is broken. There are two retouched blades that are triangular in cross section, and two that are trapezoidal in cross section. The average dimensions of these retouched blades are 53 x 19.6 x 7.4 mm. One blade has an oblique truncation

There is one end scraper that has a, “nosed”, elongated active edge. In contrast, the side scrapers have retouch on their lateral or bilateral edges. Aside from these two major types there is one butt scraper and three thumb scrapers. The latter are small, thick, and typically measure 33 x 36 x 11 mm. Double patination is present on one end scraper and three side scrapers. The working edge on two of these tools indicates the rejuvenation of an older implement. One end scraper is on a rolled Levallois flake measuring 59 x 43 x 12 mm.

Bifacials (n = 6, 2.4%): There are four crudely made bifacial implements. The first one is a large chopper made on a nodule and it measures 127 x 83 x 52 mm, (e.g. Rosen 1997a: 98-99 fig. 3.52). The second bifacial is a crude long and narrow pick that measures 122 x 48 x 34 mm. The third one is a broken celt made of a fine grained gray flint which may be intrusive as this type of raw material is unique (e.g., Rosen 1997a, Barkai 2000). The fourth bifacial is represented by the back end of a broken celt that measures 23 mm in width and 19 mm in thickness. In profile this broken implement is bi-convex. Lastly, there are two crudely made and indeterminate bifacial tools that are retouched.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 18, 7.3%): In this assemblage only four of the 18 tabular scrapers are complete. There is one side struck and 12 end struck tabular scrapers. The remaining tabular scrapers are fragmentary and therefore indeterminate. All tabular scrapers exhibit direct scaled retouch that creates a working edge of 45º. There are two intact fan shaped scrapers which were end struck, and the bulb on both of them is thinned (Neuville 1934; Rosen 1989, 1993, 1997a: 76, fig. 3.31). These fan shaped scrapers are small in size, with the largest one measuring 44 x 67 x 10 mm. Also present in this group is an oval shape, end struck, tabular scraper, measuring 72 x 47 x 8mm, with bilateral scaled retouch.

Retouched Flakes (n = 54, 22.0%): These implements are unstandardized and the only criterion for their inclusion in this category is that they exhibit at least 2 cm of retouch. A large number of retouched flakes (n = 23) exhibit a broad array of truncations, such as concave (n = 1), convex (n = 9), oblique (n = 4), and straight (n = 9). Since there is no standardization in the shape of the truncation, these truncated pieces are included within the category of retouched flakes. There are five double patinated retouched flakes. Two of these artifacts are on Levallois flakes, and they are considered to be intrusive. Varia Burins (n = 2): One burin, measuring 35 x 47 x 13 mm, is made on tabular flint. The second one is a dihedral burin measuring 42 x 37 x 16 mm (Bar-Yosef 1970: 207-208; Mortensen 1970: 27, 29, fig. 25). Pièce Esquillée (n = 4): There are ventral scars on the distal extremity of four lithic artifacts, which could be a result of knapping with the use of an anvil (Bar-Yosef 1970: 19, fig. 8, 222). Discussion The small amount of debitage combined with the nature of the cores indicates that this is primarily a flake-based tool kit. It is possible, however, that small blades were made at this site. Most tools in this assemblage are ad hoc implements that were used for a variety of tasks, such as cutting hard or soft raw materials, crushing, scraping or engraving wood and bone (McConaughy 1979, 1980; Barkai 2000: 56-61). The absence of sickle blades may be interpreted as evidence that the inhabitants of this settlement did not grow and/or harvest their own cereals (Rosen 1997a).

Fig. 3.4. Tabular Scraper (Site 1, Area C). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar 75

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

artifacts. As a result of this thorough collection strategy it is possible to conduct a detailed analysis of this assemblage.

This assemblage varies in date from the 6th to the 4th millennia BC (uncalabrated). That is to say that this material could be assigned to either the Neolithic and/or to the Chalcolithic periods (Table 3.13). The evidence for this rather broad date is based upon the presence of two bifacials, or celts (as defined by Rosen), which are typically present in stone tool assemblages from the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods (Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a: 41, fig. 3.1, 93; Barkai 2000: 390-391). This tool type is not found in Early Bronze Age stone tool assemblages (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 98). A more specific date for this assemblage is not possible as there is a lack of indicative tool types, such as projectile points. Unfortunately, the presence of tabular scrapers is not useful for dating this assemblage as these tools are found in lithic assemblages dated from the Pottery Neolithic through the Early Bronze periods (Moore 1973; Neuville 1934; Rosen 1989, 1997a).

Table 3.14. Site 22, total waste frequencies n.

%

Chips

1,444

89.0

Chunks

179

11.0

Total Debris

1,623

100.0

Flakes

4,613

88.6

Primary Elements

425

8.2

Blades

48

0.9

Bladelets

38

0.7

Ridge blades

56

1.1

Debris

Debitage

Core tablets

4

0.1

C.T.E other

25

0.5

Total Debitage

5,209

100.0

Debitage

5,209

68.3

Debris

1,623

21.3

Cores

162

2.1

Tools

634

8.3

Total

7,628

100.0

SITE 22 (KADESH BARNEA 95/2) The flint assemblage contains 7628 lithics, of which 634 (8.1%) are tools, and the remainder are waste (Tables 3.14-3.15). Although the lithic material was retrieved by hand, the relatively high number of stone tools and waste that measure less than 3 cm indicates that Haiman and colleagues carried out a systematic collection of the lithic

Type

Table 3.15. Site 22, the frequencies of waste per excavation unit Square

Chips

Chunks

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

C.T.E

Cores

Hammers

Tools

Totals

A1

0

4

242

21

3

2

3

7

0

26

308

A2

49

7

155

19

1

2

5

0

16

254

A3

140

9

382

30

2

5

5

4

1

49

627

A4

96

14

326

19

2

3

3

9

0

31

503

B1

14

5

135

16

0

0

3

11

0

17

201

B2

104

8

210

22

2

3

4

4

0

20

377

B3

7

4

116

20

1

0

5

7

2

14

176

B4

47

10

134

17

1

0

4

2

1

19

235

B5

57

7

78

3

1

1

2

3

0

12

164

C1

3

1

69

7

0

0

1

1

1

C2

33

7

118

10

0

1

2

0

0

10

181

83

C3

70

6

188

16

3

0

2

12

0

24

321

C5

36

3

91

6

1

0

0

2

0

6

145

D2

5

0

130

13

1

1

4

6

0

22

182

D3

38

10

193

10

6

1

4

6

2

34

304

D4

24

3

246

24

1

1

5

8

3

35

350

D5

48

4

188

16

3

0

4

11

0

15

289

E1

66

9

214

15

0

5

2

5

0

25

341

E4

51

3

193

17

1

1

4

6

0

21

297

E5

69

10

127

7

1

1

1

1

0

15

232

F3

32

1

59

7

1

0

1

4

0

4

109

76

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Square

Chips

Chunks

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades

Bladelets

C.T.E

Cores

Hammers

Tools

Totals

F4

53

5

57

7

0

0

1

3

0

7

133

F5

19

6

59

9

1

0

1

4

0

11

110

G2

18

4

116

9

2

0

3

2

0

23

177

G3

49

4

63

8

2

0

2

1

1

11

141

G4

63

3

82

7

0

1

2

5

0

14

177

G5

13

3

74

8

0

0

1

3

1

19

122

H1

21

7

166

23

1

1

3

8

0

24

254

H2

68

6

170

13

9

8

5

11

0

40

330

H3

74

5

104

11

2

2

2

3

0

26

229

H4

46

3

54

7

0

0

3

6

0

13

132

H5

31

8

74

8

1

0

0

2

1

18

143

Total

1,444

179

4,613

425

48

38

84

162

13

621

7,627

Frequency

18.9

2.3

60.5

5.6

0.6

0.5

1.1

2.1

2.1

8.1

100.0

Blades and bladelets (n = 86, 1.1%): The blades (n = 48, 0.6%) and bladelets (n = 38, 0.5%) are simple and in most cases they have either a triangular or trapezoid cross section. Blades and bladelets with cross sections in the shape of a pentagon are rare in this assemble, so too are blades and bladelets with twisted and irregular cross sections.

Raw Material The majority of lithic artifacts are covered in gray, light brown, or dark brown patina, thus obscuring the original color of the flint. The retouched and non-retouched sections of many tools are often covered with two different colors of patina. The presence of double patination is an indication that some tools were made from chronologically earlier blanks and/or tools, a phenomenon present at many sites described above as well as at numerous excavated and survey sites in the Negev and Sinai (e.g., Rosen and Gopher 2003: 184).

Cores (n = 162, 2.1%) (Table 3.16): Most cores were used for the production of flakes, however, 20% of them exhibit flake and blade or bladelet scars. There are three cores that have both blade (n = 1) and bladelet (n = 2)

Among the un-patinated artifacts, it is possible to identify three types of flint, which were used for the manufacture of stone tools. The most common raw material is a smooth to medium grained gray flint. Also present in significant quantities are gray striped and gray mottled flints. The former is derived from wadi cobbles, while the white mottling on the latter is attributed to the presence of micro fossils. To a lesser extent, a number of stone tools were made of a mixed gray and white color flint which originates from the Mesash formation. Lastly, a translucent flint varying in color from brown to gray was used to make stone tools.

Table 3.16. Site 22, core attributes

Waste The high proportion of waste (91.5%) indicates that flint implements were made on site. The ratio of flakes versus blades tends greatly towards flake production (96:1) and even if we combine blades and bladelets into one category the ratio still leans greatly towards flakes (53:1). Flakes (n = 4613, 60.5%): The flakes are irregular in shape and have numerous hinge fractures on their ends reflecting a low level of expertise in flint knapping (Inizan et al. 1992: 89). Most flakes (62%) have flat butts which are indicative of decortications of the core striking platforms prior to the removal of the flake. 77

Core Type

n.

%

Flake

115

71.0

Bladelet

2

1.2

Blade

1

0.6

Mix-flake & blade

13

8.0

Mix-flake & bladelet

20

12.3

Levallois

11

6.8

Total

162

100.0

Number of Striking Platforms

n.

%

1

81

53.6

2

43

28.5

2 opposite

11

7.3

3

16

10.6

Total (excluding Levallois cores)

151

100.0

Shape

n.

%

Amorphous

132

87.4

Pyramidal

17

11.3

Disk

2

1.3

Total

151

100.0

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Core trimming elements (n = 84, 1.1%): This category comprises ridge blades (n = 56) and core tablets (n = 4) (Inizan et al. 1992: 39, fig. 7). The remaining core trimming elements are not standardized and cannot be attributed to the other C.T.E. groups within this category.

scars demonstrating that these cores were used for the production of blades and bladelets. The small ratio of blade and bladelet blanks to blade and bladelet tools is puzzling especially when blade and bladelet cores are relatively abundant in this assemblage. Perhaps, the relative lack of blade/bladelet tools is a result of the recovery methods, alternatively, these tools might have been used for off-site activities.

Tools (n = 634, 8.3%) Borers (n = 79, 12.7%) (Tables 3.17-3.18) (Figs. 3.1: 14): Some awls were made on thick flakes, while others were made on debitage, including cores (Fig. 3.1: 1). Present is a massive awl that is made on a nodule. Some awls (n = 21) were made on older blanks and/or tools, indicating that these older artifacts were reused as raw material in order to make awls. Basal modification is rarely present on the awls.

Four cores have pecking marks indicating that they were used as hammers. The small size of the cores, on average measuring 53.5 mm ± 14.6 mm, is evidence that the knappers made extensive use of the available raw material. There are 12 cores covered in two shades of patina, which is evidence of two cycles of use. Within this category there are 11 Levallois cores that exhibit either one or two large central reductions that are flanked by several preparation strikes. The Levallois cores are not further analyzed since they are intrusive.

Drills (n = 6): Six tools have an elongated point whose length is at least one third the length of the tool. Drills are

Table 3.17. Site 22, the frequencies of major tool types Square

Borers

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Notches and Denticulates

Retouched Flakes

Bifacials

Varia

Total

A1

2

1

4

3

8

6

0

2

26

A2

3

1

1

0

5

6

0

0

16

A3

4

5

2

5

15

15

1

2

49

A4

4

2

2

1

11

8

1

2

31

B1

2

0

2

0

10

2

0

1

17

B2

3

3

0

0

5

8

0

1

20

B3

1

1

0

0

8

4

0

0

14

B4

3

2

1

1

7

5

0

0

19

B5

0

1

0

0

4

7

0

0

12

C1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

C2

3

1

1

1

2

2

0

0

10

C3

5

4

3

1

5

5

1

0

24

C5

1

0

0

0

3

2

0

0

6

D2

3

0

2

0

6

10

1

0

22

D3

7

3

1

2

11

9

0

1

34

D4

2

3

2

5

16

6

0

1

35

D5

1

3

1

0

1

8

0

1

15

E1

5

2

4

0

8

5

0

1

25

E4

7

2

0

0

7

4

1

0

21

E5

3

3

1

0

3

5

0

0

15

F3

0

0

0

0

3

1

0

0

4

F4

2

0

0

1

1

2

0

1

7

F5

1

1

0

1

4

3

1

0

11

G2

1

0

2

0

13

3

2

2

23

G3

1

0

0

0

0

9

0

1

11

G4

1

0

0

2

6

5

0

0

14

G5

3

0

0

0

4

10

2

0

19

H1

2

1

1

2

8

9

0

1

24

H2

5

3

0

3

15

14

0

0

40

78

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Square

Borers

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

Retouched Blades

Notches and Denticulates

Retouched Flakes

Bifacials

Varia

Total

H3

4

2

1

3

10

6

0

0

26

H4

0

2

0

0

5

5

0

1

13

H5

0

0

0

1

4

11

2

0

18

N.

79

46

31

32

208

195

12

18

621

%

12.7

7.4

5.0

5.2

33.5

31.4

1.9

2.9

100.0

Totals

Table 3.18. Site 22, awl attributes Blank types Flakes

Number Frequency 52

Butt type

71.2

Basal modification

Number Frequency Point position 6

8.2

n.

%

Direct

53

72.6

Primary Elements

7

9.6

Point modified

6

8.2

Inverse

11

15.1

Blades

4

5.5

Broken

13

17.8

Alternate

8

11.0

Bladelet

1

1.4

Cortical

8

11.0

Bifacial

1

1.4

Ridge Blade

1

1.4

Faceted

12

16.4

Total

73

100.0

Truncations

n.

%

57.5

Convex

4

15.4

Core Tablet

1

1.4

Winged

2

2.7

Cores

4

5.5

Flat

21

28.8

Pebble chunk

1

1.4

Nodule/Core

5

6.8

Total

73

100.0

Levallois flakes

2

2.7

Total

73

100.0

Point modification 2 Notches

Number Frequency 53

72.6

Point location Distal

Number Frequency 42

1 Notch & Natural Edge

5

6.8

Proximal

6

8.2

Concave

9

34.6

Abrupt Retouch

6

8.2

Proximal & Distal

1

1.4

Oblique

8

30.8

Oblique Truncation

5

6.8

One Side

21

28.8

Straight

5

19.2

Total

26

100.0

1 Notch & Retouched Edge

4

5.5

Both Sides

3

4.1

Total

73

100.0

Total

73

100.0

made on thick flakes (n = 2) and on blades (n = 3). Among those drills made on blades there is evidence of basal modification on two of these artifacts. One of the intact drills that was made on a blade measures 51 x 11 x 4.5 mm. There are two drills that have their butts removed by several flake reductions. The first drill measures 52 x 31 x 17 mm, and its bit measures 16 mm in width. The second drill measures 78 x 57.5 x 33 mm and the bit is 16 mm in width.

Scrapers (n = 50, 7.4%) (Table 3.19) (Fig. 3.2: 2): These implements have scraper retouch covering at least one side of the blank (Rosen 1997a: 87). The scrapers are unstandardized and they made on the following: a blade (n = 1), a bladelet core (n = 1), a flake core (n = 1), primary elements (n = 5), core tablet (n = 1), a recycled Levallois flake (n = 1), and flakes (n = 36). The delineation of the working edge on scrapers is variable, however, in most cases it has a pronounced convex shape.

Included in this category is a micro-drill that is made on a bladelet and has a winged butt. The average dimensions of this micro-drill are 28.5 x 10 x 3 mm, and the bit measures 5 x 3 x 2 mm. Micro-drills were used for the production of beads as demonstrated at the Camel Site, which is dated to Early Bronze Age II period (Rosen 1997b; Hermon, Vardi and Rosen 2011). The micro-drill found at Site 22 is typical of other micro-drills found at sites in the Negev Highlands that vary in date from the Chalcolithic through EBIV/MBI periods (Macdonald 1932: 8; Roshwalb 1981: 166-170; Burian and Friedman 1987; Rosen 1997b; Saidel 2002: 47, 50, fig. 11:612).

End Scrapers (n = 20): Three tools have retouch on their distal end. Six have retouch on one side, either left or right, and an additional six end scrapers have circular/round retouch on the sides and end of this tool type. Included in this group are two small thumb scrapers, one broken and one intact, respectively. The complete thumb scraper has the following dimensions 40 x 39.5 x 7 mm. Lastly, there are three tongue end scrapers in this assemblage. Four end scrapers are covered with two different colored patinas. One of these end scrapers was made on a Middle Paleolithic Levallois flake. It is likely that the remaining three double patinated end scrapers are also made on flint products from previous periods. 79

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 3.5. Steep Notched Piece (Site 26, Locus 906). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

The bulb of percussion is present on 12 tabular scrapers and two of them have signs of bulbar thinning. The remaining tabular scrapers do not have a bulb because they are broken on their proximal end. There is considerable variation in the size of the blanks. For example, the width of tabular scrapers, be they broken or intact, varies from 25 to 77 mm. These measurements were taken as close as possible to the bulb of percussion. These tabular scrapers also vary greatly in thickness, with measurements varying from 6 to 16 mm. A few tabular scraper fragments were omitted from this study because their length and/or width could not be determined.

Table 3.19. Site 22, scraper delineation Delineation Type

End Scrapers

Side Scrapers

Circular

3

0

Convex

11

10

Concave

1

4

Nosed

1

0

Shoulder

3

0

Rectilinear

1

4

Concave/Convex

0

1

Total

20

19

Bifacials (n = 12, 1.9%) (Figs. 3.7: 1-2): There are six axes and five of them are complete. Three are end struck, and one is side a side struck. Four axes have a double convex cross section and a straight edge (Barkai 1999, 2000; Rosen 1997a: 95, fig. 3.49).

Side scrapers (n = 19): These tools have retouch on either their left or the right side. Four side scrapers have bilateral working edges. The remaining eleven scrapers lack their distal end due to breakage and could not be further identified.

In addition to these axes there are four additional bifacials whose cross section is similar in shape to the axes, however, the crude level of workmanship prohibits identifying them as finished axes. For instance, one bifacial was knapped only on one face suggesting that this artifact was unfinished. Two of the four bifacials have an irregular retouch that created a 45º sharp end. Two bifaces classified as choppers (e.g. Leaky 1971: 37, fig. 95; Rosen 1997a: 98) even though they look like small cores. Both sides of these implements have evidence of hammer pecking, crushing, and scars from flake removal.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 31, 5.0%): Tabular scrapers are made on large primary elements knapped from tabular flint nodules, and the majority of them have retained their cortex. There are four intact tabular scrapers with the following characteristics: first, there is fan shape scraper with a wide arch like edge with semi abrupt retouch and a narrow proximal end; second, there is crescent shape tabular scraper; the third and fourth exemplars are end struck and side struck, respectively. 80

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 3.20. Site 22, dimensions of the blades

Blade and Bladelet tools (n = 32, 5.2%) (Tables 3.203.21): This category contains tools made on blade and bladelet blanks. Simple retouched blades (n = 20): This group includes blade implements that exhibit miscellaneous retouch. Four of the 20 simple retouched blades are complete. Eleven blades have retouch on one side, while one example has retouch along one side and a straight truncation on the distal extremity. Six of the simple retouched blades have a single notch in addition to retouch, and four of them four are truncated. Among the simple retouched blades there are three types of truncations, convex (n = 2), oblique (n = 1) and straight (n = 1). Simple retouched blades exhibit three different types of cross section, pentagon (n = 2), trapeze (n = 7), and triangle (n = 11). There are four pieces that have bilateral working edges.

Measurements (mm)

Mean

S.D

Length (n=42)

41

8.1

Width

18.0

3.8

Thickness

5.3

1.6

Table 3.21. Site 22, the dimensions of simple retouched blades Dimensions

Length (n=4)

Measurements mm

40.7

S.D mm

Width (n=20)

Thickness (n=20)

19.4

5.6

5.35

1.49

Fig. 3.6. Blade tools. 1, Arched backed blade [Site 22, Area G 4]; 2, Arched backed blade (Site 7); 3, Backed blade [Site 26]; 4, Traverse arrowhead [Site 22, Area E 1]; 5, Herzliya arrowhead [Site 22, Area A 3]; 6 Retouched backed blade [Site 1, Area B]; Retouched blade [Site 1, Area B, Locus 40]). Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar 81

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Backed Blades (n = 8) (Table 3.22) (Fig. 3.6: 1): Four of the eight backed blades are broken. All blade tools have abrupt backing retouch, however, two are partially backed. The backing is either arched (n = 2) or straight (n = 6) and it is made by direct semi abrupt and abrupt retouch. The cross section of these implements varies in shape from trapeze (n = 3) to triangular (n = 2), to triangular 90º (n = 3). Three of the backed blades have truncations. In particular, one backed blade has a convex truncation and two backed blades have oblique truncations. One item in this category, measuring 40 x 16 x 7 mm, is similar to the macro-lunates found at some Early Bronze Age sites in the Negev Highlands (Rosen 1991, 1993: 66, fig. 2:9). The dimensions of the backed blades are similar to those found on the simple retouched blades.

Retouched Bladelets (n = 4): All retouched bladelets are broken. The average dimensions for the width and thickness of these tools are 9 mm and 3.13 mm, respectively. These implements have a triangular cross section, and one retouched bladelet has a straight truncation. Notches and Denticulates (n = 208, 33.5%) (Table 3.17): Notches outnumber (n = 113) denticulates (n = 95), however, there is the possibility that 39 of the 73 notches are actually broken denticulates. The artifacts were made on various types of waste, for example, 73 notches and denticulates are broken and/or made on broken blanks. The reuse of earlier blanks and/or tools as raw material is further demonstrated by the presence of double patination on 64 artifacts. Denticulates and notches were not made on cores.

Table 3.22. Site 22, the dimensions of backed blades Dimensions (mm)

Average

Length (n=4)

40.2

Width (n=8)

15.7

1.4

Thickness (n=8)

6

1.5

The following types of truncations are present on 66 notches and denticulates: convex (n = 22), concave (n = 15), oblique (n = 13) and straight (n = 11). There are five examples of double truncations, that is to say truncations combined with some basal modification that removed the

S.D

Fig. 3.7. 1-2. Axes/Celts. 1, Site 22, Area E 4; 2, Site 22, Area A 4. Lithic artifacts drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar 82

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Fig. 3.8. Pick (Site 22, Area D 3). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

preserved. The winged shape of this arrowhead is formed by the presence of a notch on each side of the blade. Pressure flaking marks cover one face of this projectile point. The maximum width and thickness of this projectile point are 12 mm and 2.6 mm respectively. One broken Herzliya arrowhead is made on a brown opaque flint, and it measures 12 mm in width and 3.2 mm in thickness. The distal end of this projectile point is broken. There is pressure flaking retouch along both edges/faces of this arrowhead. The second Herzliya projectile point, measuring 20.3 x 12.8 x 3.8 mm, is made on a light brown flint. There is some basal modification on this arrowhead and the tip of this projectile is made by a bilateral, fine, semi abrupt retouch.

butt on these tools. The following types of double truncation are present on these pieces: double convex (n = 2), double straight (n = 1), oblique and concave (n = 1) and oblique and convex (n = 1). McConaughy suggested the notches and denticulates were used for a wide range of tasks (1979: 288-289, 317-318, 324, 334). Retouched Flakes and Pieces (n = 195, 31.4%): Those stone tools that not fall into any of the tool types mentioned above are assigned to this category. In order to be included in this category a stone tool has to have retouch that extends for more than 2 cm in length. In most instances the retouch is irregular and direct, and a large number of the retouched flakes are truncated. The delineation of the truncations is concave (n = 2), convex (n = 28), oblique (n = 20) or straight (n = 28). Many of the retouched flakes and pieces are broken (n = 122). Often the truncation is accompanied by lateral or bilateral retouch on their distal end (n = 59). The presence of double patination on some of the tools is indicative of two stages of use. Retouched flakes were most likely used for a variety of tasks, such as cutting of soft organic materials (McConaughy 1979, 1980).

A trapezoidal transverse arrowhead, measuring 16.8 x 12.6 x 3.2 mm, is dated to either the Chalcolithic and/or Early Bronze Age I periods (Rosen 1997a: 44). The shape of this arrowhead was produced by two oblique truncations made on a segment of a blade.1 Similar shaped arrowheads are also found in the nawamis in southern Sinai (Bar-Yosef et al. 1977: 76-77, fig. 4:5-9, 1986: 134-135, fig. 7:1-5), and at sites located in the central and southern Negev Highlands (Rosen 1984: 114, fig. 6; 1997a: 39, 42, fig. 3.2).

Arrowheads (n = 5, 0.8%) (Figs. 3.6: 4-5): There are five arrowheads. The oldest one, measuring 58 x 15.5 x 4.2 mm, is a Byblos arrowhead dated to the Pre Pottery Neolithic B (e.g., Gopher 1994: 36-39, 265, fig. 4.7:10). A close examination of the dorsal scars on this tool shows that it is made on a blade produced from a bi-polar core. The tang and the butt were bifacial modified using a pressure retouch technique.

Varia (Fig. 3.8:1) Multiple function tools (n = 7, 1.1%): The seven artifacts in this category are awls – denticulates. The concavities or notching on these implements created a massive lateral denticulated edge. These tools have a pronounced point which was made by two notches. One awl-denticulate has ochre stains on its dorsal face, and similar staining was

There are three projectile points, one Harparsa and two Herzliya points, from the Pottery Neolithic period (Gopher 1994: 41, 265). The broken Harparsa arrowhead is made on gray semi translucent flint and its butt is not

1

For a detailed description of the chronology of transverse arrowheads the reader is referred to Rosen’s handbook (1997a: 42, fig. 3.2, 43-44).

83

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

259). Therefore, it is difficult to be more precise in dating bifacial implements. Furthermore, there is always the possibility that the Byblos point is intrusive.

found on an awlunearthed at Gebel Gunna-50 (Bar-Yosef et al. 1986: 141). Burins (n = 3, 0.5%): There are three artifacts that exhibit scars from burin blows. Two are dihedral burin struck flakes, and the third is a burin on a natural break.

The bifacial tools and the Ha-Parsa and the Herzliya projectile points (Goring-Morris 1993: 79-81, fig. 11) provide evidence of occupations during the 6th-5th millennia B.C.E. (Rosen 1984, Bar-Yosef et al. 1986:164). The transverse arrowhead is dated to the final stages of the Chalcolithic period and to the EB I and II periods (Bar-Yosef et al. 1977:77, fig. 4:8; 1986:140, fig. 9:2). No transverse arrowheads have been found in EB IV/MB I flint assemblages (e.g., Vardi 2005). Unfortunately, tabular scrapers are not useful for drawing chronological distinctions as this tool type was in use from the fifth to the third millennia B.C.

Pièce Esquilée (n = 1, 0.2%): One flake has some reductions on its ventral face opposite to the striking direction suggesting that an anvil was used in the knapping process. Paleolithic intrusions (n = 2, 0.3%): Two completely patinated and retouched Levallois flakes are evidence of Paleolithic intrusions. Hammers (n = 13): This type of implement is not included in above mentioned the tool type list as it is not a product of the knapping process. The hammers, measuring on average 75.2 ± 10.1 mm, are made on local gray flint nodules, which were used initially for the production of other flint implements. The surface of the hammers is either partially or completely covered with pecking marks which are suggestive of tasks associated with crushing and/or pounding.

From a maximalist perspective the lithic assemblage provides evidence that Site 22 was occupied, at different points in time, from the PPNB through the EB II periods. A minimalist perspective would posit that this settlement was occupied from the Late Neolithic through the EB II periods. The nature of the lithic waste demonstrates that tools were made on site. The dominance of large ad hoc tools is evidence that the inhabitants conducted tasks that are most likely associated with drilling and/or piercing various materials, such as bone and wood, as well as fashioning axes and scrapers (McConaughy 1979). The five arrowheads demonstrate that some of the inhabitants or other individuals were engaged in hunting activities in various periods (Rosen 1984, 1997a). The absence of sickle glossed artifacts is tentatively interpreted as evidence of the absence of agricultural activities (Rosen 1997a: 57-58).

Summary and Conclusions Most flakes and tools are made on flake blanks indicating that blank production was geared towards flakes. The production of blades and bladelets represented only a minor component of the lithic industry. While several bifacial tools have been found at this site, there is no evidence of their production at this location. Double patinated tools comprise 20% of the assemblage. Theoretically, the high frequency of double patinated tools could be attributed to the partial exposure of flint artifacts for a long period of time, resulting in weathering, rolling, battering, and in some cases breakage. However, the large number of double patinated artifacts in this assemblage renders this explanation untenable. Double patinated implements often have two different colors of patina on the dorsal/ventral faces and on the retouched portion of the tool, respectively. This patterning is interpreted as evidence of tools being made on implements from earlier periods. The frequency of double patinated artifacts in this assemblage is proof that these artifacts were collected from the vicinity of this site. Alternatively, the patinated artifacts could have been abandoned here at an earlier time.

The function of tabular scrapers is debated as Henry (Henry 1995: 372-373) and others have argued that they were used for shearing sheep. Rosen has questioned this premise and proposed that tabular scrapers “probably served a general range of domestic tasks, indeed perhaps including domestic ritual” (1997a: 74-75). SITE 26 (EIN HAMEARA) The lithic material was collected manually from the surface of the site and from excavated loci. This assemblage comprises 376 pieces of which 218 (58.0%) are tools. The high frequency of stone tools in the assemblage is a direct result of the excavation method (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 37). Specifically, a more systematic collection of the lithic artifacts would have result in a higher frequency of lithic waste.

Chronological Considerations The diagnostic artifacts vary in date from the PPNB through the Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age periods. It could be argued that the Byblos point combined with the axes provide evidence of an occupation from the Pre Pottery Neolithic B (Burian and Friedman 1987; Gopher et al. 1995: 23-24, 29, fig. 12); however, bifacials are also found at Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in the Negev Highlands (Rosen 1984; Gilead et al. 1995: 258-

Raw Material The most abundant raw material is a smooth to medium grained gray color flint which is from Senonian wadi pebbles. Also present, albeit in much smaller quantities, is a grey-white mottled flint that contains micro fossils. 84

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 3.23. Site 26, the frequencies of waste per locus Area

Locus

Chips

Chunks

Flakes

Primary Elements

Blades and Bladelets

Ridge Blades

C.T.E. other

Cores

Tools

A

901

9

7

43

4

3

2

0

3

4

A

901

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

40

A

902

0

0

8

0

2

2

1

4

3

A

902

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

A

903

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

A

904

0

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

13

A

906

1

1

3

1

3

1

0

1

20

A

907

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

13

A

909

1

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

13

A

910

0

1

3

0

0

0

0

0

24

Surface

0

3

18

0

1

1

1

1

75

Total

11

13

83

6

9

6

2

10

208

Frequency

3.0

4.0

24.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

0

3.0

60.0

A

Tool Type

Table 3.24. Site 26, core attributes

Some of the artifacts are either partially or totally covered with one or two shades of patina. Waste The waste assemblage is composed of debris, chips, and chunks (Table 3.23). Chips are smaller than 2 cm, while chunks are larger than 2 cm. The fieldwork at this site recovered only 11 chips and 13 chunks. Debitage Flakes (n = 83, 23.9%): The debitage is dominated by flakes (n = 94, 23.9%), however, there are also nine primary elements in this category. The relatively small amount of debitage does not provide enough data to facilitate a thorough attribute analysis of the lithic technology. None of the flakes are regular and all of them have irregular scar patterns. On average the flakes measure 5 cm.

Number of Striking Platforms

n.

1

6

2

2

2 Opposite

2

Total

10

Core Type

n.

Flake

7

Mixed (flake and Bladelet)

3

Total

10

Core Trimming Elements (n = 8, 2.3%): There are eight ridge blades and, two blanks that are classified as core trimming elements. Both are on thick flakes with crests scars on their dorsal face (Inizan et al. 1992: 39).

Blades and Bladelets (n = 9, 2.6%): There are eleven blades and two bladelets. The presence of two to three earlier scars on the dorsal face of the blanks represents a lack of standardization in their manufacture. Six of the blanks in this group have a flat butt and three have a winged butt. Profiles vary in shape from triangular, to trapezoid, to an irregular twisted profile. All blades and bladelets were made from locally available raw materials.

Tools (n = 208, 59.8%) Retouched Blades and Bladelets (n = 20, 10.0%) (Table 3.25): Simple Retouched Blades (n = 14) (Table 3.26): These artifacts are non-standardized blades made on the same type of raw material as other tools in this assemblage. Approximately half of the simple retouched blades are truncated and one item has two oblique truncations which form a trapezoid. Another retouched blade has two straight truncations that form the shape of a rectangle. The bulb of percussion is not present on five retouched blades as two of them are truncated and three of them are broken. Seven retouched blades that have either one or two notches. Also there is one retouched blade that is classified as a denticulated blade as it has six alternating

Cores (n = 10, 2.9%) (Table 3.24): Eight cores were used to produce flakes, and two were used to produce mixed flakes/bladelets. Most of the cores are amorphous in shape and they have either one or two striking platforms. One pyramidal shape core has two striking platforms that are opposite to one another. In this category two of the 10 cores are broken. Complete cores typically measure 5.3 cm. 85

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 3.25. Site 26, the frequency of major tool types per locus Area

Locus

Borers

Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers

Multi-Function Tools

Varia

Totals

A

901

0

1

0

1

1

1

0

4

A

901

3

18

8

2

8

1

0

40

A

902

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

3

A

902

1

A

903

1

0

1

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

A

904

1

2

3

0

6

1

0

13

A A

906

1

9

4

5

1

0

0

20

907

1

5

1

1

5

0

0

13

A

909

2

5

0

0

6

0

0

13

A

910

0

9

3

3

6

1

2

24

Surface

6

29

16

9

14

0

1

75

Total

16

80

36

20

49

4

3

208

Frequency

8.0

38.0

17.0

10.0

24

2.0

1.0

A

Retouched Blades Retouched and Bladelets Flakes

Tool Type

Table 3.26. Site 26, a metric analysis of the simple retouched blades Measurements (mm)

Average

S.D

Length (n=10)

50.4

17.3

Width

25.2

6.9

Thickness

10.8

12.4

Arched back bladelet (n = 1): There is one retouched bladelet made on a dark grey flint, which might have been burnt. This piece has bilateral direct retouch on both sides, as well as a strait and an oblique truncation. The dimensions of this implement are 27 x 11 x 3 mm. Borers (n = 16, 8.0%): All borers are identified as awls. The awls were made on flakes and in most cases (n = 15) have one point that was modified by one or two notches located on the distal part of the blank. There are, however, two awls where the point of each implement was made by abrupt retouch. In this category there are two awls that contain two and three bits, respectively.

notches. Double patination is present on four retouched and notched pieces. Backed blades (n = 6) (Table 3.27) (Fig. 3.6: 3): Backed blades have a rectilinear lateral backing made by direct retouch, which created an abrupt back and a cross section that is either 90º triangular or trapezoid in shape. The dimensions of the backed blades are similar to the sizes of simple retouched blades. Three of the six backed blades are broken. One partially backed blade is made on a baked and/or burnt piece of purple flint. One backed blade is convex in shape and it has two truncations, one strait and one oblique. This item does not fit in the macro lunate family. Single strait and oblique truncations are present on two additional backed blades, however, one of them is broken. Three backed blades lack a bulb of percussion. One of the three backed blades lacks its bulb of percussion as a result of a truncation of the proximal edge.

The methods used to prepare an awl are not standardized. For example, the blanks used for their production are irregular in size and shape and the butts are usually flat (n = 7). One awl has a faceted butt. There are four blanks with basal modification indicating, perhaps, that these pieces were hafted. There is no standardization in direction of the bit modification retouch which was made using various methods, such as direct (n = 9) inverse (n = 3) and alternative (n = 4) retouch. Scrapers (n = 36, 17.0%) (Table 3.28): All pieces exhibiting scalar retouch are identified as scrapers (Gilead et al. 1995: 237-239, fig. 5.10; Rosen 1997a: 8687). This category also includes a thumb side scraper that measures 42 x 29 x 9 mm. Four scrapers have notches. For example, the right side of one scraper has retouch, while the left side contains five notches. Several of these scrapers were made on broken blanks. The bulb of percussion is missing on eight scrapers, however, the proximal edge on these tools is retouched. It is difficult to determine if this pattern represents some sort of basal modification. The presence of scalar retouch, on the distal side, that extended over a clear break in the flint is evidence that scrapers were repaired for reused. In this

Table 3.27. Site 26, metric analysis of backed blades Measurements (mm)

Average

S.D

Length (n=3)

60.2

0

Width

24.9

.1

Thickness

.87

.5

86

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 3.28. Site 26, scraper attributes Scraper type

n.

%

End scraper

15

40.5

Side scraper

13

35.1

Tabular

1

2.7

Fragment

8

21.6

Total

37

100.0

Butt type

n.

%

Complete

%

Flat

13

35.1

11

39.3

Faceted

5

13.5

5

17.9

Dihedral

1

2.7

1

3.6

Pointed

1

2.7

1

3.6

Cortical

2

5.4

2

7.1

8

28.6 100

Missing

8

21.6

Broken

7

18.9

Total

37

100.0

28

Delineation

n.

%

Complete

%

Rectilinear

3

8.1

2

7.1

Concave

3

8.1

3

10.7

Convex

14

37.8

12

42.8

Nosed

3

8.1

3

10.7

Shoulder

3

8.1

3

10.7

Pointed

1

2.7

1

3.6

Rounded

3

8.1

3

10.7

Tongue

2

5.4

1

3.6

Unidentified

5

13.5

Total

37

100.0

28

100.0

Blank type

n.

%

Flake

33

89.2

Primary Elements

3

8.1

C.T.E.

1

2.70

Total

37

100.0

Retouch formation

n.

%

Parallel

6

16.2

Sub parallel

19

51.3

Stepped

2

5.4

Scaled

10

27.0

Total

37

100.0

Retouch position

n.

