The Statesman's Yearbook: 1988–1989 [125th ed., Reprint 2021] 9783112420621, 9783112420614

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THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1988-1989

Man hat behauptet, die Welt werde durch Zahlen regiert: das aber weiss ich, dass die Zahlen uns belehren, ob sie gut oder schlecht regiert werde. GOETHE Editors Frederick Martin Sir John Scott-Keltie Mortimer Epstein S.H.Steinberg John Pax ton

1864-1883 1883-1926 1911/27-1946 1946-1969 1963/69-

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL A N N U A L OF THE STATES OF THE WORLD FOR THE YEAR

1988-1989 EDITED BY

JOHN PAXTON

W DE

_G WALTER DE GRUYTER

© The Macmillan Press Ltd, 1988 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph ofthis publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended). Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. Published annually since 1864 125th edition first published 1988 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L T D London and Basingstoke and WALTER DE GRUYTER & CO. Berlin Typeset in Great Britain by MB GRAPHIC (TYPESETTING) SERVICES Dunstable, Bedfordshire Printed in Great Britain by Richard Clay (The Chaucer Press) Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk

ISBN 311 011742 8

PREFACE made its first appearance in the year when, in America, Lincoln was elected President of the Union for the second time, when Jefferson Davis was President of the Confederate States and Archduke Maximilian was precariously perched on the Mexican throne. In Britain Palmerston was presiding over his second ministry and income tax was ninepence in the pound. Now in its 125th year this essential book of reference is still unrivalled. The continuity of T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K over this long period is in the first place guaranteed by the continuity of its publishing house. Alexander Macmillan, who, together with brother David, founded Macmillans in 1843, was still alive and took the liveliest interest in the new venture, and 125 years later the fifth generation of the Macmillan family is at the head of the firm. There are other aspects of continuity including that T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K has had the same printers for most of its life and there have only been five editors over this long period. The history of T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K shows fascinating evidence of the development from a comparatively modest handbook of 685 pages, catering mainly for a British public, not altogether devoid of insular prejudices, into a world-wide book of reference of over 1600 closely packed pages. The authenticity and reliability of the facts and figures published in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K is guaranteed by the contributors. These contributors are, with few exceptions, all government departments of the world's states. The central and provincial statistical offices, the political and administrative departments of state, the secretariats of international and national corporations and institutions, the diplomatic representatives and executive authorities which determine and administer the policies of the world today contribute their share in making T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K a book of reference unique in its comprehensiveness as well as its trustworthiness. The editor would once again like to thank all these faithful correspondents. To celebrate this anniversary T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K HISTORICAL COMPANION is being published. These 1 2 5 years have seen global wars, the end of empires, great constitutional and political change. From 1864 these changes have been recorded in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K . However, because of lack of space not all this information is retained in the annual volumes and as a celebration it was decided to bring much of this historical data back into one volume. The editor would also like to remind readers that T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K W O R L D GAZETTEER, now in its third edition, is also available. J.P. T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K

T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K OFFICE, T H E MACMILLAN PRESS L T D , LITTLE ESSEX STREET, LONDON, W C 2 R 3 L F

W E I G H T S

AND

M E A S U R E S

On 1 Jan. 1960 following an agreement between the standards laboratories o f Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the U S A , an international yard and an international pound (avoirdupois) came into existence. 1 yard = 9 1 - 4 4 centimetres; 1 l b . = 4 5 3 - 5 9 2 3 7 g r a m m e s . The abbreviation ' m ' signifies 'million(s)' and tonnes implies metric tons.

LENGTH

Centimetre Metre Kilometre

D R Y MEASURE

Litre Hectolitre

0 - 3 9 4 inch 1 0 9 4 yards 0 - 6 2 1 mile

0 - 9 1 quart 2 - 7 5 bushels

WEIGHT—AVOIRDUPOIS

Gramme Kilogramme Quintal ( = 100 kg) Tonne (= 1,000 kg)

LIQUID M E A S U R E

Litre Hectolitre

1-75 pints 22 gallons

SURFACE M E A S U R E

Square metre Hectare Square kilometre

Gramme

15 -43 grains

Kilogramme

W E I G H T S

AND

pounds

M E A S U R E S

LENGTH

1 foot 1 yard 1 mile (= 1,760 yds)

2 2 0 - 4 6 pounds f 0 - 9 8 4 longton 1 1 - 1 0 2 short tons

WEIGHT—TROY

10 • 76 sq. feet 2 -47 acres 0 - 3 8 6 sq. mile

BRITISH

15-42 grains 2 - 2 0 5 pounds

WEIGHT

0 - 3 0 5 metre 0 - 9 1 4 metre

1 ounce (= 4 3 7 - 2 grains) 2 8 - 3 5 0 grammes 1 lb. ( = 7 , 0 0 0 grains) 4 5 3 - 6 grammes 1 cwt. (=112 lb.) 50 -802 kilogrammes 1 long ton (= 2,2401b.) 1-016 tonnes 1 short ton (= 2,0001b.) 0 - 9 0 7 tonne

1-609 kilometres

SURFACE M E A S U R E

1 sq. foot 1 sq. yard 1 acre 1 sq. mile

9-290 0-836 0-405 2 -590

LIQUID M E A S U R E

sq. decimetres sq. metre hectare sq. kilometres

1 pint 1 gallon 1 quarter

vi

0 - 5 6 8 litre 4 - 5 4 6 litres 2 -909 hectolitres

W E I G H T S

AND

M E A S U R E S

On 1 Jan. 1960 following an agreement between the standards laboratories o f Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the U S A , an international yard and an international pound (avoirdupois) came into existence. 1 yard = 9 1 - 4 4 centimetres; 1 l b . = 4 5 3 - 5 9 2 3 7 g r a m m e s . The abbreviation ' m ' signifies 'million(s)' and tonnes implies metric tons.

LENGTH

Centimetre Metre Kilometre

D R Y MEASURE

Litre Hectolitre

0 - 3 9 4 inch 1 0 9 4 yards 0 - 6 2 1 mile

0 - 9 1 quart 2 - 7 5 bushels

WEIGHT—AVOIRDUPOIS

Gramme Kilogramme Quintal ( = 100 kg) Tonne (= 1,000 kg)

LIQUID M E A S U R E

Litre Hectolitre

1-75 pints 22 gallons

SURFACE M E A S U R E

Square metre Hectare Square kilometre

Gramme

15 -43 grains

Kilogramme

W E I G H T S

AND

pounds

M E A S U R E S

LENGTH

1 foot 1 yard 1 mile (= 1,760 yds)

2 2 0 - 4 6 pounds f 0 - 9 8 4 longton 1 1 - 1 0 2 short tons

WEIGHT—TROY

10 • 76 sq. feet 2 -47 acres 0 - 3 8 6 sq. mile

BRITISH

15-42 grains 2 - 2 0 5 pounds

WEIGHT

0 - 3 0 5 metre 0 - 9 1 4 metre

1 ounce (= 4 3 7 - 2 grains) 2 8 - 3 5 0 grammes 1 lb. ( = 7 , 0 0 0 grains) 4 5 3 - 6 grammes 1 cwt. (=112 lb.) 50 -802 kilogrammes 1 long ton (= 2,2401b.) 1-016 tonnes 1 short ton (= 2,0001b.) 0 - 9 0 7 tonne

1-609 kilometres

SURFACE M E A S U R E

1 sq. foot 1 sq. yard 1 acre 1 sq. mile

9-290 0-836 0-405 2 -590

LIQUID M E A S U R E

sq. decimetres sq. metre hectare sq. kilometres

1 pint 1 gallon 1 quarter

vi

0 - 5 6 8 litre 4 - 5 4 6 litres 2 -909 hectolitres

C O N V E R S I O N OF U N I T S To convert from acre barrel (oil) bushel (imperial) bushel (US) carat cu. foot cu. metre foot gigawatt-hour hectare hundredweight (long) hundredweight (short) inch kilogramme kilometre megawatt metre mile (nautical) mile (statute) millimetre ounce (troy) pound register ton sq. kilometre sq. mile per sq. mile ton (long) ton (short)

To hectare cu. metre litre litre gramme cu. metre cu. foot metre kilowatt-hour acre kilogramme kilogramme millimetre pound mile (statute) kilowatt foot kilometre kilometre inch gramme kilogramme cu. metre sq. mile sq. kilometre per sq. kilometre tonne (metric) tonne (metric)

vii

Multiply by 0-4047 0159 36-37 35-24 0-2 0-028 317 35-315 0-3048 1,000,000 2-471 50-802 45-359 25-4 2-2046 0-62137 1,000 3-2808 1-852 1 -6093 0-03937 31-103 0-453 59 2-832 0-3861 2-590 0-3861 1-016 0-9072

CONTENTS Comparative Statistical

Tables

WHEAT

XV

BARLEY OATS MAIZE RICE

SORGHUM SUGAR PETROLEUM CONSUMER

XX

PRICES

TERRITORIAL

CHRONOLOGY

Parti:

XXI

MILLET

xvi xvii xviii xix

RYE

SEA

LIMITS

xxii xxiii xxiv xx vi xxvii

XXXI

International

Organizations

The United Nations GENERAL ASSEMBLY

3

SECURITY COUNCIL

4

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL C O U N C I L

5

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

6

I N T E R N A T I O N A L C O U R T OF JUSTICE

6

SECRETARIAT

7

BUDGET

7

MEMBER S T A T E S O F T H E UN

7

U N I T E D N A T I O N S SYSTEM

9

Specialized

Agencies

International Atomic Energy Agency (I AEA) International Labour Organisation (I L O) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UN E S C O ) World Health Organization (WHO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (I B R D ) International Development Association (IDA) International Finance Corporation (I FC ) International Civil Aviation Organization (IC AO) Universal Postal Union (UPU) International Telecommunication Union (ITU) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) International Maritime Organization (I MO) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (G ATT) World Intellectual Property Organization (W I PO) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Other International Organizations

12 12 14 15

16 18 20 21 21 21 22 23 23 24 24 26 27

THE COMMONWEALTH

27

W O R L D C O U N C I L OF C H U R C H E S

31

ix

X

CONTENTS

INTERNATIONAL

TRADE UNIONISM

32

EUROPEAN O R G A N I Z A T I O N S Organisation f o r E c o n o m i c C o - o p e r a t i o n and D e v e l o p m e n t ( O E C D ) N o r t h A t l a n t i c T r e a t y O r g a n i z a t i o n (N A T O ) WestemEuropeanUnion(wEu) Council o f Europe European Communities E u r o p e a n Free T r a d e A s s o c i a t i o n (E F T A ) T h e W a r s a w Pact C o u n c i l f o r M u t u a l E c o n o m i c Assistance ( C O M E C O N ) COLOMBO P L A N A S S O C I A T I O N OF SOUTH EAST A S I A N N A T I O N S ( A S E A N ) O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF A M E R I C A N STATES ( O A S ) L A T I N A M E R I C A N ECONOMIC G R O U P I N G S CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM) SOUTH P A C I F I C FORUM A R A B LEAGUE O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF THE P E T R O L E U M E X P O R T I N G C O U N T R I E S ( O P E C ) ORGANIZATION

OF A F R I C A N U N I T Y

(OAU)

34 36 38 39 41 46 47 48 49 51 51 53 54 55 56 57 57

DANUBE COMMISSION

58

Part II: Countries of the World A-Z AFGHANISTAN

61

BELIZE

ALBANIA

66

BENIN

203 207

ALGERIA

72

BERMUDA

211 214

ANDORRA

77

BHUTAN

ANGOLA

79

BOLIVIA

217

ANGUILLA

83

BOTSWANA

223

A N T I G U A AND BARBUDA

85

BRAZIL

227

ARGENTINA

88

BRITISH

AUSTRALIA

95

119 120 123 127 136 142 147 152 159

AUSTRIA

168

BAHAMAS

174

BAHRAIN

179

BANGLADESH

184

BARBADOS

190

BELGIUM

193

236 OCEAN

TERRITORY BRUNEI

236 237

BULGARIA BURKINA

States N e w South W a l e s Queensland South Australia Tasmania Victoria Western Australia

TERRITORY BRITISH I N D I A N

Territories Australian Capital T e r r i t o r y Northern Territory Australian External Territories

ANTARCTIC

241 FASO

248

BURMA

252

BURUNDI

257

CAMBODIA

260

CAMEROON

264

CANADA

269

Provinces

296

Alberta British C o l u m b i a Manitoba N e w Brunswick N e w f o u n d l a n d and L a b r a d o r N o v a Scotia Ontario

297 301 304 307 311 315 318

CONTENTS Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Territories Northwest Territories Yukon Territory

322 323 326 329 331

CAPE VERDE

335

CAYMAN

338

ISLANDS

CENTRAL

AFRICAN

REPUBLIC

CHAD CHILE

346

CHINA,

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF

TAIWAN COLOMBIA COMOROS CONGO COSTA CÔTE

RICA D'IVOIRE

CUBA CYPRUS

'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus' CZECHOSLOVAKIA DENMARK

Faroe Islands Greenland DJIBOUTI DOMINICA DOMINICAN

REPUBLIC

ECUADOR EGYPT EL

340 343

SALVADOR

EQUATORIAL

GUINEA

ETHIOPIA FALKLAND

ISLANDS

FIJI FINLAND FRANCE

Overseas Departments Guadeloupe Guiana Martinique Réunion Territorial Collectivities Mayotte St Pierre and Miquelon Overseas territories Antarctic territories New Caledonia

352

365 370 376 379 383 388 392 398 404 405 413 424 425 428 431 433 438 444 451 456 459 464 467 471 481 497 499 500 502 504 506 508 508

French Polynesia Wallis and Futuna GABON

511 513 515

GAMBIA

519

GERMANY

522

GERMAN

DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC GERMANY,

(EAST)

523

FEDERAL

REPUBLIC

OF (WEST)

Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Berlin (West) Bremen Hamburg Hessen Lower Saxony North Rhine-Westphalia Rhineland-Palatinate Saarland Schleswig-Holstein GHANA

529

541 542 544 545 546 548 549 5 51 552 554 556 558

GIBRALTAR

563

GREECE

566

GRENADA

573

GUATEMALA

576

GUINEA

581

GUINEA-BISSAU

584

GUYANA

587

HAITI

592

HONDURAS

597

HONG

602

KONG

HUNGARY

609

ICELAND

617

INDIA

States and Territories Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram

624

646 647 649 649 651 652 653 655 656 657 659 661 663 666 667 669 670

CONTENTS

XU

670 671 674 675 677 679 681 682 684

Nagaland Orissa Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi Lakshadweep Pondicherry INDONESIA IRAN IRAQ IRELAND ISRAEL ITALY JAMAICA JAPAN JORDAN KENYA KIRIBATI KOREA, REPUBLIC

OF

North Korea KUWAIT LAOS LEBANON LESOTHO LIBERIA LIBYA LIECHTENSTEIN LUXEMBOURG MADAGASCAR MALAWI MALAYSIA

Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak MALDIVES, REPUBLIC MALI MALTA

OF

846 849 853 «61 863 868 870 876 880 882 886 898 900 903 918 920 922 927 930 936 948 951 956 966 972 978 984 990 996 997 1007 1013 1016 1020 1028

MAURITANIA MAURITIUS MEXICO MONACO MONGOLIA MONTSERRAT MOROCCO MOZAMBIQUE

686 687 687 688 689 690 690 692 699 705 710 724 732 744 749 758 763 768 771 776 781 785 789 794 797 801 806 809 813 817 821 826 829 831 835 837 840

NAURU NEPAL NETHERLANDS

Aruba Netherlands Antilles NEW

ZEALAND

Cook Islands Niue NICARAGUA NIGER NIGERIA NORWAY

Dependencies OMAN PAKISTAN PANAMA PAPUA NEW

GUINEA

PARAGUAY PERU PHILIPPINES PITCAIRN POLAND PORTUGAL

Macao QATAR ROMANIA RWANDA ST C H R I S T O P H E R ( K I T T S ) NEVIS ST H E L E N A ST L U C I A ST V I N C E N T SAN

MARINO

SÀO T O M É SAUDI

ARABIA

SENEGAL SEYCHELLES

-

1031 1034 1036 1038 1041 1043 1045 1052 1056

CONI SIERRA

LEONE

SINGAPORE SOLOMON

ISLANDS

SOMALIA SOUTH

AFRICA,

REPUBLIC

OF

South-West Africa/Namibia Bophuthatswana Transkei Venda Ciskei SOUTH GEORGIA A N D THE SOUTH S A N D W I C H ISLANDS SPAIN

Western Sahara SRI

1059 1064 1071 1074

LANKA

SUDAN SURINAME SWAZILAND SWEDEN SWITZERLAND SYRIA TANZANIA THAILAND TOGO TONGA TRINIDAD AND

TOBAGO

TUNISIA TURKEY TURKS AND

CAICOS ISLANDS

TUVALU UGANDA UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS

Russia Ukraine Belorussia Azerbaijan Georgia Armenia Moldavia Estonia Latvia Lithuania Central Asia Kazakhstan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Tadzhikistan Kirghizia

1077 1094 1098 1100 1101 1103 1106 1107 1119 1120 1128 1133 1137 1141 1157 1168 1172 1177 1184 1188 1191 1195 1200 1208 1210 1212 1216 1245 1255 1257 1258 1261 1264 1266 1267 1269 1270 1272 1273 1275 1276 1279 1281

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES UNITED KINGDOM

Great Britain Northern Ireland Isle of Man Channel Islands U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

States Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming

1284 1289

1289 1355 1364 1366 1371

1427 1428 1430 1433 1435 1438 1440 1443 1446 1448 1449 1452 1454 1456 1458 1461 1464 1466 1468 1471 1473 1476 1479 1481 1484 1487 1489 1492 1494 1497 1499 1501 1504 1506 1510 1512 1514 1517 1520 1524 1527 1529 1531 1534 1536 1539 1541 1543 1545 1548 1550 1554

xiv

CONTENTS

Outlying Territories Guam

1556 1557

WESTERN

Freely-Associated States Republic of Palau Northern Marianas Samoa Other Pacific Territories Puerto Rico Virgin Islands

1559 1560 1560 1561 1563 1564 1566 1569 1574 1577 1580 1587 1593

YEMEN,

URUGUAY VANUATU VATICAN

CITY

STATE

VENEZUELA VIETNAM VIRGIN

ISLANDS,

PLACE

AND

BRITISH

INTERNATIONAL PRODUCT NAME

YEMEN

1595 1598

SAMOA

ARAB

REPUBLIC

PEOPLE'S DEMO-

CRATIC

REPUBLIC

OF

YUGOSLAVIA

Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Kosovo Vojvodina Slovenia ZAÏRE ZAMBIA ZIMBABWE

ORGANIZATIONS INDEX

INDEX

ADDENDA

1681

1691

XXXVi

INDEX

1635

1601 1605 1613 1614 1614 1615 1615 1616 1616 1617 1618 1623 1627

XV

Tt g o^oo r^oo on rn ON © r ^ © oo r-^r--^ 00 t^co co r ^ r ^ r i ^ o C rs~

•ovir--© o — v> v i 0000^\0000'0 ^""l***" oo ^ r-^ i/"^ (N^ oo^ ^ m^ so^ so o. ^ O^ ^ rn in ^O oorn r-» ^Tt"—" ri ri rn~vC — — —"cn — " ri-^r —o'rí so^^jTosri

e e o o 8

- m r- os © r-- r- — "¡tmooosnmOi-- — ^ o o ^ i - c c f o o o o ^ ^ oo ini^ov fN^ r^ m^ so^ o_ ^ —^ s O Tt vo C N — en — « en »/-Tr-ien r i ^ — ^ — . es \0 — — — — '< N fS OMTfTj-Tj-oOfn-HVOMûOfNOOOOûOOs-^nONOsvOOOOOMf'i ® o ^^^ONO^^^O^^f^^TtnONO^o^m^^o^r^so^o^m^r4^ ^ o C — — MVn'n'o'fN ^o oo^«rTvsO — —
os o ^ ^ — S O

— T c

so — — — en —

s ! c d b — r- © r- o\ — i^ooNor^soooíNooooNtNOOONiriON^ONOsoo o ev f^fN O^fSt^ oo^(N — ^ O n ^ O oo en--oo oo sC^fN r^— 0N^r-^s0 — ^ o o en en en r i — oC —' —Vi en — r n "^f ^ — T — T irTrÍri-Í— O f m

tì SI

©oo Copiapó La Serena 87,456 ' Valparaíso 267,025 Santiago 4,318,305 152,132 Rancagua Talca 144,656 Concepción 217,756 Temuco 171,831 Puerto Montt 81,353 1 Coihaique 31,167 1 Punta Arenas 105,265

Census, 1982

Vital statistics (1984): Birth rate 21-2 per 1,000 population; death rate, 6-3; marriage rate, 7 (1982); infantile mortality rate, 2 0 1 per 1,000 live births. Life expectancy (1981): men, 65 -4 years, women, 70 • 1. Over 92% of the population is mixed or mestizo; only about 2% are European immigrants and their descendants, while the remainder are indigenous amerindians of the Araucanian, Fuegian and Chango groups. Language and culture remain of European origin, with the 675,000 Araucanian-speaking (mainly Mapuche) Indians the only sizeable minority. Other large towns (estimate, 1985) are: Vina del Mar (315,947), Talcahuano (220,910), Chilian (128,920), Arica (127,925), Valdivia (119,977) and Osorno (100,982). 346

CHILE

347

C L I M A T E . With its enormous range of latitude and the influence of the Andean Cordillera, the climate of Chile is very complex, ranging from extreme aridity in the north, through a Mediterranean climate in Central Chile, where winters are wet and summers dry, to a cool temperate zone in the south, with rain at all seasons. In the extreme south, conditions are very wet and stormy. Santiago. Jan. 67°F (19-5°C), July 46°F (8°C). Annual rainfall 15" (375 mm). Antofagasta. Jan. 69°F (20-6°C), July 57°F(14°C). Annual rainfall 0-5" (12-7 mm). Valparaiso. Jan. 64°F (17-8°C), July 53°F(11-TC). Annual rainfall 2 0 " (505 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Marxist coalition government of President Salvador Allende Gossens was ousted on 11 Sept. 1973 by the 3 Armed Services and the Carabineros (para-military police). These forces formed a government headed by a Junta of the 4 Commanders-in-Chief. Gen. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, Commander-in-Chief of the Army, took over the presidency. President Allende died on the day of the coup. Marxist parties were outlawed and all political activities banned. The new Government assumed wide-ranging powers but the 'state of siege' ended in March 1978. A new Constitution was approved by 67-5% of the voters on 11 Sept. 1980 and came into force on 11 March 1981. It provided for a return to democracy after a minimum period of 8 years. Gen. Pinochet would remain in office during this period after which the Junta would nominate a single candidate for President. The capital is Santiago, founded on 12 Feb. 1541. National flag: Two horizontal bands, white, red, with a white star on blue square in top sixth next to staff. National anthem: Dulce patria, recibe los votos (words by E. Lillo, 1847; tune by Ramón Carnicer, 1828). The following is a list of the presidents since 1946: Gabriel González Videla, 3 Nov. 1946-3 Nov. 1952. Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, 3 Nov. 1952-3 Nov. 1958. Jorge Alessandri Rodriguez, 3 Nov. 1958-3 Nov. 1964.

Eduardo Frei Montalva, 3 Nov. 1964-3 Nov. 1970. Salvador Allende Gossens, 3 Nov. 1970-11 Sept. 1973 (deposed).

President of the Republic: Gen. Augusto Pinochet Ugarte (assumed office 17 Dec. 1974). The Junta Militar de Gobierno consisted in Jan. 1986 of Lieut.-Gen. Humberto Gordon (Army), Adm. José Toribio Merino Castro (Navy C.-in-C.), Gen. Rodolfo Strange (Carabineros Dir.-Gen.) and Gen. Fernando Matthei Aubel (Air Force C.-in-C.). The Cabinet in March 1988 was composed as follows: Interior: Sergio Fernandez. Foreign Affairs: Ricardo Garcia Rodriguez. Defence: Vice-Adm. Patricio Carvajal. Economy, Development and Building: Brig.-Gen. Manuel Concha. Exchequer: Heman Buchi: Education. Juan Antonio Guzman. Justice: Hugo Rosende. Public Works: Maj.-Gen. Bruno Siebert. Agriculture: Jorge Prado. Treasury: Jorge Veloso. Employment and Social Welfare: Alfonso Marzquez de la Plata. Health: Juan Giaconi. Mining: Samuel Lira. Housing and Urbanism: Miguel Angel Produje. Transport and Telecommunications: Gen. Jorge Maza. General Secretary of State: Orlando Poblete. General Secretary to the Presidency: Brig.-Gen. Sergio Valenzuela. Planning Office: Sergio Melnick. Development Corporation: Col. Guillermo Letelier. Energy: Lieut.-Gen. Herman Brady. Local Government. For the purposes of local government the Military Junta in pursuance of its policy of administrative decentralization, has divided the republic into 13 regions (12 and Greater Santiago). Each Region is presided over by an Intendente, while the provinces (40) included in it are in charge of a Gobernador

348

CHILE

who represents the central government. The provinces are divided into municipalities under an alcalde (mayor). All these officials are appointed by the President. D E F E N C E . Military service is for a period of 2 years at the age of 19. Army. The Army is organized in 1 armoured, 10 cavalry and 23 infantry regiments; 7 artillery and 7 engineer battalions; and 1 helicopter-borne ranger unit. Equipment includes 150 M-4A3 and 21 AMX-30 tanks, 110 light tanks and 300 armoured cars. The service operates over 50 aircraft including 6 Aviocar transports, 12 Puma, 2 Super Puma, 2 Iroquois, 2 Jet Ranger and 12 Lama helicopters, 4 Navajo communications aircraft and 18 Cessna Hawk XP trainers. Strength (1987) 57,000 (30,000 conscripts) and 100,000 reserves. Navy. The principal ships 1 of the Chilean Navy are the 4 ex-British guided missile armed destroyers Norfolk, 5,440 tons standard, completed in 1970, purchased in 1982 and re-named Prat on transfer; Antrim of the same age, purchased in 1984 and re-named Cochrane; Glamorgan, completed in 1966, purchased in 1986 and re-named Almirante Latorre and Fife, completed in 1966, handed over in 1987 and re-named Blanco Encalada. There are 2 modern Federal German-built small diesel-electric patrol submarines, 2 diesel powered patrol submarines (British 'Oberon' class), 4 other destroyers (2 old British built and 2 ancient ejt-US), 2 frigates (modem British 'Leander' class, Condell and Lynch), 2 fast missile craft, 4 torpedo boats, 5 patrol vessels, 26 coastal patrol craft, 1 submarine support vessel, 3 landing ships, 2 landing craft, 1 survey ship, 4 transports, 2 training ships, 1 antarctic patrol ship, 2 harbour patrol boats, 4 oilers, 4 floating docks and 2 tugs. The Naval Air Service has 4 squadrons: 1 with Bandeirante and Aviocar transports; 1 with Alouette and JetRanger ASW helicopters; 1 with EMB-111 maritime patrol aircraft; and 1 with Pilatus PC-7 trainers. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 29,000 all ranks including 5,200 marines and 500 in the maritime air service. ' The over 50-years-old cruiser O Higgins (ex-USS Brooklyn), 10,000 tons standard, is still listed, but her equally ancient sister-ship Prat (ex-USS Nashville) was scrapped in 1986. The over 40-year-old cruiser Latorre (ex-Swedish Gota Lejori), 8,200 tons was unlisted in 1987.

Air Force. Approximate strength (1988) is 15,000 personnel, with (1987) 105 firstline and 150 second-line aircraft, divided among 12 groups, each comprising 1 squadron, within 4 combat and support wings. Groups 1 and 12 have twin-jet A-37Bs, from a total of 34 acquired for light strike/reconnaissance duties. Group 2 is equipped for photo-reconnaissance with 2 Canberras. Group 4 has 14 Mirage 50 fighters. Group 5 has 14 Twin Otters for light transport and survey duties. Group 7 received 15 F-5E Tiger II fighter-bombers and 3 F-5F trainers. Groups 8 and 9 are also fighter-bomber units, with a total of 30 Hunter F.71 s, «c-RAF FGA.9s, and T.72s. Group 10 is a transport wing, with 2 C-130H Hercules, 2 Boeing 707s, 1 Boeing 727, 9 Beech 99As and various helicopters. An aerial survey unit has 3 Leaijets and 3 Beech twin-engined aircraft. Training aircraft include pistonengined Piper Dakota and T-35 Pillan basic trainers and T-37 jets have been superseded by Spanish-built CASA C-101BB Aviojets. The A-37Bs are being replaced by CASA C-101CC Aviojets. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Chile is a member of the UN, OAS and LAIA (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY

Budget. In 1985 revenue was US$6,633 -7m. and expenditure, US$7,518 -3m. Currency. In Jan. 1960 a system came into force based on the escudo (equivalent of 1,000 pesos), the centesimo (10 pesos) and the milesimo(l peso). On 29 Sept. 1975 the currency reverted to pesos with a value of 1,000 escudos to the new peso. In March 1988 there were 432-73 pesos=i\ and244-51 p e « w = U S $ l .

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Banking. There is a Central Bank and State Bank and in 1986 18 domestic and 19 foreign banks were operating. Commercial banks' total assets/liabilities in June 1985 were 1,422,700m. pesos. Notes in circulation and deposits in currency were 1,187,882m. pesos at 31 Dec. 1985; total deposits in the commercial banks stood at 959,297m. pesos (1985). Weights and Measures. The metric system has been legally established in Chile since 1865, but the old Spanish weights and measures are still in use to some extent. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1985 production of electricity was 14,209m. kwh, of which 70% hydro-electric. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Petroleum was discovered in 1945 in the southern area of Magallanes. Production (1987) 1-4m. tonnes. Gas. Production (1985)4,638 m. cu. metres. Minerals. The wealth of the country consists chiefly in its minerals, especially in the northern provinces of Atacama and Tarapacá. Copper is the most important source of foreign exchange (about 45% of exports) and government revenues (over 30%). The copper industry's output in 1985 was 1,256,400 tonnes. Exports during 1985 were valued at US$1,770 - lm. Nitrate of soda is found in the Atacama deserts. Exports were US$84-9m. in 1985. Production was 870,000 tonnes in 1985. Iodine is a by-product: 1984 production totalled 2,661 tonnes. The use of solar evaporation as a means of reducing costs has developed the production of potassium salts as an additional byproduct. Iron ore, of which high-grade deposits estimated at over 1,000m. tons exist in the provinces of Atacama and Coquimbo, has overtaken nitrate as Chile's second mineral. Production in 1985 was 6,493,833 tonnes, of which some 3,400,000 were in pellet form. Coal reserves exceed 2,000m. tons, partially low in thermal unit. Net 1985 production was 1,240,978 tonnes. In 1985 other minerals included molybdenum (11,389 tonnes, pure), zinc (22,040 tonnes), manganese (35,658 tonnes), lead (2,349 tonnes). Agriculture. Agriculture and forestry contribute one-tenth of the national product, although one-third of the population take part in it. Total area of land available for agricultural use in 1986 was 29m. hectares, of which 12% was sown crops, 38% grassland and 15% forested. Some principal crops were as follows: Crop Wheat Oats Barley Maize Rice

Area harvested, 1,000 hectares 1986 569 64 23 105 32

Production, 1,000 tonnes 1986 1,626 124 68 721 127

Area harvested, 1,000 hectares Crop 1986 Potatoes 53 Dry beans 90 Lentils 37 Green peas 4 Sugar-beet 51

Production, 1,000 tonnes 1986 792 89 29 20 2,638

In 1985 fruit plantations had expanded to 86,620 hectares with 9 types of fruit, mainly apples and table grapes. Production, 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Apples, 480; grapes, 1,100; pears, 70; peaches and nectarines, 165; plums, 51; oranges, 80; lemons and limes, 66. Exports in the season ended May 1986 totalled 64m. cases valued at US$450m. Production of animal products in 1985 was (in 1,000 tonnes): Cattle, 174-8; sheep, 13-5;pork, 66; poultry, 73. Eggs, 1,577m.; milk, 1,000m. litres. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 3-5m.; horses, 500,000; asses, 28,000; sheep, 5-98m.; goats, 600,000; pigs, 1 13m.; poultry, 19m. Forestry. According to the Forestry Institute, by late 1985, there were 1,050,000 hectares of artificial forests from Maule to Magallanes, the most important species

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being the pine (pinus radiata) which covers 850,000 hectares. Eucalyptus and poplar cover some 72,000 hectares. Native species of importance amounted to 9-4m. hectares in 1983. Production during 1985 amounted to about 245m. in. of sawn timber. Exports of forestry products in 1985 were valued at US$320m. Fisheries. Chile has 4,200 km of coastline and exclusive fishing rights to 1 - 6 m. sq. km. There are 220 species of edible fish. Catch of fish and shellfish in 1985 was 5m. tonnes; shellfish, 144,000 tonnes. Exports of seafood in 1985 were US$275m., of which fishmeal accounted for US$244m. The industry employs 70,000 (1 • 5% of the working population). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. A nationally-owned steel plant operates from Huachipato, near Concepción. Output, 1985, 654,500 tonnes of steel ingots. Cellulose and wood-pulp are two industries which are rapidly developing; in 1985,657,500 tonnes of cellulose were produced. Cement (l-4m. tonnes) and fishmeal (723,100 tonnes) are also important. Labour. In March 1986 the total workforce numbered 4-36m., of which 607,100 were employed in agriculture, fishing, construction and manufacturing industries, 925,100 in service industries and 97,100 in transport and communications. Trade unions began in the middle 1880s. Commerce. Imports and exports in US$ 1 m.: Imports Exports

1982 3,580 3,798

1983 2,969 3,835

1984 3,357 3,650

1985 2,955 3,743

1986 ... ...

1987 3,967 5,046

In 1985 imports (in US$lm.) from USA, were valued at 655; Venezuela, 268; Brazil, 249; Japan, 188; Federal Republic of Germany, 209; Argentina, 106; Spain, 106; France, 7 9 ; U K , 84; Italy, 50. In 1985 the principal imports were (in USSlm.): Fuels, 522; chemicals, 461; industrial equipment, 432; transport equipment, 129; spares, 194, and live animals and foodstuffs, 38. The principal exports in 1985 were (in USSlm.): Copper, 1,770; paper and pulp, 200; iron ore, 90; timber, 112; nitrate, 85. Total trade between Chile and U K for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, i n £ l , 0 0 0 sterling): ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

107,644 43,520

108,420 74,997

134,750 73,914

128,007 67,459

112,843 105,838

Tourism. There were 547,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were in Chile 78,025 km of highways. There were in 1982 (estimate), 850,000 automobiles, 185,000 goods vehicles and 22,500 buses. Railways. The total length of state railway lines was (1986) 7,205 km, including 1,884 km electrified, ofbroad- and metre-gauge. In 1986 the State Railways carried 13 1m. tonnes and 6 -2m. passengers. Further electrification is in progress between Concepción and Puerto Montt (600 km). An underground railway in Santiago was opened in Sept. 1975. The Antofagasta (Chili) and Bolivia Railway (702 km, metre-gauge) links the port of Antofagasta with Bolivia and Argentina. Aviation. There are 7 international airports, 16 domestic airports and about 300 landing grounds. Chile is served by 19 commercial air companies (2 Chilean). In 1980, 325,800 passengers were carried into and out of Chile on international services; 265,400 passengers were carried on internal routes. Shipping. The mercantile marine had, in 1982,60 ships of over 100 tons (825,076 DWT) but most of the fleet operates under flags of convenience. Valparaiso is the chief port. The free ports of Magallanes, Chiloé and Aysén serve the southern pro-

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Post and Broadcasting. There are 1,486 post offices and agencies. In 1983 there were 608,200 (Santiago, 360,053) telephones in use. At the end of 1982 there were 267 commercial broadcasting stations. Three television stations are operated by the Universities and there is a national television station using NTSC 525 line colour standards. On 9 Aug. 1968 the satellite station at Longovilo, 50 miles south-west of Santiago, was inaugurated to cover transmissions (including colour) from the USA and Europe. In 1977 there were 2m. radio receivers and (1976) 710,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1986). Cinemas numbered 170; 60 of them are in Santiago. Newspapers (1986). There were 65 daily newspapers and 100 magazines. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There are a High Court of Justice in the capital, 12 courts of appeal distributed over the republic, tribunals of first instance in the departmental capitals and second-class judges in the sub-delegations. The police force had (1975) about 27,000 officers and men; it is organized and regulated by the Ministry of Defence. Religion. 89-5% of the population are Catholics. There are 1 cardinal-archbishop, 5 archbishops, 22 bishops and 2 vicars apostolic. Latest estimates show 6-7m. Roman Catholics, 880,500 Protestants and 25,000 Jews. Education. Education is in 3 stages: Basic (6-14 years), Middle (15-18) and University (19-23). Enrolment (1981): 2,139,319 pupils in the basic schools, 392,940 pupils in the middle schools and 161,809 pupils in technical schools; teachers in 1980 numbered 66,354 in basic, 24,387 in middle and 4,176 in technical schools. University education is provided in the state university, University of Chile (founded in 1842), the Catholic University at Santiago (1888), the University of Concepción (1919), the Catholic University at Valparaiso (1928), the Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María at Valparaíso (1930), the Universidad Técnica del Estado (1952), Universidad Austral, Valdivia (1954) and Universidad del Norte, Antofagasta (1957) with a total student population of 118,978 in 1981. Health. In 1982 there were 5,416 doctors, 1,644 dentists, 201 pharmacists, 1,930 midwives and 25,889 nursing personnel. 205 hospitals, 296 health centres and 888 emergency posts. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Chile in Great Britain (12 Devonshire St., London, W I N 2FS) A mbassador: Juan Carlos Délano (accredited 26 Nov. 1987). Of Great Britain in Chile (La Concepción 177, Casilla 72-D, Santiago) A mbassador: Alan White, CMG, OBE. Of Chile in the USA (1732 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Hernán Felipe Errázuriz. Of the USA in Chile (Agustinas 1343, Santiago) Ambassador: Harry G. Barnes Jr. Of Chile to the United Nations Ambassador: Pedro Daza. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Santiago), was founded 17 Sept. 1847. Director General: Alvaro Vial Donoso. Principal publications'. Anuario Estadística and the bi-monthly Estadística Chilena. Other sources are: Geografía Económica, by the Corporación de Fomento de la Production, and Boletín Mensual, by the Banco Central de Chile. Davis, N., TheLast Two Years ofSalvador Allende. London, 1985 Home, A., Small Earthquake in Chile. A Visit to Allende's South America. London, 1972 Lasaga, M., The Copper Industry in the Chilean Economy. An Econometric Analysis. Aldershot, 1981 Porteous, J. D., The Modernization of Easter Island. Victoria, B.C., 1981 Smith, B. H., Church and Politics in Chile: Challenges to Modern Catholicism. Princeton Univ. Press, 1983

Capital: Beijing (Peking) Population: 1,072 2m.(1988) GNP per capita: US$250 (1986)

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF C H I N A Zhonghua Renmin Gonghe Guo

HISTORY. In the course of 1949 the Communists obtained full control of the mainland of China, and in 1950 also over most islands off the coast, including Hainan. On 1 Oct. 1949 Mao Zedong (Tse-tung) proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . China is bounded north by the USSR and Mongolia, east by Korea, the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, with Hong Kong and Macao as enclaves on the south-east coast; south by Vietnam, Laos, Burma, India, Bhutan and Nepal; west by India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and the USSR. The capital is Beijing (Peking). See m a p in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 6 8 - 6 9 .

The total area (including Taiwan) is estimated at 9,572,900 sq. km (3,696,100 sq. miles). At the 1982 census population was 1,008,175,288. Han Chinese numbered 936 -7m. There are 55 ethnic minorities; those numbering more than 3m. were with percentage of total population: Zhuang (1-3%), Hui (0-7%), Uighur (0-6%), Yi (0 • 54%), Miao (0 • 5%), Manchu (0 • 43%), Tibetan (0 -39%) and Mongolian (0 • 34%). Since 1979 married couples in urban areas have been permitted to have only one child (usually two in rural areas), a policy enforced by compulsory abortions and economic sanctions. It was admitted in 1987, however, that this demographic curb was failing, and that the population target of not more than 1,200m. by 2000 was in jeopardy. Population, 1988: 1,072 2m. (1986: males, 530 11m.; urban, 382-44m.). Vital statistics, 1985: birth rate, 1 -8%; death rate, 0-7%; growth rate, 1 • 12%. Population density, 109 per sq. km. in 1986. There were 8,290,588 marriages and 457,938 divorces in 1985. Expectation of life was 67 in 1985. Estimates of persons of Chinese race outside China, Taiwan and Hong Kong in 1980 varied from 15m. to 20m. Since 1982 China has permitted the emigration of a quota of 75 persons per day to Hong Kong. A number of widely divergent varieties of Chinese are spoken. The official 'Modern Standard Chinese' is based on the dialect of North China. The ideographic writing system of 'characters' is uniform throughout the country, and has undergone systematic simplification. In 1958 a phonetic alphabet (Pinyin) was devised to transcribe the characters, and in 1979 this was officially adopted for use in all texts in the Roman alphabet. The previous transcription scheme (Wade) is still used in Taiwan. China is administratively divided into 21 provinces, 5 autonomous regions (originally entirely or largely inhabited by ethnic minorities, though in some regions now outnumbered by Han immigrants) and 3 government-controlled municipalities. These are in turn divided into 165 prefectures, 321 cities, 2,046 counties and 620 urban districts. (For earlier administrative divisions see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) .

352

353

CHINA Governmentcontrolled municipalities Beijing Tianjin Shanghai Provinces Hebei Shanxi Liaoning Jilin Heilongjiang Jiangsu Zhejiang Anhui Fujian Jiangxi Shandong Henan Hubei Hunan Guangdong Sichuan Guizhou Yunnan Shaanxi Gansu Qinghai Autonomous regions Inner Mongolia Guangxi Tibet1 Ningxia Xinjiang

Area (in 1,000 sq. km) 178 40 5-8

Population in 1985 (in 1,000s) 9,470 7,990 12,050

202-7 157-1 151-0 187-0 463-6 102-2 101-8 139-9 123-1 164-8 153-3 167-0 187-5 210-5 231-4 569-0 174-0 436-2 195-8 530-0 721-0

54,870 26,000 36,550 22,840 32,950 61,710 39,930 51,030 26,770 34,210 76,370 76,460 48,760 55,610 61,660 101,120 29,320 33,620 29,660 20,160 4,020

293 167 251 122 70 602 392 366 221 205 499 458 260 264 291 179 167 85 145 45 6

Shijiazhuang Taiyuan Shenyang Changchun Harbin Nanjing Hangzhou Hefei Fuzhou Nanchang Jinan Zhengzhou Wuhan Changsha Guangzhou Chengdu Guiyang Kunming Xian Lanzhou Xining

450-0 220-4 1,221-6 170-0 1,646-8

19,850 38,060 1,970 4,060 13,440

17 165 2 61 8

Hohhot Nanning Lhasa Yinchuan Urumqi

1

Density persq. km 564 707 1,944

Capital — — —

See also p a r a g r a p h o n T i b e t below.

Population of largest cities in 1986: Shanghai, 6-98m.; Beijing (Peking), 5-86m.; Tianjin, 5-38m.; Shenyang, 4-2m.; Wuhan, 3-4m.; Guangzhou (Canton), 3-29m.; Chongqing, 2-78m.; Harbin, 2-63m.; Chengdu, 2-58m.; Xian, 2-33m.; Zibo, 2-3m.; Nanjing, 2-25m.; Taiyuan, l -88m.; Changchun, l-86m.; Dalian, l-63m.; Zhengzhou, l-59m.; Kunming, l-49m.; Jinan, l-43m.; Tangshan, l-39m.; Guiyang, l-38m.; Lanzhou, l-35m.; Anshan, l-28m.; Qiqihar, l-26m.; Hangzhou, l-25m.; Qingdao, l-25m.; Fushun, l-24m.; Fuzhou, 119m.; Changsha, 116m.; Shijazhuang, 116m.; Jilin, 114m.; Nanchang, l-12m.; Baotau, 11m.; Huainan, 107m.; Luoyang, l-05m.; Ningbo, 102m.; Datong, lm.;Urumqi, lm. Tibet. For events before the revolt of 1 9 5 9 see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 , under TIBET. After the revolt was suppressed the Preparatory Committee for the Autonomous Region of Tibet (set up 1955) took over the functions of local government, led by its Vice-Chairman, the Banqen Lama, in the absence of its Chairman, the Dalai Lama, who had fled to India in 1959. In Dec. 1964 both the Dalai and Banqen Lamas were removed from their posts and on 9 Sept. 1965 Tibet became an Autonomous Region. 301 delegates were elected to the first People's Congress, of whom 226 were Tibetans. The Banqen Lama was re-elected to the Standing Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference in March 1978—he became one of its Vice-Chairmen in July 1979—and has made several appeals to the Dalai Lama to return to China. In 1985 the Tibetan population of Tibet was 1 - 9 M . , Han 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 . Population of the capital, Lhasa, in 1 9 8 6 was 3 1 0 , 0 0 0 . Expectation of life was 4 5 years in 1 9 8 5 . 4 - 2 5 m . Tibetans live outside Tibet, in China, and in India and Nepal. Chinese efforts to modernize Tibet include irrigation, road-building and the establishment of light industry: in 1985 296 small and medium-sized factories and mines were producing electric power, coal, building materials, lumber, textiles, chemicals and animal products.

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CHINA

In 1979,1 • 6m. were engaged in agriculture, including 0- 5m. nomadic herdsmen. By 1984, a large measure of autonomy for the peasantry had been re-introduced: compulsory deliveries and some taxes were abolished and private ownership of livestock and 30-year disposition of land were granted. There were 23m. cattle in 1984. In 1975 Tibet became self-sufficient ingrain for the first time. There are now 21,000 km of highways, and air routes link Lhasa with Chengdu, Xian and Kathmandu. Six more were opened in 1987. 30,000 tourists visited Tibet in 1986. The borders were opened for trade with neighbouring countries in 1980. In July 1988 Tibetan was reinstated as a 'major official language', competence in which is required of all administrative officials. Efforts are being made to revive Tibetan culture as part of China's new liberal policy towards minorities. Since 1980 178 monasteries and 743 shrines have been renovated and reopened. There were some 15,000 monks and nuns in 1987. In 1984 a Buddhist seminary in Lhasa opened with 200 students. Circulation of the Tibetan-language Xizang Daily now totals 38,000. In 1986 there were 2,315 primary schools, 56 secondary schools, 14 technical schools and 3 higher education institutes. "Hie total number of students was 146,000. A university was established in 1985. In 1985 there were almost 7,000 medical personnel (of whom 59% were Tibetan) and 927 medical institutions, with a total of4,738 beds. In Oct. 1987 there were anti-Chinese demonstrations in which several people were killed. The Dalai Lama, My Land and My People (ed. D. Howarth). London, 1962 Grunfeld, A. T., The Making of Modern Tibet. London, 1987 Harrer, H., Return to Tibet. London, 1984 Jaschke, H. A., A Tibetan-English Dictionary. London, 1934 Shakabpa, T. W. D „ Tibet: A Political History. New York, 1984 Sharabati, D., Tibet and its History. London, 1986

CLIMATE. Most of China has a temperate climate but, with such a large country, extending far inland and embracing a wide range of latitude as well as containing large areas at high altitude, many parts experience extremes of climate, especially in winter. Most rain falls during the summer, from May to Sept., though amounts decrease inland. Peking (Beijing). Jan. 24°F (-4-4°C), July 79°F (26°C). Annual rainfall 24-9" (623 mm). Chongqing. Jan. 45°F (7-2°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 43-7" (1,092 mm). Shanghai. Jan. 39°F (3-9°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 45-4" (1,135 mm). Tianjin. Jan. 24°F(-4-4°C), July 81 °F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 21-5" (533-4 mm). CONSTITUTION

AND

G O V E R N M E N T . O n 21 Sept. 1949 the Chinese

People's Political Consultative Conference' met in Peking, convened by the Chinese Communist Party. The Conference adopted a 'Common Programme' of 60 articles and the 'Organic Law of the Central People's Government' (31 articles). Both became the basis of the Constitution adopted on 20 Sept. 1954 by the 1st National People's Congress, the supreme legislative body. The Consultative Conference continued to exist after 1954 as an advisory body. In 1986 it had 2,021 members. New constitutions were adopted in 1975 and 1978 (for details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 ) .

A further Constitution was adopted in 1982. It defines 'socialist modernisation' as China's basic task. Its most striking change is the restoration of the post of State President (i.e. Head of State). The National People's Congress had 2,700 members in 1987. It can amend the Constitution, elects and has power to remove from office the highest State dignitaries, decides on the national economic plan, etc. The Congress elects a Standing Committee (which supervises the State Council) and the State President, currently Li Xiannian. Congress is elected for a 5-year term and meets once a year. It is composed of deputies elected on a constituency basis by direct secret ballot. Any voter, and

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certain organizations, may nominate candidates. Nominations may exceed seats by 50-100%. 2,978 deputies were elected to the 6th Congress in June 1983. Government structure was streamlined in 1983 and the number of Ministries reduced. In 1987 there were 32 Ministries and 10 Commissions under the State Council. The Premier is Li Peng. Vice-Premiers: Tian Jiyun, Yao Yilin, Wan Li, Qiao Shi, Wu Xuegqian. Other ministers include: Vacant (Foreign Affairs), Zheng Tuobin (Foreign Trade), Zhang Aiping (Defence), Wang Bingqian (Finance) Wang Fang (Public Security) and Li Tieying (Commission for Economic Restructure). Since 1970 China's diplomatic relations have expanded considerably. On 25 Oct. 1971 the UN voted for the People's Republic to take over the China seat from the Nationalists by 76 votes to 35 with 17 abstentions. On 1 Jan. 1979 the US recognized the Beijing government as the sole legal government of China and diplomatic relations were established. In 1978 China and Japan signed a 10-year treaty of peace and friendship. China did not renew its treaty of friendship with the USSR which expired in 1980, but since 1985 there have been signs that both countries were endeavouring to normalize their relations and in Jan. 1987 talks on border demarcation were resumed after breaking down in 1978. State emblem: 5 stars above Peking's Gate of Heavenly Peace, surrounded by a border of ears of grain entwined with drapings, which form a knot in the centre of a cogwheel at the base; the colours are red and gold. National flag: Red with a large star and 4 smaller stars all in yellow in the canton. National anthem: 'March of the Volunteers' composed 1935 by Tien Han. (Replacing the 1978 version). De facto power is in the hands of the Communist Party of China, which had 44m. members in 1987. There are 8 other parties, all members of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference. In mid-1966 the Party Chairman, Mao Tse-tung, launched the 'Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution' to eradicate 'revisionism' and numerous Party and State officials were dismissed. The Cultural Revolution can be taken to have terminated by April 1969 when the long-delayed 9th Party Congress was convened. The 9th Congress adopted a new Party Constitution which proclaimed the leading role of the Party in the State and designated Lin Biao as Chairman Mao's successor. A factional dispute developed, however, centred on Lin Biao (killed in an air crash in Mongolia in Sept. 1971) and in Aug. 1973 the 10th Party Congress adopted amendments to the Party Constitution, removing references to Lin Biao and the succession to Chairman Mao, and electing anew Central Committee which appointed anew Politburo and Standing Committee. In Jan. 1975 the Central Committee appointed as a vice-chairman of the Politburo Deng Xiaoping, former Party Secretary-General dismissed during the Cultural Revolution. In April 1976 a 'radical' faction in the Politburo engineered a second dismissal of Deng from all his posts, and Hua Guofeng was appointed First Party Vice-Chairman as well as Premier. On the death of Mao Tse-tung on 9 Sept. 1976 Hua became Party Chairman. In Oct. 1976 the 'radical' faction (now identified and branded as the 'Gang of Four': Mao's widow, Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Wang Hongwen and Yao Wenyuan) were placed under arrest. At the 11th Party Congress in Aug. 1977 a new Party Constitution was adopted, and a new Central Committee was elected. Changes in the leadership saw the elimination of the 'radical' faction and a second reinstatement of Deng to his Party and government posts. In Feb. 1980 4 Politburo members of Maoist persuasion were dismissed. Hua Guofeng was replaced as Premier by Zhao Ziyang in Sept. 1980. The 'Gang of Four', along with Chen Boda (a former secretary of Mao), were brought to trial only on 20 Nov. 1980. At the same time the trial opened of five generals accused of complicity with Lin Biao in an attempt to seize power. All 10 accused were found guilty on 25 Jan. 1981. Suspended death sentences were passed on Jiang Qing and Zhang Chunqiao. Hua Guofeng was removed from the Party Chairmanship in June 1981 and replaced by Hu Yaobang. In 1985 a nationwide drive to promote younger and better-qualified personnel and favour supporters of Deng

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Xiaoping resulted in massive reshuffles at ministerial and Politburo level. In the wake of student demonstrations Hu Yaobang was accused of'bourgeois liberalism' and forced to resign as Party General Secretary in Jan. 1987. Deng Xiaoping and several colleagues retired from the Politburo in Nov. 1987. The members of the Politburo in March 1988 (the first 5 constituting its Standing Committee) were Zhao Ziyang (General Secretary), Li Peng, Qiao Shi, Hu Qili, Yao Yilin; Hu Yaobang, Wan Li, Tian Jiyun, Jiang Zimin, Li Tieying, Li Ruihuan, Li Ximing, Yang Rudai, Yang Shangkun, Wu Xueqian, Song Ping, Qin Jiwei; candidate member, DingGuangen. Local Government. There are 4 administrative levels: (1) Provinces, Autonomous Regions and the municipalities directly administered by the Government; (2) prefectures and autonomous prefectures (zhou); (3) counties, autonomous counties and municipalities; (4) towns. Local government organs ('congresses') exist at provincial, county and township levels and in national minority autonomous prefectures, but not in ordinary prefectures which are just agencies of the provincial government. Up to county level congresses are elected directly. By a law of 2 Dec. 1986 multiple candidacies will be permitted at the next local elections due in late 1987. D E F E N C E . Although retired from his political offices in 1987, Deng Xiaoping remains chairman of the Communist Party's Military Commission. China is divided into 7 military regions. The military commander also commands the air, naval and civilian militia forces assigned to each region. Conscription is compulsory but for organizational reasons selective: only some 10% of potential recruits are called up. Service is 3 years with the Army and 4 years with the Air Force and 5 years with the Navy. It was announced in 1985 that the armed forces would be reduced by one million by 1988, and most of the regional commanders were replaced by younger officers. A Defence University to train senior officers in modern warfare was established in 1985. Army. The Army (PLA: 'People's Liberation Army') is divided into main and local forces. Main forces, administered by the military regions in which they are stationed but commanded by the Ministry of Defence, are available for operation anywhere and are better equipped. Local forces concentrate on the defence of their own regions. The Army consists of 191 divisions including 31 artillery, 13 armoured, 118 infantry, 3 airborne and 73 local divisions. Land-based missile forces consisted of (1985 estimate): 4 intercontinental, 60 intermediate range and 50 medium range ballistic missiles. Total strength in 1987 was 2 • 11 m. The security forces, including the armed police, number some 300,000. The People's Militia consists of the Armed Militia of up to 6m. strength, the Ordinary Militia of several million, unarmed but with some basic military training, which includes the Urban Militia. Navy. The steady new construction programme of all classes of warships in modernized yards, many with advanced nuclear and/or missile capability, has been maintained. Chinese naval strength is an important factor in the present and future balance of power in the eastern hemisphere. Strength comprises 4 nuclear powered and ballistic missile armed submarines, 1 diesel-powered submarine with ballistic missile tubes, 3 nuclear propelled fleet submarines, 3 diesel driven cruise missile submarines, 106 patrol submarines, 20 destroyers, 35 frigates, 14 patrol escorts, 237 missile boats, 21 large patrol boats, 70 fast patrol craft, 395 fast gunboats, 255 fast torpedo boats, 28 ocean minesweepers, 100 coastal minesweepers, 80 mine warfare craft, 100 river patrol craft, 35 coastal patrol craft, 50 survey and research ships, 35 supply ships, 16 support ships, 40 oilers, 12 boom defence vessels, 3 repair ships, 58 landing ships, 530 landing craft, 20 salvage ships, 3 icebreakers, 43 tugs, 375 coast and river defence craft and 525 vessels of the Maritime Militia. Active personnel in 1988 exceeded 298,000 officers and men, including 30,000 in the naval air force and over 28,000 marines.

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Main naval bases: Qingdao (North Sea Fleet); Shanghai (East Sea Fleet); Tsamkong (Zhanjiang) (South Sea Fleet). The largely land-based naval air force of over 700 aircraft, primarily for defensive and anti-submarine service, includes MiG-17, MiG-19, MiG-21 and Q-5 fighters, some 130 11-28 torpedo bombers, Be-6 flying boats, Mi-4, Mi-8 and Super Frelon helicopters, and communications, research, training and transport aircraft. Air Force. In 1984 the Air Force was estimated at 4,500 front-line aircraft, organized in over 100 regiments ofjet-fighters and about 12 regiments of tactical bombers, plus reconnaissance, transport and helicopter units. Each regiment is made up of 3 or 4 squadrons (each 12 aircraft), and 3 regiments form a division. Equipment is predominantly Russian in design and includes about 500 J-7 (MiG-21), 2,000 J-6 (MiG-19) and 500 J-5 (MiG-17) interceptors and fighterbombers, with about 400 H-5 (11-28) jet-bombers, about 120 H-6 Chinese-built copies of the Soviet Tu-16 twin-jet strategic bomber, plus 500 Q-5 twin-jet fighterbombers (known in the west as 'Fantan'), evolved from the MiG-19. Under development is a new fighter designated J-8 (known in the west as 'Finback'). Transport aircraft include about 300 Y-5 (An-2), Y-8 (An-12), An-24/26, 100 Li-2, 30 11-14 and a few three-turbofan Trident fixed-wing types, plus 300 Z-5 (Mi-4) and Z-6 (Mi-8) helicopters. The MiG fighters and Antonov transports have been manufactured in China, initially under licence, and other types have been assembled there, including several hundred JJ-5 (2-seat MiG-17) trainers. Small quantities of Western aircraft have been procured in the past few years, including 24 Black Hawk and 6 Super Puma transport helicopters and 3 Challenger VIP transports. The US Government is providing technical assistance in developing the J-8 fighter. Total strength (1988) about 470,000, including 220,000 in air defence organization. At least 27 nuclear tests have been made since 1964 and a nuclear force capable of reaching large parts of the USSR and Asia is operational. It was announced in 1986 that atmospheric nuclear testing had been abandoned. Land-based missile forces thought to be deployed consist of 4 intercontinental, 60 intermediate-range (approximately 3-5,000 km) and 50 medium-range (1,100 km) ballistic missiles. Missile forces are controlled by the Second Artillery, the missile arm of the PLA. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The People's Republic of China is a member of UN, the IMF, the Asian Development Bank, and is an observer at GATT. ECONOMY Planning. For p l a n n i n g history 1973-74,P.817.

1 9 5 3 - 7 3 see

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK,

The long-term aim of the present leadership is to transform China by the year 2000 into a modern developed economic power by the implementation of 'the 4 modernizations', i.e., of agriculture, industry, defence and science and technology. In 1978, as a first step to the realization of the '4 modernizations', a 10-year plan (1976-85) was introduced. However this proved in practice to be over-ambitious; many of the planned targets were too high and the scale of capital construction was too great. The pursuit of the plan caused serious imbalances in the economy. In 1979 a policy of 'readjusting, restructuring, consolidating and improving' the economy was adopted. Agriculture and light industry now receive higher priority in development targets. The average annual increase in the value of industrial and agricultural output was 9-6% during the 1981-85 plan. A programme for fundamental reform of the urban economy was introduced in 1985, to be fully implemented by 1990. The state plan is being reduced in scope and enterprises are to have a degree of freedom in deciding their production and marketing a portion of it. Wages will vary according to work performed, and prices will gradually be adjusted to reflect market conditions. The seventh 5-year plan is running from 1986 to 1990. It aims

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to curb investment in order to deal with the symptoms of inflation which had appeared in 1985 and reached 6% in 1986, and to restrict the pace of development to within the limits imposed by infrastructural resources. Production in agriculture is scheduled to rise at an annual average of 6%, and in industry, 7%. Prices rose 6-3% in the first half of 1987 and a price freeze was imposed. Budget. 1986 revenue was 220,030m. yuan; expenditure, 229,110m. yuan. Sources of revenue, 1985 (in million yuan): state enterprise income tax, 51,380; industrial and commercial tax, 110,100; agricultural tax, 4,210. Expenditure, 1986: capital construction, 65,570; culture, 38,000; defence, 20,126; price subsidies, 24,200. China's foreign exchange reserves in March 1986 were US$10,348m. Gold reserves in 1986 were 12 • 7m. troy oz. of gold. Currency. The currency is called Renminbi (RMB, i.e., People's Currency). The unit of currency is the yuan which is divided into \0jiao, the jiao, into 10 fen. In July 1986 the yuan was devalued by 15-8%. The official rate of exchange in March 1988 was£l =6-58 yuan; US$1 =3-72 yuan. Notes are issued for 1,2 and 5 jiao and 1,2,5 and 10 yuan and coins for 1,2 and 5 fen. Banking. A re-organization of the banking system in 1983 resulted in the People's Bank of China assuming the role of a Central Bank. Its former commercial role has been taken over by the Industrial and Commercial Bank. Other specialized banks include the Agricultural Bank of China, the China Investment Bank and the Chinese People's Construction Bank. The Bank of China will continue to be responsible for foreign banking operations. It has branches in London, New York, Singapore, Luxembourg, Macao and Hong Kong, and agencies in Tokyo and Paris. Savings bank deposits were 1,622,600m. yuan in 1985. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use alongside traditional u n i t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t , f o r w h i c h see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 , p . 826 a n d 1954, pp. 8 7 7 - 8 8 .

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Sources of energy in 1985: coal 72-8%; oil, 20-9%; hydroelectric power, 4-3%; gas, 2%. Hydroelectric potential is 676m. kw. Generating is not centralized; local units range between 30 and 60 mw of output. Output in 1986: 430,300m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. There are nuclear energy plants under construction at Shanghai and Liaoning, and a joint venture at Daya Bay in Guangdong. Plans to build further nuclear power plants were postponed in 1986 on economy grounds. Oil. Exploration in the South China and Yellow Seas had not produced any commercially viable discoveries by 1986. There are on-shore fields at Daqing, Shengli, Dagang and Karamai, and 10 provinces south of the Yangtze River have been opened for exploration in co-operation with foreign companies. Crude oil production was 133m. tonnes in 1987. Gas. Natural gas is available from fields near Canton and Shanghai and in Sichuan province. Production was 12,930m. cu. metres in 1985, but is only used locally. Minerals. Coal. Most provinces contain coal, and there are 70 major production centres, of which the largest are in Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, Jilin and Anhui. Coal reserves are estimated at 769,180m. tonnes. Coal production was 870m. tonnes in 1986. Iron. Iron ore deposits are estimated at 496,410m. tonnes and are abundant in the anthracite field of Shanxi, in Hebei and in Shandong and are found in conjunction with coal and worked in the north-east. Estimated output of iron ore in 1984, 122m. tonnes. The biggest steel bases are at Anshan with a capacity of 6m. tons, Wuhan (capacity 3 -5m. tonnes), Baotou and Maanshan (both 2 -5m. tonnes) and Baoshan near Shanghai.

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Tin. Tin ore is plentiful in Yunnan, where the tin-mining industry has long existed. Tin production was 15,000 tonnes in 1981. Tungsten. China is the world's principal producer of wolfram (tungsten ore), producing 14,000 tonnes in 1981. Mining of wolfram is carried on in Hunan, Guangdong and Yunnan. Production of other minerals in 1978 (in tonnes): Phosphate rock, 4-5m.; aluminium, 225,000; copper, 200,000; lead, 120,000; zinc, 125,000; antimony, 9,000; manganese, 2m.; (1973) sulphur, 130,000; (1967) bauxite, 350,000; (1973) salt, 18,000; (1969) asbestos, 160,000. Other minerals produced: barite, bismuth, gold, graphite, gypsum, mercury, molybdenum, silver. Agriculture. China remains essentially an agricultural country. 144m. hectares are sown to crops. Intensive agriculture and horticulture have been practised for millennia. Present-day policy aims to avert the traditional threats from floods and droughts by soil conservancy, afforestation, irrigation and drainage projects, and to increase the 'high stable yields' areas by introducing fertilizers, pesticides and improved crops. 44 04m. hectares were irrigated in 1985, and 17-8m. tonnes of chemical fertilizer were applied. Agricultural communes have shed the administrative functions which they had in the Maoist period to become purely economic units. There were 2,048 state farms in 1984. Since 1978 more flexible methods of management have been adopted comprising 'responsibility systems', whereby individual households or other small units are contracted to supply to the commune or government purchasing agency a quantity of crops to be produced from an allotted area of commune land. Any surplus is at the disposal of the household, to be consumed or marketed. In 1984 peasants were granted contracts to commune land with inheritance rights, and were permitted to hire up to 7 labourers. Initially production was improved considerably, but a fall in the 1985 total grain harvest to 380m. tonnes from the 1984 record of407m. tonnes led to a more cautious policy of encouraging grain production in 1986. Reasons for the shortfall included the greater profitability in devoting land to cash crops and stock-breeding and the migration of 60m. peasants to industry. Net per capita annual peasant income, 198 5:397 • 60 yuan. In 1985 there were 852,354 large and medium-sized tractors and 34,573 combine harvesters. Agricultural production (in lm. tonnes), 1986: Rice, 177; wheat, 89; maize, 65-56; soybeans, 11 01; roots and tubers, 138-84; tea, 0-49; cotton, 3-5; oilseed crops, 8 -29; sugar-cane, 57 -1. The gross value of agricultural output in 1985 was 387,300m. yuan. Livestock, 1986: Horses, 11; cattle, 86-8m.; sheep, 94-2m.; goats, 61 -7m.; pigs, 331 -4m. Pork, beefand mutton production in 1985 was 17-61m. tonnes. Forestry. Forest area in 1985 was 115m. hectares, including 2-6m. hectares of timber forest. Timber reserves were 102,600m. cu. metres in 1985. The chief forested areas are in Heilongjiang, Sichuan and Yunnan. Timber output in 1985 was 63 • 1 m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Total catch, 1985: 7-05m. tonnes. There were 172,582 motor fishing vessels in 1985. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. 'Cottage' industry is very old in the economy and persists into the 20th century. Modem industrial development began with the manufacture of cotton textiles, and the establishment of silk filatures, steel plants, flour-mills and match factories. In 1985 there were 463,200 industrial enterprises, of which 367,800 were collectives and 93,700 state-owned. 7,900 were classified as 'large and mediumsized'. In 1985 rural industries expanded by 53% and accounted for 20% of total industrial production. Labour is drawn from the rural surplus. Expanding sectors of manufacture are: steel, chemicals, cement, agricultural implements, plastics and lorries.

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1985 production (in tonnes): Chemical fertilizer, 13-3m.; pig-iron, 40m.; cement, 142m.; cotton cloth, 14,360m. metres; motor vehicles, 439,000; tractors, 44,600; bicycles, 32-3m.; chemical fibres, 734,900; steel, 46-6m.; rolled steel, 36-8m.; coke, 33m.; paper, 8-26m.; sugar, 4-6m.; drugs, 58,500; cotton yarn, 3-2m. and 10m. TV sets. The gross value of industrial output in 1985 was 875,960m. yuan. Labour. Workforce (excluding peasantry), 1986: 499m. (36-4% female), including 371m. rural workers, 83m. industrial workers, 24m. workers in service trades and commerce, 20-7m. in building and 12-2m. in transport and telecommunications. There were 3-6m. unemployed in 1986. Average annual non-agricultural wage in 1985:1,184 yuan. There is a 6-day 48-hour working week. Commerce. Foreign trade is being decentralized and has expanded rapidly since 1978. A trade deficit developed in 1984, and measures to curb this were taken in 1985. Four Special Economic Zones have been set up in the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian, in which concessions are made to foreign businessmen to encourage their investment. In 1984 14 coastal cities and Hainan Island were opened for technological imports. Since 1979 joint ventures with foreign firms have been permitted. By 1986 2,645 equity joint ventures, 4,075 contractual joint ventures and 130 wholly-owned foreign subsidiaries had been launched. About 80% of the investment was from Hong Kong. There is no maximum limit on the foreign share of the holdings; the minimum limit is 25%. A Stock Exchange was opened in Shanghai in 1986. Foreign indebtedness was US$2,500m. in 1987. In 1985 the IMF lent China US$3,000m. repayable over 5 years. Trade in 1986: Imports, US$42,900m.; exports, US$30,900m. Main exports are textiles, oil and oil products; others are chemicals, light industrial goods and arms. Major imports are machinery and transport equipment, iron and steel, and chemicals. Major exports in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): crude oil, 30,030; petroleum products, 6,210; tea, 137; cereals, 93,300; tungsten ore, 16; cotton cloth, 16,733m. metres; imports: wheat, 53,800; rolled steel, 20,030; motor vehicles, 353,979 units; chemical fertilizers, 76,100. In 1984 only 7 -2% of China's trade was with Communist countries (2-5% with the USSR), but trade with the USSR rose by 61% in 1985: Imports, US$940m.; exports, US$960m. A trade agreement covering 1986-90 was signed in July 1985. Japan is China's biggest trading partner. Other major trading partners are Hong Kong, USA, Federal Republic of Germany and Canada. Customs duties with Taiwan were abolished in 1980. Total trade between China and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 231,417 159,722

1984 278,474 317,256

1985 307,963 396,156

1986 327,032 535,943

1987 391,766 416,012

In June 1987 China agreed to settle British claims for assets totalling £23-4m. confiscated by the present Chinese Government when it took power in 1949. In April 1978 a most-favoured-nation agreement was signed with EEC, and in 1980 the EEC extended preferential tariffs to China. In July 1979 the USA and China signed a 3-year trade agreement which accorded China most-favoured-nation status from 1980. In 1985 both the UK and the USA signed nuclear power agreements with China, and the UK and China signed a second agreement on economic co-operation valid till 1990. Tourism. l -37m. foreigners and l-63m. overseas Chinese visited China in 1985. Restrictions on Chinese wishing to travel abroad were eased in Feb. 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total road length was 942,400 km in 1985. Highways are well graded but mostly unmetalled. In 1985 there were 2-2m. lorries and 790,000 passenger vehicles.

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In 1985, 762m. tonnes of freight and 4,272m. passengers were transported by road. Railways. In 1985 there were 52,100 km of railway including 4,200 km electrified. The principal railways are: (1) The great north-south trunk lines: (a) Peking-Canton Railway (over 2,300 km), via Zhengzhou-Wuhan-Zhuzhou-Hengyang. (b) Tianjin-Shanghai Railway (1,500 km), via Pukow and Nanjing (double-tracked in July 1976). (c) BaojiChongqing Railway, via Chengdu (1,174 km). Chongqing with the east-west route from Hengyang to the Vietnam border, and to Kunming, connecting there with the Yunnan Railway to the Vietnam border. Two further lines connect Baoji. (2) Great east-west trunk lines: (a) Longhai Railway; Lianyungkang-XuzhouZhengzhou (on the Peking-Canton line) -Xian-Baoji-Tianshui-Lanzhou (1,500 km). The Baoji-Lanzhou section was upgraded in 1978. (è) Lanzhou-Xinjiang Railway: Lanzhou-Yumen-Hami-Turfan-Urumqi (1,800 km); (c)ShanghaiYouyiguan (Vietnam border) via Hangzhou, Nanchang, Hengyang (on the PekingCanton line), Guilin, Liuzhou and Nanning. (d) Peking-Lanzhou via Xining (from which a branch connects with the lines through Mongolia to the Trans-Siberian Railway), Dadong (from which a branch serves the province of Shanxi), Baotou and Yinchuan (Ningxia). (e) Zhuzhou-Guiyang (632 km). A new east-west line was opened in 1978 between Xiangfan and Chongqing. Branches link coastal areas (e.g., Fujian province) and the smaller inland centres with the main parts of the system. Surveys have been made for a new 500-km railway, linking the trunk line with the oilfield of Karamai in Xinjiang. (3) The Manchurian system: (a) Chinese Eastern (Changchun) Railway (2,370 km), from Manzhouli on the Soviet border through northern Inner Mongolia and Manchuria via Qiqihar, Harbin and Mudanjiang to the Soviet border near Vladivostok. (¿>) South Manchuria Railway (705 km, 1,120 km with branches), Changchun-Shenyang-Luda. (c) Peking-Shenyang Railway, with branches in Manchuria (854 km, 1,350 km with branches). Branches give connexions with outlying parts of Manchuria and Inner Mongolia as well as international links with Korean railways. Chinese railways are all constructed to the standard gauge except for some 600 mm gauge in Yunnan. Trunk routes are being converted from single to double track. The route between Baoji and Chengdu (676 km) was electrified in 1975 and that between Yangpingguan (on the Baoji-Chengdu route) and Ankang in 1977. Capacity was expanded under the 1976-85 development plan, with several new lines built to serve primary industries, and much track doubling carried out. In 1986,14 major construction projects were in progress, totalling over 3,000 km, and 9,000 km of electrification is planned. In 1986 the railways carried 1,347m. tons of freight and 1,248m. passengers. Aviation. Since 1985 the Civil Aviation Administration pf China has become the administrative body for 5 new airlines: Air China (based on Beijing); Eastern Airways (Shanghai); Southern Airways (Canton); South-Western Airways (Chengdu) and the Capital Helicopter Company. There are services to Pyongyang, Hanoi, Rangoon, Singapore, Bangkok, Karachi, Tokyo, Moscow, Ulan Bator, Teheran, Addis Ababa, Bucharest, Belgrade, Zurich, Paris, Frankfurt, Manila, New York, San Francisco, London, Sydney and Hong Kong. Route lengths in 1985: international, 106,000 km; domestic, 171,200 km. British Airways have a direct flight London-Beijing. Japan Airlines have a route from Tokyo to Beijing (via Osaka and Shanghai), Air France Paris to Beijing (via Athens and Karachi), Pakistan Airlines. Karachi to Beijing, Aeroflot Moscow to Beijing, Ethiopian Airlines Addis Ababa to Shanghai, Tarom Bucharest to Beijing, Swissair Geneva to Beijing and Shanghai, Iran Air Paris to Beijing and PANAM Beijing via Tòkyo. Singapore Airlines Singapore to Beijing and Thai Airways Bangkok to Beijing. In 1985CAACcarried7-47m. passengers and 195,000 tonnes of freight. Shipping. In 1980 the ocean-going merchant fleet consisted of 431 vessels with a total DWTof7-92m.

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Cargo handled by the major ports in 1985 (in tonnes): Shanghai, 113m.; Dalian, 44m.; Qinhuangdao, 44m.; Qingdao, 26m.; Huangpu, 18m.; Tianjin, 18m.;Zhanjiang, 12m. In 1985 65 6m. tonnes offreight were carried. Inland waterways totalled 109,075 km in 1985. 434m. tonnes of freight and 270m. passengers were carried. Pipeline. A pipeline links the Daqing oilfield to the port of Luda and to refineries in Peking. There is a pipeline from Lanzhou to Lhasa. There were 11,800 km of pipeline in 1985 which carried a load of 136-5m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. There were 53,100 post offices in 1985, and 6,259,829 telephones. The use of Pinyin transcription of place names has been requested for mail to addresses in China (e.g., 'Beijing' not 'Peking'). In 1984 there were 167 radio a n d 9 3 television stations and in 1981 9 02m. TV receivers. Most are communally owned. Cinemas and Theatres. There were 8,723 cinemas, 182,948 film projection units and6,651 theatres in 1985.127 feature films were made in 1985. Newspapers and books. In 1985 there were 698 newspapers with a circulation of 19,980m. and 5,705 periodicals. The Party newspaper is Renmin Ribao (People's Daily). In 1979 it had a daily circulation of 7m. 45,603 book titles were produced in 66,700m. copies in 1985. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Six new codes of law (including criminal and electoral) came into force in 1980, to regularize the legal unorthodoxy of previous years. There is no provision for habeas corpus. An anti-crime campaign was launched in Aug. 1983 which, it was claimed in 1985, had cut the crime rate sharply; by 1986 624,000 sentences of death or long-term imprisonment had been imposed. The death penalty has been extended from treason and murder to include rape, embezzlement, smuggling, drug-dealing, bribery and robbery with violence. Courts will no longer be subject to the intervention of other state bodies, and their decisions will be reversible only by higher courts. 'People's courts' are divided into some 30 higher, 200 intermediate and 2,000 basic-level courts, and headed by the Supreme People's Court. The latter tries cases, hears appeals and supervises the people's courts. People's courts are composed of a president, vice-presidents, judges and 'people's assessors' who are the equivalent of jurors. 'People's conciliation committees' are charged with settling minor disputes. There are also special military courts. Procuratorial powers and functions are exercised by the Supreme People's Procuracy and local procuracies. Religion. Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have long been practised. Confucianism has no ecclesiastical organization and appears rather as a philosophy of ethics and government. Taoism—of Chinese origin—copied Buddhist ceremonial soon after the arrival of Buddhism two millennia ago. Buddhism in return adopted many Taoist beliefs and practices. It is no longer possible to estimate the number of adherents to these faiths. A more tolerant attitude towards religion had emerged by 1979, and the Government's Bureau ofReligious Affairs was reactivated. Ceremonies of reverence to ancestors have been observed by the whole population regardless of philosophical or religious beliefs. Moslems are found in every province of China, being most numerous in the Ningxia-Hui Autonomous Region, Yunnan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Hebei, Honan, Shandong, Sichuan, Xinjiang and Shanxi. They totalled 14m. in 1986. Roman Catholicism has had a footing in China for more than 3 centuries. In 1985 there were about 3 m. Catholics who are members of the Patriotic Catholic Association, which declared its independence of Rome in 1958. In 1979 there were about 1,000 priests. In 1977 there were 78 bishops and 4 apostolic administrators, not all of whom were permitted to undertake religious activity. This figure included 46 'democratically elected' bishops not recognized by the Vatican. A bishop of

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Peking was consecrated in 1979 without the consent of the Vatican and 2 auxiliary bishops of Shanghai in 1984. Archbishop Gong Pinmei, arrested in 1955, was freed in 1988. Protestants are members of the All-China Conference of Protestant Churches. Education. At the 1982 census 23-5% of the population were illiterate. In 1986 90% of school-age children attended school. In 1985 there were 172,262 kindergartens with 14-8m. children and 798,000 teachers. An educational reform of 1985 is phasing in compulsory 9-year education consisting of six years of primary schooling and three years of secondary schooling, to replace an existing 5-year system. In 1985 there were 832,309 primary schools with 6 02m. teachers and 133-7m. pupils, and 104,848 secondary schools, with 4-18m. teachers and 50-93m. pupils. There were 1,016 institutes of higher education, with 0-87m. teachers and 1 -7m. students. University entry is dependent upon entrance examinations. Since 1985 instead of receiving grants based on parents' income students have been funded by competitive scholarships. Following student demonstrations in Jan. 1987 political education courses and periods of labour service have been restored to university curricula, and political criteria of selection re-applied. The Academy of Sciences had in 1964 some 20 provincial branches and an Academy of Social Sciences was established in 1977. Among the universities are the following: People's University of China, Peking (founded 1912 by Dr Sun Yat-sen; reorganized 1950; about 3,000 students); Peking University, Peking (1898, enlarged 1945; about 10,000 students); Xiamen University, Fujian (1921 and 1937); Fudan University, Shanghai (1905); Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot; Lanzhou University, Lanzhou (Gansu Prov.); Nankai University, Tianjin (1919); Nanjing University, Nanjing (1888 and 1928); Jilin University, Changchun (Jilin Prov.); North-West University, Xian (Shanxi Prov.); Shandong University, Qingdao (1926); Sun Yat-sen University, Canton (founded 1924 by Dr Sun Yat-sen); Sichuan University, Chengdu (1931); Qinghua University, Peking, Wuhan University, Wuhan (Hubei Prov.; 1905 and 1928); Yunnan University, Kunming. Between 1978 and 1985 40,000 students went abroad to study. Chen, T. H„ Chinese Education since 1949. Oxford, 1981 Heyhoe, R., (ed.), Contemporary Chinese Education. London, 1984

Health. Medical treatment is free only for certain groups of employees, but where costs are incurred they are partly borne by the patient's employing organization. In 1985 there were 1,413,000 doctors, of whom 336,000 practise Chinese medicine. In 1985 there were 59,619 hospitals (including 348 mental hospitals) with 2-23m. beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of China in Great Britain (49 Portland PI., London, W I N 3 AH) Ambassador: Ji Chaozhu (accredited Sept. 1987). Of Great Britain in China (Guang Hua Lu 11, Jian Guo Men Wai, Beijing) Ambassador: Sir Richard Evans, KCMG, KCVO. Of China in the USA (2300 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Han Xu. Of the USA in China (Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, Beijing) Ambassador: Winston Lord. Of China to the United Nations Ambassador: Li Luye. Books of Reference Beijing Review. Beijing, weekly China: A Statistics Survey in 1985. Beijing, 1986

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China Daily [European ed.]. London, from 1986 China Directory [in Pinyin and Chinese], Tokyo, annual The China Quarterly. London, from 1960 China Reconstructs. Peking, monthly China's Foreign Trade. Bimonthly. Peking, from 1966 People's Republic of China Yearbook. Beijing,from 1983 Statistical Yearbook of China. Beijing and Oxford, from 1981 Barnett, A. D., The Making of Foreign Policy in China. London, 1985 Barnett, A. D., and Clough, R., (eds.), Modernizing China: Post-Mao Reform and Development. Boulder, 1986 Bartke, W. (ed.), Who's Who in the People's Republic of China. 2nd ed. New York, 1986 Bartke, W., and Schier, P., China's New Party Leadership: Biographies and Analysis. London, 1985 Blecher, M., China: Politics, Economics and Sociology. London, 1986 Bonavia, D., The Chinese. New York, 1980.—The Chinese: A Portrait. London, 1981 Boorman, H. L., and Howard, R. C., (eds.) Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. 5 vols. Columbia Univ. Press, 1967-79. Brady, J. P., Justice and Politics in People's China: Legal Order or Continuing Revolution? London,1982 Brown, D. G., Partnership with China: Sino-foreign Joint Ventures in Historical Perspective. Boulder, 1985 Bullard, M., China's Political-Military Evolution. Boulder, 1985 The Cambridge History of China. 14 vols. CUP, 1978 flf. Cheng, P., China. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 Chow, G. C., The Chinese Economy. New York, 1985 Chu, G. C. and Hsu, F. L., (eds.) China's New Social Fabric. London, 1983 Croll,E., The Family Rice Bowl: Food and the Domestic Economy in China. London, 1983 Deng Xiaoping, Speeches and Writings. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1987 Dietrich, C., People's China: A Brief History. OUP, 1986 Domes, J., The Government and Politics of the PRC. Boulder, 1985 Fairbank, J. K„ The Great Chinese Revolution 1800-1985. London, 1987 Ginsburg, N., and Lalor, B. A., (eds.), China: The 80s Era. Boulder, 1984 Guide to China's Foreign Economic Relations and Trade. Hong Kong, 1984 Harding, H. (ed.), China's Foreign Relations in the 1980's. Yale UP, 1984.—China's Second Revolution. Washington, 1987 Hinton, H. C. (ed.), The People's Republic of China 1949-1979. 5 vols. Wilmington, 1980 Hook, B. (ed.), The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of China. CUP, 1982 Hsieh, C. M., Atlas of China. New York, 1973 Jingrong, W. (ed.), The Pinyin-Chinese Dictionary. Beijing and San Francisco, 1979 Jones, P., and Kevill S., China and the Soviet Union, 1949-84. Harlow, 1984 Kaplan, F. M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of China Today. 3rd ed. London, 1982 Kapur, H., China and the European Economic Community. Dordrecht, 1986 Kim, S. S. (ed.), China and the World: Chinese Foreign Policy in the Post-Mao Era. Boulder, 1984 Klein, D.W., and Clark, A.B., Biographic Dictionary ofChinese Communism, 1921-1965. HarvardU.P., 1971 Lamb, M., Directory of Officials and Organizations in China, 1968-1983. Armonk, 1984 Lardy, N. R., Agriculture in China's Modern Economic Development. CUP, 1983 Leeming,F.,RuralChina 7Waj>. London, 1985 Lippit, V. D., The Economic Development of China. Armonk, 1987 Mabbett, 1.,Modern China: The Mirage of Modernity. New York, 1985 Mancali, M., China at the Center: 300 Years of Foreign Policy. New York, 1984 Marshall, M., Organizations and Growth in Rural China. London, 1985 Mathews, R. H., Chinese-English Dictionary. Cambridge, Mass., 1943-47 Maxwell, N., and McFarlane, B. (eds.), China's Changed Road to Development. Oxford, 1984 Moise, E. E., Modern China: A History. London, 1986 Moody, P. R„ Chinese Politics after Mao. NY, 1983 Moser, L. J., The Chinese Mosaic: the Peoples and Provinces of China. Boulder, 1985 Moser, M. J. (ed.), Foreign Trade Investment and the Law in the People's Republic of China. OUP, 1984 Nathan, A. J., Chinese Democracy. London, 1986 Pan,L., The New Chinese Revolution. London, 1987 Pannell, C. W., and Laurence, J. C., China: the Geography of Development and Modernization. London,1983 Riskin, C., China's Political Economy: The Quest for Development since 1949. OUP, 1987 Rodzinski, W„ A History of China. Oxford, 1981-84 Schräm, S. R. (ed.), The Scope of Slate Power in China. London, 1985 Segal, G., Defending China. OUP, 1985

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Segal, G., and Tow, W. T. (eds.), Chinese Defence Policy. London, 1984 Song, J., el al, Population Control in China. New York, 1985 Teiwes, F. C., Leadership. Legitimacy and Conflict in China. London, 1984 Thornton, R. C., China: A Political History, ¡917-1980. Boulder, 1982 The Times Atlas of China. London, 1974 Walker, K. R., Food Grain Procurement and Consumption in China. CUP, 1984 Wong, K., and Chu, D. (eds.), Modernization in China: The Case of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone. OUP, 1986 Yahuda, M. B., Towards the End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy after Mao. London, 1983 Yin, J., Government of Socialist China. Lanham, 1984 Young, G. (ed.), China: Dilemmas of Modernisation. London, 1985

TAIWAN

1

, . , Republic of China

Capital: Taipei Population: 19-5m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$3,748 (1986)

HISTORY. The island of Taiwan (Formosa) was ceded to Japan by China by the Treaty of Shimonoseki on 8 May 1895. After the Second World War the island was surrendered to Gen. Chiang Kai-shek in Sept. 1945 and was placed under Chinese administration on 25 Oct. 1945. USA broke offdiplomatic relations with Taiwan on 1 Jan. 1979 on establishing diplomatic relations with the Peking Government. Relations between the USA and Taiwan are maintained through the American Institute on Taiwan and the Co-ordination Council for North American Affairs in the USA, set up in 1979 and accorded diplomatic status in Oct. 1980. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Taiwan lies between the East and South China Seas about 100 miles from the coast of Fujian province. The total area of Taiwan Island and the Penghu Archipelago is 13,969 sq. miles (36,179 sq. km). Population (1986), 19-5m., of whom some 2m. are mainland Chinese who came with the Nationalist Government. There are also some 306,000 aboriginals. Population density: 535 persq. km. In 1986, birth rate was 1-6%; death rate, 0-49%; rate of growth, 11% per annum (1989 target: 0-94% per annum). Life expectancy, 1986: males, 70-97 years; females, 75-88 years. Taiwan is divided into two special municipalities (Taipei, the capital, population 2-56m. in 1986 and Kaohsiung, population 1 -3m. in 1986), 5 municipalities (Taichung, the seat of the Provincial Government, Keelung, Tainan, Chiayi and Hsinchu) and 16 counties (hsien): Changhua, Chiayi, Hsinchu, Hualien, Ilan, Kaohsiung, Miaoli, Nantou, Penghu, Pingtung, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei, Taitung, Taoyuan, Yunlin. CLIMATE. A tropical climate with hot, humid conditions and heavy rainfall in the summer months but cooler from Nov. to March when rainfall amounts are not so great. Typhoons may be experienced. Taipei. Jan. 59°F (15-3°C), July 83°F (29-2°C). Annual rainfall 100" (2,500 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Taiwan is controlled by the remnants of the Nationalist Government. On 1 March 1950, Chiang Kai-shek resumed the presidency of the 'Republic of China'. He died 5 April 1975. His son Chiang Ching-kuo was president from March 1978 to his death in Jan. 1988. He was succeeded by Lee Teng-hui. Until 1986 there were 3 political parties: the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) (2,356,042 members in 1986), which has a youth movement (China Youth Coips) of over 1 m. members; the Young China Party, and the China Democratic Socialist Party. Opposition parties were banned. The National Assembly was elected in 1947. In Dec. 1987 it had 964 delegates. 1

See note on transcription of names p. 352.

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365

Segal, G., and Tow, W. T. (eds.), Chinese Defence Policy. London, 1984 Song, J., el al, Population Control in China. New York, 1985 Teiwes, F. C., Leadership. Legitimacy and Conflict in China. London, 1984 Thornton, R. C., China: A Political History, ¡917-1980. Boulder, 1982 The Times Atlas of China. London, 1974 Walker, K. R., Food Grain Procurement and Consumption in China. CUP, 1984 Wong, K., and Chu, D. (eds.), Modernization in China: The Case of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone. OUP, 1986 Yahuda, M. B., Towards the End of Isolationism: China's Foreign Policy after Mao. London, 1983 Yin, J., Government of Socialist China. Lanham, 1984 Young, G. (ed.), China: Dilemmas of Modernisation. London, 1985

TAIWAN

1

, . , Republic of China

Capital: Taipei Population: 19-5m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$3,748 (1986)

HISTORY. The island of Taiwan (Formosa) was ceded to Japan by China by the Treaty of Shimonoseki on 8 May 1895. After the Second World War the island was surrendered to Gen. Chiang Kai-shek in Sept. 1945 and was placed under Chinese administration on 25 Oct. 1945. USA broke offdiplomatic relations with Taiwan on 1 Jan. 1979 on establishing diplomatic relations with the Peking Government. Relations between the USA and Taiwan are maintained through the American Institute on Taiwan and the Co-ordination Council for North American Affairs in the USA, set up in 1979 and accorded diplomatic status in Oct. 1980. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Taiwan lies between the East and South China Seas about 100 miles from the coast of Fujian province. The total area of Taiwan Island and the Penghu Archipelago is 13,969 sq. miles (36,179 sq. km). Population (1986), 19-5m., of whom some 2m. are mainland Chinese who came with the Nationalist Government. There are also some 306,000 aboriginals. Population density: 535 persq. km. In 1986, birth rate was 1-6%; death rate, 0-49%; rate of growth, 11% per annum (1989 target: 0-94% per annum). Life expectancy, 1986: males, 70-97 years; females, 75-88 years. Taiwan is divided into two special municipalities (Taipei, the capital, population 2-56m. in 1986 and Kaohsiung, population 1 -3m. in 1986), 5 municipalities (Taichung, the seat of the Provincial Government, Keelung, Tainan, Chiayi and Hsinchu) and 16 counties (hsien): Changhua, Chiayi, Hsinchu, Hualien, Ilan, Kaohsiung, Miaoli, Nantou, Penghu, Pingtung, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei, Taitung, Taoyuan, Yunlin. CLIMATE. A tropical climate with hot, humid conditions and heavy rainfall in the summer months but cooler from Nov. to March when rainfall amounts are not so great. Typhoons may be experienced. Taipei. Jan. 59°F (15-3°C), July 83°F (29-2°C). Annual rainfall 100" (2,500 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Taiwan is controlled by the remnants of the Nationalist Government. On 1 March 1950, Chiang Kai-shek resumed the presidency of the 'Republic of China'. He died 5 April 1975. His son Chiang Ching-kuo was president from March 1978 to his death in Jan. 1988. He was succeeded by Lee Teng-hui. Until 1986 there were 3 political parties: the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) (2,356,042 members in 1986), which has a youth movement (China Youth Coips) of over 1 m. members; the Young China Party, and the China Democratic Socialist Party. Opposition parties were banned. The National Assembly was elected in 1947. In Dec. 1987 it had 964 delegates. 1

See note on transcription of names p. 352.

366

CHINA

Government is conducted through 5 councils (Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Examination, and Control Yuan). The highest administrative organ is the Executive Yuan, headed by the premier, which includes a number of ministers. The highest legislative body is the Legislative Yuan, elected in 1948, which in Dec. 1987 numbered 329 members. The National Assembly, Legislative Yuan and Control Yuan are elected bodies. Their terms of office have been extended indefinitely. As the number of original delegates dwindled, regulations introduced in 1966 and 1972 provided for the election of additional members to the National Assembly and Legislative Yuan, and elections were held in 1969, 1972, 1975, 1980, 1984 and 6 Dec. 1986. Martial law, in force since 1949, was lifted in July 1987, and the ban on opposition parties removed. A new Democratic Progress Party (DPP) was formed in Oct. 1986 and a Democratic Liberal Party in Sept. 1987. In the 1986 elections the D P P contested 44 of the 157 seats to be filled in the National Assembly and Legislative Yuan, gaining 11 in the former and 12 in the latter. The K M T gained 127 seats. Turnout 7-7m. from electorate of 11 -8m. There is also a Provincial Assembly of which the current Eighth Assembly with 77 members was elected on 16 Nov. 1985. Electoral turn-out was 72-8%. 60 seats went to the K M T . Further local government elections were held 1 Feb. 1986; the K M T won 1,002 out of 1,146 seats. State emblem: A 12-pointed white sun in a blue sky. Nationalflag: Red with a blue first quarter bearing the state emblem in white. National anthem: 'San Min Chu I', words by Dr Sun Yat-sen; tune by Cheng Mao-yun. Prime Minister: Yu Kuo-hwa. Vice-Premier: Lien Chan. Foreign Minister: Ding Mou-shih. Minister of National Defence: Cheng Wei-yuan. Minister of the Interior: Wu Po-hsiung. Minister of Finance: Robert Chun Chien. Minister of Education: Mao Kao-kuan. Minister of Justice: Shih Chi-yang. Minister of Economic Affairs: Lee Ta-hai. Minister of Communications: Kuo Nan-hung. Governor of Taiwan Province: Chiu Chuang-huan. DEFENCE Army. The Army, which embodies the remnants of the forces which escaped to Taiwan with Chiang Kai-shek at the end of the civil war in 1949, numbered about 270,000 in 1988. It was reorganized, re-equipped and trained by the U S A and in 1985 consisted of 12 heavy and 6 light infantry divisions, 6 armoured infantry and 2 airborne brigades, 4 tank groups, 20 field artillery and 5 S A M battalions. The aviation element has 127 helicopters, O - l Bird Dog observation aircraft and Bell 47G trainer helicopters. There is a conscription system for 2 years and reserve liability. US supplies of military equipment were resumed in 1980 after a moratorium in 1979. US forces were withdrawn by 1 May 1979. Navy. There are 2 new Netherlands-built diesel powered patrol submarines, but most of the major vessels in naval service are former US Navy ships now over 40 years old and well overdue for replacement. There are 2 other diesel powered patrol submarines, 24 destroyers, 10 frigates, 3 corvettes (ex-fleet minesweepers), 62 fast missile craft, 13 coastal minesweepers, 1 coastal minelayer, 9 minesweeping boats, 28 coastal patrol craft, 2 dock landing ships, 1 amphibious flagship, 26 landing ships, 22 utility landing craft, 260 L C M landing craft, 150 minor landing craft, 2 repair ships, 5 surveying ships, 12 support ships, 3 transports, 7 oilers, 1 supply ship, 17 tugs, 5 floating docks and 25 service craft. Customs have 18 coastguard cutters. Active personnel in 1988 totalled 38,000 officers and ratings in the Navy and 39,000 officers and men in the Marine Corps. There are 45,000 naval reservists and 35,000 marine reservists. The Navy has 12 anti-submarine helicopters, 10 search helicopters and operational control of 2 squadrons of Air Force anti-submarine warfare Tracker aircraft; and the Marine Corps operates a number of observation aircraft and helicopters. Air Force. The Nationalist Air Force is equipped mainly with aircraft of US design,

CHINA

367

including F-5E fighters built in Taiwan. It has 11 front-line squadrons of F-5E/F Tiger lis, 3 of F-104G Starfighters and 1 tactical reconnaissance squadron of RF-104G Starfighters. There are 6 reserve fighter squadrons, 4 with F-5 A/Bs and 2 with F-100 Super Sabres. The 6 transport squadrons are equipped with a VIP Boeing 720, 4 Boeing 727s, 5 C-54s, 20 C-47s, about 40 C-119Gs, 12 C-130H Hercules and 10 C-123 Providers. There is a naval co-operation squadron with S-2A/E Trackers. Search and rescue units operate Albatross amphibians and S-70 and Iroquois helicopters, and there are other helicopter and large training elements, some equipped with AT-3 twin-jet trainers designed and built in Taiwan and others with US-supplied T-34Cs. Total strength in 1988:77,000 personnel and (1986)485 combat aircraft. I N T E R N A T I O N A L R E L A T I O N S . By a treaty of 1 Dec. 1954 the USA was pledged to protect Taiwan, but this treaty lapsed 1 year after the USA established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China on 1 Jan. 1979. In April 1979 the US Congress approved a law to maintain commercial, cultural and other relations between USA and Taiwan. The People's Republic took over the China seat in the U N from the Nationalists on 25 Oct. 1971. ECONOMY Planning. There have been a series of development plans. The eighth (1986-89), aims at an annual growth rate of 6 • 5% (industry 6 1%, agriculture 1 -3%). Budget. There are 2 budgets, the national together with a special defence budget (partly secret) and the provincial (i.e., for Taiwan proper). For the fiscal year July 1988-June 1989 the budget is scheduled for NT$479,673m. Expenditure planned: 37% on defence; 19% on economic development; 18% on welfare; 13% on culture. Currency. The unit of currency is the New Taiwan dollar, divided into 100 cents. There are coins of N T $ 1, 5 and 10 and notes of NTS 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000. There are no cent coins or notes. Exchange rates (March 1988): £1 = NTS50-78; US$1 =NT$28-63. Banking. The Central Bank of China (reactivated in 1961) regulates the money market, manages foreign exchange and issues currency. The Bank of Taiwan is the largest commercial bank and the fiscal agent of the Government. In addition, there are 16 domestic commercial banks and 33 local branches of foreign banks. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Output of electricity in 1986 was 54,000m. kwh.; total generating capacity was 16-2m. kw. There are 3 nuclear power-stations (capacities lm., l m . and 0 -6m. kw.) and a fourth is envisaged. Supply 110 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. There are reserves of coal (182m. tonnes), gold (1 -5m. tonnes), copper (4-8m. tonnes), sulphur (2-4m. tonnes), oil (1 -2m. kl.) and natural gas (19,240 cu. metres). In 1986, coal production was 1 -9m. tonnes; refined oil, 1 -7m. kl.; natural gas (1986), 1,023m. cu. metres. Agriculture. The cultivated area was 883,106 hectares in 1985, of which 493,641 hectares were paddy fields. Production in 1,000 tonnes, in 1985: Rice, 2,174; tea, 23; bananas, 199; pineapples, 150; sugar-cane, 6,823; sweet potatoes, 369; wheat, 2 • 1; soybeans, 12; peanuts, 89. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 153,322; pigs, 7,057,099; goats, 237,252. Forestry. Forest area, 1986: 1,864,420 hectares; forest reserves, 326,189,164 cu. metres; timber production, 562,414 cu. metres. Fisheries. The fleet comprised 4,951 vessels over 20 G R T in 1986; the catch was 1,094,587 tonnes in 1986.