%

Direct

29

78.4

Inverse

3

8.1

Alternate

6

16.2

Total

37

100.0

assemblage there are there broken scrapers which were repaired. Scrapers were used for the modification of limestone and bone artifacts as well as for wood working (McConaughy 1979: 334-344). Double patination is

present on five scrapers, and one of them is on a Levallois flake. The amount of intrusive scrapers is difficult to ascertain given the condition of the site and its surrounding environment. 87

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

The lithic assemblage is dominated by unstandardized ad hoc tools that were most likely used for domestic activities (Rosen 1997a: 34). Ad hoc tools are frequently found at small Early Bronze Age II encampments in the Negev Highlands (c.f. Rosen 1991, 1993; Hermon, Vardi, and Rosen 2011: 99-100, 102), and in light of this fact, a working hypothesis is that the flint tool assemblage from Site 26 (Ein Hameara) is attributed to the Early Bronze Age, perhaps the Early Bronze Age II period.

Notches and Denticulates (n = 80, 38.0%): There are 34 notches, 46 denticulates, and the latter are characterized by a massive denticulated edge. Notches (Fig. 3.5: 1) and denticulates were made on blanks of different sizes. The majority of these tools were made on flakes (n = 69), however, other types of blanks, including cores (n = 2), primary elements (n = 3), and core trimming elements (n = 8) were used to manufacture these tools. Several notches (n = 13) are made on fragments of broken blanks that might originally have been denticulate/s or other tool types. Notches and denticulates used for several domestic tasks such as spoke shaving, plant and perhaps as bone and wood processing utensils (McConaughy 1979: 288289, 317-318; Rosen 1997a: 89-90).

The absence of glossed sickle blades at Site 26 is interpreted as potential evidence that the inhabitants of this settlement did not engage in agricultural activities. Instead, they probably relied upon other resources for their subsistence strategy, such as herding, and exchange. A similar interpretation has been proposed by Rosen for other small scale sites in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Rosen 1991, 1993, and 2001).

Retouched Flakes and Pieces (n = 49, 24.0%): This group contains retouched tools that do not fall into any of the above categories. The extension and position of the retouch on these tools exhibits considerable variation. For example, the bifacial retouch present on four artifacts is dissimilar to the retouch found on typical Neolithic and Chalcolithic bifacial tools, and as a result, these four implements are classified as bifacially retouched pieces. A number of retouched flakes and pieces have double patination which is evidence of two cycles of usage. One of these artifacts is made on a Levallois flake.

SITE 27, 29, 33 (HAR SAGGI SITES I, III AND V) Haiman’s survey of Sites 27, 29, and 33 collected a total of 935 flint artifacts of which 137 (6.8%) are tools. These three small collections come from sites that are located within the environs of Har Saggi. Given the location of these sites and the small quantities of lithic artifacts recovered, it was decided to analyze this material as one assemblage.

Double function tools (n = 5, 2.3%): There are five multifunction tools. Four of these artifacts are awls made on scrapers. One of these four tools is an awl made on a butt scraper. This particular implement has scalar scraper retouch covering its wide proximal edge and the point was produced by two notches made on its distal edge. This awl/butt scraper measures 65 x 35 x 15 mm. The three other awls are made on end scrapers. The last implement is an awl made on side scraper with a single burin blow on its left side. There is the possibility that this burin blow may be modification to the tool and not evidence of a second reuse.

Raw Material The most abundant raw material is a gray/brown flint that varies in texture from medium to fine grain. Other types of flint used to make stone tools, in descending order of importance, are a gray banded, a gray-white mottled, and a fine grained gray-brown translucent flint. These raw materials are found in the wadis adjacent to Sites 27, 29, and 33 and at other locations throughout the Negev Highlands. Eocenic and tabular flint are rare in this assemble; in fact, only four tools are made on tabular flint.

Varia (n = 3, 1.0%) Burins (n = 2, 0.9%): The two tools in this category show oblique burin blows on their distal end. One burin, measuring 59 x 33 x 11 mm, is on a modified flake, which is retouched on both sides. The second tool is a dihedral burin (Bar-Yosef 1970), measuring 49 x 22 x 14 mm, on a simple blade.

Some of the tools and waste are covered with patinas that are brown, gray, and white in color. Several artifacts exhibit two different shades of patina which may be the result of partial coverage of the artifact and/or rejuvenation at a later time.

Miscellaneous piece (n = 1, 0.5%): There is one artifact with two ventral reductions on its distal end, which might have been a byproduct of a knapping technique that involved the use of an anvil.

Waste

Conclusions

Flakes (n = 503, 53.8%) (Table 3.29): The flakes are irregular in shape and they do not display any signs of standardization. The majority of flakes have flat butts and typically measure 5 cm.

None of the tools are particularly useful for dating this site. Although this assemblage contains a tabular scraper, this type of implement remained in use from the Pottery Neolithic through the Early Bronze Age periods (GoringMorris 1993; Rosen 1984; 1997a: 71, Rosen and Gopher 2003).

Blades and Bladelets (n = 20, 2.1%): Blades and bladelet blanks are very rare in this assemblage. Most of them are simple none prismatic blades that are either triangular or trapeze in cross section. There are three blanks that measure less than 12 mm in width and they are identified as bladelets (width < 12 mm). 88

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 3.29. Lithic frequencies found at Sites 27, 29, and 33 Site 27

Chips Chunks Flakes

Primary Blades and Ridge Core Elements Bladelets Blades Tablets

Cores

Burin Spalls

Tools

Total Frequency Lithics

100

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

4

1.9

102

4

4

12

3

2

1

1

3

0

6

36

17.1

104

2

2

15

0

1

0

0

0

0

4

24

11.4

105

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

3

1.4

106

0

3

31

1

3

0

0

1

0

12

51

24.2

107

1

0

5

1

0

1

0

0

0

8

16

7.6

108

2

5

16

0

2

0

0

1

1

14

41

19.4

109

0

2

9

0

2

0

0

1

0

1

15

7.1

110

7

1

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

20

9.5

Surface

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0.5 100.0

Sub Total

16

18

97

5

10

2

1

6

1

55

211

%

7.6

8.5

46.0

2.4

4.7

0.9

0.5

2.8

0.5

26.1

100.0

301

54

4

22

3

3

0

0

0

0

4

90

52.0

302

6

5

44

1

1

0

0

0

0

6

63

36.4

304

0

0

11

0

0

0

0

1

0

6

18

10.4

308

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

1.2

Sub Total

60

9

77

4

4

0

0

1

0

18

173

100.0

%

34.7

5.2

44.5

2.3

2.3

0.0

0.0

0.6

0.0

10.4

100.0

502

3

3

45

1

1

0

0

1

0

17

71

12.9

503

7

2

37

2

3

0

0

2

0

3

56

10.2

504

1

1

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

6

1.1

506

9

5

23

3

0

0

0

1

0

8

49

8.9

507

3

5

23

0

0

1

0

0

0

3

35

6.4

508

4

4

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

25

4.5

509

0

1

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

1.1

510

6

4

37

1

0

0

1

0

0

2

51

9.3

512

10

6

36

7

1

0

0

2

0

4

66

12.0

513

1

6

30

2

0

0

1

2

0

2

44

8.0

514

2

1

19

3

0

0

0

1

0

6

32

5.8

518

2

11

28

5

1

2

1

0

0

6

56

10.2

Site 29

Site 33

Surface

1

6

34

3

0

0

1

3

1

5

54

9.8

Sub Total

49

55

329

28

6

3

4

12

1

64

551

100.0

%

8.9

10.0

59.7

5.1

1.1

0.5

0.7

2.2

0.2

11.6

100.0

125

82

503

37

20

5

5

19

2

137

935

Frequency 13.4

8.8

53.8

4.0

2.1

0.5

0.5

2.0

0.2

14.6

100

Total Lithics Total

Cores (n = 19, 2.0%) (Table 3.30): The cores are amorphous in shape and in most instances they have two to three striking platforms. Several cores have two opposed striking platforms that are positioned 90º to one another. The majority of cores are for producing flakes, however, four cores have signs of blade and bladelet

removal. One of the four cores is a mixed flake/bladelet core. This core, as well as a bladelet core, are pyramidal shape as a result of reductions to the blank. Most cores are made on either brown or gray flint that is medium grained and opaque. Two cores are covered with white and grayish patina.

89

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 3.30. Cores attributes from Sites 27, 29, and 33 Core Type

n.

%

Flake

15

78.9

Blade

2

10.3

Bladelet

1

5.3

Flake/Bladelet

1

5.3

Total

19

100.0

N. of striking platforms

n.

%

1

4

21.0

2

8

42.1

2 Opposed

4

21.0

3

3

15.8

Total

19

100.0

Tools Retouched Blades and Bladelets (n = 15, 10.9%) (Table 3.31): This category includes all blade tools with a lateral or bilateral working edge, including blades that have a truncated end. Simple retouched blades (n = 8): There are eight simple retouched blades. The first retouched blade, measuring 47.5 x 20 x 6.5 mm, is bi-truncated, straight/oblique, and it has a curved section. The second blade is heavily retouched on one side. The third blade is heavily retouched on both sides and it has an oblique truncation. The fourth retouched blade has a convex truncation with retouch covering one side. The opposite side of this blade is notched. The remaining simple retouched blades are slightly nibbled on both sides, and one is broken, while

Table 3.31. The frequencies of tool type present at Sites 27, 29, and 33 Site 27

Borers

Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers

Retouched Blades and Bladelets

Bifacials

Retouched Flakes

Varia

Totals

%

100

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

3

5.5

102

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

6

10.9

104

2

0

0

1

0

1

0

4

7.3

105

0

0

2

0

0

1

0

3

5.5

106

0

3

2

1

0

4

2

12

21.8

107

0

1

1

1

0

5

0

8

14.5

108

0

5

0

2

0

7

0

14

25.5

109

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1.8

110

0

0

1

0

0

2

0

3

5.5

Surface

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

1.8

Total

3

12

7

6

2

22

3

55

100.0

%

5.5

21.8

12.7

10.9

3.6

40.0

5.5

100.0

301

0

1

0

2

1

0

0

4

22.2

302

0

2

1

0

0

1

2

6

33.3

304

0

1

1

0

0

4

0

6

33.3

308

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

11.1

Total

0

4

2

2

1

5

4

18

100.0

%

0.0

22.2

11.1

11.1

5.6

27.8

22.2

100.0

502

4

4

4

4

0

1

0

17

26.6

503

0

0

0

2

0

1

0

3

4.7

504

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

1.6

506

3

4

0

0

0

0

1

8

12.5

507

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

3

4.7

508

3

3

0

1

0

0

0

7

10.9

510

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

3.1

512

1

1

0

0

0

2

0

4

6.3

513

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

3.1

514

0

1

1

0

0

4

0

6

9.4

Site 29

Site 33

90

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Site 27

Borers

Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers

Retouched Blades and Bladelets

Bifacials

Retouched Flakes

Varia

Totals

%

518

2

3

1

0

0

0

0

6

9.4

surface

0

3

1

0

0

1

0

5

7.8

Total

13

26

7

7

1

9

1

64

100.0

%

20.3

40.6

10.9

10.9

1.6

14.1

1.6

100.0

Total Tool Frequencies n.

16

42

16

15

4

36

8

137

%

11.7

30.7

11.7

10.9

2.9

26.3

5.8

100

another one has a straight truncation. There are three type of truncations present on this artifacts, convex (n = 3), oblique (n = 1), and straight (n = 2). One tool, which is on a semi translucent flint, is partially covered with a white patina.

second one is made on a core measuring 62 x 38 x 25 mm. The width of the point on both awls measures 15 mm. Apart from making holes the awls might have been used for engraving hard materials such as stone and wood (McConaughy 1979: 257-258).

Retouched Bladelets (n = 2): One simple retouched bladelet is made on a gray semi translucent flint that is partially covered with whitish patina. The dimensions of the simple retouched bladelet are 24 x 8 x 2 mm. A second blade, measuring 9 mm in width and 2.5 mm in thickness, is a broken truncated bladelet with an oblique truncation.

Notches and Denticulates (n = 42, 30.7%) (Table 3.31): This category comprises the largest tool type in this assemblage. There are 16 notches, with one to two concavities, and 26 denticulates, with three to six notches. Most of these implements are made on flakes. Besides flakes, notches and denticulates were also made on primary elements (n = 1), ridge blades (n = 2), and a natural backed knife (n = 1). Two notches were made on oblique and convex truncated flakes. Included in this group is a massive, but broken, denticulate made on tabular flint. This broken implement measures 97 x 64 x 27 mm. Notches and denticulates were used for a wide range of domestic tasks such as cutting and processing of organic materials (Rosen 1997a: 89-90; McConaughy 1979: 288-289, 317, 318).

Borers (n = 16, 11.7%): This category includes fourteen awls and two drills. The distinction between awls and drills is determined by the morphology of the point (Rosen 1997a: 69-70). Awls have a short point made usually by one or two notches, while drills have a long point modified by an abrupt retouch on two sides, which covers at least one third of the total tool length. In this category there are two drills and fourteen awls. Most of the borers (n = 13) in this group were collected from Site 33 (Har Saggi V).

Scrapers (n = 16, 11.7%): There are 13 tools with scraper retouch, usually scalar or sub parallel formation, which covered at least one side of the implement. Scrapers are broadly subdivided into two sub types, end scrapers and side scrapers. The end scrapers (n = 9) have retouch covering their distal edge and side scrapers (n = 4) have retouch covering one side. There are three additional end scrapers that are defined as steep thumb scrapers as they are made on small and thick flakes. The largest of the three thumb scrapers measures 45 x 33 x 14.5 mm. The majority of the scrapers are made on thick flakes, however, three were made on cores. One end scraper and a side scraper were made on bladelet cores. One bladelet core, measuring 54 x 33 x 35 mm, has two opposite striking platforms. One scraper is made on a pebble chunk.

Drills (n = 2): There are two drills made on blade blanks. One drill, measuring 19 mm in width and 9 mm in thickness, has abrupt retouch on both sides which converge to form a point. The proximal and distal ends of this drill are broken. The second drill has retouch covering its proximal edge and bulbar thinning which may indicate that this implement was hafted and used as a bow drill.2 The point of this drill is formed by abrupt retouch on one side and bi-polar retouch on the other. This drill is complete and it measures 69 x 14 x 8.5 mm. Awls (n = 14): Awls are made on thick flakes (n = 10), primary elements (n = 4), cores (n = 2) and on a blade (n = 1). The points of the awls were modified by two notches. There is one piece, however, which was made by one notch and an oblique snap using the micro burin technique. There are two heavy duty awls. One is made on a large flake measuring 72 x 49 x 19 mm, and the

Tabular Scrapers (n = 3, 2.2%): One tabular scraper, measuring 103 x 56 x 10 mm, has a facetted butt and a pronounced bulb of percussion. A second tabular scraper, measuring 99 x 50 x 9 mm, has a plain butt and its ventral face has scars from bulb thinning. On the cortex of this scraper there is an engraving in the shape of the letter X. Parallels for similar symbols incised on tabular scrapers are present at the following sites in the southern Levant: Horvat Illin (Marder et al. 1995), Mizpe Shalem

2 For examples of micro-drills from the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age periods in the Negev the reader is referred to the following sources: Burian and Friedman (1987), Macdonald (1932:8), Roshwalb (1981:166-170), Hermon, Vardi and Rosen (2011) and Rosen (1997b). For parallels to New Kingdom bow drills in Egypt see Stocks (1989).

91

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Site 27 (Har Saggi I) than at Site 33 (Har Saggi V), however, the quantities of gray flint collected from these sites may be a result of the collection techniques employed by Haiman and associates.

(Greenhut 1989), Ramat Matred 3 (this volume), Tel Esdar (Cohen 1999, fig. 28). Bifacials (n = 4, 2.9%): This category includes three relatively small axes and a pick. The axes, which are biconvex in cross section, were most likely made on medium sized cobbles. Two rectangular axes are intact and measure 77 x 37 x 23 mm and 76 x 33 x 28 mm, respectively. The third axe is distally broken and thus lacks its original active edge. The presence of several flake scars, that form sharp active edge, most likely represent an attempt to reuse or modify this broken implement. This reused tool measures 79 x 33 x 29 mm.

There are four artifacts, a massive denticulate and three tabular scrapers, made of tabular flint. The absence of primary elements with plain cortex demonstrates that these artifacts were most likely manufactured off site. Alternatively, the small number of artifacts made of tabular flint may be attributed to methodological or temporal constraints. The major tool types analyzed in this assemblage are ad hoc tools which were used for a variety of domestic tasks, such as carving, cutting, perforating, and scraping (McConaughy 1979, 1980). No sickle blades, or any other tools with sickle gloss, were found in this assemblage (Anderson 1980, Unger-Hamilton 1984). The dearth of these tools may indicate that the inhabitants of these sites did not engage in agricultural activities as part of their subsistence strategy (Rosen 1997a: 5758).

There is a massive triangular pick, with a bi-convex cross section, that is made on a large pebble. The base of this pick was crudely modified by several blows. This implement measures 117 x 67 x 35 mm, and the cutting edge measures 18 x 10 mm (c.f. Goring-Morris 1993: 74, fig. 6:4). Burins (n = 6, 4.4%): There are six tools that have scars from burin blows. Five of these artifacts are simple burins on a natural break that have a burin blow on one side. One artifact has two opposite burin blows on its distal edge which created a point. There is one burin on a rolled artifact that is covered in a yellow patina.

The axes recorded from Sites 27 and 33 are evidence of occupations from the Late Neolithic and/or Chalcolithic (Rosen 1984; Gilead et al. 1995; Goring-Morris 1993) periods as this type of tool is not found in the Negev and Sinai after the latter period (e.g., Barkai 2000, Rosen 1997a: 98). Although one tabular scraper was found at Site 29, and two were collected at Site 33 this implement is a poor chronological indicator as it was in use from the fifth to third millennia BCE.

Pièce Esquillée (n = 2): Two flakes have ventral reductions close to their distal edge, indicating that the knapper and/or knapper used an anvil during the process of flint knapping (Bar-Yosef 1970: 225). Retouched Flakes and Pieces (n = 36, 26.3%) (Table 3.31): This group contains miscellaneous trimmed pieces that do not fall to any of categories mentioned above. The pieces in this category have retouch that covers at least 50% of one side of the blank. Most of the retouched flakes and pieces are made on flakes (n = 34), however, two are made on core trimming elements. This category contains truncated artifacts which exhibit three types of truncations, convex (n = 6), oblique (n = 2) and straight (n = 2).

At Site 33 a symbol in the shape of the letter X was incised into the cortex of one tabular scraper. Parallels of this symbol are commonly found at many Early Bronze Age sites, such as at Horvat ‘Illin, Mizpe Shalem, and Ramat Matred 3 (Greenhut 1989; Marder et al. 1995; this chapter). Based upon the diagnostic lithics from Site 33 (Har Saggi V), this settlement has occupations from the Neolithic and/or Chalcolithic periods, as well as from the Early Bronze Age period.

Summary and Conclusions

MISCELLANEOUS ASSEMBLAGES FROM KADESH BARNEA

Before drawing any conclusions concerning this assemblage, we must acknowledge the limitations of the data. Unfortunately, the stone tools and waste were manually collected, thus introducing the possibility of bias towards the collection of stone tools while waste went unrecognized and/or ignored (Rosen 1997a: 37).

Haiman collected a small amount of lithic material, to be specific 188 pieces from 14 sites situated in the area of Kadesh Barnea (Tables 3.32-3.33). Given the large number of sites and the small amount of lithic artifacts taken from each location, it was decided to treat these artifacts as one assemblage. This collection contains a high proportion of stone tools and a low frequency of waste, indicating that Haiman’s survey placed an emphasis on the retrieval of diagnostic tools (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 37-38). This collection method, combined with the small quantities of lithic material, make it difficult to reach concise chronological, typological, and technological conclusions based solely on diagnostic tools.

The stone tools and waste collected from these three sites originated from flint sources that were locally available. A gray, smooth textured, semi translucent flint was present among the lithic material retrieved from Sites 27 (Har Saggi I) and 33 (Har Saggi V). This unusual type of flint was used to make bifacial and bladelet cores, as well as a range of tool types such as denticulates, notches, retouched flakes, and retouched pieces. Although impressionistic this flint is found in higher frequencies at 92

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 3.32. The frequencies of waste and tools from various sites located in the environs of Qadesh Barnea Site

Location

Chips and Chunks

Flakes

Primary Blades and C.T.E Elements Bladelets

Cores

Hammerstone

Tools

Total

QB/64/1

Wadi Um Hashem

0

2

0

2

0

0

0

1

5

QB/74/2

Wadi Um Hashem

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

3

QB/77/7

Wadi el Qudeirat

1

1

4

0

0

5

0

12

23

QB/84/1

Wadi Um Hashem

8

46

4

0

0

5

0

13

76

Site 3

Jebel Tiwal 1 and 3

0

11

2

5

0

0

0

10

28

Site 30 (QB/77/2)

Wadi Qudeirat

1

0

0

3

0

0

0

3

7

Site 58 (QB/86/2)

Amrat el Farani

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

6

Site 80 (QB/76/1)

Wadi Um Hashem

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

3

Site 84 (QB/85/4)

Amrat el Farani

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

10

11

Site 85 (QB/85/6)

Amrat el Farani

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

Site 87 (QB/85/2)

Amrat el Farani

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

3

Site 89 (QB/95/1)

Amrat el Farani

0

7

0

1

0

0

3

29

40

Site 99 (QB/84/3)

Wadi Um Hashem

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

2

Site 103 (QB/73/1)

Wadi Um Hashem

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

6

Number

10

61

8

6

0

10

5

88

188

Frequency

5.3

32.4

4.3

3.2

0

5.3

2.7

46.8

100.0

Bifacials (n = 5, 5.8%) (Table 3.33): A complete adze, measuring 118 x 43 x 34 mm was recovered from QB77/7. There are two are rough outs which were discarded prior to their completion. A fourth bifacial is classified as a chopper as it is irregular in shape (Rosen 1997a: 98).

Waste Five cores were collected at QB 77/7 and an additional five cores were collected at QB84/1 (Table 3.32). One core has a blade scar, while the remainders are flake cores with irregular negative removals. The amount of waste collected from the 14 sites is so small in number that it cannot be used for any type of analysis.

Borers (n = 4, 4.6%) (Table 3.33): There are two simple drills made on blades. One has basal modification perhaps for hafting of this implement. This drill measures 46 x 13 x 7 mm. The two additional awls are simple none standardized tools made on flakes.

Tools Most tools are ad hoc implements such as: denticulates/ notches, retouched flakes, simple retouched blades, and bladelets (Table 3.33) (Fig. 3.6: 2). Notches and denticulates (n = 21, 24.4%) (Table 3.32): There are nine notches and 12 denticulates. One denticulate, found at Site 84 (QB 85/4), is made on tabular flint.

Scrapers (n = 3, 3.5%) (Table 3.33) (Figs. 3.2: 1, 3): This category contains one side scraper and two end scrapers. The former is made on a primary element while the latter are made on a flake and primary element, respectively. The tools in this group are unstandardized, hence they cannot be used as chronological markers.

Retouched blades (n = 14, 16.3%) (Table 3.33): The tools in this category are simple retouched blades, and six of them are single or bi-truncated. None of these 12 retouched blades exhibit any form of Canaanean blade technology.

Tabular Scrapers (n = 17, 19.8%) (Table 3.33): Tabular scrapers were collected at six of the 14 sites. There are five intact oval shaped tabular scrapers, and (Rosen 93

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 3.33. The frequencies of tool types from various sites situated in the Qadesh Barnea area Site

Location

Borers

Notches and Denticulates

Scrapers

Tabular Scrapers

QB/64/1

Wadi Um Hashem

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

QB/74/2

Wadi Um Hashem

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

3

QB/77/7

Wadi el Qudeirat

0

3

1

0

5

1

0

2

12

QB/84/1

Wadi Um Hashem

0

7

0

0

2

1

3

0

13

Site 3

Jebel Tiwal 1 and 3

0

2

0

0

1

0

3

1

7

Site 30 (QB/77/2)

Wadi Qudeirat

0

2

0

0

1

0

0

0

3

Site 58 (QB/86/2)

Amrat el Farani

0

1

1

2

2

0

0

0

6

Site 80 (QB/76/1

Wadi Um Hashem

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

3

Site 84 (QB/85/4)

Amrat el Farani

0

1

0

7

0

0

1

0

9

Site 84 (QB/85/4)

Amrat el Farani

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Site 87 (QB/85/2)

Amrat el Farani

0

0

0

2

0

0

1

0

3

Site 89 (QB/95/1)

Amrat el Farani

3

4

1

4

4

2

8

0

26

Site 99 (QB95/1

Amrat el Farani

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Site 103 (QB/73/1)

Wadi Um Hashem

1

1

0

0

0

1

2

1

6

4

21

3

17

14

5

19

3

86

4.6

24.4

3.5

19.8

16.3

5.8

22.1

3.5

100.0

Total Frequency

1997a: 77-78, fig. 3.32-3.33), three of them are end struck, while two are side struck. One of the side struck tabular scrapers is a double tabular scarper. One of the intact tabular scrapers has bulbar thinning, a trait that is commonly found on tabular scrapers unearthed in the southern Levant. None of the tabular scrapers have incisions on their cortical sides (e.g. Marder et al. 1995).

Retouched Retouched Bifacials Varia Blades Flakes

Totals

medium to fine quality Eocene or Senonian flint pebbles, which are found in abundance in many parts of the Negev Highlands (Idelman et al. 2000). In contrast, tabular scrapers are frequently made from imported tabular flint. There are enough blanks in these assemblages to conduct a basic trait analysis. The lithic assemblages are based on small irregularly shaped flakes. At the sites described above, the flakes outnumbers the blades. There is no evidence for the standardization of blade production at any of these settlements.

Overview The lithic material in this assemblage is comprised of flint sources that are located in the environs of Kadesh Barnea and in the larger region of the Negev Highlands. Most of the lithic artifacts collected from the 14 sites are non-diagnostic. Therefore, we cannot make further assumptions regarding the chronology of the 14 sites situated in the Kadesh Barnea area.

The recovery techniques implemented by Haiman may account for the dearth of particular diagnostic Early Bronze Age implements such as lunates and microlithic drills (Hermon et al. 2011: 90, 96; Rosen 1994-5; 1997b; Saidel 2002: 47-48, 50, fig. 11:3-4, 6-12; Saidel et al. 2006: 211, 212, fig. 7). Their absence may be attributed in part to their small size, as well as to the lack of a systematic sieving program. This observation would also explain the relatively small quantities of projectile points in these assemblages. Projectile points from the Pottery Neolithic through the Early Bronze Age periods typically

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE ASSEMBLAGES Most lithic artifacts are made from locally available raw materials. The ad hoc tools, for instance, are produced on 94

CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

Fig. 3.9. The frequencies of tool types at Site 1, in Structures 1 and 2, in Area B

arrowheads recovered from Site 22 (QB 95/2) demonstrate that this settlement has an occupational sequence that begins in the PPNB and continues into the EBA. This of course assumes a maximalist interpretation of the dates for the Byblos and transverse arrowheads. The projectile points from this Site 22 also provide evidence of hunting and perhaps in some instances of conflict (Rosen 2003: 754). Another site with multiple occupations is Site 33 which is dated to the Pottery Neolithic and Early Bronze Age periods.

measure less than 10 mm in length, and are relatively rare at the sites excavated by Haiman (Gopher 1994: 41-42, 43, figs. 4.9, A7, A8, A9, and A10, Rosen 1997b: 39, 43). In contrast, Rosen’s excavations at the Camel Site and Nahal Tzafit employed a systematic sieving program which recovered 17 and 10 arrowheads, respectively (Rosen 1994-1995; Hermon et al. 2011). The quantities of projectile points unearthed at both sites are significant given that these settlements measure less than 200 sq. m. Aside from recovery techniques, the absence of lunates, micro-drills and projectile points at the majority of sites excavated by Haiman may also be attributed to the function of these settlements.

Tabular scrapers are found at Pottery Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Early Bronze Age sites in the Negev Highlands (Neuville 1934; Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1984, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1997a: 75; 2001; Quintero et al. 2002). Although this type of scraper is present in most of the stone tool assemblages described in this chapter, it is not particularly useful for drawing chronological boundaries. However, Rosen and Gopher have suggested that changes in the size of this tool may be chronologically meaningful (Rosen and Gopher 2003: 193, 194, Table 5.17), and its appearance at sites over the course of three millennia is striking. The continuity in the use of this particular tool further underscores the usefulness of the term Timnian as a cultural concept for describing arid zone populations (Rosen 2010).

The types of stone tools recovered by Haiman are typical of most proto-historic flint assemblages situated in the Negev Highlands (Gilead et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a). The ad hoc tools are typologically unstandardized and do not provide any indications of specialization. This observation is demonstrated by the nature of the blanks and the working edges of these implements. The high frequency of ad hoc implements at Neolithic through Early Bronze Age settlements is interpreted as evidence of the continuity of domestic tasks throughout these periods.3 The consistency in the nature of ad hoc tools throughout these periods underscores the usefulness of the “Timnian” culture as recently articulated by Rosen (2010).

In the Negev Highlands, tabular scrapers are often not made from locally available sources of tabular flint as this type of raw material is relatively scarce in these areas. As a result, the appearance of tabular scrapers at a specific site may often be attributed to some sort of exchange relationship with inhabitants from other regions (e.g. Quintero et al. 2002). There are, for instance, several indications that during the Early Bronze Age there existed several distribution centers for tabular scrapers, such as Ein-Yarka, Sinai (Rosen and Rothenberg n.d.) and Mizpe Shalem (Greenhut 1989). Aside from the Negev Highlands tabular scrapers are found in Judea

The diagnostic artifacts provide evidence of occupations from the Late Neolithic through the Chalcolithic periods. In particular, the bifacials are particularly useful for identifying Late Neolithic and/or-Chalcolithic occupations at sites in the areas of Har Saggi (Table 3.22) and Kadesh Barnea (Tables 3.12, 3.26, 3.33). The five 3

For a detailed description of these tasks the reader is referred to McConaughy 1979.

95

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

(Marder et al. 1995; Rosen 1998), the Judean Desert (Greenhut 1989), the northern Negev (Gilead et al. 1995), Sinai (Kozloff 1972/3; Milshtain 1981, 1982; Milstein 1986; Bar-Yosef et al. 1977, 1986), and Jordan (Quintero et al. 2002).

BARKAI, R. 2000 – Flint and Stone Axes as Cultural Markers: Socio-economic Changes as Reflected in the Holocene Flint Tool Industries of the Southern Levant. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Tel Aviv University. BAR-YOSEF, O. 1970 – The Epipaleolithic Cultures of Palestine. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Hebrew University.

Canaanean blades were not identified in any of the assemblages. This is not surprising as they are not found at other Early Bronze Age settlements in the Negev Highlands. The Canaanean blade (Rosen 1983; Hartenberger 2003) is primarily found at Early Bronze Ages settlements that are situated in a Mediterranean type vegetation zone (Schick 1978; Marder et al. 1995; Rosen 1997a: 58-59, fig. 3.18, 1998, 2010). Typically this vegetation belt receives an average annual rainfall of 350 mm (Orni and Efrat 1980). Canaanean blades have been documented at several settlements in the Biq’at Uvda Valley, in the southern Negev, however, not every site in this area contains Canaanean blades (Rosen 1990, 2001).4

BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER, A. GOREN and P. SMITH 1977 – The Nawamis near 'Ein Huderah (Eastern Sinai). Israel Exploration Journal 27: 65-88. BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER-COHEN, A. GOREN, I. HERSHKOVITZ, O. ILAN, H. K. MIENIS and B. SASS 1986 – Nawamis and Habitation Sites near Gebel Gunna, Southern Sinai. Israel Exploration Journal 36 (3-4): 121-167. BORDES, F. 1988 – Typologie du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. 5th Edition. Paris: C.N.R.S. BURIAN, F. and E. FRIEDMAN 1987 – A Chalcolithic Borer Industry at Site 103-Nahal Nitzana. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 20: 160*-172*.

Although a few sickle blades are present in Haiman’s assemblages, their economic significance is minimal. Rosen, for example, has demonstrated that sickle blades appear in differing frequencies depending upon whether the site is located in an arid environment or in a Mediterranean zone. At arid zone settlement sites, sickle blades comprise less than one percent of stone tool assemblage, which is interpreted as evidence that their inhabitants did not engage in agricultural activities. Instead, the low frequency of sickle blades at arid zone settlements is interpreted as evidence of an economy based upon mobile pastoralism (Rosen 1997a: 58-59, figs. 3.17-3.18).

COHEN, R. 1999 – Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I. IAA Reports 6. Israel Antiquities Authority (Hebrew), Jerusalem. GILEAD, I., D. HERSHMAN and O. MARDER 1995 – The Flint Assemblages from Grar. Pp. 223-280 in Grar: A Chalcolithic Site in the Northern Negev, ed. I. Gilead. Beer-Sheva VII. Beer-Sheva: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press. GOPHER, A. 1994 – Arrowheads of the Neolithic Levant. American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series 10. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.

In conclusion, there is continuity in the overall composition of the lithic assemblages from the Late Neolithic through the Early Bronze Age periods. The continuity in stone tool technology coincides with a transition in subsistence patterns from hunting and gathering to mobile pastoralism (Goring-Morris 1993; Rosen 2002).

GOPHER, A., A. N. GORING-MORRIS and S. A. ROSEN 1995 – 'Ein Qadis I: A Pre-Pottery Neolithic B Occupation in Eastern Sinai. 'Atiqot 27: 15-33. GORING-MORRIS, A. N. 1987 – At the Edge. Terminal Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherers in the Negev and Sinai. BAR International Series 361 (i-ii). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

References

GORING-MORRIS, N. 1993 – From Foraging to Herding in the Negev and Sinai: The Early to Late Neolithic Transition. Paléorient 19: 65-89.

ANDERSON, P. C. 1980 – A Testimony of Prehistoric Tasks: Diagnostic Residues on Stone Tool Working Edges. World Archaeology 12 (2): 181-194.

GREENHUT, Z. 1989 – Flint Tools. 'Atiqot 9: 60-77.

BAIRD, D. 2001 – The Analysis of Chipped Stone. Pp. 639-651 in The Archaeology of Jordan, eds. B. MacDonald, R. Adams and P. Bienkowski. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

HAIMAN, M. 1994 – The Early Bronze Age Site of Ramat Matred 3 in the Negev Highlands. 'Atiqot 25: 23-32. HAIMAN, M. 2007 – Archaeological Survey of the Kadesh Barnea Vicinity: 'Ein el-Qudeirat and 'Ein Qadis. Pp. 307-351 in Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tellel-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

BARKAI, R. 1999 – Resharpening and Recycling of Flint Bifacial Tools from the Southern Levant Neolithic and Chalcolithic. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 65: 303-318.

HARTENBERGER, B. E. 2003 – A Study of Craft Specialization and the Organization of Chipped Stone Production at Early Bronze Age Titris Höyük, Southeastern Turkey. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Boston University.

4 Although three broken sickle blade segments with sickle gloss were recovered from Rekhes Nafha 396, in the Negev Highlands, these artifacts were made from plain or simple blades and not on Canaanean blades (Saidel 2002: 48). The site of Rekhes Nafha 396 contains pottery from both the Early Bronze Age and the Early Bronze Age IV/Middle Bronze Age I (Saidel 2002: 46).

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CHAPTER 3: THE LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES

HENRY, D. O. 1995 – Prehistoric Cultural Ecology and Evolution: Insights from Southern Jordan. New York: Plenum Press.

MOVIUS, H., N. DAVID, H. BRICKER, R. B. CLAY and H. HENCKEN (editors) 1968 – The Analysis of Certain Major Classes of Upper Paleolithic Tools. Peabody Museum, Cambridge.

HERMON, S., J. VARDI and S. A. ROSEN 2011 – The Lithic Assemblage from the Camel Site. Pp. 81-109 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

NEUVILLE, R. 1934 – L’Outillage en Silex. Pp. 27-54 in Teleilat Ghassul I, ed. A. Mallon, R. Koeppel and R. Neuville. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute. ORNI, E. and E. EFRAT 1980 – Geography of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel University Press.

HOURS, F. 1974 – Rémarques sur l’utilisation des liste-types pour l’étude du Paléolithique Superieur et de l’Epipaléolithique du Levant. Paléorient 2: 318.

QUINTERO, L. A., P. J. WILKE and G. O. ROLLEFSON 2002 – From Flint Mine to Fan Scraper: The Late Prehistoric Jafr Industrial Complex. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 327: 17-48.

INIZAN, M.-L., H. ROCHE and J. TIXIER 1992 – Technology of Knapped Stone. Meudon: Cercle de Recherches et d’Études Préhistoriques.

ROSEN, S. A. 1983 – The Canaanean Blade and the Early Bronze Age. Israel Exploration Journal 33 (1/2): 1529.

KOZLOFF, B. 1972-1973 – A Brief Note on the Lithic Industries of Sinai. Museum Haaretz Yearbook. 15/16:35-49.

ROSEN, S. A. 1984 – Kvish Harif: Preliminary Investigation at a Late Neolithic Site in the Central Negev. Paléorient 10: 111-121.

MACALISTER, R. A. S. 1912 – The Excavation of Gezer 1902-1905 and 1907-1909. London: Palestine Exploration Fund.

ROSEN, S. A. 1989 – The Analysis of Early Bronze Age Chipped Stone Industries: A Summary Statement. Pp. 199-222 in L'Urbanisation de la Palestine à l'âge du Bronze ancien: Bilan et Perspectives des Recherches Actuelles, Actes du Colloque d'Emmaüs (20-24 Octobre 1986), ed. P. de Miroschedji. BAR International 527 (i). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

MACDONALD, E. 1932 – Prehistoric Fara. Pp. 1-21 in Beth-Pelet II. British School of Archaeology in Egypt. London: Bernard Quant. MARDER, O., E. BRAUN and I. I. MILEVSKI 1995 – The Flint Assemblage of Lower Horvat 'Illin: Some Technical and Economic Considerations. 'Atiqot 27: 63-93.

ROSEN, S. A. 1990 – Appendix A: The Lithic Assemblages of Sites 911 and 915 at Biq'at 'Uvda. 'Atiqot 10: 4*-8*.

MARKS, A. E. 1976 – Glossary. Pp. 371-383 in Prehistory and Paleoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel. Volume 1 the Avdat/Aqev Area, Part 1, ed. A. E. Marks. Dallas: Southern Methodist University.

ROSEN, S. A. 1991 – The Lithic Assemblage from the EB Site at Har Horesha. 'Atiqot 20: 169-176. ROSEN, S. A.1993 – Lithic Assemblages from Nahal Mitnan. 'Atiqot 22: 62-69. ROSEN, S. A. 1997a – Lithics after the Stone Age: A Handbook of Stone Tools from the Levant. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek, CA.

MCCONAUGHY, M. A. 1979 – Formal and Functional Analyses of the Chipped Stone Tools from Bab EdhDhra, Jordan. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.

ROSEN, S. A. 1997b – Beyond Milk and Meat: Lithic Evidence for Economic Specialization in the Early Bronze Age Pastoral Periphery in the Levant. Lithic Technology 22 (1): 99-109.

MCCONAUGHY, M. A. 1980 – Chipped Stone Tools (from Bab edh Dhra). Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 240: 53-58. MILSTEIN, S. 1986 – The Flint Implements (in Two Cultures in Southern Sinai in the Third Millennium B.C.) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 27-54.

ROSEN, S. A. 1998 – The Chipped Stone Assemblage. Pp. 78-88 in Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds: Excavations at Manahat, Jerusalem 1987-1989, eds. G. Edelstein, I. I. Milevski and S. Aurant. IAA Reports 3. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

MILSHTAIN, S. 1981 – The Flint Implements (An Early Bronze Age II Site near Sheikh 'Awad in Southern Sinai). Tel Aviv 8: 95-127.

ROSEN, S. A. 2001 – The Lithic Assemblage from 'Uvda Valley Site 917 and Its Spatial Implications. 'Atiqot 42: 109-119.

MILSHTAIN, S. 1982 – Flint Implements (from an Early Bronze Age II Site near the Feiran Oasis in Southern Sinai). Tel Aviv 9: 146-156.

ROSEN, S. A. 2002 – The Evolution of Pastoral Nomadic Systems in the Southern Levantine Periphery. Pp. 2344 in In Quest of Ancient Settlements and Landscapes: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Ram Gophna, eds. E.C.M. van den Brink and E. Yannai. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

MOORE, A. M. T. 1973 – The Late Neolithic in Palestine. Levant 5: 36-68. MORTENSEN, P. 1970 – A Preliminary Study of the Chipped Stone Industry from Baidha: An Early Neolithic Village in Southern Jordan. Acta Archaeologica (Copenhagen) 41.

ROSEN, S. A. 2003 – Early Multi-Resource Nomadism: Excavations at the Camel Site in the Central Negev. Antiquity 77: 750-761. 97

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

ROSEN, S. A. 2010 – The Desert and the Sown: A Lithic Perspective. Pp. 203-221 in Lithic Technology in Metal using Societies, ed. B. Eriksen. Jutland Archaeological Society Publications 67. Hojberg: Jutland Archaeological Society.

SCHICK, T. 1978 – Flint Implements. Pp. 58-63 in Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze Age City, ed. R. Amiran. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. STOCKS, D. A. 1989 – Ancient Factory Mass-Production Techniques: Indications of Large-Scale Stone Bead Manufacture during the Egyptian New Kingdom Period. Antiquity 63: 526-31.

ROSEN, S. A. and A. GOPHER 2003 – Flint Tools from the Survey. Pp. 184-195 in Archaeology of Sinai: The Ophir Expedition, ed. I. Beit-Arieh. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology.

STOCKS, D. A. 2003 – Stoneworking Technology in Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge.

ROSEN, S. A., B. ROTHENBERG and B. KOZLOFF n.d. – The Tabular Scraper Cache at Ein Yarka Tumulus 595/6 of the Southern Sinai Survey.

TIXIER, J. 1963 – Typologie de l'Épipaléolithique Maghreb. Centre de Recherche Anthropologiques Préhistoriques et Ethnographiques d’Alger. Memoir 2. Paris: Arts et Metiers.

ROSHWALB, A. F. 1981 – Protohistory in the Wadi Ghazzeh: A Typological and Technological Study Based on the MacDonald Excavations. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of London.

UNGER-HAMILTON, R. 1984 – The Formation of UseWear Polish on Flint: Beyond the “Deposit Versus Abrasion” Controversy. Journal of Archaeological Science 11 (1): 91-98.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002 – The Excavations at Rekhes Nafha 396 in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 325: 37-63.

VARDI, J. 2005 – The Analysis of the Lithic Assemblage from Ein Ziq, an Early Bronze Age IV (2300-2000) Site in the Negev Highlands. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.

SAIDEL, B. A., T. ERICKSON-GINI, J. VARDI, S. A. ROSEN, E. MAHER and H. J. GREENFIELD 2006 – Test Excavations at Rogem Be'erotayim in Western Negev. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 36: 201-229.

98

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Chapter 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL AND MORDECHAI HAIMAN Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal) which is dated to the Iron Age II (Bernick-Greenberg 2007a: 187). The term ‘Late Byzantine-Early Islamic’ refers to the timeframe extending from the sixth through eighth centuries C.E. (Avni 1996: 5). Magness (2003: 7) is critical of those archaeologists who attributed cooking wares to “Roman/Byzantine or Byzantine,” periods, when these containers were actually in use in Palestine from the 3rd to 9th centuries C.E. (Magness 2003: 7). Her point is acknowledged, however, in this chapter these wares are attributed to the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic period based on the models put forth to explain the relationships between tribes and states for this time frame (e.g., Rosen and Avni 1993; Haiman 1995; Avni 1996; Rosen 2000).

INTRODUCTION This chapter opens with a presentation of the unpublished pottery collected in the course of Haiman’s survey of the Kadesh Barnea region (2007). It is treated as a single assemblage because the quantities of pottery collected at each location varied. The pottery retrieved from the excavated settlements is described and illustrated as individual assemblages.1 Processing the pottery for the present study included weighing each basket, counting the number of diagnostic and undiagnostic sherds, and identifying the periods present. When the information is available, the type and number of diagnostic sherds are presented in the tables that accompany this chapter. Sixty-eight sherds were selected for petrographic analysis in order to source the origin of these containers (see Cohen-Weinberger and Saidel, this volume). Many of the sherds that were petrographically sampled are illustrated in this chapter.

THE SURVEY MATERIAL Surveys conducted in the environs of Kadesh Barnea in October 1981 and from February to April 1982 identified a total of 123 sites (Haiman 2007) (Table 4.1). The unpublished pottery collected from 16 sites in this survey map is presented below (Tables 4.2, 4.3). Given the variable and often small amounts of pottery gathered from these settlements, the ceramics are treated as one assemblage (although a breakdown of the pottery by site is presented in Table 4.2).

Dating and ascertaining parallels for some of the Early Bronze Age sherds were difficult as many were badly damaged. For instance, 11 of 17 sherds found at Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III) were too damaged to measure their diameter (see Figs. 4.13: 1-6, 8, 10-11, 4.14: 1-2). Dating holemouth vessels is also problematic as certain forms attributed to the EB II continued in use into the EB III and EB IV/MB I (Avner, Carmi, and Segal 1994: 280). The attribution of the holemouth vessels to the EB II is based in part on the “similarity to finds in southern Sinai and Arad” that “suggests a date in the Early Bronze Age II” (Haiman 1991: 177).

A total of 400 sherds were retrieved from 16 sites, however, there are only 36 diagnostic forms (Table 4.2; Figs. 4.1-4.4). The weight of the pottery baskets and the size of the illustrated pottery demonstrate that most diagnostic sherds are small in size. In fact, some of these sherds were too small to attribute to a specific vessel type (Figs. 4.3: 1-3, 4, 4: 4), but are nevertheless included as others may find the information of use.

In this report, ‘Negebite’ ware refers specifically to the crude handmade pottery found at Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan

The survey assemblage is dominated by two types of wares: coarse handmade pottery which is attributed to the EBA and cooking ware from the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods. The former represents the bulk of the

1

In some instances, however, specific sherds illustrated in preliminary publications could not be relocated (e.g., Haiman 1994: 29, Fig. 8:1112).

99

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 4.1. The designations and periods present at the Kadesh Barnea survey sites described in this chapter Site Name

Previous Designation

Periods identified by Haiman

Reference

QB37/6

QB37/6

EBA

Haiman, Personal Communication

QB64/1

QB64/1

EBA

Haiman, Personal Communication

QB72/2

QB72/2

EBA

Haiman, Personal Communication

Site 30

QB77/2

EBA

Haiman 2007: 321

Site 58

QB86/2

EBA

Haiman 2007: 331

Site 62

QB75/1

EBA EB IV/MB I Byzantine

Haiman 2007: 332

Site 70

Wadi Qderat 25/2

Byzantine and Early Islamic

Haiman 2007: 334

Site 80

QB76/1

EBA

Haiman 2007: 336

Site 81

QB75/2

Byzantine

Haiman 2007: 336

Site 84

Site 84 (Baskets 1 and 2)

EBA EB IV/MB I Byzantine

Haiman 2007: 337

Site 85

QB85/6

Byzantine

Haiman 2007: 337

Site 87

QB85/2

EBA IA II

Haiman 2007: 338

Site 88

QB95/2

EBA

Haiman 2007: 338

Site 89

QB95/1

EBA EB IV/MB I

Haiman 2007: 339

Site 99

QB84/3

EBA

Haiman 2007: 340-341

Site 103

QB73/1

EBA EB IV/MB I IA II Byzantine

Haiman 2007: 341

Name of Site

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comment

Table 4.2. The quantities of pottery recovered from the Kadesh Barnea sites

QB/37/6

201

34

33

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

34

---

QB/64/1

84

6

4

2

1

0

0

1

0

3

0

One rim and one base from a Roman vessel.

QB/72/2

128

15

14

1

0

0

0

1

0

6

0

---

Site 30

36

3

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

---

Site 58

511

61

55

6

0

0

1

5

0

1

61

Five rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Site 62

243

28

27

1

0

0

0

0

1

20

8

---

Site 70

20

12

8

3

0

0

0

0

3

8

1

---

Site 80

45

9

9

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

---

Site 81

65

15

11

4

1

0

1

2

0

13

3

One rim of a Byzantine cooking pot. One rim of a Byzantine bowl.

100

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comment

Site 84 (Bkt 1) 782

25

24

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

25

One rim of a Persian jar.

Site 84 (Bkt 2) 149

16

14

2

0

0

0

1

0

10

1

One rim of a Persian jar.

Name of Site

Weight of Basket in Grams

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Site 85

90

9

7

2

0

0

1

1

0

6

1

One rim of a Byzantine jar.

Site 87

213

12

11

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

12

Pot drop (EBA).

Site 88 (Qadesh Barnea 95/2)

8

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Site 89

791

114

108

6

1

0

1

4

2

4

75

One rim of an EBA cup-bowl. Two rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Site 99

22

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Site 103

434

37

32

6

2

2

0

1

1

27

6

---

400

364

36

5

3

4

19

7

98

243

---

Total

Table 4.3. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from the Kadesh Barnea sites Figure

Site

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.1:1

QB 64/1

Roman, base

10R6/1 Gray

7.5YR7/4 Pink

4.1:2

QB 64/1

Roman, krater

4.1:3

Site 58

EBA, holemouth vessel

4.1:4

4.1:5

4.1:6

Site 58

Site 58

Site 58

EB II, holemouth vessel

EB II, holemouth vessel

EB II, holemouth vessel

Parallels/Note Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 45 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

5YR6/6 5YR6/6 Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 44 in CohenReddish Yellow Reddish Yellow Weinberg and Saidel this volume. 7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

5YR6/1 Gray

5YR6/1 Gray

5YR6/1 Gray

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

---

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pls. 19:5, 21:31. Tel Halif Terrace, Stratum III, Alon and Yekutieli 1995: 175, fig. 23:10. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4:16. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 33 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pls. 18: 27, 20:12. Arad, Stratum II, pls. 48: 18, 49:5, 36. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, figs.4.1:18, 19, 4.2:16. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 32 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 20. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 45: 24, 49: 31. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6:14. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 31 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.This sherd is perforated from this exterior to the interior.

101

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Figure

Site

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.2:1

Site 62

Byzantine/Early Islamic cooking ware

10R5/6 Red

105/6 Red

Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 40 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

4.2:2

Site 62

Byzantine/Early Islamic cooking ware

105/6 Red

105/6 Red

---

4.2:3

Site 62

Byzantine/Early Islamic cooking ware

105/6 Red

105/6 Red

---

4.2:4

Site 62

Byzantine/Early Islamic cooking ware

105/6 Red

105/6 Red

Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 39 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

4.2:5

Site 70

Byzantine/Early Islamic lid

2.5YR5/4 Reddish Brown

2.5YR5/6 Red

Parallels: Nahal Mitnan, Haiman 1995: 7, fig. 8: 13. Ramat Nof, Ustinova and Nahshoni 1994: 166, fig. 6: 26.

Site 70

Byzantine/Early Islamic lid

2.5YR5/4 Reddish Brown

2.5YR5/6 Red

Parallels: Nahal Mitnan, Haiman 1995: 7, fig. 8: 13. Ramat Nof, Ustinova and Nahshoni 1994: 166, fig. 6: 26.

4.2:6

4.2:7

Site 70

Byzantine/Early Islamic lid

7.5YR5/4 Brown

4.2:8

Site 81

Period Unknown/Base

2.5YR5/4 Reddish Brown

Parallels/Note

Parallels: Rehovot in the Negev, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1988: 5YR4/6 93, pl. 5: 217. Yellowish Red Ramat Nof, Ustinova and Nahshoni 1994: 166, fig. 6:23. 2.5YR5/6 Red

---

4.2:9

Site 81

Byzantine/Early Islamic cooking pot

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

Parallels: Nahal ‘Oded, Avni 1996: 48, fig. 50: 8. Ramot Nof, Ustinova and Nahshoni 1994: 166, figs. 6: 10-11. Elat-Elot, Avner 1998:32*, fig. 13: 8. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample38 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.2: 10

Site 81

Byzantine/Early Islamic, bowl

5YR5/4 Reddish Brown

2.5YR5/6 Red

Parallels: Har ‘Oded, Avni 1996: 50, fig. 52. Ramat Nof, Ustinova and Nahshoni 1994: 166, fig. 6: 6.

4.2:11

4.2:12

Site 84

Site 84

Persian, amphora

10R5/4 Weak Red

10R5/4 Weak Red

Parallels: Kadesh Barnea, Cohen and Bernick-Greenberg 2007b: 235, pl. 11.134: 11. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 36 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

Persian, amphora

10R6/3 Pale Red

10R6/3 Pale Red

Parallels: Kadesh Barnea, Cohen and Bernick-Greenberg 2007b: 235, pl. 11.134: 11. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 37 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume. Parallels: Rehovot in the Negev, Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1988: 83, pl. 2: 55. Sde Boker, Nevo 1991: 153, ppl. 5: 3. Ramat Nof, Ustinova and Nahshoni 1994: 165, fig. 4: 2. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 34 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.2:13

Site 85

Byzantine, jar

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

4.3:1

Site 89

Unknown, base

---

---

---

4.3:2

Site 89

Unknown, shoulder

Brown Slip

---

---

4.3:3

Site 89

Byzantine, base

105/6 Red

105/6 Red

---

102

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Figure

4.3:4

4.3:5

Site

Site 89

Site 89

Period, Form

EB II, cup-bowl

EB II, holemouth vessel

Exterior Munsell

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

7.5YR8/4 Pink

Interior Munsell

7.5YR5/4 Brown

Parallels/Note Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 14: 7, 8, 10. Horvat Avnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 51, fig. 31: 1. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit- Arieh 2003: 126, fig. 4.19: 7. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 30 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 26. Horvat Arnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 51, figs. 5YR6/6 31: 17-18. Reddish Yellow Tell ‘Ira, Beit-Arieh 1999: 188, fig. 6.11: 5. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 29 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

4.3:6

Site 89

EBA, holemouth vessel

2Gley5/5B Bluish Black

5YR6/2 Pinkish Gray

Parallels: Horvat Arnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 51, figs. 31: 8, 11. Nahal Refed, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 41, fig. 20: 3. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 28 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

4.4:1

Site 103

Byzantine, Handle

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

7.5YR7/4 Light Brown

---

4.4:2

Site 103

Byzantine, Handle

2.5YR5/3 Reddish Brown

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 42 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

4.4:3

Site 103

Unknown, base

10R5/4 Yellowish Brown

2.5YR5/4 Reddish Brown

4.4:4

Site 103

Hellenistic, krater

2.5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

2.5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

4.4:5

Site 103

Byzantine, cooking ware, lid

2.5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

4.4:6

Site 103

Unknown, base

7.5YR6/2 Pinkish Gray

2Gley6/10B

--Parallels: Site 47, Haiman 2007: 326, fig. 21.35: 3. Parallels: Sde Boker, Nevo 1991: 151, ppl. 9. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 43 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 41 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

2011a; Beit-Arieh 2003: 110-115) (Table 4.3). Diagnostic forms from Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking vessels (Figs. 4.2: 1-7, 4.4: 2, 5) are the most common diagnostic pottery in this assemblage and they are ubiquitous at sites in the Negev Highlands (Avni 1992: 20*; 1996: 9, 50; Rosen and Avni 1993: 195).

pottery collected in the survey (n = 243/61%), and it is broadly similar in fabric to Negebite ware (Haiman and Goren 1992; Bernick-Greenberg 2007a, b). This handmade pottery is found at both single-period Early Bronze Age settlements and multi-period sites which have an Early Bronze Age occupation. The Late Byzantine/Early Islamic cooking ware comprises 26% (n = 105) of the assemblage and it is similar to examples found at sites located in the Negev and areas to its north (Rosenthal-Heginbottom 1988: 90, 92-93; Nevo 1991: 145; Magness 1993: 211-221; Haiman 1995: 8).

Petrographic analyses (see Chapter 8, this volume) were conducted on 18 sherds drawn from nine sites in the Kadesh Barnea map (Table 8.1, samples 28-45). Three EBA forms were included in this study, a bowl (Table 8.1, sample 35), a cup-bowl (Table 8.1, sample 30), and holemouth vessels (Table 8.1, samples 28-29, 31-33) (Table 4.3). The bowl is sourced to the Hazeva formation. The origin of the cup-bowl is unknown as its clay has not been identified in previous petrographic studies of pottery found in Egypt, Israel, or Jordan. The three holemouth vessels (samples 31-33) are sourced to petrographic Group M (Table 8.1, samples 31-33), however, location of this raw material remains to be determined.

The survey material primarily contains diagnostic sherds from the Early Bronze Age and Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods. There are, however, a small amount of forms from other periods, such as two amphora rims assigned to the Persian period (Fig. 4.2: 11-12). Common EBA forms in this assemblage include a cup-bowl and holemouth vessels, which are often present at settlements in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai (Saidel 2002; 103

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 4.1. The pottery from Kadesh Barnea Site 64/1 and Site 58. The reader is referred to table 4.3 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.2. The pottery collected from Sites 62, 70, 81, 84 and 85 in the environs of Kadesh Barnea. The reader is referred to table 4.3 for Munsell readings and parallels 104

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Fig. 4.3. The pottery collected from Site 89 in the Kadesh Barnea region. The reader is referred to table 4.3 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.4. The pottery collected from Site 103 in the Kadesh Barnea region. The reader is referred to table 4.3 for Munsell readings and parallels 105

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

The petrographic study also included sherds from Persian and Roman periods. The two rims of Persian period amphorae were sourced to sediments from the Nile (Table 8.1, samples 36-37; Table 4.3). A jar and a base assigned to the Roman period were sourced to deposits of loess located in the northern Negev and southern Shephelah (Table 8.1, samples 44-45).

SITE 1 (RAMAT MATRED 3) This settlement comprises seven cairns on a hill and two habitation sites in Areas B and C, respectively. Although pottery was retrieved from all parts of the site, only small quantities were associated with the architectural units (Table 4.4; Figs. 4.5-4.7). For instance, 47 sherds were associated with Structures 1 and 2 in Area B (Table 4.4). The largest amount of pottery from a single location at the site—108 sherds—was retrieved from Structure 37 in Area C. Given the size of the excavation units and the number of loci excavated, the amount of pottery recovered was “small even in comparison with other Negev Highland Early Bronze Age sites” (Haiman 1994: 28); this preliminary evaluation is still valid.

The Late Byzantine and Early Islamic pottery came from various sources. One Byzantine jar was made from loess found in the northern Negev and southern Shephelah (Table 8.1, sample 34), while a handle was made of sediments from Israel’s central littoral (Table 8.1, sample 42). Four sherds of Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking ware were attributed to two sources: Israel’s central littoral (Table 8.1, samples 38-39, 43) and sediment from the Nile (Table 8.1, sample 40). These results are particularly important, as there were no visible differences in the appearance of these sherds.

A total of 170 sherds were retrieved and 39 were diagnostic (Tables 4.4-4.5), however, they are all in poor condition due to the friable nature of the ware. For

Site 1, Context

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/ or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA periods

Comments

Table 4.4. The amount of pottery recovered from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3)

Surface

6

4

2

2

0

0

0

1

0

1

2

One rim of a holemouth vessel (EBA).

Surface

17

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Surface

255

8

3

5

0

3

0

2

0

0

5

One rim of a Chalcolithic V-shape bowl. One rim of a holemouth vessel (EBA).

Area A, Cairn 30

13

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Area A, Surface

3

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Area B, Structure 1, Locus 40

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

One rim of a holemouth vessel (EBA).

Area B, Structure 1, Locus 55

21

4

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

---

Area B, Structure 2, Locus 46

23

5

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Date Unknown.

Area B, Structure 2, Locus 35

79

6

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

---

Area B, Structure 2, Locus 47

390

31

23

8

5

0

0

3

0

0

31

--

Area C, Surface

73

9

8

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

---

Area C, Structure 37

0

32

24

8

5

0

0

3

0

0

3

---

Area C, Structure 37

8

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

One rim of a holemouth vessel (EBA).

Area C, Structure 37-3

151

1

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF3

16

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

106

Site 1, Context

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/ or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA periods

Comments

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF5

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

5

0

0

1

Five rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF8

30

14

14

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF9

27

6

5

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

5

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF12

15

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF13

20

3

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF15

9

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF16

48

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid BF17

24

4

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid D2-4

15

5

3

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid D2-8

13

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid D3-4

10

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid D3-5

14

2

0

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid D3-6

12

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

---

Area C, Structure 37, Grid F5-5

178

17

12

5

0

0

0

5

0

0

17

---

Area C, Locus 38

0

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

One rim of a holemouth vessel (EBA).

Total

663

108

85

23

7

0

2

16

0

2

58

---

The contexts of the diagnostic pottery make it difficult to date and phase the architectural units at Site 1. Many important diagnostic sherds were found on the surface, for example, the rim of a Chalcolithic V-shape bowl (Fig. 4.6: 1), a ledge handle (Fig. 4.6: 5), and most of the rope decorated pottery (Figs. 4.6: 6, 4.7: 1). Very few diagnostic sherds were found within the architectural units located in Area B. Instead, most of the diagnostic pottery, comprising bases and EB II holemouth rims, was collected in Loci 37 and 38 in Area C (Figs. 4.5: 1, 3-5, 4.6: 2, 6).

example, eight of the illustrated diagnostic sherds were too damaged to measure their diameter (Figs. 4.5: 1, 3, 67, 4.6: 1-2, 4, 6). The majority of the diagnostic pottery is attributed to the Early Bronze Age, and the most common form is the holemouth vessel (Figs. 4.5: 1-5, 4.6: 2-4, 67). Given the frequency of flat bases in the assemblage, these holemouth vessels were most likely jars (Fig. 4.5: 7-9). A number of holemouth vessels with rope decoration on their exterior surface are attributed to the late EB I based on the following three lines of evidence (Haiman 1994: 29, fig. 8: 6, 11-12): first, rope decorated sherds were prevalent in Stratum IV at Arad (Haiman 1994: 28-29); second, rope decorated holemouth vessels are not present in the EB II ‘Canaanite’ ceramic assemblages found in southern Sinai; third, rope decorated holemouth vessels, with the exception of two sites in the Har Hamran map, are not found at most EBA sites in the Negev Highlands (Haiman 1986: 101, 118, figs. 5: 9; 118, fig. 2: 5-6).

The presence of Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking ware in Locus 38, Area C, provides evidence of episodic occupations following the Early Bronze Age (Figs. 4.7: 3-4). Aside from these sherds, a handle and a decorated body sherd are provisionally attributed to the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic period (Figs. 4.7: 3-4). The decorated body sherd is made of loess sourced to the northern Negev and southern Shephelah (Table 8.1: 107

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 4.5. The pottery collected from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3). The reader is referred to table 4.5 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.6. The pottery collected from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3). The reader is referred to table 4.5 for Munsell readings and parallels

sample 46; Fig. 4.7: 4) and the handle is made of sediments found in the Hazeva formation (Table 8.1: sample 47; Fig. 4.7: 3). The presence of Gaza Ware in Locus 37-3 indicates that this locus was reused during the

Ottoman and/or British Mandate periods (Haiman 1994: 27). This pottery was not collected, however, this practice was not unusual at this time.

108

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 4.5. Site 1, the provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated diagnostic pottery Figure

Site 1, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.5:1

Area C, Locus 37, BF/5

EBA, holemouth vessel

7.5YR5/1 Gray

7.5YR5/1 Gray

4.5:2

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

4.5:3

Area C, Locus 37, BF/5

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR5/3 Brown

7.5YR5/4 Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 21. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50: 7. Horvat Avnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 51, fig. 31: 9.

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum IV, Amiran 1978, pl. 8, unnumbered sherd between numbers 37 and 38. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 2. Nabi Saleh, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 6. Note: Previously Haiman 1994:29, fig. 8:5.

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum IV, Amiran 1978, pl. 8, unnumbered sherd between numbers 37 and 38. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 2. Nabi Saleh, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 6.

Area C, Locus 37, BF/5

EB II, holemouth vessel

4.5:5

Area C, Locus 37, BF/5

EB I-II, holemouth vessel

4.5:6

Surface

EBA, base

---

--5YR7/4 Pink

7.5YR5/4 Brown

---

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 28. 5YR8/2 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45:21, 38. Pinkish White Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, figs. 4.3: 11; 113, 4.4: 20.

4.5:4

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

Parallels/Note

---

4.5:7

Surface

EBA, base

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

4.5:8

Area C, Locus 38

EBA, base

7.5YR8/3 Pink

7.5YR7/4 Pink

---

4.5:9

Area C, Locus 38

EBA, base

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

---

Note: Previously Haiman 1994: 29, fig. 8:7.

Parallels: Arad, Stratum V, Amiran 1978, pl. 1: 3, 6. Grar, Gilead and Goren 1995:149, fig. 4.3:3, Type A1. Shiqmim, Levy and Menahem 1987b: 615, fig. 12.2:4-5. Note: Previously Haiman 1994: 28, fig. 8:2.

4.6:1

Surface

Chalcolithic, bowl

4.6:2

Area C, Locus 37, BF/5

EB II, holemouth vessel

Red paint

---

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18:26. Horvat Arnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999:51, fig. 31:1718. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.3: 7.

4.6:3

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR5/1 Gray

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 26. Horvat Arnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999:51, fig. 31:1718. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.3: 7.

4.6:4

Area B, Structure 1, Locus 40

EBA, holemouth vessel

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

4.6:5

4.6:6

Surface

Area C, Locus 37

EBA, ledge handle

Brown

5YR7/4 Pink

EB II, holemouth 7.5YR6/4 vessel with rope Light Brown decoration

Brown

Parallels: Ai, Sanctuary, Phase IV, Callaway 1972: 171, fig. 38:21. 5YR8/2 Pinkish White Horvat Ahdir, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 58, fig. 39: 3. Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 73, fig. 7: 10-11. 7.5YR7/4 Pink

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 16: 19. Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 73, fig. 8: 30. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 122, fig. 4.14: 22. Note: Previously Haiman 1994, fig. 8:10.

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 52: 24. Tel Erani, Kempinski and Gilead 1991: 178, fig. 10:2. Tel Esdar, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999:48, fig. 27:9. Note: Previously Haiman 1994, fig. 8:4.

109

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Figure

Site 1, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.6:7

Area C, Locus 38

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR7/4 Pink

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 23. Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 49: 44. Note: Previously Haiman 1994, fig. 8: 1.

4.7:1

Surface

EBA, Rope Impressed decoration on body sherd

7.5YR8/4 Pink

7.5YR7/4 Pink

Note: Previously Haiman 1994, fig. 8: 13.

4.7:2

Area C, Locus 37, BF/5

Unknown, base was worked

---

---

4.7:3

Area C, Locus 38

Late ByzantineEarly Islamic, handle

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

4.7:4

Area C, Locus 38

Late ByzantineEarly Islamic

Light Reddish Brown

Light Reddish Brown

Parallels/Note

--Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 47 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 46 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

SITE 2 (SHELUHAT KADESH BARNEA/KADESH BARNEA SITE 1) The site contains four architectural units and a tumulus. The ceramic assemblage includes 31 diagnostic sherds and 243 body sherds (Table 4.6, Fig. 4.8). The bulk of this material comprised coarse handmade pottery that is attributed to the EB II (Tables 4.6, 4.7). Aside from the holemouth vessels, one jar and the base of a juglet are also attributed to this period (Fig. 4.8: 3-4). Excavation of the architectural units yielded small amounts of pottery (Table 4.6). Five sherds, including a handle, a holemouth rim and three bases, were recovered in Structure 1 (Tables 4.6). More sherds were found in Structure 2, however, the distribution of the pottery was uneven. The disparity in the distribution of the pottery may be indicative of discard patterns, as well as the partial abandonment of particular rooms inside this structure (Saidel 2011b). Small amounts of pottery were also unearthed in the animal pens associated with Structure 2: Locus 102 (n = 22) and Locus 103 (n = 5), (Tables 4.6, 4.7; Figs. 4.8: 2-3). Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking ware was found inside Locus 102. Tumulus 150 is situated 70 m to the south of Structures 1 and 2. Excavation of the three burial cists inside the tumulus unearthed 14 diagnostic sherds and 131 body sherds from holemouth vessels (Table 4.6). SITE 7 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN FIELD CLUSTER 1/HALUFI I/JEBEL TIWAL) This comprises three architectural units, 13 freestanding walls, and 40 cairns. The ceramic assemblage contains 226 sherds from the Early Bronze Age, Iron Age and Roman/Byzantine periods (Tables 4.8-4.9; Figs. 4.94.11). The majority of the pottery is handmade and many

Fig. 4.7. The pottery unearthed from Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3). The reader is referred to table 4.5 for Munsell readings and parallels

110

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Site 2 Context

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments

Table 4.6. The amount of pottery recovered from Site 2 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea/Kadesh Barnea Site 1)

Surface

NA

5

1

4

2

0

1

1

0

0

0

--

Subtotals

5

1

4

2

0

1

1

0

0

0

---

Str. 1, Locus 106

153

4

0

4

2

1

0

1

0

0

4

---

Str. 1, Locus 107

NA

1

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Subtotals

5

0

5

3

1

0

1

0

0

5

---

Str. 2, Locus 100

762

80

79

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

80

---

Str. 2, Locus 101

50

3

1

2

0

1

0

1

0

0

3

---

Str. 2, Locus 102

272

22

21

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

19

Two stoppers attributed to EBA. One rim attributed to the Roman period.

Str. 2, Locus 103

204

5

4

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

5

---

Str. 2, Locus 104

68

7

6

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

7

---

Subtotals

117

111

6

0

1

1

4

0

1

114

---

Tumulus 150

160

145

131

14

5

2

2

5

0

0

146

---

Total

274

243

31

10

4

4

11

0

1

265

---

Table 4.7. Site 2, the provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated diagnostic pottery Figure

Site 2, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

4.8:1

Locus 104

Unknown, base

---

---

---

4.8:2

Locus 102

EBA, handle

10YR7/3 Very Pale Brown

10YR7/3 Very Pale Brown

---

4.8:3

Locus 102

EB II, jar

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

4.8:4

Locus 106

EBA, base (Juglet?)

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

---

4.8:5

Locus 106

EB II, base (Jar)

2.5YR7/4 Light Reddish Yellow

2.5YR7/5 Light Red

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 36:11-12, 41: 25.

of the diagnostic forms are too damaged to ascertain their diameter (Figs. 4.9: 3, 6-8, 4.10: 1, 4, 6, 4:11). Most of the diagnostic EB II pottery was collected from the surface of the site (Tables 4.8-4.9), while small amounts were unearthed inside Buildings 115 (n = 15) and 150 (n = 1) (Table 4.8; Figs. 4.9: 4, 5, 4, 10: 3, 5-6). Sherds from this period were also found on top of the cairns and inside the burial cists of these constructions.

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 31:3.

In this assemblage holemouth vessels are common and parallels for these containers are found at EB II settlements located in the Negev and Sinai (Figs 4.9, 4.10: 1-2). Some of the holemouth vessels from Site 7 have parallels (Table 4.9: 2, 6, 8, 4.10: 1) with EB III forms from Tel ‘Ira (Tables 4.8-4.9). Present in this assemblage are pink, red, and yellow burnished body sherds from EB II juglets, which were discovered in 111

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 4.8. The pottery unearthed from Site 2 (Sheluhat Kadesh Barnea Site 1). The reader is referred to table 4.7 for Munsell readings and parallels

Site 7, Locus

Weight in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments

Table 4.8. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal)

Surface

103

26

17

9

2

0

0

7

0

2

16

7 rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Locus 111

75

2

0

2

0

0

0

2

0

0

2

---

Locus 115

560

94

87

7

2

1

0

4

0

0

88

---

Locus 115

164

4

1

3

1

0

0

2

0

0

4

---

Locus 115 (1016/1024)

185

11

10

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

11

---

Locus 115/1

90

16

16

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

16

One rim of a jar.

Building 150

17

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

One rim of holemouth vessel (EBA).

112

Site 7, Locus

Weight in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Cairn 112

21

20

20

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

20

---

Cairn 102

359

30

29

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

30

Iron Age

Cairn 102

250

4

2

2

1

0

0

1

0

0

4

Iron Age

Cairn 120/1

16

4

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

---

Cairn 120/2

26

3

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

---

Total

2105

215

189

26

7

1

0

19

0

2

199

---

Table 4.9. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal) Site 7, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

4.9:1

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

Parallels: Horbat Nahal Zalzal, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 43, fig. 23: 3, 6. Nahal Boqer, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 61, fig. 42: 3. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 14.

4.9:2

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR5/2 Grayish Brown

Parallels: 10YR5/2 Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 21: 10. Grayish Brown Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 73, figs. 8: 4-5, 9: 7.

Figure

4.9:3

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR5/2 Grayish Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 14. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 43: 1. 10YR5/2 Grayish Brown Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 12. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 3 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.9:4

Locus 115

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR5/2 Grayish Brown

Parallels: 10YR5/2 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 5, 8, 48: 18. Grayish Brown Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 21.

4.9:5

4.9:6

4.9:7

Locus 111

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

1 Gley4/N Dark Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 20 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50:9. Feiran I, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 18. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig.4.2: 14. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 11 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/3 Pale Red

10YR6/3 Pale Red

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 49: 34-35, 50:8. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 1990: 113, fig. 4.4: 17. Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 73, fig. 8: 2.

10YR6/4 Pale Red

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 7. Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.5: 7. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 3. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 4 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Pale Red

113

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Figure

4.9:8

4.10:1

4.10:2

Site 7, Context

Surface

Period, Form

EB II, holemouth vessel

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

Building 150

EB II, holemouth vessel

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

7.5YR6/2 Pinkish Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 49: 43. Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 24. Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990:71: 9. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 1 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

Parallels: Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 25. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.3: 9. Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 74, fig. 9: 5. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 2 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

7.5YR6/2 Pinkish Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 48: 31. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 14. Horbat Avnon, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 51, figs. 31: 14, 15. Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 53: 6. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 33: 4, 6. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 19 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.10:3

Locus 115

EB II, jar

7.5YR7/4 Pink

7.5YR7/4 Pink

4.10:4

Surface

EBA (?), base

---

---

---

4.10:5

Locus 115

EBA (?), base

7.5YR7/4 Pink

7.5YR7/4 Pink

---

4.10:6

Locus 115

EBA (?), base

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

7.5YR5/3 Brown

---

4.11:1

Surface

RomanByzantine, base

Red

Red

---

4.11:2

Cairn 102

Iron II, krater

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Parallels: Nahal Ela, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 2004: 95, figs. 65: 3, 6, 10-12. Nahal Zin, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 2004: 77, fig. 51: 15. Ramat Matred, Cohen-Amin 2004: 61, figs. 40: 11, 15. Note: Previously published as Haiman 1993:59, fig. 8: 18. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 18 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.11:3

Cairn 102

Iron II, krater

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Parallels: Nahal Ela, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 2004: 95, figs. 65:3, 6, 10-12. Nahal Zin, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 2004: 77, fig. 51:15. Ramat Matred, Cohen-Amin 2004: 61, figs. 40:11, 15. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 20 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.11:4

Cairn 102

Iron II, base of krater

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Note: Previously published as Haiman 1993: 59, fig. 8:18.

4.11:5

Cairn 102

Iron II, base of krater

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Note: Previously published as Haiman 1993: 59, fig. 8:18.

Locus 111 in Building 115. The most chronologically diagnostic form is an EB II jar (Fig. 4.10: 3), which was made of clay from the Taqiya Formation (Table 8.1, sample 19). Eight sherds from holemouth vessels were petrographically sampled, and they originated from four different sources (Table 8.1, samples 1-5, 11, 13, and 17).

preliminary report (Haiman 1993: 52, 58) it was stated that this pottery came from a krater, however, the results of our petrographic investigation proved otherwise. The five sherds sampled came from three petrographic groups, Group C2 (Table 8.1, sample 27), Group F1 (Table 8.1, samples 21, 25), and Group F2 (Table 8.1, samples 18, 20). Based upon the variation of the clay sources and temper, these five samples are most likely from three different kraters.

Sherds of an Iron Age II Negebite krater were found inside the burial cist of Cairn 102 (Figs. 4.11: 2-5). In a 114

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Fig. 4.9. The pottery retrieved from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal). The reader is referred to table 4.9 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.10. The pottery retrieved from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal). The reader is referred to table 4.9 for Munsell readings and parallels

The latest pottery in this assemblage includes the base of a Roman and/or Byzantine vessel (Fig. 4.11: 1) and two

sherds of Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking ware (Table 4.8). 115

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

SITE 8 (NAHAL MITNAN CAIRN FIELD CLUSTER 2) This site comprises a free standing wall, two architectural units and 31 cairns. Most of the pottery is handmade and dated to the EB II (Tables 4.10, 4.11; Fig. 4.12). The majority of the pottery, 35 out of 38 sherds, was collected from the surface of the site (Table 4.10). A jug and two holemouth vessels were retrieved in Building 240 (Table 4.11, Fig. 4.12). The jug and one holemouth vessel were petrographically sampled (Table 8.1, samples 14-15; Fig. 4.12: 1, 3). The clay used in the jug is sourced to the Taqiya formation and it is tempered with grog, while the holemouth vessel is made of clay sourced to the environs of the wadis Feinan and Ghuweir. Given the paucity of pottery from Site 8 there is little that can be said.

Fig. 4.12. The pottery retrieved from Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II). The reader is referred to table 4.11 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.11. The pottery retrieved from Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal). The reader is referred to table 4.9 for Munsell readings and parallels

Site 8, Context

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments

Table 4.10. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II)

Surface

1209

34

33

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

34

---

Surface

11

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

Locus 240

246

3

0

3

0

0

0

3

0

0

3

One rim of an EBA jug. Two rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Total

1466

38

34

4

0

0

0

4

0

0

38

---

116

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 4.11. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2/Halufi II) Figure

4.12:1

4.12:2

4.12:3

Site 8, Locus

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note Parallels: Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 123, figs. 4.15: 1-3, 124, 4.16: 1, 24. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 15 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

240

EB II, jug

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

240

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR5/2 Brown

7.5YR5/2 Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 20. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 19: 8. Feiran I, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 18.