368

CHINA

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Output (in tonnes) in 1986 (and 1985): Steel bars, 2 - l m . (l -9m.); pigiron, 197,536 (225,730); shipbuilding, 552,294 (516,173); sugar, 534,980 (645,632); cement, 14-4m. (14-4m.); fertilizers, 1 1 m . (l-4m.); paper, 635,075 (530,224); cotton fabrics, 756m. metres (618m.). Labour. In 1986 the labour force was 7-95m., of whom 1 -3m. worked in agriculture, forestry and fisheries, 3 -21 m. in industry (including 2-61 m. in manufacturing and0-53m. in building), 1 -38m. in commerce, 0-41 m. in transport and communications, and 1 -42m. in other services. 210,000 were registered unemployed. Commerce. Foreign trade affairs are handled by the China External Trade Development Council (founded 1970), which operates branches in 22 countries under the name of Far East Trade Service. Principal exports: textiles, electronic products, agricultural products, metal goods, plastic products. Principal imports: oil, chemicals, machinery, electronic products. Total trade, in US$ 1 m.: Imports Exports

1982 18,888 22,204

1983 20,287 25,123

1984 21,959 30,456

1985 20,102 30,723

1986 24,165 39,789

The USA, Japan and Hong Kong are Taiwan's major trade partners followed by Kuwait, the Federal Republic of Germany and Saudi Arabia. Total trade between Taiwan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡ m ] m ¡ m ¡ m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

458,307 128,467

585,246 150,648

582,904 164,776

705,775 192,492

1,006,880 292,275

Tourism. In 1986 1,610,385 tourists visited Taiwan, and 812,928 Taiwanese made visits abroad. The ban on Taiwanese travel to Communist China was lifted in 1987. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 19,885 km of roads (16,602 km surfaced). 8,696,045 motor vehicles were registered in 1986 including 1,046,660 passenger cars, 21,698 buses, 418,212 trucks and 7,194,202 motor cycles. 2,080m. passengers and 200m. tonnes of freight were transported (excluding urban buses). Railways. Total route length in 1986 was 2,681 km (1,067 mm to 762 mm gauge), of which a large proportion is owned by the Taiwan Sugar Corporation and other concerns. The state network consisted (1986) of 1,087 km. Freight traffic in 1986 amounted to 17-3m. tonnes and passenger traffic to 131-6m. Aviation. There are 2 international airports: Chiang Kai-shek at Taoyuan near Taipei, and Kaohsiung which operates daily flights to Hong Kong. There are 6 domestic airlines, including China Airlines (CAL), which also operates international services to Bangkok, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Seoul, Singapore, Amsterdam, Saudi Arabia, Japan and USA. In 1986 10-13m. passengers and 327,976 tonnes of freight were flown. Shipping. The merchant marine in 1986 comprised 1 passenger ship, 62 container ships, 47 bulk carriers, 15 tankers and 103 mixed service ships, with a total DWT of71m. The 4 international ports, Kaohsiung, Keelung, Hualien and T'aichung, are being extensively redeveloped. The first two are container centres. Suao port is an auxiliary port to Keelung. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 12,522 postal establishments. Number of telephones in 1986,6,247,360. In 1986 there were more than 5m. TV receivers. There are 3 TV networks. Cinemas (1986). Cinemas numbered 567. Newspapers and Books. There were 31 daily papers with a circulation of 3 • 7m. and 3,023 periodicals in 1986. 9,730 book titles were published. A 36-year ban on the publication of new dailies was lifted on 1 Jan. 1988.

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369

R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Religion. There were l-98m. Taoists in 1986 with 7,224 temples and 22,332 priests, 3-1 lm. Buddhists with 3,265 temples and 5,328 priests, 291,592 Catholics and 477,650 Protestants. Education. Since 1968 there has been free compulsory education for 9 years (6-15). In that year the curriculum was modernized to give more emphasis to science while retaining the traditional basis of Confucian ethics. Since 1983 schoolleavers aged 15-18 receive part-time vocational education. There were, in 1986-87, 2,486 primary schools with 74,838 teachers and 2,364,438 pupils; 1,055 secondary schools with 77,849 teachers and 1,691,516 students; 105 schools of higher learning, including 28 universities and colleges, with 21,769 full-time teachers and 442,648 students. Health. In 1986 there were 69,053 practising registered medical personnel, including 15,908 doctors, 3,750 dentists and 2,057 doctors of Chinese medicine. There were 85 public hospitals with 29,792 beds and 750 private hospitals with 41,381 beds. Books of Reference Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China. Taipei,annual Republic of China: A Reference Book. Taipei, f r o m 1983,irreg. Taiwan Statistical Data Book. Taipei, annual Annual Review of Government Administration, Republic of China. Taipei, annual G o l d , T . B., State and Society in the Taiwan Miracle. A r m o n k , 1986 Hsieh, C. C., Strategy for Survival: The Foreign Policy and External Relations ofthe Republic of China on Taiwan 1949-1979. London, 1985 K u o , S . W., The Taiwan Economy in Transition. Boulder, 1983 Lasater.M., The Taiwan Issue in Sino-American Strategic Relations. Boulder, 1984 Simon, D. F. S., Taiwan, Technology Transfer, and Transnationalism. Boulder, 1983 National Library: Chen-ku.

National Central Library, Taipei (established 1986). Director:

Wang

Capital: Bogotá Population: 29 -5m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 1,129 ( 1986)

COLOMBIA República de Colombia

H I S T O R Y . The Vice-royalty of New Granada gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and was officially constituted 17 Dec. 1819, together with the present territories of Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador, as the state of 'Greater Colombia', which continued for about 12 years. It then split up into Venezuela, Ecuador and the republic of New Granada in 1830. The constitution of 22 May 1858 changed New Granada into a confederation of 8 states, under the name of Confederación Granadina. Under the constitution of 8 May 1863 the country was renamed 'Estados Unidos de Colombia', which were 9 in number. The revolution of 1885 led the National Council of Bogotá, composed of 2 delegates from each state, to promulgate the constitution of 5 Aug. 1886, forming the Republic of Colombia, which abolished the sovereignty of the states, converting them into departments, with governors appointed by the President of the Republic, though they retained some of their old rights, such as the management of their own finances. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Colombia is bounded north by the Caribbean sea, north-west by Panama, west by the Pacific ocean, south-west by Ecuador and Peru, north-east by Venezuela and south-east by Brazil. The estimated area is 1,141,748 sq. km (440,829 sq. miles). It has a coastline of about 2,900 km, of which 1,600 km are on the Caribbean sea and 1,300 km on the Pacific ocean. Population census, (1985)29,481,852. Bogotá, the capital, (census, 1985)4,185,174. Départmentos Antioquia Atlántico Bolívar Boyacá Caldas Caquetá Cauca César (El) Chocó Córdoba Cundinamarca 1 Guajira (La) Huila Magdalena Meta Nariño Norte de Santander Quindío Risa raída Santander Sucre Tolima Valle del Cauca

Area (sq. km) 63,612 3,388 25,978 23,189 7,888 88,965 29,308 22,905 46,530 25,020 22,478 20,848 19,890 23,188 85,635 33,268 21,658 1,845 4,140 30,537 10,917 23,562 22,140

Population census 1985 4,055,064 1,461,925 1,289,891 1,149,028 882,193 254,777 848,603 646,088 296,914 997,597 1,481,895 303,110 671,112 860,841 436,506 1,048,480 943,225 400,117 659,292 1,535,021 560,886 1,114,990 1,955,483

Capital Medellín Barranquilla Cartagena Tunja(M.E.) Manizales Florencia Popayán Valledupar Quibdó Montería Bogotá Riohacha Neiva Santa Marta Villavicencio Pasto Cúcuta Armenia Pereira Bucara manga Sincelejo Ibagué Cali

Population census 1985 1,506,050 920,695 559,581 95,503 309,821 87,794 166,178 208,741 85,085 238,081 4,185,174 83,956 197,445 225,936 182,298 252,115 407,236 199,459 301,715 363,909 139,519 306,078 1,397,433

Capital Arauca El Yopal Mocoa San Andrés

Population census 1985 21,279 23,169 20,325 32,282

' Excluding Bogotá. Area Intendencias (sq. km) Arauca 23,818 Casanare 44,640 Putumayo 24,885 San Andrés y Providencia 44

Population census 1985 70,085 110,253 119,815 35,936

370

Comisarias Amazonas Guainía Guaviare Vaupés Vichada

Area (sq. km) 109,665 72,238 53,460 54,135 100,242

COLOMBIA

371

Population census 1985 30,327 9,214 35,305 18,935 13,770

Population Capital census 1985 Leticia 19,245 Obando (Puerto Inírida) 9,214 San José del Guaviare 31,082 Mitú 13,192 Puerto Carreño 8,081

The bulk of the population lives at altitudes of from 4,000 to 9,000 ft above sealevel. It is divided broadly into: 68% mestizo, 20% white, 7% Indio and 5% Negro. The official language is Spanish. C L I M A T E . The climate includes equatorial and tropical conditions, according to situation and altitude. In tropical areas, the wettest months are March to May and Oct. to Nov. Bogotá. Jan. 58°F (14 4°C), July 57°F (13-9°C). Annual rainfall 4 2 " (1,052 mm). Baranquilla. Jan. 80°F(26-7°C), July 82°F(27 -8°C). Annual rainfall 3 2 " (799 mm). Cali. Jan. 75°F (23-9°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 3 7 " (915 mm). Medellin. Jan. 71°F (21 -7°C), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 6 4 " (1,606 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . T h e legislative power rests with a Congress of 2 houses, the Senate, of 112 members, and the House of Representatives, of 199 members, both elected for 4 years. Congress meets annually at Bogotá on 20 July. Women were given the vote, which is now open to citizens of either sex, over 18 years of age, on 25 Aug. 1954. The President is elected by direct vote of the people for a term of 4 years, and is not eligible for re-election until 4 years afterwards. Congress elects, for a term of 2 years, one substitute to occupy the presidency in the event of a vacancy during a presidential term. There are 13 Ministries. The Governors of Departments and the Mayor of Bogotá are nominated by the national government. A National Economic Council, functioning since May 1935, went through several transformations, becoming in 1954 a Directorate of Planning. National Flag: Three horizontal stripes of yellow, blue, red with the yellow of double width. National anthem: Oh! Gloria inmarcesible (words by R. Núñez; tune by O. Sindici). The following is a list of presidents since 1953: Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, 13 June 1953— Dr Misael Pastrana Borrero (Cons.), 7 Aug 10 May 1957. 1970-7 Aug. 1974. Mililary Juma, Maj.-Gen. Gabriel París Dr Alfonso Lopez Michelsen (Cons./Lib.), 7 and4 others, 10 May 1957-7 Aug. 1958. Aug. 1974-7 Aug. 1978. Dr Alberto Lleras Camargo (Lib.), 7 Aug. Dr Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala (Lib.), 7 Aug. 1958-7 Aug. 1962. 1978-7 Aug. 1982. Dr Guillermo León Valencia (Cons.), 7 Dr Belisario Betancur Cuartas (Cons.), 7 Aug. 1962-7 Aug. 1966. Aug. 1982-7 Aug. 1986. Dr Carlos Lleras Restrepo (Lib.), 7 Aug. 1966-7 Aug. 1970. President: Dr Virgilio Barco Vargas (Lib.). He was elected on 25 May 1986 and took office on 7 Aug. 1986. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Nov. 1987: Government: Cesar Gaviria Trujillo. Foreign Affairs: Col. Julio Londono Paredes. Justice: Enrique Low Murtha. Finance and Public Credit: Luis Fernando Alarcón Mantilla. Defence: Gen. Rafael Samudio Molina. Agriculture: Luis Guillermo Parra Dussan. Labour and Social Security: Diego Younes Moreno. Health: José Granada Rodriguez. Economic Development: Fuad Char Abdala. Mines and Energy: Guillermo Perry Rubio. Education: Antonio Yepes Parra. Communications: Fernando Cepeda Ulloa. Public Works and Transport: Luis Fernando Jaramillo. Local government: The country is divided into 23 départmentos,

4 intendencias,

372

COLOMBIA

5 comisarías and a Special District. The governor of each is appointed by the President, but each has also a directly-elected legislature. The départmentos are subdivided into municipalities, each with a mayor appointed by the departmental governor. D E F E N C E . Men become liable for 1 year's military service at age 18, although the system is applied selectively. £x-conscripts remain in the reserve, divided into 3 classes, until age 45. Army. The Army consists of 11 infantry and 1 training brigades, artillery, cavalry, engineer and motorized troops and the usual services. Personnel (1988) 57,000 men (conscripts, 25,800); reserves 116,900. Number of national police, about 55,000. Navy. Colombia has 2 Federal German-built 1,200-ton diesel-electric powered patrol submarines completed in 1975, 2 Italian-built midget submarines; 4 new German-built missile-armed frigates; 4 old patrol vessels (ex-US fleet tugs); 2 fast patrol gunboats; 3 river gunboats; 4 surveying vessels; 4 coastguard patrol vessels; 10 patrol motor launches; 5 small transports, 1 training ship, 5 service craft, and 10 tugs. Personnel in 1988 totalled 700 officers and 6,500 men. The Navy has also a brigade of marines with 2,500 officers and men. An air arm was formed in 1984 and has 4 BO 105 helicopters for ship-based ASW and SAR duties. Air Force. Formed in 1922, the Air Force has been independent of the Army and Navy since 1943, when its reorganization began with US assistance. In 1986 it had about 300 aircraft, including a squadron of Mirage 5-COA fighter-bombers, 5-COR reconnaissance aircraft and 5-COD two-seat operational trainers; 2 squadrons of A-37B jets for counter-insurgency duties, a transport group equipped with 3 C-130, 12 C-47s, 6 C-54s and a small number of Arava, Beaver and Turbo-Porter light transports; a presidential F-28 Fellowship jet transport; 1 Boeing 707, UH-1B/H utility helicopters; and a reconnaissance unit with Iroquois, Lama, Hughes OH-6A, 300C and TH-55 helicopters. Eight more C-47s, 2 C-54s, 1 F-28 and 2 HS.748 transports are flown by the Air Force operated airline S a t e n a . Thirty Cessna T-41D primary trainer/light transports were delivered in 1968 and were followed by 10 T-37C jet advanced trainers to supplement piston-engined T-34s and T-33 A armed jet trainers. Total strength (1988) 4,200 personnel. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Colombia is a member of the UN, OAS, the Andean Group and LAI A ( f o r m e r l y L a f t a ) .

ECONOMY Planning. The 1982-86 Development Plan gives priority to agriculture. Budget. Revenue and expenditure of central government in 1985: Revenue, 659,093,000 pesos; expenditure, 631-89m. pesos. External public debt, 31 Dec. 1986, US$11,512,000. Currency. Coins include 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 pesos. There are also notes representing 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000 and 5,000 gold pesos. Exchange rate March 1988,483-52/?e«w=£l sterling; 273 -60pesos=US$ 1. Banking. On 23 July 1923 the Banco de la República was inaugurated as a semiofficial central bank, with the exclusive privilege of issuing bank-notes in Colombia; its charter, in 1951, was extended to 1973. Its note issues must be covered by a reserve in gold of foreign exchange of 2 5% of their value. There are 25 commercial banks, of which 12 are privately owned, 8 jointly owned by Colombian and foreign interest and 5 official in nature, with total assets of 1,387,057 pesos as of May 1986. External public debt was US$6,958m. in 1983. Weights and Measures. The metric system was introduced in 1857, but in ordinary commerce Spanish weights and measures are generally used; according to new de-

COLOMBIA

373

finitions by the Ministry of Development, e.g., botella (750 grammes), galón (5 botellas), vara (70 cm), arroba (25 lb., of500 grammes; 4 arrobas= 1 quintal). ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Capacity of electric power (1985) was 7 - 16m. kw. Electric power produced in 1986,29,580m. kwh. Supply 110,120 and 150 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Production in 1987 was 19m. tonnes. Minerals. Colombia is rich in minerals; gold is found chiefly in Antioquia and moderately in Cauca, Caldas, Tolima, Nariño and Choco; output in 1986, 1,279,242 troy oz. Other minerals are silver (149,422 troy oz. in 1986), copper, lead, mercury, manganese, emeralds and platinum; production of platinum, 1986,14,638 troy oz. The chief emerald mines are those of Muzo and Chivor. The Government holds the monopoly, which is leased to the Banco de la República, for extracting salts from the outstanding Zipaquirá mines (several hundred feet in depth and several hundred square miles in area) and for evaporating many sea salt pans; salt production in 1986 was 227,601 tonnes of land salt from the Zipaquirá mines and 500,938 tonnes of sea salt from Manaure and Galerazamba on the Caribe coast. Coal reserves were estimated at 16,500m. tonnes in 1983; production (1986) 89m. tonnes. Agriculture. Very little of the country is under cultivation, but much of the soil is fertile and is coming into use as roads improve. The range of climate and crops is extraordinary; the agricultural colleges have different courses for 'cold-climate farming' and 'warm-climate farming'. In 1987 there were 2,025,428 hectares under temporary cultivation and 1,165,978 under permanent. Coffee area harvested (1986) 945,000 hectares; production, 708,000 tonnes. Crops are grown by smallholders, and are picked all the year round. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Potatoes, 2,091; rice, 1,631-8; maize, 788-1; sorghum, 599-8. The rubber tree grows wild. Fibres are being exploited, notably the 'fique' fibre, which furnishes all the country's requirements for sacks and cordage; output (1986) 23,920 tonnes. Tolú balsam is cultivated, and copaiba trees are tapped but are not cultivated. Tanning is an important industry. Livestock (1986): 23-59m. cattle, 2-44m. pigs, 2-75m. sheep, 35m. poultry. Fisheries. Total catch (1984) 34,528 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production (1986): Iron, 508,082 tonnes; cement, 5,915,502 tonnes; motor cars, 35,600; industrial vehicles, 8,056. Commerce. Imports (c.i.f. values) and exports (f.o.b. values) (excluding export tax) for calendar years (in US$ 1 m.): 1983 1984 1985 1986 Imports Exports

4,968 3,081

4,492 3,483

4,131 3,552

3,852 5,108

Important articles of export in 1986 (in US$1 m.) were coffee (2,988), bananas (200), flowers (149), sugar (36), clothing and textiles (68). The chief imports are machinery, vehicles, tractors, metals and manufactures, rubber, chemical products, wheat, fertilizers and wool. It was reported (1987) that cocaine exports earn Colombia more than its main export, coffee. Imports in 1986 (in US$1,000) from USA were valued at 1,343,340; Venezuela, 118,559; Japan, 349,592; Federal Republic of Germany, 255,993; Brazil, 139,183. Exports (in US$1,000) went to USA, 1,449,558; Federal Republic of Germany, 1,051,149; Netherlands, 265,814; Venezuela, 150,198; Italy, 73,812. Total trade between Colombia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling). ] m ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m m J ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

56,458 51,023

80,387 112,486 43,485 82,639

94,112 58,084

65,331 61,385

374

COLOMBIA

Tourism. Foreign visitors totalled 732,000 in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Owing to the mountainous character of the country, the construction of arterial roads and railways is costly and difficult. Total length of highways, about 75,000 km in 1983. Of the 2,300-mile Simón Bolívar highway, which runs from Caracas in Venezuela to Guayaquil in Ecuador, the Colombian portion is complete. Buenaventura and Cali are linked by a highway (Carreterra al Mar). Motor vehicles in 1985 numbered 1,091,751, of which 509,478 were passenger cars and 104,639 lorries. Railways. There are 5 divisions of the State Railway with a total length of2,622 km in 1985 and a gauge of 914 mm. The Pacific Railway connects Bogotá with the port of Buenaventura. The Atlantic line from Bogotá to Sta. Marta was opened in July 1961. Three connecting links are planned to improve the operating efficiency of the network. Total railway traffic, 1986, was l-42m. passengers and 1,186,000 tonnes of freight. Aviation. In civil aviation Colombia ranks perhaps second, after Brazil, among South American countries. There are 670 landing grounds of all kinds. In 1986 the national airports moved 5,448,000 passengers and 84,000 tonnes of cargo. Shipping. Vessels entering Colombian ports in 1986 unloaded 5,631,000 tonnes of imports and loaded 11 • 19m. tonnes of exports. The Magdelena River is subject to drought, and navigation is always impeded during the dry season, but it is an important artery of passenger and goods traffic. The river is navigable for 900 miles; steamers ascend to La Dorada, 592 miles from Barranquilla. Post and Broadcasting. The length of telephone lines in service is 705,852 km (Bogotá only); instruments in use, 1 Jan. 1984, 2,547,222. The cable company is government owned. Television was established in 1954 and in 1978 there were l-75m. sets in use. In 1983 there were 485 radio stations, of which 50 were in Bogotá. Cinemas (1983). There were 623 cinemas, of which 87 were in Bogotá. Newspapers (1984). There were 31 daily newspapers, with daily circulation totalling l-5m. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court, at Bogotá, of 20 members, is divided into 3 chambers—civil cassation (6), criminal cassation (8), labour cassation (6). Each of the 61 judicial districts has a superior court with various sub-dependent tribunals of lower juridical grade. Communism was outlawed by government decree on 5 March 1956. Religion. The religion is Roman Catholic, with the Cardinal Archbishop of Bogotá as Primate of Colombia and 7 other archbishops in Cartagena, Manizales, Medellin, Pamplona, Popayán, Cali and Tunja, 26 bishops, 1,546 parishes and 4,020 priests. Other forms of religion are permitted so long as their exercise is 'not contrary to Christian morals or to the law'. Education. Primary education is free but not compulsory, and facilities are limited. Schools are both state and privately controlled. In 1984 there were 4,358 preprimary schools with 219,016 pupils, 31,229 primary schools with 3,614,074 pupils. In 5,210 secondary schools there were 1,945,134 pupils and in 216 higher education establishments there were 378,999 students. The National University in Bogotá was founded in 1886 and there are 97 other universities with 171,002 students and 17,963 lecturers. Health. In 1984 there were 753 hospitals and clinics. There were also 861 health centres.

COLOMBIA

DIPLOMATIC

375

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Colombia in Great Britain (3 Hans Cres., London, SW1X OLR) A mbassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Colombia (Calle 98, No. 9 - 0 3 Piso 4, Bogotá) Ambassador: Richard Neilson, CMG, LVO. Of Colombia in the USA (2118 Leroy PL, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Victor Mosquera Chaux. Of the USA in Colombia (Calle 38,8-61, Bogotá) Ambassador: Charles A. Gillespie Jr. Of Colombia to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Enrique Peñalosa. Books of Reference A nuario General de Estadística de Colombia. Bogotá. Annual Anuario de Comercio Exterior de Colombia. Annual Anuario Estadístico Bogotá D. E. Annual Boletín Mensual de Estadística. Monthly Economía y Estadística. Occasional Informe Financiero del Contralor General. Annual Informe del Gerente de la Caja de Crédito Agrario, Industrial y Minero. Annual Memorias (13) de los Ministros al Congreso Nacional. Annual Braun, H., The Assassination of Gaitán: Public Life and Urban Violence in Colombia. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1985 Morairetz, D., Why the Emperor's New Clothes are not made in Colombia. OUP, 1982

Capital: Moroni Population: 422,500 (1987) GNP per capita: US$290 ( 198 5)

COMOROS République fédérale islamique des Comores

H I S T O R Y . The 3 islands forming the present state became French protectorates at the end of the 19 th century, and were proclaimed colonies on 25 July 1912. With neighbouring Mayotte they were administratively attached to Madagascar from 1914 until 1947, when the 4 islands became a French Overseas Territory, achieving internal self-government in Dec. 1961. In referenda held on each island on 22 Dec. 1974, the 3 western islands voted overwhelmingly for independence, while Mayotte voted to remain French. The Comoran Chamber of Deputies unilaterally declared the islands' independence on 6 July 1975, but Mayotte remained a French dependency. The first government of Ahmed Abdallah was overthrown on 3 Aug. 1975 by a coup led by Ali Soilih (who assumed the Presidency on 2 Jan. 1976), but Ahmed Abdallah regained the Presidency after a second coup ousted Ali Soilih in May 1978. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Comoros consists of 3 islands in the Indian ocean between the African mainland and Madagascar. Population (estimate, 1987)422,500. „ _ , . „ , Njazidja (Grande Comore) Mwali (Moheli) Nzwani (Anjouan)

Area sq.km 1,148 290 424

Population census 1980 192,177 17,194 137,621

1,862

346,992

Chief town Moroni Fomboni Mutsamudu

Population census 1980 20,112 5,663 12,518

The indigenous population are a mixture of Malagasy, African, Malay and Arab peoples; the vast majority speak Comoran, an Arabised dialect of Swahili, but a small proportion speak Makua (a bantu language), French or Arabic. C L I M A T E . There is a tropical climate, affected by Indian monsoon winds from the north, which gives a wet season from Nov. to April. Moroni. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 75°F(23-9°C). Annual rainfall, 113" (2,825 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the new Constitution approved by referendum on 1 Oct. 1978 (amended 1983), the Comoros are a Federal Islamic Republic. Mayotte has the right to join when it so chooses. The President is Head of State, directly elected for a 6-year term (renewable once). He appoints up to 9 other Ministers to form the Council of Government, on which each island's Governor has a non-voting seat. There is a 38-member unicameral Federal Assembly, directly elected for 5 years. Each of the 3 islands is administered by a Governor (nominated by the President), up to 4 Commissioners whom he appoints to assist him, and a Legislative Council directly elected for 5 years. President: Ahmed Abdallah Abderemane (elected Oct. 1978 and re-elected Sept. 1984). The Council ofGovernment was composed as follows in Dec. 1986: Economy, Finance, Domestic Commerce and State Enterprises: Said Ahmed Said Ali. Foreign Affairs, Co-operation and Foreign Commerce: Said Madi Kafe. Health and Population: Ali Hassanaly. Interior, Information and Press: Omar 376

377

COMOROS

Tamou. Justice, Employment and Professional Training and Manpower: Ben Ali Bacar. National Education, Culture, Youth and Sports: Salim Idarousse. Plan, Equipment, Environment and Urbanism and Housing: Abdou'Rahim Mikidache. Production, Rural Development, Industry and Crafts: Mohamed Ali. Director General, Central Bank: Mohamed Halifa. There were 3 Secretaries of State. National flag: Green with a crescent and 4 stars all in white in the centre, tilted towards the lower fly. DEFENCE Army. The army had a strength of about 700 in 1988. Navy. An ex-British landing craft built in 1945 was transferred from France in 1976 and another vessel, with ramps, was purchased in 1981. Two small patrol boats were supplied by Japan in 1982. Air Arm. In 1987 only 1 Cessna 402B communications aircraft was in operation. Two survivors of three SIAI-Marchetti SF.260W Warrior armed trainers were returned to the manufacturer. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Comoros is a member of UN and an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. In 1984, current revenue amounted to 6,066m. Comorian francs and current expenditure to 7,008m. Comorian francs; the separate capital budget totalled 593m. Comorian francs revenue against 1,000m. Comorian francs expenditure. Currency. The unit of currency is the Comorian franc. There are banknotes of500, 1,000, and 5,000 Comorian francs. In March 1988, £1 =CF507; US$1 =CF285-66. Banking. The Institut d'émission des Comores was established as the new bank of issue in 1975. The chief commercial banks are the Banque des Comores, established in 1974 by the separation of the former Comoran section of the Banque de Madagascar et des Comores and the Banque de Développement des Comores. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 5m. kwh. Agriculture. The chief product was formerly sugar-cane, but now vanilla, copra, maize and other food crops, cloves and essential oils (citronella, ylang, lemongrass) are the most important products. Production (1986 in tonnes): Cassava, 93,000; coconuts, 47,000; bananas, 36,000; sweet potatoes, 18,000; rice, 16,000; maize, 6,000 and copra, 3,000. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 86,000; sheep, 95,000; goats (1985), 94,000; asses, 4,000. Forestry. Njazidja has a fine forest and produces timber for building. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch was (estimate) 4,000 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . Imports in 1985 amounted to 15,675m. Comorian francs, exports to 6,714m. Comorian francs. In 1981 France provided 57% of imports and in 1984 took 43% of exports. The main exports (1985) were vanilla (66% of value), cloves (20%), ylang-y lang ( 12%), essences, copra and coffee. Trade between Comoros and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 278 597

1984 236 316

Tourism. In 1986 there were about 5,000 visitors.

1985 234 '603

1986 307

1987 91 527

378

COMOROS

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 750 km of classified roads, of which 262 km were tarmac. There were 3,600 passenger cars and about 2,000 commercial vehicles. Aviation. There is an international airport at Hahaya (on Njazidja). Air Comores have twice-weekly flights to Antananarivo, Dar es Salaam and Mombasa. Air France and Air Madagascar also have twice-weekly flights to Antananarivo. Air Comores has daily internal flights between Moroni and Nzwani, and 5 per week between Moroni and Mwali. Shipping. In 1982, vessels entering Comoran ports (excluding internal traffic) discharged 39,000 tonnes and loaded 15,000 tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. There were 496 telephones in 1983. Comores-Inter broadcasts in French and Comorian on short-wave and FM for approximately 8 hours a day. Number of radios (1988) 40,000. Cinemas. In 1973 there were 2 cinemas with a seating capacity of 800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. French and Moslem law is in a new consolidated code.The Supreme Court comprises 7 members, 2 each appointed by the President and the Federal Assembly, and 1 by each island's Legislative Council. Religion. Islam is the official religion, and over 99% of the population are Sunni Moslems; there are about 1,000 Christians. Education. In 1981 there were 59,709 pupils and 1,292 teachers in 236 primary schools; 32 secondary schools had 13,528 pupils and 432 teachers, 2 technical schools held 151 students with 9 teachers, and a teacher-training college had 119 students and 8 teachers. Health. In 1978 there were 20 doctors, 1 dentist, 2 pharmacists, 35 midwivesand 124 nursing personnel. In 1980 there were 17 hospitals and clinics with 763 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Comoros Ambassador: R. B. Crowson, CMG (resides in Port Louis). Of the Comoros in the USA Ambassador: Amini A1 Moumin. Of the USA in the Comoros Ambassador: Patricia Gates Lynch (resides in Antananarivo). Of the Comoros to the United Nations Ambassador: Amini A1 Moumin. Book of Reference Newitt, N., The Comoro Islands. London, 1985

Capital: Brazzaville Population: 2- 18m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$ 1,140 ( 1984)

CONGO République Populaire du Congo

H I S T O R Y . First occupied by France in 1882, the Congo became (as 'Middle Congo') a territory of French Equatorial Africa from 1910—58, when it became a member state of the French Community. It became an independent Republic on 15 Aug. 1960. The first President, Fulbert Youlou, was deposed on 15 Aug. 1963 by a coup led by Alphonse Massemba-Debat, who became President on 19 Dec. Following a second coup in Aug. 1968, the Army took power under the leadership of Major Marien Ngouabi, whose colleague, Major Alfred Raoul, was appointed President from 3 Sept. until 1 Jan. 1969, when Ngouabi himself became President. The country's present name was established on 3 Jan. 1970, when a MarxistLeninist state was introduced. Ngouabi was assassinated on 18 March 1977, and succeeded by Col. Joachim Yhombi-Opango, who in turn was replaced on 5 Feb. 1979 by Col. Denis Sassou-Nguesso. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Congo is bounded by Cameroon and the Central African Republic in the north, Zaire to the east and south, the Cabinda province of Angola and the Atlantic to the south-west and Gabon to the west, and covers 342,000 sq. km; census population (1984), 1,912,429. Estimate (1987) 2-18m. The main towns (census, 1984) are Brazzaville, the capital (595,102), Pointe-Noire, the main port and oil centre (297,392), N'kayi (formerly Jacob) (49,458) and Loubomo (formerly Dolisie) (35,628). The areas, populations and capitals of the Regions in 1983 were: Region Kouilou

Sq. km 13,694

1984 373,608

Niari Lékoumou Bouenza Pool

25,942 20,950 12,265 33,990

159,084 68,301 194,977 180,051

Capital PointeNoire Loubomo Sibiti N'kayi Kinkala

Region Fed. District Plateaux Cuvette Sangha Likouala

Sq. km 65

1984 595,102

Capital Brazzaville

38,400 74,850 55,800 66,044

108,802 133,144 46,367 48,993

Djambala Owando Ouesso Impfondo

In 1984, 45% spoke Kongo dialects, chiefly in the south and south-west; 20% were Teke (in the south-east); 15% Sanka and 16% Ubangi chiefly inhabit the north. There are also about 12,000 pygmies and 12,000 Europeans (mainly French). French is the official language, but 2 local patois, Monokutuba (west of Brazzaville) and Lingala (north of Brazzaville), serve as lingua francas. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, with moderate rainfall and a small range of temperature. There is a long dry season from May to Oct. in the S.W. plateaux, but the Congo Basin in the N.E. is more humid, with rainfall approaching 100" (2,500 mm). Brazzaville. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 73°F (22 8°C). Annual rainfall 59" (1,473 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . In July 1979 a new Constitution was approved by referendum. Executive power was vested in the President, elected for a 5-year term by the National Congress of the Parti congolais du travail (the sole legal party since 1969). The President is assisted by a Council of Ministers, appointed and led by him. The PCT Congress elects a Central Committee of 75 members and a Political Bureau of 10 to administer it; it nominates all candidates for the 153-member People's National Assembly and for the regional, district and local councils, all of which were last elected on 11 Aug. 1984. In 1984 a constitu379

380

CONGO

tional amendment made the President Head of Government and reduced the role of the Prime Minister to that of a co-ordinator. President, Defence and Security: Col. Denis Sassou-Nguesso (re-elected July 1984). Prime Minister: Ange-Edouard Poungui. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Antoine Ndinga Oba. National flag: Red, in the canton the national emblem of a crossed hoe and mattock, a green wreath and a gold star. Local Government: The republic is divided into the capital district of Brazzaville and 9 regions (each under an appointed Commissioner and an elected Council), which are sub-divided into 46 districts. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 8 battalions, 2 armoured, 1 artillery, 2 infantry and 1 forming, 1 engineering, and 1 paracommando. Equipment includes 35 T-54/-55 and 15 T-59 tanks. Total personnel (1988) 8,000. Navy. The flotilla includes 3 new Spanish-built fast attack craft, 1 ex-Soviet patrol (ex-torpedo) boat, 3 ex-Chinese gunboats, 4 ex-Chinese river patrol craft, 2 ex-Soviet guard vessels, 4 small patrol cutters, 2 French-built modern tugs and 12 small river patrol boats. Personnel in 1988 totalled 250 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force had (1988) about 500 personnel, 15 MiG-17 jet fighters, 1 twin-turbofan F28 Fellowship for VIP transport, 5 Antonov An-24/26 turboprop transports, 2 C-47, and 2 Noratlas piston-engined transports, 3 Broussard communications aircraft, 4 L-39 jet trainers and 2 Alouette II and 1 Alouette III light helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Congo is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The National 5-year Development Plan 1982-86 envisaged an investment of 1,105,000m. francs CFA. Budget. The ordinary budget in 1985 balanced at 311,000m. francs CFA. Oil revenues provided 58% of the budget. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 francs CFA, and banknotes of 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 francs CFA. In March 1988, £1 =507/raws; US$1 =285-66francs. Banking. The Banque des États de VAfrique Centrale is the bank of issue. There are 4 commercial banks situated in Brazzaville, including the Banque Commerciale Congolaise and the Union Congolaise de Banques. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1985 was 306m. kwh from a hydro-electric plant at Djoué near Brazzaville and from about 6 thermal plants. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil reserves are estimated at 500-1,000m. tonnes. Output in 1987 was 5-3m. tonnes from the 26 offshore oil platforms operated by Elf Congo and Agip Congo. A refinery at Pointe-Noire came on stream in Dec. 1982. Minerals. Lead, copper, zinc and gold (3 kg in 1983) are the main minerals. There are reserves of phosphates, bauxite and iron. Agriculture. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Cassava, 620; sugar-cane, 510; pineapples, 110; bananas, 34; plantains, 64; yams, 14; maize, 8; groundnuts, 16; palm-oil, 15-6; coffee, 2; cocoa, 2; rice, 3; sweet potatoes, 14. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 71,000; pigs, 44,000; sheep, 63,000; goats, 184,000; poultry, 1 m.

381

CONGO

Forestry. Equatorial forests cover 20m. hectares (60% of the total land area) from which (in 1983) 2,238,000 cu. metres of timber were produced, mainly okoumé from the south and sapele from the north. Hardwoods (mainly mahogany) are also exported. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch amounted to 31,926 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is a growing manufacturing sector, located mainly in the 4 major towns, producing processed foods, textiles, cement (39,242 tonnes in 1982), metal industries and chemicals; in 1981 it employed 26% of the labour force. Trade Unions. In 1964 the existing unions merged into one national body, the Confédération Syndicale Congolaise. Commerce. Imports in 1982 totalled 265,250m. francs CFA (mainly machinery) and exports 321,030m. (of which petroleum 90%). In 1982 64% of imports were from France; 51 % of exports were to US A, 21 % to Italy, 10% to Spain and 10% to France. Total trade between the Congo and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): J m m 4 / m m 6 m ? Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

4,335 9,560

1,958 6,207

2,819 12,112

2,444 9,165

1,930 19,219

Tourism. There were 39,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 8,246 km of all-weather roads, of which 849 km were paved. In 1982 there were 30,500 cars and 18,600 commercial vehicles. Railways. A railway (517 km, 1,067 mm gauge) and a telegraph line connect Brazzaville with Pointe-Noire and a 200 km branch railway links Mont-Belo with Mbinda on the Gabon border. In 1983 railways carried 2-4m. passengers and 2 • 9m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. The principal airports are at Maya Maya (near Brazzaville) and PointeNoire. In addition there are 22 airfields served by the local airline, Lina-Congo. Shipping. Pointe-Noire handled (1979) 2-4m. tonnes of goods including manganese from Gabon. There were (1985) 21 vessels of 8,458 GWT registered. There are hydrofoil connexions from Brazzaville to Kinshasa (30 km across the river). Post and Broadcasting. Telephones (1982) numbered 8,899. In 1985 there were 99,000 radios and 5,000 TV sets in use. Cinemas. In 1973 there were 7 cinemas with a seating capacity of 5,100. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 24,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court, Court of Appeal and a criminal court are situated in Brazzaville, with a network of tribunaux de grande instance and tribunaux d'instance in the regions. Religion. In 1980, 54% of the population were Roman Catholic, 24% Protestant, 19% followed animist beliefs and 3% were Moslem. Education. In 1982 there were 406,835 pupils and 6,997 teachers in 1,377 primary schools, 171,862 pupils and 3,638 teachers in 122 secondary schools, 18,150 students with 1,261 teachers in 36 technical schools and teacher-training establishments. The Université Marien-Ngouabi (founded 1972) in Brazzaville had 7,255 students and 292 teaching staff in 1980. Adult literacy ( 1980) 56%.

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Health. There were (1978) 274 doctors, 2 dentists, 28 pharmacists, 413 midwives, 1,915 nursing personnel and 473 hospitals and dispensaries with 6,876 beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of the Congo in Great Britain Ambassador: Jean-Marie Ewengue (accredited 12 June 1986, resides in Paris). Of Great Britain in the Congo (Ave. du General de Gaulle, Plateau, Brazzaville) Ambassador: T. C. Almond. Of the Congo in the USA (4891 Colorado Ave., NW, Washington D.C.,20011) Ambassador: Stanislas Batchi. Of the USA in the Congo (PO Box 1015, Brazzaville) Ambassador: Leonard G. ShurtlefF. Of the Congo to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Martin Adouki. Book of Reference Thompson, V. and Adloff, R., Historical Dictionary of the People's Republic of the Congo. 2nd ed. Metuchen, 1984

COSTA

Capital: San José Population: 2-66m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$ 1,280 ( 1984)

RICA

República de Costa Rica

H I S T O R Y . Part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain from 1540, Costa Rica (the 'Rich Coast') formed part of Central America when the latter acquired independence on 15 Sept. 1821. Central America seceded to Mexico on 5 Jan. 1822 until 1 July 1823, when it became an independent confederation as the United Provinces of Central America. The province of Guanacaste was acquired from Nicaragua in 1825. Costa Rica left the confederation and achieved full independence in 1838. The first Constitution was promulgated on 7 Dec. 1871. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Costa Rica is bounded north by Nicaragua, east by the Caribbean, southeast by Panama, and south and west by the Pacific. The area is estimated at 51,100 sq. km (19,730 sq. miles). The population at the census of 1 June 1985 was2,655,000. The area and census of population for 1 June 1984 (2,416,809) was as follows: Province San José Alajuela Cartago Heredia Guanacaste Puntarenas Limón

Area (sq. km) 4,959-63 9,753-23 3,124-67 2,656-27 10,140-71 11,276-97 9,188-52

Population 890,434 427,962 271,671 197,575 195,208 265,883 168,076 ' District

Capital San José Alajuela Cartago Heredia Liberia Puntarenas Limón

Population 241,464 34,556 23,928 21,440 22,525 ' 29,224 ' 52,602 '

In 1982, 47% lived in urban areas, and 36% were aged under 15; population density ( 1986) 51 per sq. km. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985

Marriages Births 20,558' 78,197' 19,747' 84,252' ' Preliminary.

Deaths 9,931' 10,968'

The population of European descent, many of them of pure Spanish blood, dwell mostly around the capital of the republic, San José, and in the principal towns of the provinces. Limón, on the Caribbean coast, and Puntarenas, on the Pacific coast, are the chief commercial ports. The United Fruit Co., who in 1941 abandoned their banana plantations on the Atlantic coast in favour of large new plantations on the Pacific coast, have constructed ports at Quepos and Golfito. The Standard Fruit Co. and others have cleared land since 1958 in the Atlantic coast area and now have 2,325 acres producing some 4-2m. stems a year. There are some 15,000 West Indians, mostly in Limón province. The indigenous Indian population is dwindling and is now estimated at 1,200. Spanish is the language of the country. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with a small range of temperature and abundant rains. The dry season is from Dec. to April. San José. Jan. 66°F ( 18 -9°C), July 69°F(20-6°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,793 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution was promulgated in Nov. 1949. It forbids the establishment or maintenance of an army. The legislative power is normally vested in a single chamber called the Legislative Assembly, which since 1962 consists of 57 deputies, 1 for every 40,000 inhabitants, 383

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elected for 4 years. The President and 2 Vice-Presidents are elected for 4 years; the candidate receiving the largest vote, provided it is over 40% of the total, is declared elected, but a second ballot is required if no candidate gets 40% of the total. Suffrage is universal, there being no exemption for reasons of economic status, race or sex. The vote is direct by secret ballot for all nationals of 18 years or over. Elections are normally held on the first Sunday in February. Voting for President, Deputies and Municipal Councillors is secret and compulsory for all men under 70 years of age. Independent non-party candidates are barred from the ballot. The Cabinet in Dec. 1988 was composed as follows: President: Oscar Arias Sánchez, elected 2 Feb. 1986. Minister at the Presidency: Rodrigo Arias Sánchez. Foreign Affairs: Rodrigo Madrigal Nieto. Interior and Police: Guido Fernández Saborio. Finance: Fernando Naranjo Villalobos. Health: Dr Edgar Mohs Villalta. Public Works and Transport: Guillermo Constenla Umaña. Public Security: Hernán Garrón Salazar. Agriculture: Alberto Esquivel Volio. Education: Francisco Antonio Pacheco. Economy and Commerce: Luis Diego Escalante Vargas. Industry, Energy and Mines: Calixto Chávez Zamora. Culture, Youth and Sports: Carlos Francisco Echeverría Salgado. Labour and Social Security: Edwin León. Housing and Urban Development: Fernando Zumbado Jiménez. Science and Technology: Rodrigo Zeledón Araya. Foreign Trade: Muni Figueres de Jiménez. Justice: Luis Paulino Mora. Planning: Otón Solis Fallas. Co-ordinator of Presidential Advisers: Danilo Jiménez Veiga. Central Bank President: Eduardo Lizano Fait. Vice-President: Jorge Manuel Dengo. Vice-President: Victoria Garrón de Doryan. The powers of the President are limited by the constitution, which leaves him the power to appoint and remove at will members of his cabinet. All other public appointments are made jointly in the names of the President and of the minister in charge of the department concerned. National flag: Five unequal stripes of blue, white, red, white, blue, with the national arms on a white disc near the hoist. National anthem: Noble patria, tu hermosa bandera (words by J. M. Zeledón, 1903; tune by M. M. Gutiérrez, 1851). DEFENCE Army. The Army was abolished in 1948, and replaced by a Civil Guard reputed to be 6,000 strong. There has never been compulsory military service or training. Navy. The flotilla includes 1 fast patrol craft and 1 armed tug on the Atlantic coast and 5 small coastguard cutters on the Pacific coast. Personnel (1988) 100 officers and men. Air Wing. The Civil Guard operates a small air wing equipped with about 15 lightplanes and helicopters. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Costa Rica is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1981 balanced at 12,400m. colones. The income-tax law of 10 March 1972 raised the maximum rate to 50% for personal incomes of 350,000 colones and over, and to 40% for corporate incomes of 1 m. colones and over. External government debt on 31 Dec. 1982 was US$3,500m. Currency. The unit of currency is the colone (C). The official rate in March 1988 was C73-45 = US$1; 130-26 = £1. The official rate is used for all imports on an essential list and by the Government and autonomous institutions and a free rate is used for all other transactions. The currency is chiefly notes. The Banco Central issue notes for 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 colones. Silver coins of 1 colone, 50 céntimos and 25 céntimos

COSTA

385

RICA

were in 1935 replaced by coins (2 and 1 colones and 50 and 25 céntimos) made up of 3 parts copper and 1 part nickel, and given the same value as the subsidiary silver currency. There are copper coins (and chromium stainless steel coins) of 10 and 5 céntimos. Banking. By a law passed on 28 Jan. 1950 a Central Bank was established for the organization and direction of the national monetary system and of dealings in foreign exchange, the promotion of facilities for credit and the supervision of all banking operations in the country. The bank has a board of 7 directors appointed by the Government, including ex officio the Minister of Finance and the Planning Office Director. The National Insurance Institute (Instituto Nacional de Seguros) is a Government organization, created in 1924, which has a monopoly of new insurance business. Weights and Measures. The metric system is legally established; but in the country districts the following old Spanish weights and measures are found: libra = 1 0 1 4 lb. avoirdupois; arroba = 25-35 lb. avoirdupois; quintal = 101 -40 lb. avoirdupois, and fanega = 11 Imperial bushels. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electricity, derived from water power in the highlands, is increasingly used as motive power. Output, 1986, was 2,770m. kwh. Supply 120 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Gold output is about 3,000 troy oz. per year. Salt production from sea water is about 10,000 tonnes annually. Haematite ore was discovered on the Nicoya Peninsula late in 1960 and sulphur near San Carlos in 1966. The United Nations have offered US$ 1 m. towards a 3 -year mining survey. Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal industry. The cultivated area is about 1 m. acres; grass lands cover 1 -8m. acres; forests and woodlands, 9,855,000 acres. There are thousands of square miles of public lands that have never been cleared on which can be found quantities of rosewood, cedar, mahogany and other cabinet woods. The principal agricultural products are coffee, bananas, sugar and cattle. Coffee normally accounts for about half the country's foreign-exchange earnings. Coffee production in 1986 was 128,000 tonnes; sugar-cane, 2-65m.; bananas, lm.; cocoa, 5,000; maize, 104,000; tobacco, 2,000; rice, 186,000; potatoes, 40,000. Dairy-farming and cattle-raising are substantial pursuits. In 1986 cattle numbered 2,415,000 and pigs 222,000. Costa Rica is the seat of the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences, with headquarters at Turrialba. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main manufactured goods are foodstuffs, textiles, fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, furniture, cement, tyres, canning, clothing, plastic goods, plywood and electrical equipment. Industrial production was valued at 25-lm. colones in 1980, compared with 1-499m. in 1972. Labour. As Costa Rica is still essentially an agricultural country, the organization of labour has made progress only in the larger centres of population, and even there it is not a strong movement. There are two main trade unions, Rerum Novarum (anti-Communist) and Confederación General de Trabajadores Costarricenses (Communist). Commerce. The value of imports into and exports from Costa Rica in 5 years was as follows in US$: Imports Exports

1981 1,208,529,000 1,030,203,040

1982 867,000,000 870,800,000

1983 987,826,445 559,951,375

1984 1,093,739,311 1,006,389,617

1985 1,098,178,489

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RICA

The values (in US$1 m.) of the principal imports in 1984 were: Machinery, including transport equipment, 219-6; manufactures, 317-5; chemicals, 2 5 0 1 ; fuel and mineral oils, 166-7; foodstuffs, 9. Chief exports (in US$1 m.) in 1984 were: Manufactured goods and other products, 450-6; coffee, 267 -8 (mostly to Federal Republic ofGermany, USA, UKand Italy); bananas, 251 (to USA); sugar, 35-5; cocoa, 1-5. Total trade between Costa Rica and UK. (British Department of Trade returns in £1,000 sterling): [g83 ] m /gs5 ] m m J ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

22,299 11,041

21,248 9,138

22,646 14,413

30,318 12,007

16,752 14,407

Tourism. There was a total of261,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were about 28,994 km of all-weather motor roads open. On the Costa Rica section of the Inter-American Highway it is possible to motor to Panama during the dry season. The Pan-American Highway into Nicaragua is metalled for most of the way and there is now a good highway open almost to Puntarenas. Motor vehicles, 1984, numbered 217,324. Railways. The nationalized railway system (Incofer), totalling 828-5 km (128 km electrified) of 1,067 mm gauge, connects San José with Limón, the Atlantic port, and San José with Puntarenas, the Pacific port. Total railway traffic in 1985 was 1 m. tonnes of freight and 2m. passengers. Aviation. There were 92 airports (59 private) in service in 1984. Passenger movement in and out of Costa Rica is almost entirely by air via the local company, LACSA, PANAM and TACA. Passengers carried, 1984, 1,014,559. LACSA links San José by daily services with all the more important towns. Shipping. In 1981,1,221 ships entered and cleared the ports of the republic (Puerto Limón, Puntarenas and Golfito). Post and Broadcasting. There were 281,042 telephones in 1983. The commercial wireless telegraph stations are operated by Cia Radiogràfica International de Costa Rica. The stations are located at Cartago, Limón, Puntarenas, Quepos and Golfito. The Government has 19 wireless telegraph stations in its local network. The principal or central station at San José also maintains international radio-telegraph circuits to Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador and Mexico. The Government has 202 telegraph offices and 88 official telephone stations. The official list of broadcasting stations shows 28 long-wave stations and 7 short-wave stations. Television was inaugurated in May 1960; there were 6 stations and (estimate) 277,694 receivers in 1980. Cinemas ( 1979). Cinemas numbered 106, with seating capacity of 105,000. Newspapers ( 1984). There were 4 daily newspapers all published in San José. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, 5 appeal courts divided into 5 chambers; the Court of Cassation, the Higher and Lower Criminal Courts, and the Higher and Lower Civil Courts. There are also subordinate courts in the separate provinces and local justices throughout the republic. Capital punishment may not be inflicted. Religion. Roman Catholicism is the religion of the State, which contributes to its maintenance but controls the Church Patronage and insists on lay instruction in history, economics and similar subjects; there is entire religious liberty under the constitution, but religious appeals are forbidden in current political discussions. The Archbishop of Costa Rica has 4 bishops at Alajuela, Limón, San Isidro el General and Tilaràn. Protestants number about 40,000.

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387

Education. Costa Rica has a very low illiteracy rate. Elementary instruction is compulsory and free; secondary education (since 1949) is also free. Elementary schools are provided and maintained by local school councils, while the national government pays the teachers, besides making subventions in aid of local funds. In 1984 there were 3,068 public primary schools with 12,223 teachers and administrative staff and 353,958 enrolled pupils; there were 241 public and private secondary schools with 148,032 pupils. TTie University of Costa Rica, founded in San José in 1843, had (1980) 2,337 professors in 13 faculties and 38,629 students. Social Welfare. The labour code of 1943 provides considerable protection for the workers, while a system of social insurance against sickness covering 756,347 workers in 1968, old age and death covering 68,949 is gradually being extended throughout the country. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Costa Rica in Great Britain (93 Star St., London, W2) Ambassador: Dr Marcelo Martén (accredited 14 Oct. 1986) Of Great Britain in Costa Rica (Edificio Centro Colon, Apartado 815, San José) Ambassador and Consul-General: Michael Daly. Of Costa Rica in the USA (1825 Connecticut Ave., N W Washington D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Guido Fernandez. Of the USA in Costa Rica (Avenida 3 and Calle 1, San José) Chargé d'Affaires: James L. Tuli. Of Costa Rica to the United Nations A mbassador: Dr Carlos José Gutierrez. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Official statistics are issued by the Director General de Estadística (Ministerio de Industria y Comercio, San José) as they become available. The compilation of statistics was started in 1861. A m e r i n g e r . C . D., Democracy in CostaRica. New York, 1982 Biesanz, R., (et al), The Costa Ricans. Hemel Hempstead, 1982 Bird, L., Costa Rica: Unarmed Democracy. London, 1984 Fernandez Guardia, L., Historia de Costa Rica. 2nd ed., 2 vols. San José, 1941 Seligson, M. A., Peasants of Costa Rica and the Development of Agrarian Capitalism. Wisconsin Press, 1980

Univ. of

CÔTE D ' I V O I R E

Capital: Abidjan Population: 10-60m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$720 (1983)

République de la Côte d'Ivoire

HISTORY. France obtained rights on the coast in 1842, but did not actively and continuously occupy the territory till 1882. On 10 Jan. 1889 Ivory Coast was declared a French protectorate, and it became a colony on 10 March 1893; in 1904 it became a territory of French West Africa. On 1 Jan. 1933 most of the territory of Upper Volta was added to the Ivory Coast, but on 1 Jan. 1948 this area was returned to the re-constituted Upper Volta, now Burkina Faso. The Ivory Coast became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 4 Dec. 1958 and achieved full independence on 7 Aug. 1960. From 1 Jan. 1986 the French version of the name of the country became the only correct title. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Cote d'lvoire is bounded west by Liberia and Guinea, north by Mali and Burkina Faso, east by Ghana, and south by the Gulf of Guinea. It has an area of 322,463 sq. km and a population at the 1975 census of 6,702,866 (ofwhom 31 -8% were urban). Estimate (1986) 10,595,000. The areas and populations of the 34 departments were: Department Abengourou Abidjan Aboisso Adzopé Agboville Biankouma Bondoukou Bongouanou Bouaflé Bouaké Bouna Boundiali Dabakala Daloa Danané Dimbokro Divo

Sq. km 6,900 14,200 6,250 5,230 3,850 4,950 16,530 5,570 5,670 23,800 21,470 7,895 9,670 11,610 4,600 8,530 7,920

Census 1975 177,692 1,389,141 148,823 162,837 141,970 75,711 296,551 216,907 164,817 808,048 84,290 96,449 56,230 265,529 170,249 258,116 202,511

Department Ferkéssédougou Gagnoa Guiglo Issia Katiola Korhogo Lakota Man Mankono Odienné Oumé Sassandra Séguéla Soubré Tingréla Touba Zuénoula

Sq. km 17,728 4,500 14,150 3,590 9,420 12,500 2,730 7,050 10,660 20,600 2,400 17,530 11,240 8,270 2,200 8,720 2,830

Census 1975 90,423 174,018 137,672 104,081 77,875 276,816 76,105 278,659 82,358 124,010 85,486 116,644 75,181 75,350 35,829 77,786 98,792

The principal cities (populations, census 1975) are the capital, Abidjan (951,216; estimate 1982, l-85m.), Bouaké (175,264), Daloa (60,837), Man (50,288), Korhogo (45,250) and Gagnoa (42,362). The new capital will be at Yamoussoukro (70,000 in 1983). The principal ethnic groups are the Akan-speaking peoples of the south-east (Baule, 12% and Anyi, 11%) and the Bete (20%) and Kru of the south-west; in the north-east are Voltaic groups including Senufo (14%), while Malinké (7%) and other Mandé peoples inhabit the north-west. French is the official language and there were (1985) about 50,000 French residents. CLIMATE. A tropical climate, affected by distance from the sea. In coastal areas, there are wet seasons from May to July and in Oct. and Nov., but in central areas the periods are March to May and July to Nov. In the north, there is one wet season from June to Oct. Abidjan. Jan. 81°F (27 -2°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 84" (2,100 mm). Bouaké. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 4 8 " (1,200 mm). 388

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C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1960 Constitution was amended in 1971, 1975, 1980, 1985 and 1986. The sole legal Party is the Parti Démocratique de la Côte d'Ivoire. There is a 175-member National Assembly elected by universal suffrage (Elections were held in Nov. 1985) for a 5-year term. The President is also directly elected for a 5-year term (renewable). He appoints and leads a Council of Ministers who assist him. The Government was in Jan. 1988 composed as follows: President: Félix Houphouët-Boigny. (Re-elected for a sixth 5-year term in 1985). Ministers of State: Auguste Denise, Mathieu Ekra, Camille Alliali, Maurice Seri Gnoleba, Emile Kéi Boguinard, Lamine Diabate, Lanzeni N. P. Coulibaly, Paul Gui Dibo, Amadou Thiam. Public Health and Population: Alphonse Djedje Mady. Information and Culture: Laurent Dona Fologo. Commerce: Nicolas Kouandi Angba. Labour and 'Ivorization ' of Personnel: Albert Vanié Bi Tra. Civil Service: Jean-Jacques Bechio. Tourism: Duon Sadia. Social Affairs: Yaya Ouattara. Mining: Yed Esai Angoran. Internal Security: Gen. Oumar N'daw. Justice, Keeper of the Seals: Noel Neme. Defence: Jean Konan Banny. Interior: Siméon Konan. Foreign Affairs: Siméon Ake. Economy and Finance: Abdoulaye Koné. Agriculture, Water and Forest Resources: Denis Bra Kanon. National Education, responsible for Secondary and Higher Education: Dr Bala Keita and 14 other ministers. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of orange, white, green. Local government: There are 34 departments, each under an appointed Prefect and an elected Conseil-Général, sub-divided into 163 sub-prefectures. DEFENCE Army. The Army consisted in 1988 of 1 armoured battalion, 3 infantry battalions and support units. Equipment includes 5 AMX-13 light tanks and 7 ERC-90 armoured cars. Total strength (1988), 5,500. Paramilitary forces, 7,800. Navy. Offshore, riverine and coastal patrol squadrons include 2 fast missile craft, 2 patrol vessels, 1 river defence craft, 1 light transport, 4 fast assault boats and 2 minor landing craft. Personnel in 1988 totalled 70 officers and 630 ratings. Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1962, has 6 Alpha Jet advanced trainers, with combat potential, 1 turbofan F-28 Fellowship, 1 Super-King Air, 1 Cessna 421, 1 Gulfstream III transport, 2 Reims-Cessna 150s, 6 Beech F-33Cs and 2 ReimsCessna 337s for liaison and training, and 4 SA330 Puma, 4 Dauphin 2 and 3 Alouette II/III helicopters. Personnel (1988) 930. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Côte d'Ivoire is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 Five Year Development Plan concentrated on the primary sector, mainly increasing food production. Budget. The budget for 1987 totalled 480,980m. francs CFA. Capital expenditure 145,879 francs CFA. Currency. The currency is the franc CFA with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. In March 1988, £1 sterling = 507 francs CFA; US$1 = 285-66 francs CFA. Banking. The Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue. Numerous foreign and domestic banks have offices in Abidjan, and Société Générale de Banque, Société Ivoirienne de Banque, Banque Internationale pour le Commerce et l'Industrie de la Côte d'Ivoire and Banque Internationale pour l'Afrique Occidentale maintain wide branch networks throughout the country.

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ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1985 amounted to 2,162m. kwh mostly from new hydroelectric projects at Kassou and Taabo on the Bandama river, Buyo on the Sassandra river, and from 2 older dams on the Bia river. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Petroleum has been produced (offshore) since Oct. 1977. Production (1987) 1 m. tonnes. Minerals. Diamond extraction was 37,000 carats in 1982. Exploitation of iron ore deposits at Bangolo in the west await completion of hydro-electric projects. Agriculture. The main export crops (production 1986 in 1,000 tonnes) are coffee (280), cocoa (520), bananas (170), pineapples (300), palm oil (180), palm kernels (43), seed cotton (206) and rubber (48); food crops include yams (2,996), cassava (1,500), plantains (1,400), rice (460), maize (550), millet (35) and groundnuts (86). Sugar-cane (l-5m. tonnes in 1986) is grown on new plantations in the north at Ferkessedougou and elsewhere. Livestock, 1986: 881,000 cattle, l -45m. sheep, 1,502,000 goats, 450,000 pigs, 1,000 horses and 1,000 donkeys. Forestry. Equatorial rain forests, especially in the south, cover 3m. hectares and produce over 30 commercially valuable species including teak, mahogany and ebony. Production in 1983 was 11 -8m. cu. metres. Fisheries. The catch in 1983 amounted to 93,960 tonnes (16% from inland waters). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrialization has developed rapidly since independence, particularly food processing, textiles and sawmills. Several factories produce palm-oil, fruit preserves and fruit juice. Labour. The main trade union is the Union Générale des Travailleurs de Côte d'Ivoire, with over 100,000 members. Commerce. Trade for calendar years in 1 m. francs CFA: Imports Exports

1981 681,464 689,298

1982 718,593 747,452

1983 714,828 796,774

1984 1985 658,569 772,987 1,184,347 1,318,059

In 1983 exports of coffee furnished 20% of exports, cocoa 20-4%, timber 13-5% and petroleum products, 8 -6%. Of the total 19% went to France, 11 -6% to the Netherlands, 12 • 4% to the USA and 8-8% to Italy. Of the imports, France supplied 35%, the Federal Republic ofGermany, 5% and Nigeria, 5%. Total trade between the Côte d'Ivoire and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m j / m J m J m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

79,255 25,591

93,875 25,347

116,699 117,058 29,514 34,266

90,246 26,834

Tourism. In 1986 there were 187,000 foreign tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 roads totalled 53,736 km (including 128 km of motorway) and there were 182,956 private cars and 43,001 commercial vehicles. Railways. From Abidjan a metre-gauge railway runs to Léraba on the border with Burkina Faso (655 km), and thence through Burkina Faso to Ouagadougou. In 1985 the railways carried 2 -4m. passengers and 667,659 tonnes of freight. Aviation. The international airport is at Abidjan-Port-Buet. In 1981 it handled 870,000 passengers and 33,000 tonnes of freight and mail. Air Ivoire provides regular domestic services to 10 regional airports and 15 landing strips.

CÔTE D'IVOIRE

391

Shipping. The main ports are Abidjan and San Pedro. In 1981 Abidjan port handled 5-8m. tonnes and San Pedro I -5m. tonnes. In 1986 the merchant marine comprised 61 vessels of 141,674 tons gross. Post and Broadcasting. There were 87,700 telephones in 1984 and (1981), 1,181 telex machines. In 1983 there were 562,000 television and 800,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. There were 60 cinemas in 1977 with a seating capacity of41,000. Newspapers. In 1982 there were 3 daily newspapers, the principal being Fraternité-Matin, circulation 80,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 28 courts of first instance and 3 assize courts in Abidjan, Bouaké and Daloa, 2 courts of appeal in Abidjan and Bouaké, and a supreme court in Abidjan. Religion. In 1980, 24% were Moslems (mainly in the north), 32% Christians (chiefly Roman Catholics in the south), and 44% animists. Education. There were, in 1984, 1,179,456 pupils in primary schools, 245,342 pupils in secondary schools and (1979) 22,437 in technical schools. The Université Nationale de Côte d'Ivoire, at Abidjan (founded 1964), had 12,755 students in 1984. Health. In 1978 there were 9,962 hospital beds, 429 doctors, 36 dentists, 615 midwives, 3,052 nurses and 76 pharmacists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Côte d'Ivoire in Great Britain (2 Upper Belgrave St., London, SW1X8BJ) Ambassador: Théodore De Mel (accredited lOFeb. 1987). Of Great Britain in the Côte d'Ivoire (Immeuble 'Les Harmonies', Blvd. Carde, Abidjan) Ambassador: V. E. Sutherland. Of the Côte d'Ivoire in the USA (2424 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Charles Gomis. Of the USA in the Côte d'Ivoire (5 Rue Jesse Owens, Abidjan) Ambassador: Dennis Kux. Of the Côte d'Ivoire to the United Nations Ambassador: Amara Essy. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Service de la Statistique, Abidjan. It publishes Bulletin Statistique Mensuel and Inventoire Économique de la Côte d Ivoire. Zartman, I. W.,and Delgado, C., The Political Economy of Ivory Coast. New York, 1984 Zolberg, A. R., One-Party Government in the Ivory Coast. Rev. ed. Princeton Univ. Press, 1974

Capital: Havana Population: 10 - 19m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$2,696 (1981)

CUBA República de Cuba

H I S T O R Y . Cuba, except for the brief British occupancy in 1762-63, remained a Spanish possession from its discovery by Columbus in 1492 until 10 Dec. 1898, when the sovereignty was relinquished under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, which ended the struggle of the Cubans against Spanish rule. Cuba thus became an independent republic, but the United States stipulated under the 'Piatt Amendment' (abrogated by Roosevelt in 1934) that Cuba must enter into no treaty relations with a foreign power, which might endanger its independence. The revolutionary movement against the Batista dictatorship, led by Dr Fidel Castro, started on 26 July 1953 (now a national holiday). It achieved power on 1 Jan. 1959 when Batista fled the country. An invasion force of émigrés and adventurers landed in Cuba on 17 April 1961 ; the main body was defeated at the Bay of Pigs (Mantanzas province) and mopped up by 20 April. The US Navy blockaded Cuba from 22 Oct. to 22 Nov. 1962. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island of Cuba forms the largest and most westerly of the Greater Antilles group and lies 135 miles south of the tip of Florida, USA. It has an area of 44,206 sq. miles (114,524 sq. km); the Isle of Youth (formerly Isle of Pines) has 1,180 sq. miles, and other islands about 1,350 sq. miles. Census (1981)9,723,605; estimate in 1985 was 1015m. The area, population and density of population of the 14 provinces and the special Municipality of the Isle of Youth were as follows (1987 estimate): Pinar del Río La Habana Ciudad de La Habana Matanzas Cienfuegos Villa Clara Sancti Spíritus Ciego de Avila

Area sq. km 10,860 5,671 727 11,669 4,149 8,069 6,737 6,485

Population 669,500 618,100 2,025,700 586,600 346,600 789,200 415,600 345,200

Camagiiey Las Tunas Holguín Granma Santiago de Cuba Guantánamo

Area sq. km 14,134 6,373 9,105 8,452 6,343 6,366

Population 711,200 467,600 957,800 765,700 954,000 478,000

Isla de la Juventud

2,199

68,700

The chief cities (1986, estimate) were Habana, the capital (2,014,800), Santiago de Cuba (358,800), Camaguey (260,800), Holguin (194,700), Santa Clara (178,300), Guantanamo (174,400), Cienfuegos (109,300), Matanzas (105,400), Bayamo (105,300), Pinar del Rio (100,900), Las Tunas (91,400), Ciego de Avila (80,500) and Sancti Spiritus (75,600). Infant mortality(1986) 13-6per 1,000 live births. C L I M A T E . Situated in the sub-tropical zone, Cuba has a generally rainy climate, affected by the Gulf Stream and the N.E. Trades, though winters are comparatively dry after the heaviest rains in Sept. and Oct. Hurricanes are liable to occur between June and Nov. Havana. Jan. 72°F (22-2"C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 4 8 " (1,224 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The previous Constitution was suspended in Jan. 1959. The first socialist Constitution came into force on 24 Feb. 1976. Since 1940 the following have been Presidents of the Republic: Gen. Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar Dr Ramón Grau San Martin Dr Carlos Prío Socarras

Took office

Gen. Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar Dr Manuel Urratia Lleo Osvaldo Dórticos Torrado

10 Oct. 1940 10 Oct. 1944 10 Oct. 1948

392

Took office 10 March 1952 2 Jan.1959 17 July 1959

CUBA

393

Legislative power is vested in the National Assembly of People's Power, consisting of 499 deputies elected for a 5-year term by the Municipal Assemblies; elections were held in 1976, 1981 and 1986. The National Assembly elects a 31-member Council of State as its permanent organ. The Council of State's President, who is head of state and of government, nominates and leads a Council of Ministers approved by the National Assembly. President: Dr Fidel Castro Ruz became President of the Council of State on 3 Dec. 1976. He is also President of the Council of Ministers, First Secretary of the Cuban Communist Party and C.-in-C. of the Revolutionary Armed Forces. First Vice-President of the Council of State and of the Council of Ministers, Minister of the Revolutionary Armed Forces: Raúl Castro Ruz. Foreign Affairs: Isidoro Octavio Malmierca Peoli. Interior: José Abrantes Fernandez. Justice: Juan Escalona Reguera. Foreign Trade: Ricardo Cabrisas Ruiz. The Council of Ministers also includes 10 other Vice-Presidents, the Presidents of 9 State Planning Committees and 15 other Ministers. Dr Castro on 2 Dec. 1961 proclaimed 'a Marxist-Leninist programme adapted to the precise objective conditions existing in our country'. The provisional Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas (ORI) were established as an intermediate stage towards a single (communist) party, and gave way to the Partido Unido de la Revolución Socialista (PURS). This brought together the Partido Socialista Popular, Movimiento de 26 Julio and (Students') Directorio Revolucionario. The PURS in turn became (3 Oct. 1965) the Partido Comunista de Cuba. The Congress of the PCC elects a Central Committee of 146 full and 79 alternate (non-voting) members, which in turn appoints a Political Bureau comprising 14 full and 10 alternate members. National flag: 3 blue, 2 white stripes (horizontal); a white 5-pointed star in a red triangle at the hoist. National anthem: Al combate corred bayameses (words and tune by P. Figueredo, 1868). Local Government. The country is divided into 14 provinces, the special Municipality (the Isle of Youth) and 169 municipalities. Local Government is the responsibility of the organizations of Peoples' Power. Elections were held in 1976, 1979, 1981 and 1984 for delegates to the Municipal Assemblies by universal suffrage for 2'A year terms; the Municipal Assemblies then elected the Provincial Assemblies for similar terms. D E F E N C E . On 13 Nov. 1963 conscription was introduced for all men between the ages of 16 and 45, later raised to 50 (3 years); women of the 17-35 age groups may volunteer (for 2 years). Army. The strength was 145,000 officers and men (60,000 conscripts) in 1988. Reserves are estimated at 130,000. The Army is organized in 4 corps, 1 armoured division, 3 mechanical divisions and 26 artillery regiments for air defence. Equipment includes 150 T-34, 650 T-54/-55, 300 T-62 tanks and 60 PT-64 light-tanks. Para-military forces total 15,000 and the new Territorial Militia, 1 -2m. including reservists, all armed. Navy. The expanding Navy consists of 4 ex-Soviet diesel-powered submarines (of which 1 is in static reserve), 2 ex-Soviet guided missile-armed frigates, 23 missile boats, 9 hydrofoil attack craft, 4 patrol vessels, 24 fast gunboats, 4 minehunters, 10 inshore minesweepers, 12 motor launches, 14 coastguard vessels, 15 survey vessels, 2 landing ships, 6 landing craft and 15 service craft. The large majority of over 140 craft are former units of the Soviet Navy. Personnel in 1988 exceeded 12,000 including marines and coastguard. The USA is still in possession of the Guantanámo naval base, but the Cuban Government refuses to accept the nominal rent of US$5,000 per annum. Air Force. The Air Force has been extensively re-equipped with aircraft supplied by USSR and in 1988 had a strength of some 18,500 officers and men and 300

394

CUBA

combat aircraft. About 16 interceptor and 4 ground-attack squadrons fly MiG-23, MiG-21 and MiG-17 jet fighters. There is a squadron of An-26 twin-turboprop transports, some An-24 twin-turboprop transports, piston-engined II-14s, and about 100 Mi-24 gunship, Mi-8 (some armed), Mi-17 and Mi-4 helicopters, Zlin 326 piston-engined trainers and L-39, MiG-15UTI, MiG-21U and MÍG-23U jet trainers. An-2M biplanes are operated by the Air Force, mainly on agricultural and liaison duties. Soviet-built surface-to-air ('Guideline', 'Goa' and 'Gainful') and coastal defence ('Samlet') missiles are in service. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Cuba is a member of the UN, SELA, the Non-Aligned Movement and COMECON.

ECONOMY Planning. The Cuban economy is now centrally planned. Since July 1972 Cuba has been a member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) and, since Jan. 1974, of the two COMECON international banks. Budget. Revenue in 1987 was ll,574-6m. pesos and expenditure, ll,689-6m. pesos. Currency. The peso is not a freely exchangeable currency but an official exchange rate is announced daily reflecting any changes in the strength of the US$. In March 1988, the sterling-peso rate was £1 = 1 -342 pesos. US currency is accepted in tourist/hotel shops, but is not normally legal tender. Copper-nickel coins of 1 peso and 20, 5, 2 and 1 cent are issued. Notes are for 100,50,20,10,5,3 and 1 peso. Banking. On 23 Dec. 1948 the president signed the law creating a central bank (with capital of US$ 10m.) and which began operating 27 April 1950. On 14 Oct. 1960 all banks were nationalized, except the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Nova Scotia, which were bought out later. All banking is now carried out by the National Bank of Cuba through its 250 agencies, or via the Banco Financiero. All insurance business was nationalized in Jan. 1964. A National Savings Bank was established in 1983. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is legally compulsory, but the American and old Spanish systems are much used. The sugar industry uses the Spanish long ton (1 03 tonnes) and short ton (0-92 tonne). Cuba sugar sack = 329-59 lb. or 149-49 kg. Land is measured in caballerías (of 13-4 hectares or 33 acres). ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1986 was 13,167m. kwh. Supply 115 and 120 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Crude oil production (1987) 1 m. tonnes. Minerals. Iron ore abounds, with deposits estimated at 3,500m. tons, of which 90% were held as reserves by American steel interests but are now controlled by the Cuban Ministry of Basic Industry; output (tonnes), wrought iron (1980), 1,180; steel (1985), 412,900. Output of copper concentrate (1986) was 3,257 tonnes; refractory chrome (1982), 27,300 tonnes. Other minerals are nickel and cobalt (1985, 33,400 tonnes), silica and barytes. Gold and silver are also worked. Salt output from the solar evaporation of sea water was 122,300 tonnes in 1986. Agriculture. In May 1959 all land over 30 caballerías was nationalized and has since been turned into state farms. In Oct. 1963 private holdings were reduced to a maximum of 5 caballerías (approximately 67 hectares).

395

CUBA

In Sept. 1984 there were 1,472 co-operatives comprising 70,000 caballerías of land. The total cultivated land (1982) included state-owned, 3,398,200 hectares, and in the private sector, 475,400 hectares. The most important product is sugar, of which Cuba is the world's second largest producer; with its by-products it furnishes nearly 50% by value of the national exports. The 1986 crop was estimated at 6-7m. tonnes. There are 164 mills, including 40 of the largest, which were taken over from US interests, and which represent 39% of total capacity. Tobacco, coffee, cotton, maize, rice, potatoes and citrus fruit are grown. Production of other important crops in 1986 was (in tonnes): Tobacco, 42,900; rice, 524,000; maize (1984), 29,963; coffee (1984), 23,417. Tobacco is grown mainly in the Vuelta-Abajo district, near Pinar del Rio. Coffee is grown chiefly in the province of Oriente. A fast-growing fibre, kenaf, originally from India, soft in texture, is replacing jute for sacking (production, 1984, 19,800 tonnes); the tobacco industry uses majagua, another local fibre, while a third fibre, yarey, from palms is also used. 316,473 tonnes of potatoes were produced in 1986. A nitrate plant has been built at Nuevitas and a large British-built urea plant at Cienfuegos. The principal fruits exported are pineapples, citrus fruit, tomatoes and pimentos. A rice cultivation plan began in 1967 in the south of Havana province. Cultivation is highly mechanized and the area so far sown produces two crops a year. In 1986 citrus fruit production was 786,330 tonnes. Seed cotton production, 1986, was 3,000. In 1986 the livestock included 2-4m. pigs; 718,000 horses; 380,000 sheep; 108,000 goats; 6 • 4m. head of cattle. Forestry. Cuba has extensive forest lands. These forests contain valuable cabinet woods, such as mahogany and cedar, besides dye-woods, fibres, gums, resins and oils. Cedar is used locally for cigar-boxes, and mahogany is exported. Cedars, mahogany, majagua, teca, etc., are also raised. In 1984 saplings planted included: Eucalyptus, 12-4m.; pine, 40-lm.; majagua, 3-5m.; mahogany, 6-6m.; cedar, l-3m.;casuarina, 17m. Fisheries. Fishing is the third most important export industry, after sugar and nickel. Catch (1986) 244,589 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Production in 1986 was: Textiles, 217m. sq. metres; cement, 3-3m. tonnes; wheat flour, 437,000 tonnes; fuel oil, 3,314,000 tonnes; diesel oil, 991,000 tonnes; 436,000 tyres; 332,200 inner tubes (1984); leather shoes (1985), 12-4m. pairs; paint, 84,800 hectolitres; soft drinks (1985), 2,106,500 hectolitres; 366-3m. cigars (1985); 1,684,000m. cigarettes; fertilizers, 1,045,200 tonnes; 2,351 buses; 236,000 radios; 102,000 TVs. Trade Unions. All workers have a right to join a trade union. The Workers' Central Union ofCuba, to which 23 unions are affiliated, had 2m. members in 1978. Commerce. Imports and exports (including bullion and specie) for calendar years (in lm. pesos): /flgJ ] m ¡ m ¡ m Imports Exports

6,224 5,537

7,207 5,462

7,983 7,209

7,569 6,702

Cuba's principal exports are sugar, minerals, tobacco and fish. The main imports from non-Communist countries are chemicals and engineering and electrical machinery and transport equipment. In 1985 the USSR provided 67% of imports (by value) and took 75% of exports; in 1984 sugar formed 75% of all exports. Total trade between Cuba and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): [ m ¡ m ¡ m ¡ m m j ImportstoUK Exportsand re-exports from UK

14,010 45,737

13,020 64,377

7,273 59,332

8,555 58,760

12,776 41,510

396

CUBA

Tourism. In 1986 there were 194,531 visitors (280,000 in 1957). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 16,740 km of paved highways open to traffic, traversing the island for 760 miles from Pinar del Rio to Santiago. In 1983 there were 49,841 hire cars (including coaches and buses). Railways. There were (1986) 4,881 km of public railway (mainly 1,435 mm gauge) of which 152 km is electrified. In 1984 it carried 67-4m. passengers and 16-5m. tonnes of freight. In addition, the large sugar estates have 7,773 km of lines on 1,435, 914 and 760 mm gauges. Aviation. The state airline CUBANA operates all internal services, and from Havana to Mexico City, Madrid, Moscow and East Berlin, Montreal, Prague, Paris and Brussels, and also to Lima, Panama, Kingston, Bridgetown, Port of Spain, Georgetown and Managua. The other regular foreign services are Mexican, Spanish, Soviet, Czech, East German and Canadian. Shipping. The coastline is over 3,500 miles long and has many fine harbours. The merchant marine, in 1984, consisted of 107 sea-going vessels of 1,071,500 DWT. Post and Broadcasting. There are 3,545 miles of public and 8,902 miles of private telegraph wires. Cuba has 103 radio broadcasting stations and 2 television stations. Radio receiving sets, 1985, numbered 2 - 14m.; television sets, 1 -53m. The national telephone system (1985) had 493,000 instruments. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 515 (35mm) and 927 (16mm) cinemas. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 29 newspapers of which 16 were daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court in Havana and 7 regional courts of appeal. The provinces are divided into judicial districts, with courts for civil and criminal actions, with municipal courts for minor offences. The civil code guarantees aliens the same property and personal rights as are enjoyed by nationals. The 1959 Agrarian Reform Law and the Urban Reform Law passed on 14 Oct. 1960 have placed certain restrictions on both. Revolutionary Summary Tribunals have wide powers. Religion. There is no state Church, though Roman Catholics predominate. There is a bishop of the American Episcopal Church in Havana; there are congregations of Methodists in Havana and in the provinces as well as Baptists and other denominations. Education. Education is compulsory (between the ages of 6 and 14) and free, and now available everywhere. In 1964 illiteracy was officially declared to have been completely eliminated. In 1984-85 the universities had 212,200 students and(1982-83) 12,222 teaching staff. In 1982-83 there were 1,363,078 pupils and 71,251 teachers at primary schools; 118,072 at pre-primary, 774,400 pupils at intermediate schools; 173,403 students at higher schools; 392,945 students at adult primary and intermediate schools; and 56,721 students at other schools. Health. There were (1985) 22,910 doctors, (1983) 4,380 dentists and (1986) 254 hospitals with 53,038 beds. The 1984 health and education budget was 2,405m. pesos. Free medical services are provided by the state polyclinics, though a few doctors still have private practices. All serious tropical diseases are effectively kept under control, and virtually all children under the age of 15 have been vaccinated against poliomyelitis. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Cuba in Great Britain (167 High Holborn, London, WC1) Ambassador: Dr Oscar Femandez-Mell.

CUBA

397

Of Great Britain in Cuba (Edificio Bolivar, Cárcel 101-103, Havana) Ambassador: A. E. Palmer, C M G , CVO. Of Cuba to the United Nations Ambassador: Oscar Oramas-Oliva. The U S A broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba o n 3 Jan. 1961 but in 1977 Interest Sections were opened, officially attached to the Swiss Embassy in Havana and to the Czech Embassy in Washington respectively.

Books of Reference A nuario Estadístico de a República de Cuba. Havana Boletín Oficial, Ministerio de Comercio. Monthly Estadística General: Commercio Exterior. Quarterly and Annual.—Movimiento de Población. Monthly and Annual. Havana Anuario azucarero de Cuba. Havana, from 1937 Brundenius, C., Revolutionary Cuba: The Challenge of Economic Growth with Equity. Oxford, 1984 Domínguez, J. I., Cuba: Order and Revolution. Harvard Univ. Press, 1978 Gravette, A. G., Cuba: Official Guide. London, 1987 Guerra y Sánchez, R., and others, Historiade la NaciónCubana. lOvols. Havana, 1952 MacEwan, A., Revolution and Economic Development in Cuba. London, 1981 Mesa-Lago, C., The Economy of Socialist Cuba: A Two-Decade Appraisal. Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1981 O'Connor, J., The Origins of Socialism in Cuba. London, Cornell Univ. Press, 1970 Ritter, A. R. M., The Economic Development of Revolutionary Cuba: Strategy and Performance. New York, 1974 Thomas, H., The Cuban Revolution:25 YearsLater. Epping, 1984

Capital: Nicosia Population: 613,\ 00 (1986) GNP per capita:\JS$5,703 (1986)

CYPRUS Kypriaki Dimokratia— Kibns Cumhuriyeti

HISTORY. About the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. Greek colonies were established in Cyprus and later it formed part of the Persian, Roman and Byzantine empires. In 1193 it became a Frankish kingdom, in 1489 a Venetian dependency and in 1571 was conquered by the Turks. They retained possession of it until its cession to England for administrative purposes under a convention concluded with the Sultan at Constantinople, 4 June 1878. On 5 Nov. 1914 the island was annexed by Great Britain and on 1 May 1925 given the status of a Crown Colony. For the history of Cyprus from 1931 to 1974 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1958, pp. 2 3 7 - 3 8 , 1 9 5 9 , p. 236, a n d 1 9 8 3 - 8 4 , p. 385.

On 15 July 1974 a coup was staged in Cyprus by the men of the Greek ruling junta, for the overthrow of President Makarios. The President left the island and the coup was short-lived. On 23 July power was handed over to the President of the House of Representatives, Glafcos Clerides, in accordance with the Constitution. He acted as President until the return of President Makarios on Dec. 7. Turkey invaded the island on 20 July, eventually landing 40,000 troops supported with heavy armament and tanks. In two military operations 20-30 July and 14-16 Aug. the Turkish troops managed to occupy 40% of the northern part of Cyprus. As a result 200,000 Greek Cypriots fled to live as refugees in the south. The Cyprus crisis was raised in the UN and the General Assembly unanimously adopted resolutions calling for the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Cyprus and the return of refugees to their homes, but without result. On 13 Feb. 1975 at a special meeting of the executive council and legislative assembly of the Autonomous Turkish Cypriot Administration a Turkish Cypriot Federated State was proclaimed. Rauf Denktash was appointed President and he declared that the state would not seek international recognition. The proclamation was denounced by President Makarios and the Greek Prime Minister but welcomed by the Turkish Prime Minister. In 1984 the UN Secretary-General initiated talks on a possible federal state but these failed in Jan. 1985. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island lies in the eastern Mediterranean, about 50 miles off the south coast of Turkey and (at the nearest points) 65 miles off the coast of Syria. Area 3,572 sq. miles (9,251 sq. km); greatest length from east to west about 150 miles, and greatest breadth from north to south about 60 miles. The Turkish occupied area is 3,400 sq. km (about 37% of the total area). Population by ethnic group: Ethnic group GreekOrthodox Turkish Moslem Others Total

1946 361,199 80,548 8,367

1960 441,656 104,942 26,968

1980 507,500 118,000 3,500

1985 532,600 124,100 8,500

1986 538,900 125,500 8,700

450,114

573,566

629,000

665,200

673,100

Population estimate (June 1986) 673,100, of which 81% are Greek Cypriot (Armenian, Maronite and Latin minorities included) and 19% Turkish Cypriot. Principal towns with populations (Dec. 1986 estimate): Nicosia (the capital), 163,700 (Greek Cypriots); Limassol, 113,600; Larnaca, 53,400; Paphos, 23,100. As a result of the Turkish invasion and the occupation of part of Cyprus, 200,000 Greek Cypriots were displaced and forced to find refuge in the south of the island. The urban centres of Famagusta, Kyrenia and Morphou were completely evacuated. See p. 404 for details ofthe 'Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus'. 398

CYPRUS

399

Vital statistics. The birth rate per 1,000 population in 1986 was 19-5; death rate, 8 -4; infantile mortality per 1,000 live births, 12. C L I M A T E . The climate is Mediterranean, with very hot, dry summers and variable winters. Maximum temperatures may reach 112°F (44-5°C) in July and Aug., but minimum figures may fall to 22°F (-5 -5°C) in the mountains in winter when snow is experienced. Rainfall is generally between 10 and 2 7 " (250 and 675 mm) and occurs mainly in the winter months, but it may reach 4 8 " (1,200 mm) in the Troodos mountains. Nicosia. Jan. 50°F(10 0°C), July 83°F(28-3°C). Annual rainfall 15" (371 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The legislative power is exercised by the House of Representatives of 80 members, of whom 56 were elected by the Greek community and 24 by the Turkish community. As from Dec. 1963 the Turkish members have ceased to attend. On 13 Dec. 1959 Archbishop Makarios was elected President of the Republic. Dr Fazil Kuchuk was elected Vice-President unopposed; he resigned on 4 Jan. 1964. On 13 Feb. 1975, Rauf Denktash the Turkish-Cypriot leader announced the formation of a Turkish-Cypriot state within a federal republic and on 15 Nov. 1983 a unilateral declaration of independence, as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, was announced. When President Makarios died in Aug. 1977 Spyros Kyprianou became acting President and was proclaimed President on 31 Aug. 1977 and was elected for a 5-year term in 1978 and re-elected in 1983. In 1988 George Vassilou was installed as President following elections held on 14 Feb. Flag: White with a copper-coloured outline of the island with 2 green olivebranches beneath. The elections held on 8 Dec. 1985 returned 16 Democratic Party, 15 Akel Party (Communists), 6 E D E K (Socialist Party), 19 Democratic Rally. The Turks have not participated in the proceedings of the House since Dec. 1963. The Council of Ministers in Feb. 1988 was as follows: Foreign Affairs: George Iacovou. Interior: Christodoulos Veniamin. Defence: Andreas Aloneftis. Agriculture and Natural Resources: Andreas Gavrielides. Commerce and Industry: Takis Nemitsas. Health: Panikos Papageorgiou. Communications and Works: Nakos Protopapas. Finance: George Syrimis. Education: Andreas Philippou. Labour and Social Insurance: Takis Christofides. Justice: Christodoulos Chrysanthou. DEFENCE Army. Total strength (1988) 13,000 organized in 3 reconnaissance/mechanized infantry and 20 infantry battalions, with artillery and support units. The National Guard has a twin-engined Maritime Islander light transport and 2 AB.47 helicopters. There is also a para-military force of3,666 armed police. The Turkish-Cypriot Security Force: 25,000 Turkish mainland troops, 5,000 Turkish Cypriots, and some T-34 tanks. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Cyprus is a member of U N , the Commonwealth, the Council of Europe and the Non-Aligned Movement. ECONOMY Planning. A fourth emergency economic action plan (1982-86) envisaged expenditure of £C398m. for development projects. Budget. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years (in £C 1 m.): Expenditure Revenue

1983 366 288

1984 418 343

1985 448 388

1986 505 359

1987 540 404

400

CYPRUS

Main sources of ordinary revenue in 1986 (in £Clm.) were: Import duties, 77-9 (including 17 temporary refugee levy on imports); excise duties, 51-6; income tax, 77-7; rents, royalties and interest, 18-5; sales of goods and services, 20-9; other duties and taxes, 42-2; social security contributions, 71-9. Main divisions of ordinary expenditure in 1986 (in £Clm.): Wages and salaries, 156-5; pensions and gratuities, 12-6; commodity subsidies, 20-1; expenditures on goods and services, 39; public debt charges, 90 • 2; social insurance benefits, 56 -7. Development expenditure for 1986 (in£Clm.) included 35 -6 for water development, 4 1 for agriculture, forests and fisheries, 2-7 for rural development, 95 for roads, 1 • 2 for airports and 0 • 5 for tourism. (An independent Ports Authority with its own funds was set up in 1977.) The outstanding public debt as at 31 Dec. 1984 was £C383-7m., excluding sinking fund reserves, and accumulated sinking funds totalled £C23-3m. Outstanding loans as at 31 Dec. 1984 totalled £C52-3m.; including £C2 -9m. to the Cyprus Telecommunications Authority. Foreign debt (1986) public and private, £C636m. Currency. From Oct. 1983 the Cyprus £ has been divided into 100 cents. Notes of the following denominations are in circulation: £10, £5, £1, 50 cents. Coins in circulation: Cupro-zinc-nickel: 20, 10, 5,2, 1 cent and Vi cent in aluminium. Rate of exchange, March 1988: £1 =£C0-804;US$1 =£C2-219. Banking. There is a Central and Issuing Bank exercising monetary functions, and the Cyprus Development Bank Ltd established by the Government as a major source of loan funds for industrial development. Commercial banks operating in Cyprus are: Bank of Cyprus Ltd, Turkish Bank Ltd, Cyprus Popular Bank Ltd, Barclays Bank International, National Bank of Greece, Hellenic Bank Ltd, Arab Bank Ltd and Turkiye Is Bankasi. There are 2 central co-operative banks (Cooperative Central Bank Ltd and the Cyprus Turkish Co-operative Central Bank Ltd) and 3 specialized financial institutions (Mortgage Bank of Cyprus Ltd, Lombard Banking (Cyprus) Ltd and Housing Finance Corporation). Twelve offshore banking units were in operation in 1987. Turkish Bank Ltd, Turkiye Is Bankasi and the Cyprus Turkish Co-operative Central Bank Ltd are operating in the Turkish occupied area of the republic and consequently no control or supervision is exercised by the Central Bank of Cyprus. The Central Bank of Cyprus, established in 1963, is responsible for the issue of currency, the regulation of money supply and credit, administration of the exchange control law and the foreign-exchange reserves of the republic. The Bank also acts as a banker of the banks operating in Cyprus and of the Government and acts as supervisor of the banking system. At the end of Dec. 1985 total deposits in banks were £C 1,113 • 3m. The country's foreign exchange reserves at the end of Dec. 1985 were £C389 • 5m. Weights and Measures. Weights and measures had been based on the standard weights and measures of the UK. From 1 Jan. 1986 a programme of gradual adoption of the Metric (SI) System is being implemented with the end of 1988 as the target date for completion of the change. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 1,423m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Water Resources. In 1985 £C23-9m. was spent on water dams, water supplies, hydrological research and geophysical surveys. Existing dams had (1984) a capacity of 150m. cu. metres as against 6m. cu. metres before independence. Minerals. The principal minerals exported during 1986 were (in tonnes): Asbestos, 11,781; flotation pyrites, 65,938; copper precipitates, 1,148. Mining products provided about 1 -9% of domestic exports in 1986. Total value of minerals exported in 1986 was £C3-3m. Agriculture. Chief agricultural products in 1986 (1,000 tonnes): Grapes, 151; potatoes, 172; milk, 112-5; cereals (wheat and barley), 67-5; citrus fruit, 131-5; meat, 50-8; carobs, 2-5; fresh fruit, 23-9; olives, 12; other vegetables, 106; eggs, 8-5m. dozen.

401

CYPRUS

Of the island's 2-3m. acres, approximately lm. are cultivated. 14-1% (1986) of the economically active population are engaged in agriculture. Livestock in 1986 (in 1,000): Cattle, 44; sheep, 325; goats, 230; pigs, 225; poultry, 2,400. Forestry. By Dec. 1982, the reforesting of burnt areas in the Paphos Forest was completed and an area of 7,492 ha (56,000 donums) was reforested. Reforestation work in other bare areas of state forests was carried out in an area of 5,729 ha (42,828 donums). Total forest area, 1,753 sq. km. In 1986 the chief forest products were timber, valued at £C721,000; firewood, £C 133,000; figures relate to the area of Cyprus not occupied by Turkey. Fisheries. Catch (1986) 2,548 tonnes valued at £C5 -9m. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Cyprus has no heavy industry, but a wide variety of light manufacturing industries. Manufacturing industry in 1986 contributed about £C245 - lm. to the GDP and gave employment to 43,250 of the economically active population. The highest increases in output in 1986 were production of food products, wearing apparel, metal products and machinery and equipment. Industrial exports declined to £C 126 • 2m. in 1986 and accounted for 70% of total domestic exports. Trade Unions and Associations. About 80% of the workforce is organized and the majority of workers belong either to the Pancyprian Federation of Labour or the Cyprus Workers Confederation. Commerce. The commerce and the shipping, exclusive of coasting trade, for calendar years were (in £C 1,000): Imports' Exports 2

1983 1984 641,962 796,520 260,525 336,826 1 Excluding Naafi imports. Including re-exports and ships' stores.