7.5YR5/2 Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 20. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 19: 8. Feiran I, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 18. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 14 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

240

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR5/2 Brown

Site 9, Locus

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments and/or Periods Present

Table 4.12. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III)

Surface

---

64

56

8

4

0

0

6

0

0

61

Six rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Locus 319/1

---

42

39

3

0

0

1

3

0

0

42

Three rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Locus 320

---

10

8

2

0

0

0

3

0

0

10

Three rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Locus 329/1

69

8

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

---

Locus 329/1

342

40

40

0

0

0

0

3

0

0

40

Three rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Total

411

164

151

13

4

0

1

15

0

0

161

---

2011: 192). The diagnostic pottery is in such poor condition, it was not possible to measure the diameter for 11 of the 18 sherds (Table 4.12; Figs. 4.13: 1-6, 8, 10-11, 4.14: 1-2).

SITE 9 (MITNAN CAIRN FIELD CLUSTER 3/ HALUFI III) This site measures 200 x 250 m, and comprises three architectural units (319, 320, and 329), four freestanding walls and 18 cairns. The pottery assemblage numbers 164 sherds, and 64 of them were collected from the surface of the site (Tables 4.12, 4.13). In fact, more sherds were found on the surface of the site, than in each of the architectural units (Table 4.12). The dumping of trash would be one possible explanation for the spatial distribution of the pottery (e.g., Saidel 2011a, b; Rosen

All rims are from holemouth vessels (Figs. 4.13: 1-8; 4.14) and parallels for most of them are readily found at other EB II sites in the Negev and Sinai (Table 4.13). Three holemouth vessels (Figs. 4.13: 3, 7, 8) could be dated to the Early Bronze Age III based on parallels with Tell ‘Ira (Table 4.13).

117

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 4.13. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III) Figure

Site 9, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 49: 24. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 21: 24. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 14. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 8 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

Locus 319/1

EB II, holemouth vessel

4.13:2

Locus 320

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR5/1 Reddish Gray

4.13:3

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

4.13:4

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

4.13:5

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

4.13:6

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR5/2 Grayish Brown

10YR5/2 Grayish Brown

4.13:7

Locus 320

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II-I, Amiran 1978, pls. 51: 8, 54: 29. Tel ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 71, fig 7: 9.

4.13:8

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Light Yellowish Brown

10YR5/3 Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II-I, Amiran 1978, pls. 51:8, 54: 29. Tel ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 71, fig 7: 9.

4.13:9

Locus 319/1

EBA base

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 10 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume.

4.13:10

Surface

EBA, base

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

---

4.13:11

Surface

EBA, base

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

---

Locus 329/1

EB I-II, holemouth vessel

10YR5/2 Grayish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

4.14:2

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR8.2 Pinkish White

7.5YR8.2 Pinkish White

4.14:3

Locus 329/1

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

7.5YR8/2 PinkishWhite

4.14:4

Locus 329/1

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

7.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

4.14:5

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR6/1 Gray

7.5YR6/1 Gray

4.13:1

4.14:1

2.5Y4/1 Dark Gray

2.5Y4/1 Dark Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 48: 22, 49: 11. 10YR8/3 Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003:115, fig. 4.6: 4. Very Pale Brown Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 7 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume. Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50: 12. 10YR6/3 Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 4. Pale Brown Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 74, fig. 9: 5. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 12 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume. Parallels: 10YR5/4 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 47: 2, 48: 19. Yellowish Brown Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.3: 1.

118

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 7. Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.5: 7. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003:115, fig. 4.6: 9. Parallels: Arad, Stratum III-II, Amiran 1978, pls. 21: 26, 45: 7. Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.5: 7.

Parallels: Arad, Stratum IV, Amiran 1978, pl. 8: 36. Horbat Avnon, Cohen and Cohen Amin 1999: 51, figs. 31: 11, 15. Nabil Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 18. Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18:17. Note: This sherd is petrographic sample 9 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel, this volume. Parallels: Tel Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 44: 7. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6:8, 17. Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 49: 37. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 6. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 15. Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 48: 29, 49: 3. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, figs. 4.1: 6, 11.

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Site 9, Context

Period, Form

4.14:6

Locus 319/1

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/4 Yellowish Brown

10YR5/3 Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 51: 22. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 16. Horbat Nahal Zalzal, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 43, fig. 23: 6.

4.14:7

Locus 319/1

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Parallels: Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 25. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.3: 9. Tell ʻIra, Beit-Arieh 1990: 74, fig. 9: 5.

Figure

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Fig. 4.13. The pottery retrieved from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III). The reader is referred to table 4.13 for Munsell readings and parallels A base and four holemouth rims were chosen for petrography. The base was made of clay from the Moza formation which is located in the mountains of Judaea and Samaria (Table 8.1, sample 10, Fig. 4.13: 9). Two holemouth vessels that vary in form were both made of clay, tempered with crushed calcite, from the Tayqiye formation (Table 8.1, samples 7-8). Two additional holemouth vessels, which also varied in form, were made of clay containing Arkose (Table 8.1, samples 9 and 12). The results of the petrographic study combined with the variation in the form of the rims indicate that there were at least five ceramic containers at this site.

Parallels/Note

Fig. 4.14. The pottery retrieved from Site 9 (Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 3/Halufi III). The reader is referred to table 4.13 for Munsell readings and parallels

SITE 23 (HAR HORESHA) Site 23 comprises Architectural Units 86 and 101, which are situated at the foot of Har Horesha. To the east of Architectural Unit 101, at distance of 400 m, are 10 tumuli positioned on a spur of Har Horesha. The ceramic assemblage contains 783 sherds (Table 4.14; Figs. 4.154.22) which came from the following locations, the surface of the site (n = 197), Cairn 4 (n = 1), Building 86 (n = 55) and Building 101 (n = 530) (Table 4.14). The amount of pottery discovered in each locus inside Building 101 varied from as little as two sherds in Locus 99 to as many as 88 in Locus 81 (Table 4.14). 119

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds of Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Surface

1053

69

69

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

69

---

Surface

930

128 123

5

0

0

0

5

0

0

123

One rim of a Holemouth Vessel (EBA).

Subtotal 197 192

Comments

Site 23, Locus

Table 4.14. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 23 (Har Horesha)

5

0

0

0

5

0

0

192

Two rims from cooking pots (Late Byzantine-Early Islamic). One rim from a Byzantine Fine Ware Dish One Late Byzantine-Early Islamic crater.

Building 86, Locus 86

626

55

55

5

0

0

0

6

0

0

55

Six rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 81

687

88

87

1

0

0

0

2

0

0

87

Two rims from Holemouth Vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 82

549

44

39

5

2

0

0

3

0

0

41

One rim from a jar (EBA). Two rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 83

111

12

11

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

11

One rim of a holmouth vessel (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 84

94

6

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

6

---

Building 101, Locus 85

435

53

49

4

1

0

2

3

0

0

41

Three rims from holemouth vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 87

751

55

53

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

55

One rim from a holemouth vessel (EBA). One Ledge Handle (EBA). The number of diagnostic sherds includes one neck (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 88

437

73

68

5

0

0

0

5

0

0

70

Four rims from holemouth vessels (EBA). One rim from a bowl.

Building 101, Locus 89

40

10

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

---

Building 101, Locus 91

397

41

38

3

0

0

0

3

0

0

39

Three rims from holemouth vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 92

243

34

32

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

33

One rim from a holemouth vessel (EBA). One Ledge Handle (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 93

157

26

25

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

26

---

Building 101, Locus 94

99

10

10

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

---

Building 101, Locus 95

312

31

30

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

30

---

Building 101, Locus 96

143

7

5

2

0

0

0

2

0

0

7

Two rims from holemouth vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 97

28

3

3

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

---

Building 101, Locus 98

172

20

17

3

3

0

0

1

0

0

20

---

120

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds of Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Building 101, Locus 99

3

2

0

2

0

0

0

2

0

0

2

Two rims from holemouth vessels (EBA).

Building 101, Locus 100

25

5

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

---

Building 101, Locus 101

50

10

8

2

0

0

0

2

0

0

8

Two rims from holemouth vessels (EBA). Number of diagnostic sherds includes two necks (EBA).

Subtotal

4733

34

7

0

2

27

0

0

504

Number of diagnostic sherds includes 3 necks (EBA).

Cairn 4

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

530 496 1

0

Comments

Site 23, Locus

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Sherd attributed to the Iron Age II.

Fig. 4.16. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.15. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels 121

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 4.18. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels Fig. 4.17. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.19. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels

Fig. 4.20. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels 122

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

The illustrated pottery is well preserved as only one of the 35 sherds was too damaged to measure its diameter (Fig. 4.18: 2). With the exception of six sherds the pottery is primarily dated to the EB II (Table 4.15). This portion of the assemblage contains five types of vessels, albeit most of them, excluding holemouth containers, are present in small quantities. For example, there is one rim of a jar (Fig. 4.17: 10), which has parallels with a similar EB III vessel found in Chantier C, at Yarmouth (Table 4.15, Fig. 4.17: 10). A petrographic analysis of this sherd indicated that this jar was made of loess and tempered with coastal sand (Table 8.1, sample 59). There are two ledge handles, each with a slightly different profile, representing, as confirmed by petrography, two different vessels (Fig. 4.19: 1, 2). One ledge handle contains arkosic sandstone (Table 8.1, sample 61, Fig. 4.19: 1), whereas the other contains clay from the Moza formation (Table 8.1, sample 60, Fig. 4.19: 2). Based on parallels with other sites in EretzIsrael these sherds are attributed to the EB II (Table 4.15). The base of a jug is made of a well levigated yellowish clay, and its exterior is red-slipped and burnished (Fig. 4.18: 1). Juglets are represented by six yellow body sherds that are well levigated and burnished. Three of these sherds were unearthed in three different loci inside Building 101. A petrographic analysis of three sherds indicated that they were made of clay drawn from the Taqiya formation, thus raising the possibility that they belong to the same vessel (Table 8.1, samples 23, 62-64). Fig. 4.21. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels

The majority of diagnostic sherds (n = 29) are from holemouth vessels (Figs. 4.15, 4.16, 4.17: 1-9), perhaps holemouth jars if the bases indeed belong to some of these rims (Fig. 4.18: 2-4). In a previous study Haiman (1991: 10*, Table 1) ascertained that approximately 83.3% of the holemouth vessels from Site 23 (Har Horesha) contained granitic sand. Given Haiman’s previous findings, as well as budgetary constraints, only one rim sherd from a holemouth vessel was submitted for petrography, and this sample also contained arkosic sandstone (Table 8.1, sample 22). Attempts to mend broken pottery are represented by three perforated Early Bronze Age body sherds (Figs. 4.18: 5, 4.20: 1, 2). The conical impression on the exterior of two sherds indicate that a drill was used to pierce the pottery (Figs. 4.20: 1, 2). Presumably, these holes were bored so that a cord or string of leather could be used to fasten together the sherds in order to repair a broken vessel for reuse. Based upon parallels with Arad and EB II settlements in southern Sinai the holemouth vessels from Site 23 are broadly attributed to the EB II (Table 4.15), albeit one jar is attributed to the EB III (Table 4.15, Figs. 4.17: 10). Lacking in this assemblage are clearly diagnostic forms from the EB I period, which is noteworthy given that the fill underneath Loci 80 and 87 was radiocarbon dated to the EB I (see chapter 2 this volume).

Fig. 4.22. The pottery retrieved from Site 23 (Har Horesha). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels 123

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 4.15. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 23 (Har Horesha) Figure

4.15:1

4.15:2

4.15:3

Site 23, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Locus 99

EB II, holemouth vessel

5YR6/1 Gray

Locus 85

EB II, holemouth vessel

1Gley4N Dark Gray

Locus 85

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR5/1 Gray

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 49: 37. 7.5YR7.2 Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 21:22. Pinkish Gray Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 6 Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 15. 1Gley4N Dark Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 8. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 15. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 18.

2.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 21: 15. Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig.4.5: 7. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003:115, fig. 4.6: 16.

4.15:4

Locus 85

EB II, holemouth vessel

---

---

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 51: 22. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4:16. Horbat Nahal Zalzal, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 43, fig. 23:6

4.15:5

Locus 88

EB II, holemouth vessel

Black-Red

Black-Red

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pls. 18: 20, 21: 15. Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.5: 3.

Locus 91

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR4/1 Dark Gray

10YR4/1 Dark Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50: 15. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pls. 18:2, 21: 10. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 2.

Locus 88

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR5/1 Gray

2.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50: 15. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 2. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 2.

Locus 87

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR3/1 Very Dark Gray

2.5YR3/1 Very Dark Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 27. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 12. Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4 .51.

Locus 82

EBA, holemouth vessel

5YR6/2 Pinkish Gray

Parallels: 5YR6/3 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 27. Light Reddish Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 12. Brown Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.51.

Locus 96

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

Locus 81

EB II, holemouth vessel

---

---

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 31. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 23. Yarmuth, Chantier B, de Miroschedji 1988, Pl. 20: 16.

Locus 86

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

5YR8/1 White

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 45: 31. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 23. Yarmuth, Chantier B, de Miroschedji 1988, pl. 20: 16.

Locus 86

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

10YR6/3 Pale Brown

Parallels: Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 25-26. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.3: 4. Tell ‘Ira, Beit-Arieh 1990: 74, fig. 9: 5.

Locus 101

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 45: 5, 8, 48: 18. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 21.

4.15:6

4.15:7

4.15:8

4.15:9

4.15:10

4.16:1

4.16:2

4.16:3

4.16:4

124

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 47:2. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4. 119. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 8.

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Figure

Site 23, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

4.16:5

Locus 92

EB II, holemouth vessel

Black and Gray

Black and Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 45: 5, 8, 48: 18. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 21.

4.16:6

Surface

EB II, holemouth vessel

Locus 101

EB II, holemouth vessel

Locus 83

EB II, holemouth vessel

Red

Locus 99

EB II, holemouth vessel

5YR8/2 Pinkish White

Locus 91

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR4/1 Dark Gray

10YR4/1 Dark Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 51: 22. Feiran I, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 18. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 16.

Locus 86

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR4/1 Dark Reddish Gray

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 26. Horvat Arnon, Cohen 1999: 51, fig 31: 17-18. Tell ‘Ira, Beit-Arieh 1999: 188, fig. 6.11: 5.

Locus 86

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR4/1 Dark Reddish Gray

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 26. Horvat Arnon, Cohen 1999: 51, fig 31: 17-18. Tell ‘Ira, Beit-Arieh 1999: 188, fig. 6.11: 5.

Locus 88

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

10YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 7. Sheikh ʻAwad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.5: 7. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 9.

Locus 82

EB II, holemouth vessel

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

10YR6/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 20. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 19: 8. Feiran I, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 18.

4.17:5

Locus 88

EB I, holemouth vessel

10YR8/2 Very Pale Brown

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 54: 20. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50: 9. Feiran I, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 18. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 14.

4.17:6

Locus 81

EB II, holemouth vessel

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

2Gley5.10B Bluish Gray

4.17:7

Locus 88

EB I, bowl

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

10YR5/1 Gray

4.17:8

Locus 86

EB II, holemouth vessel

---

---

Parallels: Tel Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 44: 7. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 8,17.

4.17:9

Locus 91

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR2/5 Very Dusky Red

2.5YR2/5 Very Dusky Red

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 19: 8. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 16.

EBA, Jar

5YR6/3 Light Reddish Brown

10YR7/3 Very Pale Brown

Parallels: Yarmouth, Chantier C, Niveau C-V, de Miroschedji 1988: 205, pl. 31:6. Note: Petrographic Sample 59 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.16:7

4.16:8

4.16:9

4.16:10

4.17:1

4.17:2

4.17:3

4.17:4

4.17:10

Locus 82

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 45: 5, 8, 48: 18. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 113, fig. 4.4: 21. 5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

Parallels: 5YR6/4 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1979, pl. 45: 6, 34. Light Reddish Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1979, plate 21: 10. Brown Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 112, fig. 4.2: 9. Black

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1979, pl. 21. Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 114, fig. 4.5: 3. Tell ‘Ira, Beit-Arieh 2003: 74, fig. 9: 6.

Parallels: 5YR8/2 Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 49: 2. Pinkish White Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 18: 17. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 20.

125

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 45: 2, 50: 17. Nabi Salah, Beit-Arieh 2003: 111, fig. 4.1: 11. Parallels: Arad, Stratum IV, Amiran 1978, pl. 8:6

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Figure

Site 23, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.18:1

Locus 85

EBA, base, Jug (?)

Burnish: 2.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

5YR7/4 Pink

---

4.18:2

Locus 82

EBA, base

---

---

---

4.18:3

Locus 82

EBA, base

2.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

5YR7/4 Pink

---

4.18:4

Locus 95

EBA, base

2.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

5YR7/4 Pink

---

Perforated Sherd

---

---

---

4.18:5 Tumulus 4

4.19:1

Locus 92

EBA, ledge handle

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels/Note

7.5YR5/1 Gray

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 16: 19. Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 119, fig. 4.10: 10. Yarmouth, Chantier A, de Miroschedji 1988: 191, pl. 24:21. Note: Petrographic Sample 61 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume. Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 16: 19. Sheikh ‘Awad, Beit-Arieh 2003: 119, fig. 4.10: 10. Yarmouth, Chantier A, de Miroschedji 1988: 191, pl. 24:21. Note: Petrographic Sample 60 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.19:2

Surface

EBA, ledge handle

2.5YR7/6 Light Red

2.5YR7/6 Light Red

4.20:1

Locus 80

Perforated Sherd

---

---

---

4.20:2

Locus 96

Perforated Sherd

---

---

---

4.21

Locus 85

Byzantine/Early Islamic, bowl or platter

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

---

4.22:1

Cairn 4

Iron Age, cooking krater

2.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

10YR8/2 Very Pale Brown

Surface

Byzantine, closed cooking pot (6th century C.E.)

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

5YR6/6 Reddish Yellow

Surface

Byzantine cooking pot (5th to 8th century C.E.)

2.5YR5/6 Red

2.5YR4/6 Red

Parallels: Cooking pot, Form 4C, Magness 1993: 219, fig. 3. Note: Petrographic Sample 67 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.22:4

Surface

Byzantine, rouletted bowl, Form 4 (6th century to first half of 7th century C.E.)

7.5YR5/4 Brown

7.5YR3/1 Very Dark Gray

Parallels: Magness, Form 4, Magness 1993: 192, fig. 4. Note: Petrographic Sample 66 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.22:5

Surface

Byzantine/Early Islamic, krater

5YR5/4 Reddish Brown

2.5YR4/4 Reddish Yellow

Note: Petrographic Sample 65 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.22:2

4.22:3

While the assemblage is predominately comprised of EBA pottery, there are six diagnostic sherds from the Iron Age II and Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods (Table 4.15; Fig. 4.22: 1). There is one Iron Age II cooking krater with parallels at Kadesh Barnea (Table 4.15). There are five sherds attributed to the Late ByzantineEarly Islamic period: a bowl/platter (Fig. 4.21), two cooking pots (Fig. 4.22: 2-3), a rouletted bowl (Fig. 4.22: 4) and a krater (Fig. 4.22: 5, Table 4.15). Four of these

Parallels: Kadesh Barnea, Bernick-Greenberg 2007b: 278, pl. 12.13: 6, 8. Parallels: Horvat ‘Aqav, Calderon 2000: 138, 139, pl. XXII:35. Note: Petrographic Sample 68 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

sherds were subjected to petrography. The Byzantine/Early Islamic krater (Fig. 4.22: 5) is made of loess found in the northern Negev and southern Shephelah, and it contains coastal sand as a temper (Table 8.1 sample 65). The remaining three vessels, the rouletted bowl and the cooking pots were made of clay taken from the central hill country of Eretz-Israel (Table 8.1, samples 66, 67, 68).

126

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

composition of the vessel types corresponds with the ceramic assemblages found at other settlements located in the Negev and Sinai (e.g., Beit-Arieh 2003: 110-128). Given the plethora of holemouth vessels in this report only one representative sherd from this site was illustrated (Table 4.17, Fig. 4.23). Parallels for this form are found in strata IV-III at Arad and at Sheikh Mukhsen in southern Sinai (Table 4.17).

SITE 24 (HAR SAGGI SITE 8: AN EARLY BRONZE AGE CAIRN FIELD AT HAR HAMEARA) This site is a cairn field that contains a few structures positioned on the peaks and saddle of Har Hameara. Seventy five sherds including five diagnostic rims of holemouth vessels were unearthed in Locus 809 (Table 4.16). The assemblage is attributed to the EB II as the

Site 24,Context

Weight of Basket in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments

Table 4.16. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8: An Early Bronze Age Cairn field at Har Hameara)

Locus 809

834

75

70

5

0

0

0

5

0

0

75

Five rims from holemouth vessels (EBA).

Table 4.17. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the sherd recovered from Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8: An Early Bronze Age Cairn field at Har Hameara) Figure

4.23

Site 24, Context

Locus 809

Period, Form EB I-II, holemouth vessel

Exterior Munsell

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978,pl. 21: 22. Arad, Stratum IV, Amiran 1978, pl. 8: 25. Sheikh Mukhsen, Beit-Arieh 2003: 115, fig. 4.6: 1. Note: Petrographic Sample 51 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

large body sherd (Fig. 4.25). A small of amount of Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking ware, lids (n = 10), was recovered from this site (Table 4.18). SITE 26 (HAR SAGGI 9/EIN HAMEARA I)

Fig. 4.23. The pottery retrieved from Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8/Har Hameara Cairn Field). The reader is referred to table 4.15 for Munsell readings and parallels

Site 26 comprises two concentrations of architectural remains that cover an area measuring 70 m in length and 30 m in width. The pottery assemblage contains 234 sherds of which 22 are diagnostic (Table 4.20). Most of the illustrated pottery is in such poor condition that it was not possible to determine their diameter (Figs. 4.26: 5-9, 4.27: 4-8).

SITE 25 (HAR SAGGI 10/ EIN HAMEARA II) This site contains four architectural units that cover an area measuring 500 sq. m. Haiman’s fieldwork recovered 153 sherds, including 18 diagnostic pieces (Tables 4.18, 4.19) (Fig. 4.24). The pottery was retrieved from the surface of this site and from Loci 200-203 in Architectural Unit 202 (Table 4.18; Figs. 4.24-4.25). The majority of the diagnostic pottery is represented by EB II holemouth vessels, as well as a lid that was made on a

The pottery is representative of the EB II-III and Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods (Table 4.21). There are three types of vessels dated to the Early Bronze Age: a holemouth vessel (Fig. 4.26: 3), a narrow neck juglet (Fig. 4.27: 2) and a globular juglet (Fig. 4.27: 4). Parallels for the holemouth vessel indicate that it was in 127

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Site 25, Locus

Weight in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attribute to the EBA period

Comments

Table 4.18. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)

Surface

28

4

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

---

200

208

11

10

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

11

---

201

1050

57

47

10

0

0

0

0

10

0

57

---

202

803

73

66

7

5

0

0

2

0

0

73

Two rims of holemouth vessels (EBA).

203

528

8

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

8

---

Total

2617

153

135

18

5

0

1

2

10

0

153

---

Table 4.19. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) Figure

Site 25, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

4.24

Locus 202

EBA, base

7.5YR8/2 Pinkish White

7.5YR8/3 Pink

---

4.24

Locus 202

EBA, base

7.5YR8/3 Pink

7.5YR7/3 Pink

---

4.25

Locus 203

EBA, lid

5YR6/3 Light Reddish Brown

5YR67/6 Reddish Yellow

---

Fig. 4.24. The pottery retrieved from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II). The reader is referred to table 4.19 for Munsell readings and parallels

use during the EB II-III (Table 4.21). The globular juglet is dated to the EB III period based on a parallel with Yarmuth (Table 4.21). Bases comprise the largest number of diagnostic forms in the assemblage and they are most likely the bottoms of holemouth jars (Figs. 4.26: 4-9, 4.27: 5-8). One base was made using the slab construction technique (Fig. 4.26: 9). Four pieces of Early Bronze Age pottery were submitted for petrography. Two of the holemouth vessels were attributed to the Ora Shales Formation (Table 8.1, samples 52, 54; Figs.

Fig. 4.25. A lid unearthed at Site 25. The reader is referred to table 4.19 for Munsell readings and parallels 128

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Site 26, Locus

Weight in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA periods

Comments

Table 4.20. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

Surface

180

14

14

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

14

---

Locus 901

372

21

21

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

21

One stopper possibly EBA in date.

Locus 902

578

51

49

2

2

0

0

0

0

0

51

---

Locus 905

125

12

0

12

8

0

1

3

0

0

12

Three rims from holemouth vessels (EBA).

Locus 906

825

91

85

6

5

0

0

1

0

0

91

---

Locus 907

125

14

12

2

0

0

0

1

0

0

14

One stopper possibly EBA in date. One rim of a Red Slip Cypriot Dish.

Locus 908

190

7

7

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

7

One rim of a Byzantine Fine Ware Bowl.

Locus 909

159

21

21

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

21

One rim from a jar (EBA).

Locus 910

84

3

0

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

3

---

Total

2638

234

209

22

18

0

1

7

0

0

234

---

Table 4.21. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) Figure

Site 26, Locus

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.26:1

Locus 901

Unknown, Body Sherd

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

7.5YR6/3 Light Brown

4.26:2

Locus 907

Unknown, base of handle

---

---

Parallels/Note Note:Petrographic Sample 56 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume. ---

4.26:3

Locus 905

EB II, holemouth vessel

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 50: 4. Nahal Zalzal, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 43, fig. 23: 5. Yarmouth, Chantier B, de Miroschedji 1988: 201, pl. 29: 9. Note: Petrographic Sample 54 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.26:4

Locus 902

EBA, base

7.5YR7/3 Pink

7.5YR7/3 Pink

---

4.26:5

Locus 906

EBA, base

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

---

4.26:6

Locus 902

EBA, base

7.5YR7/3 Pink

7.5YR7/3 Pink

---

4.26:7

Locus 902

EBA, base

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

7.5YR6/4 Light Brown

---

4.26:8

Locus 906

EBA, base

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

---

129

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Figure

Site 26, Locus

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.26:9

Locus 902

EBA, base

7.5YR7/3 Pink

7.5YR7/3 Pink

4.27:1

Locus 907

Cypriot Red Slip, Rim of Dish (6th7th century C.E.)

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

Parallels/Note Note: Petrographic Sample 52 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume. Parallels: Hayes 1972: 378, Fig. 81:7. Form 9.

4.27:2

Locus 909

EB II, juglet

7.5YR7/4 Pink

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 52: 30. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 26: 23. Note: Petrographic Sample 55 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.27:3

Locus 908

Byzantine bowl (late 7th-mid 8th century C.E.).

2.5YR6/6 Light Red

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

Parallels: Fine Byzantine Ware Bowls Form 2C, Magness 1993:200, Fig. 1.

4.27:4

Locus 907

EB III, juglet

2Gley5/5PBb Bluish Gray

2Gley5/5PBb Bluish Gray

Parallels: Yarmouth, Chantier C, de Mirsochedji 1988: 205, pl. 31: 1.

4.27:5

Locus 906

Unknown, base

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

---

4.27:6

Locus 902

Unknown, base

7.5YR7/3 Pink

7.5YR7/3 Pink

Note: Petrographic Sample 53 in CohenWeinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.27:7

Locus 905

Unknown, base

2.5YR6/8 Light Red

2.5YR6/8 Light Red

---

4.27:8

Locus 909

Unknown, base

7.5YR7/4 Pink

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

---

Fig. 4.27. The pottery retrieved from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I). The reader is referred to table 4.21 for Munsell readings and parallels 4.26:9, 4.26: 3), and a base was sourced to Moza Formation (Table 8.1, sample 53; Fig. 4.27: 7). The narrow neck juglet is sourced to the Lower Cretaceous (Table 8.1, sample 55).

Fig. 4.26. The pottery retrieved from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I). The reader is referred to table 4.21 for Munsell readings and parallels

130

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

period, or if they were reused as a raw material to make stoppers during the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic period.

Forms from the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic period include the rims of a Hayes Form 9, Cypriot Red slip dish, and a FBW bowl Magness Form 2C (Figs. 4.27: 1, 3). A handle and a rouletted body sherd are tentatively dated to the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic period (Figs. 4.26: 1-2). A petrographic analysis of the rouletted sherd indicated that it is made of Nile sediment (Table 8.1, sample 56).

SITE 27 (HAR SAGGI SITE 1 / BIQ’AT HISSUN) This site comprises seven individual structures distributed over an area measuring 30 x 60 m. Haiman’s salvage excavations retrieved 83 sherds, including 11 diagnostic pieces (Tables 4.22-4.23), which are representative of the Pottery Neolithic, the EBA and the EBIV/MBI periods (Tables 4.22-4.23; Fig 4.28). The Pottery Neolithic

Two stoppers were made on coarse handmade pottery that is attributed to the EBA, however, it is not possible to determine if these artifacts were made during this

Site 27, Locus

Weight in Grams

Total No. of Sherds

No. of Body Sherds

No. of Diagnostic Sherds

No. of Bases

No. of Handles

No. of Shoulders

No. of Rims

No. of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Lids

No. of Sherds of Byzantine and/or Early Islamic Cooking Ware

No. of Sherds from Coarse Handmade Vessels attributed to the EBA period

Comments

Table 4.22. The quantities of pottery recovered from Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1/Biq’at Hissun)

102

60

7

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

---

103

73

1

0

1

0

1

0

1

0

0

1

One rim of an EBIV/MBI Amphoriskos.

104

463

19

16

3

0

1

0

2

0

0

13

One rim of a Pottery Neolithic jar. One rim of a holemouth vessel (EBA).

106

16

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

---

108

34

6

5

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

3

One rim of a jar (EBA).

109

564

44

40

4

2

0

2

0

0

0

44

110

120

5

3

2

1

0

0

1

0

0

4

One rim of a jar (EBA).

Total

1330

83

72

11

3

2

2

5

0

0

73

---

Table 4.23. The provenance, Munsell color, and parallels for the illustrated pottery recovered from Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1/Biq’at Hissun) Figure

4.28:1

4.28:2

4.28:3

Site 27, Context

Locus 103

Locus 108

Locus 110

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

EB IV/MB I, jar

10YR7/4 Very Pale Brown

10YR7/4 Very Pale Brown

Parallels: Horbat Be’er Resisim, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999:218, fig. 136: 11. Horbat ‘En Ziq, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999: 172, fig. 105: 6. Mashabbe Sade, Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999:127, fig. 78: 7. Note: Petrographic sample 16 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

EB II, jar

2.5Y8/4 Pale Yellow

2.5Y8/4 Pale Yellow

Parallels: Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pls. 35:9, 41:13. Arad, Stratum III, Amiran 1978, pl. 15: 29. Note: Petrographic sample 58 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

EB II, jar

10YR7/4 Very Pale Brown

10YR7/4 Very Pale Brown

Parallels: Arad, Stratum I, Amiran 1978, pl. 53: 3. Arad, Stratum II, Amiran 1978, pl. 33: 9. Note: Petrographic sample 49 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

131

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Site 27, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

Parallels/Note

4.28:4

Locus 104

Pottery Neolithic, jar

5YR8/2 Pinkish White

5YR8/2 Pinkish White

Parallels: Jericho, Kenyon and Holland 1982:48, fig. 17:13. Jericho (Tell), Kenyon and Holland 1982:31:7, 9, 12. Note: Petrographic sample 48 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

4.28:5

Locus 110

Unknown, base

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

5YR7/6 Reddish Yellow

Note: Petrographic sample 50 in Cohen-Weinberg and Saidel this volume.

Figure

period is represented by a jar that has parallels with similar shaped containers in the P. N. A. levels at Jericho (Table 4.23; Fig. 4.28: 4). A petrographic analysis of this sherd demonstrates that the clay came from the Lower Cretaceous, which outcrops in many portions of the southern Levant (Table 8.1, sample 48). Two jars are attributed to the EB II period based upon parallels at Arad (Fig. 4.28: 2-3). A petrographic investigation of a base and jar found in Locus 110 determined that both pieces were made of clay from the Moza Formation suggesting that they belong to the same container (Table 8.1, samples 49-50; Figs. 4.28: 3, 5). The neck and shoulder of EBIV/MB I jar was sourced to the Hazeva Formation (Table 8.1, sample 16; Fig. 4.28: 1). WORKED SHERDS In the course of analyzing the above assemblages there were 12 sherds that were modified and/or “worked” to form ad hoc implements (Table 4.24; Fig. 4.29). The edges of these sherds resembled the knapped edges found on lithic implements. These ad hoc tools were made on coarse handmade body sherds (Tables 4.244.25; Fig. 4.29). Late Byzantine and Early-Islamic cooking ware was also a raw material for making stoppers.

Fig. 4.28. The pottery retrieved from Site 27 (Har Saggi Site 1- The Site of/Biq’at Hissun). The reader is referred to table 4.23 for Munsell readings and parallels

Table 4.24. The quantities of stoppers and work sherds unearthed by Haiman Site

Context

Number of Worked Sherds

Number of Stoppers

Comment and/or Periods Present

Figure

Site 2

Locus 100

1

---

Early Bronze Age

---

Site 2

Locus 102

0

2

Early Bronze Age

---

Site 9

Locus 319/1

2

---

Early Bronze Age

---

Site 23

Locus 87

1

---

Early Bronze Age

4.29:1

Site 23

Building 101, Locus 92

2

---

Early Bronze Age

---

Site 23

Building 101, Locus 93

2

---

Early Bronze Age

---

Site 26

Surface

1

---

Early Bronze Age

4.29:2

Site 26

Locus 906

1

---

Early Bronze Age

4.29:3

Site 58

Surface

2

---

Early Bronze Age

---

Site 89

Surface

2

---

Early Bronze Age

---

132

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

Table 4.25. The provenance and Munsell color of those worked sherds illustrated in Fig. 4.29 Figure

Site, Context

Period, Form

Exterior Munsell

Interior Munsell

4.29:1

Site 23, Locus 87

Worked Sherd

10YR6/2 Light Brownish Gray

7.5YR5/1 Gray

4.29:2

Site 26, Surface

Worked Sherd

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

4.29:3

Site 26, Locus 906

Worked Sherd

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

5YR6/4 Light Reddish Brown

prepared in the same manner as their sedentary counterparts. As indicated in the tables and illustrations the bulk of the pottery is attributed primarily the EB II. The range of vessel types found at Haiman’s settlements is typically limited to one or two types of containers (Fig 4.30, Sites 1, 2, 7, 8, and 9, 24-27). Holemouth vessels, most likely jars, are the predominate forms present in these assemblages (Fig. 4.30). The prevalence of holemouth jars is attributed to the presumed function of this container, that is to say storage. At settlements in the Negev Highlands there is a dearth of large and small jars, which may suggest that the inhabitants of these settlements had a preference for using holemouth vessels over other types of ceramic containers. Petrographic analyses of holemouth vessels provides information on the following issues: first, the number of holemouth vessels at a particular settlement, second, the origin of the clay that was used to make these containers. Cohen-Weinberger sampled the rims of 21 holemouth vessels (Table 8.1). Her investigation determined that the holemouth vessels were made of clay that was drawn from eight different sources (Table 4.26; Fig. 4.31). For example, the four holemouth jars sampled from Site 7 came from four different petrographic groups (Table 4.26). Taken as a whole variation in the petrographic sources of EBA pottery is most likely a result of variations in exchange and mobility, however, addition petrographic studies are needed to adequately address this issue (Tables 4.26, 4.27).

Fig. 4.29. Examples of “worked” pottery as identified in the ceramic assemblages from Haiman’s fieldwork. The reader is referred to table 4.25 for Munsell readings and parallels

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Table 4.26. The number of different petrographic groups presents at settlements where more than two holemouth vessels were sampled. Data based upon table 8.1.

The pottery from the Kadesh Barnea area was used for tasks associated with cooking, storage and transportation. The EBA holemouth vessels and the Persian period amphorae were used storing and transporting goods. The Late Byzantine-Early Islamic cooking ware not only provides insights concerning function, that is cooking, but this type of pottery also sheds light on exchange relationships. For instance, Rosen and Avni have argued that the presence of this cooking ware in the Negev Highlands is evidence of exchange between mobile pastoralists and sedentary populations (Rosen and Avni 1993: 197; 1997: 66-67; Avni 1996: 47). Presumably, the inhabitants in the Negev Highlands acquired these cooking pots because their foodstuffs needed to be 133

Site

Number of Holemouth Vessels Sampled

Number of Different Clay Sources

Sample Number/s

26

2

1

52, 54

58

3

1

31, 32, 33

89

2

2

28, 29

9

4

2

7, 8, 9, 12

7

7

4

1-5, 11, 17

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 4.30. The number of Early Bronze Age Vessel types per site as indicated by the diagnostic sherds

Table 4.27. The number of different petrographic groups present at Early Bronze Age sites where more three or more samples were tested. Data based upon table 8.1. Site

Number of Petrographic Samples

Number of Petrographic Groups Present

7

9

5

8

2

2

9

4

2

23

4

3

26

3

2

58

3

1

89

3

3

References

Fig. 4.31. The petrographic groups used to make Early Bronze Age holemouth vessels, which were found at Haiman’s sites. Data for this image was drawn from table 8.1.

ADAMS, R. B. 2003 – External Influences at Faynan during the Early Bronze Age: A Re-Analysis of 134

CHAPTER 4: THE CERAMIC ASSEMBLAGES

1976-1982. IAA Reports 34/1-2. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

Building at Barqa el-Hetiye, Jordan. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 135: 6-21. ALON, D. and Y. YEKUTIELI 1995 – The Tel Halif Terrace ‘Silo Site’ and its Implications for the Early Bronze Age I. 'Atiqot 27: 149-189. AMIRAN, R. 1978 – Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze City. Judean Desert Studies I: First-Fifth Seasons of Excavations, 19621966. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

GILEAD, I. and Y. GOREN 1995 – Pottery Assemblages from Grar. Pp. 137-221 in Grar: A Chalcolithic Site in the Northern Negev, ed. I. Gilead. Beer-Sheva VII. Beer-Sheva: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press. HAIMAN, M. 1986 – Map of Har Hamran-Southwest (198) 10-00. Jerusalem: Department of Antiquities and Museums, Archaeological Survey of Israel.

AVNER, R.1998 – Eloth. 'Atiqot 36: 21*-39* (Hebrew).

HAIMAN, M. 1991 – A Site of the Early Bronze Age at the Foot of Har Horesha (Hebrew). 'Atiqot 20: 1*-12* (177-178 English Summary).

AVNER, U., CARMI I., and SEGAL D. 1994 – Neolithic to Bronze Age Settlement of the Negev and Sinai in Light of Radiocarbon Dating: A View from the Southern Negev. Pp. 265-300 in Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and R. S. Kra. Tucson and Cambridge, MA: Radiocarbon, American School of Prehistoric Research. AVNI, G. 1992 – Map of Har Saggi Northeast (225). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, Archaeological Survey of Israel. AVNI, G. 1996 – Nomads, Farmers, and Town-Dwellers: Pastoralist-Sedentist Interaction in the Negev Highlands, Sixth-Eighth Centuries CE. Supplement to the Archaeological Survey of Israel. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1990 – An Early Bronze Age III Stratum at Tel 'Ira in the Northern Negev. Pp. 66-79 (English Summary 103*) in Eretz-Israel (Ruth Amiran Volume) 21, eds. A. Eitan, R. Gophna and M. Kochavi. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1999 – Tel 'Ira: A Stronghold in the Biblical Negev. Tel Aviv: Emery and Claire Yass Publications in Archaeology. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 2003 – Archaeology of Sinai. The Opher Expedition. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology. BERNICK-GREENBERG, H. 2007a – the Negebite Ware Typology. Pp. 187-210 in Excavations at KadeshBarnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. IAA Reports 34/1 (Text). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. BERNICK-GREENBERG, H. 2007b – the Negebite Ware Typology. Pp. 258-303 in Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. IAA Reports 34/2 (Plates, Plans and Sections). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. CALLAWAY, J. 1972 – The Early Bronze Age Sanctuary at Ai (ET-Tell). London: Colt Archaeological Institute. COHEN, R. and R. COHEN-AMIN 1999 – Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: Volume 1: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. COHEN, R. and H. BERNICK-GREENBERG 2007 – Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat)

HAIMAN, M. 1993 – An Early Bronze Age Cairn Field at Nahal Mitnan. 'Atiqot 22: 49-61. HAIMAN, M. 1994 – The Early Bronze Age Site of Ramat Matred 3 in the Negev Highlands. 'Atiqot 25: 23-32. HAIMAN, M. 1995 – An Early Islamic Period Farm at Nahal Mitnan in the Negev Highlands. 'Atiqot 26: 113. HAIMAN, M. 1995 – Agriculture and Nomad-State Relations in the Negev Desert in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 297: 29-53. HAIMAN, M. 2007 – Archaeological Survey of the Kadesh Barnea Vicinity: 'Ein el-Qudeirat and 'Ein Qadis. Pp. 307-351 in Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. HAIMAN, M. and Y. GOREN 1992 – “Negbite” Pottery: New Aspects and Interpretations and the Role of Pastoralism in Designating Ceramic Technology. Pp. 143-151 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press. HAIMI, Y. and S. A. ROSEN 2011 – The Organization of Space at the Camel Site. Pp. 167-198 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. HAYES, J. W. 1972 – Late Roman Pottery. London: The British School at Rome. KEMPINSKI, A. and I. GILEAD 1991 – New Excavations at Tel Erani: A Preliminary Report of the 1985-1988 Seasons. Tel Aviv 18: 164-191. KENYON, K. M. and T. A. HOLLAND 1982 – Excavations at Jericho 4: The Pottery Type Series and Other Finds. Jerusalem: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem. LEVY, T. E. and N. MENAHEM 1987 – The Pottery from the Shiqmim Village: Typological and Spatial Considerations. Pp. 313-331 in Shiqmim I: Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel (1982-1984), ed. T. E. Levy. 135

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BAR International 356(i). Archaeological Reports.

Oxford:

ROSEN, S. A. and G. AVNI 1997 – The 'Oded Sites: Investigations of Two Early Islamic Pastoral Camps South of the Ramon Crater. Beer-Sheva 11. BeerSheva: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press.

British

MAGNESS, J. 1993 – Jerusalem Ceramic Chronology circa 200-800 CE. JSOT/ASOR Monograph Series 9. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

ROSENTHAL-HEGINBOTTOM, R. 1988 – The Pottery. Pp. 78-96 in Excavations at Rehovot-in-the-Negev: Volume I: The Northern Church, ed. Y. Tsafrir. Qedem 25. Jerusalem: Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

MAGNESS, J. 2003 – The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. MIROSCHEDJI, P. de 1988 – Yarmouth 1’Rapport Sur Les Trois Premières Campagnes de Fouilles à Tel Yarmouth (Israël) (1980-1982). Mèmoire No. 76. Paris: Èditions Recherche sur les Civilisations.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002 – Pot Luck? Variation and Function in the Ceramic Assemblages of Pre-Camel Pastoralists in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 32: 175-196.

NEVO, Y. D. 1991 – Pagans and Herders: A Reexamination of the Negev Runoff Cultivation Systems in the Byzantine and Early Arab Periods. Jerusalem: Israel Publication Services.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002-2004 – Vessel Functions in Agricultural and Pastoral Societies of Byzantine and Early Islamic Israel. Journal of Field Archaeology 29 (3-4): 437-445.

PORAT, N. 1989 – Petrography of Pottery from Southern Israel and Sinai. Pp. 169-188 in L'Urbanisation de la Palestine à l'âge du Bronze ancien: Bilan et Perspectives des Recherches Actuelles, Actes du Colloque d'Emmaüs (20-24 Octobre 1986), ed. P. de Miroschedji. BAR International 527(i). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2011a – The Pottery from the Camel Site. Pp. 67-79 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. SAIDEL, B. A. 2011b – Talking Trash: Observations on the Abandonment of Broad room Structures in Southern Sinai during the Early Bronze Age II. Pp. 173-184 in Daily Life, Materiality, and Complexity in Early Urban Communities of the Southern Levant: Papers in Honor of Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub, ed. M. S. Chesson. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.

ROSEN, S. A. 2000 – The Decline of Desert Agriculture: A View from the Classical Period Negev. Pp. 45-62 in The Archaeology of Drylands: Living at the Margin, eds. G. Barker and D. Gilbertson. One World Archaeology 39. London and New York: Routledge, One World Archaeology. ROSEN, S. A. and G. AVNI 1993 – The Edge of the Empire: The Archaeology of Pastoral Nomads in the Southern Negev Highlands in Late Antiquity. Biblical Archaeologist 56: 189-199.

USTINOVA, Y. and P. NAHSHONI 1994 – Salvage Excavations in Ramot Nof, Be'er Sheva. 'Atiqot 25: 157-177.

136

CHAPTER 5: EARLY BRONZE AGE FAUNA FROM THREE SITES IN THE NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Chapter 5: EARLY BRONZE AGE FAUNA FROM THREE SITES IN THE NEGEV HIGHLANDS LIORA KOLSKA HORWITZ Prummel and Frisch 1986. Since there are no wellestablished morphometric criteria, apart from horn core morphology, for separating ibex from goat, a clear separation of these taxa was not possible. For this study, post-cranial specimens that were extremely robust and large and fell outside the size range expected for domestic goats were tentatively identified as ibex.

INTRODUCTION Evidence for Bronze Age pastoralism in the Negev and Sinai deserts has to date primarily relied upon inference from architectural and cultural remains rather than on direct archaeozoological data (e.g., Finkelstein 1995: 67101; Haiman 1996; 1998; Rosen 1997; 2011; Avner 1998; 2002; Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999; Saidel 2002a). This is mainly due to the limited number of archaeozoological publications on this topic, which, in turn, is a result of the small size of the recovered bone samples and their poor preservation (e.g., Hakker-Orion 1975; Davis 1976; Lernau 1978; Beit-Arieh 1981: 11719; 1982: 154-55). Recently, a concerted effort has been made to rectify this situation through the analysis and publication of animal bone assemblages from these arid regions (Hakker-Orion 1999; Horwitz, Tchernov, and Mienis 2001; Horwitz et al.2002; Saidel 2002a: 57; Horwitz 2003a). The faunal remains presented below from the Early Bronze Age (EBA) settlements of Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II), Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), and Site 27 (Har Saggi 1/Biq’at Hissun) and in the Negev Highlands thus serve as valuable additions to the growing corpus of primary information on animal exploitation in this region.

Ageing for sheep/goat was based on epiphyseal fusion and dental eruption stage (Silver 1969). Skeletal completeness was calculated on the basis of frequencies of epiphyses to shafts and the observed skeletal elements relative to their expected frequency, modified by MNI counts per taxon (Lyman 1994). This is a consequence of NISP rather than minimum number of skeletal element (MNE) counts being used for this calculation. Skeletal parts were pooled to form five anatomical units: cranium, forelimb, hind limb, trunk and foot. Anthropogenic modifications, such as cut marks and burning, as well as animal derived modifications, such as gnawing (Lyman 1994) were noted for all diagnostic bones and splinters. Standard bone measurements were taken following von den Driesch 1976.

FINDINGS TAXON REPRESENTATION

METHODS The majority of the bones in the assemblages studied was poorly preserved and comprised small fragments and splinters. The number counts of identifiable bones (NISP counts) are therefore probably artificially inflated due to the comminuted state of the remains. To counter this, the minimum number of complete individuals (MNIs) was calculated for each taxon, based on the most commonly represented skeletal element, with body side and age as qualifying factors.

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) The 46 bones were recovered from Loci 200 and 201. Only 17 of these could be identified to taxon: 14 to sheep/goat and three to goat (Table 5.1). Locus 200, Basket 2013: In this structure, a total of four bones were found, of which only one—a complete proximal phalanx of an adult goat (Capra sp.)—could be identified to taxon. The remainder were unidentified splinters, one of which was burnt.

Sheep and goats were differentiated using the criteria outlined in Boessneck, Müller, and Teichert 1964 and 137

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

assemblage, but merely that it was not possible to distinguish these specimens as either sheep or goat. Based on the metrical resemblance of the goat remains from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) to those of domestic goats from EBA sites in Sinai and the northern Mediterranean zone (Fig. 5.1; Table 5.2), it is most likely that they too, represent domestic animals. As shown in Fig. 5.1, with the exception of three specimens (denoted by small black boxes)—one from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) and two from the EBA sites in Sinai— none of the EBA specimens falls within the uppermost size range for ibex. It is therefore likely that these three bones represent either ibex (Capra ibex) or very large domestic rams. It must be noted however, that the EBA samples are so small that the complete size range of the herds is probably not represented.

Table 5.1. Taxa represented at Sites 25 (Har Saggi 10/ Ein Hameara II) and 26 (Har Saggi 9/ Ein Hameara I) Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)

NISP

MNI

NISP

MNI

9

2

3

1 (2)

104

3

14

2

Large mammal

1

1

–

–

Rodent

1

1

–

–

115

7

17

3 (4)

Goat Sheep/Goat

Total

Locus 201, Basket 2003: This sample comprised a total of 42 bones, of which 26 were unidentified fragments, one of which was burnt. Of the diagnostic remains, two were identified as goat (Capra sp.)—a complete proximal phalanx and a distal scapula, both fused. As shown in Table 5.2, their measurements fall within the range of domestic goats from EBA sites in the northern Mediterranean region and those from the Sinai Peninsula. The remaining 14 bones represented are of sheep/goat.

Isolated remains of a rodent and an unidentified large mammal were found. Neither could be identified to taxon, but the best candidates for the large mammal bone are either cattle (Bos taurus) or equid (Equus sp.). Few remains of these taxa are known from the EBA sites in Sinai; only one equid tooth was identified at the site of Sheikh Mukhsen (Horwitz 2003a: 249), while isolated remains of cattle were reported from Feiran I (Beit-Arieh 1982: 154; Horwitz 2003a: 242-243). Similarly, at the Biq’at ‘Uvda sites, very few equid remains and no cattle were identified. At the northwestern Negev EB I sites, equid and cattle remains are more common, with an almost complete donkey skeleton found at Gesher Ha Besor and several isolated equid bones in the Taur Ikhbeineh assemblage (Horwitz et al.2002: 110-11, tables 3, 5). Cattle remains comprise some 25% of the En Besor assemblage (Horwitz et al. 2002: table 2), and ca. 50% of the Taur Ikhbeineh EB IB sample (Horwitz et al. 2002: 117, table 5). Sample sizes from both sites, however, are small. At Arad, Davis (1976) documented the largest corpus of equid remains and even raised the possibility of horses (Equus caballus) being present in addition to donkeys (Equus asinus).

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) A total of 115 identified bones and an additional 322 unidentified bone fragments were recovered from two rooms (Loci 906 and 909) and a courtyard (Locus 907) in a building at this EBA site. The bone fragments are extremely small (ca. < 3 cm in length). They were found together with flints and ceramics on the earthen floor of the structure. A total of nine bones were identified as belonging to goat (Capra sp.), while 104 were placed in a joint sheep/goat category (Ovis/Capra) (Table 5.1). This does not mean that remains of sheep are necessarily present in the

Table 5.2. Goat measurements (in mm) Measurements after von den Driesch 1976 Site

Measurements

Scapula

GLP

BG

Neck width

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

36.4

21.3

22.7

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

32.7

19.4

19.7

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)

–

20.8

23.4

Bd

Bp

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

12.6

–

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

11.5

12.5

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I)

15.5

15.6

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)

13.1

13.6

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)

12.4

12.5

1st phalanx

Ibex (?)

GLP = greatest length of the glenoid process. BG = breadth of the glenoid process. Bd =greatest breadth of the distal end. Bp = greatest breadth of the proximal end.

138

CHAPTER 5: EARLY BRONZE AGE FAUNA FROM THREE SITES IN THE NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 5.1. Box plots showing the range and mean of ibex (three samples on the left) and goat (three samples on the right) proximal phalanx proximal breadth measurements (in mm). The three black boxes plotted individually denote specimens that are larger and more robust than the majority of remains from these sites and probably represent ibex, although it cannot be discounted that they represent extremely large domestic rams. Key: Ibex = Modern ibex from Israel, N = 39 (after Dayan et al. 1986); UEM = Ujrat el-Mehed, PPNB site in Sinai, N = 73 (after Dayan et al. 1986); WT = Wadi Tbeik, PPNB site in Sinai, N = 49 (after Tchernov and Bar-Yosef 1982); Sinai = Nabi Salah and Sheikh Mukhsen, EB II sites in Sinai, N = 10 (after Horwitz 2003a); Negev = Sites 25 and 26, N = 4 (described above); North = Qiryat Ata, EB II and Leviah Enclosure sites (after Horwitz 2003b: Appendix), N = 5 in the northern Mediterranean zone

Red Sea coast appears to play a critical role in the relative proportions of malacological taxa represented.

Site 27 (Har Saggi 1/Tiwal 1) A single fragment of a Glycimerus sp. shell was identified by the late Prof. Eitan Tchernov of the Hebrew University. It derived from a room in Structure 2 (Locus 104, Basket 1004). As members of the Glycimerus family are found in both the Red and Mediterranean Seas, in the absence of a definite species attribution, the origin of this shell cannot be established. The Red Sea taxon Glycimerus arabica has been identified at EB II Site 11 in the Biq’at ‘Uvda in the southern Negev. Most of the other shells found at the Biq’at ‘Uvda sites also originate from the Red Sea. In contrast, the Mediterranean taxon Glycimerus insubrica has been reported at the EB IA sites of Gesher Ha Besor and Taur Ikhbeineh in the northwestern Negev (Horwitz et al. 2002: 112, 116-17). Gesher Ha Besor has almost the same proportions of Mediterranean and Red Sea shells, but the highest number of shells are of Nilotic origin, while at Taur Ikhbeineh, Mediterranean taxa predominate. Thus, the geographic proximity of the sites to the Mediterranean or

AGEING As seen in Table 5.3, ageing could be carried out on only a few bones in each assemblage. Of the 14 caprine long bones from Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) that could be aged, all have fully fused epiphyses, i.e., 100% survivorship in all age classes. As all epiphyses in the skeleton of sheep/goat fuse by 3.5 years, based on the data available for this site, it appears that all the animals survived beyond this age. In contrast, at Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II), at least one bone is derived from an animal younger than 12 months, and at least two are derived from animals aged a maximum of 18 months. However, given the relatively poor preservation of the bones from both sites (see below), it must be assumed that the fragile bones of immature specimens probably did not survive, resulting in an under-representation

139

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 5.3. Sheep/goat ages based on bone fusion. Faunal remains recovered from Sites 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) and 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I). Age classes for sheep/goat: 0-12 months = dist. humerus, scapula, prox. radius; 12-18 months = prox. phalanges; 18-28 months = dist. tibia, dist. metapodia; 28-36 months = prox. ulna, prox. femur, calcaneum; 36-42 months = prox. humerus, dist. radius, dist. femur, prox. tibia Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) Age Range(months)

F

UF

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)

%

F

UF

%

N

N

F

N

N

F

0-12

7

0

100

1

1

50

12-18

3

0

100

2

0

100

18-28

1

0

100

0

0

0

28-36

2

0

100

0

0

0

36-42

1

0

100

0

0

0

Total NISP

14

0

3

1

F = Fused; UF = Unfused; N = Number of bones

and/or absence of immature specimens and a bias towards remains of older animals. The data for ageing, therefore, should be treated with caution.

Table 5.3, at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), teeth are indeed the single most common element in the assemblage, although the bone sample from Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) is too small to facilitate an assessment of the patterning. With regard to skeletal completeness (Table 5.4), the majority of elements from both sites are under-represented (relative to the MNI count for the sample). Moreover, for most long bones, a higher frequency of shafts relative to epiphyses—the latter composed primarily of trabecula bone—was found (i.e., the humerus, femur, and tibia). The high % SS values for the proximal epiphyses—for both the metacarpal and metatarsal—are most probably a reflection of the degree of fragmentation of these bones, rather than an indicator of their survivorship.

Unfortunately, few of the teeth could be aged with any precision due to fragmentation. Of the 10 most complete specimens, seven were incisors and three upper molars, teeth that are inappropriate for the assessment of dental wear stages, as defined in Payne 1973. However, all are fully erupted and in wear and hence are derived from adult animals. SKELETAL ELEMENT REPRESENTATION Relative to the size of the EBA sites in the desert region, the animal bone assemblages are generally small and poorly preserved. Several factors have been proposed to account for this: post-depositional attrition (e.g., extreme changes in moisture and temperature, soil PH, and weathering), past food-processing activities, such as boiling and burning, and the relatively small quantity of meat consumed in these communities (Saidel 2002a: 58; Horwitz 2003a: 243). In order to distinguish these factors, skeletal element representation was examined relative to skeletal completeness as reflected in the quantity of epiphyses versus shafts. Based on these data, the percentage of skeletal survivorship (% SS) of elements relative to their expected number in a complete skeleton was calculated with reference to the MNI counts for sheep/goat in each sample. The underlying assumption is that in cases of extensive post-depositional attrition, poor bone preservation will result in the under-representation of most elements, especially those with high frequencies of trabecular bone (i.e., long bone epiphyses, cranial remains, and vertebrae) relative to the more robust compact bones (i.e., long bone shafts). Moreover, teeth—especially enamel, which is the most robust element in the skeleton—will be particularly well represented in assemblages that have undergone a high degree of diagenesis.

MNE counts are the minimum numbers of particular skeletal elements represented in an assemblage and may be based on counts of a complete element or a portion thereof, while the body side, age, or sex of the element may be taken into account. They differ from MNI counts in that they record the minimum number of a particular skeletal element and not the number of individual animals represented in an assemblage (Lyman 1994: 102-4). MNEs thus provide a precise indicator of the quantity of a particular bone element represented, but not of the number of animals represented in the assemblage. Unfortunately, as most of the bones represented in the EBA samples studied were extremely small and weathered, the precise portions and body sides could not be determined with any certainty, thereby limiting the precision of MNE counts. NISP counts were therefore preferred. With respect to the five anatomical categories (Table 5.4), at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), differences in the frequency of meat-rich upper limb elements relative to lower limbs that are poor in meat are of borderline significance (χ2 = 3.58; d.f. = 1; P = 0.05). There are more upper limb elements for the forelimb, while the reverse is true for the hind limb. At Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II), the sample size from the site is particularly small, such that no patterning is evident.

Data for the two sites indicate that both samples undoubtedly suffered extensive diagenesis. As seen in 140

CHAPTER 5: EARLY BRONZE AGE FAUNA FROM THREE SITES IN THE NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 5.4. Sheep/goat skeletal element representation (NISP counts).Data on % skeletal survival (% SS) for long bones are based on NISP counts of each bone element and the number of this element expected in a complete skeleton. The latter is then multiplied by the MNI counts for sheep/goat at each site. MNE counts (which are usually used in calculating % SS) could not be employed (see section on Skeletal Element Representation). Data drawn from Sites 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) and 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) Skeletal Element

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) (MNI=5)

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) (MNI=3)

NISP

Expected

% SS

NISP

Expected

% SS

Maxilla

1

5

20

0

3

0

Mandible ramus

1

10

10

2

6

33.3

Mandible corpus frag.

6

–

–

0

–

–

Mandible symphysis

2

10

20

0

6

0

Loose teeth

34

160

21.2

2

96

2.0

Total Cranium

44

Cervical vert. body

1

25

4

4 0

15

0

Thoracic vert. spine

3

65

5

0

39

0

Rib prox.

3

130

2.3

0

78

0

130

7.6

1

78

1.2

Rib shaft

10

Total Trunk

17

Scapula dist.

3

10

30

1

6

17

Scapula blade

1

10

10

1

6

17

Humerus dist.

2

10

20

1

6

17

Humerus shaft

5

10

50

2

6

33.3

Humerus prox.

0

10

0

0

6

0

Radius dist.

0

10

0

0

6

0

Radius shaft

1

10

10

0

6

0

Radius prox.

2

10

20

0

6

0

Total Upper Forelimb

14

Metacarpal dist.

0

10

0

1

5 0

0

6

Metacarpal shaft

0

10

0

0

6

0

Metacarpal prox.

8

10

80

1

6

17

Total Lower Forelimb

8

Pelvis acetabulum

2

10

20

0

6

0

Femur dist.

1

10

10

0

6

0

Femur shaft

3

10

30

1

6

17

Femur prox.

0

10

0

0

6

0

1

Tibia dist.

1

10

10

0

6

0

Tibia shaft

2

10

20

2

6

33.3

Tibia prox.

0

10

0

0

6

0

Total Upper Hindlimb

9

Calcaneumdist.

1

3 10

10

0

6

0

Calcaneum shaft

2

10

20

1

6

17

Calcaneum frag.

0

10

0

0

6

0

Astragalus frag.

1

10

10

0

6

0

Metatarsal dist.

0

10

0

0

6

0

Metatarsal shaft

2

10

20

0

6

0

Metatarsal prox.

10

10

100

0

6

0

Total Lower Hindlimb

16

1

141

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Skeletal Element

Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) (MNI=5)

Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II) (MNI=3)

1st phalanx whole

3

40

7.5

2

24

8.3

2nd phalanx prox.

1

40

2.5

0

24

0

3rd phalanx prox.

1

40

2.5

0

24

0

Total Foot

5

2

Burnt material has been shown to disintegrate at a greater rate than non-burnt material (Stiner et al. 1995). However, given the small number of burnt remains at these sites, it seems unlikely that this has influenced the skeletal element patterning.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION The fauna at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) originate from three loci: Locus 906 (Basket 9018) and Locus 909 (Basket 9020), which represent rooms, and Locus 907 (Basket 9011), which represents a courtyard. With the exception of the rodent found in Locus 909 and the unidentified large mammal from Locus 906, the same taxa and skeletal elements were represented in these three loci. Furthermore, all three localities contained a similar frequency of identified to unidentified bones: 27% (NISP = 88) identified remains in Locus 906, 30% (NISP = 9) in Locus 909, and 26% (NISP = 18) in Locus 907, the courtyard. Given that these loci differ in size—while courtyard Locus 906 and room Locus 909 have somewhat similar diameters of 7.5 m and 6 m respectively, room Locus 906 has a diameter of only 3.8 m (see Chapter 2, this volume)—it is evident that Locus 906 yielded relatively more bones than the other two localities. However, as the volume of deposit excavated in each structure is unknown, it is difficult to assess these results. There appears to be no clear separation between these localities in their faunal composition, despite the differences in their size and probable function, as well as the fact that one was an open space and the others closed.

CONCLUSIONS Although limited by the size and quality of the bone assemblages, the data for the Negev Highlands sites presented above, together with the limited information from the site of Rekhes Nafha 396 (Saidel 2002a: 57) and the fauna published by Hakker-Orion (1999) from EB IV sites in the same region, corroborate that sheep/goat are the most common taxon represented in this period. Goat (Capra hircus) is the only domestic caprine species identified thus far. At Sites 25 and 26, caprines include both adult and immature animals, but diagenesis has biased the samples, and remains of immature animals are probably under-represented. Skeletal element representation for caprines was also influenced by the selective preservation of the more robust elements. As such, body part representation cannot be reliably assessed in relation to butchery and food-processing activities. At Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), no apparent distinction was found in the quantity of bones, spectrum of taxa, or quantity of burnt bones between the two rooms and the courtyard investigated. At Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II), however, the structures studied differed in the quantity of faunal remains, but not in their contents.

Similarly, the apparent difference between the faunal samples from the two structures at Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II)—Locus 200 and Locus 201—is difficult to assess. They differ in terms of the quantity of material recovered, with only four bones found in Locus 200 compared to 42 in Locus 201. Both, however, yielded the same range of taxa, as well as similar quantities of burnt and unburnt material.

Few remains of other taxa were found at these sites. Based on metrical analyses, it has been suggested that ibex (Capra ibex) may be present at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) (NISP = 1). In addition, an isolated large mammal bone, either cattle or equid, was identified at this site. Hakker-Orion (1999) has documented the presence of cattle, donkey, bird, and gazelle remains at EB IV Negev Highlands sites, in addition to rodents and hares. At Rekhes Nafha 396, an isolated bone of a hare was found (Saidel 2002a: 57), but like the rodent remains at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I) and the EB IV sites, it may represent a more recent, intrusive element.

MODIFICATIONS There was no evidence of either cut marks or animalderived damage in the two assemblages, but burnt bones were present in both. At Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), 6% of the diagnostic bones (NISP = 7) were burnt, as were 7% of the unidentified bone splinters (NISP = 22). The burnt remains identified to taxon comprised two bones of goat and five of sheep/goat. The identical breakdown was found at Site 25 (Har Saggi 10/Ein Hameara II). A total of 7% of the unidentified bones was burnt (NISP = 2), while only one of the diagnostic bones, a goat proximal phalanx, was burnt (6% of the identified bone sample).

The rarity of cattle remains at desert sites may reflect the unsuitability of this species for arid conditions or, alternatively, that these animals were preferentially used as beasts of burden rather than dietary elements. The extensive use of pack animals in this period is ‘documented, albeit indirectly, in the wealth of goods 142

CHAPTER 5: EARLY BRONZE AGE FAUNA FROM THREE SITES IN THE NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Workshop within the Framework of International Hydrological Program (IHP) UNESCO, held at BenGurion University, Sde Boker, Israel from 7-12 July 1996, eds. A. S. Issar and N. Brown. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.

traded between Egypt, the Sinai Peninsula, the Negev desert, Transjordan, and the Mediterranean region of the southern Levant (see, e.g., Amiran, Beit-Arieh, and Glass 1973; Rosen 1997; Hauptmann, Begemann, and SchmittStrecker 1999; Horwitz et al. 2002; Saidel 2002b). However, remains of equids, which were the primary pack animals available during the EBA, are relatively rare at sites in the arid regions. This is undoubtedly a reflection of their having seldom been exploited as dietary elements, rather than an indication of the extent of their exploitation at the time. There is no archaeological evidence indicating that cattle were used in the EBA for any other labor than in agriculture, as illustrated by the EB I statuette of yoked cattle found at Tell el-Far‘ah North (Amiran 1986), although their use as pack animals cannot be discounted.

AVNER, U. 2002 – Studies in the Material and Spiritual Culture of the Negev and Sinai Populations, During the 6th-3rd Millennia B.C. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Hebrew University. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1981 – An Early Bronze Age II Site near Sheikh 'Awad in Southern Sinai. Tel Aviv 8: 95-127. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1982 – An Early Bronze Age II Site near the Feiran Oasis in Southern Sinai. Tel Aviv 9: 146156. BOESSNECK, J., H. H. MÜLLER and M. TEICHERT 1964 – Osteologische Unterscheidungsmerkmale zwischen Schaf (Ovis aries Linnè) und Ziege (Capra hircus Linnè). Kuhn-Archiv 78: 1-129.

Hunting was still practiced during the EBA, but played a minor role in subsistence activities in both the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula (Horwitz, Tchernov, and Mienis 2001; Horwitz et al. 2002; Horwitz 2003a, b).

COHEN, R. and R. COHEN-AMIN 1999 – Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I. IAA Reports 6. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority (Hebrew).

It appears, therefore, that irrespective of the period, the EBA sites located in the Negev Highlands contain a narrow range of taxa, primarily domesticates. This is not surprising given that these sites have been interpreted as representing habitations used by pastoral nomads (Haiman 1996; 1998; Avner 1998: 182; Cohen and Cohen-Amin 1999; Saidel 2002a, b; Rosen 2011). This premise is based on the dearth of evidence of large-scale agriculture and the high density of animal pens. Consequently, it has been proposed that caprine herding played a far more important role in the Negev Highlands than in the Lowlands, for example, at Biq’at ‘Uvda sites. It has recently been suggested that the Negev Highlands may have been exploited seasonally (in autumn, spring, and/or summer) by flocks from the Negev Lowlands. In winter, the Highlands sites may have been abandoned due to the adverse climatic conditions of extreme cold and damp. Thus, seasonal transhumance within the Negev would have enabled local populations to maintain large herds, as well as to stay in relative proximity to their territories and agricultural lands.

DAVIS, S. 1976 – Mammal Bones from the Early Bronze Age City of Arad, Northern Negev, Israel: Some Implications concerning Human Exploitation. Journal of Archaeological Science 3: 153-164. FINKELSTEIN, I. 1995 – Living on the Fringe: The Archaeology and History of the Negev, Sinai and Neighbouring Regions in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology 6. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. HAIMAN, M. 1996 – Early Bronze Age IV Settlement Pattern of the Negev and Sinai Deserts: View from Small Marginal Temporary Sites. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 303: 1-32. HAIMAN, M. 1998 – Nomads and Sedentary Communities in the Negev Highlands in the Early Bronze Age. Pp. 103-122 in Studies in the Archaeology of Nomads in the Negev and Sinai, ed. S. Ahituv. Beersheva: BenGurion University. HAKKER-ORION, D. 1975 – Hunting and Stock-Breeding in Israel. Pp. 295-301 in Archaeozoological Studies. Papers of the Archaeozoological Conference 1974, held at the Biologisch-Archaeologisch Instituut of the State University of Groningen, ed. A. T. Clason. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company.

References AMIRAN, R. 1986 – Some Cult and Art Objects of the EB I Period. Pp. 7-13 in Insight through Images—Studies in Honour of Edith Porada eds. P. Matthiae and M. van Loon. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 21. Malibu, Ca: Undena Publications.

HAKKER-ORION, D. 1999 – Animal Bones from Middle Bronze I Sites in the Negev Highlands. Pp. 327-335 in Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I, eds. R. Cohen and R. CohenAmin. IAA Reports 6. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

AMIRAN, R., I. BEIT-ARIEH and J. GLASS 1973 – The Interrelationship between Arad and Sites in Southern Sinai in the Early Bronze Age II. Israel Exploration Journal 23: 193-197. AVNER, U. 1998 – Settlement, Agriculture and Paleoclimate in 'Uvda Valley, Southern Negev Desert, 6th-3rd Millennia B.C. Pp. 147-202 in Water, Environment and Society in Times of Climatic Change: Contributions from an International

HAUPTMANN, A., F. BEGEMANN and S. SCHMITTSTRECKER 1999 – Copper Objects from Arad--Their Composition and Provenance. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 314: 1-17. 143

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

of Sheep and Goat. Journal of Archaeological Science 13: 567-577.

HORWITZ, L. K. 2003a – Early Bronze Age Archaeozoological Remains. Pp. 242-256 in Archaeology of Sinai. The Ophir Expedition, ed. I. Beit-Arieh. Tel Aviv: Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.

ROSEN, S. A. 1997 – Beyond Milk and Meat: Lithic Evidence for Economic Specialization in the Early Bronze Age Pastoral Periphery in the Levant. Lithic Technology 22(1): 99-109.

HORWITZ, L. K. 2003b – Early Bronze Age Animal Exploitation at Qiryat Ata. Pp. 225-241 in Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata, ed. A. Golani. IAA Reports 18. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

ROSEN, S. A. 2011 – An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

HORWITZ, L. K., E. TCHERNOV and H. K. MIENIS 2001 – Archaeozoology and Archaeomalacology of Site 917 in the 'Uvda Valley. 'Atiqot 42: 121-127.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002a – The Excavations at Rekhes Nafha 396 in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 325: 3763.

HORWITZ, L. K., E. TCHERNOV, H. K. MIENIS, D. HAKKER-ORION and D. E. BAR-YOSEF MAYER 2002 – The Archaeozoology of three Early Bronze Age Sites in Nahal Besor, North-Western Negev. Pp. 107-133 in In Quest of Ancient Settlements and Landscapes: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Ram Gophna, eds. E.C.M. van den Brink and E. Yanai. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002b – Pot Luck? Variation and Function in the Ceramic Assemblages of Pre-Camel Pastoralists in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 32: 175-196. SILVER, A. 1969 – The Aging of Domestic Animals. Pp. 283-302 in Science in Archaeology, eds. D. Brothwell and E. S. Higgs.2nd Edition. London: Thames and Hudson.

LERNAU, H. 1978 – Faunal Remains. Pp. 83-113 in Early Arad: The Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age City, ed. R. Amiran. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

STINER, M., S. L. KUHN, S. WEINER and O. BAR-YOSEF 1995 – Differential Burning, Recrystallization and Fragmentation of Archaeological Bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 223-237.

LYMAN, R. L. 1994 – Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. PAYNE, S. 1973 – Kill-Off Patterns in Sheep and Goats: The Mandibles from Asvan Kale. Anatolian Studies 23: 281-303.

DRIESCH, A. 1976 – A Guide to the Measurement of Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites. Peabody Museum Bulletin 1. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum Press, Harvard University.

VON DEN

PRUMMELL, W. and H. J. FRISCH 1986 – A Guide for the Distinction of Species, Sex, and Body Side in Bones

144

CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL ORNAMENTS

Chapter 6: PERSONAL ORNAMENTS OSNAT MISCH-BRANDL AND BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL INTRODUCTION The 11 personal ornaments recovered at Site 24 (Har Saggi Site 8/Har Hameara Cairn Field), Site 25 (Har Saggi Site 10/Ein Hameara II), and Site 33 (Har Saggi Site 5) are made of a variety of raw materials, including bone, faience, glass, and gold. These artifacts provide modest insights into the societies that occupied these settlements in the Early Bronze Age and in subsequent periods. The discussion of the personal ornaments is organized according to site and chronological period. SITE 24 (HAR SAGGI SITE 8/HAR HAMEARA CAIRN FIELD) Personal ornaments were found in the burial cists of Tumuli 801 and 813 in Areas A and B, respectively (see Saidel and Haiman Chapter 2 this volume). A turquoise faience bead was unearthed underneath 20 cm of loess inside the sealed burial cist of Tumulus 801 in Area A (Fig. 6.1: 1). This elliptical bead measures 18 mm in length, 13 mm in width, and 9 mm in height, and corresponds typologically to the Beck Group XX A.1.a (Annular Beads) (1928: 19). Its dating is problematic, as it was not associated with any diagnostic artifacts. Furthermore, it does not correspond in terms of shape and size to other beads found at Early Bronze Age sites located in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai. While faience objects were produced in Old Kingdom Egypt (Nicholson and Peltenburg 2000: 179-180), it is doubtful that they were manufactured locally in the southern Levant (Bar-Yosef Mayer et al. 2004). Excavations inside the burial cist of Tumulus 813, in Area B, unearthed three perforated cowrie shells (Fig. 6.1: 2) as well as fragments of a copper pin. These artifacts were associated with the poorly preserved fragments of human long bones, which were covered by 20 cm of loess. The cap stones that originally sealed the

Fig. 6.1. Personal ornaments from Site 24: 1: faience bead from burial cist in Tumulus 801, Area A; 2: cowrie shells from burial cist in Tumulus 813, Area B (redrawn by M. Zeltser based on unsigned illustration in site file; original illustration did not include scale) 145

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

burial cist were found lying on the ground adjacent to the structure.1 The absence of diagnostic artifacts in the burial cist makes it difficult to establish a date for the material culture, and the cowrie shells and pin could be attributed either to the Early Bronze Age or subsequent periods. The former is supported by the presence of Early Bronze Age artifacts found adjacent to Tumulus 813 (see Saidel and Haiman Chapter 2, this volume). The latter is possible as the grave had been opened after the initial interment, possibly indicating that this tomb was reused after the Early Bronze Age period (e.g., Bar-Yosef et al. 1986: 126, Gu 16; Horwitz, Rosen, and Bocquentin 2011: 72-73).

hollow semi-hemispheres soldered together and attached by means of a flat gold thread to a gold loop with a round cross-section (Fig. 6.3). The only obvious difference lies in the manner in which the loop was soldered to the flat thread. The tooth marks visible on the surface of each bead are apparently the result of a Bedouin workman’s attempt to determine whether they were actually made of gold by biting into them (Mordechai Haiman, personal communication).

SITE 25 (HAR SAGGI SITE 10/EIN HAMEARA SITE 2) Architectural Unit 209 comprised an animal pen (Locus 209) and two rooms (Loci 201 and 212). In Locus 201, three gold barrel-shaped beads (Fig. 6.2; Israel Museum [IM] Nos. 88-7/1, 88-7/2, and 88-7/3) were unearthed in an ash layer of 10 cm in depth (see Chapter 2, this volume). The beads measure 13 mm in length and ca. 7 mm in width, and are physically identical, made from two

Fig. 6.3. Loops on gold beads from Site 25 Locus 201: 1: IM No. 88-7/1; 2: IM No. 88-7/2; 3: IM No. 88-7/3 (Illustrations by P. Arad)

These barrel-shaped beads differ from other types of Early Bronze Age gold beads found in the southern Levant. For example, the most prominent shape in the EB I is the cylindrical bead (Ben-Tor 1975: 23), while EB II and EB III forms are biconical (Tufnell 1958: 73), shortbarreled, and tubular (Mazar, Amiran, and Hass 1973: 188, fig. 8: 5-8). In the absence of local parallels for the gold beads from Site 25, the closest stylistic and typological parallels come from Old Kingdom Egypt, where they were frequently used at the ends of beaded collars and other items of jewelry (Peter Lacovara, personal communication).

Fig. 6.2. Gold beads from Site 25 Locus 201: 1: IM No. 88-7/1; 2: IM No. 88-7/2; 3: IM No. 88-7/3 (photo courtesy Misch-Brandl)

The sediment containing the gold beads included a fair amount of diagnostic pottery, such as red-slipped sherds

1 The shells and pin could not be located and re-examined for the purposes of the present study.

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CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL ORNAMENTS

Fig. 6.4. The elemental composition of gold bead IM Number 88-7/1 unearthed in Locus 201, Site 25

Fig. 6.5. The elemental composition of gold bead IM Number 88-7/1 discovered in Locus 201, Site 25

and a spouted bowl fragment, and lithic and ground stone artifacts, among them fan scrapers, retouched blades, hammer stones, and grinding stones. The material culture in this ash layer is interpreted as representing an EB II domestic assemblage (Haiman personal communication), and the gold beads are, therefore, also attributed to this period.