1982 577,551 263,809 2

1985 762,312 290,610

1986 659,100 260,200

Chief civil imports, 1986 (in £C 1,000): Petroleum and petroleum products Textile yarn and fabrics made up Iron and steel Cereals and cereal preparations Machinery and Transport equipment Paper, paperboard and pulp and articles thereof Artificial resins and plastics

78,820 55,239 39,174 24,883 160,252 19,807 15,234

Feeding stufffor animals Tobacco and manufactures Meat and meat preparations Animal and vegetable oils, fats and waxes Non-metallic mineral manufactures Medicinal and pharmaceutical products Manufactures of metal, n.e.s. Dairy products and eggs

10,389 15,675 6,732 10,511 17,503 14,196 19,125 5,173

Chief domestic exports, 1986 (in £C1,000): Grapes Grapefruit Lemons Oranges Potatoes Wine

3,758 6,164 4,285 3,400 20,228 4,282

2,345 3,202 3,539 41,038 14,368

Cigarettes Paper products Cement Clothing Footwear

In 1986 the EEC countries supplied 60-7% of the imports; Arab countries, 7-2%; others, 32-1%. Of the exports (1986), 37-8% went to Arab countries; 38-3% to EEC countries; 5 -4% to Eastern Europe and 18 • 5% to other countries. Total trade between Cyprus and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 87,436 127,837

Tourism. Foreign tourists (1986), 900,700.

1984 94,381 146,773

1985 93,689 150,921

1986 124,198 140,387

1987 118,250 141,129

402

CYPRUS

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 the total length of roads was 11,975 km, of which 5,813 km were paved and 6,162 km were earth or gravel roads. The main roads which are maintained by the Ministry of Communications and Works (Public Works Department) totalled 3,012 km, of which 1,279 km were paved. The total of urban streets was 1,785 km, of which 1,270 were paved. Village roads and streets totalled 4,417 km, of which 1,599 km were paved, the rest being of earth or gravel surface. There were also 2,761 km of unpaved forest roads. On 31 Dec. 1986, there were 281,889 motor vehicles including 1,850 buses and 54,928 goods vehicles. The area controlled by the Government of the Republic and that occupied by Turkey are now served by separate transport systems, and there are no services linking the two areas. Aviation. Nicosia airport has been closed since Aug. 1974. In 1987, 27 international airlines operated scheduled services between Cyprus and Europe, Africa and the Middle East, and another 16 airlines operated non-scheduled services. A new airport opened in Turkish Cypriot northern Cyprus in 1986. During 1986, 1,903,882 persons travelled and 24,744 tonnes of commercial air-freight was handled through Larnaca and Paphos airports. Paphos International airport started operations in 1983. Shipping. In 1986,4,455 ships of 12,429,280 net tons entered Cyprus ports. Ships under Cyprus registry numbered 1,473 of 9-8m. tons. Famagusta has been closed to international traffic since Oct. 1974. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 53 post offices and 583 postal agencies. There are 17 post offices and 368 postal agencies in the Turkish occupied area. Telephones (1983) 158,000. Wireless licences issued (1981) were 247,000, including television licences. Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation broadcasts mainly in Greek, but also in Turkish, English, and Armenian on medium-waves. The corporation also broadcasts on one TV channel. There are also 2 foreign broadcasting stations. Cinemas (1982). In the Greek part of Cyprus there were 56 cinemas. Newspapers (1983). There were 9 Greek, 4 Turkish and 1 English daily newspapers and 10 Greek, 6 Turkish and 1 English weeklies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The administration of justice is exercised by separate and independent judiciary. Under the 1960 Constitution and other legislation in force there are the Supreme Court of the Republic, Assize Courts, District Courts, Ecclesiastical Courts and Turkish Family Courts. The Supreme Court is composed of 5-7 judges one of whom is the President of the Court. There is an Assize Court and a District Court for each district. The Assize Courts have unlimited criminal jurisdiction and may order the payment of compensation up to £C800. The District Courts exercise original civil and criminal jurisdiction, the extent of which varies with the composition of the Bench. There is a Supreme Council of Judicature, consisting of the Attorney-General of the Republic, the President and Judges of the Supreme Court, entrusted with the appointment, promotion, transfers, termination of appointment and disciplinary control over all judicial officers, other than the Judges of the Supreme Court. Religion. See Area and Population, p. 398. Education. Until 31 March 1965 each community managed its own schooling through its respective Communal Chamber. Intercommunal education had been placed under the Minister of the Interior, assisted by a Board of Education for Intercommunal Schools, of which the Minister was the Chairman. In 1965 the Greek Communal Chamber was dissolved and a Ministry of Education was estab-

CYPRUS

403

lished to take its place. Intercommunal education has been placed under this Ministry. Greek-Cypriot Education. Elementary education is compulsory and is provided free in 6 grades to children between 5Vi and 12 years of age. In some towns and large villages there are separate junior schools consisting of the first three grades. Apart from schools for the deaf and blind, there are also 9 schools for handicapped children. In 1986-87 the Ministry ran 186 kindergartens for children in the age group 2V2-5V2; there were 244 privately run pre-primary schools. There were 373 primary schools with 54,254 pupils and 2,369 teachers in 1986-87. Secondary education is also free and attendance for the first cycle is compulsory. The secondary school is 6 years, 3 years at the gymnasium followed by 3 years at the lykeion. In 1978-79 the lyceums of optional subjects were introduced, in which students can choose one of the 5 main fields of specialization: Classical, science, economics, commercial/secretarial and foreign languages. There are 6-year technical schools. In 1986-87 there were 103 secondary schools with 3,058 teachers and 44,308 pupils. Post-secondary education is provided at the Pedagogical Academy, which organizes 3-year courses for the training of pre-primary and primary school teachers, and at the Higher Technical Institute, which provides 3-year courses for technicians in civil, electrical, mechanical and marine engineering. There is also a 2-year Forestry College (administered by the Ministry of Agriculture), a Hotel and Catering Institute, the Mediterranean Institute of Management (Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance) and a 3-year Nurses' School (Ministry of Health). Adult education is conducted through youth centres in rural areas, foreign language institutes in the towns and private institutions offering courses in business administration and secretarial work. In 1985-86, 10,312 students were studying in universities abroad, mainly in Greece, the UK, USA, Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. Turkish-Cypriot Education. The Office of Education of the Turkish Community of Cyprus caters for some 18% of the island's population and ( 1976) administered 10 kindergartens, 167 elementary schools (16,014 pupils), 18 secondary schools (7,190 pupils), 6 technical schools (735 pupils) and 1 teacher-training college (13 students). There were 43 evening institutes for adult education. Greek is the language of 82% of the population and Turkish of 18%. English is widely spoken. English and French are compulsory subjects in secondary schools. Illiteracy is largely confined to older people. Social Security. The administration of the social-security services in Cyprus is in the hands of the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance, with the Ministry of Health providing medical services through public clinics and hospitals on a means test, except medical treatment for employment accidents, which is given free to all insured employees and financed by the Social Insurance Scheme. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Cyprus in Great Britain (93 Park St., London, W1Y4ET) High Commissioner: Tasos Panayides. Of Great Britain in Cyprus (Alexander Pallis St., Nicosia) High Commissioner: W. J. A. Wilberforce, CMG. Of Cyprus in the USA (2211 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Andrew J. Jacovides. Of the USA in Cyprus (Therissos St., Nicosia) Ambassador:Richard W. Boehm. Of Cyprus to the United Nations Ambassador: Constantine Moushoutas.

404

CYPRUS

'TURKISH REPUBLIC OF N O R T H E R N CYPRUS' H I S T O R Y . Seep. 398. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus occupies 3,355 sq. km (about 37% of the island of Cyprus) and its population was estimated in 1986 to be 162,676. Population of principal towns (1985): Nicosia, 37,400; Famagusta, 19,428; Kyrenia, 6,902; Moiphou, 10,179; Lefka, 3,785. Ethnic groups: Turks, 158,225; Greeks, 733; Maronites, 368; Others, 961. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was proclaimed on 15 Nov. 1983. The President is Rauf R. Denktash, and there is a council of Ministers comprised in Nov. 1987 of: Prime Minister: Dervi§ Eroglu. Foreign Affairs and Defence: Kenan Atakol. Education and Culture: Salih Co§ar. Economy, Industry and Trade: Erdal Onurhan. Health and Social Assistance: Mustafa Erbilen. Agriculture and Forestry: Ayta? Be§e§ler. Housing: Onay Demirciler. Finance and Customs: Mehmet Bayram. Public Works, Communications and Tourism: Nazif Borman. Youth, Sports and Labour: Günay Caymaz. Interior, Rural Affairs and Natural Resources: Ta^kent Atasayan. A 50-seat Legislative Assembly was elected in June 1985; 24 seats were won by the Ulusal Birlik Partisi (National Unity Party), 12 by the Cumhuriyetgi Türk Partisi (Turkish Republican Party), 9 by the Toplumcu Kurtulu§ Partisi (Communal Liberation Party) and 4 by the Yeni Dogus Partisi (Revival Party). Budget. The 1987 Budget balanced at 103,079m. Turkish lire. Currency. The Turkish lire is used throughout Northern Cyprus. Trade. Imports in 1986 amounted to 102,461m. and exports to 35,018m. Turkish lire. Tourism. There were 131,492 tourists in 1986. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistics and Research Department, Nicosia. North Cyprus Almanack, London, 1987 Attalides, M., Cyprus Nationalism and International Politics. Edinburgh, 1979 Bitsios, D. S., Cyprus: The Vulnerable Republic. Thessaloniki, 1975 Crawshaw, N., The Cyprus Revolt: An Account of the Struggle for Union with Greece. London, 1978 Denktash, R., The Cyprus Triangle. London, 1982 Georghallides, G. S., A Political and Administrative History of Cyprus 1918-1926. Nicosia, 1979 Halil, K., The Rape of Cyprus. London, 1982 Hill, Sir George F., A History of Cyprus. 4 vols. Cambridge, 1940-52 Hitchins,C., Cyprus. London, 1984 Hunt, D., Footprints in Cyprus. London, 1982 Kitromilides, P. M., and Evriviades, M. L., Cyprus, [Bibliography]. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Kyle, K„ Cyprus. London, 1984 Loizos, P., The Heart Grows Bitter: A Chronicle ofCypriot War Refugees. CUP, 1982 Mayes, S., Makarios. London, 1981 Oberling, P., The Road to Bellapais: The Turkish Cypriot Exodus to Northern Cyprus. Boulder, 1982 Polyviou, P. G., Cyprus: The Tragedy and the Challenge. London, 1975.—Cyprus in Search of a Constitution. Nicosia, 1976.—Cyprus: Conflict and Negotiation, 1960-1980. London, 1980 St John-Jones, L. W., The Population of Cyprus. London, 1983

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Capital: Prague Population: 15-5m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$8,700 (1985)

Ceskoslovenska Socialisticka Republika

H I S T O R Y . The Czechoslovak State came into existence on 28 Oct. 1918, when the Czech Narodni Vybor (National Committee) took over the government of the Czech lands upon the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. Two days later the Slovak National Council manifested its desire to unite politically with the Czechs. On 14 Nov. 1918 the first Czechoslovak National Assembly declared the Czechoslovak State to be a republic with T. G. Masaryk as President (1918-35). The Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye (1919) recognized the Czechoslovak Republic, consisting of the Czech lands (Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia) and Slovakia. To these lands were added as a trust the autonomous province of Subcarpathian Ruthenia. This territory was broken up for the benefit of Germany, Poland and Hungary by the Munich agreement (29 Sept. 1938) between UK, France, Germany and Italy. In March 1939 the German-sponsored Slovak government proclaimed Slovakia independent, and Germany incorporated the Czech lands into the Reich as the 'Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia'. A govemment-in-exile, headed by Dr BeneS, was set up in London in July 1940. Liberation by the Soviet Army and US Forces was completed by May 1945. Territories taken by Germans, Poles and Hungarians were restored to Czechoslovak sovereignty. Subcarpathian Ruthenia was transferred to the USSR. Elections were held in May 1946, at which the Communist Party obtained about 3 8% of the votes. A coalition government under a Communist Prime Minister, Klement Gottwald, remained in power until 20 Feb. 1948, when 12 of the non-Communist ministers resigned in protest against infiltration of Communists into the police. In Feb. a predominantly Communist government was formed by Gottwald. In May elections resulted in an 89% majority for the government and President BeneS resigned. In the first months of 1968 mounting pressure for liberalization culminated in the overthrow of the Stalinist President and Party Secretary, Antonin Novotny, and his associates. Under a new leadership the Communist Party introduced in April 1968 an 'Action Programme' of far-reaching political and economic reforms. Soviet pressure to abandon this programme was exerted between May and Aug. 1968, and finally, Warsaw Pact forces occupied Czechoslovakia on 21 Aug. The enforced Moscow agreement of 26 Aug. bound the Czechoslovak government to a policy of 'normalization' (i.e., abandonment of most reforms) and to the stationing of Soviet forces on Czechoslovak soil. This situation was confirmed by the Czechoslovak-Soviet 'Status of Forces Agreement' of 16 Oct. In 1969-1970 Soviet pressure led to extensive changes in the Party and Government. In Oct. 1969 Czechoslovakia repudiated its condemnation of the Warsaw Pact invasion. A Czechoslovak-Soviet 20-year Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance was signed in May 1970. Since 1977 a dissident civil rights movement 'Charter 77' has been active despite official efforts to suppress it. On 11 Dec. 1973 the German Federal Republic and Czechoslovakia signed a treaty normalizing relations and annulling the Munich agreement of 1938. This was ratified by both countries' parliaments in July 1974. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Czechoslovakia is bounded north-west by the German Democratic Republic, north by Poland, east by the USSR, south by 405

406

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Hungary and Austria and south-west by the Federal Republic of Germany. At the census of 11 Nov. 1980 the population was 15,283,095 (4,991,168 in Slovakia; 7-9m. females). Population in 1986, 15,520,839 (Slovakia, 5,177,441; females 7,960,979). There are 12 administrative regions (Kraj), one of which is the capital, Prague (Praha) and one the capital of Slovakia, Bratislava. Region Czech Prague Stfedoiesky JihoCesky Zapadoiesky Scveroiesky VychodoCesky Jihomoravsky Severomoravsky Slovak Bratislava Zapadoslovensky Stfedoslovensky Vychodoslovensky

Area in sq. km

Chief city

Population 1986

Prague (Praha) Ceske Budijovice Plzefi (Pilsen) Üsti nad Labem Hradec Krälovc Brno Ostrava

495 11,003 11,345 10,876 7,810 11,240 15,028 11,067

1,190,576 1,139,116 694,928 874,152 1,181,818 1,245,474 2,075,180 1,956,753

Bratislava Banska Bystrica KoSice

367 14,491 17,986 16,195

413,002 1,713,750 1,575,887 1,457,452

The area of Czechoslovakia is 127,903 sq. km (Slovakia, 49,039 sq. km). Population density in 1986: 121 persq. km. Growth rate in 1985,2-7 per 1,000. Expectation of life in 1985 was 67 (males); 74 (females). Ethnic minorities have equal political and cultural rights. In 1985 there were (in 1,000): Czechs, 9,805; Slovaks, 4,809; Hungarians, 588; Poles, 71; Germans, 58; Ukrainians, 47; Russians, 8. There were 303,000 gipsies in 1983. Official languages are Czech and Slovak. The population of the principal towns in 1986 was as follows (in 1,000): Prague(Praha) Bratislava Brno Ostrava KoSice Plzefl Olomouc Liberec

1,194 417 385 328 222 175 106 101

Hradec Krâlové Pardubice Ceské Budèjovice Havifov Zilina Üsti nad Labem Gottwaldov Nitra

100 94 94 92 92 91 86 85

PreSov Banskâ Bystrica Karvinä Kladno Trnava Most Frydek-Mistek Martin

83 78 75 73 70 65 63 62

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985

Live births 228,701 226,595 225,193

Marriages 120,458 121,376 119,176

Divorces 36,254 37,422 38,289

Deaths 185,688 182,351 182,581

Infant mortality in 1985 (per 1,000 live births), 14-5. Abortion rate per 1,000 live births, in 1985: Czech Lands, 728; Slovakia, 504. Abortion law was liberalized in 1986. C L I M A T E . A humid continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Precipitation is generally greater in summer, with thunderstorms. Autumn, with dry, clear weather and spring, which is damp, are each of short duration. Prague. Jan. 29-5°F (-1-5°C), July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual rainfall 19-3" (483mm). Brno. Jan. 3PF(-0-6°C), July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall 2 1 " (525mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1960 constitution remains in force as amended by Constitutional Acts 143 and 144 of 1968. For details of previous constitutions, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1968-69, pp. 927-28. Since 1 Jan. 1969 Czechoslovakia has been a federal socialist republic consisting of two nations of equal rights: the Czech Socialist Republic (the Czech lands, previously Bohemia, Moravia and part of Silesia), and the Slovak Socialist Republic (Slovakia). Each Republic is governed by a National Council (the Czech with 200 deputies, the Slovak with 150), which delegates to an overall Federal Assembly responsibility for constitutional and foreign affairs, defence and important econo-

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

407

mic decisions. The Federal Assembly consists of the Chamber of Nations, which has 75 Czech and 75 Slovak delegates, and the Chamber of the People, which has 200 deputies. Both Chambers are elected by direct universal suffrage. Since 1971 deputies are elected for a 5-year term so as to coincide with Communist Party congresses. Minimum age of voters is 18, of deputies, 21 years. At the elections of May 1986 a single list of National Front candidates was presented. Turnout was 10,884,947 from an electorate of 10,950,675 (99 -39%). President of the Republic: Gustáv Husák (born 1913), President of the Federal Assembly: Alois Indra. The de facto primary source of power is the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, of which the Communist Party of Slovakia (First Secretary: Jozef Lenárt) is a constituent part. Communists head the National Front, which incorporates the remaining political parties (Czechoslovak Socialist Party, Czechoslovak People's Party, Slovak Reconstruction Party, Slovak Freedom Party) and the trade unions and youth organizations. The Communist Party had 1,675,000 members in 1986. In March 1988 the Presidium consisted of MiloS JakeS (General Secretary•); Ladislav Adamec (Deputy Prime Ministerj\ Vasil Bil'ak; Peter Colotka (Deputy Prime Ministerj; Gustáv Husák; Karel Hoffmann; Alois Indra; Antonin Kapek; Josef Kempny; Jozef Lenárt; Lubomír Strougal (Prime Minister). Candidate members: Jan Fojtik, Josef Hamán, Vladimir Herman, Miloslav HruSkoviC, Ignác Janák, FrantiSek Pitra. In March 1988 members of the government not in the Party Presidium included: Rudolf Rohlíéek (First Deputy Prime Ministerj; 7 Deputy Prime Ministers Ladislav Gerle; Pavol Hrivák; Karol Laco; Matej Lúóan; Jaromír Obzina (Chairman, State Commission for Scientific and Technological Development)', Svatopluk Potáí (Chairman, State Planning Commission); Miroslav Toman (Agriculture); (other ministers) Jan Sterba (Foreign Trade); Milán Václavík (Defence); FrantiSek Ondrich (Chairman, People's Control Commission); Bohuslav Chftoupek (Foreign); Jaromír ¿ák (Finance); Vratislav Vajnar (Interior). The Czech Prime Minister is Ladislav Adamec; the Slovak, Peter Colotka. Local government is carried on by National Committees consisting of deputies elected for 5-year terms. There are 10 regional Committees, 2 City Committees with the same status for Prague and Bratislava, 108 district Committees and 7,979 town and community Committees. Elections were held in 1986. 197,404 candidates were elected. National flag: White and red (horizontal), with a blue triangle of full depth at the hoist, point to the fly. National anthem: Kde domov muj (words by J. K. Tyl; tune by F. J. Skroup, 1834); combined with, Nad Tatru sa blyska (words by J. MatuSka, 1844). D E F E N C E . Defence is the responsibility of the Defence Council set up in Feb. 1969 and headed by the First Secretary of the Party. The Warsaw Pact invasion of Aug. 1968 brought an estimated 500,000 occupation troops into the country. By early 1970 this number had been reduced to 80,000 Soviet troops, the presence of which is legalized by the Czech-Soviet 'Status of Forces' Agreement of Oct. 1968. In Feb. 1969 the government announced an increase in defence capacity, and Czechoslovakia resumed participation in Warsaw Pact meetings. Military service is for 2 years in the Army and in the Air Force. Army. The Army had a strength (1988) of 145,000 (100,000 conscripts). It consists of 5 armoured, 5 motor rifle and 1 artillery divisions, 1 airborne brigade, 6 engineer battalions and 5 regiments of Civil Defence Troops. Equipment includes 3,500 T-54/-55/-72 tanks. There are also 2 paramilitary forces: Border Troops (11,000) and People's Militia (120,000). Air Force. The Air Force is organized as a tactical force, under overall army command, and had a strength of some 56,000 personnel and 468 combat aircraft in 1988. Three interceptor regiments (each 3 squadrons of 14 aircraft) are equipped

408

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

with MiG-23 and MiG-21 jets, and there are 4 regiments of Su-7, Su-20, Su-25, MiG-23 and MiG-21 ground attack aircraft, as well as Mi-24 gunship helicopters. MiG-21 s and modified L-39 Albatros jet trainers are used for tactical reconnaissance. Transport units have a total of 60 Let L-410, An-24/26,11-14 and Tu-134 aircraft and about 100 Mil Mi-2 (some armed), Mi-4, Mi-8 and Mi-17 helicopters. Training units are equipped with 2-seat MiG-23s and MiG-2 Is and Czech-built aircraft, including L-29 and L-39 Albatros jet advanced trainers and Zlin primary trainers. Surface-to-air ('Guideline', 'Goa', 'Ganef, 'Gainful' and 'Gaskin') missile units are operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Czechoslovakia is a member of UN, COMECON and the Warsaw Pact. ECONOMY Planning. For the first six 5 -year plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 198 5-86. In 1980 some rationalizations in the planning system, which have become known as the 'Set of measures', were applied. The 7th 5-year plan ran from 1981 to 1985. National income rose by 11%, industrial production by 13%, agricultural by 9% (Targets were 14%, 18% and 10%). The eighth 5-year plan covers 1986-90. Targets include a growth in national income of 18% and in agricultural production of 6%. Emphasis is laid on intensive rather than extensive development and a more efficient use of resources. Cautious proposals for restructuring the economy after 1990 were outlined in the 'Principles of Reconstruction' announced in Jan. 1987. Budget. Budgets for calendar years (in KCs. lm.): Revenue Expenditure

1979 294,638 292,403

1980 306,262 304,182

1981 311,568 310,928

1982 314,203 314,046

1983 324,127 323,890

1984 343,805 342,192

1985 359,692 358,028

Main items of the 1988 budget were (in KCs. 1,000m.): Revenue: from the economy, 258; direct taxes, 47. Expenditure: national economy, 90; health and social services, 96; defence, 27; administration, 4. Currency. The monetary unit in the Czechoslovak Republic is the koruna (KCs.) or crown of 100 haler. Notes in circulation: KCs. 10, 20, 50, 100, 500. Coin: 5, 10, 20, 50 halers, and KCs. 1, 2, 5. The koruna is based on a gold content of 0-123426 gramme of pure gold and pegged on the rouble at KCs. 1 -80 = R. 1. The IMF did not approve this change of the par value, and Czechoslovak membership was terminated in 1954. Foreign currency reserves were US$4,832m. in 1987; gold reserves were US$1,832m. Official rates of exchange (Feb. 1988): £1 = KCs. 16-10; US$1 =KCs. 5-15. Commercial: £1 = KCs. 9-25. Tourist: £1 = KCs. 15-49. The return of 18-4 tonnes of gold seized by Nazi Germany and held in London and New York since the nationalization of Western assets in 1948 was agreed in Jan. 1982 by the Czech, British and US governments in exchange for compensation of the asset-holders. Banking. For previous banking history see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1971-72, pp. 858-59. The central bank and bank of issue is the State Bank (Statni Banka), which controls foreign exchange reserves, and is a savings bank and a commercial credit bank to enterprises, except foreign trade enterprises. These are financed by the Commercial Bank (Obchodni Banka) which carries out all foreign trade transactions. The Trade Bank (Zivnostenska Banka) provides banking services for private foreign clients, and maintains branches abroad. There is also an Investment Bank (InvestiCni Banka), one of whose functions is to manage foreign securities. 'Foreign exchange points' (e.g., hotels) have partial foreign exchange authorization. There were 18-8m. savings accounts totalling 5,069m. KCs in 1985. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production of electricity in 1985: 80,627m. kwh. In 1986 there were 2

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nuclear power stations, producing 14-5% of all electricity. Supply 120, 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. There is an oil pipeline from the USSR with branches to Bratislava and Zaluzi. Gas. A natural gas pipeline which supplies the German Federal and Democratic Republics, Austria and Italy as well as Czechoslovakia. A second is under construction. Minerals. Czechoslovakia is not rich in minerals. There are hard and soft coal reserves (chief coalfields: Most, Chomutov, Kladno, Ostrava and Sokolov). There is also uranium, glass sand and salt, and small quantities of iron ore, graphite, copper and lead. Gold deposits were found near Prague in 1985. Production in 1985 (in tonnes): Coal, 25,738,000; lignite and brown coal, 104,315,000. Agriculture. In 1985 there were 6 • 8m. hectares of agricultural land (4 • 8m. hectares arable, 0-8m. meadow, 0-8m. pasture), of which 4-3m. were held by collective farms, 2 • 1 m. by state farms and 87,000 as private plots (maximum size 1 hectare). In 1985 there were 1,677 collective farms with 997,798 members and 226 state farms with 166,432 employees. Crop production in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Sugarbeet, 7,135; wheat, 5,305; potatoes, 3,512; barley, 3,530; maize, 992; rye, 547. Livestock. In 1986: Cattle, 5,073,000 (including 1,815,000 milch cows); horses, 46,000; pigs, 6,833,000; sheep, 1,104,000; poultry, 49m. In 1985 production of meat was 1,748,680 tonnes (live weight); milk, 6,676m. litres; 5,499m. eggs. In 1985 there were 137,054 tractors. 45,509 hectares were irrigated in 1985. Forestry. Czechoslovakia is a richly wooded country, and the timber industry is important. Forest area in 1986 was 4,585,814 hectares (50% spruce, 16% beech and pine, 7% oak). The area reafforested in 1985 was 75,751 hectares. The timber yieldwas 19-65m. cu. metres in 1984. Fisheries. Total catch was 20m. tonnes in 1985. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrialization is well developed and antedates the Communist régime. All industry is nationalized. Output in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron, 9,562; crude steel, 15,036; coke, 10,237; rolled-steel products, 11,040; cement, 10,265; paper, 964; sulphuric acid, 1,298; nitrogenous fertilizers, 582; phosphate fertilizers, 353; plastics, 1,100; synthetic fibres, 193; sugar, 969; beer, 23m. hectolitres; cars, 183,701 (no.). Textile production (in lm. metres) in 1985: Cotton, 606; linen, 95; woollen, 63; shoes, 131 -4m. pairs (57-9m. leather). Labour. There were 8,733,829 persons of employable age in 1985 (i.e., males, 15-59; females 15-54), of whom 7 • 65m. (3 • 5m. women) were employed: 5 • 8m. in production (industry, 2-9m.; agriculture, 0-9m.; building, 0-6m.; commerce, 0-7m.); and 1 -9m. in services. A 5-day 42-hour week with 4 weeks annual holiday is standard. A new wage system of norms and differentials linked to productivity was introduced in 1985. Average monthly Wage in 1984: KCs. 2,837. In 1988 the trade union movement had 7 -7m. members; chairman, Miroslav Zavadil. Commerce. Total trade (in KCs. 1 m.) for calendar years: Imports Exports

1980 81,540 80,163

1981 86,276 87,689

1982 94,177 95,314

1983 103,012 103,838

1984 113,737 114,230

1 985 120,323 119,818

In 1985, trade with Communist countries amounted to 189,311m. KCs. (107,650m. KCs. with the USSR, 22,461m. KCs. with the German Democratic Republic, 18,778m. KCs. with Poland). The U K is Czechoslovakia's third biggest non-Communist trade partner after the Federal German Republic and Austria. Major exports in 1985 (percentage of total): Machinery, 53; industrial consumer goods, 16-7; other finished products, 11-3. Imports: Machinery, 3 1 1 ; fuel, 31.

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CZECHOSLOVAKIA

There are 11 foreign trade agencies (independent legal entities with their own capital run by state-appointed managers). Joint economic ventures with Western firms holding up to 49% of the equity have been permitted since 1985. Foreign hard-currency indebtedness was US$4,089m. in 1986. In 1972 an Anglo-Czech Agreement on Co-operation was signed. Under this an Anglo-Czech Joint Commission was established to further the development of trade and industrial and scientific co-operation. UK-Czechoslovak trade has been conducted since 1 Jan. 1975 on the basis of autonomous EEC measures. Total trade between Czechoslovakia and UK for calendar years (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 1985 1986 1987 1983 101,302 117,188 120,017 125,399 141,472 69,456 78,075 100,452 108,841 114,101

Tourism. In 1985,10,499,385 tourists visited Czechoslovakia (1,302,951 from the West) and 7,492,049 Czechoslovak tourists made visits abroad (194,141 to the West). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 73,809 km of motorways and first-class roads and in 1984 2,639,564 passenger cars. In 1985 state road transport carried 2,274m. passengers and 339m. tonnes of freight. Railways. In 1986 the length of railway track was 13,116 km. Of this, 3,530 km were electrified. In 1986, 19,935m. passenger-km and 69,315m. tonne-km of freight were carried. Aviation. Air transport is run by CSA (Czechoslovak Airlines). The main airports are: Prague (RuzynS), Brno (Cernovice), Bratislava (Vajnory), Olomouc (Holice), KoSice (Barca). In 1985, 1 -2m. passengers and 25,190 tonnes of freight were flown. There are 6 internal and 53 international flights from Prague. British Airways operates air traffic London-Prague, Air France Paris-Prague-Bucharest. Shipping. In 1986 Czechoslovak Maritime Shipping had 14 freighters totalling 264,230 DWT, based on Szczecin. In 1985,1,879m. tonnes of cargo were carried. There are 475 km of inland waterways. Freight transport totalled 13 -33m. tonnes in 1985. Czechoslovak Danube Shipping operate 5 ships totalling 244,000 DWT in the Mediterranean from Bratislava, and Czechoslovak Elbe-Oder Shipping had a fleet of284,500 DWT in 1985. Post and Broadcasting. There were 5,101 post offices in 1985. Number of telephones in service in 1985 was 3,591,045. Ceskoslovensky Rozhlas, the governmental broadcasting station, broadcasts on 2 networks; 1 from Prague with 3 programmes in Czech and Slovak and 1 from Bratislava with 2 programmes in Slovak and additional broadcasts in Hungarian and Ukrainian. Ceskoslovenska Televise broadcast 2 television programmes nation-wide, including colour broadcasts. In 1984,4-2m. people held wireless and 4-35m. TV licences. Cinemas and Theatres (1985). There were 2,818 cinemas and 79 theatres. 44 fulllength films were made. Newspapers and Books (1985). There were 30 daily newspapers, including 12 in Slovak, and 1,047 other periodicals. The party daily Rude Pravo ('Red Justice') has a circulation of about 1 m. 6,956 book titles were published in 102m. copies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The criminal and criminal procedure codes date from 1 Jan. 1962, as amended in April 1973. There is a Federal Supreme Court and federal military courts, with judges elected by the Federal Assembly. Both republics have Supreme Courts and a network of regional and district courts whose professional judges are elected by the republican

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411

National Councils. Lay judges are elected by regional or district local authorities. Local authorities and social organizations may participate in the decision-making of the courts. Religion. Official surveys suggest that 20% of the population are religious believers. Churches are controlled by the Federal Secretariat for Church Affairs and the Ministries of Culture. In 1987 there were 18 different faiths with 5,500 clergy and 7,500 churches. The largest single church is the Roman Catholic (3 • 7m. members, 4,336 parishes 5,085 churches and 3,175 priests, 1985): its main support is in Slovakia. Cardinal FrantiSek TomàSek was installed as archbishop of Prague in 1978. The archbishopric of Trnava is held by a bishop and that of Olomouc by an administrator. In 1988, 8 of the remaining 10 dioceses were directed by Government-appointed capitulary vicars. There were 2 seminaries authorized to train priests in 1986. In 1986 there were l -3m. non-Catholic church members, including 475,000 Hussites, 81,000 Czech Brethren with 670 congregations, 370,000 Slovak Lutherans in 2 districts with 15 associations of parishes, 36,000 Silesian Lutherans and 120,000 Reformed Christians with 7 associations of parishes. In 1981 there were 15,000 Jews (mainly in Prague, where there is a synagogue and, since 1984, a rabbi). In 1986 there were 150,000 Orthodox with 100 congregations in 4 dioceses. The Uniate Church was suppressed in 19 50 but maintains a clandestine existence. Education. In 1985-86 there were 11,477 kindergartens for children from 3 to 6 years of age, with 51,104 teachers and 681,515 pupils. Education is free and compulsory for 10 years. Children of 6 to 14 yrs attend primary school (grades 1 to 9). Selection then takes place for secondary schools (4 years), vocational secondary schools (4 years) or apprentice centres (2-4 years). University entrance is from secondary schools. The respective proportions of entrants are approximately 20%:20%:60%. In 1985-86 there were 6,332 primary schools with 2,074,403 pupils and 96,414 teachers, 343 secondary schools with 9,465 teachers and 134,392 pupils and 562 secondary vocational schools with 261,422 students and 16,740 teachers. In higher education in 1985-86, there were 136,944 (60,224 women) full-time students, and 19,131 teachers. There are 36 institutions of higher education, with 110 faculties. These include 5 universities—the Charles University in Prague (founded 1348); the Purkyné (formerly Masaryk) University in Brno (1919); the Comenius University in Bratislava (1919); the Palacky University in Olomouc (1573); the Safarik University in KoSice (1959); and 12 technical universities or institutes. Welfare. Medical care is free. In 1985 Kis. 30,993m. were spent on health insurance benefits. There were, in 1985,229 hospitals with a total of 123,194 beds, and 55,871 doctors and dentists. Family allowances (KCs. per month): 1 child, 200; 2 children, 650; 3, 1,210. Old age pensions averaging 67% of salary are paid at the age of 60 (men), 53-57 (women). DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Czechoslovakia in Great Britain (25 Kensington Palace Gdns., London, W8 4QY) Ambassador: Jan Fidler (accredited 30 May 1986). Of Great Britain in Czechoslovakia (Thunovskà 14,11800 Prague 1 ) Ambassador:Stephen Barrett, CMG. Of Czechoslovakia in the USA (3900 Linnean Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Miroslav HouStecky. Of the USA in Czechoslovakia (TrZiste 15-12548 Praha, Prague) Ambassador: Julian M. Niemczyk. Of Czechoslovakia to the United Nations Ambassador: EvZen Zapotocky.

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Books of Reference The Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Prague, 1960 Statistická roCenka CSSR [Statistical Yearbook]. Prague, annual since 1958 Historická statistická roâenka CSSR. Prague, 1985 Czechoslovak Foreign Trade. Prague, monthly August, F., and Rees, D., Red Star over Prague. London, 1984 Bradley, J. F. N. Politics in Czechoslovakia, 1945-1971. Lanham, 1981 Czechoslovak Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Facts on Czechoslovak Foreign Trade. Prague, annual since 1965.— Your Trade Partners in Czechoslovakia. Prague, 1986 Demek, J., and others, Geography of Czechoslovakia. Prague, 1971 Eidlin, F. H. The Logic of 'Normalization': The Soviet Intervention in Czechoslovakia of 21 August 1968 and the Czechoslovak Response. Columbia Univ. Press, 1980 Hermann, A. H., A History of the Czechs. London, 1975 Hejzlar, Z„ and Kusin, V. V., Czechoslovakia. 1968-1969. New York, 1975 Husák, G., Speeches and Writings. Oxford, 1986 Jiíinsky, J., and Skála, J. The Czechoslovak Federation, Prague, 1969 Kalvoda, J., The Genesis of Czechoslovakia. New York, 1986 Kolafová, V., and Slaba, D. Czech-English and English-Czech dictionary. Prague, 1979 Korbel, J., Twentieth-Century Czechoslovakia: The Meanings of its History. Columbia Univ. Press, 1977 Krystufek, Z., The Soviet Régime in Czechoslovakia. Columbia Univ. Press, 1981 Kusin, V. V., From DubCek to Charter 77. Edinburgh, 1978 Littell, R. (ed.), The Czech Black Book; prepared by the Institute of History of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. London, 1969 Mamatey, V. S., and Luía, R. (eds.), A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948. Princeton Univ. Press, 1973 Mlynaf, Z., Night Frost in Prague: the End of Humane Socialism. New York, 1980 Procházka, J., English-Czech and Czech-English Dictionary. 16th ed. London, 1959 Sejna, J. We Will Bury You. London, 1982 Short, D., Czechoslovakia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Sperling. W., Tschechoslowakei: Beiträge zur Landeskunde Ostmitteleurapas. Stuttgart, 1981 Stevens, J. N., Czechoslovakia at the Crossroads: The Economic Dilemmas of Communism in Postwar Czechoslovakia. Boulder, 1985 Suda, Z. L., Zealots and Rebels: A History of the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia. Stanford, 1980 Teply, J E c o n o m i e Nationale de la Tchécoslovaquie Contemporaine. Paris, 1977 Wallace, W. V., Czechoslovakia. London, 1977

Capital: Copenhagen Population: 5 • 12m. ( 1987) GNPper capita: US$7,533 (1985)

DENMARK Kongeriget Danmark

H I S T O R Y . First organized as a unified state in the 10th century, Denmark acquired approximately its present boundaries in 1815, having ceded Norway to Sweden and its north German territory to Prussia. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . According to the census held on 9 Nov. 1970 the area of Denmark proper was 43,075 sq. km (16,631 sq. miles) and the population 4,937,579. Population, Jan. 1987: 5,124,794. Administrative divisions Kebenhavn (Copenhagen) (city) Frederiksberg (borough) K.0benhavns (county) Frederiksborg Roskilde Vestsjœllands Storstrams Bornholms Fyns Sanderjyllands Ribe Vejle Ringkobing Aarhus Viborg Nordjyllands Total

Area (sq. km) 1987 88 9 526 1,347 891 2,984 3,398 588 3,486 3,938 3,131 2,997 4,853 4,561 4,122 6,173

Population 1970 622,m 101,874 615,343 259,442 153,199 259,057 252,363 47,239 432,699 238,062 197,843 306,263 241,327 533,190 220,734 456,171

Population 1987 469,706 86,558 606,870 339,627 213,476 282,397 257,880 46,839 456,483 249,805 216,967 328,849 266,088 589,108 230,760 483,381

43,092

4,937,579

5,124,794

Population 1987per sq. km 5,328 9,870 1,154 252 240 95 76 80 131 63 69 110 55 129 56 78 119

The population is almost entirely Scandinavian; in Jan. 1987, of the inhabitants of Denmark proper, 95 -4% were born in Denmark, including Faroe Islands and Greenland. On 1 Jan. 1987 the population of the capital, Copenhagen (comprising Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Gentofle municipalities), was 622,275 (including suburbs, 1,346,666); Aarhus, 255,932; Odense, 173,331; Aalborg, 154,853; Esbjerg, 80,825; Randers, 61,094; Kolding, 57,148; Helsingor, 56,618; Heming, 56,195; Horsens, 54,676. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Living births 52,658 50,822 51,800 53,749 55,312

Still births 269 265 230 240 242

Marriages 24,330 27,096 28,624 29,322 30,773

Divorces 14,621 14,763 14,490 14,385 14,490

Deaths 55,368 57,156 57,109 58,378 58,100

Emigration 28,328 25,999 25,053 26,715 27,928

immigration 28,223 27,718 29,035 36,214 38,932

Illegitimate births: 1983,40 -6%; 1984,41-9%; 1985,43%; 1986,43 -9%. C L I M A T E . The climate is much modified by marine influences, and the effect of the Gulf Stream, to give winters that are cold and cloudy but warm and sunny summers. In general, the east is drier than the west, though few places have more than 2 7 " (675 mm) of rain a year. Long periods of calm weather are exceptional and windy conditions are common. Copenhagen. Jan. 33°F (0-5°C), July 63°F 413

414

DENMARK

(17°C). Annual rainfall 22-8" (571 mm). Esbjerg. Jan. 33°F (0-5°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). R E I G N I N G Q U E E N . Margrethe II, born 16 April 1940; married 10 June 1967 to Prince Henrik, bom Count de Monpezat; offspring: Crown Prince Frederik, born 26 May 1968; Prince Joachim, born 7 June 1969. She succeeded to the throne on the death of her father, King Frederik IX, on 14Jan. 1972. Mother ofthe Queen: Queen Ingrid, born Princess of Sweden, 28 March 1910. Sisters of the Queen: Princess Benedikte, born 29 April 1944 (married 3 Feb. 1968 to Prince Richard of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Berleburg); Princess Anne-Marie, born 30 Aug. 1946 (married 18 Sept. 1964 to King Constantine of Greece). The crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In 1448 after the death of the last male descendant of Swein Estridsen the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I, Count of Oldenburg, in whose family the royal dignity remained for more than 4 centuries, although the crown was not rendered hereditary by right till 1660. The direct male line of the house of Oldenburg became extinct with King Frederik VII on 15 Nov. 1863. In view of the death of the king, without direct heirs, the Great Powers signed a treaty at London on 8 May 1852, by the terms of which the succession to the crown of Denmark was made over to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, and to the direct male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII of Denmark. In accordance with this treaty, a law concerning the succession to the Danish crown was adopted by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction 31 July 1853. Linked to the constitution of 5 June 1953, a new law of succession, dated 27 March 1953, has come into force, which restricts the right of succession to the descendants of King Christian X and Queen Alexandrine, and admits the sovereign's daughters to the line of succession, ranking after the sovereign's sons. Subjoined is a list of the kings of Denmark, with the dates of their accession, from the time of election of Christian I of Oldenburg: House of Oldenburg Christian I Hans Christian II Frederik I Christian III Frederik II

1448 1481 1513 1523 1534 1559

Christian IV Frederik III Christian V Frederik IV Christian VI

1588 1648 1670 1699 1730

Frederik V Christian VII Frederik VI Christian VIII Frederik VII

1746 1766 1808 1839 1848

Margrethell

1972

HouseofSchleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg ChristianIX Frederik VIII

1863 1906

ChristianX Frederik IX

1912 1947

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution of Denmark is founded upon the 'Grundlov' (charter) of 5 June 1953. The legislative power lies with the Queen and the Folketing (Diet) jointly. The executive power is vested in the Queen, who exercises her authority through the ministers. The judicial power is with the courts. The Queen must be a member of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church, the official Church of the State. The Queen cannot assume major international obligations without the consent of the Folketing. The Folketing consists of one chamber. All men and women of Danish nationality of more than 18 years of age and permanently resident in Denmark possess the franchise and are eligible for election to the Folketing, which is at present composed of 179 members; 135 members are elected by the method of proportional representation in 17 constituencies. In order to attain an equal representation of the different parties, 40 tillagsmandater (additional seats) are divided among such parties which have not obtained sufficient returns at the constituency elections. Two members are elected for the Faroe Islands and 2 for Greenland. The term of the legislature is 4 years, but a general election may be called at any time. The Folketing must meet every year on the first Tuesday in October. Besides its legislative functions, it appoints every 6 years judges who, together with the ordi-

DENMARK

415

nary members of the Supreme Court (Hojesteret), form the Rigsret, a tribunal which can alone try parliamentary impeachments. The ministers have free access to the House, but can vote only if they are members. Folketing, elected 8 Sept. 1987: 54 Social Democrats, 11 Radical Liberals, 38 Conservatives, 27 Socialist People's Party, 9 Centre Democrats, 5 Common Cause, 4 Christian People's Party, 19 Liberals, 5 Left Socialists, 9 Progress Party, 2 Faroe Islands and 2 Greenland representatives. The executive (called the State Council (Statsraadet) when acting with the Queen presiding) is a minority non-Socialist coalition government, consisting of the Conservatives, the Liberals, the Centre Democrats and the Christian People's Party; it was in Jan. 1987 as follows: Prime Minister: Poul Schlüter. Foreign Affairs: UfFe Ellemann-Jensen. Finance: Palle Simonsen. Economy: Knud Enggaard. Justice: Erik Ninn-Hansen. Interior: Thor Pedersen. Environment: Christian Christensen. Education: Bertel Haarder. Social Affairs: Mimi Stilling Jakobsen. Agriculture: Laurits Tornae. Inland Revenue: Anders Fogh Rasmussen. Defence: Bemt Johan Collet. Ecclesiastical Affairs: Mette Madsen. Energy: Svend Erik Hovmand. Fisheries and Nordic Affairs: Lars P. Gammelgaard. Labour: Henning Dyremose. Housing: Flemming Kofod-Svendsen. Culture and Communication: H. P. Clausen. Industry: Niels Wilhjelm. Public Works: Frode Ner Christensen. Health: Agnette Laustsen. The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for their acts, and if impeached and found guilty, cannot be pardoned without the consent of the Folketing. In 1948 a separate legislature (Lagting) and executive (Landsstyre) were established for the Faroe Islands, to deal with specified local matters and in 1979 a separate legislature (Landsting) and executive (Landsstyre) were established for Greenland, also to deal with specified local matters. Nationalflag: Red with white Scandinavian cross (Dannebrog). National anthems: Kong Kristian stod ved hojen Mast (words by J. Ewald, 1778; tune by J. E. Hartmann, 1780) and Der er et yndigt land. Local Government. For administrative purposes Denmark is divided into 275 municipalities (kommuner); each of them has a district council of between 5 and 25 members, headed by an elected mayor. The city of Copenhagen forms a district by itself and is governed by a city council of 55 members, elected every 4 years, and an executive (magistraten), consisting of the chief burgomaster (overborgmesteren) and 6 burgomasters, appointed by the city council for 4 years. There are 14 counties (amtskommuner), each of which is administered by a county council (amsträd) of between 13 and 31 members, headed by an elected mayor. All councils are elected directly by universal suffrage and proportional representation for 4-year terms. A third council, the Metropolitan Council, with a constitution similar to the counties was established 1 April 1974. The Metropolitan Council is responsible for overall development within Metropolitan Copenhagen. The counties and Copenhagen are superintended by the Ministry of Interior Affairs. The municipalities are superintended by 14 local supervision committees, headed by a state county prefect (statsamtmand) who is a civil servant appointed by the Queen. D E F E N C E . The Danish military defence is organized in accordance with the Defence Act of May 1982 and the overall organization of the Danish Armed Forces comprises the Defence Command, the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and interservice authorities and institutions. To this should be added the Home Guard, which is an indispensable part of Danish military defence. The Home Guard is based on the Home Guard Act of May 1982. In accordance with the Defence Act the Chief of Defence has full command of the three services: the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. The Chief of Defence,

416

DENMARK

and the Defence Staffconstitute the Defence Command. The Inspector Generals of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force are members of the Defence Staff. The Minister of Defence is assisted by a Defence Council consisting of the Chief of Defence, the Chief of Defence Staff, the Chief of Danish Operational Forces, the Inspector Generals of the Army, the Navy and the Air Force and the Chief of the Home Guard. The Constitution of 1849 declared it the duty of every fit man to contribute to the national defence, and this provision is still in force. According to the Personnel Act of May 1982, the military personnel comprises officers, n.c.o.s and privates. Private personnel are provided by enlistment and by recruiting of volunteers. Selection of conscripts takes place at the age of 18-19 years, and the conscripts are normally called up for 9 months service V2-I Vi years later. Afterwards conscripts may be recalled for refresher training or musters. The initial training period for conscripts in combat and engineer units is 12 months. Army. The Army comprises field army formations and the local defence forces. The field army formations are organized in a covering force and in reserve units (comprising 6 regimental combat teams and some independent battalions). The covering force numbers about 13,600 men and comprises a standing force (regulars and conscripts with more than six months' service), and a supplementary force consisting of men newly released from service. The standing force are organized in standing brigade units, headquarters units and support units. The brigade units are organized in 5 mechanized infantry brigades. The field army is equipped with 200 medium battle tanks, 50 light tanks and about 650 armoured personnel carriers as well as artillery including 72 self-propelled howitzers. The Army has 14 Hughes 500 helicopters and 8 Supporter aircraft for observation and liaison. The local defence units consist of about 18,000 men organized in 9 infantry battalions and some artillery battalions. The men of the latest annual service groups form the troops of the line, while those of the previous years form the local defence, the reserve and the reserve for the Home Guard. The mobilization units of the field army and the local defence force will total about 58,000 men. Navy. The Navy comprises the fleet and coast-defence which includes several permanent fortifications. The fleet includes 5 submarines, 2 frigates, 3 small frigates, 5 ocean escorts (for fishery protection and surveying duties), 10 fast missile craft, 6 fast torpedo boats, 4 ocean minelayers, 2 coastal minelayers, 6 coastal minesweepers, 3 torpedo recovery vessels, 22 patrol vessels, 7 coastal patrol launches, 2 oilers, 20 auxiliary vessels and the royal yacht. The Naval Air Arm comprises 8 Lynx helicopters (one is carried in each of the ocean escorts). Total strength of the Navy is 7,900 officers and men (1,200 officers, 3,200 regular ratings, 990 national service, 2,500 civilians). Reserves total 10,000 (the mobilization force is 4,600 men). The Naval Home Guard has 35 vessels and 4,800 officers and men. Air Force. The operational units of the Air Force comprise 8 surface-to-air missile squadrons and 6 flying squadrons. The air defence force consists of the 8 Hawk surface-to-air missile squadrons and 4 all-weather air-defence squadrons with a total of 52 F-16s. All squadrons have an air-defence and a fighter-bomber role. The fighter bomber force comprises 2 squadrons with a total of 32 F 35 Drakens, one unit having a secondary reconnaissance role. In addition the Air Force has a number of supplementary units, including 1 transport squadron (C-130 Hercules and Gulfstream III), 1 helicopter rescue squadron (S-61 As), and a control and warning system. Total strength of the Air Force is about 9,200, and the mobilization force about 10,000 men. Home Guard. The overall Home Guard organization comprises the Home Guard Command, the Army Home Guard, the Naval Home Guard and the Air Force Home Guard. The personnel of the Home Guard is recruited on a voluntary basis. The person-

417

DENMARK

nel establishment of the Home Guard is at present about 74,500 persons (58,000 in the Army Home Guard, 4,800 in the Navy Home Guard and 11,700 in the Air Force Home Guard). INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Denmark is a member of UN, NATO, OECD and the European Communities. ECONOMY Budget. The budget (Finanslovforslag) must be laid before the Parliament (Folketing) not later than 4 months before the beginning of a new fiscal year. The following shows the actual revenue and expenditure as shown in central government accounts for the calendar years 1984, 1985 and 1986, the approved budget figures for 1987 and the budget for 1988 (in 1,000 kroner): 1984 Revenue 142,377,099 Expenditure 186,019,866

1985 160,156,688 186,495,042

1986 193,545,000 185,703,000

1987 199,051,000 199,915,000

1988 206,678,000 208,248,000

Receipts and expenditures of special government funds and expenditures on public works are included.

The 1988 budget envisages revenue of 106,540m. kroner from income and property taxes and 117,180m. from consumer taxes. The central government debt on 31 Dec. 1986 amounted to 421,049m. kroner. Currency. The monetary unit is the krone of 100 ore. In 1931 Denmark went off the gold standard, as established in 1873. Small change: 10-kronerand 5-kroner pieces of copper-nickel, 1-krone pieces of copper-nickel; 25-ere and lO-0re pieces of copper-nickel, and 5-0re pieces of copper-steel-copper clad. In March 1988, £1 = 11 -44 kroner, US$1 =6-45 kroner. Banking. On 31 Dec. 1986 the accounts of the National Bank balanced at 124,437m. kroner. The assets included official net foreign reserves of 35,864m. kroner. The liabilities included notes and coin of 21,339m. kroner. On 31 Dec. 1986 there were 78 commercial banks, with deposits of293,293m. kroner, and 144 savings banks, with deposits of 114,063m. kroner. Their advances amounted to 245,921m. kroner and 105,067m. kroner respectively. On 31 Dec. 1986 the money supply was 347,779m. kroner. On 31 Dec. 1984 there were 71 other banks for commercial, agricultural and industrial purposes; their deposits amounted to 219,503m. kroner; advances were 147,818m. kroner. Weights and Measures. The use of the metric system of weights and measures has been obligatory in Denmark since 1 April 1912. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 26,994m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; Hz 50. Oil. Production (1987) 4 • 5m. tonnes. Agriculture. Land ownership is widely distributed. In June 1986 (census) there were 89,659 holdings with at least 5 hectares of agricultural area (or at least a production equivalent to that from 5 hectares of barley). About 10,000 holdings were below the sample threshold. There were 17,364 small holdings (with less than 10 hectares), 57,767 medium sized holdings (10-50 hectares) and 14,528 holdings with more than 50 hectares. The number of agricultural workers declined from 120,442 in July 1961 to 25,743 in June 1985. In June 1986 the cultivated area was utilized as follows (in 1,000 hectares): Grain, 1,578; peas and beans, 145; root crops, 221; other crops, 306; green fodder and grass, 566; fallow, 3; total cultivated area, 2,819.

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Area (1,000 hectares) Chief crops 1984 1985 1986 Wheat 333 339 353 Rye 122 126 120 1,094 Barley 1,180 1,078 42 34 27 Oats' Potatoes 31 30 31 Other root crops 206 198 190

Production (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 1986 1,972 2,446 2,177 608 565 546 6,072 5,134 5,251 158 168 111 1,100 1,129 1,121 12,304 11,379 10,563

' Including mixed grain. Livestock, 1986: H o r s e s , 3 0 , 0 0 0 ; cattle, 2 , 4 9 5 , 0 0 0 ; pigs, 9 , 3 2 1 , 0 0 0 ; poultry, 14,008,000. P r o d u c t i o n (in 1 , 0 0 0 t o n n e s ) in 1986: M i l k , 5 , l l l ; b u t t e r , 112; c h e e s e , 2 5 4 ; b e e f , 2 6 4 ; pork a n d b a c o n , l , 1 9 5 ; e g g s , 8 1 . In June 1 9 8 6 farm tractors n u m b e r e d 1 6 8 , 5 7 4 a n d harvester-threshers, 3 4 , 0 5 4 . F i s h e r i e s . T h e total value o f the fish caught w a s (in l m . kroner): 1 9 5 0 , 156; 1 9 5 5 , 2 5 2 ; 1 9 6 0 , 3 7 6 ; 1 9 6 5 , 6 5 0 ; 1 9 7 0 , 8 5 4 ; 1 9 7 5 , 1,442; 1 9 8 0 , 2 , 8 8 8 ; 1 9 8 4 , 3 , 6 4 5 ; 1985,3,542; 1986,3,554. INDUSTRY

AND

TRADE

Industry. T h e f o l l o w i n g table sets forth the gross factor i n c o m e (in l m . kroner) b y industrial origin in 3 calendar years: 1984 Current Prices Agriculture, fur-farming, forestry, etc. Fishing

1985 1980 Prices

Current Prices

1 986 1980 Prices

Current Prices

1980 Prices

28,549 2,481

21,376 2,211

27,970 2,451

21,215 2,100

27,733 2,684

21,451 1,911

31,030

23,588

30,421

23,316

30,417

23,363

4,253 94,736 5,686 27,073

2,973 69,907 5,450 18,288

6,719 102,933 6,323 30,214

4,836 72,031 5,478 19,143

4,745 113,766 8,195 35,759

6,486 73,971 6,017 21,565

131,748

96,616

146,189

101,489

162,465

108,040

Wholesale and retail trade 64,971 Restaurants and hotels 6,032 Transport and storage 30,395 Communication 8,659 Financing and insurance 15,278 Dwellings 44,118 Business services 24,590 Market services of education, health 5,929 Recreational and cultural services 4,397 Household services, incl. auto repair 13,278

45,807 4,484 20,706 5,204 11,178 30,404 17,376

73,697 6,825 33,537 9,684 17,365 47,407 28,648

48,278 4,633 20,976 5,689 11,979 30,714 19,355

79,010 8,173 35,341 9,766 22,041 50,485 30,955

50,951 4,872 21,801 5,771 13,383 31,154 19,803

4,247

6,265

4,343

6,692

4,472

3,099

4,725

3,063

4,819

3,182

Total Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, gas and water Construction Total

Total

9,082

14,386

9,379

15,553

9,767

217,647

151,586

242,539

158,408

262,835

165,157

3,076

2,207

3,410

2,345

3,770

2,459

Other producers, excl. government Producers of government services

108,646

79,391

114,950

81,037

118,719

81,473

Total

111,722

81,598

118,360

83,382

122,488

83,932

DENMARK 1984

-16,894

-11,545

-21,416

-13,994

520,656

355,048

556,789

366,496

-15,220

-11,109

Gross domestic product at factor cost 476,926

342,280

Plus indirect taxes Less subsidies

102,353 1 18,539 J

Gross domestic product at market prices 560,740

62,507 404,787

1986

Current Prices

Current Prices

Imputed bank service charges

1985

1980 Prices

1980 Prices

Current Prices

419

113,123 1 18,554 J 615,225

66,772 421,820

130,163 1 19,766 J 667,186

1980 Prices

69,630 436,127

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e registration of business u n i t s for V A T s e t t l e m e n t t h e r e w e r e in 1983 a total o f 3 3 , 0 0 0 m a n u f a c t u r i n g enterprises. In t h e following table ' n u m b e r of w a g e - e a r n e r s ' refers t o 6 , 6 0 0 e s t a b l i s h m e n t s w i t h 6 e m p l o y e e s o r m o r e (1985), while ' g r o s s - o u t p u t ' a n d ' v a l u e - a d d e d ' c o v e r 3 , 2 4 0 kind-of-activity u n i t s of e n t e r prises with 2 0 e m p l o y e e s o r m o r e ( 1985). Number of Gross output in Value added in wage-earners factor values factor values (1,000)' (lm. kroner) (lm. kroner) Branch of industry 0-8 657 487 Mining and quarrying 45-2 85,431 25,448 Food products 7-2 6,934 4,041 Beverages 17 2,031 1,009 Tobacco 11 -6 Textiles 7,930 3,429 9 1 3,830 1,853 Wearing apparel Leather and products 0-7 451 186 Footwear 1-7 1,015 399 Wood products 7-5 4,803 2,057 Furniture and fixtures 11-9 6,385 3,228 Paper and products 6,759 2,781 7 0 Printing, publishing 14 0 11,178 7,151 12 5 23,748 11,450 Industrial chemicals Other chemical products, petroleum refineries, petroleum coal products and rubber 2-6 12,311 1,765 Plastic products 6-3 4,645 2,408 Pottery, china, glass 1,030 3-8 1,531 and products 9-3 8,077 4,591 Non-metal products Iron, steel and 46 4,486 1,696 non-ferrous metals 26-3 17,980 8,460 Metal products 404 27,702 Machinery 14,698 16-7 12,681 6,589 Electrical machinery 21-2 13,932 6,061 Transport equipment Controlling equipment 5,047 3,105 61 Other industries 44 3,560 1,957 273,104 Total manufacturing 272-6 1 Preliminary, excluding dairies.

115,879

Labour. In 1986, 6 % of t h e w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n lived o n agriculture, forestry a n d fishery, 21 % o n industries a n d h a n d i c r a f t s , 7 % o n c o n s t r u c t i o n , 14% o n c o m m e r c e , etc., 7 % o n t r a n s p o r t a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d 4 5 % o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , professional services, etc. Commerce. T h e following t a b l e s h o w s t h e v a l u e , in 1,000 k r o n e r , of special t r a d e i m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s (including trade w i t h t h e F a r o e Islands a n d G r e e n l a n d ) f o r c a l e n d a r years: 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 ' Imports 138,864,990 148,896,460 171,825,816 191,562,564 184,639,543 Exports 128,172,776 146,800,268 179,338,909 179,577,142 171,613,867 ' Preliminary.

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Imports and exports (in 1 m. kroner) for calendar years: 1985 Leading commodities Imports Exports Live animals, meat, etc. 575 20,774 Dairy products, eggs 648 7,388 Fish and fish preparations 3,812 8,973 Cereals and cereal preparations 1,392 4,495 Sugar and sugar preparations 634 1,237 Coffee, tea, cocoa, etc. 2,669 564 Feeding stuff for animals 3,921 1,502 Wood, lumber and cork 2,676 568 Textiles, fibres, yarns, fabrics, etc. 7,112 4,124 Fuels, lubricants, etc. 33,152 9,719 Pharmaceutical products 2,343 5,260 Fertilizers, etc. 2,642 1,309 Metals, manufactures of metals 13,325 6,738 Machinery, electrical, equipment, etc. 35,493 35,101 Transport equipment 15,241 8,438 Preliminary. Distribution of Danish foreign trade (in 1,000 origin and destination, for calendar years: Imports Countries 1984 1985 1986' Belgium 5,051,661 6,363,654 6,738,785 Finland 6,013,288 6,337,703 5,631,728 France 7,655,780 8,527,353 9,318,732 Germany (Fed. Rep.) 35,002,130 40,383,642 43,563,835 Norway 7,066,888 7,747,222 6,744,475 Sweden 23,944,744 24,991,263 22,777,949 Switzerland 3,176,132 3,589,022 3,956,351 UK 15,458,651 18,009,597 14,005,205 USA 8,930,259 11,339,399 9,744,057 Allied forces in Fed. Rep. Germany — — — ' Preliminary.

Imports 768 617 4,729 1,358 719 2,915 3,786 2,861 6,972 16,409 2,615 2,084 13,346 38,956 19,336

1986 ' Exports 19,524 6,878 102,187 4,279 1,283 609 1,383 495 4,025 5,282 5,429 966 7,086 35,298 6,010

kroner) according to countries of 1984 2,803,521 3,230,781 7,313,209

Exports 1985 3,253,814 3,711,536 7,924,526

1986' 3,307,503 3,837,687 8,911,679

26,644,433 10,515,953 18,874,379 3,067,615 21,228,401 15,914,502

28,460,093 12,071,284 21,692,076 3,412,264 21,908,237 18,148,661

28,870,780 13,068,324 19,474,585 3,565,046 20,076,696 14,542,162

210,042

223,572

192,930

Total trade between Denmark (without the Faroe Islands) and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 ImportstoUK 1,512,620 1,660,447 1,715,233 1,752,174 1,873,495 Exports and re-exports from UK 1,159,184 1,197,381 1,371,556 1,211,637 1,231,097 Tourism. In 1986, foreigners visiting Denmark spent some 14,232m. kroner. In 1986 foreigners spent 4- 34m. nights in hotels and 3 • 78m. nights at camping sites. Industrial Statistics. Danmarks Statistik. Copenhagen (annually) Quarterly Statistics for the Industry: Commodity Statistics. Danmarks Statistik, Copenhagen Statistics on Agriculture. Horticulture and Forestry. Danmarks Statistik. Copenhagen (annually) Agricultural Statistics 1900-1965. Vol. I: Agricultural Area and Harvest and Utilization of Fertilizers.—Vol. II: Livestock and Livestock Products, and Consumption of Feeding Stuffs. Danmarks Statistik. Copenhagen, 1968-69 External Trade of Denmark. Danmarks Statistik, Copenhagen Danish Industry in Facts and Figures. Federation of Danish Industries. Copenhagen (annually) Energy Supply of Denmark, 1900-58 and 1948-65. Danmarks Statistik. Copenhagen, 1959, 1967. Annual Supplements 1966-75 have been published in Statistical News Report on Fisheries. Ministry of Fisheries, Copenhagen (annually) Nash, E. F., and Attwood, E. A., The Agricultural Policies of Britain and Denmark. London, 1961 COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Denmark proper had (1 Jan. 1986), 593 km of motorways, 3,996 km of other state roads, 7,049 km of provincial roads and 58,509 km of commercial

DENMARK

421

roads. Motor vehicles registered at 31 Dec. 1986 comprised 1,545,704 passenger cars, 274,991 lorries, 12,176 taxicabs (including 5,528 for private hire), 8,105 buses and 41,868 cycles. Railways. In 1986 there were 2,471 km of State railways (199 km electrified), which carried 4,536m. passenger-km and 1,791 m. tonne-km. There were also 494 km of private railways in 1985. Aviation. On 1 Oct. 1950 the 3 Scandinavian airlines, Det Danske Luftfartsselskab, ABA and DNL, combined in Scandinavian Airlines System. In 1985-86 SAS flew 136m. km and carried 11,708,000 passengers. SAS inaugurated its transpolar routes Copenhagen-Los Angeles on 15 Nov. 1954 and Copenhagen-Tokyo on 25 Feb. 1957, and its trans-Asian express route Copenhagen-Bangkok-Singapore via Tashkent on 4 Nov. 1967. Shipping. On 31 Dec. 1986 the Danish merchant fleet consisted of 2,795 vessels (above 20 GRT) of5,040,433 GRT. In 1986, 36,751 vessels of 64m. G R T entered the Danish ports, unloading 45m. tonnes and loading 21 m. tonnes of cargo; traffic by passenger ships and ferries is not included. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1985, 1,293 post offices. On 31 Dec. 1985 the length of telephone circuits of private companies was 13,247,560 km. On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 4,005,495 telephone instruments. Postal revenues, 1985, 10,070m. kroner; expenditure, 8,166m. kroner. Danmarks Radio is the government broadcasting station and is financed by licence fees. Television is broadcast by Danmarks Radio with colour programmes by PAL system. Number of receivers (1986): Combined radio and television, 1 -98m., including 1 -63m. colour sets; radio only, 0- 15m. Cinemas. In 1985 there were 429 cinema rooms with a seating capacity of75,919. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 47 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 1 -88m. on weekdays. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The lowest courts ofjustice are organized in 84 tribunals (byretter), where cases are dealt with by a single judge. The tribunals at Copenhagen have 34 judges, Aarhus 13, Odense 10, Aalborg 9, and the other tribunals have 1 to 4. Cases of greater consequence are dealt with by the superior courts (Landsretterne)\ these courts are also courts of appeal for the above-named cases. Of superior courts there are two: Ostre Landsret in Copenhagen with 46 judges, Vestre Landret in Viborg with 23 judges. From these an appeal lies to the Supreme Court (Hojesteret) in Copenhagen, composed of 15 judges. Judges under 65 years of age can be removed only by judicial sentence. In 1985,13,674 men and 1,484 women were convicted of violations of the criminal code, fines not included. In 1986, the daily average population in penal institutions, local prisons, etc., was 3,274 men and 134 women, of whom 743 men and 47 women were on remand. Religion. At the Reformation in 1536 the Danish Church ceased to exist as a legally independent unit, a part of the Roman Catholic Church, and became instead a Lutheran Church under the direction of the State. Since that time the State has, in one form or another, continued to exercise supreme authority in the affairs of the Church, and has regulated these by the passing of laws, by royal decree, or other appropriate means. The great majority of Danish citizens (about 90%) belongs to the National Church. Administratively, Denmark is divided into 10 dioceses each with a Bishop who, within the framework of the law, is the supreme diocesan authority in ecclesiastical affairs. The Bishop together with the Chief Administrative Officer of the county make up the diocesan governing body, responsible for all matters of ecclesiastical local finance and general administration. Bishops are appointed by the Crown after an election at which the clergy and parish council members of the diocese have had the opportunity of voting for the

422

DENMARK

candidates nominated. Each diocese is divided into a number of deaneries (107 in the whole country) each with its Dean and Deanery Committee, who have certain financial powers. Local government at parish level (there are about 2,100 parishes in all) is in the hands of Parish Councils, who are elected for a 4-year period of office. Since the Constitution of 1849 complete religious toleration is extended to every sect, and no civil disabilities attach to Dissenters. Kjaer, J. C., History of the Church of Denmark. Blair, Nebr., 1945 Roesen, August, Religion in Denmark. Copenhagen, 1963

Education. Education has been compulsory since 1814. The folkeskole (public primary and lower secondary school) comprises a pre-school class (bornehaveklasse), a 9-year basic school corresponding to the period of compulsory education and a 1 -year voluntary tenth form. Compulsory education may be fulfilled either through attending the folkeskole or private schools or through home-instruction, on the condition that the instruction given is comparable to that given in the folkeskole. The folkeskole is mainly a municipal school and no fees are paid. In the year 1986-87,2,557 primary and lower secondary schools had 707,135 pupils and employed 65,154 teachers. Approximately 16% of the total number of schools were private schools and they were attended by over 9% of the total number of pupils. The 9-year basic school is in practice not streamed. However, a certain differentiation may take place in the eighth and ninth forms. On completion of the eighth and ninth forms the pupils may sit for the leaving examination of thz folkeskole (folkeskolens afgangsprove). On completion of the tenth form the pupils may sit for either the leaving examination of the folkeskole (folkeskolens afgangsprove) or the advanced leaving examination of the folkeskole (folkeskolens udvidede afgangsprove). For 14-18 year olds there is an alternative of completing compulsory education at continuation schools, with the same leaving examinations as in the folkeskole. In the year 1985-86 there were 188 continuation schools with 14,140 pupils. Under certain conditions the pupils may continue school either in the 3-year gymnasium (upper secondary school) or 2-year studenterkursus (adult upper secondary school) ending with studentereksamen (upper secondary school leaving examination) or in the 2-year higher preparatory examination course ending with the hojere forberedelseseksamen. There were (1985—86) 164 of these upper secondary schools with 73,581 pupils and 7,578 teachers. Vocational education and training consists of apprenticeship training, larlingeuddannelse; vocational education, EFG-uddannelse, consisting of a 1-year basic course, EFG-basis&r, followed by a second part, EFG-2.del, and courses preparing for a vocation, leading to a diploma. Vocational education and training cover courses in commerce and trade, iron and metal industry, chemical industry, construction industry, graphic industry, service trades, food industry, agriculture, horticulture, forestry and fishery, transport and communication, and health related auxiliary programmes. In 1985-86 68,818 students were enrolled within trade and commerce, of whom 6,690 were in apprenticeship training and 46,167 in vocational education. 81,945 students were enrolled within technical education, of whom 34,071 were in apprenticeship training and 34,653 in vocational education. 15,961 students were admitted to the diploma courses within the field of trade and commerce, and 13,221 students were admitted to the technical diploma courses. Tertiary education comprises all education after the 12th year of education, no matter whether the 3 years after the 9th form of the folkeskole have been spent on a course preparing for continued studies (studentereksamen or hojere forberedelseseksamen), or a course preparing for a vocation (larlingeuddannelse, EFGuddannelse, etc.). Tertiary education can be divided into 2 main groups, short courses of further education and long courses of higher education. There was a total of 27,417 students at short courses of further education. There were 28 teacher-training colleges with 6,042 students and 20 colleges for

DENMARK.

423

training of teachers for kindergartens and leisure-time activities with 5,385 students. Degree-courses in engineering: The Technical University of Denmark had 5,022 students. The Engineering Academy had 2,065 students and 8 engineering colleges had 5,100 students. Universities: The University of Copenhagen (founded 1479) 24,150 students. The University of Aarhus (founded in 1928) 12,129 students. The University of Odense (founded in 1964) 4,996 students. Roskilde University Centre (founded in 1972) 2,161 students. Aalborg University Centre (founded in 1974) 4,473 students. Other types of post-secondary education: The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University had 2,441 students. The two dental colleges had 894 students. The Danish School of Pharmacy had 839 students. The 11 colleges of economics, business administration and modern languages had 18,387 students. The 2 schools of architecture had 1,830 students. Five academies of music had 813 students. Two schools of librarianship had 667 students. The Royal Danish School of Educational Studies had 2,038 students. The 5 schools of social work had 873 students. The Danish School of Journalism had 712 students. Nine colleges of physical therapy had 1,369 students. Two schools of Midwifery Education had 109 students. Two colleges of home economics had 403 students. The School of Visual Arts had 157 students. Two schools of nursing had 412 students. Three military academies had 348 students and 4 colleges for ship's officers 112 students. Among adult education the most well-known are Folkeskolehejskoler, folk high schools. Adult education in general programmes, single subjects (since 1978) and courses for semi-skilled workers and for skilled workers is organized by counties. Andresen, A., The Danish Folk High School To-day. Copenhagen, 1981 Struve, K., Schools and Education in Denmark. Copenhagen, 1981 Thorsen, L„ Public Libraries in Denmark. English and French eds., Copenhagen, 1972

Social Security. The main body of Danish social welfare legislation is consolidated in 7 acts concerning (1) public health security, (2) sick-day benefits, (3) social pensions (for early retirement and old age), (4) employment injuries insurance, (5) employment services and unemployment insurance, (6) social assistance including assistance to handicapped, rehabilitation, child and juvenile guidance, day-care institutions, care of the aged and sick, and (7) family allowances. Public health security, covering the entire population, provides free medical care, substantial subsidies for certain essential medicines together with some dental care and a funeral allowance. Hospitals are primarily municipal and the hospital treatment is normally free. All employed workers are granted daily sickness allowances, others can have limited daily sickness allowances. Daily cash benefits are granted in the case of temporary incapacity for work because of illness, injury or child-birth to all persons who earn an income derived from personal work. The benefit is paid at the rate of 90% of the average weekly earnings. There was a maximum rate of 2,126 kroner a week (July 1987). Social pensions cover the entire population. Entitlement to old-age pensions at the full rates is subject to the condition that the beneficiary has been ordinarily resident in Denmark for a number of years (40). For a shorter period of residence, the benefits are reduced proportionally. The basic amount of the old-age pension in Oct. 1986 was 70,896 kroner a year to married couples and 38,592 to single persons. Various supplementary allowances, depending on age and income, may be payable with the basic amount. Persons aged 55-66 may, depending on health and income, apply for an early-retirement pension. Persons over 67 years of age are entitled to the basic amount. The pensions to a married couple are calculated and paid to the husband and the wife separately. Early retirement pension to a disabled person is payable, having regard to the degree of disability, at a rate of up to 89,076 kroner to a single person. Early-retirement pensions may be subject to income regulation. The same applies to the basic amount of the old age pension to persons aged 67-69. Employment injuries insurance provides for disablement or survivors' pensions and compensations. The scheme covers practically all employees.

424

DENMARK

Employment services are provided by regional public employment agencies. The insurance against unemployment provides daily allowances. The unemployment insurance funds had in March 1987 a membership of 1,930,374. The Social Assistance Act applies to the field of social legislation which rules the individually granted benefits in contrast to the other fields of social legislation which apply to fixed benefits. Total social expenditure, including hospital and health services, statutory pensions, etc, amounted in the financial year 1986 to 168,929m. kroner. Bibliography of Foreign Language Literature on Industrial Relations and Social Services in Denmark. Ministries of Labour and Social Affairs, Copenhagen, 1975 Social Conditions in Denmark. Vols. 1-8. Ministries of Labour and Social Affairs, Copenhagen Marcussen, E., Social Welfare in Denmark. 4th ed. Copenhagen, 1980

THE FAROE ISLANDS Faeroerne/Foroyar HISTORY. A Norwegian province 1380-1709, the islands secured the restoration of their Parliament in 1852 and since 1948 they have been a selfgoverning region of the Kingdom of Denmark. From 1 Jan. 1972 the Faroe Islands were no longer members of EFTA. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The archipelago is situated due north of Scotland and lies equidistant between Norway and Iceland, with a total land area of 1,399 sq. km (540 sq. miles). There are 17 inhabited islands (the main ones being Stromo, 0stera, Vago, Sudere, Sando and Borde) and numerous islets, all mountainous and volcanic. The census population in 1977 was 41,969; estimate (31 Dec. 1986)46,312. The capital is Torshavn (15,287 inhabitants on 31 Dec. 1986) on Stremo. The inhabitants speak Fasreese, a Scandinavian language which has official status along with Danish. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The parliament (Lagting), comprises 32 members elected by proportional representation by universal suffrage at age 18. The Lagting elected on 8 Nov. 1984 consists of 7 Samband Party, 8 Social Democrats, 7 Folkeflok, 2 Progressive Party, 2 Home Rule Party and 6 Republicans. Parliament elects from among its members a government of from 4 to 6 members (Landsstyre) which administers Faereese affairs. Denmark is represented by an appointed commissioner (Rigsombudsmand) who administers other matters. The Faeroes are represented by 2 members in the Danish parliament. Chief Minister (Lagmand): Atli P. Dam. Flag: White with a red blue-edged Scandinavian cross. ECONOMY Budget. The 1983-84 Budget balanced at 1,143 Faereese kroner. Currency. Since 1940 the currency has been the Fceroese krone (of 100 ore) which remains freely interchangeable with the Danish krone. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. There is a hydro-electric station at Vestmanhavn on Stromo. Total production (1986) 225m. kwh. Agriculture. Only 2% of the surface is cultivated, the main crop being potatoes (1,282 tonnes in 1984). The chief use is for grazing, the traditional mainstay of the economy. Livestock (1982): Sheep, 47,314; cattle, 1,494. Fisheries. Deep sea fishing now forms the most important sector of the economy,

GREENLAND

425

primarily in the 200-mile exclusive zone but also off Greenland and Newfoundland. Total catch (1986) 354,000 tonnes, primarily cod, blue whiting, coalfish, mackerel and herring. C O M M E R C E . The main industries are fisheries and crafts. Exports, mainly fresh, frozen, filleted and salted fish, amounted to 1,999m. kroner in 1986; imports to 2,670m. kroner. In 1986 Denmark supplied 46% of imports, Norway 13% and Federal Republic of Germany 9%; exports were mainly to Denmark (18%), the US A (14%), Federal Republic of Germany (13%) and U K (13%). Total trade with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 15,932 2,332

1984 17,649 5,140

1985 21,383 5,605

1986 21,380 5,709

1987 19,239 7,165

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 200 km of roads. In 1983 there were 10,942 passenger cars and 2,360 commercial vehicles. Aviation. The airport is on Vag0, from Which there are regular services to Copenhagen, Bergen, Reykjavik and Kirkwall (Orkney). Shipping. The chief port is Torshavn, with smaller ports at Klaksvig, Vestmanhavn, Ejde, Fuglafjordurand Skalafjordur. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 28,872 telephones. Utvarp Foroya broadcasts from Torshavn about 40 hours a week on 4 transmitters. In 1984 there were 16,800 radio and 9,000 television receivers. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. About 75% are Evangelical Lutherans and 20% are Plymouth Brethren. There are small Baptist and Roman Catholic communities. Education. In 1986-87 there were 5,606 primary and 2,904 secondary school pupils with 534 teachers. Health. In 1985 there were 75 doctors, 34 dentists, 8 pharmacists, 13 midwives and 235 nursing personnel. In 1985 there were 3 hospitals with 370 beds. Arbogfor Fareerne. 1985

Books of Reference

Faroes in Figures. Thorshavn, annual, from 1956 Rutherford, G. K.,(ed.) The Physical Environment of the Faroe Islands. The Hague, 1982 West, J. F„ Faroe. London, 1973

GREENLAND Granland/Kalaallit Nunaat H I S T O R Y . A Danish possession since 1380, Greenland became on 5 June 1953 an integral part of the Danish kingdom. Following a referendum in Jan. 1979, home rule was introduced from 1 May 1979, and full internal self-government was attained in Jan. 1981 after a transitional period. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area 2,175,600 sq. km (840,000 sq. miles), made up of 1,833,900 sq. km of ice cap and 341,700 sq. km of ice-free land. The population, 1 Jan. 1987, numbered 53,733; West Greenland, 48,424; East Greenland, 3,366; North Greenland (Thule), 794, and 1,149 not belonging to any specific municipality. Of the total in 1986, 9,303 were born outside Greenland. Capital, Godthaab (Nuuk) (1986), 11,209. C O N S T I T U T I O N . Greenland has the same rights as other counties in Denmark with a democratically elected council (landsrad). Denmark is represented by an appointed commissioner. At the elections held on 26 May 1987 for the

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DENMARK

Parliament, Landsting, the Siumut gained 11 seats, the Atassut, 11 seats, the Inuit Ataqatigiit, 4 seats and the Isittup Partii-a the remaining 1 seat. The Premier, Jonathan Motzfeldt, formed a 6-member administration, Landsstyre. ECONOMY Budget. The Budget for 1984 balanced at 1,156 • 7m. kroner. Currency. The Danish kroner remains the legal currency. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1984) 181 • 7m. kwh. Fisheries. In 1983 the catch totalled 107,360 tonnes; there were also 92,794 seals and 2,308 whales killed. I N D U S T R Y . Until the beginning of this century, the hunting of land and sea mammals, especially seals, was the main occupation of the population; now fishing is most important. Fish-processing industries, construction and trade are also important occupations. Coal production ceased in 1972. A deposit of the valuable mineral cryolite has been mined at Ivigtut. The mine is now worked out, but exports from stock will continue for some years. In 1973 the Danish company Greenex A/S began producing lead and zinc concentrate near Umanak. Annual production of lead and zinc concentrates was in 1984 about 27,000 tonnes and 129,000 tonnes respectively. Public authorities are investigating uranium and coal deposits in Greenland as well as possibilities of hydro-electric power and there are other private prospectors for various minerals. C O M M E R C E . Imports (c.i.f. Greenland) (in lm. kroner): 1979, 1,448; 1980, 1,848; 1981, 2,096; 1982, 2,319; 1983, 2,421; 1984, 2,836; 1985, 3,140; 1986 (provisional), 2,912. Exports (f.o.b. Greenland) (in lm. kroner): 1979, 867; 1980, 1,199; 1981, 1,325; 1982, 1,432; 1983, 1,653; 1984, 1,751; 1985, 1,842; 1986 (provisional), 2,078. Trade is mainly with Denmark. Total trade with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 3,114 140

1984 3,983 99

1985 3,168 348

1986 4,789 452

1987 838 735

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1970) 150 km of roads, of which 60 km were paved. Aviation. There is an international airport at Sondre Sramfjord, and about 12 local airports with scheduled services. Broadcasting. Grönlands Radio broadcasts in Greenlandic and Danish. The short wave transmitters are located at Godthaab. Several towns have local television stations. In 1984 there were 11,554 telephones, 10,000 television sets and 13,500 radio sets. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The High Court (Landsret) in Godthaab comprises one professional judge and 2 lay magistrates, while there are 18 district courts under lay assessors. Religion. About 98% of the population are Evangelical Lutherans. Education. There were (1986-87) 9,148 pupils in primary comprehensive schools, of whom 7,141 were in the course of compulsory education (9 years). On 1 July 1986,1,469 students were enrolled in vocational training. Health. The medical service is free to all inhabitants. There is a central hospital in Godthaab and 16 smaller district hospitals. In 1985 there were 63 doctors and 601 hospital beds.

GREENLAND

427

Books of Reference Greenland. R. Danish Ministry of Greenland. Copenhagen. Annual from 1968 Indkomst- og erhvervsforholdene i Granland ved Hjemmestyrets indforelse (Income and Business Conditions in Greenland at the Introduction of Home Rule), Statistiske Unders0gelser nr. 40, Danmarks Statistik 1984 Meddelelser om Grönland. Ed. Kommissionen for videnskabelige undersogelser i Grönland. Copenhagen, 1899 ff. Since 1979 issued in 3 separate series: 'Bioscience', 'Geoscience' and 'Man and Society' Statistiske Efterretninger (Statistical News), from 1983 special series: Fceroerne og Grönland (Faroe Islands and Greenland) Gad, F., A History of Greenland. Vol. 1.London, 1970—Vol. 2. London, 1973 Hertling, K. (ed.), Greenland Past and Present. Copenhagen, 1970

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Denmark in Great Britain (55 Sloane St., London, SW1X9SR) Ambassador: Peter Dyvig (accredited 20 May 1986). Of Great Britain in Denmark (36-40 Kastelsvej, DK-2100, Copenhagen) Ambassador: Peter William Unwin, CMG. Of Denmark in the USA (3200 Whitehaven St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Eigil Jorgensen. Of the USA in Denmark (Dag Hammarskjolds Alle 24, Copenhagen) Ambassador: Terence A. Todman. Of Denmark to the United Nations Ambassador: Ole Bierring. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Danmarks Statistik (Sej ragade 11, 2100 Copenhagen 0.) was founded in 1849 and reorganized in 1966 as an independent institution; it is administratively placed under the Minister of Economic Affairs. Chief N. V. Skak-Nielsen. Its main publications are: Statistisk Arbog (Statistical Yearbook). From 1896; Statistiske Efterretninger (Statistical News). Statistiske Mànedsoversigt Monthly Review of Statistics), Statistisk härsoversigt (Statistical Ten-Year Review). Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Danish Foreign Office Journal. Commercial and General Review.—Denmark. 1961.—Economic Survey of Denmark (annual).—Facts About Denmark. 1959.—Hastrup, J., From Occupied to Ally: the Danish Resistance Movement. 1963 Atlas over Danmark. R. Danish Geog. Society. Copenhagen, 1963 Bibliografi over Danmarks Offentlige Publikationer. Institut for International Udveksling, Copenhagen. Annual Dania polyglotta. Annual Bibliography of Books ... in Foreign Languages Printed in Denmark. State Library, Copenhagen. Annual KongeligDansk Hof ogStatskalender. Copenhagen. Annual Brynildsen, F., A Dictionary of the English and Dano-Norwegian Languages. 2 vols. Copenhagen, 1902-07 Danstrup, J., History of Denmark. 2nd ed. Copenhagen, 1949 Johansen, H. C., The Danish Economy in the Twentieth Century. London, 1987 Krabbe, L., Histoire de Danemark. Copenhagen and Paris, 1950 Miller, K. E., Denmark. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Nielsen, B. K., Engelsk-Dansk Ordbog. Copenhagen, 1964 Trap, J. P., Kongeriget Danmark. 5th ed. 11 vols. Copenhagen, 1953 ff. Vinterberg, H., and Bodeisen, C. A., Dansk-Engelsk Ordbog. Copenhagen, 1966 National Library: Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Copenhagen. Librarian. P. Birkelund.

DJIBOUTI

Capital: Djibouti Population: 470,000 (1987) GNPpercapita:US$760(m4)

Jumhouriyya Djibouti

H I S T O R Y . At a referendum held on 19 March 1967,60% o f t h e electorate voted for continued association with France rather than independence and the new statute for the territory came into being on 5 July 1967. In Jan. 1976, following discussions between Ali Aref and President Giscard d'Estaing, it was announced that the French Government affirmed that the Territory of the Afars and the Issas was destined for independence but no date was fixed. Legislative elections were held on 8 May and independence as the Republic of Djibouti was achieved on 27 June 1977. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Djibouti is bounded north-east by the Gulf of Aden, south-east by Somalia and all other sides by Ethiopia. Djibouti has an area of23,200 sq. km (8,960 sq. miles). The population was estimated in 1987 at 470,000, of whom 47% were Somali (Issa), 37% Afar, 8% European (mainly French) and 6% Arab. There were (1985) about 32,000 refugees from Ethiopia. Djibouti, the seat of government, had (1987) 250,000 inhabitants; other towns are Tadjoura, Obock, Dikhil and Ali-Sabieh. There are 5 administrative districts. C L I M A T E . Conditions are hot throughout the year, with very little rain. Djibouti. Jan. 78°F (25 -ô-C), July 96°F (35 • 6°C). Annual rainfall 5 " ( 130 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under an organic law approved by the Constituent Assembly on 10 Feb. 1981, the President is directly elected for a 6-year term (renewable once) and the Constituent Assembly became a 65-member Chamber of Deputies, with a 5-year term. In Oct. 1981, the Assembly declared Djibouti a one-Party state, the ruling Party being the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès. Elections for the Chamber of Deputies were held 21 May 1982, when 26 Somali, 23 Afar and 16 Arab members were elected. President: Hassan Gouled Aptidon (elected 1977 and re-elected 1981 ). The Council of Ministers in Sept. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime M mister, Port Affairs: Barkat Gourad Hamadou. Justice: Omar Kamil Warsama. Interior, Posts and Telecommunications: Youssouf Ali Chirdon. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Moumin Bahdon Farah. Defence: Habib Mumammed Loita. Finance and Economy: Mohamed Djama Elabeh. Commerce, Transport and Tourism: Moussa Bouraleh Robleh. Industry: Salem Abdou Yaya. Education, Youth and Sport: Souleiman Farah Lodon. Public Health and Social Affairs: Mohamed Adabo Kako. Labour and Social Security: Mohamed Del Wais. Public Works, Town Planning and Housing: Bourhan Ali Warki. Civil Service and Administrative Reform: Helem Houmed. Agriculture and Rural Development: Ahmed Hassan Liban Gouhad. National flag: Horizontally blue over green, with a white triangle based on the hoist charged with a red star. DEFENCE Army. The Army comprises 1 infantry regiment, 1 armoured squadron, 1 support battalion, 1 border commando battalion and 1 parachute company. Equipment includes 30 armoured cars. The strength of the Army (of which the Navy and Air 428

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429

Force form part) was (1988) 3,000 men. There is also a paramilitary force of some 1,200 men. Navy. The nucleus of a naval force was acquired in 1977 with the commissioning of a coastal patrol craft transferred by France with 3 minor landing craft and 2 new patrol launches were given by France in 1985. Personnel (1988) 60. Air Force. There is a small air force, all equipment via French aid. There are 2 Noratlas transports, 1 Falcon 20 VIP aircraft, 1 Cessna 206 for liaison, 1 Rallye trainer, and 5 helicopters (Alouette II and Ecureuil). Personnel (1988) 100. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Djibouti is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League and an ACP State of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The ordinary budget for 1984 envisaged an expenditure of 21,855m. Djibouti francs. Currency. The currency is the Djibouti franc. In March 1988, £1 = 3 1 3 Djibouti francs; US$ 1 = 177 Djibouti francs. Banking. The Banque Nationale de Djibouti is the bank of issue. There are 6 commercial banks. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 140m. kwh. Installed capacity 80,100 kw. Minerals. Minerals supposed to exist are gypsum, mica, amethyst and sulphur. Agriculture. Mainly market gardening at the oasis of Ambouli and near urban areas. Tomato production (1982) 278 tonnes. Livestock (1986)i 47,000 cattle, 500,000 sheep, 410,000 pigs, 8,000 donkeys, 57,000 camels. Fisheries. The catch in 1980 was 2,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1982 there were 2,309 persons employed in construction and 726 in manufacturing. Commerce. The main economic activity is the operation of the port. The chief imports are cotton goods, sugar, cement, flour, fuel oil and vehicles; the chief exports are hides, cattle and coffee (transit from Ethiopia). Trade in lm. Djibouti francs: ,979 !980 I98I ]9S2 Imports Exports

28,436 14,147

33,782 19,171

36,654 20,348

40,197

In 1980 France provided 50% of imports and took 66% of exports. Total trade between Djibouti and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡ m } m i m l m ] m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

184 7,712

59 8,896

293 21,546

53 12,537

175 12,501

Tourism. There were 19,000 visitors in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 2,906 km of roads, of which 300 km were hard-surfaced. In 1982 there were 9,000 passenger cars and 1,500 commercial vehicles. Railway. For the line Djibouti-Addis Ababa, of which 106 km lies within Djibouti see p. 462. In 1983 the railway carried 249,000 tonnes of freight and I -4m. passengers. Aviation. Air Djibouti provides services to Addis Ababa, Nairobi, Jidda and the

430

DJIBOUTI

Gulf. Other airlines serving Djibouti international airport (Ambouli) are Ethiopian Airlines, Air France, Air Tanzania and Yemen Airways Corporation. In 1984, 63,662 passengers and 6,542 tonnes of freight arrived at Ambouli, and 58,479 passengers and 1,575 tonnes of freight departed. Shipping. In 1981 there entered at Djibouti 1,753 vessels, unloading 307,800 tonnes and loading 151,900 tonnes of merchandise. In 1981 the merchant marine comprised 8 vessels of 3,185 GRT. Djibouti became a free port in 1981. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1984), 6,400. RadiodiffusionTélévision de Djibouti broadcasts on medium- and short-waves in French, Somali, Afar and Arabic. There is a television transmitter in Djibouti, broadcasting for 19 hours a week. Number of receivers ( 1984): radio, 17,500; TV, 11,200. Cinemas. In 1975 there were 4 cinemas with a seating capacity of5,800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Court of First Instance and a Court of Appeal in the capital. The judicial system is based on Islamic law. Religion. The vast majority of the population is Moslem, with about 24,000 Roman Catholics. Education. In 1984 there were 21,847 pupils and 503 teachers at primary schools, 6,331 pupils and 280 teachers at secondary and technical schools. Health. In 1984 there were 29 hospitals and dispensaries with 1,182 beds, 46 physicians, 3 dentists and 4 pharmacists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Djibouti in Great Britain Ambassador: Ahmed Ibrahim Abdi (resides in Paris). Of Great Britain in Djibouti Ambassador: M. A. Marshall (resides in San'a). Of the USA in Djibouti (Plateau du Serpent Blvd., Djibouti) Ambassador: Johû P. Ferriter. Of Djibouti to the United Nations and in the USA Ambassador: Saleh Haji Farah Dirir. Books of Reference Poinsot, J.-P., Djibouti el la Côtefrançaise des Somalis. Paris, 1965 Thompson, V., and Adloff, R., Djibouti and the Horn of Africa. Stanford Univ. Press, 1967

COMMONWEALTH OF D O M I N I C A

Capital: Roseau Population: 94,191 (1987) GNP per capita: US$970 (1983)

HISTORY. Dominica was discovered by Columbus. It was a British possession from 1805, a member of the Federation of the West Indies 1958-62, an Associated State of the UK, 1967-78 and became an independent republic as the Commonwealth of Dominica on 3 Nov. 1978. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Dominica is an island in the Windward group of the West Indies situated between Martinique and Guadeloupe. It has an area of 751 sq.km(290sq. miles) and a population at the 1981 Census of74,851; estimate (1987) 94,191. The chief town, Roseau, had about 20,000 inhabitants in 1981. The population is mainly of Negro and mixed origins, with small white and Asian minorities. There is a Carib settlement of about 500, almost entirely of mixed blood. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with pleasant conditions between Dec. and March, but there is a rainy season from June to Oct., when hurricanes may occur. Rainfall is heavy, with coastal areas having 70" (1,750 mm) but the mountains may have up to 250" (6,250 mm). Roseau. Jan. 76°F (24-2°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 78" (1,956 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The House of Assembly has 21 elected and 9 nominated members. The Speaker is elected from among the members of the House or from outside. The Cabinet is presided over by the Prime Minister and consists of 6 other Ministers including the Attorney-General (official member). Elections were held in July 1985. The Dominica Freedom Party won 15 seats, the Dominica Labour Party 5 seats and the United Dominica Labour Party 1 seat. President: C. A. Seignoret. The Cabinet in March 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister for Finance, Economic Development and External Affairs: Mary Eugenia Charles. Attorney-General and Minister for Legal Affairs and Labour: Brian G. K. Alleyne. Agriculture, Trade, Industry and Tourism: Charles A. Maynard. Health, Water, Sewerage and Fire: Ronan David. Community Development, Housing and Social Affairs: Heskeith Alexander. Education and Sports: Henry George. Communications and Works, Electricity, Telecommunications and Feeder Roads: Alleyne Carbon. Nationalflag: Green with a cross over all of yellow, black, and white pieces, and in the centre a red disc charged with a Sisserou parrot in natural colours within a ring of 10 green yellow-bordered stars. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Commonwealth of Dominica is a member of UN, OAS, CARICOM, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. In 1986 there was a deficit of EC$ 12 4m. Currency. The French franc, the £ sterling and the East Caribbean dollar are legal tender. In March 1988,EC$2-70 = US$1 andEC$4-79 = £ l . Banking. Savings bank (Dec. 1982), 2,862 depositors, with $593,659 deposits. There are branches of Barclays Bank International and Royal Bank of Canada 431

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COMMONWEALTH OF DOMINICA

in Roseau, and branches of Barclays and National Commercial and Development Bank at Portsmouth. The National Commercial and Development Bank was opened in 1977 and Banque Française Commerciale opened in 1979. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1987) 16m. kwh. Agriculture. Hurricanes in 1979 and 1980 devastated large agricultural areas and damaged infrastructure. Production (1986): Bananas, 39,000 tonnes; coconuts, 13,000; beef(1982), 457,428 lb; pork (1982), 588,993 lb. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 4,000; pigs, 9,000; sheep, 4,000; goats, 6,000; poultry, (1982) 115,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main industries are agriculture and tourism. Commerce (1984). Imports, ECS156,103,731; exports, EC$67,307,045. Chief products: Bananas, soap, fruit juices, essential oils, coconuts, vegetables, fruit and fruit preparations, and alcoholic drinks. Total trade between Dominica and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 4 j m ] m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

14,961 8,359

18,110 10,257

26,612 8,780

37,083 10,431

Tourism. Tourists (1986) totalled 36,310. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1976 there were 467 miles of road and 282 miles of track. Vehicles totalled (Sept. 1983)5,717. Post and Broadcasting. Telephone lines, 136 route miles; number of telephones, 6,685 (Dec. 1987). Radio receivers (1982) 13,405. Cinemas. In 1987 there was 1 cinema with a seating capacity of 1,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 4 magistrates' courts. There is also a supreme court which dealt with 38 criminal and 319 civil cases in 1981. The police force consists of 10 officers and 431 other ranks. Religion. 80% of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. In 1987-88 there were 65 primary schools with 15,060 pupils and in 1986-87 there were 10 secondary schools with 3,287 pupils, and 2 colleges of higher education. Health. In Sept. 1983 there were 3 hospitals with 237 beds, 26 doctors, 7 dentists, 10 pharmacists and 153 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Dominica High Commissioner: K. F. X. Bums, CMG (resides in Bridgetown). Of Dominica in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: Franklin Andrew Baron. Book of Reference Myres, R. A., Dominica. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Library: Public Library, Roseau. Librarian: Mrs. C. Williams.

Capital: Santo Domingo Population: 6-6m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$ 1,090 ( 1984)

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC República Dominicana

H I S T O R Y . On 5 Dec. 1492 Columbus discovered the island of Santo Domingo, which he called La Española; for a time it was called Hispaniola. The city of Santo Domingo, founded by his brother, Bartholomew, in 1496, is the oldest city in the Americas. The western third of the island—now the Republic of Haiti—was later occupied and colonized by the French, to whom the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was also ceded in 1795. In 1808 the Dominican population, under the command of Gen. Juan Sánchez Ramirez, routed an important French military force commanded by Gen. Ferrand, at the famous battle of Palo Hincado. This battle was the beginning of the end for French rule in Santo Domingo and culminated in the successful siege of the capital. Eventually, with the aid of a British naval squadron, the French were forced to capitulate and the colony returned again to Spanish rule, from which it declared its independence in 1821. It was invaded and held by the Haitians from 1822 to 1844, when they were expelled, and the Dominican Republic was founded and a constitution adopted. Independence day 27 Feb. 1844. Great Britain, in 1850, was the first country to recognize the Dominican Republic. The country was occupied by American Marines from 1916 until 1924. In 1936 the name of the capital city was changed from Santo Domingo to Ciudad Trujillo; and back again in 1961. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern portion (about two-thirds) of the island of Hispaniola, Quisqueya or Santo Domingo, the western division forming the Republic of Haiti. It consists of the National District (containing the capital, Santo Domingo; population, census 1,550,739), and 26 provinces. Area is 48,442 sq. km (18,700 sq. miles) with 870 miles of coastline, 193 miles of frontier line with Haiti (marked out in 1936). The populations of the 26 provinces at the 1981 census were: La Altagracia Azua Bahoruco Barahona Dajabón Duarte Espaillat La Estrelleta Independencia María Trinidad Sánchez Montecristi Pedernales Peravia

100,112 142,770 78,636 137,160 57,709 235,544 164,017 65,384 38,768 112,629 83,407 17,006 168,123

Puerto Plata La R o m a n a Salcedo Samaná Sánchez Ramírez San Cristóbal San Juan San Pedro de Macoris Santiago Santiago Rodríguez El Seibo Valverde La Vega

206,757 109,769 99,191 65,699 126,567 446,132 239,957 152,890 550,372 55,411 157,866 100,319 385,043

Census (1981) 5,647,977. Estimate (1985) 6,588,000. Population of the principal municipalities (Census 1981): Santo Domingo, 1,313,172; Santiago de los Caballeros, 278,638; La Romana, 91,571 ; San Pedro de Macoris, 78,562; San Francisco de Macoris, 64,906; La Vega, 52,432; San Juan de la Managuana, 49,764; Barahona, 49,334; Puerto Plata, 45,348. The population is partly of Spanish descent, but is mainly composed of a mixed race of European and African blood. 433

434

DOMINICAN

REPUBLIC

C L I M A T E . A tropical maritime climate with most rain falling in the summer months. The rainy season extends from May to Nov. and amounts are greatest in the north and east. Hurricanes may occur from June to Nov. Santo Domingo. Jan. 75°F(23-9°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,400 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 28 Nov. 1966. The President is elected for 4 years, by direct vote. In case of death, resignation or disability, he is succeeded by the Vice-president. There are 12 secretaries of state, a judicial adviser with secretary-of-state rank and 2 ministers without portfolio in charge of departments. Citizens are entitled to vote at the age of 18, or less when married. President: Dr Joaquin Balaguer (elected 16 May 1986; took office 16 Aug.). Foreign Affairs: Dr Donald J. Reid Cabral. There is a bicameral legislature, comprising a 27-member Senate and a 120-member Chamber of Deputies, both elected for 4-year terms at the same date as the President. Nationalflag: Blue, red; quartered by a white cross. National anthem: Quisqueyanos valientes, alzemos (words by E. Prud'homme; tune by J. Reyes, 1883). Local Government: The republic consists of a National District (containing the capital, Santo Domingo, and surrounding areas) and 26 provinces, divided into 97 municipalities. DEFENCE Army. The Army has a strength (1988) of about 13,000. It is organized in 4 infantry brigades and 1 artillery regiment. There were (1988) some light tanks and armoured cars. Navy. The Navy, largely comprising former US vessels, consists of 1 very old frigate (built 1944) acting as the staff flagship (former training ship, ex-presidential yacht), 2 very old escort (ex-fleet) minesweepers, 3 very old patrol vessels (exnetlayers), 1 medium landing ship, 2 landing craft, 8 coastguard vessels, 8 patrol cutters, 4 small training craft, 2 oilers, 1 survey craft and 10 tugs. Personnel in 1988 totalled 4,000 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force, with HQ at San Isidore, has 1 squadron with a total of about 25 Bell 205A-1, UH-1, UH-12E, OH-6A and Alouette II/III helicopters; 1 transport squadron with 5 C-47s and some smaller communications aircraft; a Presidential Dauphin 2 helicopter; and an assortment of trainers, including 10 T-34B Mentors, 10CessnaT-41sand3 T-6 Texans. Personnel strength was (1988) 3,765. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Dominican Republic is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Planning. The 1983-85 development plan envisaged investment of RD$ 1,666m. Budget. The 1983 budget balanced at RD$l,172-6m. In 1985 external debt was RD$3,551m. Currency. In Oct. 1947 the peso oro, then equal to the US$, was formally made the unit of currency. In March 1988, £ 1 = RD$8 -81; US$ 1 = RD$4 -97. There are silver coins for 50, 25 and 10 centavos, a copper-nickel 5-centavo piece and a copper 1 -centavo piece. Banking. There are 4 foreign banks—the Royal Bank of Canada with 12 branches, the Bank of Nova Scotia with 11 branches, the Citibank with 6 branches, the Chase

DOMINICAN

435

REPUBLIC

Manhattan Bank with 7 branches and the Bank of America with 4 branches. An agricultural and mortgage bank, with paid-up capital of RD$500,000, was established in 1945; in 1950 its capital was increased to RD$5m. In 1947 the Central Bank of the Dominican Republic was established. A Banco Popular Dominicano, with an authorized capital o f R D $ 5 m . , opened in Jan. 1964. Weights and Measures. The metric system was nominally adopted on 1 Aug. 1913, but English and Spanish units have remained in common use in ordinary commercial transactions; on 17 Sept. 1954 a more drastic law requiring the decimal metric system was passed. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1986, 3,800m. kwh. of electricity was generated. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Bauxite output in 1982 was 152,250 tonnes. Silver and platinum have been found, and near Neiba there are several hills of rock salt. Ferronickel production (1983) 52,278 tonnes. The Rosario Dominicana goldmines were nationalized in Oct. 1979. Production of gold (1983) 354,023 troy oz.; silver, 1,329,138. Agriculture. Agriculture and its processing industries are the chief source of wealth, sugar cultivation being the principal industry. Of the total area, 27,411 hectares are cultivable. Livestock in 1986:2,055,000 cattle, 2 • 5m. pigs, 80,000 sheep. The largest sugar estates are in the south-eastern part of the republic. Sugar-cane production, 1986, was 7-3m. tonnes. Coffee is exported mainly to USA. Output, 1986, 55,000 tonnes. Production of rice for home consumption and export is fostered; output, 1986, 298,000 tonnes. Cocoa is the second principal crop and covers 2m. tareas (340,000 acres); output in 1986,37,000 tonnes. There are useful crops of yucca and beans for local consumption. Scientific growing of bananas (1986: 422,000 tonnes) and of leaf tobacco (1986:12,000 tonnes) is progressing. Fisheries. The total catch (1981) was 14,500 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1975, 1,286 industrial establishments employed 130,000 men and women, who earned RD$157-57m. Important products are sugar (1,105,263 tonnes of crude and 104,194 of refined sugar in 1983), cement (960,000 tonnes in 1981). Value of textile manufactures (1983), RD$30-4m.; tobacco products, RD$63-5m. Commerce. Total imports and exports in RD$ 1 m. (equal to US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1980 1981 1,498-4 1,450-2 961-9 1,188-0

1982 1,255-8 767-7

1983 1,297-0 785-9

1984 1,257-1 868-1

1985 1,285-9 739-3

The principal exports in 1983 were (in RD$lm.): Sugar, 263-5; coffee, 76-3; ferronickel, 83-5; Doré, 164-5. Total trade between the Dominican Republic and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 6,662 11,594

1984 5,620 12,535

1985 7,900 14,595

1986 7,599 15,178

1987 8,637 23,887

Tourism. About 800,000 tourists visited the Dominican Republic in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Three main trunk highways, with branches, extend from Santo Domingo eastward to Higuey (106 miles), northward to Santiago and Montecristi and Dajabon (204 miles) and westward to San Juan (128 miles) and Elias Pina on the

436

DOMINICAN

REPUBLIC

Haitian border (161 miles). At Elias Piña the road joins the Haitian road to Port-au-Prince. Total highway system in 1977 was 5,224 km first-, 1,538 km second- and 2,505 km third-class roads; there were 647 bridges. Road transport is the chief means of travel. There were 82,001 cars, 40,626 commercial vehicles and 34,967 motor cycles in 1977. Railways. Some 142 km of the Dominican Government Railway remains in use between La Vega and the port of Sánchez. Twelve lines, including the Central Romana Railway, exist to serve the sugar industry, totalling 1,600 km. Aviation. The country is reached from the American continent and the Caribbean islands by 8 international airlines. Two local aviation companies provide interior services and connect Santo Domingo with San Juan in Puerto Rico, Curaçao, Aruba and Miami. Shipping. Santo Domingo is the leading port; Puerto Plata ranks next. In 1971, vessels of 9,833,000 tons entered the ports to discharge 3,009,000 tonnes of cargo, and vessels of 5,276,000 tons cleared the ports having loaded 1,986,000 tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephone instruments (1983), 175,054, of which 138,169 in Santo Domingo. The telegraph has a total length of about 500 km, privately owned; they have been leased to All-America Cables, Inc., which also controls submarine cables connecting, in the north, Puerto Plata with Puerto Rico and New York, and in the south, Santo Domingo with Puerto Rico, Cuba and Curaçao. There were ( 1980) 105 broadcasting stations in Santo Domingo and other towns; this includes the 2 government stations. There are 4 television stations. Cinemas (1978). Cinemas numbered 72, with seating capacity of about 40,000. Newspapers ( 1984). There were 7 daily newspapers with a circulation of 155,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court of Justice, the courts of appeal, the courts of first instance, the communal courts and other tribunals created by special laws, such as the land courts. The Supreme Court consists of a president and 8 judges chosen by the Senate, and the procurator-general, appointed by the executive; it supervises the lower courts. Each province forms a judicial district, as does the Distrito Nacional, and each has its own procurator fiscal and court of first instance; these districts are subdivided, in all, into 72 municipalities and 18 municipal districts, each with one or more local justices. The death penalty was abolished in 1924. Religion. The religion of the state is Roman Catholic; other forms of religion are permitted. Education. Primary instruction (5,956 schools) is free and obligatory for children between 7 and 14 years of age; there are also secondary, normal, vocational and special schools, all of which are either wholly maintained by the State or stateaided; in 1981, primary schools had 22,672 teachers and 1 1 m . pupils; 1,963 intermediate and secondary schools had 11,716 teachers and 331,471 pupils. The University of Santo Domingo (founded 1538) had (1975) 27,675 students; 5 other universities had 14,573 students. Health. In 1978, 18 towns had complete waterworks. There were, in 1975, 1,310 doctors, 121 hospitals, health centres and polyclinics with 8,389 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Dominican Republic in Great Britain Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in the Dominican Republic Ambassador:Giles Fitzherbert (resides in Caracas).

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

437

Of the D o m i n i c a n Republic in the U S A (1715 2 2 n d St., N W , Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Eduardo Leon. Of the U S A in the D o m i n i c a n Republic (Calle Cesar Nicolas Penson, Santo Domingo) Ambassador: Lowell C. Kilday. O f the D o m i n i c a n Republic to the United Nations Ambassador: D r Juan Aristides Taveras-Guzman. B o o k s of Reference Anuario estadístico de la República Dominicana, 1944-45. Ciudad Trujillo. 1949. This has been succeeded by separate annual reports covering foreign trade, vital statistics, banking, insurance, housing and communications. Official Guide to the Dominican Republic, 79-80. Tourist Information Center, Santo Domingo, 1980 Atkins, G. P., Arms and Politics in the Dominican Republic. London, 1981 Bell, I., The Dominican Republic. London, 1980 Black, J. K., The Dominican Republic: Politics and Development in an Unsovereign State. London,1986 Diederich, B., Trujillo: The Death of the Goat. London, 1978 Wiarda, H. J., and Kryzanek, M. J., The Dominican Republic: A Caribbean Crucible. Boulder, 1982

Capital: Quito Population: 9-64m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,160 ( 1985)

ECUADOR República del Ecuador

H I S T O R Y . The Spaniards under Francisco Pizarra founded a colony after their victory at Cajamarca (16 Nov. 1532). Their rule was first challenged by the rising of 10 Aug. 1809. Marshal Sucre defeated the Spaniards at Pichincha in 1822, and in 1822 Bolivar persuaded the new republic to join the federation of Gran Colombia. The Presidency of Quito became the Republic of Ecuador by amicable secession 13 May 1830. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Ecuador is bounded on the north by Colombia, on the east and south by Peru, on the west by the Pacific ocean. The frontier with Peru has long been a source of dispute between the two countries. The latest delimitation of it was in the treaty of Rio, 29 Jan. 1942, when, after being invaded by Peru, Ecuador lost over half her Amazonian territories. Ecuador unilaterally denounced this treaty in Sept. 1961. See map in THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1942. Fighting between Peru and Ecuador began again in Jan. 1981 over this border issue but a ceasefire was agreed in early Feb. No definite figure of the area of the country can yet be given, as a portion of the frontier has not been delimited. One estimate of the area of Ecuador is 270,670 sq. km, excluding the litigation zone between Peru and Ecuador, which is 190,807 sq. km, but including the Galápagos Islands (7,844 sq. km). Mainland Ecuador has 3 distinct zones: the Sierra or uplands of the Andes, consisting of high mountain ridges with valleys, with 3 -76m. of the population and high-priced farming land; the Costa, the coastal plain between the Andes and the Pacific, with 4-03m., whose permanent plantations furnish bananas, cacao, coffee, sugar-cane and many other crops; the Oriente, the upper Amazon basin on the east and the site of the main oilfields, consisting of tropical jungles threaded by large rivers (0-26m.). The population is predominantly of Mestizos and Amerindians, with some proportion of people of European or African descent. The official language is Spanish. The Amerindians of the highlands also speak the Quechua language; in the Oriental Region various tribes have languages of their own. Census population in 1982,8,072,702. Estimate (1986) 9 • 64m. The population 28 Nov. 1982 was distributed by provinces as follows: Province Azuay Bolívar Cañar Carchi Chimborazo Cotopaxi El Oro Esmeraldas Guayas Imbabura Loja Los Ríos Manabi Pichincha Tungurahua Ñapo J Pastaza 5 Morona-Santiago 3 Zamora-Chinchipa> Colon (Galápagos) 1

Sq. km 8,092 4,142 3,481 3,744 6,056 5,198 5,908 15,162 21,382 4,976 11,4722 6,370 18,105 16,587 3,110 52,318 2 30,269 2 26,4182 18,3942 7,994

1983 estimate.

Census 1982 443,044 141,566 174,674 125,452 320,268 279,765 337,818 247,311 2,047,001 245,745 358,952 457,065 858,780 1,376,831 324,286 115,110 31,779 70,217 46,691 6,119

Capital Cuenca Guaranda Azogues Tulcán Riobamba Latacunga Machala Esmeraldas Guayaquil Ibarra Loja Babahoyo Portoviejo Quito Ambato Tena Puyo Macas Zamora Baquerizo Moreno

1 Excluding Peru-Ecuador litigation zone. ' Comprising 'Region Oriental'.

438

Census 1982 272,397 14,155 1 13,840' 33,635 1 149,757 55,979 117,243 141,030 1,300,868 60,719 ' 86,196 42,583 ' 167,070 1,110,248 221,392 4,735 ' 6', 365

ECUADOR

439

Vital statistics for calendar years: Births, ( 1985) 209,974; deaths, ( 1985) 51,134. C L I M A T E . The climate varies from equatorial, through warm temperate to mountain conditions, according to altitude which affects temperatures and rainfall. In coastal areas, the dry season is from May to Dec., but only from June to Sept. in mountainous parts, where temperatures may be 20°F colder than on the coast. Quito Jan. 59°F (15°C), July 58°F (14-4°C). Annual rainfall 44" (1,115 mm). Guayaquil. Jan. 79°F(26-PC), July 75°F(23 -9°C). Annual rainfall 39" (986 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 22 June 1970 President

José Maria Velasco Ibarra assumed dictatorial powers, following months of strife between student and security forces. For details of governments 1963-70, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 7 4 - 7 5 , p p . 8 7 5 - 7 6 . O n

15 F e b . 1972 P r e s i d e n t

Velasco Ibarra was deposed. A National Military Government under Gen. Guillermo Rodriguez Lara was formed and the 1945 Constitution reintroduced. President Rodriguez Lara resigned in Jan. 1976 and a military Junta assumed power until the 1979 elections. A new Constitution came into force on 10 Aug. 1979. Elections in May 1984 were won by León Febres Cordero. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of yellow, blue, red, with the yellow of double width, and in the centre over all the national arms. National anthem: Indignados tus hijos del yugo (words by J. L. Mera; music by A. Neumann, 1866). The following is a list of the presidents and provisional executives since 1948: Galo Plaza Lasso, 1 Sept. 1948-31 Aug. 1952. Dr José María Velasco Ibarra, 1 Sept. 195231 Aug. 1956. Dr Camilo Ponce Enriquez, 1 Sept. 1956-31 Aug. 1960. Dr José María Velasco Ibarra, 1 Sept. 19608 Nov. 1961 (withdrew). Dr Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy, 8 Nov. 1961-11 July 1963 (deposed). Military Junta, 11 July 1963-31 March 1966. Clemente Yerovi Indaburu, 31 March-16 Nov. 1966 (interim).

Dr Otto Arosemena Gómez, 17 Nov. 1966-1 Sept. 1968. Dr José María Velasco Ibarra, 1 Sept. 196815 Feb. 1972 (deposed). Gen. Guillermo Rodriguez Lara, 16 Feb. 1972-11 Jan. 1976 (resigned). Adm. Alfredo Poveda Burbano, 11 Jan. 1976-10 Aug. 1979. Jaime Roídos Aguilera, 10 Aug. 197924 May 1981. Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea, 24 May 1981-10 Aug. 1984.

President: León Febres Cordero (sworn in on 10 Aug. 1984). The Cabinet in Dec. 1987 was as follows: Vice-President: Blasco Peñaherrera. Agriculture and Livestock: Marcos Espinel. Education and Culture: Ivan Gallegos. Finance and Credit: Rodrigo Espinosa. Foreign Relations: Rafael Garcia Velasco. Government and Justice: Luis Robles. Industry, Commerce, Integration and Fishing: Ricardo Noboa. Labour: Guillermo Chang. Defence: Gen. Medardo Salazar. Energy and Mines: Fernando Santos. Public Health: Dr José Thoume. Public Works and Communications: Cesar Rodriguez. Social Welfare: Aquiles Rigail. Secretary of Administration: Patricio Quevedo. General Manager ofthe Central Bank: Fernando Sevilla. President of the Monetary Board: Federico Arteta. Local Government. The country is divided politically into 20 provinces; 4 of them comprise the 'Región Oriental' and one the Archipelago of Galápagos, situated in the Pacific ocean about 600 miles to the west of Ecuador and comprising 15 islands. The provinces are administered by governors, appointed by the Government; their sub-divisions, or cantons, by political chiefs and elected cantonal councillors; and the parishes by political lieutenants. The Galápagos Archipelago is administered by the Ministry of National Defence. The 20 provinces are made up of 115 cantons, 212 urban parishes and 715 rural parishes. D E F E N C E . Military service is selective, with a 1-year period of conscription.

440

ECUADOR

The country is divided into 4 military zones, with headquarters at Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca and Pastaza. Army. The Army consists of 7 infantry, 2 armoured and 2 'jungle' brigades. Strength (1988) 29,000, with about 50,000 reservists. Equipment includes 40 American M-3 and 92 French AMX-13 light tanks. The aviation element has 3 Arava, 5 Turbo-Porter and 2 King Air transports, 5 survey aircraft, 2 Cessna light aircraft and over 30 helicopters including 8 Super Pumas and 5 Pumas. Navy. The Navy consists of 2 Federal Republic of Germany-built dieselelectric powered patrol submarines; 1 old ex-US destroyer (completed in 1946), 1 old ex-US frigate (built in 1943), 6 Italian-built new corvettes, 6 fast missile boats, 7 coastal patrol craft, 1 landing ship, 1 medium landing ship, 1 supply ship, 2 survey vessels and 6 tugs. The Maritime Air Force has 15 aircraft, including 8 Cessna light aircraft, 2 Alouette III helicopters and 3 Beech trainers. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 3,800 officers and men. There are 17 Coast Guard cutters. Air Force. The Air Force, formed with Italian assistance in 1920, was reorganized and re-equipped with US aircraft after Ecuador signed the Rio Pact of Mutual Defence in 1947 but latest equipment acquired from Europe and Brazil. 1988 strength of about 4,000 personnel and 70 combat aircraft includes a strike squadron equipped with 9 single-seat and 2 two-seat Jaguars; an interceptor squadron of 15 single-seat and 1 two-seat Mirage F. 1; an interceptor squadron with 12 Kfirs; 3 counter-insurgency units equipped with 11 CessnaA-37B, 25T-33and lOStrikemaster light jet attack and training aircraft, 1 squadron with 4 piston-engined C-47 and 2 C-130, 2 Buffalo and 4 HS 748 turboprop transports; Alouette III, AS 332 Super Puma, SA 330 Puma, Bell 47, Bell 212, UH-1 Iroquois and SA 315B Lama helicopters; and Cessna 150, T-33, T-34C-1 and T-41A/D trainers. Other transports are operated by the military airline TAME. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Ecuador is a member of UN, OAS, Grupo Andino and LAIA ( f o r m e r l y LAFTA).

ECONOMY Planning. The 1985-89 medium term objectives aim at private investment in agriculture, fishing, mining, petroleum and gas. Improvement in infrastructure is envisaged. Budget. Estimated revenue in 1986 was 186,824m. sucres and expenditure, 216,466m. sucres. Net international reserves, 31 Dec. 1987, were US$55m. Currency. The monetary unit is the sucre, divided into 100 centavos. In circulation are a pure nickel 1-sucre and copper-nickel and copper-zinc 50-, 20-, 10- and 5centavo pieces. The currency consists mainly of the notes of the Central Bank in denominations o f 5 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 50,100, 500 and 1,000 sucres. In March 1988, US$1 = 386;£1 =638-27. Banking. The Central Bank of Ecuador, at Quito, with a capital and reserves of 3,462m. sucres at Dec. 1986, is modelled after the Federal Reserve Banks of US: through branches opened in 16 towns it now deals in mortgage bonds. All commercial banks must be affiliated to the Central Bank. American and European banks include the Bank of London and Canada with branches in Quito and Guayaquil. Weights and Measures. By a law of 6 Dec. 1856 the metric system was made the legal standard but the Spanish measures are in general use. The quintal is equivalentto 101-4 lb. The meridian of Quito has been adopted as the official time. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1985, total capacity of hydraulic and thermal plants was 1,795,100 kw. Estimated output was 4,805m. kwh. Supply 110,120 and 220 volts; 60 Hz.

ECUADOR

441

Oil. Production of crude oil in 1987 was 8-5m. tonnes. Ecuador has to import some refined oil. Gas. In 1985, natural gas production was 608,453-5m. cu. metres. Minerals. Production (1983): Silver, 3,137-6 troy oz; gold, 607-6 troy oz; copper, 7,900 kg; zinc, 14,820 kg. The country also has some iron, uranium, lead and coal. Agriculture. Ecuador is divided into two agricultural zones: the coast and lower river valleys, where tropical farming is carried on in an average temperature of from 18° to 25° C.; and the Andean highlands with a temperate climate, adapted to grazing, dairying and the production of cereals, potatoes, pyrethrum and other flowers, and vegetables suitable to temperate climes. Some wheat has to be imported. 124,000 acres of rich virgin land in the Santo Domingo de los Colorados area has been set aside for settlement of smallholders. Excepting the two agricultural zones and a few arid spots on the Pacific coast, Ecuador is a vast forest. Roughly estimated, 10,000 sq. miles on the Pacific slope extending from the sea to an altitude of 5,000 ft on the Andes, and the Amazon Basin below the same level containing 80,000 sq. miles, nearly all virgin forest, are rich in valuable timber, but much of it is still not commercially accessible. The staple export products are bananas, cacao and coffee. Main crops, in 1,000 tonnes, in 1986: Rice, 510; potatoes, 505; maize, 328; coffee, 118; barley, 40; cocoa, 112; bananas, 2,100. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 3,727,000; sheep, 1,959,000; pigs, 4,986,000; horses, 340,000; poultry, 45m. Forestry. In 1981, 4-5m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Exports approximately US$10m. per annum. Fisheries. Fisheries and fish product exports were valued at US$387-6m. in 1986 (268,000 tonnes). INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production in 1978: Sugar, 178,000 tonnes; beer, 1,560,000 hectolitres; cement 1 06m. tonnes. Commerce. Imports and exports for calendar years, in US$ 1 m.: Imports (f.o.b.) Exports (f.o.b.)

1982 2,187 2,327

1983 1,421 2,348

1984 1,567 2,622

1985 1,611 2,905

1986 1,631 2,186

Of the total exports (1985); petroleum, US$1,926m.; bananas, US$220m.; cocoa, US$ 13 8 • 4m.; coffee, US$ 190 • 8m. USA furnished 30% of imports in 1985 and took 61% of the exports. Total trade between Ecuador and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1983 11,022 35,008

1984 12,951 34,323

1985 19,015 58,628

1986 11,339 46,673

1987 14,002 37,934

Tourism. There were 252,443 visitors in 1986, spending US$170m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983, there were 35,900 km of roads of all types in this mountainous country. A trunk highway through the coastal plain is under construction which will link Machala in the extreme south-west with Esmeraldas in the north-west and with Quito and the northern section of the Pan-American Highway. In 1984, there were 314,360 cars and 32,379 commercial vehicles. Railways. A 1,067 mm gauge line runs from San Lorenzo through Quito to Guayaquil and Cuenca, total 971 km. Aviation. There are 2 international airports. The following international lines

442

ECUADOR

operate: Air France, Avianca, Eastern, Ecuatoriana de Aviación, KLM, Lufthansa, Pan-Am, Iberia, LAN Chile, Aerovías Peruanas, Aereolinas Argentinas, Air Panama and Varig. They connect Quito with North and Central America, other countries in South America and Europe. All the leading towns are connected by an almost daily service. Shipping. Ecuador has 3 major seaports, of which Guayaquil is the chief and 6 minor ones. The merchant navy comprises 39,964 tons of seagoing and 21,232 tons of river craft. In 1980 ships totalling 26-58m. G R T entered Ecuadorean ports, unloading 2 -28m. tons, and loading 8 • 59m. tons. There is river communication, improved by dredging, throughout the principal agricultural districts on the low ground to the west of the Cordillera by the rivers Guayas, Daule and Vinces (navigable for 200 miles by river steamers in the rainy season). Post and Broadcasting. Quito is connected by telegraph with Colombia and Peru, and by cable with the rest of the world. The main towns in the country are connected by radio-telephone. There are over470 radio stations. In 1984 there were 295,650 telephones in use, 104,000 in Quito and 104,000 in Guayaquil; most were operated by the Government; 99% were automatic. Television was inaugurated in 1960 in Guayaquil, in 1961 in Quito and in 1967 in Cuenca. In 1980 there were 1 • 8m. radio receivers and 1 • 3m. television receivers. Cinemas. (1974). Cinemas numbered about 185 with total seating capacity of 114,600. Newspapers (1984). There were 22 daily newspapers with an aggregate daily circulation of 526,000; 7 papers in Quito and Guayaquil have the bulle of the circulation. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court in Quito, consisting of a President and 15 Justices, comprises 5 chambers each of 3 Justices. There is a Superior Court in each province, comprising chambers (as appointed by the Supreme Court) of 3 magistrates each. There are numerous lower and special courts. Capital punishment and all forms of torture are prohibited by the constitution, as are imprisonment for debt and contracts involving personal servitude or slavery. Religion. The state recognizes no religion and grants freedom of worship to all. Civil registration of births, deaths and marriages is obligatory. Divorce is permitted. Illegitimate children have the same rights as legitimate ones with respect to education and inheritance. Education. Primary education is free and obligatory. Private schools, both primary and secondary, are under some state supervision. In 1982, 13,291 primary schools had 1,676,681 pupils; 1,633 secondary schools with 687,085 pupils and 17 universities and other higher education establishments with 274,353 students. Health. In 1979 there were 261 hospitals with 14,316 beds. In 1977 there were 4,660 doctors, 1,370 dentists and 1,225 nursing staff. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Ecuador in Great Britain (3 Hans Cres., London, SW1X 0LS) Ambassador: Rafael Pérez y Reyna (accredited 17 Dec. 1987). Of Great Britain in Ecuador (Calle Gonzalez Suarez 111, Quito) Ambassador: M. W. Atkinson, CMG, MBE. Of Ecuador in the USA (2535 15th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Mario Ribadeneira. Of the USA in Ecuador (Avenida 12 de Octubre y Avenida Patria, Quito) Ambassador: Femando E. Rondon.

ECUADOR

443

Of Ecuador to the United Nations Ambassador: Carlos Tobar-Zaldumbide. Books of Reference Anuario de Legislación Ecuatoriana. Quito. Annual Boletín del Banco Central. Quito Boletín General de Estadística. Tri-monthly Boletín Mensual del Ministerio de Obras Públicas. Monthly Informes Ministeriales. Quito. Annual Bibliografia Nacional, 1756-1941. Quito, 1942 Invest in Ecuador. Banco Central del Ecuador, Quito, 1980 Buitrón, A., and Collier, Jr, J., The Awakening Valley: Study of the Otavalo Indians. New York, 1950 Cueva, A., The Process of Political Domination in Ecuador. London, 1982 Hickman, J., The Enchanted Islands: The Galapagos Discovered. Oswestry, 1985 Martz, J. D., Ecuador: Conflicting Political Culture and the Quest for Progress. Boston, 1972.—Politics and Petroleum in Ecuador. New Brunswick, 1987 Middleton, A., Class, Power and the Distribution of Credit in Ecuador. Glasgow, 1981

FfrYPT

Capital: Cairo Population: 49-28m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$466 (1984)

^

Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiya H I S T O R Y . Part of the Ottoman Empire from 1517 until Dec. 1914 when it became a British protectorate, Egypt became an independent monarchy on 28 Feb. 1922. Following a revolution on 23 July 1952, a Republic was proclaimed on 18 June 1953. Egypt merged with Syria on 22 Feb. 1958 to form the United Arab Republic, retaining that name when Syria broke away from the union on 28 Sept. 1961, finally re-adopting the name of Egypt on 2 Sept. 1971. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Egypt is bounded east by Israel, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea, south by Sudan, west by Libya and north by the Mediterranean. The total area is 1,002,000 sq. km (386,900 sq. miles), but the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile valley, delta and oases, covers only about 35,580 sq. km. The area, population (1976 Census and 1985 estimate) and capitals of the governorates are: Governorate Sinai al-Janùbìya Sinai ash-Shamàllya Suez Ismailia Port Said Sharqiya Daqahlìya Damietta Kafr el Sheikh Alexandria Behera Gharbiya Menfiflya Qalyflblya Cairo Gìza Faiyum Beni Suef Minya Asyut Sohag Qena Aswàn al-Bahral-Ahmar al-Wadi al-Jadid Mersa Matruh

Sq. km 33,140 1 25,574 J 17,840 1,442 72 4,180 3,471 589 3,437 2,679 10,130 1,942 1,532 1,001 214 85,105 1,827 1,322 2,262 1,530 1,547 1,851 679 203,685 376,505 212,112

Total

1976 census 10 104 194,001 351,889 262,620 2,621,208 2,732,756 557,1 15 1,403,468 2,318,655 2,517,292 2,294,303 1,710,982 1,674,006 5,084,463 2,419,247 1,140,245 1,108,615 2,055,739 1,695,378 1,924,960 1,705,594 619,932 56,191 84,645 112,772 36,656,180

1985 estimate i 24,000 l 152,000 254,000 465,000 374,000 3,318,000 3,469,000 728,000 1,795,000 2,821,000 3,199,000 2,847,000 2,157,000 2,186,000 6,205,000 3,159,000 1,495,000 1,424,000 2,692,000 2,179,000 2,455,000 2,159,000 781,000 70,000 113,000 173,000

Capital At-Tur Al-Arish Suez Ismailya Port Said Zaqaziq Mansura Damietta Kafr el-Sheikh Alexandria Damanhur Tanta Shibin el-Kom Benha Cairo Giza Faiyum Beni-Suef Minya Asyut Sohag Qina Aswan Al-Ghurdaqah Al-Kharijah Matruh

46,694,000

The principal towns, with their census 1985 populations, were: 6,205,000 Cairo 2,821,000 Alexandria 1,608,000 Gaza Shubrâ al-Khayma 515,500 374,000 Port Said 364,700 Tanta Mahalla al-Kubrâ 362,700 345,600 Hulwan 328,700 Mansûra

Asyût Zaqâziq Suez Damanhûr Fayyùm Kafr ad-Dawwar Minyâ Ismâiliya

444

274,400 266,800 254,000 221,500 218,500 210,000 191,800 191,700

Aswân Sani Suwayf Uqsur (Luxor) Qinâ Sawhâj Shibin al-Kawm Dumyât Banhâ

182,700 151,200 137,300 137,100 131,300 129,600 118,100

115,500

EGYPT

445

Population (1987) 49 -28m. and of Greater Cairo 13 • 3m. The official language is Arabic, although French and English are widely spoken. C L I M A T E . The climate is mainly dry, but there are winter rains along the Mediterranean coast. Elsewhere, rainfall is very low and erratic in its distribution. Winter temperatures are everywhere comfortable, but summer temperatures are very high, especially in the south. Cairo. Jan. 56°F (13 -3°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 1 -2" (28 mm). Alexandria. Jan. 58°F (14-4°C), July 79°F(26- PC). Annual rainfall 7 " (178 mm). Aswan. Jan. 62°F (16-7°C), July 92°F (33-3°C). Annual rainfall trace. Giza. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 16" (389 mm). Ismailia. Jan. 56°F (13-3°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 1 -5" (37 mm). Luxor. Jan. 59°F (15°C), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall trace. Port Said. Jan. 58°F(14-4°C), July 78°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 3 " (76 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The Constitution was approved by referendum on 11 Sept. 1971. It defines Egypt as 'an Arab Republic with a democratic, socialist system' and the Egyptian people as 'part of the Arab nation' with Islam as the state religion and Arabic as the official language. The President of the Republic is nominated by the People's Assembly and confirmed by plebiscite for a 6-year term. He is the supreme commander of the armed forces and presides over the defence council. Presidents since the establishment of the Republic have been: Gen. Mohamed Neguib, 18 June 1953-14 Nov. 1954 (deposed). Col. Gamal Abdel Nasser, 14 Nov. 1954-28 Sept. 1970 (died).

Col. Muhammad Anwar Sadat, 28 Sept. 1970-6 Oct. 1981 (assassinated). Lieut.-Gen. Muhammad Hosni Mubarak, 7 0 c t . 1981-,

The People's Assembly is a unicameral legislature consisting of 448 members directly elected for a 5-year term; the President of the Republic may appoint up to 10 additional members. At the general elections held in April 1987, the National Democratic Party gained 346 seats, the New Wafd Party 35, SLP-led alliance 60, Independent 7. The President may appoint one or more Vice-Presidents, and appoints a Prime Minister and a Council of Ministers, whom he may remove as he wishes. A 210-member consultative body, the Shura Council, was established in 1980. Two-thirds of its members are elected and one-third appointed by the President. President of the Republic: Hosni Mubarak, sworn in for second 6-year term Oct. 1987. The Council of Ministers in Jan. 1988 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Dr Atef Mohamed Naguib Sidki. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence and Military Production: Field Marshal Mohamed Abdul Halim Abu Ghazala. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs: Dr Ahmed Esmat Abdul Meguid. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Planning: Dr Kamal Ahmed el-Ganzuri. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture and Food Sufficiency: Dr Youssef Amin Wali. Insurance and Social Affairs: Dr Amal Abdul Rehim Osman. Housing, Utilities and New Communities: Hassaballah Mohamed el Kafrawi. Minister of State for Foreign Affairs: Dr Boutros Boutros-Ghali. Transport, Communications and Marine Transport: Soliman Metwalli Soliman. Electricity and Energy: Mohamed Maher Abaza. Minister of State for Military Production: Dr Gamal el Sayed Ibrahim. Information: Mohamed Safwat el Sherif. Public Works and Water Resources: Esam Abdul Hamid Radi. Industry: Mohamed Mahmoud Abdul Wahhab. Petroleum and Mineral Wealth: Abdul Hadi Mohamed Kandil. Cabinet Affairs and Minister of State for Administrative Development: Dr Atef Mohamed Ebeid. Tourism and Civil Aviation: Fuad Abdul Latif Sultan. Interior: Zaki Mostafa Badr. Supply and Home Trade: Dr Mohamed Galal Abul Dahab. Minister of State for Scientific Research: Dr Adel Abdul Hamid Ez. Health: Dr Mohamed Ragheb Dwidar. Economy and Foreign Trade: Dr Yusri Ali Mustafa.

446

EGYPT

People's Assembly and Shura Council Affairs: Dr Ahmed Salama Mohamed. Education: Dr Ahmed Fathi Serour. Finance: Dr Mohamed Ahmed el Razzaz. Wakfs: Dr Mohamed Ali Mahgoub. Manpower and Training: Assem Abdul Haq Salen. Justice: Farouk Seiful Nasr. Minister of State for International Cooperation: Dr Mouris Makramallah. Minister of State for Emigration and Expatriates' Affairs: Dr Fuad Iskandar. Culture: Farouk Hosni. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with the national emblem in the centre in gold. Local Government. There are 26 governorates: 16 provinces, 5 cities and 5 frontier districts. D E F E N C E . Conscription is for 3 years, between the ages of 20 and 35. Graduates serve for 1 year. Army. The Army comprises 4 armoured, 6 mechanized infantry, and 2 infantry divisions; 1 Republican Guard, 1 independent armoured, 3 independent infantry, 2 airmobile, 1 parachute, 3 artillery, 2 heavy mortar, and 6 anti-tank guided weapon brigades; 7 commando groups; and 2 surface-to-surface missile regiments. Strength (1988) 320,000 (180,000 conscripts) and about 500,000 reservists. Equipment includes 900 T-54/-55,600 T-62 and 753 M-60A3 tanks. Navy. There are 12 elderly diesel-driven ex-Soviet and ex-Chinese submarines (most nearing the end of their hull lives and of which only 8 can be operational - 2 having been used for spares and 2 being overhauled), 1 old destroyer, 2 new Chimere-built frigates, 2 new Spanish-built frigates, 27 missile boats, 3 torpedo boats, 7 fast attack craft, 8 new patrol gunboats, 1 submarine parent ship (exfrigate), 4 fleet minesweepers, 2 inshore minesweepers, 3 medium landing ships, 14 landing craft, 10 minor landing craft, 2 survey vessels, 10 service craft, 2 tenders, 3 minelaying hovercraft, 1 large training ship (ex-Royal Yacht), 7 auxiliaries and 4 tugs. There are 108 coast guard cutters. Naval bases are at Alexandria, Port Said, Mersa Matruh, Port Tewfik, Hurghada and Safaqa. The Naval Academy is at Abu Qir. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 20,000 officers and men, including the Coastguard, but not reserves of about 15,000. Air Force. Until 1979, the Air Force was equipped largely with aircraft of USSR design, but subsequent re-equipment involves aircraft bought in the West, as well as some supplied by China. Strength (1988) is about 25,000 personnel and 500 combat aircraft, of which the interceptors are operated by an independent Air Defence Command, in conjunction with many 'Guideline', 'Goa', 'Gainful', Hawk and Crotale missile batteries. There are about 12 Tu-16 twin-jet strategic bombers, some equipped to carry 'Kelt' air-to-surface missiles. Other interceptor/ground attack fighter divisions are equipped with 75 F-16 Fighting Falcons, 60 Mirage 5s, 33 F-4E Phantoms, 80 F-6s (Chinese-built MiG-19s), 15 Alpha Jets, 50 Su-7s, more than 120 MiG-21s, and 60 F-7s (Chinese-built MiG-21s). Airborne early warning capability is provided by 5 E-2C Hawkeyes. Transport units have 19 C-130H Hercules turboprop heavy freighters, 12 An-12s, 9 twin-turboprop Buffaloes and up to 175 Gazelle, Mi-4, Mi-6, Mi-8, Sea King/Commando and Agustabuilt CH-47C helicopters; some Commando helicopters and 2 EC-130H Hercules are equipped for electronic warfare duties. Training units are equipped with Gomhouria piston-engined trainers, Embraer Tucanos, Czech-built L-29 Delfin and Alpha Jet jet trainers, two-seat versions of the MiG-15, MiG-17s, two-seat FT-6s, Mirage Ills, MiG-21 Us and Su-7Us, and UH-12E helicopters. Main aircrew training centre is the EAF Academy at Bilbeis. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Egypt is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League and

OAPEC.

ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year development plan runs 1987/88-1991-92 and envisages investments totalling £E46,500m.

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Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 30 June, in £Elm.: 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 15,010 14,451 17,910 Revenue 19,910 20,246 23,060 Expenditure Currency. By decree of 18 Oct. 1916 (20 Zi-El-Higga 1934), the monetary unit of Egypt is the gold Egyptian pound of 100 piastres of 1,000 millièmes. Coins in circulation are 2 0 , 1 0 , 5 , 2 piastres (silver); 2 , 1 piastre, 5 millièmes, 1 millième (bronze). Gold coins are no longer in circulation. Silver coin is legal tender only up to £E1, and bronze coins up to 10 piastres. The Treasury issues 5- and 10-piastre currency notes. Bank-notes are issued by the National Bank in denominations of 5, 10, 25 and 50 piastres, £E 1 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 0 , a n d 100. In March 1988, £1 sterling=£E3-96;US$=£E0-70. Banking. On 18 Aug. 1960 a Central Bank of Egypt was established by decree. It manages the note issue, the Government's banking operations and the control of commercial banks. At the same date the National Bank founded in 1898 ceased to be the central bank and became a purely commercial bank. In 1986 there were 27 commercial banks, 33 business and investment banks (joint ventures and 22 foreign currency branches) and 4 specialized banks. There were also 29 representative offices of foreign banks. Weights and Measures. In 1951 the metric system was made official with the exception of the feddân and its subdivisions. Capacity. Kadah = l/96th ardeb = 3-36 pints. Rob = 4 kadahs = 1-815 gallons. Keila = 8 kadahs = 3-63 gallons. Ardeb = 96 kadahs = 43-555 gallons, or 5-44439 bu., or 198 cu. decimetres. Weights. Rotl = 144 dirhems = 0-9905 lb. Oke = 400 dirhems = 2-75137 lb. Qantâror 100 rotlsor 36 okes = 99-0493 lb. 1 Qantâr of unginned cotton = 315 lb. 1 Qantâr of ginned cotton = 99 05 lb. The approximate weight of the ardeb is as follows: Wheat, 150 kg; beans, 155 kg; barley, 120 kg; maize, 140 kg; cotton seed, 121 kg. Surface. Feddân, the unit of measure for land = 4,200-8 sq. metres = 7,468 -148 sq. pics= 1-03805 acres. 1 sq. pic=6-0547 sq. ft=0-5625 sq. metre. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Electricity generated in 1986 was 40,600m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The first commercial discovery of oil in the Middle East outside Iran was made in Egypt in 1909, but production long remained low and often insufficient to meet Egypt's domestic requirements. Policy is controlled by the Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation (EGPC) a wholly state-owned corporation answerable to the Minister of Petroleum. EGPC is whole or part-owner of the various production and refining companies and controls supplies to the domestic marketing companies. With the agreement of EGPC several foreign oil companies were exploring for oil in 1986. Production 1987, was 45m. tonnes of crude oil. Net oil earnings (1983-84) US$2,340m. Gas. The first gas field, at Abu Madi in the Nile delta, became operational in 1974 and produced 4,306,000 tonnes in 1986. The 2 other fields are at Abu Gharadeq in the Western Desert and Abu Qir near Alexandria. Water. The Aswân High Dam, completed in 1970, allows for a perennial irrigation system. Minerals. Production (1981 in tonnes): Phosphate rock, l m . (1985); iron ore, 2,130,000; marine salt, 869,000. Other minerals discovered include manganese, chrome, tantalum, molybdenum and uranium.

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Agriculture. T h e cultivated area of Egypt p r o p e r was estimated in 1982 at 11 17m. feddans (1 feddan = 1 0 3 8 acres) a n d of this, 4,945,000 feddans were u n d e r winter crops, 5,017,000 u n d e r s u m m e r crops, 818,000 u n d e r N i l e crops a n d 3 9 0 , 0 0 0 u n d e r orchards. Irrigation occupies a p r e d o m i n a n t place in the e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e country. A n intricate irrigation system n o w reaches m o s t cultivated areas b u t only a b o u t 6 -5% of the total land area is arable. T h e 'vertical' d e v e l o p m e n t policy calls for i m p r o v e d m e t h o d s , better drainage a n d t h e introduction of stiff penalties for e n c r o a c h m e n t of f a r m l a n d . U n d e r t h e first p h a s e of t h e ' h o r i z o n t a l ' expansion p r o g r a m m e , which a i m s t o a d d 2 - 8 m . feddans to t h e arable area over 2 0 years, 24,000 feddans are being a d d e d n e a r Alexandria. E x p o r t earnings f r o m agriculture have fallen a n d Egypt is n o longer self sufficient in food p r o d u c t i o n partly d u e to the increase in population. N o priority has been given in g o v e r n m e n t p l a n n i n g a n d because of inadequate investment earnings h a v e fallen for its three m o s t i m p o r t a n t export crops, cotton, oranges a n d rice. In 1985-86 t h e area sown with cotton rose 7% to 4 4 0 , 7 0 5 hectares; o u t p u t increased 8% t o 1,985,000 bales. T h e m a j o r s u m m e r crops are cotton, rice, m a i z e a n d s o r g h u m . Berseem (Egyptian clover), wheat a n d beans are t h e m a i n winter crops. P r o d u c t i o n (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): S u g a r c a n e , 9,450; maize, 3,801; tomatoes, 2,840; rice, 2,450; wheat, 1,929; potatoes, 1,275; oranges, 1,170; lint c o t t o n , 434. Livestock (1986): 2 - 7 5 m . cattle, 2 - 6 m . buffaloes, 2 - 5 5 m . sheep, 2 - 7 m . goats, 170,000 camels a n d 56,000 pigs. Forestry. In 1982 total removal of r o u n d w o o d was 1 -89m. cu. metres of which 1 -8m. was fuel wood. Fisheries. T h e catch of t h e Egyptian sea, Nile a n d lake fisheries in 1982 a m o u n t e d to 155,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. (1987) A l m o s t all large-scale enterprises are in t h e public sector a n d these a c c o u n t for a b o u t two-thirds of total o u t p u t . T h e private sector, d o m i n a t e d b y food processing a n d textiles, consists of a b o u t 150,000 small a n d m e d i u m businesses, most employing less t h a n 50 workers. A car industry is being established. P r o d u c t i o n in 1985-86 (in 1,000 tonnes) included: Phosphates, 766; fertilizer phosphates, 100-1; fertilizer nitrates, 4,482; c e m e n t , 7,735; cotton yarn, 225; cotton fabrics, 608,000 metres. Trade Unions. Trade u n i o n s were first recognized in 1942. Commerce. I m p o r t s a n d exports for 5 years (in £ E 1,000): 1981 1982 1983 1984 Imports 6,187,486 6,354,517 7,192,657 7,536,100 Exports 2,262,982 2,184,122 2,250,295 2,197,900

1985 6,276,300 2,600,000

In 1985 m a j o r exports (in £ E l m . ) included: C r u d e p e t r o l e u m , 1,402 1; refined p e t r o l e u m , 362-5; cotton, 299. M a j o r i m p o r t s ( 1 9 8 4 - 8 5 ) included: M a c h i n e r y a n d transport e q u i p m e n t , 1,915 -2; foodstuffs, 1,848 -5. Exports, 1985 (in U S S l m . ) , were m a i n l y to Italy (656-6), Israel (462), R o m a n i a (434-2), F r a n c e (430), U S S R (177-8), N e t h e r l a n d s (152-1), G r e e c e (119-2), J a p a n (113-8), Spain (100-2) a n d R e p u b l i c of K o r e a (991); i m p o r t s were m a i n l y f r o m U S A (1,295-7), Federal R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y (953-8), Italy (757-3), France (700-9), J a p a n (514-7), U K ( 4 2 5 - 3 ) , Spain (390-1), R o m a n i a (369-7), N e t h e r l a n d s (356 • 5) a n d Australia (335 -7). Total trade between Egypt a n d U K (British D e p a r t m e n t of T r a d e returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 3 m 4 m 5 m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK 79,826 164,946 162,162 328,053 127,261 Exports and re-exports from UK 370,489 427,688 471,091 371,007 342,195 Tourism. In 1986 there were 1 -36m. tourists (43% f r o m A r a b countries) spending £E251-3m.

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449

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1980, the total length of roads was 21,637 km, of which 16,182 km were paved. Motor vehicles, in 1981, 580,000 private cars, 165,000 commercial vehicles (including buses). Railways. In 1986 there were 4,321 km of state railways (1,435 mm gauge) which carried 28,340m. passenger-km and 8-6m. tonnes of freight. A n underground rail system was opened in Cairo in 1987. Aviation. There is an international airport at Cairo. There are 95 airfields (77 unusable). The national airline Egyptair operates scheduled flights connecting Cairo with Athens, Rome, Frankfurt, Zurich, London, Khartoum, Tokyo, Bombay, Aden, Jeddah, Doha, Dharan, Kuwait, Beirut, Baghdad, Tripoli, Benghazi, Algiers, Entebbe, Nairobi, Dar-es-Salaam, Kano, Lagos, Accra, Abidjan, Damascus, Amman, Manilla, Paris, Munich, Copenhagen, Nicosia, Karachi, Aleppo, Bahrain, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Shaijah, Sanaa and Vienna. In addition, Egyptair operates scheduled flights on a widespread domestic network connecting Cairo with Port Said, Mersa Matruh, Asyut, Luxor, Aswan. In 1982, 62,000 tonnes of cargo were carried. Shipping. The Egyptian merchant navy in 1980 consisted of 75 steamers of 387,460 tons. In 1977, 3,050 ships of 11,432,000 tons entered the port of Alexandria and 876 ships of4,583,000 tons entered Port Said. Suez Canal. The Suez Canal was opened for navigation on 17 Nov. 1869. By the convention of Constantinople of 29 Oct. 1888 the canal is open to vessels of all nations and is free from blockade, except in time of war, but the U A R Government did not allow Israeli ships to use the canal until May 1979, when the embargo was lifted. It is 173 km long (excluding 11 km of approach channels to the harbours), connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea. Its minimum width is 197 ft at a depth of 33 ft, and its depth permits the passage of vessels up to 38 ft draught. In 1976 a 2-stage development project was started. The first stage which was completed in 1980 allowing vessels, of up to 150,000 tons, fully loaded, and up to 370,000 tons in ballast to pass through the canal and give a draught of 53 ft. During the war with Israel in June 1967 the Canal was blocked. The canal was cleared and re-opened to shipping on 5 June 1975. This is part of a programme to develop and rebuild the whole area of Suez to make it one of the largest tax-free industrial zones. Canal toll fees reached US$980m. in 1984, and in 1983 22,224 vessels (378-2m. tons) went through the canal. The first tunnel below the canal, located 10 miles north of Suez City, was completed on 30 April 1980 and the first phase of a £E4,000m. development plan, to widen and deepen the canal, was completed in 1980. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1980-81, 1,821 postal agencies, 1,812 mobile offices (1978), 1,747 government and 2,956 private post offices. Number of telephones in 1984, 600,000. Number of wireless licences in 1984, 12m. and 4m. T V licences. The internal telecommunications system is owned and operated by the Telecommunications Organization. Government landlines connect with those of the Gaza sector and the Sudan. Cinemas (1971). There were 152 cinemas with a seating capacity of 140,900. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 11 dailies published in Cairo and 6 in Alexandria. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D

WELFARE

Justice. The National Courts in 1981 were as follows: Court of Cassation with a bench of 5 judges which constitutes the highest court of appeal in both criminal and civil cases; Courts of Appeal with 3 judges situated in Cairo and 4 other cities; Assize Courts with 3 judges which deal with all cases of serious crime; Central Tribunals with 3 judges which deal with ordinary civil and commercial cases; Summary Tribunals presided over by a single judge which hear civil disputes in matters

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up to the value of £E3,250, and criminal offences punishable by a fine or imprisonment of up to 3 years. Religion. In 1986 about 90% of the population were Moslems, mostly of the Sunni sect, and about 7% Coptic Christians, the remainder being Roman Catholics, Protestants or Greek Orthodox, with a small number of Jews. There are in Egypt large numbers of native Christians connected with the various Oriental Churches; of these, the largest and most influential are the Copts, who adopted Christianity in the 1st century. Their head is the Coptic Patriarch. There are 25 metropolitans and bishops in Egypt; 4 metropolitans for Ethiopia, Jerusalem, Khartoum and Omdurman, and 12 bishops in Ethiopia. Priests must be married before ordination, but celibacy is imposed on monks and high dignitaries. The Copts use the Diocletian (or Martyrs') calendar, which begins in A.D. 284. Education. Primary education (6 years) was made free in 1944, secondary and technical education in 1950. Compulsory education is provided in primary schools (6 years). In 1982-83 there were 503 nurseries and kindergartens with 84,539 pupils. In 1982-83 there were in basic education (6-15 years) 5,036,608 primary stage pupils in 12,013 schools and 1,769,768 preparatory stage pupils in 3,151 schools. In secondary education there were 517,998 general secondary pupils in 823 schools; 441,636 commercial secondary pupils in 639 schools; 208,468 industrial secondary pupils in 170 schools and 84,527 agricultural secondary pupils in 65 schools. Ninety-two teacher training schools had 63,429 pupils and 144 rehabilitation schools had 8,215 pupils. El Azhar institutes educate students who join the faculties of El Azhar University after graduation. In 1982-83,1,287 institutes had 308,370 students. Government experimental language schools, which teach in foreign languages, had 5,000 nursery and kindergarten pupils in 1982-83, and 2,700 primary stage pupils in 1983-84. Higher education: In 1982, there were 64,870 students in 17 higher commercial institutes and 22,341 students in 16 industrial institutions. There were 11 universities in Egypt (apart from El Azhar University), with 558,527 students and 74,945 graduates in 1980-81. El Azhar University had 65,451 students and 5,346 graduates in 1980-81. Health. In 1983-84 there were about 73,300 doctors and 85,350 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Egypt in Great Britain (26 South St., London, W1Y8EL) Ambassador: YousefSharara (accredited 29 Nov. 1984). Of Great Britain in Egypt (Ahmed Ragheb St., Garden City, Cairo) Ambassador: W. J. Adams, CMG. Of Egypt in the USA (2310 Decatur PL, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Abdel RaoufEl-Ridy. Of the USA in Egypt (5 Sharia Latin America, Cairo) Ambassador: Frank G. Wisner. Of Egypt to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdel Halim Badawi. Books of Reference Egypt: Facts and Figures 1985. Ministry of Information, 1985 The Egyptian Almanac. Annual LeMondain Egyptien (Who's Who). Cairo. Annual Aliboni,R.,(etal) Egypt's Economic Potential. London, 1984 Hart, V., Modern Egypt. Cairo, 1984 Heikal, M., Autumn of Fury: Assassination of Sadat. London, 1983 Hopwood, D„ Egypt: Politics and Society 1945-1981. London, 1982 Kepel, G., Muslim Extremism in Egypt. Univ. of California Press, 1986 Makar, R. N., Egypt. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1988 Springberg, R., Family. Power and Politics in Egypt. Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 1982 Waterbury, J., The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat. Princeton Univ. Press, 1983

EL

Capital: San Salvador Population: 5-48m. (1985) GNP per capita: US$880 ( 198 5)

SALVADOR

República de El Salvador

H I S T O R Y . In 1839 the Central American Federation, which had comprised the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, was dissolved, and El Salvador declared itself formally an independent republic in 1841. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . El Salvador is the smallest and most densely populated (256 inhabitants per sq. km) of the Central American states. Its area (including 247 sq. km of inland lakes) is estimated at 21,393 sq. km (8,236 sq. miles) with population estimate (1985) 5 -48m. The republic is divided into 14 departments, each under an appointed governor. Their areas and populations in 1981 were: Department Ahuachapän Sonsonate Santa Ana La Libertad San Salvador Chaiatenango Cuscatlän La Paz San Vicente Cabanas Usulutän San Miguel Morazän La Union

Sq. km 1,281 1,133 1,829 1,650 892 2,507 766 1,155 1,175 1,075 1,780 2,532 1,364 1,738

1981 241,323 321,989 445,462 388,538 979,683 235,757 203,978 249,635 206,959 i 179,909 399,912 434,047 215,163 309,879

Chief town Ahuachapán Sonsonate Santa Ana Nueva San Salvador San Salvador Chaiatenango Cojutepeque Zacatecoluca San Vicente Sensuntepeque Usulután San Miguel San Francisco La Unión

1984 20,153 47,489 135,186 52,226 452,614 28,675 31,108 25,650 26,461 50,448 31,349 86,722 13,015 27,186

i 1980.

C L I M A T E . Despite its proximity to the equator, the climate is warm rather than hot and nights are cool inland. Light rains occur in the dry season from Nov. to April while the rest of the year has heavy rains, especially on the coastal plain. San Salvador. Jan. 71°F (21 • 7°C), July 75°F (23 -9°C). Annual rainfall 71" (1,775 mm). San Miguel. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 83°F(28-3°C). Annual rainfall 68" (1,700 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was enacted in Dec. 1983. The Executive Power is vested in a President elected for a nonrenewable term of 5 years, with Ministers and Under-Secretaries appointed by him. The Legislative power is an Assembly of 60 members elected by universal suffrage and proportional representation for a term of 3 years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, of a President and 9 magistrates elected by the Legislative Assembly for renewable terms of 3 years; and subordinate courts. For governm e n t s , 1 9 6 1 - 7 9 see STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 , p . 4 3 6 .

Elections were held in March 1984. President: José Napoleon Duarte (elected May 1984). In Jan. 1988 the Cabinet was composed as follows: Vice-President: Rodolfo Castillo Claramont. Foreign Affairs: Dr Ricardo Acevedo Peralta. Planning and Co-ordination of Economic and Social Development: Dr Fidel Chávez Mena. Interior: Dr Edgar Ernesto Belloso. Justice: Dr Julio Alfredo Samayoa. Finance: Ricardo J. López. Foreign Trade: Dr Ricardo González Camacho. Economics: Dr Ricardo Perdomo. Education: Professor Alberto Buendia Flores. Defence and Public Safety: Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova. 451

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EL SALVADOR

Labour and Social Security: Dr Miguel Alejandro Gallegos. Public Health and Social Welfare: Dr Benjamín Valdez H. Agriculture and Livestock: Carlos Aquilino Duarte Funes. Works: Luis Lopez Cerón. National flag: Blue, white, blue (horizontal): the white stripe charged with the arms of the republic. National anthem: Saludemos la patria orgullosos (words by J. J. Cañas; tune by J. Aberle). D E F E N C E . There is selective national service for 2 years. Army. The Army comprises 6 infantry brigades, 1 mechanized cavalry regiment, 1 artillery brigade, 1 engineer, 1 anti-aircraft, 1 parachute, 14 light infantry and 6 counter-insurgency battalions. Equipment includes 12 A M X - 1 3 light tanks and 10 AML-90 armoured cars. Strength was (1988) 43,000. There are also National Guard, National Police and Treasury Police, paramilitary units, numbering (1988) about 12,000 and a territorial civil defence force of u p to 12,000. Navy. The Navy includes 4 patrol boats, 1 modern French-built tug, 6 cutters and 25 service launches. Personnel in 1988 totalled 300 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force underwent a major re-equipment programme in 1974—75, with most aircraft coming from Israel and US aid for transport units, but lost 18 aircraft in a guerrilla attack in Jan. 1982. Counter-insurgency equipment includes 8 A-37B and 6 Magister attack aircraft, 3 armed C-47 transports and 4 Hughes 500MD helicopters. Other aircraft are 12 C-47, 3 Arava, 1 DC-6 and 2 C-123 transports, 10 Cessna 0 - 2 patrol aircraft, plus 3 Lamas, 3 Alouette III and 50 U H - 1 H helicopters. Training types include about 15 piston-engined T-41Cs, T-6s and T-34s. Strength totalled about 2,500 personnel in 1988. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. El Salvador is a member of U N and OAS. ECONOMY Planning. The development plan 1985-89 envisages investment of C6,294m. Budget. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 Dec., in 1,000 cólones: 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 2,391,010 Revenue 1,376,337 1,740,424 1,730,899 1,723,333 2,817,730 Expenditure 1,606,335 1,757,600 1,864,699 1,847,065 2,685,009 2,276,052 External debt amounted to US$ 1,650m. in 1983. Currency. The monetary unit is the colón (C) of 100 centavos. The colón (C) is issued in denominations of 1 , 2 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 5 and 100 colones-, 25 and 50 centavos and 1 colón (silver); 1, 2, 5 and 10 centavos (copper-nickel and copper-zinc); 1 centavo (nickel). In March 1988,£1 =C8-85;US$1 =C5-00. Banking. There are 10 native commercial banks, including the Banco Salvadoreño (paid-up capital, 6m. colones). The Citibank Bank of America and the Bank of Santander and Panama S. A. are the only foreign institutions. The Central Reserve Bank of El Salvador, constructed in 1934 out o f t h e Banco Agrícola Comercial, was nationalized on 20 April 1961. Weights and Measures. On 1 Jan. 1886 the metric system was made obligatory. But other units are still commonly in use, of which the principal are as follows: Libra = 1 0 1 4 lb. av.; quintal = 101-4 lb. av.; arroba = 25-35 lb. a f a n e g a = 1-5745 bushels. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. A 200 ft high dam completed in 1954 was constructed across the (unnavigable) Lempa River, 35 miles north-east of San Salvador, with an annual capa-

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EL S A L V A D O R

city of 344m. kwh. The San Lorenzo dam, completed in 1983, has an annual capacity of 722m. kwh. Production in 1986, 1,710m. kwh.; consumption (1984), 1,415m. kwh. Supply 120 and 240 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Production of petroleum derivatives during 1984 totalled £608,473,000. Minerals. The mineral output of the republic is now negligible, but the Ministry of Public Works has recently started to investigate 2 new silver mines in the department of Morazan. Agriculture. El Salvador is predominantly agricultural; 32 -5% of its total area is used for crops and 30-2% for pasture. Area devoted to coffee (1982-83) was about 516,615 acres, entirely owned by nationals. In 1981,35-5% of the working population was engaged in farming. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Coffee, 141; seed cotton, 55; maize, 391; dry beans, 50; rice, 53; sorghum, 135; sugar-cane, 3,175. A little rubber is exported. Livestock (1986): 1 01m. cattle, 400,000 pigs, 4,000 sheep, 14,000 goats. Forestry. In the national forests are found dye woods and such woods as mahogany, cedar and walnut. Balsam trees also abound: El Salvador is the world's principal source of this medicinal gum. Production, 1981, £36,148,000. Fisheries. In 1983, fish products were valued at £82-2m. Total catch 1983, 7,600 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. Total production was valued at £4,579,322m. in 1984, which included (in 1,000 Colones): Food, £1,827,983; textiles, £273,573; chemicals, £310,922; footwear and clothing, £218,287; beverages, £352,224. Commerce. The imports (including parcels post) and exports have been as follows in calendar years in 1,000 Colones: Imports Exports

1979 2,529,900 2,579,300

1980 2,404,269 2,683,953

1981 2,461,458 1,991,940

1982 2,141,852 1,748,616

1983 2,228,700 1,840,800

1984 2,443,575 1,793,432

Of total exports (1984), coffee furnished about 34-6% by weight and 61 - 7% by value. The coffee is of the 'mild' variety; it is sold in bags of 60 kg, but trade statistics use a bag of 69 kg. In 1984 US took 669,933,000 Colones of exports and furnished 811,347,000 Colones of the imports. The chief imports in 1984 were manufactured goods (26 -9%), chemical and pharmaceutical products (23%), non-edible crude materials, mainly crude oil (17-2%), electric machinery, tools and appliances and transport equipment (15-4%). The other Central American Republics, the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Canada, Mexico, Spain, France and the Netherlands are also important trading partners. Total trade between El Salvador and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 425 7,653

1984 2,551 7,589

1985 1,662 8,507

1986 1,323 6,917

1987 1,890 9,595

Tourism. There were 134,000 visitors in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 12,297 km of national roads in the republic, including 1,695 km of main paved roads; 3,295 km main asphalted roads; other roads, 7,308 -1 km. Motor vehicles registered, 1983,150,079. Railways. All railways (602 km) came under the control of National Railways of El Salvador (Fenadesal) in 1975. Lines run from Acajutla to San Salvador; Cutuco to San Salvador; between San Salvador and Santa Ana, San Miguel and Sonsonate;

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EL SALVADOR

there is also a link to the Guatemalan system. Total railway traffic in 1984 was 315,000 tonnes of freight and 290,100 passengers. Aviation. The airport at Uopango, 8 km from San Salvador, now a military airport, and the new international airport at Cuscatlán, 40 km from San Salvador, opened in 1979. In 1984,144,576 passengers arrived and 164,654 departed. Shipping. The principal ports are La Unión, La Libertad and Acajutla, all on the Pacific. Passengers (and some freight) use the Guatemalan port of Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic, reaching El Salvador by rail or road. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone and telegraph systems are governmentowned; the radio-telephone systems are partly private, partly government-owned. Telephone instruments, 1983, 82,158. There were (1986) over 50 radio stations. Radio El Salvador is state-owned. There were (1986) 4 commercial television channels and 2 educational channels sponsored by the Ministry of Education. Cinemas (1976). Cinemas numbered 65. Newspapers (1987). There are 4 daily newspapers in San Salvador and 1 in Santa Ana. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D

WELFARE

Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, courts of first and second instance, besides minor tribunals. Magistrates of the Supreme Court and courts of second instance are elected by the Legislative Assembly for a renewable 3-year term. An anti-Communist law, effective 29 Sept. 1962, has made the propagation of totalitarian or Communist doctrines an offence punishable by imprisonment; supplementary offences, contrary to democratic principles, are punished by prison terms of from 3 to 7 years. Religion. The dominant religion is Roman Catholicism. Under the 1962 Constitution churches are exempted from the property tax; the Catholic Church is recognized as a legal person, and other churches are entitled to secure similar recognition. There is an archbishop in San Salvador and bishops at Santa Ana, San Miguel, San Vicente, Santiago de Maria, Usulután, Sonsonate andZacatecoluca. Education. Education is free and obligatory. In 1929 the State took over control of all schools, public and private, but the provision that the teaching in government schools must be wholly secular was removed in 1945. In 1984 there were 60,902 pupils in nursery schools, 969,120 in secondary schools, 74,113 students at universities and polytechnics and (1983) 42,700 students receiving adult education. Social Welfare. The Social Security Institute now administers the sickness, old age and death insurance, covering industrial workers and employees earning up to C700 a month. Employees in other private institutions with salaries over this amount are included but are excluded from the medical and hospital benefits. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of El Salvador in Great Britain (62 Welbeck St., London, W1) Ambassador: Dr Mauricio Rosales-Rivera (accredited 26 Feb. 1986). Of Great Britain in El Salvador Ambassador: D. Joy, CBE. Of El Salvador in the USA (2308 California St., NW, Washington, DC., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Ernesto Rivas-Gallont. Of the USA in El Salvador (25 Ave. Norte, Colonia Dueñas, San Salvador) Ambassador: Edwin G. Corr. Of El Salvador to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Roberto Meza.

EL S A L V A D O R

455

Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Dirección General de Estadística y Censos (Villa Fermina, Calle Arce, San Salvador) dates from 1937. Director General: Lieut.-Col. José Castro Meléndez. Its publications include Anuario Estadístico. Annual from 1911.—Boletín Estadístico. Quarterly.—El Salvador en Gráficas. Annual.—Atlas Censal de El Salvador. 1955 only.— Revista Mensual, Banco Central de Reserva de El Salvador. Angel Gallardo, M., Cuatro Constituciones Federates de Centro América y Las Constituciones Políticas de El Salvador. San Salvador, 1945 Armstrong, R., and Shenk, i.. El Salvador: The Face of Revolution. London, 1982 Baloyra, E. A., El Salvador in Transition. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1982 Bevan, J., El Salvador. Education and Repression. London, 1981 Browning, D., FI Salvador: Landscape and Society. OUP, 1971 Devire, F. J., El Salvador: Embassy under Attack. New York, 1981 Didion, J., Salvador. London, 1983 Erdozain, P., Archbishop Romero: Martyr of El Salvador. Guildford, 1981 Montgomery, T.SRevolution in El Salvador: Origins and Evolution. Boulder, 1982 North, L., Bitter Grounds: Roots of Revolt in El Salvador. London, 1981 Schmidt, S. W„ El Salvador: America's Next Vietnam. Salisbury (N.C.), 1983

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

Capital: Malabo Population: 384,000 (1987) GNPper capita: US$420 (1983)

República de Guinea Ecuatorial H I S T O R Y . Equatorial Guinea was a Spanish colony (Territorios Españoles del Golfo de Guinea) until 1 April 1960, the territory was then divided into two Spanish provinces with a status comparable to the metropolitan provinces until 20 Dec. 1963, when they were re-joined as an autonomous Equatorial Region. It became an independent Republic on 12 Oct. 1968 as a federation of the two provinces, and a unitary state was established on 4 Aug. 1973. The first President, Francisco Macias Nguema, was declared President-for-Life on 14 July 1972, but was overthrown by a military coup on 3 Aug. 1979. A Supreme Military Council then created was the sole political body until constitutional rule was resumed on 12 Oct. 1982. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The mainland part of Equatorial Guinea is bounded north by Cameroon, east and south by Gabon, and west by the Gulf of Guinea in which lie the islands of Bioko (formerly Macias Nguema, formerly Fernando Póo) and Annobón (called Pagalu from 1973 to 1979). The total area is 28,051 sq. km (10,831 sq. miles) and the population at the 1983 census was 300,000. Estimate (1987) 384,000. Another 110,000 are estimated to remain in exile abroad. The 7 provinces are grouped into 3 regions with areas and populations as follows:

Sq.km 17

Census 1983 Chief town 2,006 Palé 46,221 Malabo 2 017 > 10,969 Luba 52,393 Kogo -,,-nni 70,202 Mikomeseng 26 U1 ' ' 66,370 Bata 51,839 Mongomo ' Including the adjacent islets of Coriseo, Elobey Grande and Elobey Chico (17 sq. km).

In 1986 the largest towns were Bata (17,000) and the capital Malabo (10,000). The main ethnic group on the mainland (Rio Muni) is the Fang; there are several minority groups along the coast and adjacent islets. On Bioko the indigenous inhabitants (Bubis) constitute 60% of the population there, the balance being mainly Fang and coast people from Rio Muni; the formerly numerous immigrant workers from Nigeria and Cameroon have mostly been repatriated. On Annobón the indigenous inhabitants are the descendents of Portuguese slaves and still speak a Portuguese patois. The official language is Spanish. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with alternate wet and dry seasons. In Rio Muni, the wet season lasts from Dec. to Feb. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved in Aug. 1982 by 95% of the votes cast in a plebiscite, which also confirmed the President in office for a further 7-year term. A 41-member National Assembly was elected on 28 Aug. 1983 for a 5-year term. President and Minister of Defence Security and Political Affairs: Col. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (from 3 Aug. 1979). Prime Minister, Health: Capt. Cristino Seriche Bioko Malabo. Deputy Prime Minister, Territorial Administration (Interior) and National 456

EQUATORIAL

457

GUINEA

Security: Isidoro Eyi Monsui Andeme. Foreign Affairs: Marcelino Nguema Ongueme. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, red; a blue triangle based on the hoist; in the centre the national arms. DEFENCE. Under President Macias the Guardia Nacionalconsisted mainly of Fang soldiers with Cuban and Chinese military advisers. Total active strength (1988) of 1,400 with some 2,000 para-military personnel. Since the 1979 coup, Moroccan troops and Spanish military and police personnel have replaced Soviet bloc advisers. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Equatorial Guinea is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The 1982 budget envisaged income at 2,980m. Bikuele and expenditure at 4,038m. Bikuele. Currency. In July 1973 the Guinean peseta was redesignated the Ekuele (plural, Bikuele). On 2 Jan. 1985 the country joined the franc zone and the Ekuele was replaced by the franc CFA. Banking. The Banque des Etats de I'Afrique Centrale became the bank of issue in Jan. 1985. There are 2 commercial banks. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 17m. kwh. Agriculture. The chief products are cocoa (75,000 hectares in 1986), coffee (18,000 hectares) and wood; in 1984 production was about 10,000 tonnes of cocoa, most of it high-grade exported to Spain and the US. Coffee, of mediocre quality, is chiefly a Fang product. Production (1986) of coffee 7,000 tonnes; palm oil, 7,000; palm kernels, 2,900; bananas, 19,000. Food crops include cassava, 55,000; sweet potatoes, 35,000. Plantations in the hinterland have been abandoned by their Spanish owners and except for cocoa, commercial agriculture is under serious difficulties. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 4,000; sheep, 35,000; goats, 8,000. Forestry. Wood was almost entirely exported from Rio Muni to Spain and the Federal Republic of Germany. Production: 1981, 465,000 cu. metres. Since 1979 the lumber industry has resumed activity but there was ( 1981 ) a shortage of labour. Fisheries. Catch (1983) 2,500 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Bioko has very few industries. Rio Muni has no industry except lumbering. Post-independence political conditions have not been conducive to private investment. Commerce. In 1981 imports amounted to 7,982m. Bikuele (of which 80% came from Spain) and exports to 2,502m. Bikuele (of which Spain took 87%). Cocoa amounted to 71 % of all exports and timber to 24%. Total trade between Equatorial Guinea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): /9S4 1985 m 6 l9S7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

559 553

... 191

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Length (1982) 2,760 km of which 330 km surfaced.

1 633

1,572

458

EQUATORIAL

GUINEA

Aviation. There are international aiiports at Malabo and Bata. The line MadridMalabo-Bata is subsidized by Spain. Links with Douala (from Malabo) and Libreville (Gabon) exist. Shipping. Malabo is the main port. The other ports are Luba, formerly San Carlos (bananas, cocoa) in Bioko and Bata, Kogo and Mbini (wood) in Rio Muni. A new harbour in Bata has been completed. In 1981 47,731 tonnes were unloaded and 50,843 loaded. Post and Broadcasting. Estimated number of telephones (1969), 1,451. In 1984 there were 90,000 radio and 2,100 TV receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Constitution guarantees an independent judiciary. The Supreme Tribunal is the highest court of appeal and is located at Malabo. There are Courts of First Instance and Courts of Appeal at Malabo and Bata. Religion. The population of Equatorial Guinea is nominally Roman Catholic with influential Protestant groups in Malabo and Rio Muni. By order of the President most churches were closed in 1975 and in June 1978 the Roman Catholic Church was banned. Since 1979, religious services have been restored. Education. There were in 1981 about 40,110 pupils and 647 teachers in 511 primary schools and 3,013 pupils and 288 teachers in 14 secondary schools. Health. In 1975 there were 5 doctors, 2 midwives and 248 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Equatorial Guinea in Great Britain A mbassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Equatorial Guinea Ambassador: M. Reith (resides at Yaoundé). Of the USA in Equatorial Guinea (Calle de Los Ministros, Malabo) Ambassador: Francis S. Ruddy. Of Equatorial Guinea to the USA and the United Nations Ambassador: Florencio Maye Ela. Books of Reference Atlas Hislorico y Geográfico de Africa Española. Madrid, 1955 Plan de Desarrollo Económico de la Guinea Ecuatorial. Presidencia del Gobierno. Madrid, 1963 Berman, S., Spanish Guinea: An Annotated Bibliography. Microfilm Service, Catholic University. Washington, D.C. 1961 Liniger-Goumaz, M., La Guinée équatoriale un pays méconnu. Paris, 1980.—Connaître la Guinée Equatoriale. Paris, 1986 Pélissier, R., Les Territoires espagnols d'Afrique. Paris, 1963.—Los territorios españoles de Africa. Madrid, 1964.—Etudes Hispano-Guinéennes. Orgeval, 1969

ETHIOPIA

Capital: Addis Ababa Population: 46m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 110 (1984)

Hebretesebawit Ityopia H I S T O R Y . The ancient empire of Ethiopia has its legendary origin in the meeting of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Historically, the empire developed in the centuries before and after the birth of Christ, at Aksum in the north, as a result of Semitic immigration from South Arabia. The immigrants imposed their language and culture on a basic Hamitic stock. Ethiopia's subsequent history is one of sporadic expansion southwards and eastwards, checked from the 16th to early 19th centuries by devastating wars with Moslems and Gallas. Modern Ethiopia dates from the reign of the Emperor Theodore (1855-68). Menelik II (1889-1913) defeated the Italians in 1896 and thereby safeguarded the empire's independence in the scramble for Africa. By successful campaigns in neighbouring kingdoms within Ethiopia (Jimma, Kaffa, Harar, etc.) he united the country under his rule and created the empire as it is today. In 1936 Ethiopia was conquered by the Italians, who were in turn defeated by the Allied forces in 1941 when the Emperor returned. The former Italian colony of Eritrea, from 1941 under British military administration, was in accordance with a resolution of the General Assembly of the UN, dated 2 Dec. 1950, handed over to Ethiopia on 15 Sept. 1952. Eritrea thereby became an autonomous unit within the federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea. This federation became a unitary state on 14 Nov. 1962 when Eritrea was fully integrated with Ethiopia although a secessionist movement has also been active. A provisional military government assumed power on 12 Sept. 1974 and deposed the Emperor. On 24 Nov. 1974 the Provisional Military Government announced that on 23 Nov. it had executed 60 former military and civilian leaders including Gen. Aman Andom who was Chairman of the Provisional Military Administrative Council. On 3 Feb. 1977, Brig.-Gen. Teferi Bante, the Chairman of PMAC and 6 other members of the ruling military council were killed and Lieut.-Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam became Chairman. In mid-1977 Somalia invaded Ethiopia and took control of the Ogaden region. After an offensive mounted with strong USSR and Cuban support the area was recaptured and in March Somalia withdrew all troops from the area. Control was re-established by Ethiopia later in 1978 and nationalist guerrillas were pushed back. Sporadic fighting continued in the Ogaden and along the border. Talks about the normalization between Ethiopia and Somalia commenced in 1986. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Ethiopia is bounded north-east by the Red Sea, east by Djibouti and Somalia, south by Kenya and west by Sudan. It has a total area of 1,221,900 sq. km (471,800 sq. miles). The first census was carried out in 1984: Population (preliminary) 42,019,418. Estimate (1986) 46m. There were 204,000 refugees in Ethiopia in Aug. 1987. The dominant race of Ethiopia, the Amhara, inhabit the central Ethiopian highlands. To the north of them are the Tigreans, akin to the Amhara and belonging to the same Christian church, but speaking a different, though related, language. Both these races are of mixed Hamitic and Semitic origin, and further mixed by intermarriage with Oromo (Galla) and other races. The Oromos, some of whom are Christian, some Moslem and some pagan, comprise about 40% of the entire population, and are a pastoral and agricultural people of Hamitic origin. Somalis, another Hamitic race, inhabit the south-east of Ethiopia, in particular the Ogaden desert region. These like the closely related Afar people, are Moslem. The Afar stretch northwards from Wollo region into Eritrea. 459

460

ETHIOPIA Region Addis Ababa Arussi Bale Eritrea Gemu Gofa Gojjam Gondar (Begemdir) Hararge Illubabor Kefa Shoa Sidamo Tigre Wollega Wollo

Area (sq. km) 218 23,500 124,600 117,600 39,500 61,600 74,200 259,700 47,400 54,600 85,200 117,300 65,900 71,200 79,400

Population May. 1984 1,412,575 1,662,233 1,006,491 2,614,700 1,248,034 3,244,882 2,905,362 4,151,706 963,327 2,450,369 8,090,565 3,790,579 2,409,700 2,369,677 3,609,918

Chief town

Population May 1984

Assela Goba Asmara Arba Minch Debre Markos Gondar Harar Mattu Jimma

36,720 22,963 275,385 23,030 39,808 68,958 62,160 12,491 60,992

Awassa Mekele Lekemti Dessie

36,169 61,583 28,824 68,848

Other large towns (population, May 1984): Dire Dawa, in Hararge, 98,104; Nazret, in Shoa, 76,284; Bahr Dar, 54,800; Debre Zeit, 51,143. Local Government. From Sept. 1987 the country is divided into 24 administrative and 5 autonomous regions. Each region governed by a regional shengo. C L I M A T E . The wide range of latitude produces many climatic variations between the high, temperate plateaus and the hot, humid lowlands. The main rainy season lasts from June to Aug., with light rains from Feb. to April, but the country is very vulnerable to drought. Addis Ababa. Jan. 59°F (15°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,237 mm). Harar. Jan. 65°F (183°C), July 64°F (17-8°C). Annual rainfall 35" (897 mm). Massawa. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 94°F (34-4°C). Annual rainfall 8" (193 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was inaugurated on 10 Sept. 1987 at the first meeting of the newly elected Shengo (National Assembly). A new Constitution, on a Marxist model, was approved on 1 Feb. 1987 in a referendum. On 14 June 1987 Ethiopia held its first parliamentary election when 813 members belonging to the single political party the Workers' Party of Ethiopia were elected to the new civilian legislature. President: Mengistu Haile Mariam. Vice President: Fisseha Desta. Prime Minister: Fikre-Selassie Wogderess. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow and red. National anthem: Ityopya, Ityopia Kidemi (tune by Daniel Yohannes, 1975). D E F E N C E . Ethiopia's revolutionary rulers have moved away from US military assistance since they came to power and from 1977 have relied on USSR for most of their military aid. Selective conscription was introduced in 1983 for a period of 30 months. Army. The Army, comprises 22 infantry divisions with some 32 tank battalions, 8 para-commando brigades, 37 artillery battalions and 12 air defence battalions. Equipment includes 600 T-54/-55, 40 T-34 and 65 M-47 tanks. Strength (1988) 313,000 including a People's Militia. Navy. The Navy consists of 2 ex-Soviet light frigates, 4 ex-Soviet fast missile boats, 2 ex-Soviet fast torpedo boats, 1 hydrofoil fast attack craft, 1 training ship (1,768 tons; ex-US seaplane tender), 1 ex-Netherlands coastal minesweeper, 1 patrol craft (ex-US coastguard motor gunboat), 3 patrol boats, 3 ex-Soviet coastal cutters, 4 harbour defence craft, 2 medium landing ships, 2 landing craft and 4 minor landing craft. The Naval Base and College are at Massawa.

ETHIOPIA

461

Personnel in 1988 totalled 1,500 officers and men. Soviet advisers remained embarked in the 6 attack craft acquired until Ethiopian naval officers and ratings had sufficient experience to operate independently the missiles and torpedoes. Air Force. The Air Force, trained originally by Swedish and American personnel, but now operating aircraft of Soviet origin, has its headquarters at Debre Zeit, near Addis Ababa. It includes a training school and a central workshop. Fighter equipment is understood to comprise 140 MiG-17s, MiG-21s and MiG-23s. There is a squadron of Mi-24 helicopter gunships, and a transport squadron equipped with An-12s, and An-26s. Training aircraft include two-seat MiG-21 s and L-39 jet basic trainers. More than 40 Mi-8 helicopters are in service. Most equipment surviving from the 1960s and '70s (such as F-5 fighters, Canberra bombers and US-built transports) is in storage. However since 1984 India has delivered 10 Chetak (Alouette III) helicopters and Italy 21 SF-260TP turboprop trainers. Personnel, (1988)4,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Ethiopia is a member of U N , O A U and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A 10-year development plan (1984-94) places emphasis on socialist development and a growth rate of 6%. Budget. Revenue for 1983-84 (ending 7 July) was EB2,897-6m. and expenditure EB3,459-8m. Of the estimated revenue in 1983-84, EB 1,706m. is expected to come from taxes. Currency. The Ethiopian birr, divided into 100 cents, is the unit of currency; it is based on 5-52 grains of fine gold. It consists of notes of EB1, 2, 10, 50 and 100 denominations, and bronze 1-, 5-, 10-, 25- and 50-cent coins. Birr 3-64 = £1 sterling; 5 ; / r 2 0 7 = U S $ l (in March 1988). Banking. The State Bank was renamed the National Bank of Ethiopia in Oct. 1963, when its commercial activities were transferred to the newly established Commercial Bank of Ethiopia. At the same time another new bank, the Investment Bank of Ethiopia, was set u p with a capital of EBlOm., of which the Government held the majority of shares. In Sept. 1965 it became the Ethiopian Investment Corporation, which is a substantial shareholder in a number of industrial and other ventures. There is also the Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank, SC. On 1 Jan. 1975 the Government nationalized all banks, mortgage and insurance companies. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is officially in use. Traditional weights and measures vary considerably in the various provinces: the principal ones are: Frasilla = approximately 37'A lb.; gasha, the principal unit of land measure, which is normally about 100 acres but can vary between 80 and 300 acres, depending on the quality of the land. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production in 1986 totalled 722m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. A Russian built state-owned oil refinery at Assab came on stream in 1967 with a capacity of600,000 tonnes of crude per annum. Gas. A natural gas-strike was made offshore near Massawa in Dec. 1969, but it was not exploited. Traces of gas and oil have been found in south-east Ethiopia. Minerals. Ethiopia has little proved mineral wealth. Salt is produced mainly in Eritrea, while a placer goldmine is worked by the Government of Adola in the

462

ETHIOPIA

south. Gold production, in 1980, was 373 kg. Small quantities of other minerals are produced including platinum. Agriculture. Coffee is by far the most important source of rural income accounting for 70% of foreign earnings in 1982. Harari coffee (long berry Mocha) is cultivated in the east. TefF (Eragrastis abyssinica) is the principal food grain, followed by barley, wheat, maize and durra. Pulses and oilseeds are imported for local consumption and export. Cane sugar is an important crop. Production (1986 in 1,000 tonnes): Maize, 1,500; sorghum, 1,100; barley, 1,000; pulses, 945. Livestock (1986): 26-3m. cattle, 23-55m. sheep, 17-28m. goats; smaller numbers of donkeys, horses, mules and camels. Hides and skins and butter (ghee) are important for home consumption and export. Sheep, cattle and chickens are the main providers of meat. In 1983 85% of the population were engaged in agriculture, producing 40% of GDP. The continuing drought has had a devastating effect on production. Fisheries. Catch (1983) 3,900 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The most important products of the small but growing industries are cotton yarn (9,000 tonnes in 1982) and fabrics, cement (159,000 tonnes in 1982), sugar, salt, cigarettes, canned foodstuffs, beer, building materials, footwear, pharmaceuticals, tyres and paint. Most industry is centred around Addis Ababa and Asmara. Industry around Asmara has been severely hit by actions of Eritrean guerrillas. Commerce. Imports and exports (in EB1 m.) for 3 years. Imports Exports

1979 1,175 864

1980 1,495 879

1982 1,529 835

1983 1,810

Total trade between Ethiopia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

¡983 12,071 34,092

1984 13,733 63,434

1985 13,805 66,089

1986 22,343 50,049

1987 12,875 46,146

Tourism. There were 59,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) 30,000 km of roads. Addis Ababa is linked with Nairobi by a highway. Motor vehicles (1984): Cars, 41,300; lorries and trucks, 8,800; buses, 3,041. Railways. The former Franco-Ethiopian Railway Co. (782 km, metre-gauge) became the Ethiopian-Djibouti Railway Corp. in 1982, when the remaining France-owned shares were bought out. In 1983 the railway carried 249,000 tonnes of freight and 1 -4m. passengers. Aviation. Ethiopian Air Lines, formed in 1946, carried 242,924 passengers in 1980 and 8,613 tonnes of freight. Shipping. A state shipping line was established in 1964. The ports unloaded 1 -75m. tonnes in 1982 and loaded 547,000. Post and Broadcasting. The postal system serves 301 offices, mainly by air-mail. All the main centres are connected with Addis Ababa by telephone or radio telegraph. International telephone services are available at certain hours to most countries in Europe, North America and India. Number of telephones (1983), 100,783. The Ethiopian Broadcasting Service makes sound broadcasts on the medium and short waves in English, Amharic and in the vernacular languages spoken

ETHIOPIA

463

within the country. There were about 45,000 television sets and 2m. radio receivers in 1986. Cinemas (1974). There were 31 cinemas, with seating capacity of about 25,600. Newspapers. There were (1984) 3 government-controlled daily newspapers with a combined circulation of about 47,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The legal system is said to be based on the Justinian Code. A new penal code came into force in 1958 and Special Penal Law in 1974. Codes of criminal procedure, civil, commercial and maritime codes have since been promulgated. The extra-territorial rights formerly enjoyed by foreigners have been abolished, but any person accused in an Ethiopian court has the right to have his case transferred to the High Court, provided he asks for this before any evidence has been taken in the court of first instance. Provincial and district courts have been established, and High Court judges visit the provincial courts on circuit. The Supreme Court at Addis Ababa is presided over by the Chief Justice. Religion. About 45% of the population are Moslem and 40% Christian, mainly belonging to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Education. In the academic year 1980-81 there were more than 2- 13m. pupils in primary schools. In secondary schools there were 400,000 students. Higher education is co-ordinated under the National University, chartered in 1961; in 1979-80, there were 14,562 students. The University College, the Engineering, Building and Theological Colleges are in Addis Ababa, the Agricultural College in Harar and the Public Health College in Gondar. The government claims to have reduced illiteracy from 95% to 54% since 1974. Health. In 1977 there was one doctor for every 75,000 people. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Ethiopia in Great Britain (17 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1PZ) ^mtosat/orAtoTeferraHaile-Selassie (accredited lOJuly 1985). Of Great Britain in Ethiopia (Fikre Mariam Abatechan St., Addis Ababa) Ambassador: Harold Walker, CMG. Of Ethiopia in the USA (2134 Kalorama Rd., NW, Washington D.C., 20008) Chargé d'Affaires: Girma Amara. Of the USA in Ethiopia (Entoto St., Addis Ababa) Chargé d Affaires: James R. Cheek. Of Ethiopia to the United Nations Ambassador: Tesfaye Tadesse. Books of Reference Halliday, F. a n d Molyneaux, M., The Ethiopian Revolution. London, 1981 Hancock, G., Ethiopia: The Challenge of Hunger. London, 1985 Pool, D., Eritrea: Africa's Longest War. London, 1982 Schwab, P., Ethiopia: Politics, Economics and Society. Boulder, 1985.

FALKLAND ISLANDS

Capital: Stanley Population: 1,916 (1986)

HISTORY. France established a settlement in 1764 and Britain a second settlement in 1765. In 1770 Spain bought out the French and drove off the British. In 1806 Spanish rule was overthrown in Argentina, and the Argentine claimed to succeed Spain in the French and British settlements in 1820. TTie British objected and reclaimed their settlement in 1832 as a Crown Colony. On 2 April 1982 Argentine forces invaded the Falkland Islands and the Governor was expelled. At a meeting of the UN Security Council, held on 3 April, the voting was 10 to 1 in favour of the resolution calling for Argentina to withdraw. Britain regained possession on 14-15 June after the Argentine surrendered. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Crown Colony is situated in the South Atlantic Ocean about 480 miles north-east of Cape Horn. The numerous islands cover 4,700 sq. miles. The main East Falkland Island, 2,610 sq. miles; the West Falkland, 2,090 sq. miles, including the adjacent small islands. The population of the Falkland Islands at census 1986 was 1,916. The only town is Stanley, in East Falkland, with a population ofjust over 1,200. The population of the Falkland Islands is nearly all of British descent, with about 67% bom in the islands. A large garrison of British servicemen was stationed near Stanley in 1987. C L I M A T E . A cool temperate climate, much affected by strong winds, particularly in spring. Stanley. Jan. 49"F (9-4°C), July 35°F (1 -7°C). Annual rainfall 27" (681 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution came into force on 3 Oct. 1985. This incorporated a chapter protecting fundamental human rights and in the preamble recalled the provisions on the right of self-determination contained in international covenants. Executive power is vested in the Governor who must consult the Executive Council except on urgent or trivial matters. He must consult the Commander British Forces on matters relating to defence and internal security (except police). There is a Legislative Council consisting of 8 elected members and 2 ex officio members, the Chief Executive and Financial Secretary. Only elected members have a vote. The Commander British Forces has a right to attend and take part in its proceedings but has no vote. The Attorney General also has a similar right to take part in proceedings with the consent of the person presiding. The Governor presides over sittings. He also presides over sittings of the Executive Council which consists of 3 elected members (elected by and from the elected members of Legislative Council) and the Chief Executive and Financial Secretary (ex officio) who do not vote. The Commander British Forces and Attorney General have a right to attend but may not vote. Offices in the Public Service are constituted by the Governor and he makes appointments and is responsible for discipline. The Constitution allows for the establishment of a public service commission. Governor: G. W. Jewkes, CMG. Chief Executive:!!. R. Cummings. Financial Secretary: H. T. Rowlands, OBE. Attorney General: D. G. Lang. Government Secretary: C. Redston. Flag: British Blue Ensign with arms of Colony on a white disc in the fly. 464

FALKLAND ISLANDS

465

D E F E N C E . Since 1982 t h e Islands have been defended by a large garrison of British servicemen. T h e C o m m a n d e r British Forces is responsible for all military m a t t e r s in t h e Islands. H e liaises with t h e G o v e r n o r o n civilian a n d political matters, a n d advises h i m o n matters of defence a n d internal security, except police. ECONOMY Budget. R e v e n u e a n d expenditure (in £ sterling) for fiscal years ending 30 J u n e : 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88' Revenue 3,655,000 5,314,000 5,163,000 6,003,315 19,646,310 22,774,680 Expenditure 3,119,000 3,867,000 4,358,000 5,344,048 12,212,805 21,968,150 1 Estimate Currency. T h e Falkland £ is at parity with t h e £ sterling. Banking. O n 1 Dec. 1983 t h e g o v e r n m e n t savings b a n k was dissolved, a n d all savings b a n k deposits were transferred t o t h e Standard C h a r t e r e d Bank, which has a b r a n c h in Stanley, a n d provides a full range of b a n k i n g facilities. S H E E P F A R M I N G . Most of t h e C o l o n y is divided i n t o large sheep runs. Subdivision i n t o smaller family units is gradually being effected. Wool is t h e principal p r o d u c t , b u t hides are exported. In 1986 there were 6 9 9 , 0 0 0 sheep, 7,000 cattle a n d 2,000 horses in t h e islands. D E V E L O P M E N T . T h e e c o n o m y was formerly based solely o n agriculture, principally sheep f a r m i n g with a little dairy f a r m i n g for domestic r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d crops for winter fodder. Since t h e establishment of a 150-mile interim conservation a n d m a n a g e m e n t z o n e a r o u n d the Islands a n d t h e consequent introduction, o n 1 Feb. 1987, of a licensing regime for vessels fishing within t h e z o n e t h e e c o n o m y has diversified a n d i n c o m e f r o m t h e associated fishing activities is n o w t h e largest source of revenue. T h e Falkland Islands D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n was established by statute in J u n e 1984 with t h e a i m of encouraging e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e first projects assisted by the C o r p o r a t i o n include inshore a n d offshore fisheries surveys to establish potential catch size a n d value, agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t schemes to encourage investment in t h e land, a wool spinning a n d knitting factory to process a p o r t i o n of t h e islands' m a i n p r o d u c t , a n e w dairy a n d a h y d r o p o n i c m a r k e t garden. T R A D E . Total i m p o r t s , 1981, a m o u n t e d to £3,193,437 a n d exports to £2,304,446. Total trade between t h e Falkland Islands a n d U K (British D e p a r t m e n t of T r a d e returns, in $1,000 sterling): ^ ] m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

7,434 9,502

14,286 11,135

8,148 7,353

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 2 7 k m of m a d e - u p roads in a n d a r o u n d Stanley a n d a n o t h e r 54 k m of all-weather road between Stanley a n d M o u n t Pleasant A i r p o r t . O t h e r settlem e n t s outside Stanley are linked b y tracks, which are passable, with high axle clearing four-wheel drive vehicles in all b u t the worst weather. W o r k has recently r e c o m m e n c e d on t h e construction of an all-weather track linking the Estancia F a r m with the Stanley t o M o u n t Pleasant R o a d which h e l p towards o p e n i n g u p the n o r t h of East Falkland. T h e G o v e r n m e n t is also providing assistance t o f a r m s which wish to i m p r o v e tracks a n d bridges to their i m m e d i a t e area. Aviation. Air c o m m u n i c a t i o n is currently via Ascension Island. A n e w a i r p o r t , completed in 1986, is sited at M o u n t Pleasant on East Falkland. R A F Tristar aircraft operate a twice-weekly service between t h e Falklands a n d t h e U K . Internal air links are provided by the g o v e r n m e n t operated air service, which carries passengers, mail, freight a n d medical patients between the settlements a n d Stanley o n non-scheduled flights in Islander aircraft.