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis was conducted on all three beads to determine their elemental composition (Figs. 6.4-6.9).2 The results demonstrate that the beads are 2 This non-destructive and relatively inexpensive procedure was carried out by the Earth Science Laboratory (9 July 2003) at the Hebrew University using a Thermo NORAN XRF instrument.

147

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 6.6. The elemental composition of gold bead IM Number 88-7/1 unearthed in Locus 201, Site 25

Fig. 6.7. The elemental composition of gold bead, IM Number 88-7/2 found in Locus 201, Site 25 predominantly made of gold, with a small amount of silver. The presence of other elements suggests that either the smelting of the metal was incomplete or that the metal was contaminated from being buried in sediments for so long, or both.

earthen Floor 5007 in Room 503 in Area A (Fig. 6.10: 3). Conus sp. shells are found in both the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and the beads are either from the entire shell or from its apex. The bead from Room 503 was formed from the sawn off, perforated, and polished apex of the shell, as described in Bar-Yosef Mayer (1999: 11):

SITE 33 (HAR SAGGI SITE 5)

In all cases, it is the part of the Conus sp. shell which consists of the spire, where the rest of the body has been removed and a hole opened in its center…The result is a round ring, varying in outer diameter

At Site 33 (Har Saggi Site 5), a Conus sp. shell bead (4 mm thick and 15 mm in diameter) was discovered in 148

CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL ORNAMENTS

Fig. 6.8. The elemental composition of gold bead, IM Number 88-7/3, found in Locus 201, Site 25

Fig. 6.9. The elemental composition of gold bead, IM 88-7/3 retrieved from Locus 201, Site 25

Arad-Ayalon n.d.: 183).

depending on whether it was made of a large or a small species of the Conidae family. The inner hole varies in diameter (probably depending on the size of the drill used to make the hole), and the thickness is also variable, depending on the size determined by the bead maker.

There were sporadic pockets of ash on top of the earthen floor in which the shell bead was found. The floor and ash deposits yielded pottery and lithic artifacts dating to 3 The unpublished reports authored by Arad-Ayalon (n.d.a, n.d.b) and Goren and Arad-Ayalon (n.d.) are available in the open stacks of the reading room in the Rockefeller Museum library of the Israel Antiquities Authority.

Beads made using this technique vary from 1-10 mm in thickness and from 6-23 mm in diameter (Goren and 149

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Fig. 6.10. Personal ornaments from Site 33: 1: blue glass bead from burial cist of Tumulus 518

The burial cist of Tumulus 518 contained skeletal remains of three adults and an infant estimated to be two years of age. The associated personal ornaments include a dark blue glass bead (Fig. 6.10: 1) and a rectangular bone spacer bead (Fig. 6.10: 4). The blue glass bead (7 mm in diameter and 7 mm in height) is assigned to the Beck Group I. C.1.a (Rounded Beads) (1928, Plate I). The grooves on this bead (Fig. 6.10: 1) and the red glass bead from Tumulus 517 (Fig. 6.10: 2) result from the rodforming manufacturing technique and are not part of the design (Spaer 2001: 44-46). The bone spacer bead (36 mm long, 11 mm wide, and 4 mm thick) corresponds to the Beck Group XVII A.3.a.3 (1928: 13-15) (Fig. 6.10: 4). The two perforations indicate that it was probably threaded on a necklace together with other beads.

the EB II (see Chapter 2). Given the lack of intrusive artifacts from earlier or later periods in Room 503, the Conus sp. bead is also attributed to the Early Bronze Age. Personal ornaments were also unearthed in the burial chambers of Tumuli 517 and 518 in Area B. The burial cist of Tumulus 517 yielded a red glass bead (Fig. 6.10: 2) in association with the skeleton of a female aged between 25 and 30. The bead is 9 mm in diameter and 7 mm in height, and is attributed to the Beck Group I. C.1.a (Rounded Beads) (1928: 5, Plate I). Red glass beads appear in archaeological contexts from the 8th century BCE onwards (Maud Spaer, personal communication).4 4

Barag (2003: 22) has shown that glass was not used as an independent raw material prior to the third millennium B.C. Some researchers consider the few glass beads originating in Mesopotamia and Egypt prior to the mid-second millennium B.C. as the result of over-heating during the production of faience beads. In the southern Levant, only a single glass bead dated by its context to the beginning of the second millennium B.C. has been excavated (Ilan, Vandiver, and Spaer 1993: 230-234).

Based on the limited available stratigraphic information, these personal ornaments are not attributed to the Early Bronze Age. Early Bronze Age pottery and flints were found at the bottom of the cist at some depth below the

150

CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL ORNAMENTS

human remains and at the same elevation as the courtyard of the settlement, raising the possibility that Tumulus 518 was built on top of sediments containing the Early Bronze Age material culture.

Mayer 1999: 11), the appearance of these beads is consistent over time. The bone spacer bead from Site 33 is also non-diagnostic, as similarly-shaped examples, albeit made of different materials, are present in a variety of archaeological contexts (Table 6.2).

CONCLUSIONS

The second involves the presence of personal ornaments in the burial cists of Tumuli 801 and 813 at Site 24 combined with the absence of human remains. This suggests that the skeletons were probably exhumed and discarded at a later date, by which time the personal ornaments had presumably fallen off the corpses and remained in the burial cists. This pattern of behavior is somewhat similar to that noted in the Predynastic Cemetery N7000 at Naga-ed-Der, Egypt, although these burials were looted for personal ornaments (Savage 2000:

The personal ornaments from Sites 24, 25, and 33 provide some insight into issues relating to arid zone archaeology in general. The first is the difficulty in dating particular types of jewelry made from shell and bone. For example, typologically similar Conus sp. beads have been found in archaeological contexts dating to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic through Byzantine periods (Table 6.1). As there are only two methods to work this shell (Bar-Yosef

Table 6.1. Examples of Conus sp. beads found at other sites located in the southern Levant Site

Date

Context

Jilat

PPNB

–

Basta

PPNB

–

Reference Bar-Yosef Mayer 1999: 66 Bar-Yosef Mayer 1999: 66 Goring-Morris and Gopher 1983:156-157, fig. 4:13

Nahal Issaron Ramat Saharonim

Late Pottery Neolithicor Early Timnian

Tumulus 30

Rosen et al. 2007: 18

‘Ein Huderah nawamis

EB I

Burials

Jericho

EB II

Tomb A127

Kenyon 1960, fig. 28

Tomb F2

Kenyon 1960, fig. 65

Bar-Yosef et al. 1977: 73, pl. 11E

Jericho

EB II

Bâb edh-Dhrâ

EB II–III

Charnel House A20 Wilkinson 1989: 461-462

Bâb edh-Dhrâ

EB II–III

Charnel House A21 Wilkinson 1989: 463-465

Bâb edh-Dhrâ

EB II–III

Charnel House A44 Wilkinson 1989: 466-468

Bâb edh-Dhrâ

EB II–III

Charnel House A51 Wilkinson 1989:468

Beer Resisim

EB IV/MB I

Area 8A

Timna

19th/20th Egyptian Dynasties

Egyptian temple

Kertesz 1988: 204, fig. 78:1-4

“Aharoni Fortress”

10th-11th centuries BCE

Israelite fortress

Meshel 1994: 51–53, figs. 17:13, 18:b

Tawilan

Iron Age/Persian period

Topsoil

Bienkowski 1995: 90, 321, fig. 9.32:1; Reese 1995: 94, table 10.1

Nessana

6th-8th centuries CE

I.9

Cohen and Dever 1979: 52, fig. 12; Bar-Yosef Mayer 1999:323

Colt 1962: 64, No. 8

Table 6.2. Examples of rectangular and elongated spacer beads with double perforations found at sites in the Negev and Sinai Site

Date

Material

Abu Halil

Chalcolithic-EB I

Pinctada margaritifea

‘Ein Huderah nawamis

Chalcolithic-EB I

Mother-of-Pearl

Arad

EB II

Hematite

Horbat Tawwasim burial cave

EB IV/MB I

Bone

Timna Egyptian temple

19th-20th Egyptian Dynasties 1318-1156 BCE

Faience

Tell es-Sa‘idiyeh Cemetery Tomb 101

13th century B.C.

Carnelian

Tell el-Hesi

1550-1800 CE

Mother-of-Pearl

151

Reference Arad-Ayalon n.d.b: 6, 15, pl. A:4 Bar-Yosef et al. 1977: pl. 12:A Amiran 1978: 54-55, fig. 68:7, pl. 120:1 Horowitz and Masarwa 1999: 3*, fig. 1:7-8 Rothenberg 1988: 314, fig. 83:98; 1993: 1485; Kertesz 1988: 209 Pritchard 1980: 14, 56-57, fig. 19:11-13 Toombs 1985: 100, 228, pl. 68 c

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 6.3. Numbers of gold beads and beads made of other materials at selected Early Bronze Age sites Site

Gold beads

Beads of other materials

Azor Tombs 1 and 4(EB I)

2

1200

Ben-Tor 1975: 23–24, pl. 22:5, fig. 12:9

En Hanatziv (EB I)

2

120

Amiran, Sebbane, and Ilan 1986: 17-18

Lachish Cave 1535(EB I)

1

132

Tufnell 1958: 73-74, 266-267, pl. 29:17; Stager 1992: fig. 16

Bab edh Dhra Charnel House A41 (EB II-III)

1

12

Wilkinson 1989: 466

Kinneret tomb

8

31

Mazar, Amiran, and Haas 1973: 176-193

83). The human remains in Tumuli 801 and 813, in contrast, were presumably discarded in order to reuse the burial cists for subsequent interments.

References

personal ornaments most likely functioned as protective amulets. Along these lines, it is possible that the three cowries from Tumulus 813 at Site 24 represent evidence that the interred were Bedouin. Cowrie shells were frequently used by the Bedouin as talismans to protect them from a range of maladies (Eakins 1993: 60-61; Simpson 1995: 246; Meir 2002: 10*, fig. 10, 14, fig. 11, 22, fig. 17; Vogel 2002: 22*). Bedouin women used cowrie shells as fertility amulets, and stitched them into the hats of young boys to protect them from the evil eye (Peters 1990: 191, 246; Abu-Rabia 2012: 252).

Third, the presence of the gold beads at Site 25 is highly unusual, as personal ornaments made of precious metals are rare at Early Bronze Age pastoral campsites in the Negev Highlands in particular and at Early Bronze Age sites in the southern Levant to the north of modern Beersheva in general (Table 6.3). Gold barrel-shaped beads were typically used at the ends of various types of Old Kingdom jewelry, such as beaded collars. The question is, if these three beads came from a larger piece of Old Kingdom jewelry, what happened to the rest of it? Was the original piece of jewelry disassembled in order to reuse the precious metals for exchange purposes or in another piece of jewelry? In any event, the presence of the gold beads at Site 25 is interpreted as evidence of activities involving direct and/or indirect exchange between Egypt and the Negev Highlands, or perhaps even brigandage.

References ABU-RABI'A, A. 2012 – The Significance of Colours in Pastoral Bedouin Society. Pp. 247-256 in Serendipity in Anthropological Research: The Nomadic Turn, eds. H. Hazan and E. Hertzog. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited.

Fourth, the presence of faience and glass beads in Early Bronze Age tumuli is evidence that these structures were reused for interments in later periods, much like some of the nawamis in Sinai reused by subrecent Bedouin for burying their dead (Palmer 1871: 317; Bar-Yosef et al. 1977: 84, Nawamis 3; Bar-Yosef et al. 1986: 126, Gu 16). A working hypothesis is that the faience and glass beads from Sites 24 and 33 are indicators that subrecent Bedouin buried their dead in these locations. This hypothesis is in part based on the color of the beads, which corresponds to published information on Bedouin folk beliefs. The color of the red bead in the burial of the female in Tumulus 517 at Site 33 is associated with a range of protective qualities: “…red agate, carnelian or amber were regarded as a means of healing, preventing ear/throat inflammation, abortion, internal bleeding and other dangers, and promoting love and fertility” (Simpson 1995: 246).

AMIRAN, R. 1978 – Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze City: First-Fifth Seasons of Excavations, 1962-1966. Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem. AMIRAN, R., M. SEBBANE and O. ILAN 1986 – The Excavation of Two Tomb-Caves: One at Ancient Arad and One in the Beth Shean Valley. The Israel Museum Journal 5:13-18. ARAD-AYALON, N. n.d.a – Ein Hudrah Nawamis, 2nd Excavations: Preliminary Report. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. ARAD-AYALON, N. n.d.b – The Nawamis of Abu Halil. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. BARAG, D. 2003 – Early Glass Vessels. Pp. 21-64 in Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum: The Eliahu Dobkin Collection and Other Gifts, ed. Y. Israeli. Jerusalem: Israel Museum.

The colors of the turquoise and blue beads are also significant as turquoise is used “to ensure prosperity” (Simpson 1995: 246) and blue as a talisman to ward off the evil eye (Canaan 1927: 185; Weir 1976: 68; Walker 2001: 61, footnote 23; Helmecke 1998: 40-42, Amulets 67, 69, 73, 81, 91-93). Thus, the presence of faience and colored glass beads in burial contexts indicates that these

BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER, A. GOREN and P. SMITH 1977 – The Nawamis near 'Ein Huderah (Eastern Sinai). Israel Exploration Journal 27: 65-88. BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER-COHEN, A. GOREN, I. HERSHKOVITZ, O. ILAN, H. K. MIENIS and B. SASS 1986 – Nawamis and Habitation Sites near Gebel

152

CHAPTER 6: PERSONAL ORNAMENTS

KERTESZ, T. 1988 – Beads and Pendants. Pp. 203-212 in The Egyptian Mining Temple at Timna, ed. B. Rothenberg. London: Institute for ArchaeoMetallurgical Studies, Institute of Archaeology, University College London.

Gunna, Southern Sinai. Israel Exploration Journal 36 (3-4): 121-167. BAR-YOSEF MAYER, D. 1999 – The Role of Shells in the Reconstruction of Socio-Economic Aspects of Neolithic through Early Bronze Age Societies in Sinai. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. BAR-YOSEF MAYER, D. E., N. PORAT, Z. GAL, D. SHALEM and H. SMITHLINE 2004 – Steatite Beads at Peqi'in: Long Distance Trade and Pyro-Technology during the Chalcolithic of the Levant. Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (4): 493-502. BECK, H. C. 1928 – Classification and Nomenclature of Beads and Pendants. Archaeologia 77: 1-76. BEN-TOR, A. 1975 – Two Burial Caves of the ProtoUrban Period at Azor 1971. Qedem 1:1-54. BIENKOWSKI, P. 1995 – The Small Finds. Pp. 79-92 in Excavations at Tawilan in Southern Jordan, eds. C.M. Bennett and P. Bienkowski. Oxford: British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History. CANAAN, T. 1927 – The Child in Palestinian Arab Superstition. Journal of Palestine Oriental Society 7: 159-186. COHEN, R. and W. G. DEVER 1979 – Preliminary Report of the Second Season of the “Central Negev Highlands Project.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 236: 41-60. COLT, D. 1962 – Miscellaneous Small Objects. Pp. 51-69 in Excavations at Nessana, ed. D. Colt. London: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem. EAKINS, K. J. 1993 – Tell el-Hesi: The Muslim Cemetery in Fields V and VI/IX (Stratum II). Joint Archaeological Expedition to Tell el-Hesi. Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, Indiana. GOREN, A., and N. ARAD-AYALON. n.d. – The Nawamis of Wadi Sawawin. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. GORING-MORRIS, A. N. and A. GOPHER 1983 – Nahal Issaron: A Neolithic Settlement in the Southern Negev. Israel Exploration Journal 33: 149-162. HELMECKE, G. 1998 – The Objects. Pp. 35-49 in Ya kafi, ya shafi... The Tawfik Canaan Collection of Palestinian Amulets: An Exhibition, October 30, 1998-February 25, 1999, ed. K. Nashef. Al-Bireh: Birzeit University. HOROWITZ, T. and M. MASARWA 1999 – An Intermediate Bronze Age Burial Cave at Horbat Tawwasim in ElFureidis. ‘Atiqot 38: 1*-4*. HORWITZ, L. K., S. A. ROSEN and F. BOCQUENTIN 2011 – A Late Neolithic Equid Offering from the MortuaryCult Site of Ramat Saharonim in the Central Negev. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 41: 71-81. ILAN, O., P. VANDIVER and M. SPAER 1993 – An Early Glass Bead from Tel Dan. Israel Exploration Journal 43: 230-234. KENYON, K. M. 1960 – Excavations at Jericho. Volume 1: The Tombs Excavated in 1952-4. London: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem.

MAZAR, B., R. AMIRAN and N. HAAS 1973 – An Early Bronze Age II Tomb at Beth-Yerah (Kinneret). EretzIsrael, 11 (I. Dunayevsky Memorial Volume): 28*, 176-193. MEIR, C. 2002 – Traditional Headdresses of Arab and Bedouin Women. Pp. 5*-15* in Crown of Coins: Traditional Headdresses of Arab and Bedouin Women, ed. C. Meir. Tel Aviv: Eretz Israel Museum. MESHEL, Z. 1994 – The “Aharoni Fortress” near Quseima and the “Israelite Fortresses” in the Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 294: 3967. NICHOLSON, P. and E. PELTENBURG 2000 – Egyptian Faience. Pp. 177-194 in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, eds. P. T. Nicholson and I. Shaw. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. PALMER, E. H. 1877 – The Desert of the Exodus: Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of the Forty Years’ Wanderings. Volume 2. London: Deighton, Bell and Co. PETERS, E. L. 1990 – The Bedouin of Cyrenaica: Studies in Personal and Corporate Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. PRITCHARD, J. B. 1980 – The Cemetery at Tell esSa‘idiyeh, Jordan. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. REESE, D. S. 1995 – Marine Invertebrates and Fossils. Pp. 93-96 in Excavations at Tawilan in Southern Jordan, eds. C.-M. Bennett and P. Bienkowski. British Academy Monographs in Archaeology 8. Oxford: British Institute at Amman for Archaeology and History. ROSEN, S. A., Y. AVNI, F. BOCQUENTIN and N. PORAT 2007 – Investigations at Ramat Saharonim: A Desert Neolithic Sacred Precinct in the Central Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 346: 1-27. ROTHENBERG, B. 1988 – The Egyptian Mining Temple at Timna. London: Institute for Archaeo-Metallurgical Studies Institute of Archaeology, University College London. ROTHENBERG, B. 1993 – Timna‘. Pp. 1475-1486 in The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern. Vol. 4 Petra-Ziqim. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society and Carta. SAVAGE, S. H. 2000 – The Status of Women in Predynastic Egypt as Revealed through Mortuary Analysis. Pp. 77-92 in Reading the Body: Representations and Remains in the Archaeological Record, ed. A. Rautman. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. SIMPSON, S. J. 1995 – Death and Burial in the Late Islamic Near East: Some Insights from Archaeology 153

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

and Ethnography. Pp. 240-251 in The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East, eds. S. Campbell and A. Green. Oxbow Monograph 51. Oxford: Oxbow Books.

VOGEL, T. 2002 – Negev Bedouin Women and Their Clothes. Pp. 17*-23* in Crown of Coins: Traditional Headdresses of Arab and Bedouin Women, ed. C. Meir. pp. Tel Aviv: Eretz-Israel Museum.

SPAER, M. 2001 – Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum: Beads and Other Small Objects. Jerusalem: Israel Museum.

WALKER, B. J. 2001 – The Late Ottoman Cemetery in Field L, Tall Hisban. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 322: 47-65.

STAGER, L. E. 1992 – The Periodization of Palestine from Neolithic through Early Bronze Times. Pp. 22-41 in Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, ed. R. W. Ehrich. Third Edition. Vol. 1 (Text). 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

WEIR, S. 1976 – The Bedouin: Aspects of the Material Culture of the Bedouin of Jordan. London: World of Islam Festival Publishing Company Ltd. WILKINSON, A. 1989 – Objects from the Early Bronze II and III Tombs. Pp. 444-470 in Bâb edh-Dhrâ: Excavations in the Cemetery Directed by Paul W. Lapp (1965-67), eds R. T. Schaub and W. E. Rast. Reports of the Expedition to the Dead Sea Plain, Jordan. Volume 1. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.

TOOMBS, L. E. 1985 – Tell el Hesi: Modern Military Trenching and Muslim Cemetery in Field I, Strata III. Joint Archaeological Expedition to Tell el Hesi 2. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Ontario. TUFNELL, O. 1958 – Lachish IV (Tell Ed-Duweir). London: Oxford University Press.

154

CHAPTER 7: THE GROUND STONE ASSEMBLAGE

Chapter 7: THE GROUND STONE ASSEMBLAGE YAEL ABADI-REISS AND BENJAMIN SAIDEL INTRODUCTION

RAW MATERIALS

In the course of Mordechai Haiman’s fieldwork, 17 fragments of ground stone tools and 28 pieces of waste from the production of ground stone implements were collected from the following sites in the Negev Highlands: Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/Jebel Tiwal); Site 23 (Har Horesha), Site 26 (‘Ein Hameara), Site 27 (Har Saggi 1), Site 33 (Har Saggi 5), Site 22 (Kadesh-Barnea 95/2), Site 250 (Map 200) and Site 304 (Map 200) (Haiman 1991a: 82*, 94*, 1991b) (Tables 7.1-7.2). This assemblage is very small and was collected at a time when there was a tendency to overlook this type of material culture (Abadi 2003: 11-12). The small quantities of artifacts retrieved from Haiman’s fieldwork most likely do not reflect the true extent of the ground stone assemblages which were originally present at these nine locations. Unfortunately, the small number of artifacts in this assemblage prohibits statistical comparisons with ground stone assemblages found at other sites in the Negev Highlands.

An examination of the artifacts demonstrates that two flakes are made of sandstone, while the majority (n = 26) are made of metamorphic, perhaps ferruginous, sandstone (Table 7.1). Rosen and Schneider (2001) identified two quarries inside the Ramon Crater, Nahal Ramon and Ramat Saharonim North, for extracting metamorphic and ferruginous sandstone (Rosen and Schneider 2001: 202206; Abadi and Rosen 2008: 106-109). Metamorphic and ferruginous sandstone were quarried from dikes that formed at the end of the Jurassic period (e.g., Phelcser 1966; Rosen and Schneider 2001: 202, 204; Abadi and Rosen 2008: 106-109). Both raw materials belong to the Mediterranean rock formation of the Middle Jurassic period. Aside from Nahal Ramon and Ramat Saharonim North, it is reasonable to assume that there are additional quarries located inside the Ramon Crater that have yet to be discovered. WASTE PRODUCTION The presence of one of the three following characteristics was deemed sufficient to identify a flake: first, a bulb of percussion; second, a well-defined striking platform; and third, a clear ventral surface that has a degree of convexity. A further distinction was made between primary and secondary flakes in order to identify different stages in the reduction sequence. Primary flakes have one ventral surface, and the exterior surface of the sandstone is typically irregular and rough. In contrast, secondary flakes are characterized by ventral and dorsal faces that have scars from previous removals (Abadi 2003: 20-21). The waste assemblage contains two primary flakes and 18 secondary flakes (Table 7.1). The latter are indicative of the final stages in the manufacture of ground stone implements.

METHODOLOGY This study uses the terminology devised by Kraybill (1977) and the ground stone typology devised by Wright (1992). An underlying assumption of this research is that the manufacturing process was organized and that the different products found in the field reflect the different stages in the production sequence (e.g., Rosen 1997a:21, 29; Abadi and Rosen 2008: 101-104). The analysis of waste follows the methodology outlined in Abadi (2003) and Abadi and Rosen (2008: 101-104). The basic typology for the technological analysis of grinding stones is similar to that employed for sorting flint waste products, as the basic functions of removal and knapping are the same. While these typologies are similar, they are not identical, as the raw materials have different properties. For instance, when large quartzite sandstone is knapped, the break usually does not create percussion waves, whereas percussion waves are typically found on flint.

Chunks and chips are sorted in the same manner as flint (e.g., Rosen 1997a: 30). For example, chips measure less than 2 cm in size, while chunks are larger than 2 cm 155

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 7.1. The waste from ground stone production recovered in the course of Haiman’s excavations and surveys Type of Waste

Raw Material

Primary or Secondary Flake

38.7

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

2.2

3

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

3.9

2.7

2.3

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

Locus 53

6.3

4.4

167.3

Flake (c)

Metamorphic Sandstone

P

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area C)

Locus 37

6.1

3.2

95.1

Chunk

Metamorphic Sandstone

6

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area C)

Locus 37

3.8

3.4

25.1

Chunk

Metamorphic Sandstone

7

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area B)

Locus 32

2.43

2.1

5.8

Chunk

Metamorphic Sandstone

8

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area B)

Locus 32

1.7

1.4

2.3

Chip

Metamorphic Sandstone

9

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area B)

Locus 32

1.4

1.5

2.3

Chip

Metamorphic Sandstone

10

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area B)

Locus 32

1.5

1

1.4

Chip

Sandstone

11

Site 88 (Kadesh-Barnea 95/2)

95/2

5.2

3.4

38.9

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

12

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2 )

95/2

5.4

3.4

26.6

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

13

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2)

95/2

4.6

2.3

19

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

14

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2)

95/2

5.7

3.9

58.3

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

15

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2)

95/2

3.35

2.6

10

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

16

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2)

95/2 G4

4.66

5.25

77.4

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

P

17

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2)

95/2

5.85

3.43

27.7

Flake (a)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

18

Site 88 (Qadesh-Barnea 95/2, Area B2)

95/2

3.33

2.67

12.5

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

19

Site 27 (Har Saggi 1/ Biq’at Hissun)

Locus 107 Basket 1009

3.3

2.4

5.4

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

20

Site 33 (Har Saggi 5)

Locus 506 Basket 5016

6.3

4.15

119.5

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

21

Site 33 (Har Saggi 5)

Locus 502

4.08

3

13.6

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

22

Site 33 (Har Saggi 5)

Locus 502

2.05

2

3.09

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

23

Site 23 (Har Horesha)

Locus 99, Basket 838a

3.1

2.3

8

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

24

Site 23 (Har Horesha)

Locus 99, Basket 838b

3.09

2.3

6.1

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

25

Site 23 (Har Horesha)

Locus 92, Basket 821a

4.4

1.7

16.2

Flake (b)

Metamorphic Sandstone

S

26

Site 23 (Har Horesha)

Locus 92, Basket 821b

2.5

1.5

6.5

Chunk

Metamorphic Sandstone

Length in Width in Weight in Centimeters Centimeters Grams

Site

Context

1

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area C)

Locus 37/2

3.7

3.1

2

Site 1 (RamatMatred 3, Area B

Locus 35

2

3

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area C)

Locus 3, Grid BF12

4

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3, Area B)

5

156

CHAPTER 7: THE GROUND STONE ASSEMBLAGE

Length in Width in Weight in Centimeters Centimeters Grams

Site

Context

27

Site 23 (Har Horesha)

Locus 92, Basket 821c

1.6

1.3

28

Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/ Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal)

L103, Basket 1011

4

2.2

Primary or Secondary Flake

Type of Waste

Raw Material

1.4

Chip

Metamorphic Sandstone

10

Flake

Sandstone

S

Site

Context

Raw Material

Lower or Upper Stone

Type Number According to Wright (1992:61)

Shape of Use Surface

Unidentifiable Fragment

Weight (gm) of Broken Fragment

Thickness (cm) of Broken Fragment

Figure

Table 7.2. Ground stone artifacts retrieved from sites which were surveyed and/or excavated by Haiman. All implements are broken

1

Site 1

Areac C, Locus 37/3

Metamorphic Sandstone

Upper Stone

40

Flat

–

800

5.44

Fig. 7.2

2

Site 1

Area C, Locus 37/3

Metamorphic Sandstone

–

–

Convex

+

298.4

2.86

3

Site 1

BF14

Metamorphic Sandstone

Upper Stone

43

Flat

–

150.9

3.94

Fig. 7.1:1

4

Site 1

Area C, Locus 37, Basket 352

Metamorphic Sandstone

Lower Stone

6

Concave

–

241.3

2.9

Fig. 7.1:2

5

Site 250, Map 200

Surface

Basalt

–

–

–

900

7.0

6

Site 250, Map 200

Surface

Basalt

Lower Stone (3 Conjoinable Pieces)

–

Flat

–

1100

3.4

7

Site 250, Map 200

Surface

Basalt

Lower Stone

–

Flat

–

700

3.5

8

Site 304, Map 200

Surface

Basalt

Upper Stone (2 Conjoinable Pieces)

–

–

–

900

4.2

9

Site 26

Area A, Structure 901, Metamorphic Locus 907, Basket 90/3 Sandstone

–

–

–

+

108.8

–

10

Site 26

Area A, Structure 901, Metamorphic Surface Sandstone

–

–

–

+

156.9

3.6

11

Site 26

Flat

–

800

5.1

Surface

Metamorphic Sandstone

Upper Stone

Fig. 7.4

Fig. 7.5

Fig. 7.6

and Avni 1997: 81, 83, fig. 8.1; American Colony Photography Department 1938; Avitsur 1976:74-76). All ground stone tools were broken and three of them were so fragmentary that it was not possible to determine if they were mobile or stationary stones (Table 7.2: 2, 9, 10). The measurements customarily used in describing complete ground stone implements, such as weight, length, and width (e.g., Rowan 2004) could not be determined due to the poor condition of the artifacts. Nevertheless, these fragments were weighed and their thickness was recorded in order to convey to the reader the relative size and heft of these damaged implements. The poor physical condition of these tools impeded a typological study.

(Abadi 2003: 23). Sandstone chips and chunks were recovered from Sites 1 and 23, however, it is not possible to research any substantive conclusions given the small quantities in this assemblage (Table 7.1). GRINDING TOOLS The implements are representative of two different types of ground stone tools, saddle querns and rotary grinding stones, which are in turn are representative of two different chronological periods, the Early Bronze Age and a period of time extending from the 6th- early 20th centuries C. E. (Table 7.2) (Nevo 1991: 165, Plate 2:5; Rosen 157

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

There are four upper, or mobile, stones (Table 7.2: 1, 3, 13, 14) and two lower, or stationary stones made of metamorphic sandstone (Wright 1992: 63, 67) (Table 7.2: 4, 12) (Figs. 7.1-7.3). This type of raw material and the settlements where they are found, such as Sites 1, 26, and 27, are attributed to the Early Bronze Age II period (e.g., Abadi and Rosen 2008; Abadi-Reiss and Rosen 2011).

Fig. 7.2. Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), an upper stone unearthed in Building 2, Area B (Table 7.2:1). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

Fig. 7.1. 1, 2. Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), two fragments of metamorphic sandstone mill stones unearthed in Locus 37, Area C, (Table 7.2: 3, 4). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

Fig. 7.3. Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1/ Halufi I/Jebel Tiwal), a broken upper stone made of metamorphic standstone. This fragment measures 3.5 cm in width and 2.2 cm in hight

Fragments of rotary grinding stones were recovered from three sites (Table 7.2: 6-8, 11) (Figs. 7.4-6). A portion of an upper stone, made of metamorphic sandstone, was retrieved from Site 26 (Table 7.2: 11) (Fig. 7.6). Two lower stones, made of basalt, were collected from Site 250 in Map 200 (Table 7.2: 6-7) (Fig. 7.4). An additional fragment of basalt was too damaged to determine if it was

part of an upper or lower stone (Table 7.2: 5). A remnant of a basalt rotary grinding stone was collected at a stone threshing floor, identified as Site 304, in Map 200 (Haiman 1991a: 94*, Site 304) (Fig. 7.5). 158

CHAPTER 7: THE GROUND STONE ASSEMBLAGE

Fig. 7.6. Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara I), a fragment of basalt rotary grinding stone (Table 7.2:11). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

Fig. 7.4. Site 250, survey Map 200, three conjoinable basalt fragments that form part of a basalt rotary grinding (Table 7.2:6). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

93). Unfortunately, there is no evidence that the broken tools described above were repurposed for new tasks. The finds of broken rotary grinding stones at Early Bronze Age settlements, such as Sites 26 and 250 (Map 200), are evidence that squatters reoccupied these settlements during the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods. One of the ground stones from Site 250 (Table 7.26, Fig. 7:4) is similar in form and raw material to rotary grinding stones found at other Late ByzantineEarly Islamic settlements situated in the Negev Highlands (e.g., Nevo 1991: 165, Plate 2:5; Rosen and Avni 1997: 81, 83, fig. 8.1). Attributing squatter occupations to the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods is also based upon the pottery recovered from these settlements (see Saidel and Haiman, this volume; Haiman 1991a: 82*, Site 250). No pottery was associated with the broken basalt rotary grinding stone found at Site 304 in Map 200 (Haiman 1991a: 94*, Site 304) (Fig. 7.5). There are two equally plausible interpretations for this artifact: first it could be considered as evidence of a squatter occupation from the Late Byzantine-Early Islamic periods; an alternative suggestion is that this rotary grinding stone was used by subrecent Bedouin (see Avner 2007: 31, fig. 27:5). While the latter may seem counter intuitive, the Bedouin in the Negev Highlands and in Biq’at Uvda did engage in agricultural activities (see Epstein 1939; Kirk 1941: 59, Zone 2, Plate 5; Avner 2007: 32-34).

Fig. 7.5. Site 304, Survey Map 200, two conjoinable basalt fragments that form part of a rotary grinding from (Table 7.2:8). Artifact drawn by Julia Skidel-Rymar

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The presence of broken grinding stones at the settlements described in this study (Table 7.2) most likely represent a pattern of discard whereby damaged ground stone implements were abandoned on site. Even though these tools are broken, ethnographic information indicates that they could have reused for a variety of purposes (e.g., Hayden and Cannon 1983: 132, footnote 2; Searcy 2011:

The presence of primary and secondary flakes at six EBA settlements in the Negev Highlands demonstrates that manufacture of metamorphic sandstone implements was a relatively widespread activity (Table 7.1). This activity was also prevalent within individual settlements, such as 159

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), where waste from the manufacture of ground stone tools was unearthed in both Areas B and C (Table 7.1). On a broader level, the waste retrieved from Haiman’s fieldwork corresponds with similar patterns identified at the Camel Site and Rekhes Nafha 396. In particular, ferruginous sandstone was transported from quarries located inside Makhtesh Ramon to the Camel Site and Rekhes Nafha 396 where it was fashioned into ground stone implements (Rosen 1997b;Rosen-Schneider 2001; Abadi 2003; Abadi and Rosen 2008: 113; Abadi-Reiss and Rosen 2011: 120). Waste from the production ground stone implements was systematically collected at both the Camel Site and Rekhes Nafha 396 (Saidel 2002: 49, 51; Abadi 2003; Abadi and Rosen 2008; Abadi-Reiss and Rosen 2011). An impressionistic comparison of the amounts of waste products unearthed at these locations with those analyzed in this study, suggest that Haiman’s field crews only retrieved a portion of the waste material.

Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. AMERICAN COLONY PHOTOGRAPHY DEPARTMENT 1938 – Caesarea (Kaisarieh). Grinding wheat (two women at the mill). Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, G. Eric and Edith Matson Collection, Washington D.C. Image Number LC-DIG-matpc18520. AMIRAN, R. 1978 – Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze City: First-Fifth Seasons of Excavations, 1962-1966. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. AVITSUR, S. 1976 – Man and his Work: Atlas of Tools and Workshops in the Holy Land. Jerusalem: Carta and Israel Exploration Society. AVNER, U. 2007 – Bedouin Cultural Remains in the Eilat Region. Pp. 25-36 in On the Fringe of Society: and Ethnoarchaeological Archaeological Perspectives on Pastoral and Agricultural Societies, eds. B. A. Saidel and E. Van der Steen, BAR International Series 1657. Oxford: BAR Publishing.

The upper and lower stones made of metamorphic sandstone (Table 7.2) are broadly similar in form to the implements found at the Camel Site and Rekhes Nafha 396. The ground stone implements discovered at the Camel Site are similar in form to the saddle querns unearthed in the EB II town of Arad (Rosen 1997b; Amiran 1978: 58, Plate 79). A visual examination of the saddle-querns found at Arad by Abadi-Reiss confirms that many of them are made of metamorphic sandstone, and some might have been made of ferruginous sandstone (Contra Amiran 1978: 58). While ground stone artifacts have been found at Arad, there is no evidence for their production at this settlement (Amiran 1978: 58). Instead, there is archaeological evidence for the manufacture of similar implements at the Camel Site and Rekhes Nafha 396 (Rosen and Schneider 2001; Abadi and Rosen 2008: 113; Abadi-Reiss and Rosen 2011). Rosen and Schneider have suggested that EB II communities in the Negev Highlands manufactured and brought ground stone implements to Arad in order to exchange them for agricultural products (Rosen 1994-95; 1997b; Rosen and Schneider 2001: 201). We concur with Rosen and Schneider, and suggest that this craft activity was practiced on a larger level in the Negev Highlands as represented by the modest data contained in this study (Table 7.1).

EPSTEIN, E. 1939 – Bedouin of the Negeb. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 71: 59-73. HAIMAN, M. 1991a – Map of Mizpe Ramon Southwest (200). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel. HAIMAN, M. 1991b – A Site of the Early Bronze Age at the Foot of Har Horesha (Hebrew). 'Atiqot 20: 1-12. HAYDEN, B. and A. CANNON 1983 – Where the Garbage Goes: Refuse Disposal in the Maya Highlands. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2: 117-163. KIRK, G. E. 1941 – The Negev, or Southern Desert of Palestine. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 73: 57-71. KRAYBILL, N. 1977 – Pre-Agricultural Tools for the Preparation of Foods in the Old World. Pp. 485-521 in Origins of Agriculture, ed. C. A. Reed. Hague: Mouton. NEVO, Y. D. 1991 – Pagans and Herders: A Reexamination of the Negev Runoff Cultivation Systems in the Byzantine and Early Arab Periods. Jerusalem: Israel Publication Services. PHELCSER, A. 1966. Introduction to Geology. Jerusalem: Academon (Hebrew).

References

ROSEN, S. A. 1994-5 – Microlithic Drills from the Camel Site, Mitzpeh Ramon. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 26: 148-158.

ABADI, Y. 2003 – Early Bronze Age Grinding Stone Production in the Negev Highlands. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Ben-Gurion University (Hebrew).

ROSEN, S. A. 1997a – Lithics after the Stone Age: A Handbook of Stone Tools from the Levant. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.

ABADI, Y. and S. A. ROSEN 2008 – A Chip off the Old Millstone: Grinding Stone Production and Distribution in the Early Bronze Age of the Negev. Pp. 99-115 in New Approaches to Old Stones: Recent Studies of Ground Stone Artifacts, ed. Y. M. Rowan and J. R. Ebeling. London: Equinox.