466

FALKLAND

ISLANDS

Shipping. A charter vessel calls 4 or 5 times a year to/from the UK. There is occasional direct communication with South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands and the British Antarctic Territory by the Royal research ships John Biscoe and Bransfield and by the ice-patrol vessel HMS Endurance. Vessels of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary run regularly to South Georgia. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1987) 560. International direct dialling is available, as are international telex and facsimile links. Plans to update the telecommunications network were being considered in 1987. There is a government-operated broadcasting station at Stanley. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court, and a Court of Appeal sits in the United Kingdom; appeals may go from that court to the judicial committee of the Privy Council. Judges have security of tenure and may only be removed for inability or misbehaviour on the advice of the judicial committee of the Privy Council. The senior resident judicial officer is the Senior Magistrate. There is an Attorney General and a Crown Solicitor but no lawyers in private practice. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 15 years. In Feb. 1987 there were 351 children receiving education in the Colony. Almost 75% attended schools in Stanley, the others were taught in settlement schools or by itinerant teachers. 5 children were being educated abroad. Health. The Government Medical Department is responsible for all medical services to civilians. The Chief Medical Officer advises the Government on policy, and is chairman of the Board of Health responsible for public health. Medical services for the Islands are run from a temporary hospital; a new hospital and some sheltered accommodation was completed in March 1987. Services include all primary care for Stanley and the flying doctor service for outlying farm settlements. W I L D LIFE. The Falkland Islands are noted for their outstanding wild life, including penguin and seal. Four Nature Reserves have been declared and 18 Wild Animal and Bird Sanctuaries gazetted. The brown trout introduced between 1947 and 1952 can now be found in nearly all the rivers and there are good runs of seatrout during spring and autumn. Books of Reference Falkland Islands: The Facts. H M S O , London, 1982 Falkland Islands Journal. Stanley, from 1967 Falkland Islands Review [Franks Report] C m n d . 8787. H M S O , London, 1983 Falklands/Malvinas, Whose Crisis?Latin American Bureau, London, 1982 Calvert, P., The Falklands Crisis: The Rights and the Wrongs. London, 1982 H a n r a h a n , B., and Fox, R., 'I counted them all out and I counted them all back'. London, 1982 Hastings, M., and Jenkins, S., The Battle for the Falklands. London, 1983 H o f f m a n n , F. L., and Hoffmann, O. M., Sovereignty in Dispute. London, 1984 Phipps, C., What Future for the Falklands? London, 1977 Shackleton, E„ Falkland Islands Economic Study 1982. H M S O , London, 1982 Strange, I. J., The Falkland Islands. 3rd ed. Newton Abbot, 1983.—The Falkland Islands and their Natural History. Newton Abbot, 1987

FIJI

Capital: Suva Population: 714,000 (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,700 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . The Fiji Islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643 and visited by Capt. Cook in 1774, but first recorded in detail by Capt. Bligh after the mutiny of the Bounty (1789). In the 19th century the search for sandalwood, in which enormous profits were made, brought many ships. Deserters and shipwrecked men stayed on; firearms salvaged from wrecks were used in native wars, new diseases swept the islands, and rum and muskets became regular articles of trade. Tribal wars became bloody and general until Fiji was ceded to Britain on 10 Oct. 1874, after a previous offer of cession had been refused. British administrators produced order out of chaos, and since then there has been steady political, social and economic progress. Fiji gained independent status on 10 Oct. 1970. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Fiji comprises about 332 islands and islets (about 110 inhabited) lying between 15° and 22° S. lat. and 174° E. and 177° W. long. The largest is Viti Levu, area 10,429 sq. km (4,027 sq. miles), next is Vanua Levu, area 5,556 sq. km (2,145 sq. miles). The island of Rotuma (47 sq. km, 18 sq. miles), about 12° 30' S. lat., 178° E. long., was added to the colony in 1881. Total area, 7,078 sq. miles(18,333 sq. km). A population census is taken every 10 years. Total population (census, Aug. 1986), 714,000; average annual increase about 1-9%. The 1986 total population consisted of the following: 330,000 (46-2%) Fijians; 347,000 (48-6%) Indians; 37,000 (5-2%) were of other races. Suva, the capital, is on the south coast of Viti Levu; population (1982), 71,255. Suva was proclaimed a city on 2 Oct. 1953. Lautoka had 26,000 in 1982. Vital statistics, 1984: Crude birth rate per 1,000 population, Fijian, 29 -2, Indian, 27-5; crude death rate per 1,000 population, Fijian, 4 • 2, Indian, 4 -9. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but oceanic influences prevent undue extremes of heat or humidity. The S.E. Trades blow from May to Nov., during which time nights are cool and rainfall amounts least. Suva. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 73°F (22 -8°C). Annual rainfall 117" (2,974 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Following a military coup in May 1987 the government was removed from office by the Governor-General who took temporary control of the administration. A second coup led by Col. Rabuka took place in Sept. and Fiji was declared a Republic and membership of the Commonwealth lapsed. President: Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau, GCMG, KCVO, KBE, DSO. Prime Minister and Minister for Foreign Affairs: Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara, GCMG, KBE. Home Affairs, National Youth Service and Auxiliary Army Services: Brig. Sitiveni Rabuka. Fijian Affairs: Col. Vatiliai Navunisaravi. Finance and Economic Planning: Josefata Kamikamica. Education: Filipe Bole. Primary Industries: Viliame Gonelevu. Trade and Commerce: Berenado Vunibobo. Health: Dr Apenisa Kurisaqila. Communications, Works and Transport: Apisai Tora. Attorney-General and Justice: Sailosi Kepa. Tourism, Civil Aviation and Energy: David Pickering. Youth and Sport: Col. Ilaisa Kacisolomone. Rural Development and Rural Housing: Col. Apolosi Biuvakaloloma. Indian Affairs: Irene Jai Narayan. Forests: Ratu Sir Josaia Tavaiqia. Employment and Industrial Relations: Taniela Veitata. Co-operatives and National Marketing Authority: Ishwari Bajpai. Women's Affairs and Social Welfare: Finau Tabakaucord. Housing and Urban Development: Tomasi Vakatora. Lands and Mineral Resources: Ratu William Toganivalu. Information: Charles Walker. 467

468

FIJI

Flag: Light blue with the Union Flag in the canton and the shield of Fiji in the fly.

Local Government. Fiji is divided into 14 provinces, each with its own council under which 188 Tikina Councils have been established. The number of Tikina Councils within a province varies from 4 to 22. Tikina Councils have wide powers to make by-laws and levy rates to raise revenue. 50% of the rates collected is credited to the Provincial Council treasury for the running of the Council and 50% is used for the financing of the Tikina and village projects. DEFENCE. The Fiji Military Forces are for the defence of Fiji, maintenance of law and order and provision of forces to international peace-keeping agencies overseas. The forces have two overseas battalions and regular and territorial units at home. Total active strength (1988)2,600 (reserves, 5,000). Navy. A naval division was authorized in 1974 to perform fishery protection, surveillance, hydrographic surveying and coastguard duties. Present strength is 3 coastal minesweepers (ex-US MSC), 1 utility vessel and 2 survey craft. Naval personnel in 1988 numbered 150 officers and ratings. Training is carried out in Australia, New Zealand, USA and Hong Kong. The naval base is HMFS Viti in Suva. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Fiji is a member of the UN, the Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Forum and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The financial year corresponds with the calendar year. All figures are in $lm. Fijian. ¡ m m l m 2 /9Si m 4 Revenue Expenditure

259 4 239-6

258-3 273-2

296-4 304-1

337-7 344-4

349-9 349-3

Currency. Fiji changed to decimal currency on 13 Jan. 1969, with the major unit being $F1. In March 1988, £1=$F2-57; US$=$F1-46. Banking. The National Bank of Fiji had, in 1985, deposits amounting to $F62-3m. due to 241,375 accounts. The headquarters are at Suva, and there are 11 branches, 35 postal agencies and 9 private agencies throughout Fiji. The Westpac Banking Corporation has 9 branches, 2 sub-branches and 18 agencies; the Bank of New Zealand has 8 branches, and 18 agencies; the Australia and New Zealand Bank has 9 branches and 7 agencies and the Bank of Baroda has 8 branches and 3 agencies in Fiji. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 220m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Some 600,000 acres of land are in agricultural use. Sugar-cane is the principal cash crop (production, 1986, 4-3m. tonnes), accounting for more than two-thirds of Fiji's export earnings; one quarter of the population depend on it directly or their livelihood. Copra, Fiji's second major cash crop (output, 1986, 22,000 tonnes), provides coconut oil and other products for export. Ginger is the third major export crop replacing bananas which has declined through disease and hurricane. Production, 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 28; maize, 2; fruit, 18; vegetables, 16. Tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated. There is a small, but fast developing, livestock industry. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 159,000; horses, 42,000; goats, 56,000; pigs, 31,000; poultry, lm. Forestry. Fiji supplies the bulk of its own timber requirements. A comprehensive pine scheme has been implemented with the aim of planting 186,000 acres by 1988. Fisheries. Catch (1985) 15,900 tonnes. Exports (1986) F$20m.

FIJI

469

INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Major industries include 4 large sugar-mills, the goldmines (1,865 kg in 1985) and 2 mills which process copra into coconut oil and coconut meal. There is a great variety of light industries. Trade Unions. In 1985 there were 46 trade unions operating with about 45,000 members. Commerce. Exports in 1985, $F263,887,000 (including re-exports). Imports, $F508,191,000. Chief exports: Sugar, gold, molasses and canned fish. Total trade between Fiji and UK. (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ]gg2 m } m 4 i m l m i m Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

39,826 9,088

46,943 12,184

70,209 11,281

36,328 9,843

66,500 8,775

53,062 7,381

Tourism. In 1986, there were 260,000 visitors. Earnings (1986) $F185m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage is 2,996, of which 376 are sealed (paved), 2,534 are gravelled and 86 are unimproved. In 1985, there were 66,287 vehicles including 27,699 private cars, 21,539 goods vehicles, 1,260 buses, 4,366 tractors, 4,754 taxis and 6,669 rental and hire cars and others. Railway. Fiji Sugar Cane Corporation runs 600 mm gauge railways at four of its mills on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, totalling 595 km. Aviation. Fiji provides an essential staging point for long-haul trunk-route aircraft operating between North America, Australia and New Zealand. Under the South Pacific Air Transport Council, which comprises the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji, the international airport at Nadi has been developed and administered. Eighteen other airports are in use for domestic services. Shipping. The 3 ports of entry are Suva, Lautoka and Leuuka. In 1985, 1,313 vessels called at Suva, 780 at Lautoka and 1,004 at Leuuka. Local shipping provides services to scattered outer islands of the group. Post. There are 43 post offices and 176 postal agencies. Overseas telephone and telegram services are available through the Commonwealth cable to most countries except those in the South Pacific, which are served by direct radio circuits. The automatic telex network operates through New Zealand into the international telex system. There are ship-to-shore radio facilities. There were 53,228 telephones in 1985. Cinemas. In 1979 there were 48 cinemas with a seating capacity of28,100. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. An independent Judiciary is guaranteed under the Constitution of Fiji. The Constitution allows for a Supreme Court of Fiji which has unlimited original jurisdiction to hear and determine any civil or criminal proceedings under any law. The Supreme Court also has jurisdiction to hear and determine constitutional and electoral questions including the membership of members of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Chief Justice of Fiji is appointed by the Governor-General acting after consultation with the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Fiji Court of Appeal of which the Chief Justice is ex officio President is formed by four specially appointed Justices of Appeal. The Justices of Appeal are appointed by the Governor-General acting after consultation with the Judicial and Legal Services Commission. Generally any person convicted of any offence has a right of appeal from the Supreme Court to the Fiji Court of Appeal. The final appellant court is the Privy Council. Most matters coming before the Superior Courts originate in Magistrates' Courts. Police. The Royal Fiji Police Force had (1986) a total strength of 1,510.

470

FIJI

Religion. The 1976 census showed: Christians, 299,960; Hindus, 234,520; Moslems, 45,247; Confucians, 731. Education (1984). School attendance is not compulsory in Fiji. There were 1,069 schools scattered over 56 islands, staffed by 7,615 teachers, of whom about 93% were trained. There were also 219 pre-schools. The 665 primary and 139 secondary schools had 166,617 pupils. The technical and vocational schools had 3,708 students and the teachers' colleges 181. There were 3 teacher-training colleges, 1 medical and 2 agricultural schools. The University of the South Pacific (USP) opened in Feb. 1968 at Laucala Bay in Suva. In 1985 there were about 2,000 students enrolled in courses on campus and about 6,000 enrollments in extension services. The University has an operating budget of $F12 • 13m. a year provided by the 11 countries it serves. Total government expenditure on education in 1984 (including USP) was $F80,863,000. Health. In 1984 there were 27 hospitals with 1,736 beds, 339 doctors, 50 dentists and 1,406 nurses. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Fiji in Great Britain (34 Hyde Park Gate, London, SW7 5DN) Ambassador: Brig. Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. Of Great Britain in Fiji (47 Gladstone Rd., Suva) Ambassador: R. A. R. Barltrop, CMG, CVO. Of Fiji in the USA (2233 Wisconsin Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Chargé d'Affaires: Abdul Yusuf. Of the USA in Fiji (31 Loftus St., Suva) Ambassador: Edric Sherman. Of Fiji to the United Nations Ambassador: Winston Thompson. Books of Reference Statistical Information: A Bureau of Statistics was set up in 1950 (Government Buildings, Suva). Trade Report. Annual (from 1887 [covering 1883-86]). Bureau of Statistics, Suva. Journal of the Fiji Legislative Council. Annual (from 1914 [under different title from 1885]). Suva Fiji Today. Suva, Annual Fiji Facts and Figures. Suva, 1986 Report of Commission of Inquiry Into Natural Resources and Population Trends in Fiji. Suva, Government Press, 1960 Ali, A., Plantations to Politics, studies on Fiji Indians. Suva, 1980 Capell, A., New Fijian Dictionary. 2nded. Glasgow, 1957 Ravuvu, A., Vaka i Taukei: The Fijian Way of Life. Suva, 1983 Scarr, D., Fiji. A Short History. Sydney, 1984 Wright, R„ On Fiji Islands. London, 1987

Capital: Helsinki Population:4-93m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 14,302 ( 1986)

FINLAND Suomen Tasavalta— Republiken Finland

H I S T O R Y . Since the Middle Ages Finland was a part of the realm of Sweden. In the 18th century parts of south-eastern Finland were conquered by Russia, and the rest of the country was ceded to Russia by the peace treaty of Hamina in 1809. Finland became an autonomous grand-duchy which retained its previous laws and institutions under its Grand Duke, the Emperor of Russia. After the Russian revolution Finland declared itself independent on 6 Dec. 1917. The Civil War began in Jan. 1918 between the 'whites' and 'reds', the latter being supported by Russian bolshevik troops. The defeat of the red guards in May 1918 consequently meant freeing the country from Russian troops. A peace treaty with Soviet Russia was signed in 1920. On 30 Nov. 1939 Soviet troops invaded Finland, after Finland had rejected territorial concessions demanded by the USSR. These, however, had to be made in the peace treaty of 12 March 1940, amounting to 32,806 sq. km and including the Carelian Isthmus, Viipuri and the shores of Lake Ladoga. When the German attack on the USSR was launched in June 1941 Finland again became involved in the war against the USSR. On 19 Sept. 1944 an armistice was signed in Moscow. Finland agreed to cede to Russia the Petsamo area in addition to cessions made in 1940 (total 42,934 sq. km) and to lease to Russia for 50 years the Porkkala headland to be used as a military base. Further, Finland undertook to pay 300m. gold dollars in reparations within 6 years (later extended to 8 years). The peace treaty was signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947. The payment of reparations was completed on 19 Sept. 1952. The military base of Porkkala was returned to Finland on 26 Jan. 1956. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Finland is bounded north-west and north by Norway, east by the USSR, south by the Baltic Sea and west by the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden. The area and the population of Finland on 31 Dec. 1986 (Swedish names in brackets): Population Area Province Uusimaa (Nyland) Turku-Pori (Abo-Bjorneborg) Ahvenanmaa (Aland) Hame (Tavastehus) K.ymi (Kymmene) Mikkeli (St Michel) Pohjois-Karjala (Norra Karelen) Kuopio Keski-Suomi (Mellersta Finland) Vaasa (Vasa) Oulu(UleSborg) Lappi (Lappland)

1

(sq. km) 1 9,898 22,170 1,527 17,010 10,783 16,342 17,782 16,511 16,230 26,447 56,866 93,057

Population 2 1,200,485 713,896 23,640 680,091 338,983 208,726 177,288 256,213 247,995 444,777 432,979 200,571

per sq. km2 121-3 32-2 15-5 40-0 31-4 12-8 100 15-5 15-3 16-8 7-6 2-2

4,925,644 16-2 Total 304,623 2 Excluding inland water area which totals 3 3,522 sq. km. Resident population.

The growth of the population, which was 421,500 in 1750, has been: End of year 1800 1900 1950 1960 1970 1980 1986

Urban 46,600 333,300 1,302,400 1,707,000 2,340,300 2,865,100 2,948,000

Rural 786,100 2,322,600 2,727,400 2,739,200 2,258,000 1,922,700 1,977,600

471

Total 832,700 2,655,900 4,029,800 4,446,200 4,598,300 4,787,800 4,925,600

urban 5-6 12-5 32-3 38-4 50-9 59-8 59-9

472

FINLAND

The population on 31 Dec. 1986 by language primarily spoken: Finnish, 4,611,856; Swedish, 298,295; other languages, 13,767; Lappish, 1,726. The principal towns with resident census population, 31 Dec. 1986, are (Swedish names in brackets): Helsinki (Helsingfors)—capital (metropolitan area) Tampere (Tammerfors) (metropolitan area) Turku (Abo) (metropolitan area) Espoo (Esbo) Vantaa (Vanda) Oulu (Uleàborg) Lahti Kuopio Pori (Bjorneborg) Jyvaskyla Kotka Vaasa (Vasa) Lappeenranta (Villmanstrand) Joensuu Hameenlinna (Tavastehus) Hyvinkaa (Hy vinge)

487,581 965,233 169,994 256,080 161,188 260,532 160,406 146,425 97,869 94,205 78,529 77,805 65,442 58,367 54,253 53,917 47,017 42,326 38,843

Kajaani Imatra Kokkola (Gamlakarleby) Rovaniemi Kouvola Mikkeli (St Michel) R a u m a (Raumo) Savonlinna (Nyslott) Jàrvenpaà Seinajoki Kerava Kemi Varkaus Riihimaki Nokia Iisalmi Tornio Valkeakoski Kuusankoski

Vital statistics in calendar years: 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Living births 63,064 63,469 66,106 66,076 65,076 62,796 60,799

Ofwhich illegitimate 8,247 8,431 9,007 9,386 9,825 10,292

Still-born 266 260 263 268 260 241 191

Marriages 29,388 30,100 30,459 29,474 28,550 25,751 25,866

36,127 34,802 34,615 32,769 31,917 31,763 30,909 28,608 27,976 26,578 26,510 26,218 25,039 24,599 24,549 23,617 22,465 22,442 21,976

Deaths (exclusive of still-born) Emigration 14,824 44,398 44,404 10,042 43,408 7,403 45,388 6,822 45,098 7,467 48,198 7,739 47,117 8,517

In 1986 the rate per 1,000 was: Births, 12-4; marriages, 5-6; deaths, 9-6, and infantile deaths (1985, per 1,000 live births), 6 • 2. Population and Housing Census 1980. 19vols. Helsinki, 1981-83 Population. Annual. Helsinki

C L I M A T E . The climate is severe in winter, which lasts about 6 months, but mean temperatures in south and south-west are less harsh, 21°F (-6°C). In the north, mean temperatures may fall to 8-5°F (-13°C). Snow covers the ground for three months in the south and for over six months in the far north. Summers are short but quite warm, with occasional very hot days. Precipitation is light throughout the country, with one third falling as snow, the remainder mainly as convectional rain in summer and autumn. Helsinki (Helsingfors). Jan. 2 P F (-6°C), July 62° F (16 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 24-7" (618 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Finland is a republic according to the Constitution o f l 7 J u l y l 9 1 9 . Parliament consists of one chamber of 200 members chosen by direct and proportional election in which all Finnish citizens (men or women) who are 18 years have the vote (since 1972). The country is divided into 15 electoral districts with a representation proportional to their population. Every citizen over the age of 18 is eligible for Parliament, which is elected for 4 years, but can be dissolved sooner by the President. The President is elected for 6 years by a college of 301 electors, elected by the votes of the citizens in the same way as the members of Parliament. President of Finland: Dr Mauno Koivisto (elected 1982, re-elected 1988). State of Parties for Parliament elected on 15-16 March 1987: Conservative 53; Swedish Party, 13 (including 1 for Coalition of Aland); Centre, 40; Rural, 9; Social Democratic Party, 56; People's Democratic League, 16; Christian League, 5; the Greens, 4; Democratic Alternative, 4.

FINLAND

473

The Council of State (Cabinet), composed as follows in Jan. 1988: Prime Minister: Harri Holkeri. Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Affairs: Kalevi Sorsa. Minister of State, Prime Minister's Office: Ilkka Kanerva. Finance: Erkki Liikanen. Finance (Deputy): Ulla Puolanne. Education: Christoffer Taxell. Education (Deputy): Anna-Liisa Piipari. Social Affairs and Health: Helena Pesola. Social Affairs and Health (Deputy): Taija Halonen. Justice: Matti Louekoski. Agriculture and Forestry: Toivo T. Pohjala. Transport and Communication: Pekka Vennamo. Labour: Matti Puhakka. Trade and Industry: Ilkka Suominen. Defence: Ole Norrback. Environment: Kaj Barlund. Interior: Jarmo Rantanen. Foreign Trade: Pertti Salolainen. Nationalflag: White with a blue Scandinavian cross. National anthem: Maamme; Swedish: Vart land (words by J. L. Runeberg, 1843; tune by F. Pacius, 1848). Finnish and Swedish are the official languages of Finland. Local Government. For administrative purposes Finland is divided into 12 provinces (laani, Sw.: Ian). The administration of each province is entrusted to a governor (maaherra, Sw.: landshovding) appointed by the President. He directs the activities of the provincial office (laaninhallitus, Sw.: lansstyrelse) and of local sheriffs (nimismies, Sw.: lansman). In 1986 the number of sheriff districts was 225. The unit of local government is the commune. Main fields of communal activities are local planning, roads and harbours, sanitary services, education, health services and social aid. The communes raise taxes independent from state taxation. Two different kinds of communes are distinguished: Urban communes (kaupunki, Sw.: stad) and rural communes. In 1987 there were altogether 461 communes of which 94 were urban and 367 rural. In all communes communal councils are elected for terms of 4 years; all inhabitants (men and women) of the commune who have reached their 18th year are entitled to vote and eligible. The executive power is in each commune vested in a board which consists of members elected by the council and one or a few chief officials of the commune. Several communes often form an association for the administration of some common institution, e.g., a hospital or a vocational school. The autonomous county (landskap) of Aland has a county council (landsting) of one chamber, elected according to rule corresponding to those for parliamentary elections. In addition to its provincial governor it has a county board with executive power in matters within the field of the autonomy of the county. Constitution Act and Parliament Act of Finland. Helsinki, 1978

D E F E N C E . The period of military training is 240 to 330 days and refresher training obligation 40 to 100 days between conscript service and age 50 (officers and NCOs age 60). Total strength of trained and equipped reserves is about 700,000. Army. The country is divided into 7 military areas. The Army consists of 1 armoured brigade, 7 infantry brigades, 7 independent infantry battalions, 2 fieldartillery regiments, 2 independent field-artillery battalions, 2 coastal artillery regiments, 3 independent coastal artillery battalions, 1 anti-aircraft regiment, 4 independent anti-aircraft battalions, 2 engineering battalions, 1 signals regiment and 1 signals battalion, making a total strength in 1988, of about 32,200. Navy. The Fleet comprises 1 ex-Soviet modified minelayer/training frigate, 2 corvettes, 1 coastal minelayer, 8 missile craft, 1 missile experimental craft, 6 fast patrol boats, 6 inshore minesweepers, 5 patrol boats capable of minelaying, 10 coastal patrol craft, 6 support ships, 1 headquarters ship, 10 transport craft, 14 landing craft, 2 tugs, 1 supply ship, 9 icebreakers and 1 cable ship. There is a naval academy. Personnel in 1988 totalled 2,500 (200 officers and 2,300 ratings). Air Force. The Air Force has 3 fighter squadrons, 1 transport squadron, a military school of aviation, a technical school, a signal school and a depot. The fighter squadrons have MiG-21bis and Saab J35 Draken aircraft. Other equipment includes 30 Valmet Vinka piston-engined primary trainers of Finnish design, 48 Hawk trainers, MiG-21U and Saab J35C jet advanced trainers, Fokker F.27 transport aircraft, Piper Arrow liaison aircraft, Leaijet 35A target tugs, Piper Chieftain

474

FINLAND

utility transports, and Mi-8 and Hughes 500 helicopters. Personnel (1988) 2,500 officers and men. Frontier Guard. Comprises 5 large patrol craft, 10 coastal craft and 36 coastal patrol boats. Personnel (1988) 3,500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Finland is a member of UN, the Nordic Council, OECD and EFT A. Treaties. A Treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance between Finland and the USSR was concluded in Moscow on 6 April 1948 for 10 years, extended on 19 Sept. 1955 to cover a period of 20 years, extended on 19 July 1970 for a further period of 20 years and extended again on 6 June 1983 for a further period of 20 years. Treaty of Peace with Finland (10 Feb. 1947). Cmd. 7484

ECONOMY Budget. Actual revenue and expenditure for the calendar years 1981-86, the ordinary budget for 1987 and the proposed budget for 1988 in 1 m. marks: Revenue Expenditure

1981 58,795 57,797

1982 63,043 68,008

1983 76,354 77,190

1984 86,611 85,748

1985 96,408 95,803

1986 96,769 95,172

1987 102,660 102,628

1988 113,817 113,816

Of the total revenue, 1986, 26% derived from sales tax, 26% from income and property tax, 12% from excise duties, 11% from other taxes and similar revenue, 13% from loans and 12% from miscellaneous sources. Of the total expenditure, 1985, 16% went to education and culture, 17% to social security, 8% to transport, 9% to agriculture and forestry, 9% to general administration, public order and safety, 8% to health, 4% to communities and housing policy, 5% to defence, 3% to promotion ofindustry and 21% to other expenditures. At the end of Dec. 1986 the foreign loans totalled 26,98 lm. marks. The internal loans amounted to 25,013m. marks, of which, 20,872m. were long-term loans. The cash surplus was 145m. marks. The total public debt was 46,981 m. marks. Currency. The unit of currency, starting 1 Jan. 1963, is the new mark of 100 pennis, equalling 100 old marks. The gold standard was suspended on 12 Oct. 1931. Aluminium bronze coins are 5 marks 50,20 and 10 pennis", copper coins, 5 pennis; aluminium coins, 10 and 5 pennis; silver, 1 mark pieces. Exchange rate in March 1988:7 -22 marks=£1; 4 -08 marks=US$1. Banking. The Bank of Finland (founded in 1811) is owned by the State and under the guarantee and supervision of Parliament. It is the only bank of issue, and the limit of its right to issue notes is fixed equal to the value of its assets of gold and foreign holdings plus 500m. marks. Notes of 1,000, 500, 100, 50 and 10 marks are in circulation, and their total value at the end of 1985 was 7,303m. marks. At the end of 1985 the deposits in banking institutions totalled 148,222m. marks and the loans granted by them 150,717m. marks. The most important groups of b a n k i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s were:

Number of Deposits Loans institutions offices (lm. marks) (lm. marks) Commercial banks 7 1,535 54,534 62,871 Savings banks 254 1,332 41,562 36,982 Postipankki 1 48' 17,380 15,271 Co-operative banks 370 1,465 34,746 35,593 ' In addition: 2,997 post offices. Bank of Finland Monthly Bulletin. Helsinki, from 1926 Unitas. Quarterly Review, issued by Union Bank of Finland. Helsinki, from 1929 Economic Review (issued quarterly by Kansallis-Osake-Pankki). Helsinki, from 1948 Numberof

Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was introduced in 1887 and is officially and universally employed. Economic Survey of Finland. Annual

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity production was (in lm. kwh.) 8,605 in 1960; 22,562 in 1970; 38,710 in 1980; 39,354 in 1982; 40,120 in 1983; 43,311 in 1984; 47,316

475

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in 1985, of which 26% was hydro-electric; 45,590 in 1986. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. The most important mines are Outokumpu (copper, discovered in 1910) and Otanmaki (iron, discovered in 1953). In 1986 the metal content (in tonnes) of the output of copper concentrates was 24,100, of zinc concentrates 60,300, of nickel concentrates 11,300, of iron concentrates and pellets 643,000 and of lead concentrates 1,980. Agriculture. The cultivated area covers only 9% of the land and of the economically active population 10-3% were employed in agriculture and forestry in 1985. The arable area was divided in 1983 into 208,229 farms, and the distribution of this area by the size of the farms was: Less than 5 hectares cultivated, 61,764 farms; 5-20 hectares, 115,157 farms; 20-50 hectares, 28,091 farms; 50-100 hectares, 2,835 farms; over 100 hectares, 382 farms. The principal crops (area (1987) in 1,000 hectares, yield in tonnes) were in 1986: Crop Rye Barley Wheat

Area 27 598 166

Yield

Crop

70,600 1,713,800 529,100

Oats Potatoes Hay

Area 407 40 387

Yield 1,174,500 773,200 1,564,100

The total area under cultivation in 1986 was 2,157,700 hectares. Production of dairy butter in 1986 was 65,605 tonnes, and of cheese, 83,370 tonnes. Livestock (1987): Horses, 18,400; cattle, 1,497,900; pigs, 1,341,900; poultry, 6,790,700; reindeer, 366,000. Forestry. The total forest land amounts to 30-31 m. hectares. The productive forest land covers 19-73m. hectares. The growing stock was valued at 1,520m. cu. metres in 1971-76 and the annual growth at 57 -4m. cu. metres. In 1984 there were exported: Round timber, 1,056,334 cu. metres; sawn wood, 4,820,969 cu. metres; plywood and veneers, 685,530 cu. metres. Monthly Review of Agriculture. Board of Agriculture Agriculture 1982: Annual Statistics of Agriculture. Helsinki

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The following data cover establishments with a total personnel of 5 or m o r e i n 1 9 8 6 1:

Value

of

production Value added (lm. marks) 1,272 568 706 84,032 11,491 5,201 1,785

Gross EstablishPerson(lm. Industry ments2 nel' marks) Mining and quarrying 118 5,647 2,010 Metal ore mining 11 2,590 798 Other mining 107 3,059 1,215 Manufacturing 7,208 478,746 220,152 Manufacture o f f o o d , beverages and tobacco 1,029 57,110 42,687 Textile, wearing apparel and leather industries 877 52,144 11,360 Manufacture of textiles 278 14,536 3,908 Manufacture of wearing apparel, except footwear 426 28,342 5,235 2,526 Manufacture of wood and wood products, incl. furniture 1,045 45,562 15,257 5,350 Manufacture of paper and paper prod., printing, publishing 966 79,454 51,728 19,103 Manufacture of paper and paper products 199 41,381 38,491 11,372 Printing, publishing, etc. 767 38,317 13,488 7,904 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products 476 38,333 25,984 9,005 Manufacture ofindustrial chemicals 163 14,123 10,230 4,093 Manufacture of other chemical products 104 10,189 4,313 2,325 Petroleum refineries 2 2,580 7,573 616 Manufacture ofnon-metallic mineral products 443 20,616 6,584 3,634 Basic metal industries 85 18,400 14,536 3,744 Iron and steel basic industries 57 13,498 9,936 2,936 Non-ferrous metal basic industries 28 4,904 4,605 808 1 2 J Preliminary. 1985. Working proprietors, salaried employees and wage earners.

476

FINLAND Value of production Value Gross added (lm. (lm. marks) marks)

EstablishPersonIndustry ments1 nel2 Manufacture offabricated metal products, machinery, etc. 2,184 162,148 51,379 Manufacture offabricated metal products, excl. machinery 791 32,259 9,568 Manufacture of machinery, except electrical 757 55,680 17,982 Manufacture ofelectrical machinery, apparatus, etc. 240 31,953 10,548 Manufacture of transport equipment 306 36,831 11,690 Other manufacturing industries 103 4,778 1,160 Electricity, gas and water 536 28,325 27,870 All industry 7,862 512,793 249,753 2 ' 1985. Working proprietors, salaried employees and wage earners.

25,762 4,972 9,683 5,647 4,534 677 10,171 95,426

G D P (at market prices) per capita (1986) 72,526 marks. Industrial Statistics of Finland. Annual

Commerce. Imports and exports for calendar years, in 1 m. marks: Imports Exports

1982 64,751 63,026

1983 71,528 69,692

1984 74,682 80,904

1985 81,520 84,028

1986 77,602 82,579

The trade with some principal import and export countries was (in 1,000 marks): Country Australia Austria Belgium-Luxembourg Brazil Canada China Colombia Czechoslovakia Denmark France German Dem. Rep. Germany (Fed. Rep.) Greece Hungary Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Japan Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Saudi Arabia Spain Sweden Switzerland USSR UK USA

Imports 1986 1985 241,037 249,647 461,400 1,015,166 1,632,396 1,898,600 601,474 519,441 572,790 409,536 216,009 276,537 473,702 627,620 387,442 368,615 2,036,248 2,180,946 2,763,937 3,458,835 406,498 438,378 12,179,977 13,159,293 141,113 157,584 283,096 269,456 984,592 192,140 142 323 374,586 309,516 174,024 193,106 3,526,004 2,754,045 4,308,854 5,021,830 2,400,413 2,369,031 1,955,231 1,713,455 1,211,386 954,877 576,859 677,560 1,332,715 731,005 811,634 872,452 9,620,478 10,558,463 1,364,127 1,579,1 15 17,152,616 11,933,002 5,848,002 5,055,640 4,400,990 3,721,745

1985 943,954 596,620 1,267,176 145,691 998,244 633,938 118,702 275,936 3,402,643 3,298,297 388,681 7,778,974 419,525 291,341 220,995 264,792 418,429 256,409 1,687,567 1.223,447 2,773,066 3,518,820 333,179 258,343 535,196 687,501 11,084,644 1,210,567 18,099,425 9,075,999 5,308,200

Exports 1986 818,998 780,888 1,409,646 199,120 909,917 558,831 89,360 296,835 3,321,407 3,690,723 271,343 8,016,002 409,177 253,182 129,322 197,534 455,568 270,110 1,741,234 1,265,633 2,854,576 3,714,877 237,709 215,028 380,919 876,116 12,228,313 1,331,434 16,773,798 8,667,112 4,479,560

Principal imports 1985 (in lm. marks): Machinery, apparatus and appliances, 24,246; mineral fuels, lubricants, etc., 19,887; chemicals, 7,919; food and live animals, 4,027; road vehicles, 5,494; crude materials, inedible, except fuels, 5,018; textile yarn, fabrics, etc., 3,048; iron and steel, 2,852. Principal exports in 1985 (in lm. marks): Paper and paper-board, 21,067;

FINLAND

477

machinery and transport equipment, 21,128; wood shaped or simply worked, 4,000; wood pulp, 3,428; ships, 5,506; clothing, 3,233; veneers, plywood, etc., and other wood manufactures, 1,513; food and live animals, 2,490; road vehicles, 1,474. Total trade between Finland and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡9S3 m 4 m 5 m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK Foreign Trade. Annual

995,017 1,248,561 1,324,792 1,346,058 539,721 684,477 705,365 664,451

1,539,011 797,236

Tourism. In 1986 tourism contributed 3,026m. marks to the economy. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Jan. 1987 there were 76,223 km of public roads, of which 42,989 km were paved. At the end of 1986 there were 1,619,848 registered cars, 51,747 lorries, 135,718 vans and pick-ups, 9,166 buses and coaches and 12,470 special automobiles. Railways. On 31 Dec. 1986 the total length of the line operated was 5,905 km (1,445 km electrified), of which all except 6 km was owned by the State. The gauge was 1,524 mm. In 1986 the number of passengers carried was 35m. and the amount of goods carried was 97-7m. tonnes. The total revenue in 1986 was 2,797m. marks and the total expenditure 3,904m. marks. Aviation. The scheduled traffic of Finnish airlines covered 38m. km in 1986. The number of passengers was 2,987,844 and the number of passenger-km 2,935,896 The air transport of freight and mail amounted to 93m. tonne-km. Shipping. The total registered mercantile marine on 31 Dec. 1986 was 427 vessels of 1 -65m. gross tons. In 1986 the total number of vessels arriving in Finland from abroad was 15,350 and the goods discharged amounted to 29-9m. tonnes. The goods loaded for export from Finland ports amounted to 20-9m. tonnes. The lakes, rivers and canals are navigable for about 6,100 km. Timber floating is important, and there are about 9,200 km of floatable inland waterways. In 1986 bundle floating was about 4-8m. tonnes and free floating 1 -3m. tonnes. On 27 Aug. 1963 the USSR leased to Finland the Russian part of the canal connecting Lake Saimaa with the Gulf of Finland. After extensive rebuilding the canal was opened for traffic in 1968. The Saimaa Canal and deepwater channels on Lake Saimaa (755 km) can be used by vessels with dimensions not larger than as follows: length 82 metres, width 11 -8 metres, draught 4-2 metres and height of mast 24-5 metres. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 3,583 post offices and 576 telegraph offices. The total length of telegraph wires was 582,973 km and that of domestic trunk and net group telephone wires 6-8m. km. The number of telephones was (1985), 3,028,000. AH post and telegraph systems are administered by the State jointly with a large part of the telephone services. The total revenues from postal services were 3,020m. marks and from (wire and radio) telegraph services 3,072m. marks. On 31 Dec. 1985 the number of television licences was 1,822,372, of which licences for colour television, 1,534,899. Oy Yleisradio AB broadcasts 2 programmes in Finnish and 1 in Swedish on long-, medium- and short-waves, and on FM. Three TV programmes (1 commercial) are broadcast. Cinemas. In Dec. 1986 there were 344 cinemas with a seating capacity of 73,000. Newspapers. In 1985 the number of newspapers published more often than 3 times a week was 77, of which 66 were in Finnish and 11 in Swedish. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The lowest courts ofjustice are the municipal courts in towns and district courts in the country. Municipal courts are held by the burgomaster and at least 2 members of court, district court by judge and 5 jurors, the judge alone deciding, unless the jurors unanimously differ from him, when their decision prevails. From

478

FINLAND

these courts an appeal lies to the courts of appeal (Hovioikeus) in Turku, Vaasa, Kuopio, Helsinki, Kouvola and Rovaniemi. The Supreme Court (Korkein oikeus) sits in Helsinki. Appeals from the decisions of administrative authorities are in the final instance decided by the Supreme Administrative Court (Korkein hallintooikeus), also in Helsinki. Judges can be removed only by judicial sentence. Two functionaries, the Oikeuskansleri or Chancellor of Justice, and the Oikeusasiamies (ombudsman), or Solicitor-General, exercise control over the administration ofjustice. The former acts also as counsel and public prosecutor for the Government; while the latter, who is appointed by the Parliament, exerts a general control over all courts of law and public administration. At the end of 1986 the prison population numbered 4,128 men and 124 women; the number of convictions in 1985 was 325,057, of which 298,925 were for minor offences with maximum penalty of fines and 25,885 with penalty of imprisonment. 11,319 of the prison sentences were unconditional. Religion. Liberty of conscience is guaranteed to members of all religions. National churches are the Lutheran National Church and the Greek Orthodox Church of Finland. The Lutheran Church is divided into 8 bishoprics (Turku being the archiépiscopal see), 78 provostships and 595 parishes. The Greek Orthodox Church is divided into 3 bishoprics (Kuopio being the archiépiscopal see) and 25 parishes, in addition to which there are a monastery and a convent. Percentage of the total population at the end of 1985: Lutherans, 89 -2; Greek Orthodox, 1 1 ; others, 0-8; not members of any religion, 8-9. Education (198 5-86). Primary and Secondary

Education:

First-level Education (Lower sections of the comprehensive schools, grades I—VI) Second-level Education General education (Upper sections of the comprehensive schools, grades VIIIX, and senior secondary schools) Vocational education

Number of institutions Teachers 4,233 ... 1,673 1,093

580

Students 380,509 414,871 300,748

15,993

114,123

Higher Education. Education at the third level (including universities and third level education at vocational colleges) was provided for 127,976 students. Education at universities was provided at 20 institutions with 7,169 teachers and 92,230 students. University Education. Universities and similar types of institutions and the number of teachers and students are: Students Universities Helsinki Turku (Swedish) Turku (Finnish) Jyvàskylà Oulu Tampere Joensuu Kuopio Lapland Vaasa Universities of Technology Lappeenranta Helsinki Tampere College of Veterinary Medicine, Helsinki Schools ofEconomics and Business Administration Helsinki (Finnish) Helsinki (Swedish) Turku (Finnish) Swedish school of social work and local administration 1 1

Founded

Teachers

Total

Women

1640 1919 1922 1958 1958 1966 1969 1972 1979 1968

1,749 301 740 515 806 553 321 250 93 97

25,167 4,375 9,114 6,457 7,669 9,183 3,803 2,116 1,000 1,614

14,467 2,558 5,371 4,103 3,556 5,653 2,392 1,274 488 816

1969 1849 1972 1946

131 571 222 51

1,519 8,667 3,166 291

228 1,416 373 220

1911 1927 1950

170 92 67

3,099 1,644 1,463

1,330 699 682

Previously Swedish Civic College since 1943. Was united to Helsinki University 1984.

479

FINLAND

Universities of Art Sibelius Academy University oflndustrial Arts Theatre Academy

Founded 1939 1949 1979

Teachers 263 130 47

Students Total Women 980 757 146

536 473 69

General adult education (at civic institutes, folk high schools and study centres) had 894,000 students. General Education. Central Statistical Office, Helsinki (annual), Higher Education. Statistical Office, Helsinki (annual), Vocational Education. Helsinki (annual)

Central

Health. In 1985 there were 11,072 physicians, 4,595 dentists and 73,888 hospital beds. Social Security.The Social Insurance Institution administers general systems of old age pensions (to all persons over 65 years of age and disabled younger persons) and of health insurance. An additional system of compulsory old age pensions paid for by the employers is in force and works through the Central Pension Security Institute. Systems for child welfare, care of vagrants, alcoholics and drug addicts and other public aid are administered by the communes and supervised by the National Social Board and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health. The total cost of social security amounted to 87,253m. marks in 1985. Out of this 25,216m. (28-9%) was spent for health, 1,546m. (1-8%) for industrial accidents, 5,589m. (6-4%) for unemployment, 33,624m. (38-5%) old age and disability, 14,324m. (16-4%) for family allowances and child welfare, 818m. (0-9%) for general welfare purposes, 2,237m. (2 -6%) for war-disabled, etc., 1,156m. (1 -3%) as tax reductions for children. Out of the total expenditure 30% was financed by the State, 16% by local authorities, 42% by employers, 8% by the beneficiaries and 4% by users. Labour Protection in Finland. Helsinki, 1980 Social Welfare in Finland. Helsinki, 1980 Social Security in the Nordic Countries 1981. Statistical Reports of the Nordic Countries, vol. 44. Helsinki, 1984

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Finland in Great Britain (38 Chesham PL, London, SW1X8HW) Ambassador: Ilkka Olavi Pastinen, KCMG (accredited 24 Feb. 1983). Of Great Britain in Finland (16-20 Uudenmaankatu, Helsinki 00120) Ambassador: H. A. J. Staples, CMG. Of Finland in the USA (3216 New Mexico Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20016) Ambassador: Paavo Rantanen. Of the USA in Finland (Itainen Puistotie 14 A, Helsinki 00140) Ambassador: Rockwell A. Schnabel. Of Finland to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Keijo Korhonen. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office (Tilastokeskus, Swedish: Statistikcentralen; address: PO Box 504, SF-00101 Helsinki 10) was founded in 1865 to replace earlier official statistical services dating from 1749 (in united Sweden-Finland). Statistics on foreign trade, agriculture, forestry, navigation, health and social welfare are produced by other state authorities. Its publications include: Statistical Yearbook of Finland (from 1879) and Bulletin of Statistics (monthly, from 1924). A bibliography of all official statistics of Finland was published in Finnish, Swedish and English in Statistical publications 1856-1979. Helsinki, 1980. Constitution Act and Parliament Act of Finland. Helsinki, 1978 Suomen valtiokalenteri-Finlands statskalender (State Calendar of Finland). Helsinki. Annual Facts About Finland. Helsinki. Annual (Union Bank of Finland) Facts about Finland. Helsinki, 1987 Finland in Figures. Helsinki, Annual

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Finland in Maps. Helsinki, 1979 Finnish Press Laws. Helsinki, 1984 Making and Applying Law in Finland. Ministry of Justice, 1983 Statistical Yearbook of Finland. Helsinki, Annual Yearbook of Finnish Foreign Policy. Helsinki, Annual The Finnish Banking System. Helsinki, 1983 Finnish Industry. Helsinki, 1986 Finnish Local Government. Helsinki, 1982 Health Care in Finland. Helsinki, 1986 Hurme-Malin-Sy väoja, Finnish-English General Dictionary. Helsinki, 1984 Hurme-Pesonen, English-Finnish General Dictionary. Helsinki, 1982 Jutikkala, E., and Pinnen, K ,,A History of Finland. 3rded. New York, 1979 Kekkonen, V.,President's View. London, 1982 Kirby, D. G., Finland in the Twentieth Century. 2nd ed. London, 1984 Klinge, M„ A Brief History of Finland. Helsinki, 1987 Nousiainen, J., The Finnish Political System. Harvard Univ. Press, 1971 Paasivirta, J., Finland and Europe. The Period of Autonomy and the International Crises 1808-1914. London,1981 Polvinow, T., Between East and West - Finland in International Politics 1944-1947. Minnesota Univ. Press, 1986 Puntila, L. A., The Political History of Finland, 1809-1966. Helsinki, 1974 University ofTurku, Political Parties in Finland. Turku, 1984

Capital: Paris Population: 55-62m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$9,280 ( 1985)

FRANCE République Française

H I S T O R Y . The republic proclaimed on the fall of the Bourbon monarchy in 1792 lasted until the First Empire, under Napoleon I, was established in 1804. The Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814 and (with an interval during 1815) lasted until the abdication of Louis Philippe in 1848. The Second Republic was established on 12 March 1848, the Second Empire (under Louis Napoleon) on 2 Dec. 1852. The Third Republic was established on 4 Sept. 1870 following the capture and imprisonment of Louis Napoleon in the Franco-Prussian war, and lasted until the German occupation of 1940. The Fourth Republic was established on 24 Dec. 1946 and lasted until 4 Oct. 1958. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . France is bounded north by the English Channel (La Manche), north-east by Belgium and Luxembourg, east by Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland and Italy, south by the Mediterranean (with Monaco as a coastal enclave), south-west by Spain and Andorra, and west by the Atlantic Ocean The total area is 543,965 sq. km (210,033 sq. miles). The population (present in actual boundaries) at successive censuses has been: 1801 1821 1841 1861 1866 1872

27,349,003 30,461,875 34,230,178 37,386,313 38,067,064 36,102,921

1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931

37,672,048 38,342,948 38,961,945 39,604,992 39,209,518 41,834,923

Mar. 1946 May 1954 Mar. 1962 Mar. 1968 Feb. 1975 Mar. 1982

40,506,639 42,777,174 46,519,997 49,778,540 52,655,802 54,334,871

The 1982 total included 3,680,100 foreigners, of whom 795,920 were Algerian, 764,860 Portuguese, 431,120 Moroccan, 333,740 Italian and 321,440 Spanish. The latest population estimate (at 1 July 1987) is 55,622,000. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1981 1982 1983 1984

Marriages 315,117 312,405 300,513 281,402

Divorces 87,600 93,900 98,700 104,000

Live births 805,483 797,223 748,525 759,939

Stillborn 6,644 6,334 5,723 5,835

Deaths 554,823 543,104 559,655 542,490

Live birth rate in 1985 was 13-9 per 1,000 inhabitants; death rate, 10; marriage rate, 4-9; divorce rate, 2; infant mortality, 8 per 1,000 live births. Life expectation at birth (1984); men, 71-2; women, 79-3. Population growth rate (1985), 3 -9 per 1,000. Average density (1987) 102 persons per sq. km. The areas, populations and chief towns of the 22 Metropolitan regions were as follows: Regions Alsace Aquitaine Auvergne Basse-Normandie Bourgogne (Burgundy) Bretagne (Brittany) Centre Champagne-Ardenne Corse (Corsica) Franche-Comté Haute-Normandie

Area (sq. km) 8,280 41,308 26,013 17,589 31,582 27,208 39,151 25,606 8,680 16,202 12,317

Census March 1982 1,566,048 2,656,544 1,332,678 1,350,979 1,596,054 2,707,886 2,264,164 1,345,935 240,178 1,084,049 1,655,362

481

Estimate Jan. 1986 1,599,800 2,718,200 1,334,400 1,373,400 1,607,200 2,764,200 2,324,400 1,352,500 248,700 1,085,900 1,692,800

Chief town Strasbourg Bordeaux Clermont-Ferrand Caen Dijon Rennes Orléans Reims Ajaccio Besançon Rouen

482 Régions Île-de-France Languedoc-Roussillon Limousin Lorraine Midi-Pyrénées Nord-Pas-de-Calais Pays de la Loire Picardie Poitou-Charentes Provence-Côte d'Azur Rhône-Alpes

FRANCE Area (sq. km) 12,012 27,376 16,942 23,547 45,348 12,414 32,082 19,399 25,810 31,400 43,698

Census March ¡982 10,073,059 1,926,514 737,153 2,319,905 2,325,319 3,932,939 2,930,398 1,740,321 1,568,230 3,965,209 5,015,947

Estimate Jan. 1986 10,250,900 2,011,900 735,800 2,313,200 2,355,100 3,923,200 3,017,700 1,774,000 1,583,600 4,058,800 5,153,600

Chief town Paris Montpellier Limoges Nancy Toulouse Lille Nantes Amiens Poitiers Marseille Lyon

P o p u l a t i o n s o f the principal c o n u r b a t i o n s a n d t o w n s at C e n s u s 1982: Conurbation Paris 8,706,963 ' Lyon 1,220,844 2 1,110,511 Marseille Lille 936,295 ! 640,012 Bordeaux 541,271 Toulouse 464,857 Nantes 449,496 Nice Toulon 410,393 392,021 Grenoble Rouen 379,879 Strasbourg 373,470 Valenciennes 349,505 Lens 327,383 Saint-Étienne 317,228 306,982 Nancy Cannes 295,525 262,786 Tours Béthune 258,383 Clermont-Ferrand 256,189 Le Havre 254,595 Rennes 234,418 Montpellier 221,307 Mulhouse 220,613 Orléans 220,478 Dijon 215,865 Douai 202,366 201,145 Brest Reims 199,388 Angers 195,859 Dunkerque 195,705 Le Mans 191,080 Metz 186,437 Caen 183,526 Avignon 174,264 1

Town 2,188,918 418,476 878,689 174,039 211,197 354,289 247,227 338,486 181,985 159,503 105,083 252,264 40,881 38,307 206,688 99,307 72,787 136,483 26,105 151,092 200,411 200,390 201,067 113,794 105,589 145,569 44,515 160,355 181,985 141,143 73,618 150,331 118,502 117,119 91,474

Conurbation Limoges 171,689 Mantes-la-Jolie 170,265 Amiens 154,498 138,034 Thionville Perpignan 137,915 Nîmes 132,343 131,265 Pau Saint-Nazaire 130,271 128,194 Montbéliard Bayonne 127,477 126,552 Aix-en-Provence Troyes 125,240 Besançon 120,772 Hagondange-Briey 119,669 Annecy 112,632 Valence 106,041 105,714 Maubeuge Lorient 104,025 Angoulême 103,552 103,204 Poitiers La Rochelle 102,143 Calais 100,823 Forbach 99,606 Boulogne-sur-Mer 98,566 Chambéry 96,163 92,202 Bourges Cherbourg 85,485 Saint-Brieuc 83,900 82,505 Creil Melun 82,479 Colmar 82,468 Saint-Chamond 82,059 Roanne 81,786 Béziers 81,347 Arras 80,477

Town 144,082 43,585 136,358 41,448 113,646 129,924 85,766 68,947 33,362 42,970 124,550 64,769 119,687 9,091 51,593 68,157 36,156 64,675 50,151 82,884 78,231 76,935 27,321 48,349 54,896 79,408 30,112 51,399 36,128 36,218 63,764 40,571 49,638 78,477 45,364

Including towns of Boulogne-Billancourt (102,595), Argenteuil (96,045), Versailles (95,240), Montreuil (93,394), Saint-Denis (91,275), Nanterre (90,371) and Vitry-sur-Seine (85,820). 1 Including towns of Villeurbanne (118,330) and Vénissieux (64,982). 1 Including towns of Roubaix (101,836) and Tourcoing (97,121).

Recensement de la population de 1982. Paris, Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques, 1983 Scargill, I., Urban France. London, 1983 C L I M A T E . T h e north-west has a m o d e r a t e m a r i t i m e c l i m a t e , w i t h small t e m perature range a n d a b u n d a n t rainfall, b u t inland, rainfall b e c o m e s m o r e s e a s o n a l , w i t h a s u m m e r m a x i m u m , a n d the a n n u a l range o f t e m p e r a t u r e increases. S o u t h ern France has a Mediterranean c l i m a t e , w i t h m i l d m o i s t winters a n d hot dry s u m mers. Eastern France has a c o n t i n e n t a l c l i m a t e a n d a rainfall m a x i m u m in s u m m e r , with t h u n d e r s t o r m s prevalent.

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Paris. Jan. 37°F (3°C), July 64°F (18°C). Annual rainfall 22-9" (573 mm). Bordeaux. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 68°F (20°C). Annual rainfall 31-4" (786 mm). Lyon. Jan. 37°F (3°C), July 68°F(20°C). Annual rainfall 31-8" (794 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, superseding that of 1946, came into force on 4 Oct. 1958. It consists of a preamble, dealing with the Rights of Man, and 92 articles. France is a Republic, indivisible, secular, democratic and social; all citizens are equal before the law (Art. 2). National sovereignty resides with the people, who exercise it through their representatives and by referenda (Art. 3). Political parties carry out their activities freely, but must respect the principles of national sovereignty and democracy (Art. 4). The President of the Republic sees that the Constitution is respected; he ensures the regular functioning of the public authorities, as well as the continuity of the state. He is the protector of national independence and territorial integrity (Art. 5). He is elected for 7 years by direct universal suffrage (Art. 6). He appoints a Prime Minister and, on the latter's advice, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Government (Art. 8). He presides over the Council of Ministers (Art. 9). He can dissolve the National Assembly, after consultation with the Prime Minister and the Presidents of the two Houses (Art. 12). He appoints to the civil and military offices of the state (Art. 13). In times of crisis, he may take such emergency powers as the circumstances demand; the National Assembly cannot be dissolved during such a period (Art. 16). Previous Presidents of the Fifth Republic: General Charles André Joseph de Gaulle, 8 Jan. 1959-28 April 1969 (resigned); Alain Poher (interim), 28 April 1969-20 June 1969; Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou, 20 June 1969-2 April 1974 (died); Alain Poher (interim), 2 April 1974-27 May 1974; Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, 27 May 1974-21 May 1981. President of the Republic: François Mitterrand (elected 10 May 1981; took office 21 May 1981). The government determines and conducts the policy of the nation (Art. 20). The Prime Minister directs the operation of the Government, is responsible for national defence and ensures the execution of laws (Art. 21). Members of the Government must not be members of Parliament (Art. 23). The Council of Ministers was composed as follows in Jan. 1988: Prime Minister: Jacques Chirac (RPR). Minister of State for Economics, Finance and Privatization: Edouard Balladur (RPR). Justice, Keeper of the Seals: Albin Chalandon (RPR). Defence: André Giraud (UDF-PR). Culture and Communication: François Léotard (UDF-PR). Foreign Affairs: Jean-Bernard Raimond. Interior: Charles Pasqua (RPR). Housing, Transport and Urban Affairs: Pierre Méhaignerie (UDF-CDS). Overseas Departments and Territories: Bernard Pons (RPR). Education: René Monory (UDF-CDS). Employment and Social Affairs: Philippe Séguin (RPR). Industry, Posts and Telecommunications, Tourism: Alain Madelin (UDF-PR). Agriculture: François Guillaume. Co-operation: Michel Aurillac (RPR). Relations with Parliament: André Rossinot (UDF-Rad.). Ministers-Delegate: Bernard Bosson (European Affairs), Gérard Longuet (Posts and Telecommunications), Hervé de Charette (Planning and Public Offices), Alain Juppé (Budget), Michel Noir (Foreign Trade), Camille Cabana (Privatization and Repatriates), Georges Chavanes (Commerce and Small Businesses), Robert Pandraud (Security), Dr Michèle Barzach (Health), Hélène Gisserot (Women's Affairs), Jacques Douffiagues (Transport), Alain Carignon (Environment), Yves Galland (Local Government), Jacques Valade (Research and Higher Education), André Santini (Communication).

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The Government also includes 15 Secretaries of State. Secretary-General to the Government: Renaud Denoix de Saint Marc. Parliament consists of the National Assembly and the Senate; the National Assembly is elected by direct suffrage and the Senate by indirect suffrage (Art. 24). It convenes as of right in two ordinary sessions per year, the first on 2 Oct. for 80 days and the second on 2 April for not more than 90 days (Art. 28). The National Assembly comprises 577 Deputies, elected for a 5-year term from multi-member constituencies by proportional representation - 555 in Metropolitan France and 22 in the various overseas departments and dependencies. The latest General Election, held in March 1986, resulted in a composition (by group, including 'affiliates') of 155 Rassemblement Pour la République (Gaullists), 131 Union de la Démocratie Française (Giscardians and Centrists) and 5 others supporting the Government, and an opposition consisting of 212 Parti Socialiste (including 2 Mouvement des Radicaux de Gauche and 14 other 'affiliates'), 35 Parti Communiste Française, 4 other 'unaffiliated left' and 3 5 Front National. The Senate comprises 319 Senators elected for 9-year terms (one-third every 3 years) by an electoral college in each Department or overseas dependency, made up of all members of the Departmental Council or its equivalent in overseas dependencies, together with all members of Municipal Councils within that area; there are 296 Senators for Metropolitan France, 13 for the Overseas Departments and dependencies, and 10 for French citizens residing outside France and its dependencies. Following the partial elections held in Sept. 1986, the Senate was composed of (by group, including 'affiliates') 154 UDF, 77 RPR, 73 Groupe Socialiste (including 9 MRG) and 15 Groupe Communiste. The Constitutional Council is composed of 9 members whose term of office is 9 years (non-renewable), one-third every 3 years; 3 are appointed by the President of the Republic, 3 by the President of the National Assembly, and 3 by the President of the Senate; in addition, former Presidents of the Republic are, by right, life members of the Constitutional Council (Art. 56). It oversees the fairness of the elections of the President (Art. 58) and Parliament (Art. 59) and of referenda (Art. 60), and acts as a guardian of the Constitution (Art. 61). The Economic and Social Council advises on Government and Private Members' Bills (Art. 69). It comprises representatives of employers', workers' and farmers' organizations in each Department and Overseas Territory. Nationalflag: The Tricolour of three vertical stripes of blue, white, red. National anthem: La Marseillaise (words and music by C. Rouget de Lisle, 1792). Local Government: France is divided into 22 regions for national development work, for planning and for budgetary policy. Under far-reaching legislation on decentralisation promulgated in March 1982, state-appointed Regional Prefects were abolished and their executive powers transferred to the Presidents of the Regional Councils, which are to be directly elected. There are 96 départements within the 22 regions each governed by a directlyelected Conseil Général. From 1982 their Presidents' powers are greatly extended to take over local administration and expenditure from the former Departmental prefects, now called 'Commissioners of tne Republic' with responsibility for public order. The arrondissement (325 in 1982) and the canton (3,714 in 1982), have little administrative significance. The unit of local government is the commune, the size and population of which vary very much. There were, in 1982, in the 96 metropolitan departments, 36,433 communes. Most of them (31,122) had less than 1,500 inhabitants, and 16,144 had less than 300, while 227 communes had more than 30,000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune are under a Municipal Council, composed of from 9 to 36 members, elected by universal suffrage for 6 years by French citizens of 21 years or over after 6 months' residence. Each Municipal Council elects a mayor, who is both the representative of the commune and the agent of the central government. In Paris the Conseil de Paris is composed of 109 members elected from the 20 arrondissements. It combines the functions of departmental Conseil Général and Municipal Council.

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D E F E N C E . The President of the Republic exercises command over the Armed Forces. He is assisted by the High Council of Defence (Conseil Supérieur de Défense), which studies defence problems, and by two Committees (Comité de Défense and Comité de Défense restreint) which formulate directives. The Prime Minister is responsible for national defence; he exercises his military responsibilities and co-ordinates inter-ministry defence activities through the General Secretariat of National Defence (SGDN). Under the Prime Minister's authority, the Minister of Defence is responsible for the execution of military policy, in particular the organization and administration of the Armed Forces. On 5 July 1969 the Ministry of State for National Defence assumed responsibility from the former individual service Ministries for the Army, Air Force and Navy. The Ministry prepares general directives for negotiations relating to defence. The preparation and control of the Armed Forces is exercised by the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services—Army, Navy and Air—and the head of the Gendarmerie. French forces are not formally under the NATO command structure. About 48,000 French service personnel are stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany, with a further 28,000 stationed in other overseas locations. Army. The Army consists of regular officers and n.c.o.s, long-term n.c.o.s and soldiers, and conscripts serving 12 months. The peace-time units comprise 6 armoured divisions, 2 light armoured divisions and 2 motorized rifle divisions, plus artillery, engineering, signals, parachute, transport, supply, and naval infantry and artillery units. In addition, there are the Foreign Legion, the Rapid Action Force (comprising a parachute division, an airportable marine division, a light armoured division, an alpine division and an airmobile division), and other specialized units. 5 artillery units can deliver the 'Pluton' nuclear missile. In 1988 the effective strength of the Army was 279,900 all ranks (excluding Gendarmerie). Equipment included 1,340 AMX-30 and 300 AMX-13 main battle tanks. Higher military instruction is provided in 3 stages: the staff school (École d'Étatmajor) for officers of formation staffs; the École Supérieure de Çuerre for officers earmarked for the higher command; the Institut des Hautes Etudes de Défense Nationale where high-ranking officers and civilians study together the problems of national defence. Formed in 1952, the Aviation Légère de l'Armée de Terre (ALAT) is a wellequipped force, with 12 light aeroplanes and more than 483 helicopters for observation, reconnaissance, combat area transport, liaison and supply duties. Effective strength, 1988, about 7,000. Gendarmerie. The Gendarmerie is an integral part of the Armed Forces but also co-operates with the civil administration in maintaining public order. Effective strength, 1988,89,816. Navy. The Navy is under the supreme direction of the Minister of Defence, being administered by the Chief of Naval Staff and his deputies. All naval aircraft and coastal defences are under the control of the Navy, and are organized in 3 maritime regions (with headquarters in Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon). The French Navy is manned partly by conscription but mainly by voluntary enlistment. In 1988 the active personnel was 67,000 officers and men. The following is a summary of the strength of the fleet at the end of the years Aircraft carriers Capital submarines 2 Other submarines Cruisers Destroyers Frigates 1

1979 3' 5 24 1 20 24

1980 3' 5 23 1 19 22

Including 1 helicopter-carrier.

1981 3' 5 22 1 20 22 2

1982 3' 5 23 1 20 25

1983 3' 6 18 1 18 26

1984 3' 6 20 1 18 26

1 985 3' 6 16 1 16 25

1 986 3' 6 17 1 17 25

Nuclear-powered ballistic missile type.

1987 3' 6 18 1 17 25

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The principal ships of the French Navy are as follows: Completed

Standard displacement Tons

Name

Principal armament

Aircraft

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

Aircraft Carriers ¡961

27 307 Clemenceau} ' { ^ h e . i S 1 2Cr0tale 1 8 single 3-9in guns replaced by 2 Crotale missile launchers during 1986-88.

Helicopter Carrier 1964 Jeanne d'Arc 1 1

10,000

8 helicopters !

6'Exocet'(singles) 40,000 4 single 3-9 in. 2 Cruiser type forward, flat-topped midships to aft. Four in peacetime.

26 -5

Cruiser 1959

Colbert

8,500

—

Capital (Strategic) Class '611'

No. 5

'615'

1

Displacement (submerged) tons 8,940 8,920

Missile Tubes (vertical) 16 M 20 16 M 4

4 'Exocet'(singles) 1 twin 'Masurca' 2 single 3-9 in.

86,000

31-5

Submarines Nuclear Reactors 1 1

Shaft horsepower 16,000 16,000

Speed Knots 25 dived 20 surface 25

The '611' class comprises Le Redoubtable (completed 1971), Le Terrible (1973), Le Foudroyant (1974), L'indomptable (1976) and Le Tonnant (1980). L'Inflexible (1985) of the '615' class is of intermediate type between her predecessors and an ordered class of 14,200 tonnes to be laid down in 1988. All the named vessels above are also armed with four 21 -inch torpedo tubes.

There are also 4 nuclear-powered fleet submarines (Rubis, 1983, Saphir, 1984, Casablanca, 1986, and Emeraude, 1987) of 2,670 tons (submerged), 14 dieselpowered submarines, 17 destroyers, 25 frigates, 3 fast missile craft, 10 fast attack craft, 5 patrol vessels, 10 large mine counter hunters (ex-ocean minesweepers), 12 coastal minehunters, 12 coastal minesweepers (3 used as patrol vessels and 4 as diving ships), 8 inshore minesweepers (used as diving and utility tenders), 7 surveying vessels, 2 dock landing ships, 6 tank landing ships, 8 landing craft, 27 minor landing craft, 6 maintenance, repair and depot ships, 6 oilers, 13 boom defence vessels, 8 support ships, 13 transports, 17 training vessels, 40 auxiliary ships and 110 tugs. A 34,000 ton nuclear-powered aircraft carrier (Charles de Gaulle, for completion in 1995), a seventh nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine, 4 more nuclear-powered fleet (torpedo-armed) submarines and 3 guided missile destroyers are under construction. A second nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, 2 guided missile destroyers, 3 frigates, 4 surveying ships and 5 mine-hunters are projected. The naval air arm, known usually as Aéronavale, includes 3 squadrons of Super Etendard transonic fighter-bombers, 1 squadron of Etendard reconnaissance fighters, 1 squadron of US-built Crusader all-weather fighters, 2 squadrons of Alizé turboprop anti-submarine aircraft, 4 squadrons of Atlantic maritime reconnaissance aircraft and 5 anti-submarine and assault helicopter squadrons with Super Frelon and Lynx helicopters. Strength is 400 aircraft comprising 300 fixed-wing and 100 helicopters. Air Force. Formed as the Service Aéronautique in April 1910, the Armeé de l'Air is organized in 7 major commands. The Commandement des Forces Aériennes Stratégiques (CFAS) commands the airborne nuclear deterrent force. The Com-

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mandement de la Force Aérienne Tactique (FATAC) directs the tactical air forces and is responsible for support of the ground forces. Under FATAC the 1 st Commandement Aérien Tactique ( 1 ° CATAC) controls tactical air units based in eastern France; the 2nd Commandement Aérien Tactique (2° CATAC) controls the reserve forces and the air component of the Force d'Intervention. The Commandement du Transport Aérien Militaire (COTAM) is responsible for air transport operations and participates also in the training and transport of airborne forces. The Commandement de la Défense Aérienne (DA) controls French airspace. The Commandement des Écoles de l'Armée de l'Air (CEAA) is responsible for training the personnel for all branches of the Air Force. The Commandement des Transmissions has responsibility for communications and electronic warfare. Finally, the Commandement du Génie de l'Air, made up mainly of Army personnel, undertakes airbase construction and maintenance under Air Force control. The home-based French Air Force is divided territorially among 4 metropolitan air regions (Metz, Villacoublay, Bordeaux, Aix-en-Provence); overseas, small air units are integrated into the local joint-service commands. There are about 40 combat squadrons plus about 30 transport, helicopter and support squadrons, and the Air Force uses a total of 60 bases. The strategic, tactical and air defence forces are equipped entirely with jet aircraft. The CFAS has 26 Mirage IV supersonic nuclear bombers, deployed in 2 wings (total 3 squadrons) supported by 11 C-135F in-flight refuelling tanker transports. The FATAC deploys 6 wings (18 squadrons), with about 105 Mirage III-E and 5 F ground-attack fighters, and 120 Jaguar strike aircraft, 3 reconnaissance squadrons with Mirage Fl-CRs, and operational conversion units equipped with Mirage III-Bs and Jaguars. The air defence forces have 4 wings, comprising 9 squadrons with 120 Mirage Fl-C and 3 squadrons with 30 Mirage 2000C interceptors. The COTAM is organized into 3 wings, equipped with 74 Transall C.160 turboprop transports, 5 DC-8s, 3 C-130s and 105 helicopters. Training aircraft include CAP-10/20/230 piston-engined primary trainers, Epsilon piston-engined and Fouga-Magister jet basic trainers, Mirage F1 Bs, Mirage III-Bs, Mirage 2000Bs and two-seat Jaguars in wings for operational transformation; 25 Embraer 121 -Xingus bought from Brazil are dual-purpose training/liaison aircraft. Delivery of the Mirage 2000N strike aircraft began in 1987. Total officers and other ranks (1987) 95,978; 450 combat aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. France is a member of UN, the Council of Europe, NATO and the European Communities. ECONOMY Planning. For the history of planning in France from 1947 to 1980, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1982-83, p. 474. The Eighth Plan, covering the

1981-85 period, was set aside after the change of government in May 1981 and replaced by an interim plan for 1982-83, followed by a new Ninth Plan for 1984-88.

Budget. Receipts and expenditure (in 1 m. francs) for calendar years: Receipts Direct taxation Income tax Corporation tax Indirect taxation Value-added tax Petrol tax Payroll and other taxes Non-fiscal receipts Gross total Net budget receipts (gross total taxes minus various deductions)

1984

%

1985

%

203,397 89,290

200 8-8

204,155 93,720

189 8-7

415,800 67,396 174,154 54,002

410 66 18-3 5-3

444,624 85,291 181,314 60,475

41-1 7-9 16 7 5-6

1,004,039

1,069,579

833,130

867,374

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Expenditure Public authorities and general administration Education and culture Social affairs, health, employment Agriculture and countryside Housing and town planning Transport and communications Industry and services External affairs Defence Miscellaneous expenditure Total expenditure

1985

%

1986

%

116,113 238,565 200,859 25,179 46,938 42,920 50,852 26,150 159,531 111,059

114 23-4 19 7 2-5 4 6 4-2 5 0 2-6 15-7 10-9

128,700 246,500 199,000 25,700 48,000 43,100 51,300 26,200 167,800 117,400

12-2 23-4 18-9 2-4 4-6 4 1 4 9 2-5 15-9 111

1,018,170

1,053,800

The accounts of revenue and expenditure are examined by a special administrative tribunal (Cour des Comptes), instituted in 1807. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc. Coins are issued for 5, 10, 20 and 50 centimes, 1, 2, 5 and 10 francs; and bank-notes for 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 francs. In March 1988, £1 sterling= 10-\4 francs; US$1 =5-71 francs. Banking. The Banque de France, founded in 1800, and nationalized on 2 Dec. 1945, has the monopoly (since 1848) of issuing bank-notes throughout France. Note circulation at 31 Dec. 1981 was 151,900m. francs. As a Central Bank, it puts monetary policy into effect and supervises its application. The National Credit Council, formed in 1945 to regulate banking activity and consulted in all political decisions on monetary policy, comprises 45 members nominated by the Government; its president is the Minister for the Economy, its vice-president is the Governor of the Banque de France. Four principal deposit banks were nationalized in 1945 and the remainder in 1982, the chief ones being the Crédit Lyonnais (founded 1863), Banque Nationale de Paris (founded by amalgamation 1966), Société Générale (founded 1864), Crédit Industriel et Commercial, Crédit Commercial de France, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas and the Crédit du Nord. Total deposits and short- and medium-term held bills by the banks at 31 Dec. 1981 was 1,302,800m. francs. The rest of the banking system comprises the popular banks, the Crédit agricole, the Crédit mutuel, the Banque française du commerce exterieur and the various financial establishments. The state savings organization (Caisse nationale d'epargne) is administered by the post office on a giro system. On 31 Dec. 1981 the private savings banks (Caisses d'epargne et de prévoyance), numbering about 500 had 434,000m. francs in deposits; the state savings banks had 206,300m. francs in deposits. Deposited funds are centralized by a non-banking body, the Caisse de Dépôts el Consignations, which finances a large number of local authorities and state aided housing projects, and carries an important portfolio of transferable securities. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (in lm. kwh.): 1985, 332,016, of which 24% was hydroelectric and 49% nuclear. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. In 1987 3 • 3m. tonnes of crude oil were produced. The greater part came from the Parentis oilfield in the Landes. Reserves (1985) total 221m. bbls. France has an important oil-refining industry, chiefly utilizing imported crude oil. The principal plants are situated in Seine-Maritime and in Bouches-du-Rhône. In 198 5,72 • 49m. tonnes of petroleum products were refined. There are 7,802 km of pipelines. There has been considerable development of the production of natural gas and sulphur in the region of Lacq in the foothills of the Pyrenees. Production of natural gas was 10,574m.cu. metres in 1984;reserves(1985)41,000m. cu. metres.

489

FRANCE

Minerals. Principal minerals and metals produced in 1983, in 1,000 tonnes: Coal, 33,396; crude steel, 17,616; iron ore, 15,972; pig iron, 13,752; bauxite, 1,660; potash salts, 1,651. Agriculture. Of the total area of France (54-9m. hectares) 17-9m. were under cultivation, 12-3m. were pasture, 1-3m. were under vines, 14-6m. were forests and 8 • 8 m. were uncultivated land in 198 5. The following table shows the area under the leading crops and the production for 3 years: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet Maize

Area (1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 1983 4,825 4,828 4,828 101 100 88 2,143 2,107 2,255 431 436 440 204 211 205 490 490 526 1,702 1,646 1,810

Produce (1,000 tonnes) 1983 1984 1985 29,012 24,748 32,977 293 347 297 8,773 11,509 11,426 1,874 1,744 1,419 5,317 6,125 6,961 26,320 28,752 28,684 10,390 11,714 10,359

Other crops for 1984 (1983 in brackets) include (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 42 (38); tobacco, 37 (36); flax, 78 (62). France is the world's second largest producer of wine (after Italy); production in 1985 amounted to 15-92m. hectolitres. The production of fruits (other than for cider making) for 4 years was (in 1,000 tonnes) as follows: Apples Pears Plums Peaches Apricots

1982 1983 1984 1985 2,102 1,648 2,119 1,815 459 446 480 442 190 193 240 222 421 469 488 485 75 107 85 102

Cherries Nuts Grapes Strawberries Oranges

1982 1983 1984 142 109 140 72 58 49 229 199 205 89 84 90 38 31 27

1985 112 47 197 92 31

In 1986 the numbers of farm animals (in 1,000) were (figures for 1985 in brackets): Horses, 310 (310); cattle, 22,896 (23,099); sheep, 10,790 (10,824); goats, 969 (962); pigs, 10,956 (10,975); poultry, 217,000 (215,000). Forestry. The total area of forested land (1984) was 138,383 sq. km. Timber sold (1982), 28,342m. cu. metres valued at 7,581 m. francs. Fisheries. (1986). There were 18,165 fishermen, and 9,227 sailing-boats, steamers and motor-boats. Catch (in tonnes): Fish, total, 473,211; crustaceans, 25,991; shell fish, 185,923. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial production (in 1,000 tonnes) for 3 years was as follows: Sulphuric acid Caustic acid Sulphur Polystyrene Polyvinyl Polyethylene Wool Cotton Linen Silk Man-made fibres, yams Jute Cheese Chocolate Biscuits Sugar Fish preparations Jams and jellies Cement

1983 4,325 1,393 1,833 480 817 971 44 154 21 52 38 2-7 1,153 124 397 3,562 99 122 24,503

1984 4,531 1,497 1,775 485 797 1,005 45 151 2-2 57 29 3-2 1,191 122 400 3,956 102 128 22,724

1985 4,322 1,467 1,570 497 809 1,019 50 142 161 5 1,219 120 402 3,978 101 130 22,224

490

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Engineering production (in 1,000 units) for 3 years: Motor vehicles Television sets Radiosets Tyres

1983 3,336 2,033 2,489 45,606

1984 3,062 2,001 2,128 47,817

1985 3,016 1,913 2,632 47,742

Employment (1985). Out of an economically active population of 21,257,200 persons, there were 1 -56m. engaged in agriculture; 1,518,000 in building and public works; 4,181,900 in other manufacturing industries; 889,200 in transport; 609,900 in business, banking and insurance; 3,270,900 in services; 2,950,400 in commerce. In 1984, there were 23,594,000 employed (42-5% female), of whom 1 -9m. were foreign workers; in April 1987, there were 2,592,700 unemployed. Trade Unions. The main confederations recognized as nationally representative are: the CGT (Confédération Générale du Travail), founded in 1895; the CGT-FO (Confédération Générale du Travail-Force Ouvrière) which broke away from the CGT in 1948 as a protest against Communist influence therein; the CFTC (Confédération Française des Travailleurs Chrétiens), which was founded in 1919 and divided in 1964, with a breakaway group retaining the old name and the main body continuing under the new name of CFDT (Confédération Française Démocratique du Travail); and the CGC (Confédération Générale des Cadres) formed in 1944 which only represents managerial and supervisory staff. Membership is estimated because unions are not required to publish figures; but at elections held on 8 Dec. 1982 for labour tribunals, the CGT was supported by 2-8m. members, the C G T - F O by l -4m., the CFDT by l -8m., the CFTC by 650,000 and the CGC by 740,000. Except for the CGC unions operate within the framework of industries and not of trades. Commerce. Imports (c.i.f.) and exports (f.o.b.) in lm. francs for 5 calendar years were (including gold): Imports Exports

1982 757,595 606,094

1983 799,754 694,659

1984 903,775 813,003

1985 962,746 870,812

1986 863,172 863,652

The chief imports for home use and exports of home goods are to and from the following countries, in lm. francs (including gold): Countries Belgium-Luxembourg Germany, Fed. Rep. of Italy Japan Spain Switzerland UK USA

Imports (c.i.f) 1985 1986 83,944 82,288 172,362 159,057 96,796 103,388 26,887 32,227 36,535 36,961 22,174 20,275 78,992 58,078 73,246 67,008

Exports (f.o.b.) 1985 1986 73,931 74,906 130,513 133,085 95,322 97,249 10,736 11,160 29,340 33,780 36,499 37,733 71,553 72,708 75,349 61,027

Total trade between France and UK (British Department of Trade returns, i £1,000 sterling). J m ] m jgfj5 ] m m j Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

5,043,118 5,885,715 6,632,410 7,348,574 8,381,984 5,651,521 7,082,389 7,751,751 6,210,216 7,781,546

Tourism. In 1986 there were 36 08m. tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 the French road system consisted of6,290 km of motorway, out of a total road network of 1,521,351 km. In 1985, there were 20-8m. passenger cars and 3 -31 m. commercial vehicles in use. Railways. As from 1 Jan. 1938 all the independent railway companies were merged with the existing state railway system in a Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français, which became a public industrial and commercial establishment in 1983.

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In 1986, the State railway totalled 34,665 km (11,549 km electrified) of 1,435 mm gauge, and carried 146m. tonnes of freight and 774m. passengers. A new railway for high-speed trains was completed in 1983 between Paris and Lyon and another is under construction to serve Western France. The Paris transport network consisted in 1985 of472 km of underground railway (métro) and regional express railways and 2,134 km of bus routes. In 1985 it carried 1,477m. passengers on the métro and 747m. by bus. Aviation. Air France, UTA and Air Inter, the national airlines, had (31 Dec. 1985) a fleet of 137 aircraft, servicing Europe, North America, Central and South America, West and East Africa, Madagascar, the Near, Middle and Far East. There are local networks in the West Indies and Central America. In 1985 Air France, UTA and Air Inter flew 2,900m. tonne-km (excluding mail) and 39,655m. passenger-km. There were ( 1984) 60 airports with scheduled services. Shipping. Merchant ships, on 1 Jan. 1985, numbered 1,174 vessels of 8,945,046 GRT. During 1985, 74,485 vessels entered French ports to discharge 199,081,100 tonnes and load 75,175,800 tonnes, principal ports being Marseille, Le Havre, Dunkerque, Rouen and Nantes/St Nazaire; Calais (8-2m. passengers in 1985) and Boulogne-sur-Mer (3 -03m.) are the main passenger ports. In 1986 there were 8,500 km of navigable rivers, waterways and canals (of which 1,647 km accessible to vessels over 3,000 tons), with a total traffic in 1985 of 64-12m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. On 31 Dec. 1983 the telephone system (governmentowned) had 29,373,663 subscribers; the Paris region (including the Paris and Seine-et-Marne, Yvelines, Essonne, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, Val-deMarne and Val-d'Oise departments) accounted for 5,396,726. In 1984 there were 17,035 post offices. Radio and television broadcasting was reorganized under the Act of 7 Aug. 1974 which replaced the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française with 4 broadcasting companies, a production company and an audio-visual institute. Organization, development, operation and the maintenance of networks and installations became the responsibility of the Public Broadcasting Establishment. Radio programmes are broadcast from 363 transmitters by 3 stations: France Inter, France Musique and France Culture. Television programmes are broadcast from 325 transmitters and 4,661 relay stations on 3 channels. There were about 20m. radio and 19m. TV sets in use in 1983 (ofwhich8 -9m. in colour). Cinemas (1984). There were 5,098 cinemas with a seating capacity of 1,306,500; attendances totalled 187-8m. Newspapers (1987). There were 72 daily papers published in the provinces with a circulation of 6-7m. copies, and 14 published in Paris with a national circulation of 2-5m. Among Paris dailies France-Soir sells 539,000; Le Monde 445,000; Le Parisien Libéré 421,000; Le Figaro 465,000, Le Matin 224,000 and L'Aurore 220,000. Among provincial dailies Ouest-France (Rennes) sells 783,000; Le Progrés (Lyon) 447,000; La Voix du Nord (Lille) 372,000; Sud-Ouest (Bordeaux) 430,000; La Dauphine Libérée (Grenoble) 401,000 and Le Provençal (Marseilles) 345,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Since 1958,471 tribunaux d'instance (11 in overseas departments), under a single judge each and with increased material and territorial jurisdiction, have replaced the former juges de paix( 1 in each canton); and 181 tribunaux de grande instance (6 in overseas departments) have taken the place of the 357 tribunaux de première instance ( 1 in each arrondissement). The tribunaux de grande instance usually have a collegiate composition, however a law dated 10 July 1970 has allowed them to administer justice under a single judge in some civil cases. All petty offences (contraventions) are disposed of in the Police Courts ( Tribun-

492

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aux de Policé) presided over by a Judge on duty in the tribunal d'instance. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offences (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to 5 years. They have no jury, and consist of 3 judges who administer both criminal and civil justice. An Act of 29 Dec. 1972 established that there is only 1 judge; in some cases, the correctional courts may consist of a single judge each. In all cases of a délit or a crime the preliminary inquiry is made in secrecy by an examining magistrate (juge d'instruction), who either dismisses the case or sends it for trial before a court where a public prosecutor (Procureur) endeavours to prove the charge. The 282 Conciliation Boards (Conseils des Prud'hommes) are composed of an equal number of employers and employees deal with labour disputes. Commercial litigation goes to one of the 227 Commercial Courts (Tribunaux de Commerce) composed of tradesmen and manufacturers elected for 2 years. The judges hold office for 2 years and they can be re-elected; 3 years for the President. When the decisions of any of these Tribunals are susceptible of appeal, the case goes to one of the 35 Courts of Appeal (Cours d'Appel), (including 3 in overseas departments and 2 in overseas territories), composed each of a president and a variable number of members. The Courts of Assizes (Cours d'Assises), composed each of a president, assisted by 2 other magistrates who are members of the Courts of Appeal, and by a jury of 9 people, sit in every département, when called upon to try very important criminal cases. The decisions of the Courts of Appeal and the Courts of Assizes are final; however, the Court of Cassation (Cour de Cassation) has discretion to verify if the law has been correctly interpreted and if the rules of procedure have been followed exactly. The Court of Cassation may annul any judgment, and the cases have to be tried again by a Court of Appeal or a Court of Assizes. The State Security Court, established in 1963, was abolished by law on 4 Aug. 1981. Capital punishment was abolished in the same month. On 24 Jan. 1973 the first Ombudsman (médiateur) was appointed for a 6-year period. The French penal institutions consist of: (1) maisons d'arrêt and de correction, where persons awaiting trial as well as those condemned to short periods of imprisonment are kept; (2) central prisons (maisons centrales) for those sentenced to long imprisonment; (3) special establishments, namely (a) schools for young adults, (b) hostels for old and disabled offenders, (c) hospitals for the sick and psychopaths, (d) institutions for recidivists. Special attention is being paid to classified treatment and the rehabilitation and vocational re-education of prisoners including work in open-air and semi-free establishments. There are 2 penal institutions for women. Juvenile delinquents go before special judges and courts; they are sent to public or private institutions of supervision and re-education. The population at 31 Dec. 1984 of all penal establishments was 43,001 men and 1,497 women. Religion. No religion is officially recognized by the State. Under the law promulgated on 9 Dec. 1905, which separated Church and State, the adherents of all creeds are authorized to form associations for public worship (associations culturelles). The law of 2 Jan. 1907 provided that, failing associations culturelles, the buildings for public worship, together with their furniture, would continue at the disposition of the ministers of religion and the worshippers for the exercise of their religion; but in each case there was required an administrative act drawn up by the préfet as regards buildings belonging to the State or the departments and by the maire as regards buildings belonging to the communes. There were (1985) 125 archbishops and bishops of the Roman Catholic Church, with (1974) 43,557 clergy of various grades and (1986) 42-35m. members. The Protestants of the Augsburg confession are, in their religious affairs, governed by a General Consistory, while the Reformed Church is under a Council of Administration, the seat of which is in Paris. In 1986 there were about 800,000 Protestants and 2 • 5m. Moslems. Education.

The primary, secondary

and higher state schools

constitute

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FRANCE

the 'Université de France'. The Supreme Council of 84 members has deliberative, administrative and judiciary functions, and as a consultative committee advises respecting the working of the school system, the inspectors-general are in direct communication with the Minister. For local education administration France is divided into 25 academic areas, each of which has an Academic Council whose members include a certain number elected by the professors or teachers. The Academic Council deals with all grades of education. Each is under a Rector, and each is provided with academy inspectors, 1 for each department. Compulsory education is now provided for children of 6-16. The educational stages are as follows: 1. Non-compulsory pre-school instruction for children aged 2-5, to be given in infant schools or infant classes attached to primary schools. 2. Compulsory elementary instruction for children aged 6-11, to be given in primary schools and certain classes of the lycées. It consists of 3 courses: preparatory (1 year), elementary (2 years), intermediary (2 years). Physically or mentally handicapped children are cared for in special institutions or special classes of primary schools. 3. Lower secondary education (Enseignement du premier cycle du Second Degré) for pupils aged 11-15, consists of 4 years of study in the lycées (grammar schools), Collèges d'Enseignement Secondaire or Collèges dEnseignement Général. 4. Upper secondary education (Enseignement du second cycle du Second Degré) for pupils aged 15-18: Long, général or professionel provided by the lycées and leading to the baccalauréat or to the baccalauréat de technicien after 3 years. Court, professional courses of 3, 2 and 1 year are taught in the lycées d'enseignement professionel, or the specialized sections of the lycées, CES or CEG. The following table shows the various types of schools in 1984-85 and the numbers of enrolled pupils: Description Pre-primary Primary Secondary Higher Specialized

Stale 2,196,645 3,504,227 4,180,730 1,084,261 199,536

Private 328,979 622,208 1,129,565 79,642 93,752

Total 2,525,624 4,126,435 5,310,295 1,163,903 293,288

Total

11,165,399

2,254,146

13,419,545

The state schools in 1984-85 had 73,872 nursery, 166,623 primary, 33,003 special school and 321,128 secondary school teachers. Higher Instruction is supplied by the State in the universities and in special schools, and by private individuals in the free faculties and schools. The law of 12 July 1875 provided for higher education free of charge. This law was modified by that of 18 March 1880, which granted the state faculties the exclusive right to confer degrees. A decree of28 Dec. 1885 created a general council of the faculties, and the creation of universities, each consisting of several faculties, was accomplished in 1897, in virtue of the law of 10 July 1896. The law of 12 Nov. 1968 laying down future guidelines for higher education redefined the activities and working of universities. Bringing several disciplines together, 780 units for teaching and research (UER-Unites d'Enseignement et de Recherche) were formed which decided their own teaching activities, research programmes and procedures for checking the level of knowledge gained. They and the other parts of each university must respect the rules designed to maintain the national standard of qualifications. The UERs form the basic units of 69 Universities and 3 National Polytechnic Institutes (with university status), grouped into 25 academies with 944,434 students (of which 59,824 in the Institutes) in 1984-85. There are also Catholic university facilities in Paris, Angers, Lille, Lyon and

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FRANCE

Toulouse with (1981-82) 34,118 students and private universities with (1984-85) 17,646 students. Outside the university system, higher education (academic, professional and technical) is provided by over 400 schools and institutes, including the various Grand Écoles. In 1984-85 there were 139,827 students in state establishments and 61,996 in private establishments. In 1984^5 there were also 46,258 students in preparatory classes leading to the Grande Écoles, 105,101 in the Sections de Techniciens Supérieurs and 31,513 in the Écoles d'ingénieurs; there were also 18,951 students in Écoles normales d'instituteurs (teacher-training). Health. On 1 Jan. 1983 there were 114,534 physicians, 43,662 pharmacists, 33,048 dentists, 271,253 nursing personnel and 8,660 midwives practising. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 3,364 hospitals with 622,552 beds. Social Welfare. An order of 4 Oct. 1945 laid down the framework of a comprehensive plan of Social Security and created a single organization which superseded the various laws relating to social insurance, workmen's compensation, health insurance, family allowances, etc. All previous matters relating to Social Security are dealt with in the Social Security Code, 1956; this has been revised several times, and finally by orders laid down on 21 Aug. 1967, which were ratified on 31 July 1968. The Social Security general scheme covers all wage-earning workers in industry and commerce that are not covered by a special scheme of their own. Contributions. All wage-earning workers or those of equivalent status are insured regardless of the amount or the nature of the salary or earnings. The funds for the general scheme are raised mainly from professional contributions, these being fixed within the limits of a ceiling (assessed at 68,760 francs per annum on 1 Jan. 1981) and calculated as a percentage of the salaries. The calculation of contributions payable for family allowances, old age and industrial injuries relates only to this amount; on the other hand, the amount payable for sickness, maternity expenses, disability and death is calculated partly within the limit of the 'ceiling' and partly on the whole salary. These contributions are the responsibility of both employer and employee, except in the case of family allowances or industrial injuries, where they are the sole responsibility of the employer. Contributions and benefits paid in 1984 (in 1 m. francs) were: Health service Industrial injuries Old age pensions Family benefits

Contributions 259,258 34,049 135,243 93,948

Benefits 219,476 25,551 123,414 91,561

Self-employed Workers. From 17 Jan. 1948 allowances and old-age pensions were paid to self-employed workers by independent insurance funds set up within their own profession, trade or business. Schemes of compulsory insurance for sickness were instituted in 1961 for farmers and in 1966, with modifications in 1970, for other non-wage-earning workers. Social Insurance. The orders laid down in Aug. 1967 ensure that the whole population can benefit from the Social Security Scheme; at present all elderly persons who have been engaged in the professions, as well as the surviving spouse, are entitled to claim an old-age benefit; 98% of the population, both working and retired, are covered by a compulsory scheme of insurance for sickness, the remaining 2% who are not covered by a compulsory insurance scheme have been able to participate in a voluntary scheme since 1967; the whole population benefit from the legislation regarding family allowances. Sickness Insurance refunds the costs of treatment required by the insured and the needs of dependants. A decree of 12 Oct. 1976 laid down conditions on which students of 20 or over at public or private educational institutions, who do not benefit from a social security scheme in their own right, are guaranteed insurance benefits for sickness or maternity, holding their parents entitlement until the end of the academic year in which they attain their 21st birthday, provided they have proof that their studies have been interrupted by illness. The general principles relating to medical care consist of: A free choice by the patient of his doctor, his

FRANCE

495

pharmaceutical chemist, his place of treatment, etc.; the medical practitioner is granted freedom of prescription. Reimbursement is not as a rule made in full; the insured person usually pays between 10% and 30% of the legal rate except in cases of exemption. The insured who is recognized as medically unfit for work receives daily allowances equal to half of the wage which has been used to calculate the contributions, or to two-thirds of this if the person has 3 or more children. These allowances may be paid for 3 years, plus 1 additional year if the insured undergoes readaptation treatment or takes up fresh vocational training. Maternity Insurance covers the costs of medical treatment relating to the pregnancy, confinement and lying-in period; the beneficiaries being the insured person or the spouse. The daily allowances are equal to 90% of the salary on which contributions were calculated. Insurance for Invalids is divided into 3 categories: (1) those who are capable of working; (2) those who cannot work; (3) those who, in addition, are in need of the help of another person. According to the category, the pension rate varies from 30 to 50% of the average salary for the last 10 years, with additional allowance for home help for the third category. Old-age Pensions for workers were introduced in 1910 and are now fixed by the Social Security Code of 28 Jan. 1972. Since 1983 people who have paid insurance for at least 37V2 years (150 quarters) receive at 60 a pension equal to 60% of basic salary. People who have paid insurance for less than 37>/2 years but no less than 15 years can expect a pension equal to as many 1/150ths of the full pension as their quarterly payments justify. In the event of death of the insured person, the husband or wife of the deceased person receives half the pension received by the latter. Compulsory supplementary schemes ensure benefits equal to 70% of previous earnings. Family Allowances. The system comprises: (a) Family allowances proper, equivalent to 25-5% of the basic monthly salary (1,246 francs) for 2 dependent children, 46% for the third child, 41% for the fourth child, and 39% for the fifth and each subsequent child; a supplement equivalent to 9% of the basic monthly salary for the second and each subsequent dependent child more than 10 years old and 16% for each dependent child over 15 years, (b) Family supplement (519 francs) for persons with at least 3 children or one child aged less than 3 years, (c) Antenatal grants, (d) Maternity grant equal to 260% of basic salary; increase for multiple births or adoptions, 198%; increase for birth or adoption of third or subsequent child, 457%. (e) Allowance for specialized education of handicapped children, ( f ) Allowance for orphans, (g) Single parent allowance, (h) Allowance for opening of school term, (i) Allowance for accommodation, under certain circumstances. (/) Minimum family income for those with at least 3 children. Allowances (b), (g), (h) and (j) only apply to those whose annual income falls below a specified level. Workmen's Compensation. The law passed by the National Assembly on 30 Oct. 1946 forms part of the Social Security Code and is administered by the Social Security Organization. Employers are invited to take preventive measures. The application of these measures is supervised by consulting engineers (assessors) of the local funds dealing with sickness insurance, who may compel employers who do not respect these measures to make additional contributions; they may, in like manner, grant rebates to employers who have in operation suitable preventive measures. The injured person receives free treatment, the insurance fund reimburses the practitioners, hospitals and suppliers chosen freely by the injured. In cases of temporary disablement the daily payments are equal to half the total daily wage received by the injured. In case of permanent disablement the injured person receives a pension, the amount of which varies according to the degree of disablement and the salary received during the past 12 months. A law promulgated on 11 Oct. 1946 has created a medical labour service of doctors who hold a diploma of 'industrial health specialists'. These doctors are entrusted with the control of hygiene and health matters in all industrial undertakings or groups of undertakings. In addition, it is the duty of this medical service to examine wage-earners when they are engaged, to carry out periodical medical

496

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examinations and to ensure the application of the existing rules relating to safety in work. Unemployment Benefits vary according to circumstances (full or partial unemployment) which are means-tested. Since 1926 unemployment benefits have been paid from public funds. Full unemployment benefit amounts to 13-50 francs per day for the head of the family and 5 -40 francs for the spouse or a dependent person. After 3 months the payment is reduced to 12 -40 francs. A collective agreement signed on 31 Dec. 1958 between the national council of employers and certain trade unions has established a system of special allowances for totally unemployed workers in industry and trade. The costs are shared by employers (2-76% of wages) and employees (0-84%) and the benefits vary according to circumstances. The system is now governed by the law of 16 Jan. 1979. A similar agreement of 21 Feb. 1968 extends the system to partial unemployment. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of France in Great Britain (58 Knightsbridge, London, SW1X7JT) Ambassador: Vicomte Luc de la Barre de Nanteuil (accredited 28 Feb. 1986). Of Great Britain in France (35 rue du Faubourg St Honoré, 75383 Paris) Ambassador: Sir Ewen Fergusson, KCMG. Of France in the USA (4101 Reservoir Rd., NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Emmanuel de Margerie. Of the USA in France (2 Ave. Gabriel, Paris) Ambassador: JoeM. Rodgers. Of France to the United Nations Ambassador: Pierre-Louis Blanc. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Institut national de la Statistique et des Études économiques (18, Boulevard Adolphe Pinard, 75014 Paris) is the central office of statistics. It was established by a law of 27 April 1946, which amalgamated the Service National des Statistiques (created in 1941 by merging the Direction de la Statistique générale de la France and the Service de la Démographie) with the Institut de Conjoncture (set up in 1938) and some statistical services of the Ministry of National Economy. The Institut comprises the following departments: Metropolitan statistics, Overseas statistics, Market research and economic studies, Documentation, Research statistics and economics, Informatics, Foreign Economic Studies. The main publications ofthe Institut include: Annuaire statistique de la France (from 1878) Annuaire statistique des Territoires d'Outre-Mer (from 1959) Bulletin mensuel de statistique (monthly) Documentation économique (bi-monthly) Données statistiques africaines et Malgaches (quarterly) Economie et Statistique (monthly) Tableaux de l'Economie Française (biennially, from 1956) Tendances de la Conjoncture (monthly) Caron, F., An Economic History of Modem France. London, 1979 Chambers, F. J., France. [Bibliography] London and Santa Barbara, 1984 Crozier, M., A Strategy for Change: The Future of French Society. MIT Press, 1982 Dyer, C., Population and Society in Twentieth Century France. London, 1978 Peyrefitte, A., The Trouble with France. New York, 1981 Tuppen, J. N., France. Folkestone, 1981

OVERSEAS D E P A R T M E N T S On 19 March 1946 the French colonies of Guadeloupe, French Guiana, Martinique and Réunion each became an Overseas Department of France, with the same status as the departments comprising Metropolitan France. The former territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon held a similar status from July 1976 until June 1985, when it became a collectivité territorial.

GUADELOUPE

497

GUADELOUPE H I S T O R Y . Discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493, the two main islands were then known as Karukera (Isle of Beautiful Waters) to the Carib inhabitants, who resisted Spanish attempts to colonize. A French colony was established on 28 June 1635, and apart from short periods of occupancy by British forces, Guadeloupe has since remained a French possession. On 19 March 1946 Guadeloupe became an Overseas Department; in 1974 it additionally became an administrative region. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Guadeloupe consists of a group of islands in the Lesser Antilles. The two main islands, Basse-Terre to the west and GrandeTerre to the east, are separated by a narrow channel, called Rivière Salée. Adjacent to these are the islands of Marie Galante (Ceyre to the Caribs) to the south-east, La Désirade to the east, and the îles des Saintes to the south. The islands of St Martin and St Barthélémy lie 250 km to the north-west. Area Census Census in sq. km ¡974 1982 Chieftown St Martin1 54 2 6,191 8,072 Marigot St Barthélémy 21 2,491 Gustavia 3,059 Basse-Terre 848 135,746 135,341 Basse-Terre Grande-Terre 590 159,424 163,668 Pointe-à-Pitre îles des Saintes 3,084 13 2,901 Terre-de-Bas 1,682 1,602 La Désirade 20 Grande Anse Marie-Galante 158 15,912 13,757 Grand-Bourg 1,705 324,530 'Northern part only; the southern third is Dutch.

328,400 includes uninhabited Tintamarre.

Population (estimate, 1987) 335,300. 77% are mulatto, 10% black and 10% mestizo, but the populations of St Barthélémy and Les Saintes are still mainly descended from 17th-century Breton and Norman settlers. French is the official language, but a Creole dialect is spoken by the vast majority except on St Martin. The seat of government is Basse-Terre ( 13,656 inhabitants in 1982) at the southwest end of that island but the largest towns are Pointe-à-Pitre (25,310 inhabitants), the economic centre and main port, and its suburb, Les Abymes. Vital statistics ( 1985): Live births, 6,760; deaths, 2,313; marriages, 1,611. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Guadeloupe is administered by a Conseil Général of 42 members (assisted by an Economic and Social Committee of 40 members) and a Regional Council of 39 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. It is represented in the National Assembly by 4 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators and on the Economic and Social Council by 2 councillors. There are 3 arrondissements, sub-divided into 34 communes, each administered by an elected municipal council. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Yves Bonnet. President of the Conseil Général: Dominique Larifla. President of the Regional Council: Félix Proto. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1983 balanced at 1,633m. francs. Banking. The main commercial banks are the Banque des Antilles Françaises (with 6 branches), the Banque Populaire de la Guadeloupe (with 6 branches), the Banque Nationale de Paris (14 branches), the Crédit Agricole (26), the Banque Française Commerciale (8), the Société Generate de Banque aux Antilles (5) and the Chase Manhattan Bank (1). The Caisse Centrale de Coopération économique is the official bank of the department and issues its bank-notes.

498

FRANCE

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1986 totalled 315m. kwh. Agriculture. Chief products (1986) are bananas (157,000 tonnes), sugar-cane (773,000 tonnes), rum (64,883 hectolitres of pure alcohol in 1984). Other fruits and vegetables are grown for domestic consumption. 11-8m. flowers were grown in 1984. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 82,000; goats, 36,000; sheep, 4,000; pigs, 44,000. Forestry. In 1985, there were 395 sq. km of forests. In 1984, 51,848 cu. metres of wood were produced. Fisheries. The catch in 1984 was 8,500 tonnes; crustacea (120 tonnes), shell fish (300 tonnes). C O M M E R C E . Trade for 1985 (in lm. francs) was imports 5,745 and exports 669, 60% of imports were from France, while 63% of exports went to France and 18% to Martinique. In 1985 bananas formed 43% of the exports, sugar 10% and rum 7%. St Martin and St Barthélémy are free ports. Tourism. In 1986 there were 212,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 3,500 km of roads. There were 87,785 passenger cars and 33,350 commercial vehicles in 1981. Aviation. Air France and 7 other airlines call at Guadeloupe. In 1984 there were 31,451 arrivals and departures of aircraft and 1,325,500 passengers at Raizet (Pointe-à-Pitre) airport and, 6,682 aircraft movements and 116,000 passengers at Marie-Galante airport. Shipping. Guadeloupe is in direct communication with France by means of 12 steam navigation companies. In 1983, 1,239 vessels arrived to disembark 74,921 passengers and 1,035,800 tonnes of freight and to embark 74,999 passengers and 470,600 tonnes of freight. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 47 post offices and 64,916 telephones. RFO broadcasts for 17 hours a day in French and television broadcasts for 6 hours a day. There were (1983) 25,000 radio and (1981) 32,886 TV receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (France-Antilles) with a circulation of25,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 4 tribunaux d'instance and 2 tribunaux de grande instance at Basse-Terre and Pointe-à-Pitre; there is also a court of appeal and a court of assizes at Basse-Terre. Religion. The majority of the population are Roman Catholic. Education. In 1984 there were 62,303 pupils at 284 primary schools and 45,843 at secondary schools. The University Antilles-Guyane had 4,809 students in 1984-85, of which Guadeloupe itself had 1,870. Health. The medical services in 1985 included 11 public hospitals (2,891 beds) and 18 private clinics (1,256 beds). There were 416 physicians, 127 dentists, 127 pharmacists, 70 midwives and 1,131 nursing personnel. Books of Reference Information: Office du Tourisme du départemente, Point-à-Pitre. Director: Eric W. Rotin. Lasserre, G., La Guadeloupe, étude géographique. 2 vols. Bordeaux, 1961

499

GUIANA

GUIANA Guyane Française H I S T O R Y . A French settlement on the island of Cayenne was established in 1604 and the territory between the Maroni and Oyapock rivers finally became a French possession in 1817. Convicts settlements were established from 1852, that on off-shore Devil's Island being most notorious; all were closed by 1945. On 19 March 1946 the status of Guiana was changed to that of an Overseas Department and in 1974 also became an administrative region. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . French Guiana is situated on the north-east coast of South America, and has an area of about 83,533 sq. km (32,252 sq. miles) and a population at the 1982 Census of 73,012, of whom 3,000 were tribal Indians; estimate (1987) 89,000. The chief towns (1982 populations) are Cayenne, the capital (38,091), Kourou (7,061) and Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni (5,042). These figures exclude the floating population of miners, officials and troops. In 1982, 43% of the inhabitants were of Creole origin, 14% Chinese, 11% from Metropolitan France and 8% Haitian. 90% of the population speak Creole. Vital statistics (1985): Live births, 2,473; deaths, 492; marriages, 317. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . French Guiana is administered by a Conseil Général of 19 members and a Regional Council of 31 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. It is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies and in the Senate by 1 senator. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. There are 2 arrondissements (Cayenne and SaintLaurent-du-Maroni) sub-divided into 20 communes. Commissioner: Jacques Dewatre. President of the Conseil Général: Elie Castor. President of the Regional Council: Georges Othily. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1984 balanced at 675m. francs, excluding duplicated items and national expenditure. Banking. The Banque de la Guyane has a capital of 10m. francs and reserve fund of 2-39m. francs. Loans totalled 206m. francs in 1981. Other banks include Banque National de Paris-Guyane and Banque Française Commerciale. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1986 totalled 156m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Only 10,436 hectares are under cultivation. The crops (1986, in tonnes) consist of rice (9,000), roots and tubers ( 13,000), manioc (8,000), plantains (1,000), limes (1984,650) and sugar-cane (8,000) as well as a large variety of other fruits, vegetables and spices. Livestock (1986): 15,000 cattle, 10,000 swine and (1982) 100,000 poultry. Forestry. The country has immense forests (about 80,511 sq. km in 1987) rich in many kinds of timber. Roundwood production (1984) 69,200 cu. metres. Fisheries. The fishing fleet for shrimps comprises 59 US, 22 Japanese and 11 French boats. The catch in 1982 totalled 4,503 tonnes (of which shrimps comprised 3,227 tonnes), exports 2,750 tonnes. Production of Macrobrachium Rosenbergii (an edible river shrimp) is now established. C O M M E R C E . Trade in lm. francs: Imports Exports

1982 1,643 212

1983 2,137 294

1984 2,158 327

1985 2,287 331

500

FRANCE

In 1985,14% of imports came from Trinidad and Tobago, 60% from France and 5% from the USA, while 38% of exports went to the USA, 17% to Japan and 19% to France. In 1985, shrimps formed 53% of exports and timber, 9%. Total trade between Guiana and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in

£1,000 sterling):

Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 853 897

1984 795 3,106

1985 124 1,146

1986 55 1,052

1987 380 1,134

T O U R I S M . There were 21,600 tourists in 1982. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Three chief and some secondary roads connect the capital with most of the coastal area by motor-car services. There are (1981) 321 km of national and 269 km of departmental roads. In 1981 there were 16,789 passenger cars and 2,013 commercial vehicles. Connexions with the interior are made by waterways which, despite rapids, are navigable by local craft. Aviation. In 1985, 75,056 passengers and 2,608 tonnes of freight arrived and 76,934 passengers and 1,237 tonnes of freight departed by air at Rochambeau International Airport (Cayenne). There are regular internal flights to 4 other airports. Shipping. The chief ports are: Cayenne, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and Kourou. Dégrad des Cannes (the port of Cayenne) is visited regularly by ships of the Compagnie Général Maritime, the Compagnie Maritime des Chargeurs Réunis and Marseille Fret. In 1985,215 vessels arrived ( 180 at Dégrad-des-Cannes) to discharge 276,500 tonnes and load 50,800 tonnes of freight. Inland waterways total 3,760 km. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1984), 22,143. There are wireless stations at Cayenne, Oyapoc, Régina, St-Laurent-du-Maroni and numerous other locations. RFO-Guyane (Guiana Radio) broadcasts for 116 hours each week on mediumand short-waves and FM in French. Television is broadcast for 43 hours each week on 7 transmitters. In 1983 there were 40,000 radio and 9,500 TV receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (Presse de la Guyane) with a circulation of 16,000, a bi-weekly paper (France-Guyane) with a circulation of 3,500 and a weekly (Debout Guyane). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. At Cayenne there is a tribunal d'instance and a tribunal de grande instance, from which appeal is to the regional cour d'appel in Martinique. Religion. In 1980,87% of the population was Roman Catholic and 4% Protestant. Education. Primary education has been free since 1889 in lay schools for the two sexes in the communes and many villages. In 1981 public primary schools had 580 teachers and 11,953 pupils, the lycées and collèges d'enseignement secondaire, 510 teachers and 7,277 pupils. Private schools had 119 teachers and 2,528 pupils. The Institut Henri Visioz forms part of the Université des Antilles-Guyane, with 236 students. Health. There were (1981)80 physicians, 14 dentists, 18 pharmacists, 16 midwives and 309 nursing personnel. In 1980 there were 5 hospitals with 907 beds and 3 private clinics.

MARTINIQUE H I S T O R Y . Discovered by Columbus in 1493, the island was known to its inhabitants as Madinina, from which its present name was corrupted. A French colony

501

MARTINIQUE

was established in 1635 and, apart from brief periods of British occupation, has since remained under French control. On 19 March 1946 its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department, and in 1974 it also became an administrative region. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island, situated in the Lesser Antilles between Dominica and St Lucia, occupies an area of 1,079 sq. km (417 sq. miles). The total population, 1982 Census, was 326,717 (estimate, 1987, 328,500), of whom 99,844 lived in Fort-de-France, the capital and chief commercial town, which has a landlocked harbour nearly 40 sq. km in extent. French is the official language, but the majority of the population use a Creole dialect. Vital statistics (1985): Live births 5,722; deaths 2,257; marriages 1,331. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The island is administered by a Conseil Général of 44 members and a Regional Council of 41 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. There are 3 arrondissements, sub-divided into 34 communes, each administered by an elected municipal council. Martinique is represented in the National Assembly by 4 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators and on the Economic and Social Council by 2 councillors. Commissioner: Edouard Lacroix., President of the Conseil Général: Emile Maurice. President of the Conseil Régional: Aimé Cesaire. ECONOMY Budget. The budget, 1985, balanced at 1,738m. francs. Banking. The Institut d'Émission des Départements d'Outre-mer is the official bank of the department. The Caisse Centrale de Coopération économique is used by the Government in assisting the economic development of the department. The Banque des Antilles Françaises (with a capital of 32 • 5m. francs), the Crédit Martiniquais (30-4m. francs), the Société Générale de Banque aux Antilles (15m. francs), the Banque Française Commerciale (49m. francs), the Banque Nationale de Paris, Crédit Agricole and the Chase Manhattan Bank are operating at Fort-deFrance. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1986 totalled 330m. kwh. Agriculture. Bananas, sugar and rum are the chief products, followed by pineapples, food and vegetables. In 1984 there were 4,100 hectares under sugarcane, 7,300 hectares under bananas and 800 hectares under pineapples. Production (1985): Sugar, 8,610 tonnes; industrial rum, 3,260 hectolitres; agricultural rum, 74,514 hectolitres; cane for sugar, 90,200 tonnes; cane for rum, 108,253 tonnes; bananas (1984) 18 5,000 tonnes; pineapples(1984) 23,000 tonnes. Livestock (1985): 52,000 cattle, 73,000 sheep, 42,000 pigs, 27,000 goats and 1,000 horses. Forestry. Production (1983)11,000 eu. m. Forests comprise 26% of the land area. Fisheries. The catch in 1983 was 5,174 tonnes. COMMERCE. Trade in lm. francs: Imports Exports

1982 4,835 1,016

1983 5,672 1,314

1984 5,983 1,351

1985 6,050 1,300

In 1985 the main items of import were crude petroleum and foodstuffs; main items of export were petroleum products (15%), bananas (47%) and rum (9%); 58% of imports came from France and 65% of exports went to France and 23% to Guadeloupe.

502

FRANCE

Total trade between Martinique and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 35 3,029

1984 229 2,980

1985 126 2,776

1986 14 21,230

1987 712 10,705

Tourism. In 1986 there were 183,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 7 km of motorway, 260 km of national roads, 618 km of district roads and 755 km of local roads. In 1985 there were 8,179 passenger cars and 1,828 commercial vehicles registered. Aviation. In 1985, 815,261 passengers arrived and departed by air at Fort-deFrance airport. Shipping. The island is visited regularly by French and American vessels. In 1985, 903 commercial vessels called at Martinique and discharged 141,000 passengers and 1,254,100 tonnes of freight and embarked 140,000 passengers and 631,000 tonnes of freight. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1985, 46 post offices and, 81,985 telephones. Radio-telephone service to Europe is available. In 1984 there were 46,000 radio and 42,500 TV receivers. Newspapers. In 1987 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of30,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by 2 tribunaux d'instance, a tribunal de grande instance, a regional court of appeal, a commercial court, a court of assizes and an administrative court. Religion. In 1982,94% of the population was Roman Catholic. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 years. In 1984-85, there were 54,132 pupils in primary schools, 44,426 pupils in secondary schools, 2,144 pupils in technical schools and 3,460 students at the teachertraining college. The Institut Henri Visioz, which forms part of the Centre Universitaire Antilles-Guyane, had(1983) 1,299 students. Health. There were (1982) 16 hospitals with 3,671 beds and in 1985 there were 544 physicians, 155 pharmacists and 127 dentists. Books of Reference Annuaire statistique I.N.S.E.E. 1977-80. Martinique, 1982 La Martinique en quelques chiffres. Martinique, 1982 Guide Economique des D.O. M.-TO. M., Paris, 1982

RÉUNION HISTORY. Réunion (formerly île Bourbon) became a French possession in 1638 and remained so until 19 March 1946, when its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department; in 1974 it also became an administrative region. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island of Réunion lies in the Indian Ocean, about 640 km east of Madagascar and 180 km south west of Mauritius. It has an area of 2,512 sq. km (968-5 sq. miles) and population of 515,798 (March 1982 census); estimate (1987) 564,600. The capital is Saint-Denis (1982 census) 109,072; Saint-Pierre, 58,412. Most inhabitants speak a Creole language, but French is official and Gujurati is also spoken. Vital statistics (1985): Live births, 13,111; deaths, 3,050.

503

RÉUNION

The small islands of Juan de Nova, Europa, Bassas da India, Iles Glorieuses and Tromelin, with a combined area of 32 sq. km, are all uninhabited and lie at various points in the Indian Ocean adjacent to Madagascar. They remained French after Madagascar's independence in 1960, and are now administered by Réunion. Both Mauritius and the Seychelles claim Tromelin (transferred by the UK from the Seychelles to France in 1954), and Madagascar claims all 5 islands. CLIMATE. A sub-tropical maritime climate, free from extremes of weather, though the island lies in the cyclone belt of the Indian Ocean. Conditions are generally humid and there is no well-defined dry season. Saint-Denis. Jan. 80°F (26 • 7°C), July 70° F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,400 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The island is administered by a Conseil Général of 36 members and a Regional Council of 45 members, both directly elected for terms of 6 years. Réunion is represented in the National Assembly by 5 deputies, in the Senate by 2 senators, and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. There are 4 arrondissements, sub-divided into 24 communes each administered by an elected municipal council. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Jean Anciaux. President of the Conseil Général: Auguste Legros. President of the Conseil Régional: Pierre Lagourgue. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1984 balanced at 2,265m. French francs. Banking. The Institut d'émission des Départements d'Outre-mer has the right to issue bank-notes. Banks operating in Réunion are the Banque de la Réunion (Crédit Lyonnais), the Banque Nationale de Paris Internationale, the Caisse Régionale de Crédit Agricole Mutuel de la Réunion, the Banque Française Commerciale (BFC) CCP, Trésorerie Générale, and the Banque de la Réunion pour l'Economie et la Développement. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 394m. kwh. Agriculture (1986). The chief produce is sugar (241,000 tonnes), molasses (1984, 69,353 tonnes), bananas (5,000 tonnes), rum (1984, 98,037 hectolitres), maize (14,000 tonnes), potatoes (4,000 tonnes), onions (1984, 1,831 tonnes), bananas (5,000 tonnes), pineapples (4,000 tonnes), tomatoes (3,000 tonnes), vanilla (1984, 168 tonnes), essences and tobacco. Livestock (1986): 20,000 cattle, 72,000 pigs, 3,000 sheep, 44,000 goats and 4m. poultry. Forestry. There were (1985) 103,330 hectares of forest. Roundwood production ( 1983) 33,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1985 the catch was 2,180 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry (1985). Total number of workers (in 418 firms employing 10 or more) 16,000. The sugar industry employed 2,900. Commerce. Trade in 1 m. French francs: Imports Exports

1980 3,749 554

1981 4,311 571

1982 5,304 688

1983 6,410 662

1984 6,895 695

1985 7,457 802

The chief export is sugar, forming (1985) 72% by value. In 1985 (by value) 65% of imports were from, and 53% of exports to, France.

504

FRANCE

Total trade between Réunion and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ]983 ] m ]Ç85 m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

73 3,684

407 3,327

1,391 4,081

12,259 4,225

1,056 8,624

Tourism. There were 78,952 tourists in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1984, 1,711 km of roads. There were 92,900 registered vehicles in 1984. Railways. In 1984 there were 614 km of railways serving only the sugar plantations. Aviation. Air France maintains an air service 6 times a week. In 1985, 210,121 passengers and 6,625 tonnes of freight arrived and 210,764 passengers and 3,666 tonnes of freight departed at Saint-Denis-Gillot airport. Shipping. Four shipping lines serve the island. In 1985, 362 vessels visited the island to discharge 1,122,800 tonnes of freight and 1,900 passengers, and load 340,000 tonnes of freight and 1,900 passengers at Pointe-des-Galets. Post and Broadcasting. There are telephone and telegraph connexions with Mauritius, Madagascar and metropolitan France. There are 38 post offices and a central telephone office; number of telephones ( 1984), 8 5,861. France Régions 3 broadcast in French on medium- and short-waves for more than 18 hours a day. There are 2 television channels broadcasting for 70 hours a week. In 1984 there were 114,500 radio and 107,500 TV receivers. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 25 cinemas with a seating capacity of 10,200. Newspapers. There were (1985) 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 70,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 3 tribunaux d'instance, 2 tribunaux de grande instance, 1 Cour d'Appel, 1 tribunal administratifànd2 conseils de prud'homme. Religion. In 1980,96% of the population was Roman Catholic and 2% Moslem. Education. Secondary education is provided in (1983-84) 6 lycées, 50 collèges, and 9 lycées d'enseignement technique with 66,653 pupils altogether and in 13 private secondary schools with 3,407 pupils. Primary education is given in 336 public schools with 4,018 teachers and 106,437 pupils; and in 28 private schools, with 306 teachers, and 8,827 pupils. The Université Française de l'Océan Indien (founded 1971)had2,674students and 82 teaching staffin 1984. Health. In 1984 there were 21 hospitals with 3,879 beds; in 1984 there were 762 physicians, 183 dentists, 180 pharmacists, 102 midwives and 1,791 nursing personnel. Books of Reference Bulletin de Bulletin de Panorama Statistiques

l'Académie de la Réunion. Biennial la Chambre d'Agriculture de la Réunion de l'Economie de la Reunion. 1983 et Indicateurs Economiques. 1983

T E R R I T O R I A L COLLECTIVITIES MAYOTTE H I S T O R Y . Mayotte was a French colony from 1843 until 1914, when it was attached, with the other Comoro islands, to the government-general of Madagas-

505

MAYOTTE

car. The Comoro group was granted administrative autonomy within the French Republic and became an Overseas Territory. When the other 3 islands voted to become independent (as the Comoro state) in 1974, Mayotte voted against this and remained a French dependency. In Dec. 1976, it became (following a further referendum) a Territorial Collectivity. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mayotte, east of the Comoro Islands, consists of a main island (362 sq. km) with 57,363 inhabitants at the 1985 Census, containing the chief town, Mamoundzou (12,119); and the smaller island of Pamanzi (11 sq. km) lying 2 km to the east, with 9,775 inhabitants in 1985, containing the old capital of Dzaoudzi (5,675). The whole territory covers 373 sq. km (144 sq. miles) and had a 1985 Census population of 67,138; estimate (1987) 73,900. The spoken language is Mahorian (akin to Comoran, an Arabized dialect of Swahili), but French remains the official and commercial language. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The island is administered by a Conseil Général of 17 members, directly elected for a 6-year term. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Mayotte is represented by 1 deputy in the National Assembly and by 1 member in the Senate. There are 17 communes, including 2 on Pamanzi. Commissioner: Akli Khider. President of the Conseil Général: Younoussa Bamana. ECONOMY Budget. In 1984, revenue was 1371m. francs (44% being subsidies from France) and expenditure 148 -4m. francs. The 1985 Budget balanced at 313m. francs. Currency. Since Feb. 1976 the currency has been the (metropolitan) French franc. Banking. The Institut d'Emission d'Outre-mer and the Banque Française Commercialeboûi have branches in Dzaoudzi. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1982) 5m. kwh. Agriculture. The main food crops (1983 production in tonnes) are mangoes (1,500), bananas (1,300), breadfruit (700), cassava (500) and pineapples (200). The chief cash crops are ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, copra, cinnamon and cloves. Livestock (1982): Cattle, 3,000; goats, 10,000; pigs, 2,000. Fisheries. A lobster and shrimp industry has recently been created. Annual catch is about 2,000 tonnes. COMMERCE. In 1984, exports totalled 34m. francs (57% to France in 1983) and imports 182-8m. francs (53% from France). Ylang-ylang formed 48% of exports, vanilla 33% and coffee 12%. Total trade between Mayotte and UK ( 1984): Imports to UK, £67,000 and exports and re-exports from UK, £343,000. Total trade between Mayotte and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

1985 22 2,000

1986 9 506

1987 185 2,352

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 93 km of main roads and 137 km of local roads, with 1,528 motor vehicles. Aviation. In 1985, 17,426 passengers and 172 tonnes of freight arrived and departed by air. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 6,000 radio receivers. Telephones (1981)400.

506

FRANCE

Newspapers. There is 1 daily newspaper, le Journal de Mayotte. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal d'instance and a tribunal supérieur d'appel. Religion. The population is 97% Sunni Moslem, with a small Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) minority. Education. In 1984 there were 14,992 pupils and 407 teachers in 72 primary schools; 1,374 pupils in 1 secondary school; and 475 students in 2 technical and teacher-training establishments. Health. In 1980 there were 9 doctors, 1 dentist, 1 pharmacist, 2 midwives and 51 nursing personnel. In 1981 there were 2 hospitals with 86 beds.

ST PIERRE A N D MIQUELON îles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon HISTORY. The tiny remaining fragment of the once extensive French possessions in North America, the archipelago was settled from France in the 17th century and finally became a French territory from 1816 until July 1976, when its status was altered to that of an Overseas Department. In June 1985 it became a Territorial Collectivity. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The archipelago consists of 8 small islands off the south coast of Newfoundland, with a total area of 242 sq. km, comprising the Saint-Pierre group (26 sq. km) and the Miquelon-Langlade group (216 sq. km). The population (census, 1982) was 6,041 of whom 5,415 were on SaintPierre and 626 on Miquelon; estimate (1987) 6,300. The chief town is St Pierre. Vital statistics (1986): Births, 89; marriages, 16; deaths, 48. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The dependency is administered by a Conseil Général of 14 members, directly elected for a 6-year term. It is represented in the National Assembly by 1 deputy, in the Senate by 1 senator and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The French government is represented by an appointed Commissioner. Commissioner: Jean-René Gamier. President of the Conseil Général: Marc Plantegenest. ECONOMY Budget. The ordinary budget for 1986 balanced at 50m. francs. Banking. Banks include the Banque des îles Saint-Pierre et Miquelon and the Crédit Saint-Pierrais. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 36m. kwh. Agriculture. The islands, being mostly barren rock, are unsuited for agriculture, but some vegetables are grown and livestock kept for local consumption. Fisheries. The catch (the islands' main industry) amounted in 1986 to 12,000 tonnes, chiefly cod. COMMERCE. Trade in 1 m. francs: Imports Exports

1980 177-2 24-2

1981 220-9 38-7

1982 275-4 41 0

1983 348-3 113-3

OVERSEAS

507

TERRITORIES

In 1986,76% of imports came from Canada, while 35% of exports were to USA, 3 7% to France and 11 % to UK. The main exports are fish (88%), shellfish (6%) and fishmeal (5%). Total trade between St Pierre and Miquelon and U K (British Department of Trade returns in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. E x p o r t s a n d re-exports from U K

1983 578 250

1984 743 523

1985 497 370

1986 474 367

1987 77 604

Tourism. There were ( 1986) 15,546 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 120 km of roads, of which 60 km were paved. In 1986 there were 1,932 passenger cars and 637 commercial vehicles. Aviation. Air Saint-Pierre connects St Pierre with Montreal, with Halifax and Sydney (Nova Scotia), and there are occasional flights to and from St John's (Newfoundland), Gander and New York. Shipping. St Pierre has regular services to Fortune (Newfoundland) and Halifax. In 1986, 73,043 tonnes of freight were unloaded and 7,586 tonnes loaded, while 892 ships (of810,474 gross tonnage) entered the harbour. Post and Broadcasting. There were 3,860 telephones in 1986. RFO broadcasts in French on medium-waves. St Pierre is connected by radio-telecommunication with most countries of the world. Radio licences totalled 4,400 and TV 3,800 in 1985. Cinemas. There were (1983)2 cinemas with a seating capacity of760. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal de premier instance and a tribunal supérieur at St Pierre.

d'appel

Religion. The population is chiefly Roman Catholic. Education. Primary instruction is free. There were, in 1987, 8 nursery and primary schools with 916 pupils and 4 secondary schools (including 2 technical schools) with 773 pupils. Health. There was (1986) 1 hospital on St Pierre with 100 beds; 13 doctors and 3 dentists. Books of Reference D e C u r t o n , E., Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Paris, 1944 De La Riie, E. A., Saint-Pierre et Miquelon. Paris, 1963 Ribault, J. Y., Histoire de Saint-Pierre el Miquelon: 1962

Des Origines

à 1814. St Pierre,

OVERSEAS TERRITORIES Among the 7 French Overseas Territories remaining since Algerian independence in 1962, the Comoro Islands declared their independence on 6 July 1975 (recognized by France on 31 Dec.), but the island of Mayotte remained French and in Dec. 1976 was classed as a 'territorial collectivity'. The territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon became a fifth Overseas Department in July 1976, but in June 1985 it acquired the same status as Mayotte. The former French Somaliland (subsequently Territory of the Afars and Issas) became independent on 27 June 1977 as the Republic of Djibouti. The remaining French Overseas Territories are New Caledonia (with its dependancies), French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, and the French Southern and Antarctic Territories.

508

FRANCE

SOUTHERN A N D ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises The Territory of the TAAF was created on 6 Aug. 1955. It comprises the Kerguelen and Crozet archipelagoes, the islands of Saint Paul and Amsterdam (formerly Nouvelle Amsterdam), all in the southern Indian ocean, and Terre Adélie. The Administrator is assisted by a 7-member consultative council which meets twice yearly in Paris; its members are nominated by the Government for 5 years. The 12 members of the Scientific Council are appointed by the Senior Administrator after approval by the Minister in charge of scientific research. A 15-member Consultative Committee on the Environment, created in Nov. 1982, meets at least once a year to discuss all problems relating to the preservation of the environment. The administration has its seat in Paris. Administrateur supérieur: Vice-Adm. Claude Piéri. The staff of the permanent scientific stations of the TAAF (210 in 1985) is renewed annually and forms the only population. Kerguelen islands, situated 48-50° S. lat., 68-70° E. long., consists of 1 large and 85 smaller islands and over 200 islets and rocks with a total area of 7,215 sq. km (2,786 sq. miles), of which Grande Terre occupies 6,675 sq. km (2,577 sq. miles). It was discovered in 1772 by Yves de Kerguelen, but was effectively occupied by France only in 1949. Port-aux-Français has several scientific research stations (100 members). Reindeer, trout and sheep have been acclimatized. Crozet islands, situated 46° S. lat., 50-52° E. long., consists of 5 larger and 15 tiny islands, with a total area of 505 sq. km (195 sq. miles); the western group includes Apostles, Pigs and Penguins islands; the eastern group, Possession and Eastern islands. The archipelago was discovered in 1772 by Marion Dufresne, whose mate, Crozet, annexed it for Louis XV. A meteorological and scientific station (40 members) at Base Alfred-Faure on Possession Island was built in 1964. Amsterdam Island and Saint-Paul Island, situated 38-39° S. lat., 77° E. long. Amsterdam, with an area of 54 sq. km (21 sq. miles) was discovered in 1522 by Magellan's companions; Saint-Paul, lying about 100 km to the south, with an area of 7 sq. km (2 • 7 sq. miles), was probably discovered in 15 59 by Portuguese sailors. Both were first visited in 1633 by the Dutch explorer, Van Diemen, and were annexed by France in 1843. They are both extinct volcanoes. The only inhabitants are at tose Martin de Vivies, established in 1949 on Amsterdam Island, with several scientific research stations, hospital, communication and other facilities (40 members). Crayfish are caught commercially on Amsterdam. Terre Adélie comprises that section of the Antarctic continent between 136° and 142° E. long., south of 60° S. lat. The ice-covered plateau has an area of about 432,000 sq. km (166,800 sq. miles), and was discovered in 1840 by Dumont d'Urville. A research station (30 members) is situated at Base Dumont d'Urville, which is maintained by the French Polar Expeditions. Book of Reference T.A.A.F. Revue trimestrielle. Paris, 1957 ff.

NEW CALEDONIA Nouvelle Calédonie et Dépendances H I S T O R Y . New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853 and, together with most of its former dependencies, became an Overseas Territory in 1958.

NEW CALEDONIA

509

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The territory comprises the island of New Caledonia and various outlying islands, all situated in the south-west Pacific with a total land area of 18,576 sq. km (7,172 sq. miles). In 1983 the population (census) was 145,368, including 53,974 Europeans (majority French), 61,870 Melanesians (Kanaks), 7,700 Vietnamese and Indonesians, 5,570 Polynesians, 12,174 Wallisians, 4,080 others; 1987 (estimate) 153,500. The capital, Nouméa had (1983) 60,112 inhabitants. Vital statistics (1986): Live births, 3,779; deaths, 851. The main islands are: 1. The island of New Caledonia with an area of 16,372 sq. km, has a total length of about 400 km, and an average breadth of 50 km, and a population (census, 1983) of 127,885. The east coast is predominantly Melanesian, the Nouméa region predominantly French, and the rest of the west coast of mixed population. 2. The Loyalty Islands, 100 km (60 miles) east of New Caledonia, consisting of 3 large islands, Maré, Lifou and Uvéa, and many small islands with a total area of 1,981 sq. km and a population (census, 1983) of 15,510, nearly all Melanesians except on Uvéa, which is partly Polynesian. The chief culture in the islands is that of coconuts: the chief export, copra. 3. The Isle of Pines, 50 km (30 miles) to the south-east of Nouméa, with an area of 152 sq. km and a population of 1,287 (census 1983), is a tourist and fishing centre. 4. The Bélep Archipelago, about 50 km north-west of New Caledonia, with an area of 70 sq. km and a population of686 (census 1983). The remaining islands are all very small and none have permanent inhabitants. The largest are the Chesterfield Islands, a group of 11 well-wooded coral islets with a combined area of 10 sq. km, about 550 km west of the Bélep Archipelago. The Huon Islands, a group of 4 barren coral islets with a combined area of just 65 hectares, are 225 km north of the Bélep Archipelago. Walpole, a limestone coral island of 1 sq. km, lies 150 km east of the Isle of Pines; Matthew Island (20 hectares) and Hunter Island (2 sq. km), respectively 250 km and 330 km east of Walpole, are spasmodically active volcanic islands also claimed by Vanuatu. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. Following constitutional changes introduced by the French government in Sept. 1985, the Territory is administered by a 5-member Executive Council consisting of the President of the Territorial Congress (as President) and the Presidents of the 4 Regional Councils which were elected on 29 Sept. 1985. The French government is represented by an appointed High Commissioner. In Sept. 1987 the electorate voted in favour of remaining a French possession. There is a 46-member Territorial Congress consisting of the complete membership of the 4 Regional Councils, which has replaced the former 42-member Territorial Assembly. The Rassemblement Pour la Calédonie dans la République (Gaullists) gained 25 seats, the Front de Libération Nationale Kanake Socialiste (nationalists) 16 seats and others 5 seats. New Caledonia is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies, in the Senate by 1 senator and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The Territory is divided into 4 regions (Nord, Centre-Sud-Est, Nouméa and îles Loyauté), each under a directly-elected Regional Council. They are sub-divided into 32 communes administered by locally-elected councils and mayors. High Commissioner: Jean Montpezat. President of the Executive Council: Dick Ukeiwé. ECONOMY Budget. The budget for 1986 balanced at 38,690m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18 18 to the French franc. Banking. There are branches of the Banque de Indosuez, the Banque Nationale de Paris, the Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas, and the Société Générale, and the Banque de la Nouvelle-Calédonie (Crédit Lyonnais).

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ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1986, production totalled 1,015m. kwh. Minerals. The mineral resources are very great; nickel, chrome and iron abound; silver, gold, cobalt, lead, manganese, iron and copper have been mined at different times. The nickel deposits are of special value, being without arsenic. Production of nickel ore in 1986,3,125,000 tonnes and chrome ore 163,325 tonnes. About 3,270 sq. km of mining land are owned, and 300 sq. km have been granted for exploitation. In 1986 the furnaces produced 9,160 tonnes of matte nickel and 33,001 tonnes of ferro-nickel. Agriculture. 271,864 hectares are pasture land; about 10,035 hectares are commercially cultivated. The chief agricultural products are beef, pork, poultry, coffee, copra, maize, fruit and vegetables. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 123,000; pigs, 41,000; goats, 18,000. Forestry. There are about 250,000 hectares of forest. Roundwood production (1983) 12,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. The catch in 1985 totalled 5,763 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Local industries include chlorine and oxygen plants, cement, soft drinks, barbed wire, nails, pleasure and fishing boats, clothing, pasta, household cleaners and confectionery. Labour. The working population (1983 census) was 58,000 of whom 19,700 worked in agriculture. Commerce. Imports and exports in 1 m. francs CFP for 5 years: Imports Exports

1982 43,735 27,707

1983 42,201 22,035

1984 49,605 33,452

1985 55,931 43,938

1986 62,939 26,249

In 1986,50-3% of the imports came from France and 7 -4% from Australia, while 56 -5% of the exports went to France and most of the rest to Japan. Refined minerals (mainly ferro-nickel and nickel) formed 68 -8% of exports by value, nickel ore 9 • 5% and chrome ore 3 • 8%. Tourism. In 1986 there were 59,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1984,6,273 km of roads, of which 1,867 were paved. There were(1986)44,551 vehicles. Aviation. New Caledonia is connected by air routes with France (by UTA), Australia (UTA and Qantas), New Zealand (UTA and Air New Zealand), Fiji and Wallis and Futuna (by Air Cal International), Vanuatu and Tahiti (by UTA), and Nauru (by Air Nauru). In 1986, 101,584 passengers arrived and 101,736 departed via La Tontouta airport, near Nouméa. Internal services connect Nouméa with 17 domestic air fields. Shipping. In 1986,363 vessels entered Nouméa unloading 813,000 tonnes of goods and loading 1,334,900 tonnes. A new harbour for deep-water alongside discharge was completed in 1974. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1985) 52 post offices and telex, telephone, radio and television services. There were (1983) 30,578 telephones. RFO broadcasts in French on medium- and short-wave radio (there are also 3 private stations) and on 1 television channel 58 hours a week. Number of receivers (1983): radio, 78,000; TV, 30,000. Cinemas. In 1985 there were 9 cinemas. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper with a circulation of 16,000 and 16 other periodicals.

FRENCH POLYNESIA JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

511 WELFARE

Justice. There is a Tribunal de Grande Instance and a Cour d'Appel in Nouméa. Religion. In 1980 over 72% of the population was Roman Catholic, 16% Protestant and 4% Moslem. Education. In 1986, there were 31,875 pupils and 1,560 teachers in primary schools, 13,193 pupils in 45 secondary schools, 5,721 students in 29 technical and vocational schools, and 859 students and 66 teaching staff in 5 higher education establishments. Health. In 1985 there were 194 physicians, 33 dentists, 42 pharmacists, 27 midwives and 823 paramedical personnel. In 1985,5 hospitals and 25 dispensaries had a total of 991 beds. Books of Reference Journal Officiel de la Nouvelle Calédonie et Dépendances Annuaire Statistique de la Nouvelle Calédonie et Dépendances Tableaux de l'Economie Calédonienne, 1983-1985

FRENCH POLYNESIA Territoire de la Polynésie Française H I S T O R Y . French protectorates since 1843, these islands were annexed to France 1880-82 to form 'French Settlements in Oceania', which opted in Nov. 195 8 for the status of an Overseas Territory within the French Community. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total land area of these 5 archipelagoes, scattered over a wide area in the Eastern Pacific is 3,521 sq. km ( 1,3 59 sq. miles). The population, Census, 1983, was 166,753; estimate (1987) 184,600. The islands are administratively divided into 5 circonscriptions: 1. The Windward Islands (îles du Vent) (123,069 inhabitants in 1983) comprise Tahiti with an area of 1,042 sq. km and 115,820 inhabitants; Moorea with an area of 132 sq. km and 7,000 inhabitants; Maio (Tubuai Manu) with an area of 9 sq. km and 200 inhabitants, and the smaller Mehetia and Tetiaoro. The capital is Papeete (78,814 inhabitants including suburbs). 2. The Leeward Islands (îles sous le Vent), comprise the volcanic islands of Raiatéa, Tahaa, Huahine, Bora-Bora and Maupiti, together with 4 small atolls, the group having a total land area o f 4 0 4 sq. km and 19,060 inhabitants in 1983. The chief town is Uturoa on Raiatéa. The Windward and Leeward Islands together are called the Society Archipelago (Archipel de la Société). Tahitian, a Polynesian language, is spoken throughout the archipelago and used as a lingua franca in the rest of the territory. 3. The Tuamotu Archipelago, consisting of two parallel ranges of 78 atolls lying north and east of the Society Archipelago, have a total area o f 6 9 0 sq. km; the most populous atolls are Rangiroa, Hao and Turéia. Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls in the south-east of the group have been used by France for nuclear tests since 1966, having been ceded to France in 1964 by the Territorial Assembly. The circonscription (total 11,793 inhabitants) also includes the Gambier Islands further east (of which Mangareva is the principal), with an area of 36 sq. km and a population of556 ( 1977); the chief centre is Rikitea on Mangareva. 4. The Austral or Tubuai Islands, lying south of the Society Archipelago, comprise a 1,300 km chain of volcanic islands and reefs. They include Rimatara, Rurutu, Tubuai, Raivaevae and, 500 km to the south, Rapa-Iti, with a combined area of 148 sq. km and 6,283 inhabitants; the chief centre is Mataura on Tubuai. 5. The Marquesas Islands, lying north of the Tuamotu Archipelago, with a total

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area of 1,049 sq. km and 6,548 inhabitants, comprise Nukuhiva, Uapu, Uahuka, Hivaoa, Tahuata, Fatuhiva and 4 smaller (uninhabited) islands; the chief centre is Taiohae on Nukuhiva. Vital statistics (1984): Births, 5,016; marriages, 1,099; deaths, 818. C L I M A T E . Papeete. Jan. 81°F (27 TC), July 75°F (24°C). Annual rainfall 8 3 " (2,106 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the 1984 Constitution, the Territory is administered by a Council of Ministers, whose President is elected by the Territorial Assembly from among its own members; he appoints a VicePresident and 9 other ministers. There is an advisory Economic and Social Committee. French Polynesia is represented in the National Assembly by 2 deputies, in the Senate by 1 senator, and in the Economic and Social Council by 1 councillor. The French government is represented by a High Commissioner. The Territorial Assembly comprises 41 members elected every 5 years by universal suffrage. At the elections held in March 1986, the Tahoeraa Huiraatiraa (Gaullists) won 22 seats, the Amuitahiraa No Porinesia 5 seats, Nationalists 5 seats and others 9 seats. High Commissioner: Pierre Angéli. President of the Council of Ministers: Jacques Teheiura Flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, red, with the white of double width containing the emblem of French Polynesia in yellow. ECONOMY Budget. The ordinary budget for 1986 balanced at 51,600m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of C F P francs 18 18 to the French franc. Banking. There are 5 commercial banks, the Bank Indosuez, the Bank of Tahiti, the Banque de Polynésie, Paribas Pacifique and Société de Crédit et de Développement de l'Océanie. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production in 1985 (Tahiti only) amounted to 203m. kwh (16% hydroelectric). Agriculture. An important product is copra (coconut trees covering the coastal plains of the mountainous islands and the greater part of the low-lying islands), production (1986) 14,000 tonnes. Tropical fruits, such as bananas, pineapples, oranges, etc., are grown only for local consumption. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 7,000; horses, 2,000; pigs, 48,000; sheep, 2,000; goats, 3,000; poultry, l m . Fisheries. The catch in 1985 amounted to 1,868 tonnes offish. C O M M E R C E . Trade in lm. francs CFP: Imports Exports

1981 54,843 2,861

1982 62,307 3,349

1983 74,241 4,823

1984 85,622 5,084

1985 88,939 6,564

Total trade between the French possessions in the (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK.

1984 2 3,276

1 985 23 3,961

Pacific and

1986 95 4,890

UK

1 987 18 5,275

Chief exports are coconut oil and cultured pearls. In 1985, France provided 46% of imports and USA 16%, while 44% of exports went to France and 21 % to USA.

WALLIS A N D

FUTUNA

513

Tourism. Tourism is very important, earning almost half as much as the visible exports. There were 161,000 tourists in 1986 (50% from the USA). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 798 km of roads and (1985) 5,374 registered vehicles. Aviation. Seven international airlines connect Tahiti with Paris, Los Angeles and many Pacific locations. There is also a regular air service between Faaa airport (on Tahiti), Moorea and the Leeward Isles with occasional connexions to the other groups. In 1985, 154,504 international passengers arrived and 152,567 departed via the airports at Faaa and on Mooréa and Bora-Bora. Thirty other airfields have regular domestic services. Shipping. Several shipping companies connect France, San Francisco, New Zealand, Japan, Australia, South East Asia and most Pacific locations with Papeete. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1985), 28,192. Radio Tele Tahiti belongs to Société de Radiodiffusion et de Télévision pour l'Outre-mer (RFO) and broadcasts in French, Tahitian and English on medium- and short-waves and also broadcasts 1 television programme via 5 transmitters. There are also 9 private radio stations. Number of receivers (1983): radio, 77,000; TV, 25,500. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 8 cinemas in Papeete. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 3 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 23,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a tribunal de grande instance and a cour d'appel at Papeete. Religion. In 1980 it was estimated that 46-5% of the inhabitants were Protestants, 39 -4% Roman Catholic and 5 1% Mormon. Education. Education was reorganized in 1975. There were, in 1985-86, 41,107 pupils in 254 primary schools, 13,372 pupils in secondary schools, and 3,944 pupils in technical schools and teacher-training colleges. Health. There were (1980) 143 physicians, 47 dentists, 20 pharmacists, 15 midwives and 257 nursing personnel. There was (1983) a main hospital at Mamao (on Tahiti), 7 secondary hospitals, and 12 medical centres with 903 hospital beds. D E P E N D E N C Y . The uninhabited Clipperton Island, 1,000 km off the west coast of Mexico, is administered by the High Commissioner for French Polynesia but does not form part of the Territory; it is an atoll with an area of 5 sq. km. Books of Reference Containing Journal Officiel des Etablissements Françaises de l'Océanie, and Supplement Statistics of Commerce and Navigation. Papeete Andrews, E., Comparative Dictionary of the Tahitian Language. Chicago, 1944 Bounds, J. H„ Tahiti. Bend, Oregon, 1978 Luke, Sir Harry, The Islands of the South Pacific. London, 1961 O'Reilly, P., and Reitman, E., Bibliographie de Tahiti et de la Polynésie française. Paris, 1967 O'Reilly, P., and Teissier, R., Tahitiens. Répertoire bio-bibliographique de la Polynésie française. Paris, 1963

WALLIS AND FUTUNA H I S T O R Y . French dependencies since 1842, the inhabitants of these islands voted on 22 Dec. 1959 by an overwhelming majority in favour of exchanging their status to that of an Overseas Territory, which took effect from 29 July 1961.

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A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Territory comprises two groups of islands (total area 274 sq. km) in the central Pacific, The îles de Hoorn lie 240 km northeast of Fiji and consist of 2 main islands-Futuna (64 sq. km) and uninhabited Alofi (51 sq. km). The Wallis Archipelago lies another 160 km further north-east, and comprises one main island - Uvea (159 sq. km), with a surrounding coral reef. The capital is Mata-Utu (815 inhabitants, 1983) on Uvea. The resident population (census March 1982) was 11,943 (estimate, 1987, 14,800), comprising 7,843 on Uvea and 4,100 on Futuna. About 12,000 Wallisians and Futunians live abroad, mainly in New Caledonia. Wallisian and Futunian are distinct Polynesian languages. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Senior Administrator carries out the duties of Head of the Territory, assisted by a 20-member Territorial Assembly directly elected for a 5-year term. The territory is represented by 1 deputy in the National Assembly, by 1 senator in the Senate, and by 1 member on the Economic and Social Council. There are 3 districts: Singave and Alo (both on Futuna) and Wallis. Administrateur supérieur: Jacques Le Ilénaff. President of the Territorial Assembly: Falakiko Gata. ECONOMY Budget. The 1982 budget provided for expenditure of303 • 8m. francs CFP. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFP, with a parity of CFP francs 18 18 to the French franc. A G R I C U L T U R E . The chief products are copra, cassava, yams, taro roots and bcinâHâs Livestock: Pigs, 27,000 (1986); goats, 7,000 (1986). C O M M E R C E . Imports (1981) amounted to 667m. francs CFP. There are few exports. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1977 there were 100 km of roads on Uvea. Aviation. In 1980 there were 581 aircraft arrivals and departures at Hihifo airport, on Uvea. There is a weekly flight via Vila (Vanuatu) to Nouméa (New Caledonia) and three flights each week to Futuna (Point Vele air strip). Shipping. A regular service links wharves at Mata-Utu and at Singave (Futuna) with Nouméa (New Caledonia), Suva (Fiji) and Vila and Santo (Vanuatu). Post and Broadcasting. In 1979 a radio station was established on Uvea. In 1983 there were 225 telephones. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. The majority of the population is Roman Catholic. Education. In 1983, there were 3,962 pupils in 13 primary and lower secondary schools. Health. In 1981 there were 4 physicians, 1 pharmacist, 1 dentist and 1 midwife. There were(1981)3 hospitals with 108 beds.

Capital: Libreville Population: 1 -22m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$4,250 (1983)

GABON République Gabonaise

H I S T O R Y . First colonized by France in the mid-19th century, Gabon was annexed to French Congo in 1888 and became a separate colony in 1910 as one of the 4 territories of French Equatorial Africa. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 28 Nov. 1958 and achieved independence on 17 Aug. 1960. The first President, Leon M'ba, died on 30 Nov. 1967 and was succeeded on 2 Dec. by his Vice-President, Albert-Bernard (now Omar) Bongo. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Gabon is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean, north by Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon and east and south by Congo. The area covers 267,667 sq. km; its population at the 1970 census was 950,007; estimate (1987) is 1,224,000. The capital is Libreville (350,000 inhabitants, 1983), other large towns being Port-Gentil (123,300), Masuku (formerly Franceville, 38,030), Lambarene (26,257 in 1978)andMouanda(22,909 in 1978). Vital statistics (1975): Birth rate, 3 -22%; death rate, 2 -22%. Provincial areas, populations (estimate 1978, in 1,000) and capitals are as follows: Province Estuaire Woleu-Ntem Ogooué-Ivindo Moyen-Ogooué Ogooué-Maritime

Sq. km 1978 Capital 20,740 359 Libreville 38,465 166 Oyem 46,075 53 Makokou 18,535 49 Lambaréné 22,890 194 Port-Gentil

Province Nyanga Ngounié Ogooué-Lolo Haut-Ogooué

Sq. km 1978 Capital 21,285 98 Tchibanga 37,750 118 Mouila 25,380 49 Koulamoutou 36,547 213 Masuku

The largest ethnic groups are the Fang (30%) in the north, Eshira (25%) in the south-west, and the Adouma (17%) in the south-east. French is the official language. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with high temperatures and considerable rainfall. Mid-May to mid-Sept, is the long dry season, followed by a short rainy season, then a dry season again from mid-Dec. to mid-Feb., and finally a long rainy season once more. Libreville. Jan. 80°F(26-7°C), July 75°F (23 -9°C). Annual rainfall 9 9 " (2,510 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1967 Constitution (as subsequently revised) provides for an Executive President directly elected for a 7-year term, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him. The unicameral National Assembly consists of 111 members, directly elected for a 5-year term (latest elections, Feb. 1985) and a further 9 members nominated by the President. The sole legal political party is the Parti démocratique gabonais founded in 1968. It is governed by a Central Committee of 297 members and a 44-member Political Bureau, both elected. President: Omar Bongo (re-elected in 1973,1979 and 1986). Prime Minister: Léon Mébiame. Deputy Prime Ministers: Georges Rawiri, Etienne-Guy Mouvagha Tchioba, Emile Kassa-Mapsi, Simon Essimengane. Foreign Minister: Martin Bongo. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, blue. Local government: The 9 provinces, each administered by a governor appointed by the President, are divided into 37 départements, each under a prefect. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 all-arms Presidential Guard battalion group with support units, totalling ( 1988), 1,900 men. 515

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GABON

Navy. The small naval flotilla in 1988 comprised 2 new French-built vedettes, 4 fast attack craft, 1 patrol craft, 1 frigate-size amphibious ship, and 10 landing craft with a base at Port-Gentil. Personnel in 1988 totalled 350 officers and men. The Coastguard has 11 small patrol craft and 1 service tender. Air Force. The Air Force has 6 single-seat and 3 two-seat Mirage 5 ground-attack aircraft, and 1 EMB-111 maritime patrol aircraft. Transport duties are performed primarily by 4 Hercules and 1 EMB-110 Bandeirante turboprop aircraft, supported by 3 C-47s and 3 Nord 262s. Single Mystère 20, F-28 and DC-8 aircraft are used for VIP duties. Three T-34C-1 armed turboprop aircraft, 5 armed Magister trainers and an EMB-110 Bandeirante are operated for La Présidentiale Garde. Also in service are 4 Puma, 5 Gazelle, 2 Ecureuil and 4 Alouette III helicopters. Personnel (1988) 600. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Gabon is a member of UN, OAU and OPEC; it is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY. Planning. The Fifth 5-year Plan (1984-88) envisages public expenditure of 1,228,478m. francs CFA, of which 595,662m. were to develop the infrastructure. Budget. The 1986 budget provided for expenditure of 720,000m. francs CFA and revenue of600,000m. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 francs CFA, and banknotes of 100, 500, 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 francs CFA. In March 1988 £1 = 507 francs CFA; US$ 1 = 285 -66 francs CFA. Banking. The Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale is the bank of issue. There are 9 commercial banks situated in Gabon. The Banque Gabonaise de Développement and the Union Gabonaise de Banque are Gabonese controlled. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The semi-public Société d'energie et d'eau du Gabon produced 736m. kwh. in 1985, mainly from thermal plants but increasingly from hydro-electric schemes at Kinguélé (near Libreville), Tchimbélé and Poubara (near Masuku). Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Extraction from offshore fields totalled 7-9m. tonnes in 1987. Gabon operates 2 refineries, at Port-Gentil and at nearby Pointe Clairette. Proven reserves ( 1984) 490m. bbls. Gas. Natural gas production (1983) was 82m. cu. metres. Minerals. Production (1985) of manganese ore (from deposits around Moanda in the south-east) amounted to 2 -3m. tonnes. Uranium is mined nearby at Mounana (918 tonnes in 1985). An estimated 850m. tonnes of iron ore deposits, discovered 1971 at Mékambo (near Bélinga in the north-east) await completion of the branch railway line to be exploited. Gold ( 18 kg in 1982), zinc and phosphates also occur. Agriculture. The major crops (production, 1986, in 1,000 tonnes) are: Sugar-cane, 130; cassava, 255; plantains, 170; maize, 11 ; groundnuts, 8; bananas, 8; palm oil, 3 -6; cocoa, 2; coffee, 1 and rice, 1. Livestock (1986): 8,000 cattle, 82,000 sheep, 62,000 goats, 152,000 pigs. Forestry. Gabon's equatorial forests covering 78% of the land area produced l-38m. cu. metres of okoumé and other softwoods in 1985. Hardwoods (mahogany, ebony and walnut) are also exported. Fisheries. The total catch (1982) amounted to 52,638 tonnes.

GABON

517

I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. A sugar refinery at Masuku produced (1984) 15,000 tonnes raw sugar. Most manufacturing is based on the processing of food, timber and mineral resources. Labour. The workforce in 1984 numbered 533,000 of whom 74% were agricultural. Commerce. In 1983 imports totalled 324,900m. francs CFA and exports 746,600m. francs CFA. France and USA are Gabon's principal trading partners. In 1983 petroleum made up 83-5% of exports; metals, 7-5% and timber, 7%. Total trade between Gabon and the UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 66,135 18,798

1984 70,775 20,548

1985 48,292 30,588

1986 36,642 16,627

1987 5,357 11,962

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 7,513 km of roads and in 1982 there were 16,043 passenger cars and 10,695 commercial vehicles. Railways. A 1,43 5-mm gauge (Transgabonais) railway runs from Owendo via N'Djole to Booué and Lastourville, Mouanda and Masuku, opened throughout in 1986, which is connected to the Congo railways. A branch from Booué to Belinga is also under construction. Total 523 km of 1,437 mm gauge. In 1985, 137,111 passengers and 724,928 tonnes of freight were transported. Aviation. There are 3 international airports at Port-Gentil, Masuku, and Libreville; internal services link these to 65 domestic airfields. Shipping. Owendo (near Libreville), Mayumba and Port-Gentil are the main ports. In 1982,6 -8m. tonnes were loaded and 733,000 tonnes unloaded at the ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1985 there were 11,700 telephones, 21,000 television and 100,000 radio licences. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 6 cinemas with a seating capacity of 4,100. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 newspapers published in Libreville; GabonMatin (daily) has a circulation of 18,000 and L 'Union (weekly) 15,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are tribunaux de grande instance at Libreville, Port-Gentil, Lambaréné, Mouila, Oyem, Masuku and Koulamoutou, from which cases move progressively to a central Criminal Court, Court of Appeal and Supreme Court, all 3 located in Libreville. Civil police number about 900. Religion. 84% of the population is Christian (65% Roman Catholic), the majority of the balance following animist beliefs. There are about 10,000 Moslems. Education. Education is compulsory between 6-16 years. In 1982-83 there were 165,559 pupils with 3,781 teachers in primary schools; 22,350 pupils with 1,161 teachers in 47 secondary schools; 10,545 students with 582 teachers in 29 technical and teacher-training establishments. The Université Omar Bongo, founded in 1970 in Libreville, had (1982-83) 2,651 students and 297 teaching staff. Health In 1980 there were 265 doctors, and 1977, 20 dentists, 28 pharmacists, 99 midwives and 823 nursing personnel. In 1981 there were 16 hospitals and 87 medical centres, with a total of 4,815 beds, as well as 258 local dispensaries. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Gabon in Great Britain (48 Kensington Ct., London, W8 5DB) Ambassador: Charles Mamadou Diop (accredited 20 Nov. 1986).

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Of Great Britain in Gabon (Immeuble CK2, Blvd de ['Independence, Libreville) Ambassador: M. A. Goodfellow. Of Gabon in the USA (2034 20th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Jean Robert Odzaga. Of the USA in Gabon (Blvd de la Mer, Libreville) Ambassador: Warren Clark, Jr. Of Gabon to the United Nations Ambassador: Laurent-Marie Biffot. Books of Reference Bory,P., The New Gabon. Monaco, 1978 Remy, M., Gabon Today. Paris, 1977

THE

Capital: Banjul Population: 698,817 (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 170 (1984)

GAMBIA

HISTORY. The Gambia was discovered by the early Portuguese navigators, but they made no settlement. During the 17 th century various companies of merchants obtained trading charters and established a settlement on the river, which, from 1807, was controlled from Sierra Leone; in 1843 it was made an independent Crown Colony; in 1866 it formed part of the West African Settlements, but in Dec. 1888 it again became a separate Crown Colony. The boundaries were delimited only after 1890. The Gambia achieved full internal self-government on 4 Oct. 1963 and became an independent member of the Commonwealth on 18 Feb. 1965. The Gambia became a republic within the Commonwealth on 24 April 1970. The Gambia, with Senegal formed the Confederation of Senegambia on 1 Feb. 1982. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Gambia is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean and on all other sides by Senegal. Area of Banjul (formerly Bathurst) and environs, 87-8 sq. km. In the provinces (area, 10,601-5 sq. km) the settled population (1971) was 275,469, not including temporary immigrants. Total population (census, April 1983), 687,817; (estimate, 1986) 698,817. The largest tribe is the Mandingo (251,997), followed by the Fulas (117,092), Woloffs (91,004), Jolas (64,494) and Sarahulis (51,137). The capital is Banjul, 1983 census (44,188), and the surrounding urban area, Kombo St Mary (101,504). Other principal towns are Serekunda (68,433), Bakau (19,309), Birkama (19,584), Sukuta (7,227), Gunjur (7,115)andFarafenni(10,168). Birth rate (1983) 49 per 1,000; death rate, 21. C L I M A T E . The climate is characterized by two very different seasons. The dry season lasts from Nov. to May, when precipitation is very light and humidity moderate. Days are warm but nights quite cool. The SW monsoon is likely to set in with spectacular storms and produces considerable rainfall from July to Oct., with increased humidity. Banjul. Jan. 73"F (22-8°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,295 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Parliament consists of the House of Representatives which consists of a Speaker, Deputy Speaker and 35 elected members; in addition, 4 Chiefs are elected by the Chiefs in Assembly; 5 nominated members are without votes and the Attorney-General is appointed and has no vote. See Senegal for details about Senegambia. A general election was held on 4-5 May 1982. State of parties (Jan. 1984): The People's Progressive Party 29, the National Convention Party 3, and Independents 3 seats. The Government was in Nov. 1987 composed as follows: President: Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara. Vice-President, Education, Youth, Sports and Culture: Bakary B. Darbo. External Affairs: Alhaji Omar Sey. Finance and Trade: Sherif Sisay. Agriculture: Saikou Sabally. Health, Labour, Social Welfare and Environment: Louise Njie. Works and Communications: Alhaji Momodou Cadi Cham. Economic Planning and Industrial Development: Mbemba Jatta. Justice and Attorney-General: Hassan Jallow. Water Resources: Omar A. Jallow. Information and Tourism: Dr Lamin Saho. Interior: (Vacant). Local Government and Lands: Landing Jallow Sonko. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, blue, green, with the blue edged in white. Local Administration. The Gambia is divided into 36 districts, each traditionally 519

520

THE GAMBIA

under a Chief, assisted by Village Heads and advisers. These districts are grouped into 6 Area Councils containing a majority of elected members, with the Chiefs of the district as ex-officio members. The city of Banjul is administered by a City Council. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The Gambia is a member of U N , O A U , the Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Conference and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for years ending 30 June are (in dalasi): 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 Revenue 150,500,000 172,300,050 218,080,000 266,730,000 Expenditure 164,908,621 189,279,550 207,524,639 262,531,520 Currency. The currency is the dalasi and is divided into 100 butut. 12 -90 dalasi = £1 sterling; 7-27 dalasi=US$ 1 (March 1988). Banking. There are 5 banks in the Gambia, the Standard Bank of Gambia Ltd, Central Bank of the Gambia, Commercial and Development Bank, la Banque Internationale pour le Commerce et l'lndustrie (BICI) and Agricultural Development Bank. On 30 Nov. 1978 the government savings bank had about 36,000 depositors holding approximately 992,496 dalasi. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production (1986) 63 m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Heavy minerals, including ilmenite, zircon and rutile, have been discovered (1 m. tons up to 31 Dec. 1980) in Sanyang, Batakunku and Kartong areas. Agriculture. Almost all commercial activity centres upon the marketing of groundnuts, which is the only export crop of financial significance; in 1986, 100,000 tonnes were produced. Cotton is also exported on a limited scale. Rice is of increasing importance for local consumption; production (1986) 45,000 tonnes. Livestock (1986): 290,000 cattle, 200,000 goats, 191,000 sheep, 12,000 pigs and (1982) 300,000 poultry. Fisheries. Total catch (1981) 9,700 tonnes, of which 1,100 tonnes were from inland waters. L A B O U R . There are 4 large and 10 small trade unions. T R A D E . Chief items of imports are textiles and metal goods and petroleum products. Imports and exports, in 1,000 dalasi: 1982-83 1983-84 Imports 262,107 346,706 Exports 114,712 163,261

clothing, vehicles and machinery,

1984-85 358,569 163,890

1985-86 567,631 204,195

Chief items of export (1985-86, in 1,000 dalasi): Groundnuts shelled, 33,570; groundnut oil, 15,132; groundnut cake, 4,142; cotton lint, 3,862; fish and fish preparations, 2,507; hides and skins, 1,652. Main imports: Food and live animals, 175,280; basic manufactured goods, 113,916; machinery and transport equipment, 97,850; mineral fuels and lubricants, 56,630. Total trade between the Gambia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 6 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 Imports to UK 3,781 3,407 2,823 2,273 3,038 Exports and re-exports from UK 13,251 10,233 11,918 16,707 19,765 T O U R I S M . In 1985-86,78,268 tourists visited the Gambia.

THE GAMBIA

521

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 2,990 km of motorable roads, of which 1,718 km rank as allweather roads including 306 km of bituminous surface and 531 km of laterite gravel. Number of licensed motor vehicles (1983): 3,420 private cars, 775 buses and coaches, 1,219 motorcycles, scooters and mopeds. Aviation. The Gambia is served by Air Guinea, Air Mali, British Caledonian Airways, Ghana Airways and Nigeria Airways. The number of aircraft landing at Yundum Airport in 1984-85 was 1,576. Shipping. The chief port is Banjul. In 1985-86, 125,959 tonnes of goods were loaded and 300,212 tonnes unloaded. Internal communication is maintained by steamers and launches. The Gambia River Development Organization was founded in 1978 as a joint project with Senegal to develop the river and its basin. Guinea and Guinea-Bissau were also members in 1984. Post and Broadcasting. There are several post offices and agencies; postal facilities are also afforded to all river towns by means of a travelling post office on the government river mail-steamers. Banjul is connected with St Vincent (Cape Verde islands) and with Sierra Leone by cable. Banjul is in wireless communication with London and the main centres up river. A trans-Gambia telephone system provides direct communications with Dakar and Ziguinchor. Telephones numbered 3,476 in Jan. 1980. Radio Gambia, a government station, broadcasts for about 15 hours a day; Radio Syd, a commercial station, broadcasts for 20 hours. Number of radio receivers (1983, estimate), 66,000. Cinemas. In 1984 there were 14 cinemas. Newspapers. There is an official newspaper and several news-sheets. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court consisting of a chiefjustice and puisne judges. It has unlimited jurisdiction but there is a Court of Appeal. Two magistrates' courts and divisional courts are supplemented by a system of travelling magistrates. There are also Moslem courts, group tribunals dealing with cases concerned with customs and traditions, and one juvenile court. Religion. About 70% of the population is Moslem. Banjul is the seat of an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop. There are some Methodist missions. Some sections of the population retain their original animist beliefs. Education (1983-84). There were 180 primary schools (2,445 teachers, 60,630 upils), 16 secondary technical schools (475 teachers, 8,923 pupils), 8 secondary igh schools (231 teachers, 4,037 pupils). In 1982-83 there were 8 post-secondary schools (148 teachers, 1,058 pupils). Gambia College, which replaced Yundum College as a teacher-training and vocational centre, opened for agricultural and health students in 1979. Health. In 1980 there were 43 government doctors, 23 private doctors and about 635 hospital beds.

E

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Gambia in Great Britain (57 Kensington Ct., London, W8 5DG) High Commissioner: Horace R. Monday, Jr. Of Great Britain in the Gambia (48 Atlantic Rd., Fajara, Banjul) High Commissioner: Alec Ibbott. Of the USA in the Gambia (Fajara (East), Kairaba Ave., Banjul) Ambassador: Herbert E. Horowitz. Books of Reference The Gambia since Independence 1965-1980. Banjul, 1980 Tomkinson, M., The Gambia: A Holiday Guide. London, 1983

GERMANY H I S T O R Y . Since the unconditional surrender of the German armed forces on 8 May 1945 there has been no central authority whose writ runs in the whole of Germany. Consequently no peace treaty has been signed with a government representing the whole of Germany, and the country is virtually partitioned between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic. By the Berlin Declaration of 5 June 1945 the governments of the USA, the UK, the USSR and France assumed supreme authority over Germany. Each of the 4 signatories was given a zone of occupation, in which the supreme power was to be exercised by the C.-in-C. in that zone (see map in T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1947). Jointly these 4 Cs.-in-C. constituted the Allied Control Council in Berlin, which was to be competent in all 'matters affecting Germany as a whole'. The territory of Greater Berlin, divided into 4 sectors, was to be governed as an entity by the 4 occupying powers. At the Potsdam Conference (17 July-2 Aug. 1945) the northern part of the Province of East Prussia, including its capital Königsberg (renamed Kaliningrad), was transferred to the Soviet Union, pending final ratification by a peace treaty; and it was agreed that, pending the final peace settlement, Poland should administer those parts of Germany lying east of a line running from the Baltic Sea immediately west of Swinemünde along the river Oder to its confluence with the Western Neisse and thence along the Western Neisse to the Czechoslovak frontier. The agreements between the war-time allies concerning the occupation zones (12 Sept. 1944) and control of Germany (1 May 1945) were repudiated by the USSR on27 Nov. 1958. A Treaty was signed in East Berlin between the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany on 21 Dec. 1972 agreeing the basis of relations between the two countries. P O S T - W A R

522

Capital: Berlin (East) Population: 16 -6m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$10,400 (1985)

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Deutsche Demokratische Republik

HISTORY. For the immediate post-war history see p. 522. An agreement proclaiming the Oder-Neisse line the permanent frontier between Germany and Poland was concluded between the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and Poland on 6 July 1950. A protocol on the delimitation of the frontier was signed on 27 Jan. 1951. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The GDR is bounded north by the Baltic Sea, east by Poland, south-east by Czechoslovakia and west by Federal Germany. Its area is 108,333 sq. km. Population at the census of 31 Dec. 1981 was 16,705,635. Population in 1986, 16,639,877 (7-88m. male; 12-74m. urban). Population density: 153 per sq. km. TTiere were some 110,000 Sorbs, a Slav minority, in 1985. Administratively, the country is divided into 15 counties (Bezirk), subdivided in 1986 into 38 urban districts, 191 rural districts and 7,567 communities, Berlin (East) has county status. Area and population, 1986: Area in sq. km 403 8,262 6,738 7,349 7,186 4,004 8,771 6,009 4,966 11,526 10,948 12,568 7,075 8,672 3,856

Counties Berlin (East) Cottbus Dresden Erfurt Frankfurt Gera Halle Karl-Marx-Stadt Leipzig Magdeburg Neubrandenburg Potsdam Rostock Schwerin Suhl

Population (1,000s) Total Female 647-4 1,223-3 883-3 458-1 1,771-6 941-6 1,235-0 647-9 707-6 366-5 740-5 390 0 1,785-8 940-5 1,870-0 998-8 1,373-8 732-9 1,250-0 656-7 619-2 318-6 1,120-3 583-7 903-0 466-0 592-1 307-7 549-2 287-2

Per sq. km 3,035 107 263 168 98 185 204 311 277 108 57 89 128 68 142

The capital is Berlin (East). Resident population of the principal towns in 1986: Berlin (East) Leipzig Dresden Karl-Marx-Stadt Magdeburg

Vital statistics: 1983 1984 1985 1986

1,223,309 552,133 519,737 314,437 288,798

Rostock Halle Erfurt Potsdam Gera

Live births 233,756 228,135 227,648 222,269

Marriages 125,429 133,898 131,514 137,208

245,606 234,768 216,646 140,198 132,303 Divorces 49,624 50,320 51,240 52,439

Schwerin Cottbus Zwickau Jena Dessau

127,823 125,784 120,573 107,369 103,508

Deaths 222,102

221,204 225,362 223,521

Rates per 1,000, 1986: Birth, 13-4; marriage, 8-3; divorce, 3-2; death, 13-4; infant mortality, 4-7 stillborn, 9-2 under 1 year. 523

524

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

C L I M A T E . The continental-type climate makes winters crisp and clear, but with cold easterly winds bringing very low temperatures and appreciable snowfall. Summers are hot, but with much convectional rainfall. Berlin. Jan. 31°F(-0-5°C), July 66°F(19°C). Annual rainfall 22-5" (563 mm). Dresden. Jan. 30°F(-1°C), July 65°F (18-5°C). Annual rainfall 27-2" (680 mm). Leipzig. Jan. 3 r F ( - 0 - 6 c C ) , July 65°F (18- 5°C). Annual rainfall 2 4 " (605 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Upon the establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany, the People's Council of the Soviet-occupied zone, appointed in 1948, was converted into a provisional People's Chamber. On 7 Oct. 1949 the provisional People's Chamber enacted a constitution of the 'German Democratic Republic'. A new 'socialist constitution' was approved by a referendum on 6 April 1968 (revised in 1974), when 94 • 54% of the electorate voted for the constitution; it came into force on 8 April 1968. The People's Chamber, is 'the supreme organ of state power'; it elects the Council of State, the Council of Ministers, the National Defence Council and the judges of the Supreme Court. Council of State. The Council is authorized to issue decisions and to interpret existing laws. The Chairman of the Council of State represents the G D R in international law. In March 1988 it consisted of: Chairman: Erich Honecker; Deputy Chairmen: Manfred Gerlach, Gerald Gotting, Heinrich Homann, Egon Krenz, Günter Maleuda, Günter Mittag, Horst Sindermann, Willi Stoph; 16 other members and a secretary. In March 1988 the Council of Ministers consisted of a Presidium, composed as follows: Chairman (i.e. Premier): Willi Stoph. First Deputy Chairmen: Alfred Neumann, Werner Krolikowski. Deputy Chairmen: Günther Kleiber, Wolfgang Rauchfuss (Minister of Materials), Gerhard Schür tv (Chairman, State Planning Commission), Dr Herbert Weiz (Minister of Science), Manfred Flegel, Hans-Joachim Heusinger (Minister of Justice), Dr Hans Reichelt (Minister for the Environment), Rudolph Schulze (Minister for Posts and Telecommunications), Horst Solle; Walter Halbritter (Director, Office of Prices), Ernst Höfner (Minister of Finance)-, and 31 other ministers, including: Gen. Heinz Kessler (Defence), Oskar Fischer (Foreign Affairs), Gerhard Beil (Foreign Trade), and Friedrich Dickel (Interior). Supreme political power is in the hands of the Socialist Unity (i.e. Communist) Party of Germany (SED), which had 2-2m. members in 1985, and which is united in the National Front with 4 puppet parties (1985 membership in brackets): Christian Democratic Union (120,000), Democratic Farmers (100,000), Liberal Democratic Party (90,000) and the National Democratic Party (90,000). At the June 1986 elections to the People's Chamber 703 National Front candidates stood for the 500 seats. Unsuccessful candidates were placed on a reserve list. 99 • 74% of the 12,434,444 electorate voted; 99-94% of votes were for National Front candidates. 161 women were elected. The Politburo of the SED in March 1988 consisted of: Erich Honecker (General Secretary)-, Hermann Axen; Hans-Joachim Böhme; Horst Dohlus; Wemer Eberlein; Werner Felfe; Kurt Hager; Joachim Herrmann; Werner Jarowinsky; Heinz Kessler; Günther Kleiber; Egon Krenz; Werner Krolikowski; Siegfried Lorenz; Erich Mielke; Günter Mittag; Erich Mueckenberger; Alfred Neumann; Günther Schabowski; Horst Sindermann; Willi Stoph; Harry Tisch; candidate members: Ingeburg Lange; Gerhard Müller; Margarete Müller; Gerhard Schürer; Werner Walde. National flag: Black, red, golden (horizontal); in the centre, on both sides, the coat of arms showing a hammer and compass with a wreath of grain entwined with a black, red and golden ribbon. National hymn: Auferstanden aus Ruinen (tune by Hanns Eisler). Local government is conducted by assemblies at each administrative level. 3,235 representatives were elected to the County Assemblies in June 1986.

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

525

D E F E N C E . On 18 Jan. 1956 the People's Chamber established a 'national people's army' and a defence ministry. A 12-member defence council, under the chairmanship of E. Honecker, General Secretary of the SED, was set up on 10 Feb. 1960. The 'law for the defence of the G D R ' , of 20 Sept. 1960, makes military service (in case of emergency) and civil defence compulsory for all citizens. Conscription for men between 18 and 25 years was introduced on 24 Jan. 1962 (18 months' service in the army, 2 years in the navy and air force). Some 422,000 Soviet troops with about 1,000 heavy tanks and 6,000 armoured vehicles are stationed in the German Democratic Republic, chiefly along the Polish border. Army. The Army, set up on 1 March 1956, is organized in 2 army coips, including 2 armoured divisions and 4 motorized infantry divisions. Operationally these divisions are subordinate to the Soviet formations of the Warsaw Pact forces. They are armed with about 3,000 tanks (mostly Soviet T-54, T-55, T-62 and T-72), 280 self-propelled guns and ground-to-air 'Guideline' missiles. The Border Police was taken out of the Army in 1974. Total army strength was (1988) 120,000 (71,500 conscripts) with a reserve of330,000 men. Police. The Police force (Volkspolizei) numbered 25,000 security and 46,500 border troops. There are also 450,000 militiamen organized in combat groups. The militia receive military instruction from the People's Police. Navy. The 'People's Navy' (Volksmarine) includes 3 frigates, 21 corvettes, 11 missile boats, 27 torpedo boats, 46 coastal minesweepers, 3 intelligence ships, 12 tank landing ships, 10 oilers, 2 training ships, 4 supply ships, 5 survey vessels, 9 small survey craft, 13 buoy tenders, 3 diving vessels, 1 cable layer, 2 torpedo recovery craft, 2 icebreakers, 30 auxiliary ships and service craft and 13 tugs. The Navy operates one squadron of 8 Mi-14 helicopters. Personnel in 1988 totalled 16,000 officers and men, including the G B K Coastal Frontier Guards (Grenz Brigade Kiiste) which operates 40 vessels, many of them ex-Navy. Air Force. The ex-'air-police', set up in Nov. 1950, had in 1988 a strength of about 40,000 officers and men and 375 combat aircraft. Two air defence divisions consist respectively of 2 and 4 regiments (each with 3 squadrons of 12 aircraft), plus a fighter training division, equipped with MiG-21, MiG-23, and Su-20 supersonic fighters. There is 1 squadron of MiG-21 reconnaissance fighters. Mi-24 gunship helicopters have been delivered to the German Democratic Republic. Other units include a regiment of Mi-2, Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters, a regiment of An-2, Let L-410,11-14, An-26 and Tu-134 transports and a Flight Training Division with Yak-18, Trener, L-29 Delfin, L-39 Albatross, MiG-15UTI and MiG-21U training aircraft. 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missile units are operational. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The German Democratic Republic is a member of U N and Comecon. ECONOMY Planning. The economy is one of the most successful of the centrally-planned type. Although there have been small concessions to 'market forces', improvement is sought rather in 'comprehensive intensification': rationalization, cutting production costs and combining production units. Extrasystemic features favouring economic performance include the beneficial special relationship with Federal Germany and special support from the USSR. The current 5-year plan is running from 1986 to 1990. Annual increase targets: National income, 4-4%; industrial production, 8-3%. Budget. The budget of the G D R was as follows (in M 1 m.) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1981 167,466 167,159

1982 182,836 182,071

1983 192,410 191,689

1984 213,535 211,778

1985 235,535 234,392

1986 247,013 246,368

526

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

Of the 1986 expenditures, M 13,014m. were earmarked for health and social services, M 12,895m. for education and M 34,186 for social benefits and pensions. Currency. The circulating Reichsmark notes were in June 1948 exchanged for 'Deutsche Mark' (East), renamed 'Mark of the German Bank of Issue' (MDN) from 1 Aug. 1964 and further renamed 'the Mark of the GDR' (M) from 1967. Money in circulation, 1985: M 13,651m. In March 1988, £1 = 2-99 M; US$1 = 1 -69 M. Banking. The most important banking institutions are the State Bank, which is the bank of issue, the Foreign Trade Bank and the Industrial and Trade Bank. Savings in 1986, totalled M 132,315m. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Sources of energy in 1986 included lignite, 83 -3%, nuclear power, 9 -5% and hydroelectric power, 1 -5%. Electricity generation (1986): 115,291 kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. The GDR is a major producer of lignite. Production in 1986, 311m. tonnes. Uranium, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic and antimony are exploited in the westem Erzgebirge and eastern Thuringia. Agriculture. In 1986 the agricultural area was 6-2m. hectares including 4-7m. hectares arable and 1 -25m. hectares grassland. In 1986 there were 3,890 collective farms with 5-27m. hectares of arable land, and 465 state farms with 446,154 hectares of land. The yield of the main crops in 1986 was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Potatoes, 9,997; sugar-beet, 7,747; barley, 4,293; wheat, 4,195; rye, 2,406; oats, 666. Livestock (in 1,000) in 1986: Cattle, 5,804 (including 2,045 milch cows); pigs, 12,840; sheep, 2,647; poultry, 50,216. In 1986 there were 161,515 tractors and 17,461 combine harvesters. Forestry. In 1985 there were 2,977,600 hectares of forest. Timber production was 10,115,000 cu. metres in 1986. The industry employed 50,454 people in 1985. Fisheries. Total catch (1986) 272,500 tonnes. Inland catch was 24,821 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry produced about 80% of the national income in 1985. There were 3,449 state and co-operative industrial enterprises in 1986. The percentage of privately owned enterprises was 32-8 in 1950and2-9in 1982. Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 tonnes): Crude steel Rolled steel

1980 7,308 5,128

1981 7,467 5,061

1982 7,168 4,959

1983 7,219 5,084

1984 7,573 5,386

1985 7,853 5,637

1986 7,967 9,361

Other products in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Sulphuric acid, 883; potash fertilizers, 3,485; nitrogen fertilizers, 1,252; petrol, 4,329; diesel fuel, 6,324; caustic soda, 638; cement, 11,988; passenger cars (no.), 218,000; television receivers (no.), 712,000; shoes, 85 -5m. pairs; plastics and synthetic resins, 1,045. Labour. In 1986 the workforce was 8-55m., of whom 37-7% worked in industry, 21-1% in the service sector, 10-8% in agriculture and 10-3% in commerce. Membership of the trade union organization was 9 -45m. (4-98m. women) in 1986. Commerce. Total trade was as follows (in 1 m. Valuta-Mark): 1981 1982 1983

Imports 67,000 69,878 76,197

Total

Exports 65,927 75,231 84,227

1984 1985 1986

Imports 83,501 86,701 90,465

Total

Exports 90,402 93,490 91,505

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

527

In 1986 machinery made up 47% of exports and fuels and metal ores 40% of imports; 67% of trade is with Communist countries. Largest trading partners: USSR (39%), Czechoslovakia, Poland, Federal Republic of Germany. Total trade between the German Democratic Republic and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 157,625 60,997

1984 190,130 92,270

1985 204,293 63,797

1986 195,513 81,276

1987 180,299 81,489

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1986, 47,210 km of classified roads including 1,855 km of motorways. 3,486m. passengers and 143-2m. tonnes of goods were carried by public transport. There were 3,462,184 cars, 219,415 lorries, 1,321,832 motorcycles and 57,600 buses. There were 45,203 road accidents in 1986, with 1,484 fatalities. Railways. There were, in 1986, 13,730 km of standard gauge line, of which 2,754 km were electrified. 609m. passengers and 346m. tonnes of freight were carried. Aviation. Interflug operates services between Berlin and Prague, Warsaw, Budapest, Bucharest, Moscow, Sofia, Belgrade, Tirana, Cairo, Baghdad, Beirut and other capitals. Passengers carried (1985), 1,446,000; freight, 39,678 tonnes. Shipping. In 1986 the merchant fleet had 174 vessels of 1,344,795 G R T . 11 -4m. tonnes of freight were carried in 1985. Navigable inland waterways had a total length of 2,319 km. 6m. passengers and 18 -5m. tonnes of freight were carried. In 1986 a rail ferry was opened from the Island of Riigen to the ice-free Soviet port of Klaipeda, by-passing Poland. Pipeline. 1,307 km in 1986. Materials transported in 1984:37-3m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 11,971 post offices and agencies and 3,441,484 telephone subscribers. Staatliches Komitee fur Rundfunk, the governmental broadcasting system, broadcasts 4 programmes on long-, medium-and short-waves, and on FM. Tlie foreign service is broadcast in 11 languages on medium-and short-waves, using the name Radio Berlin International. The transmitters are located at Konigswusterhausen, Leipzig and Nauen. Radio Volga transmits on long-waves from Burg and broadcasts in Russian for the Soviet Armed Forces in Germany. More than 80% of the programmes are relays from Radio Moscow. Radio Moscow is using relay transmitters on medium-waves at Leipzig for programmes in German. Deutsche Freiheitssender 904 and Deutsche Soldatensender are clandestine stations claiming to be operating from the Federal Republic although they are located not far from Burg. Fernsehen der DDR broadcasts 2 T V programmes in colour, using SECAM-system. Number of wireless licences (1986), 6 • 7m.; T V licences, 6 • 14m. Cinemas and Theatres (1986). There were 823 cinemas with a seating capacity of 243,982, and 200 theatres with a capacity of56,243. Newspapers. There were 541 newspapers and periodicals in 1986.6,543 book titles were published in 148 -6m. copies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND Justice. The death penalty was abolished in July 1987.

WELFARE

Religion. According to the census of 1950, 80-5% of the population were Protestants and 11% were Roman Catholics. The Synod of Lutheran Churches was founded in 1969 and embraces 8 regional churches. There were some l -5m. Lutherans in 1986 with 4,300 priests. In 1988 there were 1 05m. Catholics with 1,200 priests. Education. In 1986 779,700 children were in 13,265 pre-school educational institutions. General education schools numbered 5,895 in 1986 with 170,277 teachers and 2,041,013 pupils. Of these schools 5,198 with 1,942,525 pupils offered 10 years schooling and the remainder 12.

528

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

In addition there were 959 vocational schools (Berufsschulen) with 16,244 teachers and 369,100 trainees, and 239 technical schools with 160,379 students. There were also 54 universities and other higher education institutes with 131,560 full-time students, including 66,228 women. Health. In 1986 there were 169,179 hospital beds. There were 598 health centres. There were 39,157 doctors and 12,182 dentists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the German Democratic Republic in Great Britain (34 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X8QB) Ambassador: Dr Gerhard Lindner (accredited 27 July 1984). Of Great Britain in the German Democratic Republic (108 Berlin, Unter den Linden 32/34) Ambassador: Nigel Broomfield. Of the German Democratic Republic in the USA (1717 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Dr Gerhard Herder. Of the USA in the German Democratic Republic (1080 Berlin, Neustädtische Kirchstrasse 4-5) Ambassador: Francis J. Meehan. Of the German Democratic Republic to the United Nations Ambassador: Harry Ott. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The central statistical agency is the Staatliche Zentralverwaltung fur Statistik (Hans-Beimler-Str. 70-72,102, Berlin). Statistisches Jahrbuch der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, annual (from 1956).— Statistisches Taschenbuch der DDR (annual, from 1959; also Arabic, English, French, Russian, Spanish editions).—Statistische Praxis (from 1946). The Constitution of the German Democratic Republic. 3rded. Berlin, 1974 DDR-Handbuch. 3rded. Cologne, 1985 Handbook ofthe Economy of the German Democratic Republic. Farnborough, 1979 Äslund, A., Private Enterprise in Eastern Europe: The Non-Agricultural Private Sector in Poland and the GDR. London, 1985 Beyme, K, von, and Zimmerman, H., (eds.) Policy-making in the German Democratic Republic. Aldershot, 1984 Childs, D., The GDR: Moscow's German Ally. London, 1983.— (ed.), Honecker's Germany. London, 1985 Dennis, M., German Democratic Republic. London, 1987 Edwards, G. E., GDR Society and Social Institutions. London, 1985 Honecker, E., Reden und Aufsätze. Berlin, 1975.—The German Democratic Republic, Pillar of Peace and Socialism. New York, 1979.—Aus meinem Leben. Berlin, 1980 Krisch, H., The German Democratic Republic. Boulder, 1985 McAdams, A. J., East Germany and Detente. CUP, 1985 McCauley,M., The German Democratic Republic since 1945. London, 1983 Scharf, C. B., Politics and Change in East Germany. London, 1984 Schulz, E., (ed.) GDR Foreign Policy. New York, 1982 Staritz, D„ Geschichte der DDR. 1949-1985. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1985 Weber, H„ Geschichte der DDR. Munich, 1985 National Library: Deutsche Bücherei, Leipzig C.l. Director: Helmut Rötzsch.—Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. Director: Professor H. Kunze.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC GERMANY

Capital: Bonn Population: 61 m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 10,300 (1985)

OF

Bundesrepublik Deutschland HISTORY. The Federal Republic of Germany became a sovereign independent country on 5 May 1955. In June 1948 USA, UK and France agreed on a central government for the 3 western zones. An Occupation Statute, which came into force on 30 Sept. 1949, reduced the responsibilities of the occupation authorities. Formally, the Federal Republic of Germany came into existence on 21 Sept. 1949. The Petersberg Agreement of 22 Nov. 1949 freed the Federal Republic of numerous restrictions of the Occupation Statute. In 1951 USA, UK and France as well as other states terminated the state of war with Germany; the Soviet Union followed on 25 Jan. 1955. On 5 May 1955 the High Commissioners of USA, UK and France signed a proclamation revoking the Occupation Statute. On the same day, the Pans and London treaties, signed in Oct. 1954, came into force and established the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Federal Germany is bounded north by Denmark and the North and Baltic Seas, east by the German Democratic Republic, and Czechoslovakia, south-east and south by Austria, south by Switzerland and west by France, Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. West Berlin is an enclave within the German Democratic Republic. Area: 248,706 sq. km. Population, at 31 Dec. 1986,61,140,000; at 30 June 1986,61,066,000(29,232,000 males). Density 246 per sq. km. The capital is Bonn. The Federation comprises 11 Länder (states). Area and population of the Länder as at 30 June 1986: Länder Schleswig-Holstein Hamburg Lower Saxony Bremen North Rhine-Westphalia Hessen Rhineland-Palatinate Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Saarland

Area in sq. km 15,727 755 47,438 404 34,068 21,115 19,848 35,751 70,553 2,569

Berlin (West)

480

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985 1986

Marriages 369,963 364,140 364,661 372,008

Live births 594,177 584,157 586,155 625,963

Population (in 1,000's) (Males in brackets) 2,612-7 (1,264-9) (732-2) 1,575-7 7,149-3 (3,455-5) 675-5 (308-5) 16,665-3 (7,956-0) 5,531-3 (2,659-1) 3,610-4 (1,730-5) 9,295-1 (4,480-3) 10,993-4 (5,270-6) 1,043-4 (496-2) 1,867-7 Of these illegitimate 52,442 52,998 55,070 59,808

(865-4)

Deaths 718,337 696,118 704,296 701,890

Per sq. km 166 2,088 152 1,627 489 262 182 260 156 406 3,892

Divorces 121,475 130,894 128,268

Crude birth rate in 1986 was 10-3 per 1,000 population; marriage rate, 6 1 ; death rate, 11-5; infantile mortality 8 -6; growth rate, - 1 -2. In 1986 there were 4,512,700 resident foreigners, including 1,434,300 Turks, 529

530

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y

591,200 Yugoslavs, 537,100 Italians and 278,500 Greeks; 34,913 persons were naturalized in 1985, including 12,153 from Romania and 5,925 from Poland. In 1985 there were 428,700 emigrants and 512,100 immigrants. In 1986 99,650 persons sought asylum. There were 28,435 immigrants from, and 2,039 emigrants to, the German Democratic Republic in 1985. Populations of towns of over 100,000 inhabitants on 30 June 1986 (in'000): Town Berlin (West) Hamburg Munich Cologne Essen Frankfurt am Main Dortmund Stuttgart Düsseldorf Bremen Duisburg Hanover Nuremburg Bochum Wuppertal Bielefeld Mannheim Bonn Gelsenkirchen Münster Karlsruhe Wiesbaden Mönchengladbach Braunschweig Augsburg Kiel Aachen Oberhausen Krefeld Lübeck Hagen Mainz Saarbrücken Freiburg im Breisgau

Land Berlin (West) Hamburg Bavaria N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph.

Population 1,868-7 1,575-7 1,269-4 9140 617-7

Hessen N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. N. Rhine-Westph. Bremen N. Rhine-Westph. Lower Saxony Bavaria N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Baden-Württ. Hessen

593-4 569-8 564-5 561-2 524-7 516-6 506-4 466-5 381-0 375-3 299-2 295-5 290-8 284-4 268-9 267-6 266-7

N. Rhine-Westph. Lower Saxony Bavaria Schleswig-Holstein N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. N. Rhine-Westph. Schleswig-Holstein N. Rhine-Westph. Rhinel.-Pal. Saarland

254-7 247-3 245-6 244-7 238-6 222-1 216-7 209-8 206-1 188-5 185-1

Baden-Württ.

184-8

Town Land Hessen Kassel N. Rhine-Westph. Herne Mülheim a.d. Ruhr N. Rhine-Westph. Hamm N. Rhine-Westph. Solingen N. Rhine-Westph. Leverkusen N. Rhine-Westph. Osnabrück Lower Saxony Ludwigshafen am Rhein Rhinel.-Pal. N. Rhine-Westph. Neuss Oldenburg Lower Saxony Heidelberg Baden-Württ. Göttingen Lower Saxony Darmstadt Hessen Bremerhaven Bremen Würzburg Bavaria Regensburg Bavaria Wolfsburg Lower Saxony N. Rhine-Westph. Remscheid Recklinghausen N. Rhine-Westph. Bottrop N. Rhine-Westph. Heilbronn Baden-Wurtt. Koblenz Rhinel.-Pal. Paderborn N. Rhine-Westph. Siegen N. Rhine-Westph. Offenbach am Main Hessen Salzgitter Lower Saxony Pforzheim Baden-Wurtt. Witten N. Rhine-Westph. Bergisch Gladbach N. Rhine-Westph. Hildesheim Lower Saxony Ulm Baden-Wurtt.

Population 184-2 171-5 171-0 166-2 158-0 154-7 153-2 153-0 143-5 138-9 135-8 133-7 133-6 132-8 127-5 124-1 122-0 121-0 117-6 112-1 111-4 110-6 109-8 107-4 107-2 105-5 104-5 102-2 101-4 100-7 100-4

CLIMATE. Oceanic influences are only found in the north-west where winters are quite mild but stormy. Elsewhere a continental climate is general. To the east and south, winter temperatures are lower, with bright frosty weather and considerable snowfall. Summer temperatures are fairly uniform throughout. Frankfurt. Jan. 33°F (0-6°C), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 24" (601 mm). Hamburg. Jan. 31"F(-0-6°C), July 63°F(17-2°C). Annual rainfall 29" (726 mm). Hanover. Jan. 33°F (0-6°C), July 64°F (17-8°Q. Annual rainfall 24" (604 mm). Köln. Jan. 36°F (2-2°C), July 66"F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 27" (676 mm). Munich. Jan. 28°F (-2-2°C), July 63'F (17-2X). Annual rainfall 34" (855 mm). Stuttgart. Jan. 33°F(0-6°C), July66°F(18-9°C). Annual rainfall 27" (677 mm). CONSTITUTION. The Constituent Assembly (known as the 'Parliamentary Council') met in Bonn on 1 Sept. 1948, and worked out a Basic Law which was approved by a two-thirds majority of the parliaments of the participating Länder and came into force on 23 May 1949. The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) consists of a preamble and 146 articles. The first section deals with the basic rights which are legally binding for legislation, administration and jurisdiction. The Federal Republic is a democratic and social constitutional state on a parlia-

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

531

mentary basis. The federation is constituted by the 11 Länder (states): BadenWürttemberg, Bavaria, Bremen, Berlin (West), Hamburg, Hessen, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Rhineland-Palatinate, Saarland and SchleswigHolstein. In Berlin (West) the Basic Law applies with certain restrictions. The Basic Law decrees that the general rules of international law form part of the federal law. The constitutions of the Länder must conform to the principles of a republican, democratic and social state based on the rule of law. Executive power is vested in the Länder, unless the Basic Law prescribes or permits otherwise. Federal law takes precedence over state law. Legislative power is vested in the Federal Assembly (Bundestag) and the Federal Council (Bundesrat). The Federal Assembly, elected in universal, direct, free, equal and secret elections, for a term of 4 years. The Federal Council consists of 45 members appointed by the governments of the Lander in proportions determined by the number of inhabitants. Each Land has at least 3 votes. The Head of State is the Federal President (Bundespräsident) who is elected for a 5-year term by a Federal Convention specially convened for this purpose. This Convention consists of all the members of the Federal Assembly and an equal number of members elected by the Länder parliaments according to proportional representation. Presidents may be re-elected for one further term only. Executive power is vested in the Federal Government, which consists of the Federal Chancellor, elected by the Federal Assembly on the proposal of the Federal President, and the Federal Ministers, who are appointed and dismissed by the Federal President upon the proposal of the Federal Chancellor. The Federal Republic has exclusive legislation on: (1) foreign affairs (2) federal citizenship; (3) freedom of movement, passports, immigration and emigration, and extradition; (4) currency, money and coinage, weights and measures, and regulation of time and calendar; (5) customs, commercial and navigation agreements, traffic in goods and payments with foreign countries, including customs and frontier protection; (6) federal railways and air traffic; (7) post and telecommunications; (8) the legal status of persons in the employment of the Federation and of public law corporations under direct supervision of the Federal Government; (9) trade marks, copyright and publishing rights; (10) co-operation of the Federal Republic and the Länder in the criminal police and in matters concerning the protection of the constitution, the establishment of a Federal Office of Criminal Police, as well as the combating of international crime; (11) federal statistics. For concurrent legislation in which the Länder have legislative rights if and as far as the Federal Republic does not exercise its legislative powers, see THE STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 5 6 , p . 1 0 3 8 .