ROSEN, S. A. 1997b – Beyond Milk and Meat: Lithic Evidence for Economic Specialization in the Early Bronze Age Pastoral Periphery in the Levant. Lithic Technology 22(1): 99-109.

ABADI-REISS, Y. and S. A. ROSEN 2011 – Milling Stones and Waste. Pp. 111-122 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site,

ROSEN, S. A. and G. AVNI 1997 – The 'Oded Sites: Investigations of Two Early Islamic Pastoral Camps South of the Ramon Crater. Beer-Sheva 11. 160

CHAPTER 7: THE GROUND STONE ASSEMBLAGE

Beersheva: Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Press.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002 – The Excavations at Rekhes Nafha 396 in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 325: 37-63.

ROSEN, S. A. and J. SCHNEIDER 2001 – Early Bronze Age Milling Stone Production and Exchange in the Negev: Preliminary Conclusions. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 31: 201-211.

SEARCY, M. T. 2011 – The Life-Giving Stone: Ethnoarchaeology of Maya Metates. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

ROWAN, Y. M. 2004 – The Groundstone Assemblage. Pp. 183-202 in Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata, ed. A. Golani. IAA Reports 18. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

WRIGHT, K. I. 1992 – Classification System for Ground Stone Tools from the Prehistoric Levant. Paléorient 18: 53-81.

161

CHAPTER 8: CERAMIC PETROGRAPHY

Chapter 8: CERAMIC PETROGRAPHY ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER AND BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL are angular, poorly-sorted fragments of granite rock or its component minerals, such as biotite, feldspar, muscovite and quartz. Also present, albeit in limited quantities, is arkosic sandstone, which is cemented by silica.

INTRODUCTION The sixty-eight sherds sampled in this study were drawn from 17 sites located in the Negev Highlands (Table 8.1). The purpose of this investigation was to determine the geographical locations of the clay sources which were used by ancient potters. By determining the approximate location of the clay sources it is possible to identify the movement of ceramic containers (Table 8.1). The data generated by this research also provided a means to determine the number of clay sources which were used to manufacture Early Bronze Age holemouth vessels. Aside from Early Bronze Age pottery a small amount of sherds from other periods were sampled in order to determine their provenance (Table 8.1).

Granite temper from plutonic rocks is extremely rare in Israel. Granites and related igneous rocks are exposed in southern Jordan, Eilat, and southern Sinai (Weissbrod 1981), therefore, the samples presented here most likely originated from one or more of these locations. Similar raw materials were identified in Early Bronze Age pottery found at sites located in the Negev, such as Arad, however, these samples were assigned a provenance in southern Sinai (Haiman 1991: 8-12; Amiran et al. 1973: 195; Haiman and Goren 1992: 147; Porat 1984: 59-61, Porat 1989a: 174; Porat 2003: 266). Following these studies Adams proposed that southern Jordan, and not southern Sinai, was source of “arkosic” cooking pots found at Arad (Adams 2003: 17). Goren’s study (1996a: 47) of Early Bronze Age IV/MB I pottery found in the Negev Highlands also identified an “Arkose Group” which he attributed to the Feinan region (e.g., south Jordanian provenance).

The methodology employed in this petrographic investigation included an assessment of the geological environs of each site, which was then compared with the provenance of the raw material. The reference material consulted for this investigation included various published geological maps for the southern Levant (Bender 1974; Rabb'a et al. 1994; Sneh et al. 1998b; Avni 2001; Zilberman and Avni 2004a, b). The actual petrographic methodology employed here follows the research of Whitbread (1995) and Vaughan (1996), and the reader is referred to their publications for additional details on this procedure. Suffice it to say that each thin section, measuring 30- microns, was viewed through petrographic (polarizing) microscope, and then attributed to one of 17 petrographic groups that are described below.

Group A’s mineralogical assemblage indicates the provenances of the ceramics in this category are located in the following three regions, southern Jordan, the environs of Eilat and southern Sinai. From a petrographic point of view it is difficult to distinguish between these areas. For instance a petrographic investigation of ceramic vessels from the environs of Wadi Feinan identified more heterogeneous rock types than those of southern Sinai, (Goren 1990: 105*, Porat and Goren 2002: 261), however, the absence of volcanic rock fragments in samples from the present material does not preclude the possibility of a Transjordanian origin. The combination of non-carbonatic clay with some silty dolomite and igneous rocks has also been identified in southern Levantine pottery found in Dynasty 1 tombs at Abydos, Egypt. The provenance of this pottery may be in

THE PETROGRAPHIC GROUPS Group A – The matrix is characterized by optically active non-carbonatic clay with abundant bimodal opaque minerals, however, in two samples the matrix is characterized by silty dolomite crystals (Table 8.1, samples 22, 28). Within Group A the inclusions (temper)

163

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 8.1. The samples and their petrographic groups Sample No.

Site

Context

Description of Vessel

Comments

Petrographic Group

Figure

1

Site 7

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

–

I

See Fig. 4.9: 8 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

2

Site 7

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

–

I

See Fig. 4:10:1 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

3

Site 7

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

–

I

See Fig. 4:9:3 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

4

Site 7

Locus 1111

Holemouth Vessel

–

A

See Fig. 4:9:7 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

5

Site 7

Surface

Holemouth Vessel/Base

Base

K

6

Site 7

Surface

Base

7

Site 9

Structure 320

Holemouth Vessel

–

C1

See Fig. 4.13:2 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

8

Site 9

Structure 319

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 13

C1

See Fig. 4.13:1 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

9

Site 9

Structure319

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 20

A

See Fig. 4.14:2 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

10

Site 9

Structure 319/1

Holemouth Vessel, Base

Sherd 20

D

See Fig. 4.13:9 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

11

Site 7

Building 115, Locus111

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 11

A

See Fig. 4.9:5 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

12

Site 9

Structure 329/1

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 18

A

See Fig. 4:14:3 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

13

Site 7

1017

HMV, Body Sherd (?)

Sherd 15

A

14

Site 8

Building 240

EBA, HMV

Sherd 29

L

See Fig. 4.12:3 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

15

Site 8

Building 240

EBA, Jug

Sherd 211

C2

See Fig. 4.12:1 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

16

Site 27

Locus 103

EBIV/MBI Amphoriskos

–

H1

See Fig. 4.28:1 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

17

Site 7

Locus96

Holemouth profile

Sherd 5

J

18

Site 7

Cairn 102

Iron Age II,Krater, Handmade

Sherd 18

F2

See Fig. 4.11:2 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

19

Site 7

Building 115, Courtyard115

EBA, Jar

Sherd 23

C2?

See Fig. 4.10:3 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

20

Site 7

Cairn 102

Iron Age, Base, Negebite Ware

Sherd 27

F2

See Fig. 4.11:3 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

21

Site 7

Cairn 102

Iron Age, Vessel, Negebite Ware

Sherd 30

F1

22

Site 23

92

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 33

A

23

Site 23

Building101

Red Burnished Body Sherd

Sherd 1

C3

24

Site 7

Locus 106

Base

Sherd 3

B

25

Site 7

Cairn 102

Iron Age Krater, Negebite Ware

Sherd 1

F1

26

Site 7

Locus 106

Base

Sherd 2

B

27

Site 7

Cairn 102

Iron Age, Handle, Negebite Ware

–

C2

28

Site 89

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 96

A

See Fig. 4.3.6 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

29

Site 89

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 40

B

See Fig. 4.3.5 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

164

I

CHAPTER 8: CERAMIC PETROGRAPHY

Sample No.

Site

Context

Description of Vessel

Comments

Petrographic Group

Figure

30

Site 89

Surface

Cup bowl

Sherd 95

I?

See Fig. 4.3.4 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

31

Site 58

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 1

M

See Fig. 4.1:6 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

32

Site 58

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 59

M

See Fig. 4.1:5 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

33

Site 58

Surface

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 60

M

See Fig. 4.1:4 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

34

Site 85

Surface

Byzantine Jar

Sherd 9

F2

See Fig. 4.2:13 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

35

Site 87

Surface

Early Bronze Age (?)

Bowl? Sherd 5

H2

36

Site 84

Surface

Persian Basket Handle Amphora,

Sherd 15

P

See Fig. 4.2:11 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

37

Site 84

Surface

Persian Basket Handle Amphora,

Sherd 16

P

See Fig. 4.2.12 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

38

Site 81

Surface

Byzantine Cooking pot

Sherd 15

N

See Fig. 4.2:9 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

39

Site 62

Surface

Byzantine Cooking ware

Sherd 12

N

See Fig. 4.2.4 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

40

Site 62

Surface

Byzantine Cooking ware

Sherd 11

P

See Fig. 4.2.1 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

41

Site 103

Surface

Handmade ware

Flat Base, Sherd 37

F1?

See Fig. 4.4:6 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

42

Site 103

Surface

Byzantine Handle

Sherd 32

N

See Fig. 4.4:2 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

43

Site 103

Surface

Byzantine Cooking ware

Sherd 14

N?

See Fig. 4.4.5 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

44

Kadesh Barnea Site 64/1

Surface

Roman-Early Byzantine (?) Jar

Sherd 5

F1

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.1:2 this volume

45

Kadesh Barnea Site 64/ 1

Surface

Unknown

Base, Sherd 6

F2

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.1:1 this volume

46

Site 1

Area C, Locus 38

Late Byzantine-Early Islamic body sherd

Sherd 6

F1

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.7:4 this volume

47

Site 1

Area C, Locus 38

Late Byzantine-Early Islamic, Handle

Sherd 5

H2

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.7:3 this volume

48

Site 27

Structure 3, Locus 104

Pottery Neolithic

Sherd 1

G

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.28:4 this volume

49

Site 27

Structure 5, Locus 110

EBA Base

–

E

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.28:3 this volume

50

Site 27

Structure 5, Locus 110

EBIV/MBI Jar

Sherd 2

E

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.28:5 this volume

51

Site 24

Area B, Structure 812, Locus 809

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 74

B

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.23 this volume

52

Site 26

Area A, Structure 901, Locus 902

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 1

B

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.26:9 this volume

53

Site 26

Area A, Structure/Locus 905

Unknown, Base

Sherd 3

D

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.27:6 this volume

54

Site 26

Area A, Structure/Locus 905

Holemouth Vessel

Sherd 6

B

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.26:3 this volume

55

Site 26

Area A, Structure 901, Locus 908

EBA Juglet

Sherd 91

G?

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.27:2 this volume

56

Site 26

Area A, Structure 901, Courtyard/Locus 901

Byzantine-Early Islamic sherd

Sherd 1

P

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.26:1 this volume

165

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Sample No.

Site

Context

Description of Vessel

Comments

Petrographic Group

57

Site 27

Building 4, Room/Locus 109

EBIV/MBI Storage Jar

Sherd 44

F1

58

Site 27

Building 4, Courtyard/Locus 108

EBIV/MBI Storage Jar

Sherd 3

H1

See Saidel and Haiman, Fig. 4.28:2 this volume

59

Site 23

Structure 101, Locus 82

EBA Jar

Sherd 1

F2

See Fig. 4.17:10 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

60

Site 23

Structure 101, Locus 80

EBA Ledge Handle

Sherd 3

E

See Fig. 4.19:2 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

61

Site 23

Structure 101, Locus 92

EBA Ledge Handle

Sherd 14

A

See Fig. 4.19:1 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

62

Site 23

Structure 101, Locus 81

Red Slip Body Sherd

Sherd 20

C3

63

Site 23

Structure 101, Locus 91

Red Slip Body Sherd

Sherd 8

C3

64

Site 23

Structure 101, Locus 87

Red Slip Body Sherd

Sherd 1

C3

65

Site 23

Surface

Byzantine/Early Islamic Krater

Sherd 1

F2

See Fig. 4.22:5 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

66

Site 23

Surface

Byzantine, Rouletted Bowl, Form 4

Sherd 2

O

See Fig. 4.22:4 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

67

Site 23

Surface

Byzantine Cooking Pot, Magness Form 4C

Sherd 3

O

See Fig. 4.22:3 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

68

Site 23

Surface

Byzantine Cooking Pot

Sherd 4

O

See Fig. 4:22:2 in Saidel and Haiman this volume

Figure

Morzovella. Group C is subdivided into three subcategories based on the nature of the temper: Group C1 – crushed calcite, Group C2 – grog (crushed pottery), and Group C3 – chalk. The clay in Group C is identified as marl of the Taqiya Formation of Paleocene age. The Taqiya Formation is exposed in the northern and central Negev, central Sinai, the Judean Desert, and along the western slopes of the Judean anticline. This matrix with the addition of various non-plastic materials has been described in detail by Porat (1984: 63-73, 1989a) and Goren (1996a).

the Wadi Qena, which is situated to the east of Abydos (Porat and Goren 2002: 266). Group B – The matrix is clayey with varying amounts of argillaceous shale fragments and rhomb-shaped dolomite crystals. Thin (0.1-0.4 mm) and elongated (1-4 mm) fragments of fossil shell are used as a temper. Group B corresponds with Porat’s “Fossil Shells” category that she sourced to the Ora Shales Formation of the Early Turonian (1984: 61-63, 1989a: 175-177, 2003: 265). Outcrops of this formation, and presumably areas for the production of pottery, “occur along the Tih escarpment and the cliffs facing the Arava, east of the Uvda valley” (Porat 2003: 265). Vessels containing Ora shale are commonly found at Early Bronze Agesites located in southern Sinai, the Biq’at Uvda Valley, the Negev highlands, and in Stratum II at Arad (Porat 2003: 265). In the Early Bronze Age IV/MB I clay containing Ora shales continued to be used for pottery production (Goren 1996a: 54-55).

Group D – The matrix is rich in tiny (below 50 μm) rhombohedral dolomite crystals, and can contain the following types of tempers: crushed calcite (Table 8, sample 10), fine quartz, and sand-sized dolomite rhombs (Table 8, sample 53). This raw material is identified as a marl member of the Moza Formation that outcrops along the Judean and Samarian mountains (Sneh et al. 1998a). Moza clay was widely used for pottery production at many sites located in this region (e.g., Goren 1995: 301, 1996b: 149-150).

Group C – The matrix is characterized by carbonatic clay, sometimes optically active, which contains foraminifera and iron oxides. The foraminifera assemblage within the matrix is attributed to Paleogene age and samples contained the planktonic genii

Group E – The matrix is characterized by fine clay that is somewhat calcareous and rich in iron oxides. The following inclusions are visible in the clay of particular 166

CHAPTER 8: CERAMIC PETROGRAPHY

favissaat 'En Hazeva demonstrated that the raw material used by the potters came from the Hazeva Formation (Cohen-Weinberger 2011).

samples: grog (Table 8, samples 49, 60), chalk, limestone and nari (Table 8, sample 50). This clay is a member of the Moza Formation and it was widely used at sites located in the mountains of Judaea and Samaria (e.g., Goren 1996a: 51).

Group I – This argillaceous clay contains shales, and it is extremely rich in tiny (below 50 μm) rhombohedral dolomite crystals. The dolomite crystals underwent an alteration to brown-orange iron oxides and there is evidence of zoning. Fragments of coarse angular chert are the only non-plastic components in this group. Sometimes coarse silica grains are visible in veins or in the margins of the chert fragments which were most likely intentionally crushed. In the southern Levant, during the Early Bronze Age period, chert is seldom used as a sole tempering material. When chert is present, it is because the potter/s used wadi sand as a tempering material, and chert typically represented a minor component in this sediment.

Group F – The matrix is characterized by silty calcareous clay. The silty component contains mainly quartz, along with other recognizable minerals including epidote, feldspar, hornblende, and zircon. The silt is well sorted and comprises about 10-20% of the matrix. The pottery in this category is subdivided into two groups based upon the presence of added tempers: Group F1 – contains grog, voids of vegetal material, and rarely chart; Group F2 – contains mainly rounded quartz grains with accessory minerals and rock fragments, such as feldspar (microcline), hornblende, kurkar (quartzitic sandstone cemented by calcareous matrix), voids of vegetal material, and occasionally fragments of algae. This raw material is a loess that is located in the northern Negev and southern Shephelah and in antiquity it was used for pottery production (e.g., Goren 1996a: 54, CohenWeinberger and Goren 2004). Inclusions present in the loess matrix may indicate different geological environments within these areas where loess soil is distributed. For instance, the inclusions in subgroup F2 indicate that coastal sand was added to the clay.

The present combination of clay and non-plastic components in Group I has not been identified in previous petrographic studies of pottery found in Egypt, Israel, or Jordan. At Arad in the EB II crushed angular chert was used as a temper, however, the clay used to make these containers is dissimilar to the clay in Group I (Porat 1984: 63-66; Porat 1989b, Table 8: 4). Group I is also different from the dolomitic marl of the Moza Formation, which was widely used for pottery production at Chalcolithic sites located in Judean and Samarian hill country (e.g., Goren 1995: 301). The ‘En Yorqeam Formation, which is comparable to the Moza Formation in central Israel is also a dolomitic marl unit, with outcrops in the Judean desert and in the Makhtesh Ramon, Makhtesh Hatira, and Makhtesh Hazera (Sneh et al. 1998b, Avni 1996: 8, Zilberman and Avni 2004a, b). Illite is the prominent clay mineral in the ‘En Yorqeam Formation (Bentor 1966: 39), however, there is no evidence that this formation was used for the production of pottery. In tomb U-j at Abydos (equivalent to the Erani C Horizon of EB I) there is group of south Levantine pottery that is made of dolomitic clay, however, this material differs significantly in texture from clay that representative of Group I (Porat and Goren 2002: 260).

Group G – This category is characterized by argillaceous, ferruginous, shale rich clay. The two samples related to this group have rare tempers that include some fine quartz grains and siltstone (aggregates of spherical quartz grains cemented by iron oxide matrix). A large body of comparative data enables determination of the source of the raw material as Lower Cretaceous clay that outcrops widely in Lebanon, eastern Upper Galilee, and in eastern Samaria. In Transjordan exposures of this raw material located between Wadi Zarqa and the southern end of the Dead Sea. In southern Israel outcrops of Lower Cretaceous clay are extant in three large erosional cirques in the Negev (makteshim), while in Egypt they are located in Jebel Maghara, northern Sinai. This petrographic group has been discussed in detail (e.g., Greenberg and Porat 1996, Cohen-Weinberger and Goren 2004).

Group J – This group is characterized by argillaceous shale-rich clay. The shale fragments in the clay have a preferred optical orientation. Non-plastic components represent 10% of the paste, and include fragments of chert and rock with microquartz and macroquartz grains compacted together. Some of the grains exhibit undulatory extinction. The quartz grains in these rock fragments are angular. This monomineralic rock is probably a metasedimentary rock and its provenance is unknown. There is only one pottery vessel in this category (Table 8, sample 17).

Group H – This group is characterized by two types of clay, carbonatic clay (Table 8, samples 16, 58) and argillaceous clay that is rich in shale fragments (Table 8, samples 35, 47). The non-plastic components comprise 20% of the paste and include primarily quartz grains. Some grains are polycrystalline and some exhibit andulatory extinction. A number of samples contain a few fragments of fine chert. The potters who made the vessels in this category most likely used clay from the Hazeva Formation which is dated to the Miocene age. This clastic unit contains mainly quartz grains as well as chert and a non-calcareous shale-rich clay (Ben-Tor 1966: 15, 21, 42, Sa’ar 1986: 50-52, Calvo 2002: 140-144). Kaolinite and illite clay minerals are abundant in the upper part of the Hazeva Formation (Bentor 1966: 42). A petrographic study of the clay artifacts from the 7th century B.C.

Group K – This assemblage is characterized by noncarbonatic clay with some tiny (below 50 μm) rhombohedral dolomite crystals. Non-plastic components represent approximately 5% of the paste and contain rounded fragments of sandstone, and some of them are cemented by carbonate or silica. The quartz grains of the

167

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

sandstone show overgrowth of the detrital cores. Sandstones with silica cement do not appear in the lithostratigraphical units of Eretz-Israel. There is only ceramic container in this group (Table 8, sample 5).

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSION The petrographic analysis of the Early Bronze Age pottery collected by Haiman yielded results that are similar to previous provenance studies of ceramics found in the Negev and southern Sinai (e.g., Amiran et al. 1973: 195-197; Porat 1989a, 1989b; 2003). For instance previous research demonstrated that fossil shells are used as a temper for holemouth jars (e.g., Porat 2003: 265), whereas, arkose is added as a temper for holemouth cooking pots (e.g., Porat 2003: 266). Both types of temper are in present in the holemouth vessels sampled in this study (Table 8.1). Cohen-Weinberger’s analysis also demonstrated the difficulty in clearly distinguishing the difference between sources of arkose located in southern Sinai from those situated in southern Jordan.

Group L – This clay is rich in non-plastic components (approximately 30%). The non-plastic components are variegated and include angular fragments of arkosic sandstone rich in alkali feldspar, and volcanic rock fragments composed mostly of plagioclase laths with equigranular texture. This assemblage is similar to sand samples taken from the juncture of Wadi Ghuweir and Wadi Feinan in Transjordan. The samples in Group L are also similar to samples of conglomerate situated in Wadi Feinan. In this region arkosic sandstone and volcanic rocks are exposed in the Salib Arkosic Sandstone Formation, Ghuwayr Volcanics and Umm Ishrin Sandstone Formation (Sneh et al. 1998b, Rabb'a 1994: 11, 15, 21).

Cohen-Weinberger identified four new clay sources, Groups I, J, K, and M, used for manufacture of holemouth vessels (Fig. 4.31). Among the 22 holemouth vessels analyzed in this petrographic study nine sherds at attributed to these previous unknown clay sources (Fig. 4.31). The ceramic thin sections that comprise these four categories are not similar to the thin sections of raw materials and pottery that comprise the Israel Antiquities Authority petrographic database. A working hypothesis is that clay for these four petrographic groups are most likely located in the surrounding countries of Jordan, Egypt proper, and the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt). In closing this research provides additional information for analyzing the movement of pottery and people across the arid landscapes of the southern Levant.

Group M – The clay is argillaceous with a preferred optical orientation rich in badly sorted mica laths. Nonplastic components comprise 30% of the paste and include mainly angular coarse (< 2 mm) chert. The chert present in the thin sections contains quartz grains that are easily resolvable by microscope magnification. Other non-plastic components include fine angular (0.3 mm) quartz grains and a few fragments of sandstone. This combination of chert, quartz and mica is unknown in Early Bronze Age pottery and a geological setting that contains this assemblage does not exist in Eretz-Israel, thus, the provenance of the pottery in this assemblage unknown.

References

Group N – The matrix is a ferruginous clay that contains approximately 2% quartz silt. Opaque minerals are abundant in the silt-size fraction. The non-plastic components are mainly rounded to subangular grains of quartz (up to 300 µm) with few accessory feldspars that appear in the same grain-size. Other non-plastic components, such as chert, fragments of carbonatic rock and oxihornblende, occasionally appear in some of the thin sections. The raw material in this category is a red soil, locally known as hamra, and it is found in central littoral of Israel.

ADAMS, R. B. 2003 – External Influences at Faynan during the Early Bronze Age: A Re-Analysis of Building at Barqa el-Hetiye, Jordan. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 135: 6-21. AMIRAN, R., I. BEIT-ARIEH and J. GLASS 1973 – The Interrelationship between Arad and Sites in Southern Sinai in the Early Bronze Age II. Israel Exploration Journal 23: 193-197. AVNI, Y. 1996 – Raw Materials for Building Industry. Har Hamran and Har Loz sheets 21-I and 21-III. Israel Geological Survey Reports GSI/11/96. Jerusalem: Israel Geological Survey.

Group O – The matrix is ferruginous rich in silty quartz and small opaque bodies of iron minerals. Accessory hornblende, mica and a various amount of silty carbonate appear as well. The inclusions contain predominantly quartz grains (up to 300 µm), sometimes with undulatory extinction and few rounded carbonatic rock fragments. The matrix is identified as terra rossa soil, which is exposed primarily in the hill country of Eretz-Israel.

AVNI, Y. 2001 – Geological Map of Israel 1:50,000. Sheet 21-III: Har Loz. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel. BENDER, F. 1974 – Geology of Jordan. Translated by M. K. Khdeir, D. Parker, H. and U. Wilkening. Berlin: Borntraegern.

Group P – The matrix is ferruginous with abundant silty opaque minerals and mica laths. The raw material contains poorly sorted sand to silt sized quartz grains as well as high proportion of accessory and heavy minerals including abundant mica grains, feldspar, hornblende, zircon, pyroxene and epidote. The raw material of this group is identified as Nile sediment.

BENTOR, Y. K. 1966 – The Clays of Israel: Guide Book to the Excursions. The International Clay Conference. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations. CALVO, R. 2002 – Stratigraphy and Petrology of the Hazeva Formation in the Arava and the Negev: Implications for the Development of Sedimentary

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COHEN-WEINBERGER, A. 2011 – Provenance of the Clay Artifacts from the Favissa at 'En Hazeva.'Atiqot 68: 185-189.

PORAT, N. 1989b – Composition of Pottery-Application to the Study of the interrelations between Canaan and Egypt during the 3rd Millennium B.C. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem.

COHEN-WEINBERGER, A. and Y. GOREN 2004 – Levantine-Egyptian Interactions during the 12th to the 15th Dynasties Based on the Petrography of the Canaanite Pottery from Tell el-Dab'a. Ägypten Und Levante 14: 69-100.

PORAT, N. 2003 – Petrography of Pottery from the Survey Sites. Pp. 265-270 in Archaeology of Sinai: The Ophir Expedition, ed. I. Beit-Arieh. Tel Aviv: Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.

GOREN, Y. 1990 – The “Qatifian Culture” in Southern Israel and Transjordan: Additional Aspects for its Definition. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 23: 100*-112*.

PORAT, N. and Y. GOREN 2002 –Petrography of the Naqada IIIa Canaanite Pottery from Tomb U-j in Abydos. Pp. 252-270 in Egypt and the Levant. Interrelations from the 4th through the Early 3rd Millennium B.C.E., eds. C. M. E. Van den Brink and T. E. Levy. London and New York: Leicester University Press.

Basins and the Morphotectonics of the Dead Sea Rift Valley. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel.

GOREN, Y. 1995 – Shrines and Ceramics in Chalcolithic Israel. Archaeometry 37 (2): 287-305. GOREN, Y. 1996a – The Southern Levant in the Early Bronze Age IV: The Petrographic Perspective. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 303: 33-72.

RABB'A, I. 1994 – The Geology of the Al Qurayqira (Jabel Hamra Faddan), Map Sheet No. 3051 II. In Geology Directorate, Geological Mapping Division Bulletin 28. Amman: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Natural Resources Authority.

GOREN, Y. 1996b – Petrographic Study of the Pottery Assemblage. Pp. 147-154 in The Nahal Qanah Cave: The Earliest Gold in the Southern Levant., ed. A. Gopher. Monograph Series of the Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University No. 12. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University.

SA'AR, H. 1986 – Origin and Sedimentology of the Sandstones in Graben Fill Formations of the Dead Sea Rift Valley. Geological Survey of Israel Report GSI/3/86. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel. SNEH, A., Y. BARTOV and M. ROSENSAFT 1998a – Geological Map of Israel. 1:200.000, Sheet 2. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel.

GREENBERG, R. and N. PORAT 1996 – A Third Millennium Levantine Pottery Production Center: Typology, Petrography, and Provenance of the Metallic Ware of Northern Israel and Adjacent Regions. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 301: 5-24.

SNEH, A., Y. BARTOV, T. WEISSBROD and M. ROSENSAFT 1998b – Geological Map of Israel. 1:200.000, Sheet 3. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel. VAUGHAN, S. J. 1996 – Contributions of Petrography to the Study of Archaeological Ceramics and man-made Building Materials in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean. Pp. 117-125 in The Practical Impact of Science on Near Eastern and Aegean Archaeology ed. S. Pike and S. Gitin. London: Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies, Athens.

HAIMAN, M. 1991 – A Site of the Early Bronze Age at the Foot of Har Horesha (Hebrew). 'Atiqot 20: 1-12. HAIMAN, M. and Y. GOREN 1992 – “Negbite” Pottery: New Aspects and Interpretations and the Role of Pastoralism in Designating Ceramic Technology. Pp. 143-151 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press.

WEISSBROD, T. 1981 – The Paleozoic of Israel and Adjacent Countries (Lithostratigraphic Study) Israel Geological Survey Report No. MP/600/81. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel (Hebrew).

PORAT, N. 1984 – Petrography and Mineralogy of Pottery from Archaeological Sites located in Biq'at Uvda and Southern Israel. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Hebrew University.

WHITBREAD, I. K. 1995 – Greek Transport Amphorae. A petrological and Archaeological Study. Athens: British School at Athens. ZILBERMAN, E. and Y. AVNI 2004a – Geological Map of Israel 1:50.000. Sheet 21-II: Mizpe Ramon. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel.

PORAT, N. 1989a – Petrography of Pottery from Southern Israel and Sinai. Pp. 169-188 in L'Urbanisation de la Palestine à l'âge du Bronze ancien: Bilan et Perspectives des Recherches Actuelles, Actes du Colloque d'Emmaüs (20-24 Octobre 1986), ed. P. de Miroschedji. BAR International Series 527(i). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

ZILBERMAN, E. and Y. AVNI 2004b – Geological Map of Israel 1:50.000. Sheet 21-I: Har Hamran. Jerusalem: Geological Survey of Israel.

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Chapter 9: A SYNTHESIS OF THE EARLY BRONZE AGE II IN THE NEGEV AND SINAI MORDECHAI HAIMAN INTRODUCTION

PROXIMITY TO WATER SOURCES

This chapter presents an synthesis of the Early Bronze Age II settlement in the Negev Highlands in light of the author’s participation in the Negev Emergency Survey (see Cohen 1981, 1985, 1999; Avner 1984, 1993; Haiman 1986, 1991, 1993, 1999, 2007; Lender 1990; Avni 1992; Rosen 1994). The identification of this period in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai is based in large part on Amiran’s fieldwork at Arad, which provided a clear picture of EB II material culture and architecture of this part of the Negev (Amiran 1978; Amiran and Ilan 1996). The architectural plan of the town and the ceramic assembles from Arad facilitated the identification of other EB II settlements in the Negev Highlands and in southern Sinai (e.g., Amiran et al. 1973; Beit-Arieh and Gophna 1976, 1981; Beit-Arieh 1977). The nature of the archaeological remains at Arad and at “Canaanite” sites in southern Sinai clearly indicated that the sites in these regions were involved in some type of exchange during the EB II (Amiran et al. 1973; Beit-Arieh and Gophna 1976, 1981; Beit-Arieh 1977; 1981, 1986, 2003; Saidel 2002).

Water sources are the most important factor for subsisting in the desert, and while population movement and settlement are influenced by geopolitical factors, access to water is imperative. In the surveyed area, the proximity of permanent settlements to the water sources of ‘Ein el Gudeirat and ‘Ein Qadis was particularly noticeable. Of a total of 85 permanent settlements, over 60 were located less than 6 km away from a spring, with the remaining 25 located 7-12 km away from a water source. It is unclear how the latter were able to exist at such a distance from water. The findings of the Negev Emergency Survey also indicate that as the distance from a source of water increases, the number of permanent settlements gradually declines and the number of temporary sites rises concomitantly. More than half of the Temporary Sites A were located up to 8 km away from a water source and the remainder were up to 15 km distant from a well or spring. More than a third of the Temporary Sites B were over 15 km away from a water source, and most of the Temporary Sites C were 8-16 km away from a source of water.

The term EB II is used in this chapter to identify those sites in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai that are chronologically contemporary with Arad. The use of this term as a cultural and chronological marker for arid zone populations has been criticized by a number of scholars (Rothenberg 1979: 111-116; Rothenberg and Ordentlich 1979; Rothenberg and Glass 1992), as has the methodology for identifying the EB II in the Negev (Avner et al. 1994: 279-281). Contra Avner, however, I believe that the settlement pattern in the southern Negev is unique and is not comparable to that in the Negev Highlands. Instead, the settlements in the Negev Highlands are similar in layout and material culture to those in southern Sinai (e.g., Beit-Arieh 2003:442). Therefore, the author considers the settlements in both the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai as representing EB II culture.

EB II SETTLEMENTS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS In the course of the Negev Emergency Survey, the author recorded 200 EB II sites, which are divided into three categories: permanent settlements, temporary sites, and cairn fields (Haiman 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1999, 2007:307-309). A site is identified as a permanent settlement on the basis of the size of the architectural unit, the quality of its construction, and the high proportion of dwelling areas (50%) to enclosed courtyards/animal pens (50%). Permanent settlements typically vary in size from 10-30 m x 20-50 m, and the stones used in their construction measure 0.40-0.80 m in length. These sites are made up of one or more 171

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

the herds (sheep and/or goat). Permanent settlements contain 4-5 animal pens, each typically measuring 130 sq. m in size. Estimating that 2 sq. m of space would be required for each sheep or goat, each pen could accommodate 60 animals. Thus, the size of a herd stabled at a permanent settlement varied from 240-300 head. The estimated number of livestock that could be accommodated at permanent settlements is close to the size of the herds in societies with an economy based on sheep and goat husbandry (e.g., Khazanov 1994:2833).

architectural units comprising round or oval rooms, 2-4 m in diameter, arranged around enclosed courtyard or courtyards that vary from of 5 to 20 m in diameter. A working hypothesis is that the majority of the enclosed courtyards functioned as pens for livestock. Approximately 6.5% of the permanent settlements also contain broadroom structures which are similar in layout to those found at Arad and other sedentary sites situated to its north (Haiman 1992: 99, table 1). Tumuli are present inside and adjacent to many of the permanent settlements: the correlation between permanent settlements and concentrations of tumuli is characteristic of the western Negev Highlands, as represented, for example, at Site 23 (Har Horesha) (Haiman 1986:15*).

The layouts of Temporary Sites A and B indicate that the size of the herds corralled at these sites varied. For example, Type A sites often contained a single animal pen averaging 69.4 sq. m in size. Based upon the size and limited number of pens at these sites, the herds numbered around 35 sheep and goats. In contrast, Type B settlements frequently contained three animal pens, each typically 122 sq. m in size. Thus, the total amount of space set aside for stabling a herd of sheep and goats was 334 sq. m, and the size of the herds stabled at these settlements could number up to 167 head.

In addition to the permanent settlements, approximately 100 temporary sites were identified in the Negev Highlands. These habitations are characterized by simple construction, in some instances using large stones like those used to build permanent settlements, which seems to have been a local improvisation. One difference between permanent and temporary settlements is that the latter had different proportions of dwelling rooms to animal pens and seldom had broadrooms and tumuli. Based upon the above, the author suggests that the temporary habitations were used on a seasonal basis by the inhabitants of the permanent settlements.

It is admittedly difficult to generate population estimates for the EB II settlements in the Negev Highlands given the lack of a means to establish whether and which sites may be contemporaneous. In order to estimate the maximum size of the population in the Negev Highlands, it will be assumed that all the sites were contemporary. Permanent settlements usually contained four dwelling rooms that could accommodate a family of 4-6. On average, each settlement contained 10 dwelling rooms measuring 100 sq. m, an amount of space that could accommodate approximately 10 adults (see, e.g., Naroll 1962). Based upon the survey data, a combined total of 850 dwelling rooms collectively measuring 8,000 sq. m were available at the permanent settlements, and these enclosed spaces could have accommodated approximately 800 adults.

Temporary sites are subdivided into three categories: Temporary Sites A, B, and C. Settlements assigned to the Temporary Sites A category are characterized by a group of single-room dwelling structures and an animal pen. Sometimes these sites may include a number of enclosed structures with a small number of rooms and courtyards. The area of the dwelling structures measures 8-12 sq. m and their construction is far less solid than the architectural units at permanent settlements. One explanation for this type of temporary construction is that the site was occupied only on a seasonal basis for activities associated with agriculture and goat and sheep husbandry. Sites classified as Temporary Sites B contain more animal pens than dwelling rooms, and some in fact contain only animal pens. These sites were most likely used as seasonal shelters by individuals engaged in goat and sheep husbandry. Simple campsites with circular stone walls are categorized as Temporary Sites C. These sites are represented by scatters of stones and ceramics typically covering an area of 5-30 m x 30-50 m in size, and do not contain animal pens. As mentioned above, the settlement pattern in the Negev Highlands is similar in many respects to that in southern Sinai, with large permanent settlements located near sources of water and simple encampments, similar to the temporary sites in the Negev Highlands, positioned on the periphery of the larger settlements and farther away from water sources (e.g., Beit-Arieh 1986, 2003).

In contrast, Temporary Sites A on average contained 5 dwellings, measuring on average 10 sq. m, that could accommodated 5 adults (Haiman 1992:98). Temporary Sites B often contained only 2 dwelling rooms that could accommodate 2-4 shepherds. Given that 30 Temporary Sites B are recorded, the minimum and maximum population estimates for this type of site are 60 and 120 people, respectively. The above population estimates above are compared with those for Arad. Estimates for the Strata III-II vary from 1,800-3,000 (e.g., Marfoe 1980: 320, Broshi and Gophna 1984; Amiran and Ilan 1996), which would equal the number of individuals in approximately 250 permanent settlements of the type surveyed in the Negev Highlands. With 85 permanent sites recorded in the survey, and assuming that the total number of such sites in the Central Negev Highlands was less than 200, not all of which were inhabited at the same time, the population of Arad was probably larger than that of the Central Negev Highlands.

The layout of the settlements in the Negev Highlands provides the basis for generating population estimates of number of people that inhabited these sites and the size of

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CHAPTER 9: A SYNTHESIS OF THE EARLY BRONZE AGE II IN THE NEGEV AND SINAI

Arieh 1986:29-45, 2003: 107, 443-444). Currently, holemouth vessels provide the best evidence for economic connections between Arad and the population living in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai (BeitArieh 2003:110, 443-444). Petrographic analysis of the holemouth vessels excavated at Arad indicates that they contain arkose, which is found in southern Sinai (e.g., Porat 1989). This ceramic form, correlated with EB II Arad (Amiran et al. 1973), is evidence of some kind of craft specialization and “mass production.” Unfortunately, the contents of these containers and the reasons for transporting them to Arad remain unknown. Presumably, the EB II permanent and temporary settlements in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai were abandoned when the exchange network with Arad collapsed, regardless of whether this system collapsed as result of a political crisis or deterioration in climatic conditions, or a combination of both.

THE EB II SETTLEMENT PATTERN IN THE NEGEV AND SINAI The widespread geographical distribution of EB II sites covers 50,000 of the 70,000 sq. km of the Negev and Sinai deserts (e.g., Rothenberg 1970,1971, 1972, 1979:137, 139; Beit-Arieh and Gophna 1976, 1981; BeitArieh 1981, 1986, 2003: 11-77, 439-444; Cohen 1981: ix, 1985: IX; Bar-Yosef et al. 1986: 147-150; Haiman 1986:14*-16*, 1991: 14*-16*, 1993: 12*, 1999: 8*-10*; Lender 1990: xix-xx; Avni 1992: 14*-16*; Rosen 1994: 15*-16*; Baumgarten 2004: 12*; Gittlen 2006). Based on the composition of the lithic assemblages at these sites, the inhabitants did not derive much of their subsistence from agricultural activities—very low frequencies of sickle blades are present in EB II lithic assemblages from the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai in general (e.g., Vardi, this volume). In contrast, animal pens were found at most excavated and surveyed sites in these regions, indicating that the inhabitants engaged in pastoral activities. The author has previously argued, however, that EB II populations in the Negev and Sinai could not subsist in these harsh environments on an economy based solely on pastoralism, and that pastoralism would have represented a specialized rather than the principal activity within a complex economic system (Haiman 1992). Furthermore, the poor quality of natural resources in the desert cannot provide a long-term subsistence base for any population, and certainly could not have been the sole basis for the emergence of EB II culture in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai.

CAIRNS AND CAIRN FIELDS Aside from various types of habitation sites, 20 cairn fields with a total of 600 cairns were identified in the environs of ‘Ein el Gudeirat and ‘Ein Qadis. The majority of cairns were positioned on top of ridges, and as a result they are often visible from a distance. Most of the cairns were of the type identified, at Har Yeroham, as the “filled cairn” (Kochavi 1967:61). They were constructed of a ring of upright stones 0.50-1.0 m in height and were 3.010.0 m in diameter, with stones of various sizes used to fill the cairn. In some examples, one of the stones in the ring was higher than the others. Each cairn contained a burial cist ranging in length from 1.0-2.0 m and in width from 0.5-1.0 m, the upper part of which was level with the top surface of the cairn and was sometimes visible. Since the majority of the excavated burial cists were empty, it appears that the primary function of a cairn field was in some way related to a death cult.

Thus, my interpretation of the EB II settlement pattern in the Negev Highlands and Sinai desert views the EB II within the wider context of the multi-period settlement pattern in the Negev (e.g., Baron 1981; Rosen 1987). From this perspective, there were often two factors responsible for settlement in a resource-poor desert. The first typically involved the driving forces of a complex society that was not indigenous to arid environments, as represented by the many examples of foreign settlements in the Negev and Sinai in the archaeological record: the Late Bronze Age Egyptian fortresses in northern Sinai, the Egyptian mining sites in Sinai and the ‘Arava, the Iron Age II Israelite fortresses in the Negev Highlands, and the Nabataean caravan stations. The interests of complex societies in arid zones lay in maintaining their frontiers, protecting trade routes, and mining.

Some cairn fields had stone walls with one standing course, varying in length from 10-30 m. The walls were made of two rows of fieldstones measuring 0.80 in length and 0.50 m in height. The space between the rows of stones was filled with sediments and small stones. In many cases, one of the stones in the middle of the wall was much larger than the others, up to 1 m in height, like a matzevah.

The second factor responsible for settlement in the Negev and Sinai deserts are the indigenous populations themselves, and in effect, the presence of complex societies in the desert often spurred the development of a local economic system between the representatives of state enterprises and the indigenous population. It also reflects the relative balance of power between the states that surrounded the Negev and Sinai and the indigenous people of these regions.

A different type of stone construction, known as the Kline, was also recorded in the survey area. The K-line is a 4 km long series of walls and small cairns extending from Har Romem to Har Ramon and connected to cairn fields at each end (Evenari et al. 1958; Haiman 2000). Although the K-line is a unique construction, the walls and cairns of which it is comprised are not uncommon. Most of the components have parallels among features identified as symbolic constructions, suggesting that the line as a whole had a symbolic function. This is supported by the fact that the K-line was built in the highest area of the Negev Highlands, and is related in to the Early Bronze Age hilltop and ridge-top cairn fields (Haiman 2000).

Following this explanation, it appears that the broadroom structures in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai represent the presence of people from Arad (e.g., Beit-

173

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

BAUMGARTEN, Y. 2004 – Map of Shivta (166). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

Dating the cairn fields to the EBA II is based upon two lines of data. First, in many cases, an EB II settlement was located at the foot of the hill on which the cairn field was positioned, a pattern exemplified at Site 23 (Har Horesha). Based upon the presence of the EB II settlement at the bottom of the hill, the cairn field is also attributed to this period. Second, as represent at Sites 717 EB II habitation sites are constructed amongst the cairns. Based on this information and the other data presented in Chapter 2, it is proposed that cairn fields represent an element of EB II culture that is limited to this period, although some of their components reflect long-term traditions of desert cultic installations.

BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1977 – South Sinai in the Early Bronze Age. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Tel Aviv University. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1981 – A Pattern of Settlement in Southern Sinai and Southern Canaan in the Third Millennium B.C. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 243: 31-55. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1983 – Central-Southern Sinai in the Early Bronze Age II and Its Relationship with Palestine. Levant 15: 39-48. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1986 – Two Cultures in Southern Sinai in the Third Millennium B.C. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 27-54.

References

BEIT-ARIEH, I. 2003 – Archaeology of Sinai. The Opher Expedition. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology.

AMIRAN, R. 1978 – Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze City: First-Fifth Seasons of Excavations, 1962-1966. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.

BEIT-ARIEH, I. and R. GOPHNA 1976 – Early Bronze Age II Sites in Wâdi el-Qudeirât (Kadesh-barnea). Tel Aviv 3: 142-150.

AMIRAN, R. and O. ILAN 1996 – Early Arad II: The Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Ib Settlements and the Early Bronze II City: Architecture and Town Planning Sixth-Eighteenth Seasons of Excavations, 1971-1978, 1980-1984. Jerusalem: Israel Museum and Israel Exploration Society.

BEIT-ARIEH, I. and R. GOPHNA 1981 – The Early Bronze Age II Settlement at 'Ain El-Qudeirât (1980-1981). Tel Aviv 8: 128-135. BROSHI, M. and R. GOPHNA 1984 – The Settlements and Population of Palestine during the Early Bronze Age II-III. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 253: 41-53.

AMIRAN, R., I. BEIT-ARIEH and J. GLASS 1973 – The Interrelationship between Arad and Sites in Southern Sinai in the Early Bronze Age II. Israel Exploration Journal 23: 193-197.

COHEN, R. 1981 – Map of Sede Boqer-East (168) 13-03. Jerusalem: The Archaeological Survey of Israel.

AVNER, U. 1984 – Ancient Cult Sites in the Negev and Sinai Deserts. Tel Aviv 11: 115-131.

COHEN, R. 1985 – Map of Sede-Boqer-West (167). Jerusalem: Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

AVNER, U. 1993 – Mazzebot Sites in the Negev and Sinai and Their Significance. Pp. 166-181 in Biblical Archaeology today, 1990: Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem, June-July 1990, eds. A. Biran and J. Aviram. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

COHEN, R. 1986 – The Settlement of the Central Negev in Light of Archaeology and Literary Sources during the 4th-1st Millennia B.C. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew with English summary).

AVNER, U., I. CARMI and D. SEGAL 1994 – Neolithic to Bronze Age Settlement of the Negev and Sinai in Light of Radiocarbon Dating: A View from the Southern Negev. Pp. 265-300 in Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and R. S. Kra. Tucson and Cambridge: The University of Arizona and the Peabody Museum, Harvard University.

COHEN, R. 1999 – Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I. IAA Reports 6. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority (Hebrew). EVENARI, M., S. AHITUV, L. SHANAN and N. H. TADMOR 1958 – Ancient Desert Agriculture of the Negev. Israel Exploration Journal 8: 231-268.

AVNI, G. 1992 – Map of Har Saggi Northeast (225). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

GITTLEN, B. M. 2006 – Har Resisim 126: An Ephemeral Early Bronze Age Site. Pp. 41-49 in Confronting the Past: Archaeological and Historical Essays on Ancient Israel in Honor of William G. Dever, eds. S. Gitin, J. E. Wright and J. P. Dessel, Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.

BARON, A. G. 1981 – Adaptive Strategies in the Archaeology of the Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 242: 51-81. BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER-COHEN, A. GOREN, I. HERSHKOVITZ, O. ILAN, H. K. MIENIS and B. SASS 1986 – Nawamis and Habitation Sites near Gebel Gunna, Southern Sinai. Israel Exploration Journal 36 (3-4): 121-167.

HAIMAN, M. 1986 – Map of Har Hamran-Southwest (198) 10-00. Jerusalem: The Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel. 174

CHAPTER 9: A SYNTHESIS OF THE EARLY BRONZE AGE II IN THE NEGEV AND SINAI

1966, by Ruth Amiran. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 39: 315-322.

HAIMAN, M. 1991 – Map of Mizpe Ramon Southwest (200). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

NAROLL, R. 1962 – Floor Area and Settlement Population. American Antiquity 27 (4): 587-589.

HAIMAN, M. 1992 – Sedentarism and Pastoralism in the Negev Highlands in the Early Bronze Age: Results of the Western Negev Highlands Emergency Survey. Pp. 93-104 in Pastoralism in the Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological Perspectives, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov. Monographs in World Archaeology 10. Madison: Prehistory Press.

PORAT, N. 1989 – Petrography of Pottery from Southern Israel and Sinai. Pp. 169-188 in L'Urbanisation de la Palestine à l'âge du Bronze ancien: Bilan et Perspectives des Recherches Actuelles, Actes du Colloque d'Emmaüs (20-24 Octobre 1986), ed. P. de Miroschedji. BAR International 527(i). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.

HAIMAN, M. 1993 – Map of Har Hamran Southeast (199). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

ROSEN, S. A. 1987 – Demographic Trends in the Negev Highlands. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 266: 45-58.

HAIMAN, M. 1999 – Map of Har Ramon. Archaeological Survey of Israel. Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

ROSEN, S. A. 1994 – Map of Makhtesh Ramon (204). Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

HAIMAN, M. 2000 – The “K-line” at Har Romem in light of the Survey of the Map of Har Ramon (203). 'Atiqot 39: 21-29.

ROTHENBERG, B. 1970 – An Archaeological Survey of South Sinai: First Season 1967/1968 Preliminary Report. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 102: 4-29.

HAIMAN, M. 2007 – Archaeological Survey of the Kadesh Barnea Vicinity: 'Ein el-Qudeirat and 'Ein Qadis. Pp. 307-351 in Excavations at Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976-1982, eds. R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority.

ROTHENBERG, B. 1971 – The Sinai Archaeological Expedition (1967-1970). Ariel (English Series) 28: 59-64. ROTHENBERG, B. 1972 – Sinai Explorations 1967-1972. Yearbook of the Museum Haaretz. Tel Aviv 14.

KHAZANOV, A. M. 1994 – Nomads and the Outside World. Second ed. Translated by J. Crooke den. – Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

ROTHENBERG, B. 1979 – Sinai: Pharaohs, Miners, Pilgrims, and Soldiers. Bern: Kuemmerly and Frey. ROTHENBERG, B. and J. GLASS 1992 – The Beginnings and the Development of Early Metallurgy and the Settlement and Chronology of the Western Arabah, from the Chalcolithic Period to Early Bronze Age IV. Levant 24: 141-157.

KOCHAVI, M. 1967 – The Settlement of the Negev in the Middle Bronze (Canaanite) I Age. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Hebrew with English abstract). LENDER, Y. Y. 1990 – Map of Har Nafha (196) 12-01. Jerusalem: The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

ROTHENBERG, B. and I. ORDENTLICH 1979 – A Comparative Chronology of Sinai, Egypt and Palestine. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology London 16: 233-237.

MARFOE, L. 1980 – Review of the Rise of an Urban Culture: The Urbanization of Palestine in the Early Bronze Age by Aharon Kempinski and Early Arad: The Chalcolithic Settlement and Early Bronze City. Vol. 1. First-Fifth Seasons of Excavations, 1962-

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002 – Pot Luck? Variation and Function in the Ceramic Assemblages of Pre-Camel Pastoralists in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 32: 175-196.

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Chapter 10: SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE FIELDWORK BENJAMIN ADAM SAIDEL distribution of material culture difficult. The locus method is also a hindrance for excavating parts of a site that lie outside its architectural remains, as it does not provide a means to demarcate excavation units systematically and uniformly.

INTRODUCTION The fieldwork conducted by Beit-Arieh (2003) and Haiman has generated sufficient data at this juncture to provide a relatively clear picture of the architecture and range of material culture at EB II settlement sites in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai. A synthesis and interpretations of this evidence are presented in Chapter 9. These interpretations can and should be tested by means of future excavations.

It is therefore suggested that the locus method be used in conjunction with a 2 x 2 sq. m grid that can be further divided into 1 x1 m sub-squares (Rosen 1997: 101; 2011: 7; Saidel 2002a: 40). This combined grid and locus method was successfully used at the Camel Site for documenting the stratigraphy both outside and inside the encampment (Rosen 2011: 7):

Following are a number of suggestions for fine-tuning archaeological fieldwork in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai in the hope that subsequent projects would implement them to generate new data that would provide a more nuanced understanding of these regions in the EB II. The methods and excavation strategies that were suitable for investigating arid zone encampments in the late 20th century should be upgraded. The issues raised apply broadly to the sampling, excavation, and dating of EB II settlements in these regions, and are offered as a means to build upon the fieldwork and research conducted by Haiman and Beit-Arieh, who operated under considerable financial, logistical, and temporal constraints (see Chapter 1; see also Beit-Arieh 2003: 6-7).

The advantages to this grid and locus method lie in the ability to reconstruct stratigraphy by examining standardized section and in the relative eases of excavation. The method provides intuitively obvious units of analysis, the loci, based on the physical structures of the site. It is designed to allow excavation to depth and can allow relatively rapid earth removal. Another advantage is that the grid and locus method provides a means for uniformly demarcating excavation units located in open spaces devoid of architectural remains.

EXCAVATION METHODS Our knowledge of the activities conducted in the open spaces surrounding EB II habitation sites is scant, as most projects seldom sampled these locations. Fieldwork at the Camel Site is unique in that broad horizontal exposures were excavated outside the encampment (Rosen 2011: 42, fig. 3.11; Haimi and Rosen 2011). As a result, the various sequences involved in the manufacture of ground stone implements both inside and outside the architectural remains were identified. It was also discovered that broken pottery was dumped outside the encampment, with relatively large quantities of sherds discarded on its southern and western sides (Saidel 2011a: 72-76). Based upon the spatial distribution of the material culture

Based on the information provided by the published field reports from the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai, it is time to reconsider the utility of the locus method as a basic excavation unit, whereby animal pens/courtyards, installations, and rooms are defined as distinct loci. Although one strength of this method is that artifacts are attributed to particular loci, it does not provide a means to determine precisely where they were found within these enclosed spaces. This is a drawback in terms of plotting the spatial distribution of artifacts, since the various rooms, installations, and animal pens/courtyards vary in size, making quantitative comparisons and the spatial

177

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Table 10.1. Comparison of number of excavated square meters in broadroom structures and courtyards/animal pens at Aradian settlements in southern Sinai (data drawn from Beit-Arieh 2003) Site

Architectural Unit

Total Area of Broadroom Structures Excavated

Size of Courtyards

Total Area of Courtyards/ Animal Pens Excavated

Nabi Salah

Unit A

86.5

208

8.2

Nabi Salah

Unit B

21

80

0

Nabi Salah

Unit D

27

113

0

Nabi Salah

Unit F

13.81

35

0

Sheikh Mukhsen

Unit A

170

232

32

Sheikh Mukhsen

Unit B

31.75

59

34

Sheikh Mukhsen

Unit D

14

56

0

Sheikh Mukhsen

Unit F

72.25

336

0

Sheikh 'Awad

Unit A

81.5

113

0

Sheikh 'Awad

Unit C

70

121

0

Watiya North

---

32

238

0

Wadi Umm Tumur

---

Fieran I Total

10

140

0

42.5

57.75

0

672.31

1788.75

74.2

retrieved from the open spaces, the excavators concluded (Haimi and Rosen 2011: 170):

sampled in the course of this fieldwork, the excavation units were small in size, as the purpose of fieldwork was to determine the nature of the stratigraphy (Beit-Arieh 2003: 19, 22), but their limited size precluded obtaining substantive information on the function of and/or activities carried out in these locations. This led to generalizations and perhaps arbitrary assumptions. For instance, an ash layer in the courtyard of Unit A at Nabi Salah was interpreted as a “living level” (Beit-Arieh 2003: 20), whereas, the absence of ash combined with the small amount of pottery unearthed in Locus 51 (courtyard) in Unit B at this site, led to the suggestion that this space was used “as a pen for sheep and goats” (Beit-Arieh 2003: 22). Subsequent projects would benefit from a more holistic excavation strategy that gives equal attention to courtyards and/or animal pens, for example, by collecting and submitting sediment samples for geoarchaeological research in order to understand how sediments accumulated in arid zone settlements (Shahack-Gross et al. 2003; Ryan et al. 2011).

[T]he presence of concentrations of material culture outside the architecture, all around it, indicates both that activities were not restricted to areas defined by the architecture and that methodologically, these areas require no less attention than areas within the walls. By neglecting the open spaces outside the site architecture, we not only miss evidence of activity areas, but may overlook the presence of middens. Among the settlements presented in this volume, middens may be located at Sites 1 (Ramat Matred 3) and 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 2), since pottery was found outside the architectural remains. At Site 1 (Ramat Matred 3), for example, all rope-decorated sherds from holemouth vessels (see Figs. 4.6:5-6, 4.7: 1) were found on the surface of the site. Because these diagnostic sherds were not associated with an architectural unit, one interpretation is that they might demarcate the presence of a midden.1

Our understanding of the stratigraphy present at many Early Bronze Age arid zone settlements is poor. On the one hand, this is related to issues associated with mobility, duration of occupation, and the activities carried out in these locations. In many instances, structures were not occupied for extended periods, and the stratigraphy is therefore too limited to aid in understanding the occupational history of a particular habitation site (Rosen 2011: 8-9). On the other hand, some prehistorians and historical archaeologists have overlooked or dismissed stratigraphy when they encountered it, for instance, providing only rudimentary descriptions of ash layers as “shallow,” “thin,” or “thick deposits” (Bar-Yosef et al. 1986: 128, 132, Locus 12, “charcoal fill;” Beit-Arieh 1981: 99, 103; 2003: 34, 54). As demonstrated in Chapter 2 of this volume, ash layers are prevalent at many EB II

Most expeditions have concentrated on excavating rooms and to a lesser extent animal pens/courtyards, for instance, at Aradian settlements in southern Sinai (Table 10.1).2 When courtyards and/or animal pens were 1 The identification of middens outside architectural units can be difficult as the visibility of these deposits is affected by seasonal variations in moisture and sunlight. For example, the limited amount of winter rain that fell at Rogem Be’erotayim facilitated the identification of a midden situated to the west of the architectural remains at the site (Saidel et al. 2006: 203). This deposit was not identified during a visit the previous summer, presumably because of the aridity of the sediments and the intensity of the summer sunlight. 2 At the EB IV/MB I site of Ein Ziq, for a clear example of this methodology, fieldwork was restricted to clearing circular shaped rooms (Cohen 1999: 137-138, fig. 88, plate 82).

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CHAPTER 10: SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE FIELDWORK

settlements in both the Negev Highlands (contra Saidel 2001-2002: 25-26) and southern Sinai (Table 10.2).

Rekhes Nafha 396, site formation processes combined with the limited amount of material culture made it difficult to determine whether surfaces “were caused by anthropogenic or natural factors” (Saidel 2002a: 40). The nature of this stratigraphy precluded identifying separate EB II and EB IV/MB I occupations. Although the stratigraphy inside and outside the Camel Site was

At sites for which stratigraphy was documented in the form of section drawings, the results indicate that the deposition of these sediments is complex and not straightforward (Saidel 2002a: 43, 47, figs. 5-6, 10). At

Table 10.2. Frequency of ash layers at EB II settlements excavated in the western Negev Highlands (data drawn from this volume Chapter 2) Site

Locus

Patch/Patches of Ash Present

Hearth Present

Ash Layer Present

Material Culture identified in ash deposit.

Site 1

Courtyard 54, Structure 1

---

+

---

Lithics

Site 3

Courtyard 203

---

+

---

---

Site 24

Courtyard 812

---

---

+

---

Site 26

Courtyard 901

---

---

+

EB II Lithics Faunal Remains A Groundstone

Site 27

Courtyard 106

---

---

+

A EB II sherd EB II Lithics

Site 29

Courtyard 306, Test trench

---

---

+

EB II Lithics

Site 33

Courtyard 501

---

---

+

---

Site 1

Installation 38

---

---

+

Lithics

Site 29

Installation in Structure 306

---

---

+

---

Site 1

Structure 1, Locus 58

---

+

---

---

Site 1

Structure 37-3

---

---

+

EBA II Pottery Groundstone artifacts

Site 7

Locus 114

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery

Site 7

Locus 119

---

---

+

---

Site 9

Locus 319-1

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery

Site 9

Room 320-1

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery

Site 23

Building 86

+

---

---

---

Site 23

Loci 80 and 87

---

---

+

---

Site 23

Room 81

---

---

+

---

Site 24

Room 809

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery Pieces of charcoal

Site 24

Room 810

---

---

+

---

Site 25

Locus 201

---

---

+

EB Lithics EB Pottery Gold Beads (Figs. 6.2-6.3) Groundstone artifacts A broken stone bowl

Site 26

Courtyard 901

---

---

+ (0.1 m in depth)

EB II Lithics Faunal Remains Ground stone

Site 26

Room 902

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery Faunal Remains

Site 26

Room 903

---

---

+

EB II Lithics

Site 26

Room 904

+

---

---

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery

179

EXCAVATIONS IN THE WESTERN NEGEV HIGHLANDS

Site

Locus

Patch/Patches of Ash Present

Hearth Present

Ash Layer Present

Material Culture identified in ash deposit.

Site 26

Room 905

+

---

--

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery A Groundstone

Site 26

Room 906

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery A Hammerstone Faunal Remains Snail shells

Site 26

Room 907

+

---

---

---

Site 26

Room 908

+ (ash extends under wall)

---

---

EB II Pottery Two Hammerstones

Site 26

Room 909

---

---

+

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery Faunal Remains

Site 26

Room 911

---

---

+

---

Site 26

Room 912

---

---

+

---

Site 27

Room 102

+

---

--

---

Site 27

Room 104

---

---

+

EB II Pottery

Site 27

Room 105

---

---

+ (extends underneath walls)

EB II Lithics Seeds

Site 33

Room 503

+

---

---

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery Shell bead (Fig. 6.10:3)

Site 33

Structure 503

+

---

---

EB II Lithics EB II Pottery

These changes took place during the continuous occupation of the site and it must be stressed that all the EB II sites in southern Sinai (including Nabi Salah) were single period and one-stratum sites according to the archaeological criteria as set forth in the final report.

thoroughly documented in section drawings (Rosen 2011: 36-37, figs. 3.2-3.3), this information, in this particular instance, revealed a complex occupational history (Rosen 2011: 38): Within the architectural remains, anthropogenic sediments comprised of ash from dispersed hearths, dung (?), and other organic residues from the human occupation constitute an addition to the basic matrix of the site. For the most part, these seem to have been deposited on an original loess layer and integrated into it, probably initially mechanically through trampling and later undergoing some initial pedogenetic process (B. Pittman, personal communication), thus forming the lower organic layer.

The presence of ash layers in EB II architectural units demonstrates that some settlements had a relatively complex occupational history for arid zone settlements. This author has previously argued that Unit A at Nabi Salah was built on top of a preexisting midden (Saidel 2001-2002: 23), as was the architectural unit at Watiya North in southern Sinai (Beit-Arieh 2003: 69): Among the Bronze Age sites in southern Sinai, this is the only one in which sterile ash layers were encountered underlying the EB II settlement. Though it is reasonable to assume on stratigraphic grounds that the ashes may represent an earlier occupation, there is no evidence for this here in the form of building remains, pottery, flints or other artefacts in the ash layer. On the other hand, ash layers like these were found at a site in southeastern Sinai in Lower Wadi Nasb.

This conclusion was reached through an intensive study of the sediments that included the collection and study 10 micromorphological samples (Ryan et al. 2011). Such methods should be employed with greater frequency in order better to understand how sediments accumulated and formed at arid zone settlements. That the occupational histories of many of Early Bronze Age settlements is inadequately understood is most likely due to the belief that these were single-period singleoccupation sites, as explicitly stated in the assessment of Unit A at Nabi Salah in southern Sinai (Beit-Arieh 2004: 39):

There is evidence that this type of construction technique was also practiced in the Negev Highlands. At Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara II), the spatial distribution of 180

CHAPTER 10: SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE FIELDWORK

Fig. 10.1. Stone walls, in black, of Building 115 at Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Field Cluster 1), most likely post-dating construction of burial cairns, and considered to be intrusive

Fig. 10.2. Spatial extent of ash deposits, in black, in Structure 901 at Site 26 (Har Saggi 9/Ein Hameara II), gray scale denotes patches of ash in loci the ash—which also contained material culture—suggests that Structure 901 was built on top of a midden (Table 10.2) (Fig. 10.1). Additional research is needed to ascertain the scope of this building practice and to determine whether there were functional reasons for positioning architectural units on top of ash layers.

CHRONOLOGY Lithic implements are an under-utilized line of data for dating Early Bronze Age settlements in the Negev Highlands. Lunates and microlithic drills are indicative of EB II occupations, but identifying their presence in the archaeological record is largely dependent on sieving all sediments (see Chapter 4; Rosen 2011: 4, 9-10, fig. 1.2; Hermon et al. 2011: 90, 106). That these artifacts are not documented in significant quantities at Aradian settlements excavated in southern Sinai and at sites in the Negev Highlands may in part be due to variations in function, but they are frequent at sites at which all sediments were systemically sieved (Rosen 1997: 102104; 2011: 201; Saidel 2002a: 46-49; Saidel et al. 2006: 211-212; Hermon et al. 2011: 90-96). Future field projects should consider implementing a program of systematic sieving in order to recover chronologically diagnostic stone tools that provide another line of evidence for dating in addition to pottery.

The accumulations of ash inside broadroom dwellings at settlements in southern Sinai demonstrate that some of these communities experienced a drawn out occupational history. Of the ash layers found on the floors of 20 broadroom structures, 18 contained material culture (data drawn from Saidel 2011b: 176, table 1). The deposition of ash and material culture inside these dwellings is most likely associated with the gradual abandonment of particular dwellings and their reuse as locations for discarding household trash (Saidel 2011b). A similar pattern for the disposal of ash and trash is represented at a number of the habitation sites presented in Chapter 2 (Table 10.2).

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There is a paucity of chronologically sensitive ceramic forms at many sites in the Negev Highlands. Surveys and excavations have demonstrated that holemouth vessels are the most common ceramic type at EB II settlements (Haiman 1986: 15*-16*; Saidel 2002b; Chapter 4), and in fact, represent “the only common find which can be used for dating purposes” (Haiman 1986: 15*-16*). Using the holemouth vessel as a type fossil for the EB II in the Negev Highlands is potentially problematic, however, since this container continued in use through the EB III (Avner et al. 1994: 279-280; Avner and Carmi 2001: 1205). This means that radiocarbon dating should be used to determine the more precise dates of the contexts in which holemouth vessels are found.

The rationale and evidence for dating cairn fields in the western Negev Highlands to the EB II based on two lines of evidence (Haiman 1992: 26, fig. 1) are also problematic. The first is that the proximity of these burial structures to EB II settlements represents “indirect” evidence that they are contemporaneous (Haiman 1992: 31):

One of the reasons radiocarbon dating is seldom done for Early Bronze Age sites in the Negev Highlands and southern Sinai is that the carbonized materials required for this dating are absent at many arid zone settlements (Beit-Arieh 1986: 27). Where carbon samples have been collected, they are often few in number, small in size, and recovered through sieving (Rosen 2011: 60). On the other hand, ash deposits are not uncommon at EB II settlements in these regions (Table 10.2). It is possible that radiocarbon has been considered an unnecessary expense for sites that could be dated by their material culture and proximity to Arad (Avner et al. 1994: 278-280).

The second line of evidence is based on the construction of a number of EB II habitation sites within the cairn fields at Site 7 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 1), Site 8 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 2), Site 9 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 3), Site 10 (Nahal Mitnan Cairn Cluster 4), and Site 26 (Har Saggi 9). Since these domestic settlements were dated to the EB II, it was assumed that the cairns were also constructed in this period. Most likely the appeal of these approaches for dating tumuli fields lies in that these structures could be placed within the broader context of the EB II settlement pattern in the Negev Highlands.

Radiocarbon dating should be used with greater frequency, as it can yield unexpected results. For instance, Site 23 (Har Horesha) is attributed to the EB II based upon the pottery and its location (see Chapters 2 and 4), but the excavation of an oval-shaped room, (comprising Loci 80 and 87) exposed a leveling fill that contained a fragment of carbonized ostrich-egg shell radiocarbon-dated to the EB I (see Fig. 2.66). This radiocarbon date combined with the EB II pottery provide evidence that Site 23 was most likely inhabited— presumably on an episodic basis—from the EB I through EB II. Other unexpected results of using radiocarbon dating to ascertain the “life-span” or occupational history of individual settlements comes from research conducted in the Biq’at Uvda Valley (Avner et al. 1994: 279):

The methodology of the first line of evidence is questionable, as there are no stratigraphic connections between the cairn fields and the EB II habitation sites (Table 10.3). Furthermore, there is no established correlation between distance and chronology, as “in certain cases, an installation belonging to a settlement from one period was found closer to a settlement from another period” (Haiman 1989: 175). Thus, there is no evidence that the “proximity method,” for lack of a better term, is an accurate means for dating cairn fields.

In several cases, where groups of cairns were found at the top of a hill and an Early Bronze Age settlement at the foot of the same hill, it was concluded that the cairns belonged to the same period as the settlement…The relationship between the cairn fields and settlements from the Early Bronze Age constitutes indirect evidence that they belong to that period.

Table 10.3. Distance between select EB II habitation sites and adjacent cairn fields in western Negev Highlands

[T]he dates available from Uvda Valley point to a much longer period of settlement than previously suspected. From site 124/IV, 6 dates from a single room…range from 3000 to 2600 BC, a span of 400 yr; from Site 9, 6 dates from the 2 upper strata…range from 3170 to 2700 BC, a span of 470 yr; from Site 16, 3 dates…range from 3600 to 2900 BC, a span of 700 yr. These radiocarbon dates were interpreted as evidence that some sites were occupied for extended periods of time, although it is more likely that they locations were inhabited episodically. Despite the usefulness of the radiocarbon dates, however, the sites mentioned in the quote above have never been published in either a preliminary or final format, making it difficult for other scholars to study the contexts from which the samples were taken.

EB II Habitation Site/Survey Map

Distance to Cairns

Reference

89/198

50 m

Haiman 1986: 58*

134/198

80 m

Haiman 1986: 118

210/198

70 m

Haiman 1986: 85*

244/198

200 m

Haiman 1986: 93*

306/198

50 m

Haiman 1986: 109*

352/198

150 m

Haiman 1986: 120*

380/198

50 m

Haiman 1986: 127*

Har Horesha

400 m

Haiman 1991: 177

Ramat Matred 3

30 m

Chapter 2, this volume

The above-mentioned EB II habitation Sites 7, 9, 10, and 26 constructed within cairn clusters are most likely intrusive and post-date the original construction and use 182

CHAPTER 10: SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE FIELDWORK

of the cairn fields. This premise is based on the construction techniques used to build the habitation sites, as well as their function, vis-à-vis the burial cairns; “in some instances the cairns were built first and rooms were added later” (Haiman 1992: 32). There were two advantages in constructing habitation sites within cairn fields: the first in that the cairns provided a ready supply of construction material and the second in that they functioned as termini for enclosing walls for courtyards and dwellings. At Site 7, for example, Building 115 was stitched together by stone walls that abutted and in some cases extended over and across individual cairns to form enclosed spaces, an expedient perhaps ad hoc method of construction akin to ‘connecting the dots’. The same technique was used to construct the dwellings at Sites 9 (Building 320) and 10 (Building 414).

Negev Highlands and southern Sinai. Subsequent excavations at the Camel Site have demonstrated that the inhabitants of this settlement engaged in the production of a range of small crafts. The data presented in this volume indicate that some of these activities were also conducted at other locations in the Negev Highlands (see Chapter 7). By implementing the innovative approaches mentioned above, we may better understand the range of activities, and length of occupation for those people who lived in the Negev Highlands during the Early Bronze Age. These suggestions are offered in the spirit of achieving this objective.

The cairn fields and the domestic settlements are unlikely to be chronologically contemporaneous, as they had different functions, the buildings as habitation sites and the cairns as above-ground sepulchers. This is reflected in the description of the cairn fields located in the environs of Nahal Mitnan (Haiman 1993: 60):

AVNER, U. and I. CARMI 2001 – Settlement Patterns in the Southern Levant Deserts during the 6th-3rd Millennia BC: A Revision Based on 14C Dating. Radiocarbon 43 (3): 1203-1216.

References

AVNER, U., I. CARMI and D. SEGAL 1994 – Neolithic to Bronze Age Settlement of the Negev and Sinai in Light of Radiocarbon Dating: A View from the Southern Negev. Pp. 265-300 in Late Quaternary Chronology and Paleoclimates of the Eastern Mediterranean, eds. O. Bar-Yosef and R. Kra (eds.), Radiocarbon. Tucson and Cambridge, University of Arizona and the American Schools of Prehistoric Research.

[A]n unusual feature of this site is the presence of dwellings attached to large cairns of the ‘filled in’ type (i.e., not the ‘built up’ burial cairns found in domestic contexts proper). It may be asked why some inhabitants of the area chose to live in the cairn fields, while others lived in the usual type of dwelling site, the likes of which have been surveyed in the vicinity of Nahal Mitnan. There are no indications that the inhabitants of the fields differed from the residents of the dwelling sites in terms of economy and material culture: both apparently practiced sheep/goathusbandry and limited agriculture.

BAR-YOSEF, O., A. BELFER-COHEN, A. GOREN, I. HERSHKOVITZ, O. ILAN, H. K. MIENIS and B. SASS 1986 – Nawamis and Habitation Sites near Gebel Gunna, Southern Sinai. Israel Exploration Journal 36 (3-4): 121-167. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1981 – An Early Bronze Age II Site near Sheikh 'Awad in Southern Sinai. Tel Aviv 8: 95-127.

The presence of domestic compounds inside cairn fields is logical if these burial structures had lost their symbolic meaning by the time the EB II buildings were constructed. The inhabitants of these domestic settlements apparently had no reservations about discarding ash and domestic trash among the burial cairns. Moreover, at Site 7, animal pens were constructed against the exterior frame of Cairns 102 and 120, which served as one of the enclosing walls for these corrals. If the cairn fields were chronologically contemporaneous, this would create an irreconcilable clash between the sacred and the profane. There would be no such clash in function if the cairn fields had fallen into disuse on both the functional and symbolic levels by the time the EB II habitation sites were constructed. Dismantling a number of cairns would allow for determining whether they rest on earlier remains pre-dating the EB II, and in this context, it may be possible to date them using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (Rosen et al. 2007: 50-51).

BEIT-ARIEH, I. 1986 – Two Cultures in Southern Sinai in the Third Millennium B.C. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 263: 27-54. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 2003 – Archaeology of Sinai: The Opher Expedition. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University. BEIT-ARIEH, I. 2004 – Unit A at the Nabi Salah Site in Southern Sinai: Facts Contra Text. Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 19-20: 37-40. COHEN, R. 1999 – Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I. IAA Reports 6. Israel Antiquities Authority (Hebrew), Jerusalem. HAIMAN, M. 1986 – Map of Har Hamran-Southwest (198) 10-00. Jerusalem: The Department of Antiquities and Museums and the Archaeological Survey of Israel.

CONCLUSIONS

HAIMAN, M. 1989 – Preliminary Report of the Western Negev Highlands Emergency Survey. Israel Exploration Journal 39: 173-191.

Earlier fieldwork has provided a broad conceptual framework to interpret the EB II settlement patterns in the

HAIMAN, M. 1991 – A Site of the Early Bronze Age at the Foot of Har Horsha. ‘Atiqot 20: 1*-20* (Hebrew, with English abstract).

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HAIMAN, M. 1992 – Cairn Burials and Cairn Fields in the Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 287: 25-45.

ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. SAIDEL, B. A. 2001-2002 More than Meets the Eye: A Reappraisal of the Occupational History of Unit A at Nabi Salah in Southern Sinai. Bulletin of the AngloIsrael Archaeological Society 19-20: 19-27.

HAIMAN, M. 1993 – An Early Bronze Age Cairn Field at Nahal Mitnan. 'Atiqot 22: 49-61. HAIMI, Y. and S. A. ROSEN 2011 – The Organization of Space at the Camel Site. Pp. 167-198 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2002a – The Excavations at Rekhes Nafha 396 in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 325: 37-63. SAIDEL, B. A. 2002b – Pot Luck? Variation and Function in the Ceramic Assemblages of Pre-Camel Pastoralists in the Negev Highlands, Israel. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 32: 175-196.

HERMON, S., J. VARDI and S. A. ROSEN 2011 – The Lithic Assemblage from the Camel Site. Pp. 81-109 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2011a – The Pottery from the Camel Site. Pp. 67-79 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev, ed. S. A. Rosen. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press.

ROSEN, S. A. 1997 – Beyond Milk and Meat: Lithic Evidence for Economic Specialization in the Early Bronze Age Pastoral Periphery in the Levant. Lithic Technology 22: 99-109.

SAIDEL, B. A. 2011b – Talking Trash: Observations on the Abandonment of Broadroom Structures in Southern Sinai during the Early Bronze Age II. Pp. 173-184 in Daily Life, Materiality, and Complexity in Early Urban Communities of the Southern Levant: Papers in Honor of Walter E. Rast and R. Thomas Schaub, ed. M. S. Chesson. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.

ROSEN, S. A. 2011 – An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev. Monograph 69. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ROSEN, S. A., F. BOCQUENTIN, G. AVNIand N. PORAT 2007 – Investigations at Ramat Saharonim: A Desert Neolithic Sacred Precinct in the Central Negev. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 346: 31-57.

SAIDEL, B. A., T. ERICKSON-GINI, J. VARDI, S. A. ROSEN, E. MAHER and H. J. GREENFIELD 2006 – Test Excavations at Rogem Be'erotayim in Western Negev. Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society 36: 201-229.

RYAN, P., A. WEISSKOPFand S. A. ROSEN 2011 – Sediments and Microartifacts from the Camel Site. Pp. 155-166 in An Investigation into Early Desert Pastoralism: Excavations at the Camel Site, Negev,

SHAHACK-GROSS, R, F. MARSHALL and S. WEINER 2003 – Herbivorous Livestock Dung: Formation, Taphonomy, Methods for Identification, and Archaeological Significance. Journal of Archaeological Science 38: 205-218.

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