Federal laws are passed by the Federal Assembly and after their adoption submitted to the Federal Council, which has a limited veto. The Basic Law may be amended only upon the approval of two-thirds of the members of the Federal Assembly and two-thirds of the votes of the Federal Council. The foreign service, federal finance, railways, postal services, waterways and shipping are under direct federal administration. In the field of finance the Federal Republic has exclusive legislation on customs and financial monopolies and concurrent legislation on: (1) excise taxes and taxes on transactions, in particular, taxes on real-estate acquisition, incremented value and on fire protection; (2) taxes on income, property, inheritance and donations; (3) real estate, industrial and trade taxes, with the exception of the determining of the tax rates. The Federal Republic can, by federal law, claim part of the income and corporation taxes to cover its expenditures not covered by other revenues. Financial jurisdiction is uniformly regulated by federal legislation. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of black, red, gold. National anthem: Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit (words by H. Hoffmann, 1841; tune by J. Haydn, 1797).

532

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y

Local Government. Below Land level local government is carried on by elected councils to counties (Landkreise), county boroughs (Kreisfreie Städte) and local communities (Gemeinden). GOVERNMENT. The 11th Federal Assembly, elected 25 Jan. 1987, is composed of 520 members. These include 22 members for Berlin with limited voting rights. Electoral turnout was 84-4%. The government is formed by a coalition of the Christian Democrat/Christian Socialist (CDU/CSU) alliance with the Free Democrats (FDP). (The CSU is a Bavarian party where the CDU does not stand). Percentage votes, and seats gained (1983 electoral results in brackets): CDU/CSU 44-3%, 223 (48 -8%, 244); Social Democratic Party (SPD), 37%, 186 (38 -2%, 193); FDP, 9 • 1 %, 46 (7%, 34); Greens, 8 • 3%, 42 (5 • 6%, 27). Federal President: Dr Richard von Weizsäcker (sworn in 1 July 1984). The Cabinet, in March 1988, was as follows: Chancellor: Dr Helmut Kohl (CDU). Without Portfolio: Wolfgang Schäuble (CDU). Deputy Chancellor, Minister of Foreign Affairs: Hans-Dietrich Genscher (FDP). Interior: Dr Friedrich Zimmermann (CSU). Justice: Hans A. Engelhard (FDP). Finance: Dr Gerhard Stoltenberg (CDU). Economics: Martin Bangemann (FDP). Food, Agriculture and Forestry: Ignaz Kiechle (CSU). Intra-German Relations: Dorothée Wilms (CDU). Labour and Social Affairs: Dr Norbert Blüm (CDU). Defence: Dr Manfred Wörner (CDU). Youth, Family Affairs and Health: Rita Siissmuth (CDU). Transport: Jürgen Warnke (CSU). Postsand Telecommunications: Dr Christian Schwarz-Schilling (CDU). Regional Planning, Building and Urban Development: Dr Oscar Schneider (CSU). Research and Technology: Dr Heinz Riesenhuber (CDU). Education and Science: Jürgen Möllemann (CDU). Economic Co-operation: Hans Klein (CSU). Environment: Walter Wallman. DEFENCE. The Paris Treaties, which entered into force in May 1955, stipulated a contribution of the Federal Republic to western defence within the framework of NATO and the Western European Union. The Federal Armed Forces (Bundeswehr) had a total strength (1988) of488,400 all ranks (223,450 conscripts) and a further 750,000 reserves. Army. The Army is divided into the Field Army, containing the units assigned to NATO in event of war, and the Territorial Army. The Field Army is organized in 3 corps, comprising 17 armoured, 15 armoured infantry, 1 mountain and 3 airborne brigades. Equipment includes 650 M-48, 2,437 Leopard I and 1,800 Leopard II tanks. An air component operates 210 BO 105P anti-armour helicopters, 105 CH-53G and 187 UH-1D Iroquois transport helicopters, plus 148 Alouette II and 95 BO 105M liaison/observation helicopters. The Territorial Army is organized into 5 Military Districts, under 3 Territorial Commands. Its main task is to defend rear areas and remains under national control even in wartime. Total strength was (1988) 332,100 (conscripts 175,900; Territorial Army 41,700). Navy. The Federal Navy comprises 24 diesel-powered coastal submarines, 7 destroyers, 9 frigates, 5 corvettes, 40 fast missile boats (Exocet armed), a light cruiser type training ship, 10 frigate-type support ships, 6 coastal minesweepers, 12 minehunters, 21 fast minesweepers, 18 inshore minesweepers, 22 utility landing craft, 28 smaller landing craft, 12 supply and support ships, 2 fleet replenishment ships, 8 oilers, 8 coast patrol boats, 10 torpedo recovery vessels, 13 coastguard cutters, 2 repair ships, 28 tugs and 50 auxiliaries and service craft.

F E D E R A L REPUBLIC OF

533

GERMANY

The projected construction programme includes 12 submarines, 2 frigates, 10 fast mine warfare craft and 20 minehunters. The Naval Air Arm operates 116 fixed-wing aircraft, including 47 Tornados, 17 Starfighters, 15 Atlantics and 6 D028s; and 36 helicopters (22 Sea Kings and 14 Lynx). About 20 more Tornados and 5 Lynx were on order for delivery, 1988. Navy personnel in 1988 totalled 5,640 officers and 32,860 men, including 6,700 in the Naval Air Arm. Air Force. Since Oct. 1970, the Luftwaffe has comprised the following commands: German Air Force Tactical Command, German Air Force Support Command (including two German Air Force Regional Support Commands—North and South) and General Air Force Office. Its strength in 1988 was approximately 108,700 officers and other ranks and about 500 first-line combat aircraft. Combat units, including 12 heavy fighter-bomber squadrons, 7 light ground attack/ reconnaissance squadrons, 4 reconnaissance squadrons, 8 surface-to-surface missile squadrons, and an air defence force of 4 interceptor squadrons, 24 batteries of Nike-Hercules and 36 batteries of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles, are assigned to NATO. There are 4 F-4F Phantom interceptor squadrons, 8 Tornado attack squadrons, 4 attack squadrons of F-4Fs, 4 RF-4E Phantom reconnaissance squadrons, and 7 light attack/reconnaissance squadrons of Alpha Jets. Four transport squadrons (each 15 aircraft) with turboprop Transall C-160 aircraft and 1 wing of 5 helicopter squadrons with UH-1D Iroquois add to the air mobility of the Bundeswehr. There are also VIP, support and light transport aircraft, and Piaggio P.149D initial training aircraft. Guided weapons in service include 8 squadrons of Pershing surface-to-surface missiles and 6 battalions of Nike-Hercules and 9 battalions of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles. Pilots undergo basic and advanced training in USA. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The Federal Republic of Germany is a member of UN, OECD, European Communities, WEU, NATO and the Council of Europe. ECONOMY

Budget. Since 1 Jan. 1979 tax revenues have been distributed as follows: Federal Government. Income tax, 42 • 5%; capital yield and corporation tax, 50%; turnover tax, 67-5%; trade tax, 15%; capital gains, insurance and accounts taxes, 100%; excise duties (other than on beer), 100%. Länder. Income tax, 42 -5%; capital yield and corporation tax, 50%; turnover tax, 32 • 5%; trade tax, 15%; other taxes, 100%. Local authorities. Income tax, 15%; trade tax, 70%; local taxes, 100%. Budgets for 1987 and 1986 (in DM 1 m.): Revenue Taxes Economic activities Interest Current allocations and subsidies Other receipts minus equalising payments

Sale of assets Allocations for investment Repayment of loans Public sector borrowing minus equalising payments Totals

All ¡11public put authorities 1987 1986 456,352 34,898 3,223 102,593 30,984 95,658

Federai 1987 Current 435,261 222,270 41,521 12,716 3,191 1,267 96,248 1,093 29,743 4,447 89,597

532,390

516,367

7,838 25,968 7,056 2,433 24,615 18,679 551,276

241,792

Capital 5,471 25,139 6,669 2,555 24,008 15,826 532,010

portion 1986 213,541 18,037 1,269 1,264 4,428 238,539

3,521 15 2,318

637 17 2,037

5,853 247,645

2,691 241,230

534

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF All public 1987

Expenditure Staff Materials Interest Allocations and subsidies minus equalising payments

185,653 94,822 60,169 257,167 95,658 502,152

Construction Acquisition of property Allocations and subsidies Loans Acquisition of shares Repayments in the public sector minus equalising payments

Federal authorities 1986 1987 Current 178,120 39,192 40,942 92,238 59,489 30,878 124,810 244,403 89,597 484,653

235,821

Capital 6,194 42,837 1,699 10,456 47,342 18,101 8,442 19,935 3,277 1,471 1,373 24,008

45,094 10,977 47,981 19,158 3,028 1,517 24,615 103,142 602,583

Totals

GERMANY

101,212 584,866

35,909 270,312

portion 1986 37,913 39,944 30,382 120,983 229,222 6,060 1,511 17,963 9,209 1,514

36,256 265,220

Major areas of expenditure in 1987 (and 1986) in DM1,000m.: Social, 87-2 (85-7); defence, 53-5 (52-5); transport and communications, 13-1 (12-9); economy, 10-2(10). Currency. 100 pfennig {pi)=\ deutsche Mark (DM). There are 1,2, 5,10, 50 pf., 1, 2, 5 and 10 DM coins and 5, 10,20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 DM notes. Money in circulation in 1984, DM 104,700m. In March 1988, £1 =2-99 DM; US$1 = 1 -69 Banking. On 14 Feb. 1948 the Bank deutscher Länder was established in Frankfurt as the central bank. The Länder and Berlin central banks were merged from 1 Aug. 1957 to form the Deutsche Bundesbank. Its assets were DM 220,851m. in 1986. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1986,414,000m. kwh. were produced. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The chief oilfields are in Emsland (Lower Saxony). In 1986,27-68m. tonnes of petroleum and benzine, and 11 -68m. tonnes of diesel oil were produced. Minerals. The main production areas are: North Rhine-Westphalia (for coal, iron and metal smelting-works), Central Germany (for brown coal), and Lower Saxony (Salzgitter for iron ore; the Harz for metal ore). Production (in 1,000 tonnes): Minerals Coal Lignite Iron ore Potash Crude oil

1981 88,460 130,619 1,572 28,192 4,459

1982 89,014 127,307 1,304 22,536 4,256

1983 82,202 124,281 976 27,200 4,116

1984 79,426 126,739 977 29,543 4,055

1985 82,398 120,667 1,034 29,248 4,105

1986 80,801 114,310

in

24,775 4,017

Production of iron and steel (in 1,000 tonnes): Pig-iron Steel Rolled products finished

1981 31,876 41,610

1982 27,621 35,880 25,702

1983 26,598 35,729 26,063

1984 30,203 39,389 27,962

1985 31,919 40,908 28,919

1986 29,443 37,533 27,409

Agriculture. Area cultivated, 1986: 11-91m. hectares (arable, 7-25m.; pasture, 4-5m.).

535

F E D E R A L REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y

In 1986 the number of agricultural holdings classified by area farmed was: Schleswig-Holstein Hamburg Lower Saxony Bremen North Rhine-Westphalia Hessen Rhineland-Palatinate Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Saarland Berlin (West) Federal Republic

1-5 hectares 6,292 788 30,023 153 27,568 20,500 22,262 47,840 62,242 1,583 84 219,335

Total 30,210 1,295 110,949 466 90,022 54,996 54,050 120,466 241,225 3,836 143 707,658

5-20 hectares 5,573 283 31,054 114 31,661 21,115 19,777 48,590 121,925 1,135 35 281,302

Over 100 hectares 1,317 13 1,984 3 595 266 172 367 637 51

20-100 hectares 17,028 211 47,888 196 30,198 13,075 11,839 23,669 56,421 1,067 24 201,616

—

5,405

Area (in 1,000 hectares) and yield (in 1,000 tonnes) of the main crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1983 1,655 445 2,035 601 224 393

1984 1,634 439 2,006 555 219 406

Area

1985 1,618 424 1,944 582 218 403

1986 1,648 414 1,947 506 210 391

1983 8,990 1,599 8,944 2,068 5,669

1984 10,223 1,931 8,284 2,507 7,272

Yield 1985 9,866 1,821 9,690 2,807 7,905 20,813

1986 10,406 1,768 9,377 2,276 7,390 20,260

Wine must production (in lm. hectolitres): 8 in 1984; 5-4 in 1985; 10 in 1986. Livestock, 1986: Cattle, 15,806,300 (including 5,419,000 milch cows); horses, 259,900; sheep, 1,779,000; pigs, 23,905,500; poultry, 72,123,700. Forestry. Forestry is of great importance, conducted under the guidance of the State on scientific lines. In recent years enormous depredation has occurred through pollution with acid rain. Forest area in 1986 was 5 -29m. hectares, of which 2 -22m. were owned by the State. In 1985 31 m. cu. metres of timber were cut. Fisheries. In 1986 the yield of sea fishing was 161,280 tonnes live weight. In 1986 the fishing fleet consisted of 15 trawlers (25,884 gross tons), 1 lugger and 648 cutters. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1985 there were 51,757 manufacturing firms (with 20 and more employees) employing 8-17m. persons, made up of0-28m. in energy and water services, 0-22m. in mining, l-4m. in raw materials processing, 3-6m. in the manufacture of producers' goods, 1 -3m. in the manufacture of consumer goods, 0 -47m. in food and tobacco and 0-95m. in building. Production of major industrial products: Products (1,000 tonnes) Aluminium Artificial fertilizers Sulphuric acid, S 0 3 Soda, Na 2 COj Cement Plastics Cotton yarn Woollen yarn Passenger cars (1,000) Bicycles (1,000)

1982 723 1,505 3,601 1,105 30,079 6,335 168 47 3,771 3,089

1983 743 1,618 3,543 1,218 30,466 7,100 181 46 3,875 3,334

1984 777 1,691 3,518 1,364 28,909 7,505 194 49 3,505 3,024

1985 745 1,651 3,428 1,412 25,758 7,666 131 42 3,867 2,891

1986 765 1,425 3,351 1,442 26,580 7,943 128 41 3,952 3,209

Labour. 26-61m. persons were employed in 1985, including 10- 17m. women and 2 1 m . foreign workers. Major categories: manufacturing industries, 10-46m.; services, 9m.; commerce and transport, 4-67m.; self-employed, 2-43m.; agriculture, forestry and fishing, 1 -37m. Unemployed (1986): 2 05m.; unfilled vacancies, 165,257. Trade Unions. The majority of trade unions belong to the Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund (DGB, German Trade Union Federation), which had (women in

536

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

brackets) 7-76m. (l-76m.) members in 1986, including 5-19m. (0-86m.) manual workers, 1 -76m. (0 -74m.) white-collar workers and 0-82m. (0 - 16m.) civil servants. Of these 2-6m. (0-39m.) worked in the metal industries, l-2m. (0-37m.) in public services, 0 -49m. in building and 0 -36m. in mining and energy. DGB unions are organized in industrial branches such that only one union operates within each enterprise. Outside the DGB lie several smaller unions: The Deutscher Beamtenbund (DBB) or civil servants union with 0-8m. (0-2m.) members, the Deutsche Angestellten-Gewerkschaft (DAG) or union of salaried staff with 0-5m. (0-2m.) members and the Christlicher Gewerkschaftsbund Deutschlands (CGD, Christian Trade Union Federation of Germany) with0-3m. (0 08m.) members. Commerce. Imports and exports in DM 1 m.: 1983 390,192

Imports 1984 1985 434,257 463,811

1986 413,744

1983 432,281

Exports 1984 1985 488,223 537,164

1986 526,363

Distribution of imports and exports by categories of countries in 1986 (in DM lm.): EEC, 216,020, 267,454; developing countries, 52,796, 55,913; Communist countries, 21,157, 25,892. Most important trading partners in 1986 (trade figures in DM lm.): imports Netherlands, 57,798; France, 47,083; Italy, 38,091; UK, 29,758; Belgium with Luxembourg, 29,250; USA, 26,864; Japan, 24,030; Switzerland, 18,494; Austria, 16,383; Sweden, 9,984; USSR, 9,299: exports France, 61,336; USA, 55,206; Netherlands, 45,458; UK, 44,600; Italy, 42,879; Belgium with Luxembourg, 37,172; Switzerland, 31,033; Austria, 28,199; Sweden, 14,747; Denmark, 12,215; Spain, 12,135; USSR, 9,374. Distribution by commodities in 1986 (in DM lm.): imports and exports live animals, 554, 996; foodstufTs, 44,256, 21,280; luxury foods and tobacco, 9,941, 5,044; raw materials, 30,873, 7,279; semi-finished products, 60,180, 30,635; manufactures, 259,805,457,617. Total trade between the Federal Republic of Germany and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 9,667,444 11,090,227 12,601,387 14,139,097 15,783,904 6,063,989 7,458,042 8,947,055 8,542,196 9,404,257

Tourism. In 1985-86, 12 07m. arrivals and 27-3m. overnight stays by foreign visitors were registered. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1986 the total length of classified roads was 173,240 km, including 8,350 km of motorway (Autobahn), 31,372 km of federal highways, 63,296 km first-class and 70,222 km second-class country roads. Motor vehicles licensed on 1 July 1986: 31,748,300 (including 26,917,400 passenger cars, 1,411,700 trucks, 69,300 buses and 1,721,200 tractors. Road casualties in 1986 totalled 443,217 injured and 8,948 killed. Railways. Length of Federal Railway in 1986 was 27,484 km (1,435 mm gauge) of which 11,433 km was electrified. In 1986 it carried 1,125m. passengers and 315 -4m. tonnes of freight. There were also 2,919 km of privately-owned and other minor railways. Aviation. Deutsche Lufthansa was set up in 1953 with a capital of DM 900m. The Federal Republic owns 74-3%, Land North Rhine-Westphalia 2-2%, the Federal Railways, 0-9%, Federal Post 1-8%, Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau 3% and private industry 17-8%. In 1985 it had 88 Boeingsand 16 Airbuses. Lufthansa operate internal, European, African, North and South Atlantic, Near and Far East routes. In 1986 it carried 43m. passengers and 0-8m. tonnes of freight. Shipping. On 31 Dec. 1985 the mercantile marine comprised 1,950 ocean-going vessels of5,627,000 BRT. The inland-waterways fleet on 31 Dec. 1985 included 2,186 motor freight vessels

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totalling 2m. tonnes and 430 tankers of 545,844 tonnes. The length of the navigable rivers and canals in use was 4,429 km. Sea-going ships in 1986 carried 134-9m. tonnes of cargo. Inland waterways carried 229-5m. tonnes in 1986. Pipeline. In 1986 there were 1,715 km of pipeline. 59-lm. tonnes of oil were transported. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 17,719 post offices and 39 lm. telephones. The post office savings banks had, in 1986, 21,090,000 depositors with DM 36,217m. to their credit. In 1986 postal revenues amounted to DM 52,549m. and expenditure to DM 49,280m. There are 9 regional broadcasting stations. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD) organizes co-operation between them and also broadcasts a federal-wide TV programme of its own. Number of wireless licences, (1986) 25-92m.; of television licences,23 01m. Cinemas and Theatres. In 1985 there were 3,418 cinemas and 282 theatres with seating capacities of723,199 and 155,147 respectively. 64 feature films were made in 1985. Newspapers and Books. In 1985,357 newspapers and 6,893 periodicals were published with respective circulations of 25-44m. and 268-33m. 57,623 book titles were published. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the federal courts and by the courts of the Länder. In criminal procedures, civil cases and procedures of non-contentious jurisdiction the courts on the Land level are the local courts (Amtsgerichte), the regional courts (Landgerichte) and the courts of appeal (Oberlandesgerichte). Constitutional federal disputes are dealt with by the Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) elected by the Federal Assembly and Federal Council. The Länder also have constitutional courts. In labour law disputes the courts of the first and second instance are the labour courts and the Land labour courts and in the third instance, the Federal Labour Court (Bundesarbeitsgericht). Disputes about public law in matters of social security, unemployment insurance, maintenance of war victims and similar cases are dealt with in the first and second instances by the social courts and the Land social courts and in the third instance by the Federal Social Court (Bundessozialgericht). In most tax matters the finance courts of the Länder are competent and in the second instance, the Federal Finance Court (Bundesfinanzhof. Other controversies of public law in non-constitutional matters are decided in the first and second instance by the administrative and the higher administrative courts (Observerwaltungsgerichte) of the Länder, and in the third instance by the Federal Administrative Court (Bundesverwaltungsgericht). For the inquiry into maritime accidents the admiralty courts (Seeämter) are competent on the Land level and in the second instance the Federal Admiralty Court (Bundesoberseeamt) in Hamburg. The death sentence has been abolished. Religion. Census (1970) 49% of the population were Protestants, 44-6% Roman Catholics and 0 1% Jews. The Evangelical (Protestant) Church consists of 18 member-churches in the Federal Republic and West Berlin (7 Lutheran Churches, 8 United-LutheranReformed, 2 Reformed Churches and 1 Confederation of United member Churches: 'Church of the Union'). Its organs are the Synod, the Church Conference and the Council under the chairmanship of Bishop Dr Eduard Lohse (Hanover). There are also some 12 Evangelical Free Churches. In 1983 there were 10,648 parishes, 16,302 priests and 25 • 5m. members. There are 5 Catholic archbishops and 17 bishoprics. Chairman of the German

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Bishops' Conference is Cardinal Höffner, Archbishop of Cologne. A concordat between Germany and the Holy See was signed on 20 July and ratified on 10 Sept. 1933. The 'Old Catholics', who are in full communion with the Anglican Churches, numbered about 30,000 in 1977; they have a bishop at Bonn. Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland. Hanover, 1979 Taschenbuch der evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland. Frankfurt, 1980 Kirchliches Handbuch. Amtliches statistisches Jahrbuch der Katholischen Kirche lands Pastoral der Kirche fremden—Eroffnungsreferat der Deutschen Bischofskonferenz Fulda—von Kardinal Joseph Höffner. Bonn, 1979 Alt-Katholisches Jahrbuch. Bonn, 1978 Katholiken und ihre Kirche, Protestanten und ihre Kirche. Munich, 1977

Deutsch1979 in

Education. Schools providing general education are primary and post-primary schools (Grund- und Hauptschulen), special schools (Sonderschulen), secondary modern schools (Realschulen), grammar schools (Gymnasien) and comprehensive schools (Gesauntschulen). Primary schools: Attendance is compulsory for all children having completed their 6th year of age. Compulsory education extends 9 years. After the first 4 (or 6) years at primary school children may attend postprimary schools, secondary modern schools, grammar schools and other schools of general secondary education. The secondary modern school comprises 6, the grammar school 9 years. The final Grammar School Certificate (Abitur-Higher School Certificate) entitles the holder to enter any institution of higher education. There are also special schools for retarded, physically or mentally handicapped and socially maladjusted children. In 1985 there were 19,280 primary and post-primary schools with 3,827,875 pupils and 234,385 teachers; 2,826 special schools with 271,424 pupils and 41,622 teachers, 2,617 secondary modern schools with 1,049,010 pupils and 60,596 teachers; 2,486 grammar schools with 1,750,377, pupils and 126,010 teachers; 314 comprehensive schools with 217,461 pupils and 28,695 teachers. Vocational education is provided in part-time, full-time and advanced vocational schools (Berufs-, Berufsaufbau-, Berufsfach- and Fachschulen, including Fachschulen fur Technik and Schulen des Gesundheitswesens). Running parallel to the occupation, part-time vocational schools offer 6 to 12 hours per week of additional compulsory schooling. All young people who are apprentices, in some other employment or even unemployed have to attend them in general up to the age of 18 years or until the completion of the practical vocational training. Fulltime vocational schools comprise courses of at least one year. They prepare for commercial and domestic occupations as well as specialized occupations in the field of handicrafts. Advanced full-time vocational schools are attended by pupils having completed their 18th year of age; courses vary from 6 months to 3 or more years. In 1985 there were 5,328 full- and part-time vocational schools with 81,825 teachers and 2,562,619 pupils (1,153,722 female); 2,896 advanced vocational schools with 9,390 teachers and 213,816 pupils ( 140,909 female). Higher Education. There are universities at Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth, Berlin (West), Bielefeld, Bochum, Bonn, Bremen, Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Eichstatt, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Frankfurt-am-Main, Freiburg im Breisgau, Giessen, Göttingen, Hamburg, Hanover, Heideiburg, Hildesheim, Hohenheim, Kaiserslautern, Karlsruhe, Kiel, Konstanz, Lüneburg, Mainz, Mannheim, Marburg, Munich, Münster, Oldenburg, Osnabrück, Passau, Regensburg, Saarbrücken, Stuttgart, Trier, Tübingen, Ulm and Würzburg, and in 1985 there were 17 other institutions of equivalent status. Teachers in 1985: universities, 103,842; technical universities, 22,639; polytechnics, 7,670; art colleges, 4,861. Students in 1986-87 (women in brackets): universities and equivalent institutions, 931,348 (381,237); polytechnics, 88,151 (27,770); teachers' training colleges, 10,244 (7,179); theological colleges, 3,469 (1,159); art schools, 22,019 (10,903); technical universities, 279,387 (76,284); business colleges, 33,081 (13,900).

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GERMANY

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Health. In 1985 there were 153,895 doctors (including 73,010 in hospitals) and 34,415 dentists. There were 3,098 hospitals (including 945 private) with 674,742 beds. Social Welfare. Social Health Insurance (introduced in 1883). Wage-earners and apprentices, salaried employees with an income below a certain limit and socialinsurance pensioners are compulsorily insured. Voluntary insurance is also possible. Benefits: Medical treatment, medicines, hospital and nursing care, maternity benefits, death benefits for the insured and their families, sickness payments and out-patients' allowances. 36m. persons were insured in 1985 (21 1m. compulsorily) and 10-6m. persons (including 6-6m. women) were drawing pensions. Number of cases of incapacity for work totalled 23m., and 378m. working days were lost. Total disbursements DM 114,108m. Accident Insurance (introduced in 1884). Insured are all persons in employment or service, apprentices and the greater part of the self-employed and the unpaid family workers. Benefits in the case of industrial injuries and occupational diseases: Medical treatment and nursing care, sickness payments, pensions and other payments in cash and in kind, surviving dependants' pensions. Number of insured in 1985, 29-9m.; number of current pensions, 0-97m.; total disbursements, DM 13,101m. Workers' and Employees' Old-Age Insurance Scheme (introduced in 1889). All wage-earners and salaried employees, the members of certain liberal professions and—subject to certain conditions—self-employed craftsmen are compulsorily insured. The insured may voluntarily continue to insure when no longer liable to do so or increase the insurance. Benefits: Measures designed to maintain, improve and restore the earning capacity; pensions paid to persons incapable for work, old age and surviving dependants' pensions. Number of insured in 1985, 31 -7m. (15-3m. women); number of current pensions, 1985: 13-3m.; pensions to widows and widowers, 3-8m.; pensions to orphans, 0-5m. Total disbursements in 1985, DM 187,978m. There are also special retirement and unemployment pension schemes for miners and farmers, assistance for war victims and compensation payments to members of German minorities in East European countries expelled after the Second World War and persons who suffered damage because of the war or in connexion with the currency reform. Family Allowances. The monthly allowance for the first child is DM 50, for the second, DM 70-100 (varying according to income) for the third DM 140-220 and the fourth DM 140-240. DM 10,849 were dispersed to 6 • 3m. recipients in 1986. Unemployment Allowances. In 1986 0-8m. persons (0-37m. women) were receiving unemployment benefit and 0-6m. (016m. women) earnings-related benefit. Total expenditure on these and similar benefits (e.g. short-working supplement, job creation schemes) was DM 31,862m. in 1986. Accommodation Allowances averaging DM 119 a month were paid in 1985 to 1 • 5m. persons whose monthly income averaged DM 1,329. Public Welfare. Benefits were instituted in 1962. In 1985 DM 20-82m. were distributed to 2 • 81 m. recipients. Public Youth Welfare. For supervision of foster children, official guardianship, assistance with adoptions and affiliations, social assistance in juvenile courts, educational assistance and correctional education under a court order. Total expenditure in 1985, DM 6,367m. Übersicht über die soziale Sicherung. ed. Bonn, 1977

Bundesministerium fur Arbeit und Sozialordnung. 9th

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Tietz, G., Zahlenwerk zur Sozialversicherung in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (and supplements). Berlin, 1963 Arbeits- und Sozialstatistik. Bundesminister für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Bonn (from 1950) Fachserie 13 Sozialleistungen. Statistisches Bundesamt (from 1951) Fachserie 12 Gesundheitswesen. Statistisches Bundesamt (from 1946)

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Federal Republic of Germany in Great Britain (21-23 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X8PZ) Ambassador: Baron Rüdiger von Wechmar, GCVO (accredited 7 Feb. 1984). Of Great Britain in the Federal Republic of Germany (Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 77, 5300 Bonn 1) Ambassador: Sir Christopher Mallaby, KCMG. Of the Federal Republic of Germany in the USA (4645 Reservoir Rd, NW, Washington, D.C., 20007) Ambassador: Guenther van Well. Of the USA in the Federal Republic of Germany (Deichmanns Ave., 5300, Bonn) Ambassador: Richard R. Burt. Of the Federal Republic of Germany to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Hans Werner Lautenschlager. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The central statistical agency is the Statistisches Bundesamt, 62 Wiesbaden, Gustav Stresemann Ring 11. President: Egon Holder. Its publications include: Statistisches Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland; Wirtschaft und Statistik (monthly, from 1949); Das Arbeitsgebiet der Bundesstatistik (latest issue 1981; also in English: Survey of German Federal Statistics). Berghahn, V. R., Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century. CUP, 1982 Beyme, K. von, The Political System ofthe Federal Republic of Germany. New York, 1983 Burdick, C , el at. (eds.), Contemporary Germany: Politics and Culture, Boulder, 1984 Carr, J., Helmut Schmidt, Helmsman of Germany. London, 1985 Childs, D„ Germany since 1918.2nded. New York, 1980 Conradt, D. P., The German Polity. 2nd ed. New York, 1982 Craig, G. A., Germany, 1866-1945. OUP, 1981—The Germans. Harmondsworth, 1984 Detwiler, D. S., and Detwiler, I. E., West Germany. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1988 Edinger, L. J., West German Politics. New York, 1986 Eley, G., From Unification to Nazism: Reinterpreting the German Past. London, 1986 Hardach, K., The Political Economy of Germany in the Twentieth Century. California Univ. Press, 1980 Hubatsch, W., Studies in Medieval and Modern German History. Basingstoke, 1985 Johnson, N., State and Government in the Federal Republic of Germany: the Executive at Work. 2nd ed. Oxford, 1983 Jonas, M., The United States and Germany: A Diplomatic History. Cornell Univ. Press, 1984 Koch, H. W., A Constitutional History of Germany in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London,1984 Kohl, W. L., and Basevi, G., West Germany: A European and Global Power. London, 1982 Kolinsky, E., Parties, Opposition and Society in West Germany. London, 1984 König, K., et ah (eds.) Public Administration in the Federal Republic of Germany. Boston, 1983 Laqueur, W., Germany Today: a Personal Report. London, 1985 Markovits, A. S. (ed.), The Political Economy of West Germany: Modell Deutschland. New York, 1982 Pachter, H., Modern Germany: A Social, Cultural and Political History. Boulder, 1978 Pasley, M., (ed.). Germany: a Companion to German Studies. 2nd ed. London, 1982 Schweitzer, D.-C., (ed.) Politics and Government in the Federal Republic of Germany: Basic Documents. Leamington Spa, 1984 Smith, E. O., The West German Economy. London, 1983 Smith, G., Democracy in Western Germany. 3rd ed. Aldershot, 1986

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Wallach, P. and Romoser, G. K. (eds.) West German Politics in the Mid-Eighties: Continuity. New York, 1985 Who's Who in Germany, ¡982-1983. Munich, 1983 Wild, T., (ed). Urban and Rural Change in West Germany. London, 1983

Crisis and

National Library: Deutsche Bibliothek, Zeppelinallee 4-8; Frankfurt (Main). Director: Professor Dr Kurt Köster.

THE LÄNDER BADEN-WÜRTTEMBERG A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Baden-Württemberg comprises 35,751 sq. km, with a population (at 31 March 1987) of 9,335,893 (4,504,450 males, 4,831,442 females). The Land is administratively divided into 4 areas, 9 urban and 35 rural districts, and numbers 1,111 communes. The capital is Stuttgart. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 94,000 94,442 101,616

Marriages 54,349 54,901 55,705

Divorces 16,252 15,984 15,294

Deaths 90,870 93,295 93,003

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Land Baden-Württemberg is a merger of the 3 Länder, Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern, which were formed in 1945. The merger was approved by a plebiscite held on 9 Dec. 1951, when 70% of the population voted in its favour. The Diet, elected on 25 March 1984, consists of 68 Christian Democrats, 41 Social Democrats, 8 Free Democrats, 9 Ecologists. The Government is formed by Christian Democrats, with Lothar Späth (CDU) as Prime Minister. A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Rye Wheat Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 1986 16-4 160 17-0 222-4 218-5 216-3 197-4 197-8 200-8 86-3 85-3 77-7 17-4 15 5 14 9 23-4 23-7 23-3

1984 72-6 1,279-6 955-0 373-1 559-6 1,260-8

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1986 1985 80-7 75-6 1,330-6 1,166-0 995-9 810-7 329-4 437-6 807-1 838-8 1,293-5 1,228-6

Livestock (3 Dec. 1986): Cattle, 1,770,918 (including 656,969 milch cows); horses, 51,516; pigs, 2,386,342; sheep, 231,529; poultry, 6,005,209. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 9,338 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,424,233 persons; of these, 255,468 were employed in machine construction (excluding office machines, data processing equipment and facilities); 74,577 in textile industry; 244,696 in electrical engineering; 223,908 in car building. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 4,298,000 at the 1%-ECsample survey of June 1985. Of the total 530,500 were self-employed (including family workers), 3,768,100 employees; 218,200 were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 2,038,300 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 669,700 in commerce and transport, 1,372,400 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 28,323 km of'classified' roads, including 1,345 km of autobahn, 4,972 km of federal roads, 10,173 km of first-class and 1 1,833 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles, at 1 July 1987, numbered 5,217,788, including, 4,443,426 passenger cars, 8,520 buses, 197,960 lorries, 310,763 tractors and 199,732 motorcycles.

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J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshof), 2 courts of appeal, 17 regional courts, 108 local courts, a Land labour court, 9 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof), 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 1 Jan. 1987, 43-8% of the population were Protestants and 47 -2% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986-87 there were 3,621 primary schools (Grund and Hauptschule) with 31,690 teachers and 543,247 pupils; 570 special schools with 7,988 teachers and 43,731 pupils; 442 intermediate schools with 11,745 teachers and 190,031 pupils; 415 high schools with 19,102 teachers and 252,427 pupils; 27 Freie Waldorf schools with 1,096 teachers and 14,657 pupils. Other schools together had 965 teachers and 12,910 pupils; there were also 40 Fachhochschulen (colleges of engineering and others) with 45,528 students. In the winter term 1986-87 there were9 universities (Freiburg, 22,576 students; Heidelberg, 26,687; Konstanz, 6,412; Tübingen, 22,963; Karlsruhe, 18,055; Stuttgart, 18,244; Hohenheim, 5,330; Mannheim, 10,798; Ulm, 4,766); 8 teachertraining colleges with 8,227 students; 5 colleges of music with 2,762 students and 2 colleges of fine arts with 1,016 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Baden-Württemberg (P.O.B. 898, D7000 Stuttgart I) (President: Prof. Max Wingen), publishes: 'Baden-Württembergin Wort und Zahl' (monthly); Jahrbücher für Statistik und Landeskunde von Baden- Württemberg: Statistik von Baden- Württemberg (series); Statistisch-prognostischer Bericht (latest issue 1986-87); Statistisches Taschenbuch (latest issue 1986-87). State Library: Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Konrad-Adenauer-Str. 8, 7000 Stuttgart 1. Director: Dr Hans-Peter Geh. Badische Landesbibliothek Karlsruhe, Lamm-Str. 16, 7500 Karlsruhe 1. Director: Dr Römer.

BAVARIA Bayern AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Bavaria has an area of 70,553 sq. km. The capital is Munich. There are 7 areas, 96 urban and rural districts and 2,051 communes. The population (31 Dec. 1986) numbered 11,026,490 (5,290,422 males, 5,736,068 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 111,183 111,365 118,439

Marriages 66,005 66,012 67,061

Divorces 18,877 19,252 18,352

Deaths 122,057 121,941 120,489

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Constituent Assembly, elected on 30 June 1946, passed a constitution on the lines of the democratic constitution of 1919, but with greater emphasis on state rights; this was agreed upon by the Christian Social Union and the Social Democrats. The elections for the Diet, held on 12 Oct. 1986, had the following results: 128 Christian Social Union, 61 Social Democrats, 15 Green Party. The cabinet of the Christian Social Union is headed by Minister President Dr Franz Josef Strauss (CSU). A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important products: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1985 487-6 601 530-8 129-8 80-9 83-8

Area (1,000 hectares) Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1986 1987' 1985 1 986 1 987' 493-1 5010 2,984-2 2,829-1 2,685-6 56-4 52-5 260-5 219-1 189-4 521-5 496-3 2,642-2 2,193-4 2,012-5 121-2 115-3 639-8 558-5 473-9 72-4 68-4 2,732-9 2,426-1 1,730-4 4,845-7 4,544-4 79-1 76-9 1 Preliminary figures.

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Livestock (3 Dec. 1986): 5,130,500 cattle (including 1,999,500 milch cows); 62,600 horses; 334,400 sheep; 4,220,300 pigs; 11,888,400 poultry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986, 9,423 establishments (with 20 or more employees) employed 1,344,953 persons; of these, 248,567 were employed in electrical engineering; 183,232 in mechanical engineering; 122,985 in clothing and textile industries. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 5,333,700 at the 1% sample survey of the microcensus of April 1986. Of the total, 530,300 were selfemployed, 283,000 unpaid family workers, 4,520,400 employees; 2,284,700 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building; 856,400 in commerce and transport; 1,768,200 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were, on 1 Jan. 1987, 40,821 km of'classified' roads, including 1,925 km of autobahn, 7,113 km of federal roads, 13,781 km of first-class and 18,002 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, at 1 July 1987, was 6,315,305, including 5,113,450 passenger cars, 235,170 lorries, 13,018 buses, 577,367 tractors, 309,098 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), a supreme Land court (Oberstes Landesgericht), 3 courts of appeal, 21 regional courts, 72 local courts, 2 Land labour courts, 11 labour courts, a Land social court, 7 social courts, 2 finance courts, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshoß, 6 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . At the census of 27 May 1970 there were 69 9% Roman Catholics and 25 • 7% Protestants. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986-87 there were 2,810 primary schools with 42,752 teachers and 718,317 pupils; 384 special schools with 5,139 teachers and 38,324 pupils; 335 intermediate schools with 8,684 teachers and 135,729 pupils; 396 high schools with 19,887 teachers and 278,614 pupils; 264 part-time vocational schools with 7,901 teachers and 366,206 pupils, including 54 special part-time vocational schools with 531 teachers and 7,913 pupils; 563 fall-time vocational schools with 3,755 teachers and 54,722 pupils including 225 schools for public health occupations with 888 teachers and 13,869 pupils; 283 advanced full-time vocational schools with 2,095 teachers and 25,640 pupils; 82 vocational high schools (Berufsoberschulen, Fachoberschulen) with 1,745 teachers and 25,640 pupils. In the winter term 1986—87 there were 11 universities with 162,708 students (Augsburg, 8,104; Bamberg, 4,911; Bayreuth, 5,309; Eichstätt, 2,115; ErlangenNürnberg, 24,619; München, 60,185; Passau, 4,566; Regensburg, 11,554; Würzburg, 16,708; the Technical University of München, 22,049; München University of the Federal Armed Forces (Universität der Bundeswehr), 2,588); 1 Gesamthochschule with 309 students, the college of philosophy, München, 345 and a philosophical-theological college in Benediktbeuern with 119 students. There were also 2 colleges of music, 2 colleges of fine arts and 1 college of television and film, with together 2,450 students; 13 vocational colleges (Fachhochschulen) with 51,847 students including one for the civil service (Bayerische Beamtenfachhochschule) with 3,867 students. Statistical Information: Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung, 51 Neuhauser Str. 8000 Munich, was founded in 1833. President: Dr Hans Helmut Schiedermaier. It publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch für Bayern. 1894 ff.—Bayern in Zahlen. Monthly (from Jan. 1947).—Zeitschrift des Bayerischen Statistischen Landesamts. July 1869-1943; 1948 ff.—Beiträge zur Statistik Bayerns. 1850 ff.—Statistische Berichte. 1951 ff.— Schaubilderhefte. 1951 ff.—Kreisdaten. 1972 ff—Gemeindedaten. 1973 ff. Nawiasky, H., and Luesser, C., Die Verfassung des Freistaates Bayern vom 2. Dez. 1946. Munich, 1948; supplement, by H. Nawiasky and H. Lechner, Munich, 1953 State Library: Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich 22. Director: Dr Franz G. Kaltwasser.

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BERLIN G O V E R N M E N T . Greater Berlin was under quadripartite Allied government (Kommandatura) until 1 July 1948, when the Soviet element withdrew. On 30 Nov. 1948, a separate Municipal Government was set up in the Soviet Sector (see p. 522). A R E A . The total area of Berlin is 883 sq. km, of which Western Berlin covers 480 sq. km and the Soviet Sector 403 sq. km. The British Sector includes the administrative districts of Tiergarten, Charlottenburg, Wilmersdorf and Spandau; the American Sector those of Kreuzberg, Neukölln, Tempelhof, Schöneberg, Zehlendorf and Steglitz; the French Sector covers the administrative districts of Wedding and Reinickendorf, and the Soviet Sector, those of Mitte, Friedrichshain, Prenzlauer Berg, Pankow, Weissensee, Lichtenberg, Treptow and Köpenick. The British, American and French sectors form an administrative unit, called Berlin (West). In 1961 the East German Government tried to stop the outflow by erecting a heavily fortified barrier, the 'Berlin Wall', along the border. A minefield which accompanied it was removed in 1985.

BERLIN (WEST) P O P U L A T I O N . Population, 31 Dec. 1986, 1,879,225 (872,057 males, 1,007,168 females). According to the census of 27 May 1970, 70-2% were Protestants and 12-5% Roman Catholics. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 17,799 17,921 18,688

Marriages 12,239 12,277 11,941

Divorces 6,471 6,597 6,060

Deaths 32,411 32,614 31,727

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . According to the constitution of 1 Sept. 1950, Berlin is simultaneously a Land of the Federal Republic (though not yet formally incorporated) and a city. It is governed by a House of Representatives (at least 200 members); the executive power is vested in a Senate, consisting of the Governing Mayor, the Mayor and not more than 16 senators. In the municipal elections, held on 10 March 1985, the Christian Democrats obtained 69 seats; the Social Democrats, 48; the Alternative List, 15; the Free Democrats, 12. Governing Mayor: Eberhard Diepgen (Christian Democrat). ECONOMY Currency. The legal tender of Berlin (West) is the German Mark (DM). Banking. On 20 March 1949 when the DM (West) became the only legal tender of the Western Sectors, the Zentralbank of Berlin was established. Its functions were similar to those of the Zentralbanks of the Länder of the Federal Republic. The Berlin Central Bank was merged with the Bank deutscher Länder as from 1 Aug. 1957, when the latter became the Deutsche Bundesbank. The legal tender for the Western Sectors of Berlin is being issued by the Deutsche Bundesbank (formerly Bank deutscher Länder). A G R I C U L T U R E . Agricultural area (April 1987), 1,320 hectares, including 860 hectares arable land and 96 hectares gardens, orchards, nurseries. Livestock (Dec. 1986): Cattle, 641; pigs, 3,122; horses, 3,517; sheep, 1,126. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 (monthly averages), 983 establishments (with 20 or more employees) employed 164,367 persons; of these, 58,519 were employed in electrical engineering, 15,949 in machine construction, 12,296 in the manufacture of chemicals, 3,831 in steel construction and 3,495 in textiles.

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L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 849,300 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of June 1985. Of the total, 69,800 were self-employed including unpaid family workers, 779,500 employees; 7,800 were engaged in agriculture and forestry; 259,400 in power supply, manufacturing and building; 159,700 in commerce and transport; 422,400 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were, on 1 Jan. 1986, 140 km of'classified' roads, including 42 km of autobahn and 98 km of federal roads. On 1 July 1985, 753,994 motor vehicles were registered, including 596,291 passenger cars, 40,204 lorries (1986), 37,846 motor cycles,and(1986)2,285 buses. J U S T I C E . There are a court of appeal (Kammergericht), a regional court, 7 local courts, a Land Labour court, a labour court, a Land social court, a social court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court and a finance court. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986-87 (preliminary figures) there were 446 schools providing general education (excluding special schools) with 181,256 pupils; 58 special schools with 7,087 pupils. There were a further 176 vocational schools with 61,197 pupils. In the winter term 1986-87 there was 1 university (54,213 students); 1 technical university (27,217); 1 theological (evangelical) college (570); 1 college of fine arts with 4,441 students; 1 vocational college (for economics) (1,532); 2 colleges for social work (1,222); 1 technical college (4,788), 1 college of the Federal postal administration (548) and 2 colleges for public administration (2,560). Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt Berlin was founded in 1862 (Fehrbelliner Platz 1, 1000 Berlin 31). Director: G ü n t h e r Appel. It publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch (from 1867): Berliner Statistik (monthly, from 1947).—100 Jahre Berliner Statistik (1962). Childs, D. and Johnson, J., West Berlin: Politics and Society. London, 1981 Hillenbrand, M. J., The Future of Berlin. Monclair, 1981 State Library: Amerika-Gedenkbibliothek-Berliner Zentralbibliothek-, Blücherplatz 1, D1000 Berlin 61. Director: Dr Peter K. Liebenow.

BREMEN Freie Hansestadt Bremen A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Land, consisting of the towns and ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven, is 404 sq. km. Population, 31 Dec. 1986, 654,170 (306,831 males, 347,339 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 5,240 5,294 5,745

Marriages 3,632 3,804 3,904

Divorces 2,006 1,999 1,680

Deaths 8,493 8,545 8,707

C O N S T I T U T I O N . Political power is vested in the House of Burgesses (Bürgerschaft) which appoints the executive, called the Senate. The elections of 13 Sept. 1987 had the following result: 54 Social Democratic Party, 25 Christian Democrats, 10 Free Democratic Party, 10 Die Grünen, 1 Deutsche Volksunion. The Senate is only formed by Social Democrats; its president is Klaus Wedemeier (Social Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E . Agricultural area comprised (1983), 10,510 hectares: yield of grain crops (1986), 8,378 tonnes; potatoes, 295 tonnes. Livestock (3 Dec. 1986): 16,816 cattle (including 5,120 milch cows); 4,351 pigs; 459 sheep; 1,031 horses; 22,456 poultry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986, 345 establishments (20 and more employees) employed 75,965 persons; of these, 8,937 were employed in shipbuilding (except naval en-

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gineering); 7,109 in machine construction; 9,891 in electrical engineering; 1,843 in coffee and tea processing. L A B O U R . The economically active persons sample survey of the microcensus of June 1985. employed, 235,300 employees; 85,100 in power and building, 64,700 in commerce and transport, services.

totalled 255,400 at the 1%Of the total, 19,000 were selfsupply, mining, manufacturing 104,100 in other industries and

R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 127 km of'classified' roads, including 45-4 km of autobahn, 81-6 km of federal roads, 7 km of first-class and 5 km of secondclass highways. Registered motor vehicles on 1 July 1986 numbered 289,757, including 259,346 passenger cars, 13,792 trucks, 2,402 tractors, 628 buses and 10,051 motorcycles. S H I P P I N G . Vessels entered in 1986, 9,882 of 43,455,176 net tons; cleared, 9,859 of 43,608,757 net tons. Sea traffic, 1986, incoming 17,670,589 tonnes; outgoing, 11,822,101 tonnes. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshoß, a court of appeal, a regional court, 3 local courts, a Land labour court, 2 labour courts, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 82-4% Protestants and 10-2% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986 there were 313 new system schools with 5,454 teachers and 67,150 pupils; 27 special schools with 588 teachers and 3,237 pupils; 21 parttime vocational schools with 30,804 pupils; 34 full-time vocational schools with 6,945 pupils; 7 advanced vocational schools (including institutions for the training of technicians) with 812 pupils; 11 schools for public health occupations with 1,010 pupils. In the winter term 1986-87 about 9,321 students were enrolled at the university. In addition to the university there were 4 other colleges in 1986-87 with about 6,073 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Bremen (An der Weide 14-16 (P.B. 101309), D2800 Bremen 1), founded in 1850. Director: Ltd Reg. Dir. Volker Hannemann. Its current publications include: Statistische Mitteilungen Freie Hansestadt Bremen (from 1948).—Monatliche Zwischenberichte (1949-53); Statistische Monatsberichte (from 1954).—Statistische Berichte (from 1956).—Statistisches Handbuch für das Land Freie Hansestadt Bremen (1950-60, 1961; 1960-64, 1967; 1965-69, 1971; 1970-74, 1975; 1975-80, 1982).—Bremen im statistischen Zeitvergleich 1950-1976. 1977.—Bremen in Zahlen. 1981-85,1987. State and University Library: Bibliotheks Str., D2800 Bremen 33. Director: Prof. Dr HansAlbrecht Koch.

HAMBURG Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . In 1938 the territory of the town was reorganized by the amalgamation of the city and its 18 rural districts with 3 urban and 27 rural districts ceded by Prussia. Total area, 754-7 sq. km (1986), including the islands Neu werk and Scharhörn (7 sq. km). Population (31 Dec. 1986), 1,571,267 (735,790 males, 835,477 females).

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Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 12,407 12,711 13,404

Marriages 8,885 8,768 9,180

Divorces 5,213 4,916 4,556

Deaths 22,021 22,266 21,973

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution of 6 June 1952 vests the supreme power in the House of Burgesses (Bürgerschaft) of 120 members. The executive is in the hands of the Senate, whose members are elected by the Bürgerschaft. The elections of 17 May. 1987 had the following results: Social Democrats, 55; Christian Democrats, 49; Green Alternatives, 8; Free Democrats, 8. The First Burgomaster is Dr Klaus von Dohnanyi (Social Democrat). TÜe territory has been divided into 7 administrative districts. A G R I C U L T U R E . The agricultural area comprised 15,500 hectares in 1986. Yield, in tonnes, of cereals, 24,500; potatoes, 700. Livestock (3 Dec. 1986): Cattle, 12,263 (including 2,874 milch cows); pigs, 6,767; horses, 2,654; sheep, 2,552; poultry, 24,736. F I S H E R I E S . In 1986 the yield of sea and coastal fishing was 1,190 tonnes valued at DM 3m. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1986, 775 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 135,654 persons; of these, 20,951 were employed in electrical engineering; 16,907 in machine construction; 8,393 in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 13,392 in chemical industry. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 721,600 at the 0 -4%-sample survey of the microcensus of June 1983. Of the total, 57,200 were self-employed, 4,000 unpaid family workers, 660,400 employees; 4,800 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 202,600 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 196,600 in commerce and transport, 318,200 in other industries and services. R O A D S . On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 3,872 km of roads, including 78 km of autobahn, 153 km of federal roads. Number of motor vehicles (1 July 1986), 677,246, including 604,709 passenger cars, 34,197 lorries, 1,742 buses, 4,828 tractors, 22,699 motor cycles and 9,071 other motor vehicles. S H I P P I N G . Hamburg is the largest port in the Federal Republic. Vessels Entered: Number Tonnage Cleared: Number Tonnage

1938 18,149 20,567,311 19,316 20,547,148

1958 19,033 27,454,640 20,363 27,579,914

1 978 16,636 61,785,643 17,414 62,028,141

1985 14,315 58,926,086 14,415 58,978,175

1 986 13,740 53,033,000 13,950 53,080,000

J U S T I C E . There is a constitutional court (Verfassungsgericht), a court of appeal (Oberlandesgericht), a regional court (Landgericht), 6 local courts (Amtsgerichte), a Land labour court, a labour court, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) Evangelical Church and Free Churches 73-6%, Roman Catholic Church 8 • 1 %. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986 there were 369 schools of general education (not including Internationale Schule) with 7,484 teachers and 151,744 pupils; 61 special schools with 872 teachers and 6,867 pupils; 46 part-time vocational schools with 50,474 pupils; 22 schools with 1,813 pupils in their vocational preparatory year; 23 schools with 2,062 pupils in manual instruction classes; 59 full-time vocational schools with 11,734 pupils; 10 economic secondary schools with 2,592 pupils; 24 advanced vocational schools with 3,266 pupils; 38 schools for public health occu-

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pations with 2,416 pupils; 6 vocational introducing schools with 194 pupils and 21 technical superior schools with 2,411 pupils; all these vocational and technical schools have a total number of2,951 teachers. In the summer term 1986 there was 1 university with 41,102 students; 1 technical university with 335 students; 1 college of music and 1 college of fine arts with together 1,966 students; 1 university of the Bundeswehr with 1,645 students; 1 professional high school (Fachhochschule) with 12,699 students; 1 high school for economics and politics with 1,821 students; 1 high school of public administration with 1,044 students, as well as 1 private professional high school with 172 students. Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg (Steckelhörn 12, D2000 Hamburg 11) publishes: Hamburg in Zahlen, Statistische Berichte, Statistisches Taschenbuch, Statistik des Hamburgischen Staates. Kiessmann, E., Geschichte der Stadt Hamburg. Hamburg, 1981 Meyer-Marwitz, B., Das Hamburg Buch. Hamburg, 1981 Ohlig, J., Porträt einer Weltstadt. Hamburg, 1974 Plagemann, V., Industriekultur in Hamburg. Hamburg, 1984 Studt, B., and Olsen, H., Hamburg—eine kurzgefaßte Geschichte der Stadt. Hamburg, 1964 State Library: Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Carl von Ossietzky, Von-Melle-Park 3, D2000 Hamburg 13. Director: Prof. Dr Horst Gronemeyer.

HESSEN A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The state of Hessen comprehends the areas of the former Prussian provinces Kurhessen and Nassau (excluding the exclaves belonging to Hessen and the rural counties of Westerwaldkreis and Rhine-Lahn) and of the former Volksstaat Hessen, the provinces Starkenburg (including the parts of Rheinhessen east of the river Rhine) and Oberhessen. Hessen has an area of 21,114 sq. km. Its capital is Wiesbaden. Since 1 Jan. 1981 there have been 3 areas with 5 urban and 21 rural districts and 421 communes. Population, 31 March 1987, was 5,547,912 (2,669,372 males,2,878,540 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 49,844 49,682 52,587

Marriages 31,424 31,823 32,520

Divorces 12,097 11,877 11,380

Deaths 62,012 63,360 63,385

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution was put into force by popular referendum on 1 Dec. 1946. The Diet, elected on 5 April 1987, consists of 44 Social Democrats, 47 Christian Democrats, 9 Free Democrats, 10 Die Grünen. The Christian Democrat cabinet is headed by Minister President Walter Wallmann (CDU). A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

A rea (ini,000 hectares) 1984 1985 1986 136-4 141-7 144-1 34-7 31-5 29-5 142-1 141-6 146-6 638 63-2 55-9 10-5 9-7 8-7 22-7 21-7 21-8

1984 837-1 159-1 750-1 261-4 298-5 1,049-9

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1985 1986 913-5 850-1 138-5 132-9 707-8 727-9 294-3 243-0 304-7 303-7 1,061-4 1,061-0

Livestock, Dec. 1986: Cattle, 828,600 (including 272,200 milch cows); horses 31,600; Dec. 1984, pigs, 1 -24m.; sheep, 133,900; poultry, 3 -39m. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1987, 3,628 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 626,861 persons; of these, 95,947 were employed in chemical industry; 86,495 in electrical engineering; 91,712 in car building; 78,826 in machine construction; 30,020 in food industry.

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L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 2-48m. at the 1% sample survey of the microcensus of April 1986. Of the total, 206,000 were self-employed, 44,600 unpaid family workers, 2,233,000 employees; 68,300 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 997,000 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 499,300 in commerce and transport, 919,000 in other services. R O A D S . On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 16,644 km of'classified'roads, including 929 km of autobahn, 3,569 km of federal highways, 7,120 km of first-class highways and 5,026 km of second-class highways. Motor vehicles licensed on 1 July 1987 totalled 3,105,165, including 2,703,144 passenger cars, 5,778 buses, 119,335 trucks, 140,815 tractors and 105,246 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Staatsgerichtshoß, a court of appeal, 9 regional courts, 58 local courts, a Land labour court, 12 labour courts, a Land social court, 7 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof), 5 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . In 1980 there were 51-7% Protestants and 35 -3% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986 there were 1,248 primary schools with 14,336 teachers and 262,948 pupils (including Förderstufen); 234 special schools with 2,728 teachers and 18,972 pupils; 154 intermediate schools with 2,601 teachers and 45,913 pupils; 153 high schools with 8,845 teachers and 116,922 pupils; 191 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 11,114 teachers and 156,652 pupils; 118 part-time vocational schools with 4,718 teachers and 176,499 pupils; 248 fulltime vocational schools with 2,402 teachers and 35,492 pupils; 100 advanced vocational schools with 526 teachers and 8,302 pupils; 177 schools for public health occupations with 10,119 pupils. In the winter term 1986-87 there were 3 universities (Frankfurt/Main, 29,373 students; Giessen, 16,592; Marburg, 14,378); 1 technical university in Darmstadt (14,257); 1 Gesamthochschule (9,782); 15 Fachhochschulen (34,865); 2 Roman Catholic theological colleges and 1 Protestant theological college with together 535 students; 1 college of music and 2 colleges of fine arts with together 1,322 students. Statistical Information: The Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt (Rheinstr. 35-37, D6200 Wiesbaden). President: Götz Steppuhn. Main publications: Statistisches Taschenbuch für das Land Hessen (zweijährlich; 1980-81 ff.).—Staat und Wirtschaft in Hessen (monthly).— Beiträge zur Statistik Hessens.—Statistische Berichte. —Hessische Gemeindestatistik 1960-61 (5 vols., 1963 ff.).—Hessische Gemeindestatistik 1970 (5 vols., 1972 ff.).—Hessische Gemeindestatistik (annual, 1980 ff.). State Library: Hessische Landesbibliothek, Rheinstr. 55-57, D6200 Wiesbaden. Director: Dr Helmut Schwitzgebel.

LOWER SAXONY Niedersachsen A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lower Saxony (excluding the town of Bremerhaven, and the districts on the right bank of the Elbe in the Soviet Zone) comprises 47,439 sq. km, and is divided into 4 administrative districts, 38 rural districts, 9 towns and 1,019 communes; capital, Hanover. Estimated population, on 31 Dec. 1986, was 7,196,127 (3,458,468 males, 3,737,659 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 66,803 67,223 71,226

Marriages 40,415 40,778 42,740

Divorces 14,100 13,885 13,198

Deaths 83,684 84,432 84,071

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G O V E R N M E N T . The Land Niedersachsen was formed on 1 Nov. 1946 by merging the former Prussian province of Hanover and the Länder Brunswick, Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe. The Diet, elected on 15 June 1986, consists of 69 Christian Democrats, 66 Social Democrats; Free Democrats, 9 and Die Grünen, 11. The cabinet of the Christian Democratic Union is headed by Minister President Dr Ernst Albrecht (CDU). A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 1986 Wheat 283 280 280 Rye 183 178 176 Barley 483 455 454 Oats 133 136 110 Potatoes 71 78 79 Sugar-beet 153 152 146

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 1986 1,699 1,619 2,119 773 742 747 2,326 2,204 2,290 579 678 519 2,563 3,103 3,011 6,735 7,238 6,850

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1986: Cattle, 3,314,709 (including 1,089,765 milch cows); horses, 76,853; pigs, 7,774,344; sheep, 191,013; poultry, 35,239,391. F I S H E R I E S . In 1986 the yield of sea and coastal fishing was 83,314 tonnes valued at DM 61 m. I N D U S T R Y . In Sept. 1986,4,215 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 647,216 persons; of these 59,129 were employed in machine construction; 146,926 in car building; 65,992 in electrical engineering. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 2,986,500 in 1985. Of the total 268,300 were self-employed, 105,400 unpaid family workers, 2,574,600 employees; 212,700 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 1,125,400 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 5 51,100 in commerce and transport, 1,097,300 in other industries and services. R O A D S . At 1 Jan. 1986 there were 27,939 km of'classified' roads, including 1,125 km of autobahn, 4,956 km of federal roads, 8,718 km of first-class and 13,140 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1987, was 3,722,545 including 3,141,105 passenger cars, 146,5 37 lorries, 8,417 buses, 245,664 tractors, 141,818 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (StaatsgerichtshoJ), 3 courts of appeal, 11 regional courts, 79 local courts, a Land labour court, 15 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court (together with Schleswig-Holstein), 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 74-6% Protestants and 19-6% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986 there were 2,245 primary schools with 23,531 teachers and 373,019 pupils; 299 special schools with 4,583 teachers and 28,617 pupils; 327 stages of orientation with 8,837 teachers and 125,966 pupils; 270 intermediate schools with 8,115 teachers and 118,688 pupils; 243 grammar schools with 13,083 teachers and 156,633 pupils; 9 evening high schools with 196 teachers and 1,661 pupils; 24 integrated comprehensive schools with 2,011 teachers and 20,902 pupils; 17 co-operative comprehensive schools with 1,614 teachers and 19,790 pupils; 139 part-time vocational schools with 225,189 pupils; 118 year of basic vocational training with 23,973 pupils; 538 full-time vocational schools with 38,008 pupils; 92 Fachgymnasien with 11,403 pupils; 142 Fachoberschulen with 8,151 pupils (full-time vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges); 36 vocational extension schools with 509 pupils; 196 advanced full-time vocational

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schools (including schools for technicians) with 9,439 pupils; 241 public health schools with 14,290 pupils. In the winter term 1986-87 there were 4 universities (Göttingen, 29,138 students; Hanover, 25,177; Oldenburg, 9,467; Osnabrück, 7,957); 2 technical universities (Braunschweig, 14,970; Clausthal, 3,784); the medical college of Hanover (3,657), the veterinary college in Hanover (1,899) and the colleges of Hildesheim (1,944) and Lüneburg (1,883). Statistical Information: The Niedersächsisches Landesverwaltungsamt—Statistik' (Geibelstr. 65, D3000 Hanover 1) fulfils the function of the 'Statistisches Landesamt fur Niedersachsen'. Head of Division: Abteilungsdirektor Dr Günter Koop. Main publications are: Statistisches Jahrbuch Niedersachsen (from 1950).—Statistische Monatshefte Niedersachsen (from 1947).—Statistik Niedersachsen. State Library: Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek, Prinzenstr. 1, 3400, Göttingen. Director: Helmut Vogt; Niedersächsische Landesbibliothek, Waterloostr. 8, D3000 Hannover 1. Director: Dr Wilhelm Totok.

N O R T H RHINE-WESTPHALIA Nordrhein-Westfalen AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Land comprises 34,069 sq. km. It is divided into 5 areas, 23 urban and 31 rural districts. Capital Düsseldorf. Population, 31 Dec. 1986,16,676,501 (7,963,134 males, 8,713,367 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 158,309 159,713 171,891

Marriages 102,035 101,321 103,402

Divorces 39,560 38,203 36,933

Deaths 188,515 191,161 191,430

GOVERNMENT. The Land Nordrhein-Westfalen is governed by Social Democrats; Minister President, Johannes Rau (SPD). The Diet, elected on 12 May 1985, consists of 12 5 Social Democrats, 8 8 Christian Democrats and 14 Free Democrats. A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1984 1986 1985 223 6 235-4 236-4 53-4 54-6 50-9 358-9 327-4 338-7 81-4 85-7 71-1 16-9 18-3 17-6 81-2 81-6 80-5

1984 1,447-1 254-1 1,995-0 363-8 615-6 3,791-8

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1986 1985 1,464-6 1,636-3 232-6 235-1 1,714-0 1,871-0 333-2 395-9 706-6 643-3 4,019-4 4,099-3

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1986: Cattle, 2,015,770 (including 609,669 milch cows); pigs, 6,465,980; sheep, 176,881; horses, 80,901; poultry, 12,196,102. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1986, 10,797 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 1,959,031 persons; of these, 159,272 were employed in mining; 280,085 in machine construction; 149,882 in iron and steel production; 194,389 in chemical industry; 181,956 in electrical engineering; 58,136 in textile industry. Output and/or production in 1,000 tonnes, 1986: Hard coal, 69,834; lignite, 108,651; pig-iron, 18,600; raw steel ingots, 22,094; rolled steel, 14,784; castings (iron and steel castings), 1,244; cement, 9,562; fireproof products, 1,146; sulphuric acid (including production of cokeries), 1,764; staple fibres and rayon, 315; metalworking machines, 105; equipment for smelting works and rolling mills, 114; machines for mining industry, 228; cranes and hoisting machinery, 73; installation implements, 1,218,369,000 (pieces); cables and electric lines, 237; springs of all kinds, 205; chains of all kinds, 92; locks and fittings, 362; spun yarns, 209; electric power, 165,484m. kwh. Of the total population, 11 -8% were engaged in industry.

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FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 6,774,800 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of June 1985. Of the total, 567,500 were self-employed, 96,700 unpaid family workers, 6,110,600 employees; 170,200 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 3,017,100 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, l-21m. in commerce and transport, 2,381,700 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1987) 29,834 km of'classified' roads, including 1,979 km of autobahn, 5,542 km of federal roads, 12,386 km of first-class and 9,927 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 July 1987, 8,388,438, including 6,760,826 passenger cars, 680,493 lorries, 327,226 motor lorries/trucks, 16,760 buses, 210,300 tractors and 315,080 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshofi, 3 courts of appeal, 19 regional courts, 130 local courts, 3 Land labour courts, 30 labour courts, a Land social court, 8 social courts, 3 finance courts, a higher administrative court, 7 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 41 -9% Protestants and 52-5% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986 there were 4,630 primary schools with 66,070 teachers and 1,033,133 pupils; 734 special schools with 12,464 teachers and 84,051 pupils; 552 intermediate schools with 16,261 teachers and 265,778 pupils; 107 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 7,810 teachers and 76,738 pupils; 639 high schools with 38,504 teachers and 512,075 pupils; in 1986 there were 288 part-time vocational schools with 486,674 pupils; vocational preparatory year 225 with 17,199 pupils; 319 full-time vocational schools with 98,218 pupils; 25 schools offering upgrading courses to raise the general level of education and quality for vocational colleges with 439 pupils; 218 full-time vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges with 22,976 pupils; 151 advanced full-time vocational schools with 18,432 pupils; 570 schools for public health occupations with 10,268 teachers and 32,732 pupils; 24 schools within the scope of a pilot system of courses with 58,862 pupils and 2,225 teachers. In the winter term 1986-87 there were 8 universities (Bielefeld, 12,948 students; Bochum, 30,709; Bonn, 38,591; Dortmund, 17,405; Düsseldorf, 14,772; Cologne, 46,581; Münster, 43,185; Witten, 225); the Technical University of Aachen (34,481); 4 Roman Catholic and 2 Protestant theological colleges with together 1,191 students. There were also 3 colleges of music, 1 college of fine arts and the college for physical education in Cologne with together 10,566 students; 20 Fachhochschulen (vocational colleges) with 91,663 students, and 6 Gesamthochschulen with together 78,412 students. Statistical Information: The Landesamt fur Datenverarbeitung und Statistik NordrheinWestfalen (Mauerstr. 51, D4000 Düsseldorf 30) was founded in 1946, by amalgamating the provincial statistical offices of Rhineland and Westphalia. President: A. Benker. The Landesamt publishes: Statistisches Jahrbuch Nordrhein-Westfalen. From 1949. More than 550 other publications yearly. Forst, Walter, Kleine Geschichte Nordrhein- Westfalens. Münster, 1986. Land Library: Universitätsbibliothek, Universitätsstr. 1, D4000 Düsseldorf. Director: Dr G. Gattermann.

RHINELAND-PALATINATE Rheinland-Pfalz AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Rhineland-Pfalz comprises 19,848 sq. km. Capital Mainz. Population (at 31 Dec. 1986), 3,611,437 (1,732,019 males, 1,879,418 females).

553

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 35,504 34,899 37,181

Marriages 23,016 22,971 22,814

Divorces 7,266 7,215 7,354

Deaths 42,890 42,587 43,214

C O N S T I T U T I O N . The constitution of the U n d Rheinland-Pfalz was approved by the Consultative Assembly on 25 April 1947 and by referendum on 18 May 1947, when 579,002 voted for and 514,338 against its acceptance. The elections of 17 May 1987 returned 48 Christian Democrats, 40 Social Democrats, 7 Free Democrats, 5 Greens. The cabinet is headed by Bernhard Vogel (Christian Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important products: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet Wine (1,000 hectolitres)

Area (1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 1986 114-2 106-9 105-7 29-2 29-1 28-1 138-4 137-3 133-8 42-9 44-9 38-4 11-8 12-5 12-4 22-2 23-1 22-7 60-0

60-7

61-0

1984 683-0 141-5 633-2 170-6 351-8 1,179-4 5,668-7

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1985 1986 592-4 557-8 130-8 115-3 636-4 617-8 183-4 151-2 379-9 381-5 1,176-8 1,213-0 4,144-2

6,729-1

Livestock (3 Dec. 1986): Cattle, 604,300 (including 216,100 milch cows); horses, 19,900; sheep, 113,100; pigs, 639,300; poultry, 2,904,800. I N D U S T R Y . In Sept. 1986,2,606 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 371,426 persons; of these 73,772 were employed in chemical industry; 18,314 in production of leather goods and footwear; 49,718 in machine construction; 14,301 in processing stones and earthenware. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 1,558,900 at the census of April 1986. Of the total, 145,500 were self-employed, 47,400 unpaid family workers, 1,366,000 employees; 89,000 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 658,000 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 250,600 in commerce and transport, 561,300 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1987) 18,640 km of'classified' roads, including 766 km of autobahn, 3,218 km of federal roads, 6,978 km of first-class and 7,678 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 July 1987, was 2,078,662, including 1,738,639 passenger cars, 78,676 lorries, 5,034 buses, 146,712 tractors and 90,662 motorcycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (VerfassungsgerichtshoJ), 2 courts of appeal, 8 regional courts, 47 local courts, a Land labour court, 5 labour courts, a Land social court, 4 social courts, a finance court, a higher administrative court, 4 administrative courts. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 40-7% Protestants and 55-7% Roman Catholics. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986 there were 1,187 primary schools with 14,532 teachers and 223,504 pupils; 156 special schools with 2,725 teachers and 12,606 pupils; 108 intermediate schools with 3,180 teachers and 51,132 pupils; 137 high schools with 7,021 teachers and 98,917 pupils; 97 vocational schools with 118,533 pupils; 138 advanced vocational schools and institutions for the training of technicians (full-and part-time) with 6,943 pupils; 107 schools for public health occupations with 320 teachers and 6,799 pupils. In the winter term 1986-87 there were the University of Mainz (25,068 students), the University of Kaiserslautern (6,880 students), the University of Trier

554

F E D E R A L REPUBLIC OF G E R M A N Y

(7,100 students), the Hochschule für Verwaltungswissenschaften in Speyer (409 students), the Koblenz School of Corporate Management (Wissenschaftliche Hochschule für Unternchmensführnng in Koblenz) with 122 students, the Roman Catholic Theological College in Trier (277 students) and the Roman Catholic College in Vallendar (70 students). There were also the Teacher-Training College of the Land Rheinland-Pfalz (Erziehungswissenschaftliche Hochschule) with 2,620 students, the Fachhochschule des Landes Rheinland-Pfalz (college of engineering) with 15,476 students and 4 Verwaltungsfachhochschulen with 2,100 students; also 2 private colleges for social-pedagogy (865 students). Statistical Information: The Statistisches Landesamt Rheinland-Pfalz (Mainzer Str., 14-16, D5427 Bad Ems) was established in 1948. President: Dr Weis. Its publications include: Statistisches Jahrbuch fiir Rheinland-Pfalz (from 1948); Statistische Monatshefte RheinlandPfalz (from 1958); Statistik von Rheinland-Pfalz (from 1949) 324 vols, to date; RheinlandPfalz im Spiegel der Statistik (1968); Die kreisfreien Städte und Landkreise in RheinlandPfalz (1977); Rheinland-Pfalz heute (from 1973); Benutzerhandbuch des Landesinformationssystems (1976); Rheinland-Pfalz heute und morgen (Mainz, 1985); RaumordnungsLandesentwicklungsbericht 1985 der Landesregierung Rheinland-Pfalz (Mainz, 1985). programm 1980 (Mainz, 1980). KJöpper, R., and Korber, J., Rheinland-Pfalz in seiner Gliederung nach zentralörtlichen Bereichen. Remagen, 1957 Süsterhenn, A., and Schäfer, H., Verfassung von Rheinland-Pfalz: Kommentar. Koblenz, 1950

SAARLAND H I S T O R Y . In 1919 the Saar territory was placed under the control of the League of Nations. Following a plebiscite, the territory reverted to Germany in 1935. In 1945 the territory became part of the French Zone of occupation, and was in 1947 accorded an international status inside an economic union with France. In pursuance of the German-French agreement signed in Luxembourg on 27 Oct. 1956 the territory returned to Germany on 1 Jan. 1957. Its re-integration with Germany was completed by 5 July 1959. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Saarland has an area of2,568 sq. km. Estimated population, 31 Dec. 1986, 1,042,135 (495,918 males, 546,217 females). The capital is Saarbrücken. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 9,696 9,800 10,493

Marriages 7,095 6,964 7,214

Divorces 2,644 2,418 2,370

Deaths 12,387 12,765 12,912

C O N S T I T U T I O N . Saarland now ranks as a Land of the Federal German Republic and is represented in the Federal Diet by 8 members. The constitution passed on 15 Dec. 1947 is being revised. The Saar Diet, elected on 10 March 1985, is composed as follows: 26 Social Democrats, 20 Christian Democrats, 5 Free Democrats. Saarland is governed by Social Democrats in Parliament. Minister President: Oskar Lafontaine (Social Democrat). A G R I C U L T U R E A N D F O R E S T R Y . The cultivated area occupies 120,500 hectares or slightly more than half the total area; the forest area comprises nearly 33% ofthe total (256,804 hectares). Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1984 70 5-7 10-5 60 0-5

Area (1,000 hectares) 1985 1986 61 6-6 6-2 61 107 10-5 6-3 5-6 0-4 0-5

1984 369 250 470 24-0 11-2 0-3

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1985 32-2 25-9 470 27-0 13-7 0-2

1986 30-5 23-5 42-7 20-2 13-3

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

555

Livestock, Dec. 1986: Cattle, 70,137 (including 23,974 milch cows); pigs, 44,964; sheep, 13,264; horses, 3,746; poultry, 302,765. I N D U S T R Y . In June 1987, 583 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 134,430 persons; of these 23,505 were engaged in coalmining, 17,168 in iron and steel production, 12,204 in machine construction, 7,950 in steel construction. In 1986 the coalmines produced 10 -4m. tonnes of coal. Four iron foundries had 5 blast furnaces working and produced 3-7m. tonnes of pig-iron and 4 1 m . tonnes of crude steel. L A B O U R . The economically active persons totalled 406,300 at the 1%-sample survey of the microcensus of June 1985. Of the total, 34,300 were self-employed, 6,500 unpaid family workers, 365,500 employees; 8,100 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 180,500 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 76,400 in commerce and transport, 141,300 in other industries and services. R O A D S . At 1 Jan. 1986 there were 2,188 km of'classified' roads, including 222 km of autobahn, 421 km of federal roads, 762 km of first-class and 783 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1986, 542,835, including479,661 passenger cars, 21,258 lorries, 1,408 buses, 12,946 tractors and 22,861 motor cycles. J U S T I C E . There are a constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshoß, a court of appeal, a regional court, 11 local courts, a Land labour court, 3 labour courts, a Land social court, a social court, a finance court, a higher administrative court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) 73 -8% of the population were Roman Catholics and 24 1% were Protestants. E D U C A T I O N . In 1986-87 there were 330 primary schools with 3,870 teachers and 59,393 pupils; 51 special schools with 552 teachers and 3,348 pupils; 37 intermediate schools with 1,055 teachers and 13,516 pupils; 37 high schools with 2,004 teachers and 24,596 pupils; 8 Gesamtschulen (comprehensive high schools) with 225 teachers and 2,607 pupils; 2 Freie Waldorfschulen with 51 teachers and 651 pupils; 1 Abendhauptschule with 12 pupils; 4 Abendrealschulen with 229 pupils; 2 Abendgymnasien and 1 Saarland-Kolleg with 20 teachers and 372 pupils; 42 parttime vocational schools with 31,967 pupils; year of commercial basic training: 90 institutions with 3,673 pupils; 22 advanced full-time vocational schools and schools for technicians with 3,018 pupils; 52 full-time vocational schools with 5,716 students; 13 vocational extension schools with 630 pupils; 26 Fachoberschulen (full-time vocational schools leading up to vocational colleges) with 2,819 pupils; 43 schools for public health occupations with 2,373 pupils. The number of pupils visiting the vocational schools amounts to 50,196. They are instructed by 1,818 teachers. In the winter term 1986-87 there was the University of the Saarland with 17,488 students; 1 music-conservatory with 306 students; 1 vocational college (economics, engineering and design) with 2,837 students; 1 vocational college for social affairs with 215 students; 1 vocational college for public administration with 228 students. Statistical Information: The Statistisches Amt des Saarlandes (Hardenbergstrasse 3, D6600 Saarbrücken 1) was established on 1 April 1938. As from 1 June 1935, it was an independent agency; its predecessor, 1920-35, was the Statistical Office of the Government Commission of the Saar. Chief: Direktor Josef Mailänder. The most important publications are: Statistisches Handbuch für das Saarland, from 1950.—Statistisches Taschenbuch für das Saarland, from 1959.—Saarländische Bevölkerungs-und Wirtschaftszahlen. Quarterly, from 1949. —Saarland in Zahlen (special issues).—Einzelschriften zur Statistik des Saarlandes, from 1950—Statistische Nachrichten, from 1981. Fischer, P., Die Saar zwischen Deutschland und Frankreich. Frankfurt, 1959 Osang, R.M., Saarland ABC. Saarbrücken, 1975 Schmidt, R. H., Saarpolitik 1945-57. 3 vols. Berlin, 1959-62

556

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Schleswig-Holstein is 15,728 sq. km; it is divided into 4 urban and 11 rural districts and 1,131 communes. The capital is Kiel. The population (estimate, 31 Dec. 1986) numbered 2,612,672 (1,265,399 males, 1,347,273 females). Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Live births 22,958 23,099 24,693

Marriages 15,045 15,042 15,631

Divorces 6,231 5,803 5,290

Deaths 30,778 31,330 30,979

G O V E R N M E N T . The elections of 13 Sept. 1987 gave the Christian Democrats 33, the Social Democratic Party 36, the Free Democratic Party 4 and the South Schleswig Association 1 seat. A G R I C U L T U R E . Area and yield of the most important crops: Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

1984 152-1 52-2 143-2 22-9 5-1 18-8

Area (1,000 hectares) 1985 1986 145-8 154-6 500 48-0 142-8 139-6 32-0 24-4 4-5 4-1 17-2 17 3

1984 1,112-1 226-4 865-1 113-6 187-2 831-1

Yield (1,000 tonnes) 1986 1985 1,081-8 1,230-0 213-8 221-8 726-9 149-3 164-0 132-6 177-6 151-8 775-6 768-9

Livestock, 3 Dec. 1986: 33,134 horses, 1,539,913 cattle (including 514,397 milch cows), 1,718,253 pigs, 183,844 sheep, 3,213,920 poultry. F I S H E R I E S . In 1986 the yield of small-scale deep-sea and inshore fisheries was 54,706 tonnes valued at DM63 -4m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 (average), 1,539 establishments (with 20 and more employees) employed 166,833 persons; of these, 11,454 were employed in shipbuilding (except naval engineering); 32,040 in machine construction; 22,281 in food and kindred industry; 17,193 in electrical engineering. LABOUR. The economically active persons totalled 1,146,400 in 1985. Of the total, 102,300 were self-employed, 24,200 unpaid family workers, 1,019,900 employees; 59,800 were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 350,600 in power supply, mining, manufacturing and building, 243,900 in commerce and transport, 492,100 in other industries and services. R O A D S . There were (1 Jan. 1987) 9,787-1 km of'classified' roads, including 384-8 km of autobahn, 1,931-6 km of federal roads, 3,536-5 km of first-class and 3,934-2 km of second-class highways. Number of motor vehicles, 1 Jan. 1987, was 1,297,674, including 1,114,645 passenger cars, 52,972 lorries, 2,801 buses, 73,435 tractors, 38,943 motorcycles. S H I P P I N G . The Kiel Canal, 98-7 km (51 miles) long, is on Schleswig-Holstein territory. In 1938, 53,530 vessels of 22-6m. net tons passed through it; in 1981, 52,641 vessels of 53-3m. net tons; in 1982, 49,100 vessels of 52-7m. net tons; in 1983,49,320 vessels of 50-9m. net tons; in 1984,50,920 vessels of 53m. net tons; in 1985,48,387 vessels of 53 -5m. net tons; in 1986,46,543 vessels of 47 • 5m. net tons. J U S T I C E . There are a court of appeal, 4 regional courts, 30 local courts, a Land labour court, 6 labour courts, a Land social court, 4 social courts, a finance court, an administrative court. R E L I G I O N . On 27 May 1970 (census) there were 86-5% Protestants and 6% Roman Catholics.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

557

E D U C A T I O N . In 1986-87 there were 691 primary schools with 5,434 teachers and 140,688 pupils; 167 special schools with 1,454 teachers and 13,634 pupils; 175 intermediate schools with 2,801 teachers and 58,563 pupils; 99 high schools with 4,153 teachers and 71,134 pupils; 6 Integrierte Gesamtschulen (comprehensive schools) with 260 teachers and 4,412 pupils; 42 part-time vocational schools with 1,563 teachers and 92,870 pupils; 142 full-time vocational schools with 469 teachers and 11,603 pupils; 56 advanced vocational schools with 278 teachers and 5,242 pupils; 59 schools for public health occupations with 4,219 pupils; 50 vocational grammar schools with 354 teachers and 6,081 pupils; 6 Fachhochschulen (vocational colleges) with 10,860 pupils in the summer term 1987. In the summer term 1987 the University of Kiel had 16,422 students, 2 teachertraining colleges had 1,827 students, 1 music college had 320 students, 1 Medizinische University in Lübeck had 1,047 students and 1 Nordische University in Fiensburg had 31 students. Statistical Information: Statistisches Landesamt Schleswig-Holstein (Fröbel Str. 15-17, D2300 Kiel 1). Director: Dr Mohr. Publications: Statistisches Taschenbuch SchleswigHolstein, since 1954.—Statistisches Jahrbuch Schleswig-Holstein, since 1951.—Statistische Monatshefte Schleswig-Holstein, since 1949.—Statistische Berichte, since 1947.—Beitrage zur historischen Statistik Schleswig-Holstein, since 1967.—Lange Reihen, since 1977. Baxter, R. R., The Law of International Waterways. Harvard Univ. Press, 1964 Brandt, O., Grundriss der Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins. 5th ed. Kiel, 1957 Handbuchfür Schleswig-Holstein. 22nded. Kiel, 1984 State Library: Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesbibliothek, Kiel, Schloss. Director: Prof. Dr Dieter Lohmeier.

GHANA

Capital: Accra Population: 12 -21 m. (1984) GNP per capita: US$390 (1986)

H I S T O R Y . The State of Ghana came into existence on 6 March 1957 when the former Colony of the Gold Coast and the Trusteeship Territory of Togoland attained Dominion status. The name of the country recalls a powerful monarchy which from the 4th to the 13th century A.D. ruled the region of the middle Niger. The G h a n a Independence Act received the royal assent on 7 Feb. 1957. The General Assembly of the United Nations in Dec. 1956 approved the termination of British administration in Togoland and the union of Togoland with the Gold Coast on the latter's attainment of independence. The country was declared a Republic within the Commonwealth on 1 July 1960 with Dr Kwame Nkrumah as the first President. On 24 Feb. 1966 the Nkrumah regime was overthrown in a military coup and ruled by the National Liberation Council until 1 Oct. 1969 when the military regime handed over power to a civilian regime under a new constitution. D r K. A. Busia was the Prime Minister of the Second Republic. On 13 Jan. 1972 the armed forces and police took over power again from the civilian regime in a coup. In Oct. 1975 the National Redemption Council was subordinated to a Supreme Military Council (SMC). In 1979 the SMC was toppled in a coup led by FlightLieut. J. J. Rawlings. The new government permitted elections already scheduled and these resulted in a victory for Dr Hilla Limann and his People's National Party. However on 31 Dec. 1981 another coup led by Flight-Lieut. Rawlings dismissed the government and Parliament, suspended the Constitution and established a Provisional National Defence Council to exercise all government powers. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . G h a n a is bounded west by the Cote d'lvoire, north by Burkina Faso, east by Togo and south by the Gulf of Guinea. The area of Ghana is 92,010 sq. miles(238,305 sq. km); census population 1984,12,205,574. Ghana is divided into 10 regions: Area Regions (sq. km) Eastern 19,977 Western 23,921 Central 9,826 24,390 Ashanti Brong-Ahafo 39,557 Northern 70,383 Volta 20,572 Upper East 8,842 Upper West 18,477 Greater Accra 2,593

Population census 1984 1,679,483 1,116,930 1,145,520 2,089,683 1,179,409 1,162,645 1,201,095 771,584 439,161 1,420,066 ' Census 1984.

Capital Koforidua Sekondi-Takoradi Cape Coast Kumasi Sunyani Tamale Ho Bolgatanga Wa Accra

Population census 1970 69,804 254,543 71,594 348,880 1 61,772 136,828 1 46,348 18,896 964,879 '

The capital is Accra, other chief towns (population, census, 1970); Asamankese, 101,144; Tema, 99,608 (1984); Nsawam, 57,350; Tarkwa, 50,570; Oda, 40,740; Obuasi, 40,001; Winneba, 36,104; Keta, 27,461; Agona Swedru, 23,843. Estimated birth rate, between 47 and 52 per 1,000; death rate, about 23 per 1,000. In the south and centre of Ghana, the people are of the Kwa ethno-linguistic group, mainly Akan (Ashanti, Fante, etc.), Ewe (in the Volta region) and Ga, while the 20% living in the north belong to G u r peoples (Dagbane, G u r m a and Grusi). C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from the equatorial type on the coast to savannah in the north and is typified by the existence of well-marked dry and wet seasons. 558

GHANA

559

Temperatures are relatively high throughout the year. The amount, duration and seasonal distribution of rain is very marked, from the south, with over 80" (2,000 mm) to the north, with under 50" (1,250 mm). In the extreme north, the wet season is from March to Aug., but further south it lasts until Oct. Near Kumasi, two wet seasons occur, in May and June and again in Oct. and this is repeated, with greater amounts, along the coast of Ghana. Accra. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 29" (724 mm). Kumasi. Jan. 77"F (25°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 58" (1,402 mm). Sekondi-Takoradi. Jan. 79°F (25°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 47" (1,181 mm). Tamale. Jan. 82°F(27-8 298,028 556,810 29,162 585,972 4,160 531,899 1985 1 295,990 545,027 30,468 575,495 3,833 544,811 1986' 296,539 523,801 31,044 554,845 3,658 542,127 1 Provisional. Emigrants to non-European countries, by sea and air: 1 9 7 8 , 2 3 , 5 8 9 ; 1979,21,302; 1980, 20,360; 1981, 20,628; 1982, 22,324; 1983, 20,443; 1984, 16,776; 1985, 16,151. Since 1960 nearly nine-tenths of these emigrants have gone to Canada, U S A and Australia. Communes of more than 100,000 inhabitants, with population resident at the census of 25 Oct. 1981 and on 31 Dec. 1986: 1986 1981 1986 1981 146,713 Perugia 142,348 Roma (Rome) 2,840,259 2,815,457 Ravenna 138,034 136,016 1,495,260 Milano (Milan) 1,604,773 1,204,211 Pescara 131,330 131,027 Napoli (Naples) 1,212,387 130,086 Torino (Turin) 1,117,154 1,035,565 130,376 Reggio nell'E. 130,698 127,813 Genova (Genoa) 762,895 727,427 Rimini 123,145 122,064 723,732 Palermo 701,782 Monza 432,406 122,142 118,959 Bologna 459,080 Bergamo 120,152 448,331 425,835 119,596 Firenze (Florence) Sassari 122,857 117,615 380,328 372,486 Siracusa (Syracuse) Catania 115,392 108,937 362,524 371,022 La Spezia Bari 331,454 114,598 110,449 346,146 Vicenza Venezia (Venice) 111,157 265,932 259,151 111,564 Verona Terni 110,482 110,806 260,233 268,896 Forli Messina 109,039 105,626 239,031 252,369 Trieste Piacenza 244,997 106,801 106,026 244,101 Taranto Cosenza 104,409 234,678 225,769 106,498 Padova(Padua) Ancona 101,515 105,180 233,848 222,574 Cagliari Bolzano 104,509 104,384 199,286 206,661 Pisa Brescia 176,880 103,605 105,066 180,312 Torre del Greco Modena 102,742 179,019 175,842 102,086 Parma Novara 100,211 102,021 175,741 174,065 Udine Livorno (Leghorn) 100,832 102,558 178,821 173,486 Reggio di C. Catanzaro 164,595 100,523 160,220 Prato Alessandria 157,385 154,848 99,179 100,202 Salerno Trento 91,289 156,467 159,051 100,981 Lecce 143,950 149,453 Ferrara C L I M A T E . The climate varies considerably with latitude. In the south, it is warm temperate, with little rain in the summer months, but the north is cool temperate with rainfall more evenly distributed over the year. Florence, Jan. 42°F (5-6°C), July 76°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 3 6 " (901 mm). Milan, Jan. 35°F (2'C), July 75°F (24°C). Annual rainfall 3 2 " (802 mm). Naples, Jan. 48°F (8-9°C), July 77°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 4 " (850 mm). Palermo, Jan. 52°F (11 • 1 °C), July 79° F (26 • 1 °C). Annual rainfall 2 8 " (702 mm). Rome, Jan. 44-5°F (7°C), July 77°F (25"C). Annual rainfall 2 6 " (657 mm). Venice, Jan. 38°F (3-3°C), July 75°F(23-9°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (725 mm).

734

ITALY

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The new Constitution was passed by the constituent assembly by 453 votes to 62 on 22 Dec. 1947; it came into force on 1 Jan. 1948. The Constitution consists of 139 articles and 18 transitional clauses. Its main dispositions are as follows: Italy is described as 'a democratic republic founded on work'. Parliament consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The Chamber is elected for 5 years by universal and direct suffrage and it consists of 630 deputies. The Senate is elected for 5 years on a regional basis; each Region having at least 7 senators, consisting of 315 elected senators; the Valle d'Aosta is represented by 1 senator only. The President of the Republic can nominate 5 senators for life from eminent men in the social, scientific, artistic and literary spheres. On the expiry of his term of office, the President of the Republic becomes a senator by right and for life, unless he declines. The President of the Republic is elected in a joint session of Chamber and Senate, to which are added 3 delegates from each Regional Council (1 from the Valle d'Aosta). A two-thirds majority is required for the election, but after a third indecisive scrutiny the absolute majority of votes is sufficient. The President must be 50 years or over; his term lasts for 7 years. The President of the Senate acts as his deputy. The President can dissolve the chambers of parliament, except during the last 6 months of his term of office. The Cabinet can be forced to resign only on a motivated motion of censure; the defeat of a government bill does not involve the resignation of the Government. A Constitutional Court, consisting of 15 judges who are appointed, 5 each, by the President of the Republic, Parliament (in joint session) and the highest law and administrative courts, has rights similar to those of the Supreme Court of the USA. It can decide on the constitutionality of laws and decrees, define the powers of the State and Regions, judge conflicts between the State and Regions and between the Regions, and try the President of the Republic and the Ministers. The court was set up in Dec. 1955. The reorganization of the Fascist Party is forbidden. Direct male descendants of King Victor Emmanuel are excluded from all public offices, have no right to vote or to be elected, and are banned from Italian territory; their estates are forfeit to the State. Titles of nobility are no longer recognized, but those existing before 28 Oct. 1922 are retained as part of the name. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, red. National anthem: Fratelli d'ltalia (words by G. Mameli; tune by M. Novaro, 1847). Head ofState: On 3 July 1985 Chamber and Senate in joint session elected by an absolute majority (752 votes out of 977 votes cast) Francesco Cossiga (Christian Democrat; born 1928), President of the Republic. Former Presidents of the Republic: Luigi Einaudi (1948-55); Giovanni Gronchi (1955-62); Antonio Segni (1962-64); Giuseppe Saragat (1964-71); Giovanni Leone (1971-78); Alessandro Pertini (1978-85). General elections for the Senate and Chamber of Deputies took place on 14 June 1987. Senate. Christian Democrats, 125; Communists, 101; Socialists, 36; Italian Social Movement, 16; Social Democrats, 5; Republicans, 8; Liberals, 3; other groups, 21. Total: 315. Chamber. Christian Democrats, 234; Communists, 177; Socialists, 94; Italian Social Movement, 35; Republicans, 21; Social Democrats, 17; Liberals, 11; Radical Party, 13; Green Party, 13; other groups, 15. Total: 630. The coalition government was composed as follows in Jan. 1988. Prime Minister and Southern Affairs (ad interim): Giovanni Goria (DC). Vice Prime Minister and Treasury: Giuliano Amato (PSI). Foreign Affairs: Giulio Andreotti (DC). Interior: Amintore Fanfani (DC). Justice: Giuliano Vassalli (PSI).

ITALY

735

Budget: Emilio Colombo (DC). Finance: Antonio Gava (DC). Defence: Valerio Zanone (PLI). Education: Giovanni Galloni (DC). Public Works: Emilio De Rose (PSDI). Agriculture: Filippo Pandolfi (DC). Transport: Calogero Mannino (DC). Post: Oscar Mammi (PRI). Industry: Adolfo Battaglia (PRI). Labour: Rino Formica (PSDI). Foreign Trade: Renato Ruggera (PSI). Merchant Navy: Giovanni Prandini (DC). State Industry: Luigi Granelli (DC). Health: Carlo Donat Cattin (DC). Tourism: Franco Carraro (PSI). Culture: Carlo Vizzini (PSDI). EEC Affairs: Antonio La Pergola (PSDI/PSI). Public Administration: Giorgio Santuz (DC). Scientific Research: Antonio Ruberti (PSI). Regional Affairs: Aristide Gunnella (PRI). Relations with Parliament: Sergio Mattarella (DC). Civil Protection: Remo Gaspari (DC). Ecology: Giorgio Ruffolo (PSI). Urban Problems: Carlo Tognoli (PSI). Special Affairs: Rosa Russo Jervolino (DC). Regional Administration. Italy is administratively divided into regions (regioni), provinces (province) and municipalities (comuni). Art. 116 of the 1948 constitution provided for the establishment of 5 autonomous regions with special statute (regioni autonome con statuto speciale) and 15 autonomous regions with ordinary statute (regioni autonome con statuto normale). The regions have their own parliaments (consiglio regionale) and governments (giunta regionale e presidente) with certain legislative and administrative functions adapted to the circumstances of each region. A government commissioner co-ordinates regional and national activities. The results of the last regional elections were as follows:

Regions Piemonte Valle d'Aosta 1 Lombardia Trentino-Alto Adige 1 Veneto Friuli-Venezia Giulia ' Liguria Emilia-Romagna Toscana Umbria Marche Lazio Abruzzi Molise Campania Puglia Basilicata Calabria Sicilia 1 Sardegna 1 1

Christian ComSocial Social Election Demo mun- Social- Move- Demo- Repub- Libdale ists ists ment erals licans erais Others crats 12 May 1985 19 18 3 3 3 3 8 3 26 June 1983 7 6 3 1 1 1 1 15 4 12 May 1985 31 22 12 4 2 4 1

Total 60 35 80

20 Nov. 1983 12 May 1985

19 30

6 12

4 8

3 2

1 1

3 2

1 1

33 4

70 60

26 June 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 22 June 24 June

23 13 13 14 9 15 21 19 18 24 20 14 16 36 27

14 15 26 25 14 15 18 11 5 14 13 7 10 14 24

7 4 4 5 4 4 7 5 3 9 8 5 8 13 8

3 2 2 2 2 2 6 2 1 5 5 1 2 8 3

3 1 1 1

3 2 2 1 1 1

1 1 1

8 2 1 2

62 40 50 50 30 40 60 40 30 60 50 30 40 90 81

1983 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1985 1986 1984

Autonomous regions with special statute.

-

1 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 4 4

1 1 1 1 1 5 3

-

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 3 -

2

-

3 -

! 7 12

736

ITALY

D E F E N C E . Most of the restrictions imposed upon Italy in Part IV of the peace treaty signed on 10 Feb. 1947 were repudiated by the signatories on 21 Dec. 1951, only the USSR objecting. Head of the armed forces is the Defence Chief of Staff. In 1947 the ministries of war, navy and air were merged into the ministry of defence. The technical and scientific council for defence directs all research activities. National service lasts 12 months in the Army and Air Force, and 18 months in the Navy. Army. The Army consists of 3 corps, one of which is alpine and others include mechanized, armoured and support brigades. In peninsular defence there are 2 independent motorized brigades. In addition there is a rapid intervention force, 2 amphibious battalions and a support brigade with missiles. Equipment includes 500 M-47, 300 M-60A1 and 920 Leopard I main battle tanks. The Army air corps operates 100 light aircraft and 330 helicopters. Strength (1988) 265,000 (215,000 conscripts), with 520,000 reserves. There is also the paramilitary Carabinieri of 90,000 men. Navy. Particulars of the principal surface ships in the Italian Navy: Completed

Standard displacement Tons

Name

Aircraft

Principal armament

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

6 A/S

80,000

30

73,000

32

60,000

31

Light Aircraft

1985

Giuseppe Garibaldi (fitted with 6-5" VSTOL launching ramp)

10,100

Carrier 4 Teseo 2 launchers for Otomat; 16 Sea King 2 Albatross helicopters systems with octuple Aspide missiles (48)

Torpedo tubes

Cruisers 8 3-in.; 4 Teseo 1969

1964 1964

Vittorio Veneto (fitted as aircraft carrier aft) Andrea D o r i a 1 Caio Duilio 1

7,500

9 helicopters missile launcher

1 J

6,000 1

4 helicopters

8 3-in.;twin 'Terrier' missile launcher

Rated as guided-missile escort cruisers.

There are also 10 diesel-powered submarines, 4 guided-missile destroyers, 16 frigates, 8 corvettes, 4 ocean minesweepers, 15 minehunters, 10 coastal minesweepers, 7 hydrofoil missile boats, 1 dock landing ship, 2 tank landing ships, 3 surveying vessels, 2 salvage ships, 1 transport, 1 support ship, 5 training ships, 2 replenishment oilers, 14 water carriers, 1 netlayer, 6 repair craft, 20 auxiliaries, 5 coastal transports (landing craft), 5 motor transports (minor landing craft), 6 harbour oilers and 60 tugs. The Naval Air Arm has 100 anti-submarine and training helicopters. One submarine, 1 dock landing ship and 4 corvettes are under construction. Two destroyers, 8 corvettes and 8 minehunters are projected. The coastline of the peninsula is divided into zones, with headquarters at Spezia, Naples, Taranto and Ancona; all are under the jurisdiction of flag officers with the status of C.-in-C. The admirals commanding on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily do not rank as C.-in-C. Other localities of strategic importance under naval administration are Brindisi,

ITALY

737

where there is an admiral commanding, and Genoa, Leghorn, Augusta and Venice, each of which is under a senior naval officer. The personnel of the Navy in 1988 numbered 44,500 officers and ratings, including the naval air arm and the marine battalion. Air Force. Control is exercised through 2 regional HQ near Taranto and Milan. Units assigned to NATO comprise the 1st air brigade of Nike-Hercules surface-toair missiles, 4 fighter-bomber, 3 light attack, 9 interceptor and 2 tactical reconnaissance squadrons, with supporting transport, search and rescue, and training units. Two of the fighter-bomber squadrons have Tornados, others have Aeritalia G91Ys. The light attack squadrons operate G91Rs and MB.339s. F-104S Starfighters have been standardized throughout the interceptor squadrons. The reconnaissance force operates RF-104G Starfighters. A total of 187 AM-X jet aircraft, built jointly by Aeritalia, Aermacchi and Embraer of Brazil, will replace G91R, G91Y and F-104G/S aircraft in eight squadrons in 1988-90. One transport squadron has turboprop C-130H Hercules aircraft; 2 others have turboprop Aeritalia G222s. There is a VIP and personnel transport squadron, equipped with AS-61, DC-9, Gulfstream III and Falcon 50 aircraft. Electronic warfare duties are performed by specially equipped G222s, PD-808s and MB 339s. Two land-based anti-submarine squadrons operate Breguet Atlantics. Search and rescue are performed by 20 Agusta-Sikorsky HH-3F helicopters, Canadair CL-215 amphibians and smaller types. There are also strong support and training elements; some MB 339 jet trainers have armament provisions for secondary close air support and anti-helicopter roles. Air Force strength in mid-1987 was about 73,000 officers and men, about 300 combat aircraft, 300 fixed-wing second-line aircraft and over 100 helicopters. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Italy is a member of UN, NATO and the European Communities. ECONOMY

Budget. Total revenue and expenditure for fiscal years, in 1 m. lire: 1981 1982 1983

Revenue 105,343,000 150,842,000 177,142,000

Expenditure 149,246,000 206,444,000 250,203,000

1984 1985 1986

Revenue 199,986,000 218,973,000 266,301,009

Expenditure 292,348,000 319,099,000 384,344,429

In the revenue for 1986 turnover and other business taxes accounted for 60,017,295m. lire, customs duties and indirect taxes for 21,615,563m. lire. The public debt at 31 Dec. 1985 totalled 585,899,796m. lire, including consolidated debt of 42,090m. lire and the floating debt261,548,138m. lire. Currency. The standard coin is the lira. From 30 March 1960 the gold standard was formally established as equal to 0 00142187 gramme ofgold per lira. State metal coins are of 5,10,20,50,100,200, and 500 lire. There are in circulation bank-notes of 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 lire; they are neither convertible into gold as foreign moneys nor exportable abroad, nor importable from abroad into Italy (except for certain specified small amounts). Circulation of money at 31 Dec. 1986: State coins and notes, 1,074,600m. lire; bank-notes, 50,499,800m. lire. In March 1988 the rate of exchange was 1,244 lire per US$1 and 2,207 lire per£l sterling. Banking. According to the law of 6 May 1926 there is only one bank of issue, the Banca a'ltalia. Its gold reserve amounted to 35,203,000m. lire in Dec. 1986; the foreign credit reserves of the Exchange Bureau ( U f f i c i o Italiano Cambi) amounted to 18,495,000m. lire at the same date. Since 1936, all credit institutions have been under the control of a State organ, named 'Inspectorate of Credit'; the Bank of Italy has been converted into a 'public institution', whose capital is held exclusively by corporate bodies of a public

738

ITALY

nature. Other credit institutions, totalling 1,102, are classified as: (1) 6 chartered banks (Banco di Napoli, Banco di Sicilia, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, Monte dei Paschi di Siena, Istituto di S. Paolo di Torino, Banca di Sardegna); (2) 3 banks of national interest (Banca Commerciale Italiana in Milan, Credito Italiano in Genoa and Banco di Roma); (3) banks and credit concerns in general, including 153 jointstock banks and 135 co-operative banks; (4) 87 savings banks and Monti di pegno (institutions granting loans against personal chattels as security); (5) 713 Casse rurali e agrarie (agricultural banks, established as co-operative institutions with unlimited liability of associates); (6) 5 Istituti di Categoria. At 31 Dec. 1986 there were 285 credit institutes handling 95% of all deposits and current accounts, with capital and reserves of51,585,000m. lire. On 31 Dec. 1986 the post office savings banks had deposits and current accounts of86,851,000m. lire; credit institutions, 499,948,000m. lire. Insurance. By a decree of 29 April 1923 life-assurance business is carried on only by the National Insurance Institute and by other institutions, national and foreign, authorized by the Government. At 31 Dec. 1985 the insurances vested in the Istituto Nazionale delle Assicurazioni amounted to 14,189,386m. lire, including the decuple of life annuities. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Italy has greatly developed her water-power resources. In 1986 the total power generated was 189,570m. kwh., of which 44,531 m. kwh. were generated by hydro-electric plants. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz and 120,125,160 and 260 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Production in 1986 amounted to 2,510,564 tonnes, of which 837,827 came from Sicily. Natural gas production (1986) 558,000m. cu. ft. Minerals. The Italian mining industry is most developed in Sicily (Caltanissetta), in Tuscany (Arezzo, Florence and Grosseto), in Sardinia (Cagliari, Sassari and Iglesias), in Lombardy (particularly near Bergamo and Brescia) and in Piedmont. Italy's fuel and mineral resources are wholly inadequate. Only sulphur and mercury outputs yield a substantial surplus for exports. In 1986 outputs, in tonnes, of raw steel were 22,881,951; rolled iron, 20,096,897; cast-iron ingots, 11,837,020. Production of metals and minerals (in tonnes) was as follows: Iron pyrites Iron ore Manganese Zinc Crude sulphur Bauxite Mercury Lead Aluminium

1981 680,988 345,604 8,756 82,094 96,172 19,000 20,017 35,556 273,845

1982 666,964 195,034 8,727 74,142 88,848 23,810 17,163 36,360 232,861

1983 646,209 67,700 7,205 83,462 40,858 3,118

1984 442,674 273,700 9,528 81,291 20,639 -

-

-

-

-

-

37,558 230,207

37,051 226,300

27,219 262,562

37,429 195,694

1985 690,395 -

8,621 87,380 4,911

1986 760,860 -

6,336 50,515

_

2,250

Agriculture. The area of Italy in 1986 comprised 301,277 sq. km, of which 262,975 sq. km was agricultural and forest land and 38,302 sq. km was unproductive; the former was mainly distributed as follows (in 1,000 hectares): Forage and pasture, 8,205; woods, 6,727; cereals, 4,832; vines, 1,099; olive trees, 1,177; garden produce, 519; leguminous plants, 270. At the third general census of agriculture (24 Oct. 1982) agricultural holdings numbered 3,270,560 and covered 23,559,924 hectares. 3,063,010 owners (93-6%) farmed directly 16,597,798 hectares (70-4%); 152,250 owners (4-7%) worked with hired labour on 6,209,702 hectares (26-4%); 130,648 share-croppers (3-6%) tilled 1,271,485 hectares (5-1%); the remaining 55,300 holdings (1-7%) of 752,424 hectares (3-2%) were operated in other ways. According to the labour force survey in July 1978 persons engaged in agriculture numbered 3 • 17m. (2 02m. males and 115m. females).

ITALY

739

In 1985,1,227,134 farm tractors were being used. The production of the principal crops (in 1,000 metric quintals) in 1986: Sugar beet, 149,578; wheat, 90,698; maize, 62,471; tomatoes, 45,156; potatoes, 25,511; oranges, 22,175; rice, 10,851; barley, 15,482; lemons, 8,132; oats, 3,973; olive oil, 3,563; tangerines, 5,318; other citrus fruit, 510; rye, 221. Production of wine, 1986,76,987,000 hectolitres; oftobacco, 156,100 tonnes. In 1985 consumption of chemical fertilizers in Italy was as follows (in 1,000 tons): Perphosphate, 722; nitrate of ammonia, 838-1; sulphate of ammonium, 352-6; potash salts, 131-3; nitrate of calcium 15 /i 6,8 7 • 6; deposed slags, 3 8 • 3. Livestock estimated in 1986: Cattle, 8,921,000; pigs, 9,278,000; sheep, 11,451,000; goats, 1,201,000; horses, 253,000; donkeys, 91,000; mules, 52,000. Fisheries. The Italian fishing fleet comprised in 1982, 23,385 motor boats (323,512 gross tons) and 11,694 sailing vessels (14,612 gross tons). The catch in 1984 was 428,691 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main branches of industry are: (% of industrial value added at factor cost in 1982) Textiles, clothing, leather and footwear (17-7%), food, beverages and tobacco (10-4%), energy products (7-9%), agricultural and industrial machines (7 -7%), metal products except machines and means of transport (7%), mineral and non-metallic mineral products (7%), timber and wooden furniture (6 -6%), electric plants and equipment (6-3%), chemicals and pharmaceuticals (6 -2%), means of transport (6-1%). Production, 1986: Steel, 22,695,400; motor vehicles, 1,831,827; cement, 35,938,446 tonnes; artificial and synthetic fibres (including staple fibre and waste), 699,255 tonnes; polyethylene resins, 683,840 tonnes. Labour. As at April 1982, 20-1m. persons were employed, l - 9 m . unemployed (figures from a new series of statistics on the labour force, 1977, which is not comparable with previous series). Trade Unions. There are 4 main groups: Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro (Communist-dominated); Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori (Catholic); Unione Italiana del Lavoro and Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Nazionali Lavoratori. Commerce. The territory covered by foreign trade statistics includes Italy, the Republic of San Marino, but excludes the municipalities of Livigno and Campione. The following table shows the value of Italy's foreign trade (in 1 m. lire): Imports Exports

1981 1982 1983 1984 103,674,405 116,215,679 121,978,334 148,162,029 86,039,719 99,230,877 110,530,106 129,026,980

1985 172,809,202 149,723,608

1986 149,044,966 145,322,982

The following table shows trade by countries in 1 m. lire: Countries Argentina Australia Austria Belgium-Luxembourg France Germany, Fed. Rep. of Japan Netherlands Switzerland USSR UK USA Yugoslavia

Imports into Italyfrom 1984 1985 1986 775,711 951,177 530,848 990,700 1,079,687 905,868 2,698,224 3,084,146 3,187,843 5,464,553 6,412,172 6,919,195 18,436,260 21,546,182 21,705,037 23,665,941 28,742,482 30,467,639 2,371,574 2,827,485 3,119,697 7,246,042 8,795,999 8,771,113 6,099,618 6,666,741 6,484,644 7,096,887 5,692,204 3,464,130 6,384,263 8,540,121 7,606,296 9,110,937 10,294,233 8,473,707 1,934,286 2,194,954 2,006,592

Exports from Italy to 1984 1985 1986 419,735 428,378 454,044 1,124,992 1,473,117 1,049,510 2,912,338 3,293,871 3,447,341 3,732,440 4,442,557 4,842,643 18,078,148 21,003,252 22,703,882 20,781,721 24,172,063 26,354,658 1,481,441 1,765,431 1,965,898 3,708,591 4,630,021 4,755,345 5,245,889 6,070,302 6,608,396 2,786,132 2,913,927 2,412,583 8,715,611 10,423,757 10,298,190 14,045,308 18,356,745 15,604,124 1,702,205 2,262,840 2,013,352

In 1986 the main imports were maize, wood, greasy wool, metal scrap, pit-coal, petroleum, raw oils, meat, paper, rolled iron and steel, copper and alloys, mechanical and electric equipment, motor vehicles. The main exports were fruit and

740

ITALY

vegetables, fabrics, footwear and other clothing articles, rolled iron and steel, machinery, motor vehicles, plastic materials and petroleum by-products. Italy's balance of trade (in 1,000m. lire) has been estimated as follows:

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Export 83,815 107,251 123,757 138,894 163,867 183,406 179,242

Goods and services Import Balance 94,316 -10,501 116,240 -8,989 129,859 -6,102 134,247 +4,647 165,930 -2,063 186,955 -3,549 164,986 +14,256

Income from investments and work, balance +669 -2,323 -3,622 -4,196 -4,736 -5,360 -5,002

Net balance -9,832 -11,312 -9,724 +451 -6,799 -8,909 +9,254

Remittances from Italians abroad (in US$ 1 m. until 1969 and then 1,000m. lire): 1950, 72; 1960, 214; 1970, 289; 1980, 1,059; 1981, 1,325; 1982, 1,607; 1983, 1,727; 1984,1,963; 1985,2,226; 1986,1,792. Total trade between Italy and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m } j m ] m j m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

3,188,219 3,814,163 4,293,941 4,658,036 5,216,751 2,292,788 2,902,666 3,466,495 3,472,364 4,145,659

Tourism. In 1986, 53-3m. foreigners visited Italy; they included 9-6m. German, 11-3m. Swiss, 8-6m. French, 5-4m. Austrian, 3-9m. Yugoslav, 2m. British, 1 • 7m. Dutch and 1 • 6m. US citizens. They spent about 14,691,006m. lire. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Italy's roads totalled (31 Dec. 1986) 300,292 km, of which 45,779 km were state roads, 106,850 km provincial roads, 141,666 km communal roads. Motor vehicles, Dec. 1984: Cars, 20-9m.; buses, 71,981; lorries, 1,720,445; motorcycles, light vans, etc., 5,552,717. Railways. Railway history in Italy begins in 1839, with a line between Naples and Portici (8 km). Length of railways (31 Dec. 1986), 19,726 km, including 16,166 km of state railways, of which 7,231 had not yet been electrified. The first section of a new high-speed direct railway linking Rome and Florence opened in Feb. 1977. In 1986 the state railways earned 397-lm. passengers and 52-6m. tonnes of goods. The Rome Underground opened in Feb. 1980. Aviation. The Italian airline Alitalia (with a capital of 421,900m. lire, of which 99 -1% is owned by the State) operates flights to every part of the world. Airports include 25 international, 36 national and 75 club airports. Domestic and international traffic in 1986 registered 16,838,339 passengers arrived and 16,858,787 departed, while freight and mail (excluding luggage) amounted to 190,133 tonnes unloaded and 242,799 tonnes loaded. Shipping. The mercantile marine at 31 Dec. 1985 consisted of 2,045 vessels of 8,003,394 gross tons, not including pleasure boats (yachts, etc.), sailing and motor vessels. There were 1,344 motor vessels of 100 gross tons and over. In 1985, 249,021,570 tonnes of cargo were unloaded, and 88,246,680 tonnes of cargo were loaded in Italian ports. Post and Broadcasting. On 31 Dec. 1985 there were 14,276 post offices and 13,759 telegraph offices. The maritime radio-telegraph service had 20 coast stations. On 1 Jan. 1986 the telephone service had 25,614,597 apparatus. Radiotelevisione Italiana broadcasts 3 programmes and additional regional programmes, including transmissions in English, French, German and Slovenian on medium- and shortwaves and on FM. It also broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Radio licences numbered 381,521; television and radio licences, 14,212,781. Cinemas. There were 4,885 cinemas in 1985. Newspapers. There were (1985) 72 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 6 • 71 m. copies; of the papers 14 are published in Rome and 7 in Milan. One daily each is published in German, Slovene and English.

ITALY

741

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Italy has 1 court of cassation, in Rome, and is divided for the administration of justice into 23 appeal court districts (and 3 detached sections), subdivided into 159 tribunal circondari (districts), and these again into mandamenti each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 899 in all. There are also 90 first degree assize courts and 26 assize courts of appeal. For civil business, besides the magistracy above mentioned, Conciliatori have jurisdiction in petty plaints (those to a maximum amount of lm. lire). On 31 Dec. 1983 there were 25,016 male and 1,448 female prisoners in establishments for preventive custody, 10,819 males and 409 females in penal establishments and 1,255 males and 98 females in establishments for the execution of safety measures. Religion. The treaty between the Holy See and Italy, of 11 Feb. 1929, confirmed by article 7 of the Constitution of the republic, lays down that the Catholic Apostolic Roman Religion is the only religion of the State. Other creeds are permitted, provided they do not profess principles, or follow rites, contrary to public order or moral behaviour. The appointment of archbishops and of bishops is made by the Holy See; but the Holy See submits to the Italian Government the name of the person to be appointed in order to obtain an assurance that the latter will not raise objections of a political nature. Catholic religious teaching is given in elementary and intermediate schools. Marriages celebrated before a Catholic priest are automatically transferred to the civil register. Marriages celebrated by clergy of other denominations must be made valid before a registrar. In 1972 there were 279 dioceses with 28,154 parishes and 43,714 priests. There were 187,153 members (154,796 women) of about 20,000 religious houses. In 1962 there were about 100,000 Protestants and about 50,000 Jews. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age. An optional preschool education is given to the children between 3 and 5 years in the preparatory schools (kindergarten schools). Illiteracy of males over 6 years was 2-2% in 1981, of females 3 -8%. Compulsory education can be classified as primary education (5-year course) and junior secondary education (3-year course). Senior secondary education is subdivided in classical (ginnasio and classical liceo), scientific (scientific liceo), language lyceum, professional institutes and technical education: agricultural, industrial, commercial, technical, nautical institutes, institutes for surveyors, institutes for girls (5-year course) and teacher-training institutes (4-year course). University education is given in Universities and in University Higher Institutes (4,5,6 years, according to degree course). Statistics for the academic year 1986-87: Elementary schools Kindergarten Public elementary schools Private elementary schools Private elementary recognized schools (parificate)

Government secondary schools Junior secondary schools Classical lyceum Lyceum for science Language lyceum Teachers' schools Teachers' institutes Professional institutes Technical institutes, of which: Industrial institutes Commercial institutes Surveyors' institutes Agricultural institutes Nautical institutes Technical institutes for tourism Managerial institutes Girls technical schools Artistic studies

No. 28,507 24,828

Pupils 1,621,471 3,255,161

2,360

275,664

10,031 742 992 360 199 679 1,680

Total students 2,714,038 212,359 384,612 50,196 25,446 164,987 515,239

609 1,208 494 94 48 37 149 72 261

323,038 614,569 149,265 30,017 11,969 20,196 50,077 27,041 79,577

742

ITALY

Date of Universities Stuand higher foundadents institutes tion 1985-86 Ancona 1965 6,768 Arezzo 1971 1,087 Bari 1924 56,453 3,459 Bergamo 1970 Bologna 1200 60,660 6,244 Brescia 1970 18,864 Cagliari 1626 Camerino 1727 (Macerata) 3,226 Cassino (Frosinone) 1968 2,841 1434 Catania 33,727 1983 5,129 Catanzaro Chieti 4,339 1965 1972 Cosenza 6,257 Feltre (Belluno) 1969 551 Ferrara 1391 5,129 Firenze 1924 45,022 Genova 1243 31,515 6,456 L'Aquila 1956 Lecce 1959 7,103 Macerata 1290 4,783 Messina 1549 29,246 1924 128,701 Milano Modena 1678 7,939

Teachers 1985-86 304 75 1,833 140 3,110 200 1,114 233 51 1,422

_

135 457 30 491 2,351 1,904 609 321 177 1,798 3,991 642

Universities and higher institutes Napoli Padova Palermo Parma Pavia Perugia Pescara Piacenza Pisa Potenza Reggio diC. Roma Salerno Sassari Siena Teramo Torino Trento Trieste Udine Urbino Venezia Verona Viterbo

StuDate of foundadents tion 1985-86 1224 113,965 1222 44,673 1805 42,153 1502 14,865 1390 18,355 1276 18,975 1965 9,212 1924 643 1338 30,235 1983 1,341 1968 4,737 1303 166,950 1944 22,056 1677 8,419 1300 10,135 1965 5,018 1404 62,528 1965 3,860 1924 13,807 1969 3,997 1564 11,723 1868 22,866 1969 8,585 1980 1,145

Teachers 1985-86 4,346 2,373 2,081 987 1,250 1,154 213 91 2,031 81 103 6,992 481 488 724 118 2,751 253 966 349 468 758 489 61

Health. In 1985 there were 2 3 7 , 5 7 9 doctors and 4 7 0 , 5 7 9 hospital beds. Social Security. Social expenditure is made up o f transfers which the central public departments, local departments and social security departments, make to families. Payment is principally for pensions, family allowances and health services. Expenditure o n subsidies, public assistance to various classes o f people and people injured by political events or national disasters are also included. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f Italy in Great Britain ( 14 Three Kings Yard, London, W 1 Y 2 E H ) Ambassador: Boris Biancheri (accredited 11 N o v . 1987). O f Great Britain in Italy (Via X X Settembre 8 0 A , 0 0 1 8 7 , R o m e ) Ambassador: Sir Derek Thomas, K C M G . O f Italy in the U S A ( 1601 Fuller St., N W , Washington, D.C., 2 0 0 0 9 ) Ambassador: Rinaldo Petrignani. O f the U S A in Italy (Via Veneto 1 1 9 / A , R o m e ) Ambassador: Maxwell M. Rabb. Of Italy to the U n i t e d Nations Ambassador: Maurizio Bucci. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information: The Istituto Centrale di Statistica ( 16 Via Cesare Balbo 00100 Rome) was set up by law of 9 July 1926 as the central institute in charge of census and all statistical information. President: Prof. Guido Mario Rey. Director-General: Dr Luigi Pinto. Its publications include: Annuario statistico italiano. 1987, Compendio statistico italiano. 1987, Bollettino mensile di statistica. Monthly, from 1950, Annuario di statistiche industriali. 1986, Annuario di statistiche demografiche. 1984, Annuario di statistica agraria. 1984, Annuario statistico della navigazione marittima. 1987, Annuario statistico del commercio interno e del turismo. 1986, Statistica annuale del commercio con l'estero. 1987, Statistica mensile del commercio con l'estero. Monthly, Annuario di statistiche del lavoro. 1986, Censimento generale dell'agricoltura. 1982, Censimento generale della popolazione, ¡981. Vol. I, II and III, Censimento generale dell'industria e del commercio. 1981 Sommario di Statistiche Storiche, 1926-1985.

ITALY

743

Italy. Documents and Notes. Servizi delle Informazioni, Rome. 1952 flf. Italian Books and Periodicals. Bimonthly from 1958 Banco di Roma, Review of the Economic Condition in Italy (in English). Bimonthly, 1947 fl Credito Italiano, The Italian Economic Situation. Bimonthly. Milan, from June 1961 (in Italian), from June 1962 (in English) Compendio Economico Italiano. Rome, Unione Italiana delle Camere di Commercio. Annually from 1954 Carone, G., Il Turismo nell'economia internazionale. Milan, 1959 Clark, M„ Modem Italy 1871-1982. London, 1984 Di Vittorio, G. (ed.), Isindacati in Italia. Bari, 1955 Finer, S. E., and Mastropaolo, A. (eds.), The Italian Party System, 1945-80. London, 1985 Grindrod, M., The Rebuilding of Italy, 1945-55. R. Inst, oflnt. Affairs, 1955 Nichols, P., Italia, Italia. London, 1974 Spotts, F., and Wieser, T„ Italy: A Difficult Democracy. CUP, 1986 Woolfe, S. J. (ed.), The Rebirth of Italy, 1943-50. New York, 1972 National Library: Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II Viale Castro Pretorio, Rome. Director: Dr L. M. Crisari.

JAMAICA

Capital: Kingston Population: 2-3m.(1987) GNPper capita: US$909 ( 1986)

H I S T O R Y . Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and was occupied by the Spaniards between 1509 and 1655, when the island was captured by the English; their possession was confirmed by the Treaty of Madrid, 1670. Selfgovernment was introduced in 1944 and gradually extended until Jamaica achieved complete independence within the Commonwealth on 6 Aug. 1962. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island of Jamaica lies in the Caribbean Sea about 150 km south of Cuba. The area is 4,411 sq. miles (11,425 sq. km). The population at the census of 8 June 1982 was 2,095,878, distributed on the basis of the 14 parishes of the island as follows: Kingston and St Andrew, 565,487; St Thomas, 76,347; Portland, 70,787; St Mary, 101,442; St Ann, 132,475; Trelawny, 65,038; St James, 127,994; Hanover, 60,420; Westmoreland, 116,163; St Elizabeth, 132,353; Manchester, 136,517; St Catherine, 315,970; Clarendon, 194,885. Chief towns (census, 1982): Kingston and St Andrew, 524,638, metropolitan area; Spanish Town, 89,097; Montego Bay, 70,265; May Pen, 40,962; Mandeville, 34,502. Estimated population, in 1987, was 2-3m. The population is 76% of African ethnic origin, 3% European and 21 % mixed and other groups. Vital statistics (1986): Births, 54,067 (23 per 1,000 population); deaths, 13,341 (5 • 7); migration loss, 20,079. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate but with considerable variation. High temperatures on the coast are usually mitigated by sea breezes, while upland areas enjoy cooler and less humid conditions. Rainfall is plentiful over most of Jamaica, being heaviest in May and from Aug. to Nov. The island lies in the hurricane zone. Kingston. Jan. 76°F(24-4°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was enacted with independence in Aug. 1962. The Crown is represented by a Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General is assisted by a Privy Council. The Legislature comprises two chambers, an elected House and a nominated Senate. The executive is chosen from both chambers. The Executive comprises the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the majority party, and Ministers appointed by the Prime Minister. Together they form the Cabinet, which is the highest executive power. An Attorney-General is a member of the House and is legal adviser to the Cabinet. The Senate consists of 21 senators appointed by the Governor-General, 13 on the advice of the Prime Minister, 8 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Representatives (60 members, Dec. 1976) is elected by universal adult suffrage for a period not exceeding 5 years. Electors and elected must be Jamaican or Commonwealth citizens resident in Jamaica for at least 12 months before registration. The powers and procedure of Parliament correspond to those of the British Parliament. The Privy Council consists of 6 members appointed by the Governor-General in consultation with the Prime Minister. Governor-General: Sir Florizel Glasspole, GCMG, GCVO. National flag: A yellow diagonal cross dividing triangles of green, top and bottom, and black, hoist and fly. The elections to the House ofRepresentatives, held on 15 Dec. 1983, returned 60 members of the Jamaica Labour Party. The People's National Party did not contest the election. 744

745

JAMAICA

The Cabinet in Dec. 1986 was comprised as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Finance, Planning and Information: Right Hon. Edward Seaga, PC. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade and Commerce: Hugh Shearer. Construction with responsibility for Electoral Matters: Bruce Golding. Agriculture: Dr Percival Broderick. Public Service: Clifton Stone. Social Security and Consumer Affairs: Dr Mavis Gilmour. Labour and Leader of Government Business in the House of Representatives: J. A. G. Smith. Education: Neville Gallimore. Health: Dr Kenneth Baugh. Local Government: Neville Lewis. Youth and Community Development: Edmund Bartlett. Mining, Energy and Tourism: Hugh Hart. Justice: Oswald G. Harding. Public Utilities and Transport: Pernel Charles. DEFENCE Army. The Jamaica Defence Force consists of a Regular and a Reserve Force. The Regular Force is comprised of the 1st battalion, Jamaica Regiment and Support Services which include the Air Wing and Coast Guard. The Reserve Force consists of the 3rd battalion, Jamaica Regiment. Total strength (all services, 1988), 2,520. Reserves, 745. Air Force. The Air Wing of the Jamaica Defence Force was formed in July 1963 and has since been expanded and trained successively by the British Army Air Corps and Canadian air force personnel. Equipment for army liaison, search and rescue, police co-operation, survey and transport duties includes 2 Defender armed STOL transports; 1 Beech King Air and 1 Cessna 337 light transports; 4 JetRanger and 3 Bell 212 light helicopters. Personnel (1988) 170. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Jamaica is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAS, CAR1COM and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for fiscal years ending 31 March (in J$ 1 m.): 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 Revenue Expenditure

1,751 2,420

2,623 2,849

3,207 4,529

4,467 5,631

The chief heads of recurrent revenue are income tax; consumption, customs and stamp duties. The other major share of current resources is generated by the Bauxite levy. The chief items of recurrent expenditure are public debt, education and health. Net external debt at 31 Dec. 1986, US$2,106-lm. Currency. The currency is the dollar, divided into 100 cents. Currency circulation at 31 May 1987 was J$806-6m. In March 1988, £1 =J$9-56;US$1 =J$5-50. Banking. On 1 May 1961 the Bank of Jamaica opened as Jamaica's Central Bank. It has the sole right to issue notes and coins in Jamaica, acts as Banker to the Government and to the commercial banks, and administers the island's external reserves and exchange control. There are 9 commercial banks with about 171 branches and agencies in operation, with main offices in Kingston. Six of these banks are subsidiaries of major British and North American banks, of which 4 are incorporated locally. The Workers' Savings and Loan Bank is owned by the Government, Trade Unions and the private sector. The National Commercial Bank (Jamaica) Ltd, formerly Barclays Bank Jamaica Ltd, is 49% government-owned. The other 6 banks which operate are: The Bank of Nova Scotia (Jamaica) Ltd, City Bank of North America, Mutual Security Bank (formerly Royal Bank Jamaica Ltd), Bank of Commerce,

746

JAMAICA

Jamaica Citizens Bank Ltd, First National Bank of Chicago (Jamaica) Ltd and Century National Bank Ltd. Total deposits in commercial banks, 31 Dec. 1986, J$6,203-5m., of which J$ 1,993 -9m. were time deposits and J$2,867 -4m. were savings. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Jamaica Public Service Co. is the public supplier of electricity. The bauxite companies, sugar estates and the Caribbean Cement Co. and Goodyear generate their own electricity. Total installed capacity, 1986, 1,119,000. kw. Production (1986) 1,520m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Bauxite, ceramic clays, marble, silica sand and gypsum are commercially viable. Jamaica has become the world's third largest producer of bauxite and alumina. The bauxite deposits are worked by a Canadian, an American and a Jamaican company. In 1986, 6-9m. tonnes of bauxite ore was mined; gypsum, 117,000 tonnes; marble, 200 tonnes; sand and gravel, 320,000m. cu. metres; industrial lime, 1,960 cu. metres. Agriculture (1986). Production: Sugar-cane, 2,185,000 tons; sugar (commercial), 203,000 tons; rum, 4,638,000 proof gallons; molasses, 80,200 tons; bananas, 20,700 tons; citrus fruit, 929,000 boxes; cocoa, 2,400,000 tons; spices, 2,429,824 tons; copra, 2,322,000 tons; domestic food crops, 514,646 tons. Livestock(1986): Cattle, 361,000; goats, 326,000; pigs, 152,000; poultry, 5m. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. Three bauxite-mining companies also process bauxite into alumina; production, 1986, 1 -5m. tonnes. From processing only a few agricultural products— sugar, rum, condensed milk, oils and fats, cigars and cigarettes—the island is now producing clothing, footwear, textiles, paints, building materials (including cement), agricultural machinery and toilet articles. There is an oil refinery in Kingston. In 1986 manufacturing contributed J$2,949m. to the total G D P at current prices. Labour. Average total labour force (1986), 1,059,000, of whom 820,600 were employed. Government and services employed 384,400; agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining, 278,450; manufacture 109,950; construction and installation, 32,600. Commerce. Value of imports and domestic exports for calendar years (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Domestic exports

1983 1,284 673

1984 1,183 731

1985 1,144 535

1986 969 566

Principal imports in 1986 (in US$1 m.): Minerals, fuels, lubricants and related materials, 199-1 (20-5%), with imports of 56-9 from USA and 72-4 from Venezuela; food, 166-2 (171%), with 101 from USA; machinery and transport equipment, 174• 8 (18%); manufactured goods, 166-9 (17-2%). Principal domestic exports in 1986 (in USSlm.): Crude materials, 300-9 (50-5%), of which alumina, 205-4 (34-5%) and bauxite, 90-1 (15-1%), with crude materials exports of 90-2 to USA, 84-2 to Canada and 29-4 to U K ; food, 135 (22-7%), of which sugar, 62-3 (10-5%), with food exports of 84-4 to U K and 25-3 to •USA; miscellaneous manufactures, 65-6 (11%). Total trade between Jamaica and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m ] m ] m ] m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

Tourism. In US$512m.

95,036 116,188

77,895 48,088

89,684 44,290

87,416 43,378

1986, 954,621 tourists arrived in Jamaica, spending

85,655 54,644

about

COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1984). The island has 7,826 miles of main roads, and over 2,874 miles of

JAMAICA

747

parochial and subsidiary roads. Main roads are constructed and maintained by the Ministry of Construction (Works), while other roads are constructed and maintained by parish councils. In 1986 there were 74,982 licensed vehicles. Railways. There are 294 km of railway open of 1,435 mm gauge, operated by the Jamaica Railway Corporation, which also operates 31 km (Alcoa Mineral Railway) on behalf of one of the bauxite companies. In 1984 the railway carried 3m. tonnes and 958,893 passengers. Aviation. Scheduled commercial international airlines operate through the Norman Manley and Sangster international airports at Palisadoes and Montego Bay. In 1986 Norman Manley airport had 27,764 aircraft movements, handled 827,944 passengers and 18,522 tonnes of freight. Sangster had 27,912 movements, with 1,675,603 passengers and 4,314 tonnes of freight. Trans-Jamaica Airlines Ltd operates internal flights; in 1984 it carried 37,800 passengers. Air Jamaica, originally set up in conjunction with BOAC and BWIA in 1966, became a new company, Air Jamaica (1968) Ltd, and is affiliated to Air Canada. In 1969 it began operations as Jamaica's national airline. In 1984 Air Jamaica carried 985,000 passengers and operated at a net loss of J$ 10 • 9m. Shipping. In 1986 there were 2,096 visits to all ports; 9-24m. tons of cargo were handled. Kingston had 1,298 visits and handled 2 -46m. tons. The outports had 798 visits and handled 6-78m. tons, of which 7 -2m. was loaded and 1 -6m. landed. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 318 post offices and 504 postal agencies and sub-agencies. In Dec. 1986 there were 152,295 telephones. There was (1986) 1 commercial and 1 publicly owned broadcasting stations; the latter also operates a television service. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 34 cinemas and 3 drive-in cinemas. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Judicature comprises a Supreme Court, a court of appeal, a revenue court, resident magistrates' courts, petty sessional courts, coroners' courts, a traffic court and a family court which was instituted in 1975. The Chief Justice is head of the judiciary. All prosecutions are initiated by the Director of Public Prosecutions. Police. The Constabulary Force in 1986 stood at approximately 5,601 officers, subofficers and constables (men and women). Religion. Freedom of worship is guaranteed under the Constitution. The main Christian denominations are Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Methodist, Church of God, United Church of Jamaica, and Grand Cayman (PresbyterianCongregational) Moravian, Seventh-Day Adventists, Pentecostal, Salvation Army, Quaker, and Disciples of Christ. Pocomania is a mixture of Christianity and African survivals. Non-Christians include Hindus, Jews, Moslems and Bahai followers. There is also a growing number of Rastafarians who believe in the deity of the late Emperor Hailé Selassié of Ethiopia. Education. In Sept. 1973 education became free for all government grant-aided schools (the majority of all schools) and for all Jamaicans entering the University of the West Indies, the College of Arts, Science and Technology and the Jamaica School of Agriculture. In 1985-86 there were 1,581 pre-primary schools and departments (125,046 pupils); 290 primary schools (171,452 pupils); 498 all-age schools (229,538 pupils). There were 141 secondary and vocational schools (165,308). Teacher-training colleges had 2,724 students; community colleges had 6,721; the College of Arts, Science and Technology had 3,475; the College of Agriculture, 199 and the University of the West Indies, 4,792. Health. In 1986 the public health service had 4,049 staff in medicine, nursing and

748

JAMAICA

pharmacology; 328 in dentistry; 3 4 4 public health inspectors; 67 in nutrition. In 1984 there were 3 8 2 primary health centres, 5 , 6 3 9 public hospital beds and 2 5 0 private beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f Jamaica in Great Britain (63 St James's St., London, S W 1 A 1 LS) High Commissioner: H. S. Walker. O f Great Britain in Jamaica (Trafalgar Rd., Kingston 10) High Commissioner: A l a n J. Payne, C M G . O f Jamaica in the U S A ( 1 8 5 0 K. St., N W , Washington, D . C . , 2 0 0 0 6 ) Ambassador: Keith Johnson. Of the U S A in Jamaica (2 Oxford Rd., Kingston 5) Ambassador: Michael G. Sotirhos. O f Jamaica to the United N a t i o n s Ambassador: Lloyd M. H. Barnett. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics, now Statistical Institute of Jamaica (2c Constant Spring Rd., Kingston 10), was set up in 1945—the nucleus being the Census Office, which undertook the operations of the 1943 Census of Jamaica and its Dependencies. Director: Mrs C. P. McFarlane. Publications of the Bureau include the Bulletin of Statistics on External Trade and the A nnual Abstract of Statistics. Economic and Social Survey, Jamaica. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (Annual) Social and Economic Studies. Institute of Social and Economic Research, Univ. of the West Indies. Quarterly A Review of the Performance of the Jamaican Economy ¡981-1983. Jamaica Information Service, 1985 Quarterly Economic Report. Planning Institute of Jamaica, Kingston Beckford, G. and Witter, M., Small Garden... Bitter Weed. The Political Struggle and Change in Jamaica. 2nd ed. London, 1982 Cassidy, F. G., and Le Page, R. B., Dictionary of Jamaican English. CUP, 1966 Floyd, B., Jamaica: An Island Microcosm. London, 1979 Ingram, K. E., Jamaica. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Kuper, A., Changing Jamaica. London and Boston, 1976 Lacey, T., Violence and Politics in Jamaica, 1960-70. Manchester Univ. Press, 1977 Manley, M., A Voice at the Work Place. London, 1975.—Jamaica: Struggle in the Periphery. London,1983 Post, K , Strike the Iron, A Colony at War: Jamaica 1939-1945. 2 vols. Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1981 Sherlock, P., Keeping Company with Jamaica. London, 1984 Stephens, E. H., and Stephens, J. D., Democratic Socialism in Jamaica. London, 1986 Stone, C., Class, Race and Political Behaviour in Urban Jamaica. Kingston, 1973. —Democracy and Clientalism in Jamaica. London and New Brunswick, N.J., 1981 Bibliography of Jamaica, 1900-1963. Jamaica Library Service, 1963 Libraries: National Library of Jamaica, Kingston. Jamaica Library Service, Kingston.

Capital: Tokyo Population: 121 -67m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$ 13,447 (1985)

JAPAN Nippon (or Nihon)

H I S T O R Y . The house of Yamato, from about 500 B.C. the rulers of one of several kingdoms, in about A.D. 200 united the nation; the present imperial family are their direct descendants. From 1186 until 1867 successive families of Shoguns exercised the temporal power. In 1867 the Emperor Meiji recovered the imperial power after the abdication on 14 Oct. 1867 of the fifteenth and last Tokugawa Shogun Keiki (in different pronunciation: Yoshinobu). In 1871 the feudal system (Höken Seido) was abolished; this was the beginning of the rapid westernization. At San Francisco on 8 Sept. 1951 a Treaty of Peace was signed by Japan and representatives of 4 8 countries. For details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1953, p. 1169. On 26 Oct. 1951 the Japanese Diet ratified the Treaty by 307 votes to 47 votes with 112 abstentions. On the same day the Diet ratified a Security Treaty with the US by 289 votes to 71 votes with 106 abstentions. The treaty provided for the stationing of American troops in Japan until she was able to undertake her own defence. The peace treaty came into force on 28 April 1952, when Japan regained her sovereignty. In 1960 Japan signed the Japan-US Mutual Security Treaty, valid for 10 years, which was renewed in 1970. Of the islands under US administration since 1945, the Bonin (Ogasawara), Volcano, and Daito groups and Marcus Island were returned to Japan in 1968, and the southern Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa) in 1972. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Japan consists of 4 major islands, Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, and many small islands, with an area of 377,815 sq. km. Census population (1 Oct. 1985) 121,047,196 (males 59,495,663, females 61,551,553).

Estimate

(1986)

121,672,000

(males

59,805,000,

females

61,867,000). Foreigners registered 31 Dec. 1986 were 867,237, of whom 677,959 were Koreans, 84,397 Chinese, 30,695 Americans, 18,897 Filipinos, 7,426 British, 4,388 Vietnamese, 3,193 West Germans, 2,981 Thais, 2,685 Canadians, 2,601 Indians, 2,494 French, 1,493 stateless persons. Japanese overseas, Oct. 1985,480,739; of these 146,104 lived in USA, 120,276 in Brazil, 19,889 in UK, 16,995 in Canada, 16,073 in the Federal Republic of Germany, 15,660 in Argentina, 12,156 in France, 8,974 in Hong Kong, 8,415 in China, 8,077 in Singapore. The areas, populations and capitals of the principal islands (and regions) are: Island/Region Hokkaido Honshu/Tohoku /Kanto /Chubu /Kinki /Chugoku Shikoku Kyushu Ryukyu

Sq. km 83,519 66,971 32,377 66,774 33,070 31,881 18,806 42,150 2,254

Census 1985 5,679,500 9,730,000 36,786,200 20,595,000 21,828,000 7,748,500 4,227,400 13,276,000 1,179,000

Chief cities Sapporo Sendai Tokyo Nagoya Osaka Hiroshima Matsuyama Fukuoka Naha

The leading cities, with population, 31 March 1985 (in 1,000), are: Akashi Akita Amagasaki Aomori Asahikawa Chiba Fujisawa Fukui Fukuoka Fukushima

263 296 509 294 364 789 328 250 1,160 271

Fukuyama Funabashi Gifu Hachiöji Hakodate Hamamatsu Higashiosaka Himeji Hirakata Hiroshima

749

360 507 412 427 319 514 523 453 382 1,044

Ibaraki Ichinomiya Ichikawa Iwaki Kagoshima Kanazawa Kashiwa Kasugai Kawagoe Kawaguchi

250 257 398 351 530 430 273 257 285 403

750

JAPAN

Kawasaki Kitakyushu Kobe Köchi Köriyama Koshigaya Kumamoto Kurashiki Kyoto Machida Maebashi Matsudo Matsuyama Miyazaki Nagano Nagasaki Nagoya

1,089 1,056 1,411 312 302 254 556 414 1,479 321 277 427 427 279 337 449 2,116

304 328 258 476 421 390 572 285 373 2,636 483 818 1,543 251 700 269 468

Naha Nara Neyagawa Niigata Nishinomiya Oita Okayama Okazaki Omiya Osaka Sagamihara Sakai Sapporo Sasebo Sendai Shimonoseki Shizuoka

Vital statistics (in 1,000) for calendar years: Births Deaths

1979 1,643 690

1980 1,577 723

1981 1,529 720

1982 1,515 712

1983 1,509 740

Suita Takamatsu Takatsuki Tokorozawa Tokushima Tokyo Toyama Toyohashi Toyonaka Toyota Urawa Utsunomiya Wakayama Yao Yokkaichi Yokohama Yokosuka 1984 1,490 740

349 327 349 275 258 8,354 314 322 413 308 377 405 401 276 263 2,993 427

1985 1,432 752

Crude birth rate of Japanese nationals in present area, 1985, was 11 -9 per 1,000 population (1947: 34-3); crude death rate, 6-3; crude marriage rate, 6 1 ; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, 5 • 5. C L I M A T E . The islands of Japan lie in the temperate zone, north-east of the main monsoon region of S.E. Asia. The climate is temperate with warm, humid summers and relatively mild winters except in the island of Hokkaido and northern parts of Honshu facing the Japan Sea. There is a month's rainy season in June-July, but the best seasons are spring and autumn, though Sept. may bring typhoons. There is a summer rainfall maximum. Tokyo. Jan. 40-5°F (4-7°C), July 77-4°F (25-2°C). Annual rainfall 63" (1,460 mm). Hiroshima. Jan. 39-7°F (4-3°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 61" (1,603 mm). Nagasaki. Jan. 43-5°F (6-4°C), July 79 • 7°F (26 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 77" (2,002 mm). Osaka. Jan. 42 • 1"F (5 • 6°C), July 80-6°F (27°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,400 mm). Sapporo. Jan. 23-2°F (-4-9°C), July 68-4°F(20-2°C). Annual rainfall 47" (1,158 mm). E M P E R O R . The Emperor bears the title of Nihon-koku TennO ('Emperor of Japan'). Hirohito, born in Tokyo, 29 April 1901; succeeded his father, Yoshihito, 25 Dec. 1926; married 26 Jan. 1924, to Princess Nagako, born 6 March 1903. Living sons: (1) Prince Akihito (Tsugunomiya), born 23 Dec. 1933; formally installed as Crown Prince on 10 Nov. 1952; married to Michiko Shoda (born 20 Oct. 1934), 10 April 1959. Offspring: Prince Naruhito (Hironomiya), born 23 Feb. 1960; Prince Fumihito (Ayanomiya), born 30 Nov. 1965; Princess Sayako (Norinomiya), bom 18 April 1969. (2) Prince Masahito (Hitachinomiya), born 28 Nov. 1935; married to Hanako Tsugaru, 30 Sept. 1964. By the Imperial House Law of 11 Feb. 1889, revised on 16Jan. 1947, the succession to the throne was fixed upon the male descendants. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Japan's Government is based upon the Constitution of 1947 which superseded the Meiji Constitution of 1889. In it the Japanese people pledge themselves to uphold the ideas of democracy and peace. The Emperor is the symbol of the States and of the unity of the people. Sovereign power rests with the people. The Emperor has no powers related to government. Japan renounces war as a sovereign right and the threat or the use of force as a means of settling disputes with other nations. Fundamental human rights are guaranteed. Nationalflag: White, with a red disc. National anthem: Kimi ga yo wa (words 9th century, tune by Hiromori Hayashi, 1881).

JAPAN

751

Legislative power rests with the Diet, which consists of the House of Representatives (of 512 members), elected by men and women over 20 years of age for a 4-year term, and the House of Councillors of 252 members (100 elected by party list system with proportional representation according to the d'Hondt method and 152 from prefectural districts), one-half of its members being elected every 3 years. The Lower House controls the budget and approves treaties with foreign powers. The former House of Peers is replaced by the House of Councillors, whose members, like those of the House of Representatives, are elected as representatives of all the people. The House of Representatives has pre-eminence over the House of Councillors. On 5 Nov. 1987 the House of Representatives consisted of 302 LiberalDemocrats, 87 Socialists, 57 Komeito, 29 Democratic Socialists, 27 Japan Communist Party, and 5 Independents. The Cabinet, as constituted in Nov. 1987, was as follows: Prime Minister: Noboru Takeshita. Justice: Yukio Hayashida. Foreign Affairs: Sosuke Uno. Finance: Kiichi Miyazawa. Education: Gentaro Nakajima. Health and Welfare: Takao Fujimoto. Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery: Takashi Sato. Trade and Industry: Hajime Tamura. Transport: Shintaro Ishihara. Postal Service: Masaaki Nakayama. Labour: Taro Nakamura. Construction: Ihei Ochi. Home Affairs: Seiroku Kajiyama. Local Government. The country is divided into 47 prefectures ( T o d o f u k e n ) , including Tokyo-to (the capital), Osaka-fu and Kyoto-fu, Hokkai-do, and 43 Ken. Each Todofuken has its governor (Chiji) elected by the voters in the area. The prefectural government of Tokyo-to is also responsible for the urban part (formerly Tokyo-shi) of the prefecture. Each prefecture, city, town and village has a representative assembly elected by the same franchise as in parliamentary elections. New legislation, which came into effect on 1 July 1954, has given the central government complete control of the police throughout the country. DEFENCE Army. The 'Ground Self-Defence Force' had in 1988 an authorized strength of 156,000 uniformed personnel, plus a reserve of44,000 men. The Army is organized in 12 infantry divisions, 1 armoured division, 1 airborne brigade, 2 air defence brigades, 1 artillery, 5 engineer, 1 signal, 2 composite and 1 helicopter brigades in addition to 4 anti-aircraft artillery groups. Equipment includes 1,150 tanks, over 400 transport, observation and training helicopters including anti-tank helicopters, plus about 19 fixed-wing aircraft. The Northern Army, stationed in Hokkaido, consists of 4 divisions (1 of which is armoured), an artillery brigade, an anti-aircraft artillery brigade, a tank group and an engineering brigade. The Western Army, stationed in Kyushu, consists of 2 divisions and 1 composite brigade. The North-Eastern Army (2 divisions), the Eastern Army (2 divisions) and 1 airborne brigade, the Middle Army (3 divisions and 1 composite brigade). The infantry division establishment is approximately 9,000 with 4 infantry regiments or 7,000 (lower establishment) with 3 infantry regiments. Each infantry division has an artillery unit, an anti-tank unit, a tank battalion and an engineering battalion in addition to administrative units. Navy. The 'Maritime Self-Defence Force' comprises 52 destroyers including 2 training and 8 converted, 18 frigates, 14 submarines, 39 mine warfare vessels, 15 patrol vessels, 8 landing ships, 40 landing craft, 4 survey vessels, 25 oilers, 33 auxiliary ships, 2 submarine rescue vessels, 1 ice breaker, 3 training vessels, and 39 support ships.

752

JAPAN

The Fleet Air Arm, numbering 6 air wings, includes 86 patrol aircraft and flying boats for anti-submarine patrol, 80 trainers and 71 helicopters plus transports, rescue planes and others. Personnel in 1987 numbered 45,600 officers and ratings including the Naval Air Arm. There are also 4,150 in civil maritime defence. Air Force. An 'Air Self-Defence Force' was inaugurated on 1 July 1954. In 1987 its equipment included 5 interceptor squadrons of F-15J/DJ Eagles (total of 142 aircraft to be acquired by 1990) and 5 of F-4EJ Phantoms; 3 squadrons of Mitsubishi F-l close-support fighters; 1 squadron of RF-4E reconnaissance fighters; 8 E-2C Hawkeye AWACS aircraft; ECM flight with 2 YS-1 lEs; 3 squadrons of turbofan Kawasaki C - l and turboprop C-130H Hercules and N A M C YS-11 transports. About 35 helicopters, mostly KV-107s (to be replaced with CH-47 Chinooks), and MU-2 twin-turboprop aircraft perform search, rescue and general duties. Training units use piston-engined Fuji T-3 basic trainers, Fuji T - l jet intermediate trainers, T-33 jet trainers and supersonic Mitsubishi T-2 jet advanced trainers. The T - l s and T-33s will be replaced with Kawasaki T-4s in the late '80s. Six surface-to-air missile groups (19 squadrons) are in service. Total strength (1987) about 311 combat aircraft and 45,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Japan is a member of U N , the Colombo Plan and OECD. ECONOMY Planning. The 1980s Plan envisages an onward real growth rate of 4% and a nominal between 5% and 6%. The real growth rate for 1988 is envisaged at 3 -8% and the nominal 4 • 8%. Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for fiscal year ending 31 March 1988 balanced at 54,101,000m. yen. Of the proposed revenue in 1987, 41,194,000m. was to come from taxes and stamps, 10,501,000m. from public bonds. Main items of expenditure: Social security, 10,089,600m.; public works, 6,082,400m.; local government, 10,184,100m.; education, 4,849,700m.; defence, 3,517,400m. The outstanding national debt incurred by public bonds was estimated in March 1986 to be 136,611,000m. yen, including 800m. yen of Japan's foreign currency bonds. The estimated 1987 budgets of the prefectures and other local authorities forecast a total revenue of 54,380,000m. yen, to be made u p partly by local taxes and partly by government grants and local loans. Currency. Coins of 1, 5 , 1 0 , 50, 100 and 500 yen are in circulation as well as notes of the Bank of Japan, of 1,000, 5,000 and 10,000 yen. Bank-notes for 500 yen are still in circulation but are gradually being replaced by coins. In March 1988, £1 = 228 yen- US$1 = 128 -50 yen. In Dec. 1986 the currency in circulation consisted of26,884,900m. yen Bank of Japan notes and 2,664,200m. yen subsidiary coins. Banking. The modem banking system dates from 1872. The Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan) was founded in 1882. The Bank of Japan has undertaken to finance the Government and the banks; its function is similar to that of a Central Bank in other countries. The Bank undertakes the actual management of Treasury funds and foreign exchange control. Gold bullion and cash holdings of the Bank of Japan at 31 Dec. 1986 stood at 361,000m. yen. There were on 31 Dec. 1986, 13 city banks, 64 regional banks, 7 trust banks, 3 long-term credit banks, 68 Sogo banks (mutual savings and loan banks), 455 Shinkin banks (credit associations), 446 credit co-operatives, and 79 foreign banks. There are also various governmental financial institutions, including postal savings which amounted to 112,768,400m. yen in June 1987. Total savings by individuals,

JAPAN

753

including insurance and securities, stood at 540,019,800m. yen on 30 June 1987, and more than 60% of these savings were deposited in banks and the post-office. Many foreign banks operate branches in Japan including: Bank of Indo-China, Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation, Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, Bank of India, Mercantile Bank of India, Bank of Korea, Bank of China, Algemene Bank Nederland NV, National Handelsbank NY, Bank of America, National City Bank of New York, Chase Manhattan Bank, Bangkok Bank and American Express Co. Weights and Measures. The metric system was made obligatory by a law passed in March 1921, and the period of grace for its compulsory use ended on 1 April 1966. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1985 generating facilities were capable of an output of 169,399,000 kw.; electricity produced was 671,952m. kwh. Supply 100 and 200 volts; 50 or 60 Hz. Oil and Gas. Output of crude petroleum, 1985, was 625,000 kl, almost entirely from oilfields on the island of Honshu, but 198,330,000 kl crude oil had to be imported. Output of natural gas, 1985,2,225m. cu. metres. Minerals. Ore production in tonnes, 1985, of chromite, 11,920; coal, 16,383,000; iron, 338,343; zinc, 253,021; molybdenum (1982), 97; manganese, 21,140; copper, 43,208; lead, 49,951; tungsten, 1,922; silver, 339,485 kg.; gold, 5,309 kg. Agriculture. Agricultural workers in 1986 were 6,274,000, including 567,000 subsidiary and seasonal workers; 8 -4% (1985) of the labour force as opposed to 24-7% in 1962. The arable land area in 1986 was 5,358,000 hectares (5,796,000 in 1970). Division of ordinary fields to non-agricultural use accounted largely for this decrease. Rice cultivation accounted for 2,303,000 hectares in 1986. The area planted with industrial crops such as rapeseed, tobacco, tea, rush, etc., was 256,900 hectares in 1985. In 1986 there were 4,388,000 power cultivators and tractors in use together with 2,151,000 (1985) power sprayers and power dusters and 2,098,000 rice power planters. Output of rice was 10-26m. tonnes in 1981, 10-27m. in 1982, 10,366,000 in 1983,11,878,000 in 1984 and 11,662,000 in 1985. Production in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes) of barley was 344; wheat, 876; soybeans, 228. Sweet potatoes, which in the past mitigated the effects of rice famines, have, in view of rice over-production, decreased from 4,955,000 tons in 1965 to 1,507,000 tons in 1986. Domestic sugar-beet and sugar-cane production accounted for only 31-5% of requirement in 1985.In 1985,1,924,000 tonnes were imported, 28-3% of this being imported from Australia, 23-5% from Cuba, 19-8% from South Africa, 15 -9% from Thailand, 6% from Philippines. Fruit production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Mandarins, 2,491; apples, 910; pears, 471; grapes, 311; peaches, 205; and persimmons, 290. Livestock (1986): 4,742,000 cattle (including about 2 1 m . milch cows), 23,000 horses, 11,061,000 pigs, 26,000 sheep, 48,000 goats, 337m. chickens. Milk (1985), 7-38m. tonnes. Forestry. Forests and grasslands cover about 25m. hectares (nearly 70% of the whole land area), with an estimated timber stand of 2,716m. cu. metres in 1984. In 1984,41,248,000 cu. metres were felled. Fisheries. Before the War, Japanese catch represented one-half to two-thirds of the world's total fishing, in 1984 it was 14-5%. The catch in 1985 was 12-17m. tonnes, excluding whaling. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Japan's industrial equipment, 1984, numbered 739,581 plants of all sizes, employing 11,382,000 production workers.

754

JAPAN

Since 1920 there has been a shift from light to heavy industries. The production of electrical appliances and electronic machinery has made great strides: television sets (1986:13,885,000), radio sets(1985:12,996,000), cameras(1986:17,598,000), computing machines and automation equipment are produced in increasing quantities. The chemical industry ranks third in production value after machinery and metals (1984). Production, 1985, included (in tonnes): Sulphuric acid, 6,580,000; caustic soda, 2,982,000; ammonium sulphate, 1,837,000; calcium superphosphate, 529,000. Output (1985), in 1,000 tonnes, of pig iron was 80,569; crude steel, 105,279; ordinary rolled steel, 82,731. In 1985 paper production was 11,790,000 tonnes; paperboard, 8,679,000 tonnes. Japan's textile industry before the War had 13m. cotton-yarn spindles. After the War she resumed with 2-78m. spindles; in 1964, 8-42m. spindles were operating. Output of cotton yarn, 1985, 437,000 tonnes, and of cotton cloth, 2,061m. sq. metres. In wool, Japan aims at wool exports sufficient to pay for the imports of raw wool. Output, 1985, 123,400 tonnes of woollen yarns and 326m. sq. metres of woollen fabrics. Output, 1985, of rayon woven fabrics, 656m. sq. metres; synthetic woven fabrics, 3,068m. sq. metres; silk fabrics, 115m. sq. metres. Shipbuilding has been decreasing and in 1985, 8,897,000 gross tons were launched, of which 1,528,000 G R T were tankers. Labour. Total labour force, 1986, was 58-53m., of which 4-5m. were in agriculture and forestry, 450,000 in fishing, 80,000 in mining, 5-34m. in construction, 14-44m. in manufacturing, 15-64m. in commerce and finance, 3-85m. in transport and other public utilities, 12 -05m. in services (including the professions) and 1 -97m. in government work. In 1986 there were 12,343,000 workers organized in 74,183 unions. The largest federation is the 'General Council of Japanese Trade Unions' (Söhyö) with 4,268,000 members. The 'Japanese Confederation of Labour' (Dömei Kaigi) had 2,126,000 members. The 'Federation of Independent Unions' (Churitsu Rören) founded in 1956 had 1,601,000 members. In 1986, 1 -67m. (2-8%) were unemployed. In 1986, 253,000 working days were lost in industrial stoppages. Commerce. Trade (in US$ 1 m.) Imports Exports

1980 140,528 129,807

1981 152,030 143,289

1982 138,831 131,931

1983 126,393 146,927

1984 136,503 170,114

1985 129,539 175,638

1986 126,408 209,151

Distribution of trade by countries (customs clearance basis) (US$ 1 m.): Africa Australia Canada China Fed. Rep. of Germany Hong Kong Latin America South-east Asia Korea, Republic of Taiwan USSR UK USA

1985 3,539 5,379 4,520 12,477 6,938 6,509 8,486 33,248 7,097 5,025 2,751 4,723 65,278

Exports 1986 3,533 5,227 5,526 9,856 10,477 7,161 9,494 41,778 10,475 7,852 3,150 6,647 80,456

1985 2,896 7,452 4,773 6,483 2,928 767 6,242 30,264 4,092 3,386 1,429 1,817 25,793

Imports 1986 3,585 6,980 4,895 5,652 4,298 1,073 6,194 29,489 5,292 4,691 1,972 3,573 29,054

Principal items in 1986, with value in 1 m. yen were: Imports, c.i.f. Mineral fuels 6,437,000 Foodstuffs 3,233,000 Metal ores and scrap 985,000 Machinery and transport equipment 2,477,000

Exports, f.o.b. Machinery and transport equipment 26,146,000 Metals and metal products 3,073,000 Textile products 1,161,000 Chemicals 1,603,000

JAPAN

755

Total trade between Japan and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 3 m 4 m 5 m 6 ]gg7 ImportstoUK 3,355,450 3,768,019 4,117,024 4,932,497 5,463,116 Exports and re-exports from UK 797,848 925,311 1,012,436 1,193,933 1,495,111

Tourism. In 1986,2,021,450 foreigners visited Japan, 482,670 of whom came from USA, 142,697 from UK. Japanese travelling abroad totalled 5,516,193 in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The total length of roads (including urban and other local roads) was 1,127,504 km at 1 April 1985; the 'national' roads extended 46,435 km, of which 44,880 km were paved. Motor vehicles, at 31 Dec. 1986, numbered 46,995,000, including 28,654,000 passenger cars and 18,109,000 commercial vehicles. Railways. The first railway was completed in 1872, between Tokyo and Yokohama (29 km). From 1 April 1987 the National Railways organization was disbanded and replaced by six regional operating authorities, plus separate companies for the Shinkansen (high-speed) and freight networks prior to privatization. Total length of railways, in March 1985, was 26,899 km, of which the national railways had 21,091 km (9,038 km electrified) and private railways, 5,808 km (4,986 km electrified). In 1985 the national railways carried 6,941m. passengers (private, 12,048m.) and 69m. tons of freight (private, 31 m.). Aviation. The principal airlines are Japan Airlines and All Nippon Airways. Japan Airlines, founded in 1953, operate international services from Tokyo to the USA, Europe, the Middle East and Southeast Asia, including flights to London over the North Pole and to Moscow by way of Siberia. In 1985 Japanese companies carried 44,717,000 passengers in domestic services and 6,234,000 passengers in international services. Shipping. On 30 June 1986 the merchant fleet consisted of 8,024 vessels of 100 gross tons and over; total tonnage 36m. gross tons; there were 708 ships for passenger transport (1,176,000 gross tons), 2,459 cargo ships (1,799,000 gross tons) and 1,333 oil tankers (11,611,000 gross tons). Coastguard. The 'Maritime Safety Agency' (Coastguard) consists of 11 regional MS headquarters, 65 MS offices, 52 MS stations, 14 air stations, 1 special rescue station, 8 district communications centres, 2 traffic advisory service centres, 4 hydrographic observatories and 124 navigation aids offices (with 4,992 navigation aids facilities) and controls 44 large patrol vessels, 47 medium patrol vessels, 19 small patrol vessels, 231 patrol craft, 22 hydrographic service vessels, 5 firefighting vessels, 10 firefighting boats, 67 guard and rescue boats and 79 navigation aids service supply vessels. Personnel in 1986 numbered 12,047 officers and men. The Coastguard aviation service includes 22 fixed-wing aircraft and 38 helicopters. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone services, operated by a public corporation, at 31 March 1985 had 66,636,000 instruments. O n 3 1 March 1986,98-9% of all households owned colour television sets. Cinemas (1986). Cinemas numbered 2,109 with an annual attendance of 161m. (1960:1,014m.). Newspapers (1985). Daily newspapers numbered 125 with aggregate circulation of 68,296,000, including 4 major English-language newspapers. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court is composed of the Chief Justice and 14 other judges. The Chief Justice is appointed by the Emperor, the other judges by the Cabinet. Every 10 years a justice must submit himself to the electorate. All justices and judges of the lower courts serve until they are 70 years of age. Below the Supreme Court are 8 regional higher courts, district courts (Chihosaibansho) in each prefecture (4 in Hokkaido) and the local courts.

756

JAPAN

The Supreme Court is authorized to declare unconstitutional any act of the Legislature or the Executive which violates the Constitution. Religion. There has normally been religious freedom, but Shinto (literally, The Way of the Gods) was given the status of gwasi-state-religion in the 1930s; in 1945 the Allied Supreme Command ordered the Government to discontinue state support of Shinto. State subsidies have ceased for all religions, and all religious teachings are forbidden in public schools. In Dec. 1985 Shintoism claimed 115,602,000 adherents, Buddhism 92,065,000; these figures obviously overlap. Christians numbered 1,688,000. Education. Education is compulsory and free between the ages of 6 and 15. Almost all national and municipal institutions are co-educational. On 1 May 1986 there were 15,092 kindergartens with 97,758 teachers and 2,018,523 pupils; 24,036 elementary schools with 454,760 teachers and 10,665,404 pupils; 11,028 junior high schools with 289,885 teachers and 6,105,749 pupils; 5,295 senior high schools with 270,630 teachers and 5,259,307 pupils; 548 junior colleges with 18,205 teachers and 396,455 pupils. There were also 822 special schools for handicapped children (40,074 teachers, 95,857 pupils). Japan has 7 main state universities, formerly known as the Imperial Universities: Tokyo University (1877); Kyoto University (1897); Tohoku University, Sendai (1907); Kyushu University, Fukuoka (1910); Hokkaido University, Sapporo (1918); Osaka University (1931), and Nagoya University (1939). In addition, there are various other state and municipal as well as private universities of high standing, such as Keio (founded in 1859), Waseda, Rikkyo, Meiji universities, and several women's universities, among which Tokyo and Ochanomizu are most notable. There are 465 colleges and universities with (1 May 1986) 1,879,532 students and 113,877 teachers. Social Welfare. Hospitals at the end of 1985 numbered 9,608 with 1,495,328 beds. Physicians at the end of 1984 numbered 181,101; dentists, 63,145. There are in force various types of social security schemes, such as health insurance, unemployment insurance and old-age pensions. The total population come under one or more of these schemes. In 1985 17,173,407 persons and 9,366,083 households received some form of regular public assistance, the total of which came to 1,537,642m. yen. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Japan in Great Britain (43-46 Grosvenor St., London, W1X 0BA) Ambassador: Kazuo Chiba. Of Great Britain in Japan (1 Ichiban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102) Ambassador: Sir John Whitehead, KCMG, CVO. Of Japan in the USA (2520 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Nobuo Matsunaga. Of the USA in Japan (10-1, Akasaka 1 -chome, Minato-Ku, Tokyo) Ambassador: Michael J. Mansfield. Of Japan to the United Nations Ambassador: Kiyoaki Kikuchi. Books of Reference Statistics Bureau of the Prime Minister's Office: Statistical Year-Book (from 1949).— Statistical Abstract (from 1950).—Statistical Handbook of Japan ¡977.—Monthly Bulletin (from April 1950) Economic Planning Agency: Economic Survey (annual), Economic Statistics (monthly), Economic Indicators (monthly) Ministry of International Trade: Foreign Trade of Japan (annual) Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan. 9 vols. Tokyo, 1983 Japan Times Year Book. (I. Year Book of Japan. II. Who's Who in Japan. III. Business Directory of Japan.) Tokyo, first issue 1933

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Labor in Tokyo. Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 1986 Treaty of Peace with Japan. (Cmd. 8392). HMSO, 1951 ; (Cmd. 8601 ). HMSO, 1952 Allen, G. C., The Japanese Economy. London, 1981 Baerwald,H. H., Japan's Parliament. CUP, 1974.—Party Politics in Japan. Boston, 1986 Burks, A. W., Japan: Profile of an Industrial Power. Boulder, 1981 Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English [and English-Japanese] Dictionary. 2 vols. New ed. Cambridge, Mass., and Berkeley, Cai., 1960 Miyazaki, S., The Japanese Dictionary Explained in English. Tòkyo, 1950 Morishima, U. Why has Japan 'Succeeded?CVP, 1984 Murata, K., An Industrial Geography of Japan. London, 1980 Nippon: A Chartered Survey of Japan. Tsuneta Yano Memorial Society. Tokyo, annual Okita, S., The Developing Economics of Japan: Lessons in Growth. Univ. of Tokyo Press, 1983 Prindl, A., Japanese Finance: Guide to Banking in Japan. Chichester, 1981 Sansom, G. B., A History of Japan. 3 vols. London, 1958-64 Tsoukalis, L.,(ed.), Japan and Western Europe. London, 1982 Vogel, E. F., Japan as Number One. Harvard Univ. Press, 1979 Ward, P., Japanese Capitals. Cambridge, 1985

Capital: Amman Population: 2 • 85m. ( 1987) E. Bank 834,000 (1987) W.Bank GNP per capita: US$ 1,900 (1984)

THE HASHEMITE K I N G D O M OF JORDAN Al Mamlaka al Urduniya al Hashemiyah

HISTORY. By a Treaty, signed in London on 22 March 1946, Britain recognized Transjordan as a sovereign independent state. On 25 May 1946 the Amir Abdullah assumed the title of King, and when the treaty was ratified on 17 June 1946 the name of the territory was changed to that of'The Hashemite Kingdom ofJordan' in 1949. A new Anglo-Transjordan treaty was signed in Amman on 15 March 1948. The treaty was to remain in force for 20 years, but by mutual consent was terminated on 13 March 1957. The Arab Federation between the Kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan, which was concluded on 14 Feb. 1958, lapsed afterthe revolution in Iraq of 14 July 1958, and was officially terminated by royal decree on 1 Aug. 1958. Since the occupation of the West Bank in June 1967 by Israeli forces, that part of Palestine has not been administratively controlled by the Jordanian government. All statistics in this section, unless otherwise stated, are thus relative to the East Bank only. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The part of Palestine remaining to the Arabs under the armistice with Israel on 3 April 1949, with the exception of the Gaza strip, was in Dec. 1949 placed under Jordanian rule and formally incorporated in Jordan on 2 4 April 1 9 5 0 . For the frontier lines see map in THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1951. In June 1967 this territory, known as the West Bank, was occupied by Israeli forces and has since been under Israel administration. The area presently administered by the Jordanian government, known as the East Bank, comprises 89,206 sq. km (34,443 sq. miles) following an exchange of territory with Saudi Arabia on 10 Aug. 1965. Its population at the 1979 Census was 2,132,997; latest estimate (1987) 2-85m. The area and population of the 5 districts were: Muhafaza Sq. km 1986 Asimah Balqa Irbid Karak Ma'an

17,882 1,069 22,654 4,601 43,000

1,160,000 193,800 680,200 120,100 97,500

The largest towns, with estimated population, 1984: Amman, the capital, 777,500; Zarqa, 265,700; Irbid, 136,200. West Bank: The former part of Palestine, incorporated into Jordan in 1950 but occupied by Israel since June 1967, has an area of 5,879 sq. km (2,270 sq. miles) and was divided into 3 further districts (muhafazaj\ population (estimate, 1985) 1 -25m. In 1984 registered births numbered 102,521; deaths, 8,303; marriages, 18,189; divorces, 2,652. CLIMATE. Predominantly a Mediterranean climate, with hot dry summers and cool wet winters, but in hilly parts summers are cooler and winters colder. Those areas below sea-level are very hot in summer and warm in winter. Eastern parts have a desert climate. Amman. Jan. 46°F (7 • 5°C), July 77°F (24-9°C). Annual rainfall 12" (290 mm). Aqaba. Jan. 6 P F (16°C), July 89°F (31 -5°C). Annual rainfall 1-5" (35 mm). 758

JORDAN

759

K I N G . The Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy headed by H M King Hussein, GCVO, eldest son of King Talal, who, being incapacitated by mental illness, was deposed by Parliament on 11 Aug. 1952 and died 8 July 1972. The King was b o m 14 Nov. 1935, and married Princess Dina Abdul Hamid on 19 April 1955 (divorced 1957), Toni Avril Gardiner (Muna al Hussein) on 25 May 1961 (divorced 1972), Alia Toukan on 26 Dec. 1972 (died in air crash 1977) and Elizabeth Halaby on 15 June 1978. Offspring: Princess Alia, born 13 Feb. 1956; Prince Abdulla, born 30 Jan. 1962; Prince Faisal, born 11 Oct. 1963; Princesses Zein and Aisha, born 23 April 1968; Princess Haya, born 3 May 1974; Prince Ali, born 23 Dec. 1975; Prince Hamzah, born 1 April 1980; Prince Hashem, born 10 June 1981; Princess Iman, born 4 April 1983; Princess Raya, born 9 Feb. 1986. Crown Prince (appointed 1 April 1965): Prince Hassan, younger brother of the King. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution passed on 7 Nov. 1951 provides that the Cabinet is responsible to Parliament. The legislature consists of a lower house of 60 members elected by universal suffrage (30 from East Jordan and 30 from West Jordan), and a senate of 30 members nominated by the King. On 5 Feb. 1976 both Houses of Parliament approved amendments to the Constitution by which the King was empowered to postpone calling elections until further notice. The lower house was dissolved. This step was taken because no elections could be held in the West Bank which has been under Israeli occupation since June 1967. Parliament was reconvened on 9 Jan. 1984. By-elections were held in March 1984 and 6 members were nominated for the West Bank bringing Parliament to 60 members. Women voted for the first time in 1984. The Cabinet, in Oct. 1987, was composed as follows: Prime Minister and Defence: Zaid Rifai. Deputy Prime Minister and Education: Abdul Wahab Al Majali. Minister of State for Prime Ministry Affairs: Thogan Al-Hindawi. Minister ofState for Parliamentary Affairs: Dr Sami Judeh. Interior: Rafai Al-Dajanee. Labour and Social Development: Khalid Al Haj Hassan. Communications: Mohyeddin Al Husseini. Foreign Affairs: Taher Al Masri. Municipal and Rural Affairs and the Environment: Yousef Jaber. Awqaf and Islamic Affairs: D r Abdul Aziz Al Khayyat. Public Works: Mahmoud Al Hawamdeh. Supply, Industry and Trade: D r Rajai Muasher. Finance: Dr Hanna Odeh. Transport: Ahmad Dakhqan. Energy and Mineral Resources: Dr Hisham Al Khatib. Planning: Dr Taher Kana'an. Higher Education: Dr Nasseruddeen Al Assad. Agriculture: Marwan Al Hmoud. Information, Culture, Tourism and Antiquities: Mohammad Al Katib. Justice: Riyadh Al Shaka's. Health: Dr Zaid Hamzeh. Occupied Territories Affairs: Dr Marwan Dodean. Youth: Eid Al Dahheait. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of black, white, green, with a red triangle based on the hoist, bearing a white 7-pointed star. The official language of the country is Arabic. DEFENCE Army. The Army is organized in 3 armoured, 1 special forces and 6 mechanized brigades, 4 anti-aircraft brigades, 1 independent Royal Guards brigade and 16 artillery battalions. Total strength (1988) 70,000 men. Navy. The Coastal Guard or Jordan Sea Force has 14 patrol launches and 1 support craft based at Aqaba. Personnel (1988) totalled 300 officers and ratings. Air Force. The Air Force has 2 interceptor and 3 ground attack squadrons equipped respectively with Mirage F1 and F-5E Tiger II fighters, and 2-seat F-5Fs, plus an OCU equipped with F-5A fighters and 2-seat F-5Bs. Two anti-armour squadrons have Bell A H - I S Huey Cobra helicopters. There are 6 C-130B/H Hercules and 2 CASA Aviocar turboprop transports, S-70 Blackhawk, S-76, Gazelle, Alouette III and Hughes 500D helicopters, piston-engined Bulldog basic

JORDAN

760

trainers and CASA Aviojet and T-37B jet trainers. Hawk surface-to-air missiles equip 14 batteries. Strength (1988) about 10,000 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Jordan is a member of the U N and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year plan (1986-90) aims at improving agriculture and the development of water resources. Budget. The budget estimates for the year 1985 provide for revenue of JD.794,500,000 and expenditure of JD.811,200,000 which included 206m. for defence. Currency. The Jordan dinar, divided into 1,000 fils. The following bank-notes and coins are in circulation: 10, 5 dinars, 1 dinar, 500 fils (notes), 250, 100, 50, 25, 20 fils (cupronickel), 10, 5, 1 fils (bronze). In March 1988, £1 = JD.0-599; US$ = JD.0-344. Banking. The Central Bank of Jordan was established in 1964. In 1986 there were 9 local commercial banks including Arab Bank (the largest, with a capital of JD.22m.), 8 foreign commercial banks including Grindlays Bank and 6 foreign banks with representative offices. In 1985 there were 2 investment banks, 5 finance companies, 3 Islamic institutions and 3 real estated-linked savings and loan associations. Assets and liabilities of the Jordanian banking system (including the Central Bank, commercial banks and the Housing Bank) totalled JD.2,404 • 34m. in 1984. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production (1986) 2,955m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil was discovered in 1982 at Azraq, 70 km east of A m m a n and 7 new wells were under development in 1985. Deposits of oil shale, estimated at 10,000m. tonnes, have been discovered at Lajjun. Minerals. Phosphates production in 1986 was 6-25m. tonnes. Potash is found in the Dead Sea. Reserves, over 800m. tonnes. A potash plant built on the southeast shore to extract compounds by solar evaporation produced 486,868 tonnes in 1984. Cement production (1984), 1,994,082 tonnes. Agriculture. The country east of the Hejaz Railway line is largely desert; northwestern Jordan is potentially of agricultural value and an integrated Jordan Valley project began in 1973. The agricultural cropping pattern for irrigated vegetable cultivation was introduced in 1984 to regulate production and diversify the crops being cultivated. In 1987 Jordan was self-sufficient in the production of potatoes and onions. In 1986 the government began to lease state-owned land in the semiarid southern regions for agricultural development by private investors, mostly for wheat and barley. Jordan is self-sufficient in poultry meat. The main crops are tomatoes and other vegetables, citrus fruit, wheat and olives. Production in 1985 included (in tonnes): Tomatoes, 220,000; olives, 40,000; citrus fruit, 63,000; wheat, 100,000. Livestock (1986): 1 1m. sheep; 500,000 goats; 35,000 cattle; 14,000 camels. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. Production (1984): Phosphates, 6,213,000 tons; petroleum products, 2,511,000 tons; cement, 2,026,000 tons; iron, 165,000 tons; fertilizer, 30,000 tonnes and phosphoric acid as a by-product, 105,000 tonnes. Other industries include cigarettes, cosmetics, textiles, shoes, batteries, plastic

761

JORDAN

products, leather tanning, pharmaceutical products, iron pipes, detergents, aluminium and ceramics. Some 50% of industry is based in Amman. Commerce. Imports in 1985 were valued at JD.l,072-51m. and exports and reexports at JD.310-89m. Total remittances from Jordanians working abroad reached US$1,187-5m. in 1984. Major exports in 1984 (in JD.lm.) included phosphates, 69-6; chemicals, 67-6; food and live animals, 41-7; manufactured goods, 33-7. Major imports included machinery and transport equipment, 215-8; crude oil, 203 -9. Exports in 1984 (in JD.lm.) were mainly to Iraq, 67-7; Saudi Arabia, 38-6 and India, 34 1. Imports were mainly from Saudi Arabia, 208-7 and the US A, 119. Total trade between Jordan and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 28,680 262,503

1984 18,114 192,508

1985 86,077 154,270

1 986 49,766 130,385

1 987 29,285 188,998

Tourism. In 1986,2,835,217 tourists visited Jordan spending JD186m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length of public highways, 4,095 km. Motor vehicles in 1980 included 73,078 private passenger cars, 11,207 taxis, 1,415 buses, 29,517 goods vehicles, 4,888 motorcycles. Railways. The 1,050 mm gauge Hejaz Jordan and Aqaba Railway runs from the Syrian border at Nassib to Ma'an and Naqb Ishtar and Aqaba Port (total, 618 km). In 1986 the railways carried 31,304 passengers and 2,789,524 tons of freight. Aviation. The Queen Alia International airport, at Zizya, 30 km south of Amman was inaugurated in 1983. There are other international airports at Amman and Aqaba. Jordan is served by over 20 international airlines. Shipping (1980). The port of Aqaba handled 6,598,591 tons of cargo. JD.65m. was spent between 1980—85 on developing facilities and US$1,000m. is to be provided under the 1986-90 plan on further developments including a special oil terminal and 4 new wharves. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 there were 791 post offices and 82,000 telephones in 1986. There were 280,000 TV receivers and 550,000 radios in 1985. Cinemas (1975). Cinemas numbered 40 with a total attendance of4,341,900. Newspapers (1987). There were 4 daily (including 1 in English) and 5 weekly papers, with a total circulation of 188,000. R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Religion. About 80% of the population are Sunni Moslems. Education (1985-86). There were 358 pre-primary schools with 1,336 teachers and 27,495 pupils; 1,239 elementary schools with 16,979 teachers and 530,906 pupils; 1,099 preparatory schools with 9,943 teachers and 208,646 pupils; 485 secondary schools with 7,131 teachers and 96,400 pupils and 24 vocational educational schools with 2,127 teachers and 30,789 pupils. The University of Jordan, inaugurated on 15 Dec. 1962 had in 1985-86, 11,629 students. The Yarmouk University (Irbid) was inaugurated in 1976 with (1985-86) 14,370 students. The Mu'tahUniversity was inaugurated in 1981 with(1985-86)712 students. Health (1980). There were 1,715 physicians, 351 dentists and 35 hospitals with 2,743 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Jordan in Great Britain (6 Upper Phillimore Gdns., London, W8 7HB) Ambassador: Dr Albert Butros.

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O f Great Britain in Jordan (Third Circle, Jebel A m m a n ) Ambassador: Anthony Reeve. O f Jordan in the U S A ( 3 5 0 4 International Dr., NW, Washington, D . C . , 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: M o h a m m a d Kamal. O f the U S A in Jordan (Jebel A m m a n , A m m a n ) Ambassador: Roscoe S. Suddarth. O f Jordan to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdullah Salah. B o o k s of Reference The Department of Statistics, Ministry of National Economy, publishes a Statistical Yearbook (in Arabic and English), latest issue 1968, and a Statistical Guide, latest issue 1965.—External Trade Statistics, 1968.—National Accounts and Input-Output Analysis, 1959-65. 1967 The Constitution ofthe Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Amman, 1952 Gubser, P.,Jordan. Boulder, 1982 Haas, J., Husseins Königreich: Jordaniens Stellung in Nahen Osten. Munich, 1975 Seton, C. R. W., Legislation of Transjordan, 1918-30. London, 1931. [Continued by the Government of Jordan as an annual publication: Jordan Legislation. Amman, 1932 ff.] Toni, Y. T.,and Mousa, S., Jordan: Land and People. Amman, 1973

KENYA

Capital: Nairobi Population: 20 03m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$280 (1985)

Jamhuri ya Kenya H I S T O R Y . Until Kenya became independent on 12 Dec. 1963, it consisted of the colony and the protectorate. The protectorate comprised the mainland dominions of the Sultan of Zanzibar, viz., a coastal strip of territory 10 miles wide, to the northern branch of the Tana River; also Mau, Kipini and the Island of Lamu, and all adjacent islands between the rivers Umba and Tana. The Sultan on 8 Oct. 1963 ceded the coastal strip to Kenya with effect from 12 Dec. 1963. The colony and protectorate, formerly known as the East African Protectorate were, on 1 April 1905, transferred from the Foreign Office to the Colonial Office and in Nov. 1906 the protectorate was placed under the control of a governor and C.-in-C. and (except the Sultan of Zanzibar's dominions) was annexed to the Crown as from 23 July 1920 under the name of the Colony of Kenya, thus becoming a Crown Colony. The territories on the coast became the Kenya Protectorate. A Treaty was signed (15 July 1924) with Italy under which Great Britain ceded to Italy the Juba River and a strip from 50 to 100 miles wide on the British side of the river. Cession took place on 29 June 1925. The northern boundary is defined by an agreement with Ethiopia in 1947. A Constitution conferring internal selfgovernment was brought into force on 1 June 1963, and full independence was achieved on 12 Dec. 1963. On 12 Dec. 1964 Kenya became a republic. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kenya is bounded by Sudan and Ethiopia in the north, Uganda in the west, Tanzania in the south and the Somali Republic and the Indian ocean in the east. The total area is 224,960 sq. miles (582,600 sq. km), of which 219,790 sq. miles is land area. In the 1979 census, the population was 15,327,061, of which 15,100,000 were Africans, 78,600 Asians, 39,900 Europeans, 39,140 Arabs. Estimate (1987) 20 03m. Population of the provinces (1979): Rift Valley, 3-24m.; Eastern, 2,719,000; Nyanza, 2,643,000; Central, 2,345,000; Coast, 1,342,000; Western, 1,832,000; Nairobi district, 835,000; North-Eastern, 373,000. Nairobi is the capital, and the 1979 census showed a population of 827,775. Estimate (1985) 827,800. Population of the largest towns: Mombasa, 341,000; Kisumu, 152,600; Nakuru, 92,900; Machakos, 84,000; Meru, 70,000; Eldoret, 51,000; Thika, 41,000. A new town is being developed (in 1981) at Bura, which will be the centre of a production area using irrigated water from the Tana river. Kiswahili is the official language, but 21 % speak Kikuyu as their mother tongue, 14% Luhya, 12% Luo, 11% Kamba, 11% Kalenjin, 6% Gusii, 6% Meru and 5% Mijikenda. English is spoken in commercial centres. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with wet and dry seasons, but considerable differences in altitude make for varied conditions between the hot, coastal lowlands and the plateau, where temperatures are very much cooler. Heaviest rains occur in April and May, but in some parts there is a second wet season in Nov. and Dec. Nairobi. Jan. 65°F (18-3°C), July 60°F (156°C). Annual rainfall 39" (958 mm). Mombasa. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 76°F (24 4°C). Annual rainfall 4 7 " (1,201 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . There is a unicameral National Assembly of 172 members, comprising 158 elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term, 12 members appointed by the President, and the Speaker and Attorney-General ex-officio. The President is also directly elected for 5 years; he 763

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KENYA

appoints a Vice-President and other Ministers to a Cabinet over which he presides. The sole legal political party is the Kenya African National Union (KANU). Elections are due on 21 March 1988. President of the Republic: Daniel T. arap Moi (elected 1978, re-elected 1983). Vice-President and Home Affairs: Mwai Kibaki. Foreign Affairs: Zachary Onyonka. Planning and NationalDevelopment: Dr John Onko. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of black, red, green, with the red edged in white; bearing in the centre an African shield in black and white with 2 crossed spears behind. Administration. The country is divided into the Nairobi Area and 7 provinces and there are 40 districts. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured, 1 armoured reconnaissance, 6 infantry, 2 artillery, 1 parachute, 1 independent air cavalry and 2 engineer battalions. Equipment includes 76 Vickers Mk 3 main battle tanks. 40 Hughes Defender helicopters, of which 15 are armed with TOW missiles and 8 new Hughes 530 helicopters. Total strength (1988) 13,000. Navy. The Navy in 1988 consists of 2 new British built missile armed fast attack craft, 4 British built smaller missile armed attack craft, 3 British built patrol craft, 2 patrol boats and 1 tug. Personnel totalled 350 officers and ratings. The base is at Mombasa which has a dry dock with a capacity of 18,000 tons. There are also 2 British-built small marine police cutters, and up to 15 larger customs/police craft are planned. Air Force. An air force, formed 1 June 1964, was built up with R A F assistance and is under Army command. Equipment includes 11 F-5E/F-5F supersonic combat aircraft/trainers, 12 Hawk and 5 BAC 167 Strikemaster light jet attack/trainers, 8 twin-turboprop Buffaloes for transport, air ambulance, anti-locust spraying and security duties, 8 Skyservant light twins, 12 Bulldog piston-engined primary trainers and Puma, Gazelle and Alouette helicopters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kenya is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-88 development plan aimed at an average annual growth rate of 6-3%. In 1984 GDP grew by 0-9% (agriculture declining by 3 -7%; manufacture increasing by 4 • 3% and distribution by 4%). Budget. Ordinary revenue and expenditure for 1986-87: Revenue, KSh.28,456m.; expenditure, KSh.38,962m. Currency. The monetary unit is the Kenya Shilling divided into 100 cents', 20 shillings = K£l. Notes of the Central Bank of Kenya are circulated in denominations of KSh.5, 10,20,50 and 100 and coins in denominations of 5, lOand 50 cents and KSh.l and 5. Currency in circulation at March 1986: Notes, K£296,121,000; coins, K£9 -4m. In March 1988, £ 1 = 30 Shilling, US$ 1 = 15 • 87 Shilling. Banking. Banks operating in Kenya: The National & Grindlays Bank International, Ltd; the Standard Bank, Ltd; Barclays Bank of Kenya Ltd; Algemene Bank Nederland NV; Bank of India, Ltd; Bank of Baroda, Ltd; Habib Bank (Overseas), Ltd; Commercial Bank of Africa, Ltd; Citibank; The Co-operative Bank of Kenya, Ltd; National Bank of Kenya, Ltd; Agricultural Finance Corporation; The Kenya Commercial Bank; The Central Bank of Kenya. In Jan. 1985 there were 43 non-bank finance institutions. The Kenya Post Office Savings Bank, a state savings bank established in 1978,

KENYA

765

had 1,250,000 ordinary savings accounts with total deposits of KSh.750m. at 31 Dec. 1984. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed generating capacity was 544 mw in 1986; two-thirds was provided by hydropower from power stations on the Tana river, 30% by oil-fired power stations and the rest by geothermal power. Production (1986) 1,950m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Production, 1985 (in K£1,000): Soda ash, 13,002; fluorspar ore, 3,550; salt, 1,029; gold, 6 1 1 . Other minerals included raw soda, lime and limestone, diatomite, garnets and vermiculite. Agriculture. As agriculture is possible from sea-level to altitudes of over 9,000 ft, tropical, sub-tropical and temperate crops can be grown and mixed farming can be advocated. Four-fifths of the country is range-land which produces mainly livestock products and wild game which constitutes the major attraction of the country's tourist industry. The main areas of crop production are the Central, Rift Valley, Western and Nyanza Provinces and parts of Eastern and Coastal Provinces. Coffee, tea, sisal, pyrethrum, maize and wheat are crops of major importance in the Highlands, while coconuts, cashew nuts, cotton, sugar, sisal and maize are the principal crops grown at the lower altitudes. All production in 1984 was affected by drought but good seasonal rains returned for the 1985 crop year and output grew by 3 -5%. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes), of principal food crops: Maize, 2,650; wheat, 250; rice, 35; barley, 50; millet, 50; sorghum, 100; potatoes, 650; sweet potatoes, 280; cassava, 400; sugar-cane, 3,960. Main cash crops (1985-86): Tobacco, 9,000; coffee, 115; tea, 147; vegetables, 439; fruit, 670; flowers. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 9m.; sheep, 7 1 m . ; goats, 8-5m.; pigs, 98,000; poultry, 21m. Forestry. The total area of gazetted forest reserves in Kenya amounts to 16,800 sq. km, of which the greater part is situated between 6,000 and 11,000 ft above sealevel, mostly on Mount Kenya, the Aberdares, Mount Elgon, Tinderet, Londiani, Mau watershed, Elgeyo and Charangani ranges. These forests may be divided into coniferous, broad-leaved or hardwood and bamboo forests. The upper parts of these forests are mainly bamboo, which occurs mostly between altitudes of 8,000 and 10,000 ft and occupies some 10% of the high-altitude forests. Production (1985): Softwood, 407,000 cu. metres; hardwood, 542,000. Fisheries. Landings in 1985 were 99,764 tonnes of fresh water fish, 5,777 tonnes of marine fish, 274 tonnes of crustaceans and 158 tonnes of other marine products; total value K£15,588,500. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1986 industry accounted for some 13% of G D P and employed about one-fifth of the wage-earning labour force. The main activities were textiles, chemicals, vehicle assembly and transport equipment, leather and footwear, printing and publishing, food and tobacco processing. An important sub-sector was the refining of crude petroleum at Mombasa. Commerce. Total domestic exports (1984, provisional) K£745m.; imports K £ l , l 16m. Chief imports in 1984 were petroleum and petroleum products (31 • l%of total), industrial supplies (26-4%), machinery and other capital equipment (16-9%), food and drink (10-7%) and transport equipment (10-4%). Chief exports were coffee (27%), tea (25-1%) and petroleum products (18-3%). By 1986 fresh vegetables, fruits and flowers became the fourth largest foreign exchange earner. Imports in 1985 were mainly from the U K (14-7%), Saudi Arabia (12-3%), Japan (10%), Federal Republic of Germany (8%) and USA (6 - 8%). Exports were mainly to the UK(17-8%), Federal Republic of Germany (11 -4%), Uganda (9 1%), USA (7 • 1 %) and Pakistan (5 -8%).

766

KENYA

Total trade between Kenya and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 128,464 111,249

1984 203,243 176,061

1985 185,622 160,651

1986 163,745 170,671

1987 129,236 199,059

Tourism. In 1986, about 604,000 tourists visited Kenya and spent KSh.4,960m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 6,540 km of bitumen surfaced roads and 47,037 km of gravel-surfaced roads. Railways. On 11 Feb. 1977 the independent Kenya Railways Corporation was formed following break-up of the East African Railways administration. The network totals 2,654 km of metre-gauge. In 1985, the railways carried l-9m. passengers and 3 -2m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. Total number of passengers handled at the 3 main aiiports (1984) was 2,058,000. Jomo Kenyatta Airport, Nairobi, handles nearly 30 international airlines as well as Kenya Airways. Shipping. A national shipping service is planned (1984) to be based in Mombasa, the Kenyan main port at Kilindini on the Indian Ocean. The port handles cargo freight both for Kenya as well as for the neighbouring East African states. The Port Authority also runs a modern harbour college. Post and Broadcasting. The Voice of Kenya operates 2 national services (SwahiliEnglish) from Nairobi and regional services in Kisumu, Nairobi and Mombasa. The television service provides programmes mainly in English and Swahili. A new television station opened in Mombasa in 1970. Telephones (1983)216,674. Cinemas (1971). Cinemas numbered 32, with seating capacity of 18,800. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The courts of justice comprise the High Court, established in 1921, with full jurisdiction both civil and criminal over all persons and all matters in Kenya, including Admiralty jurisdiction arising on the high seas and elsewhere, and Subordinate Courts. The High Court has its headquarters at Nairobi and consists of the Chief Justice and 24 puisne judges; it sits continuously at Nairobi, Mombasa, Nakuru and Kisumu; civil and criminal sessions are held regularly at Eldoret, Nyeri, Meru, Kitale, Kisii and Kericho. The Subordinate Courts are presided over by Senior Resident, Resident or District Magistrates and are established in the main centres of all districts. They sit throughout the year. There are also Moslem Subordinate Courts established in areas where the local population is predominantly Moslem; they are presided over by Kadhis and exercise limited jurisdiction in matters governed by Moslem law. Religion. In 1987, the Roman Catholic Church had nearly 6m. adherents (27% of the population), Protestants 4m. (19%) and other Christian churches over 6m. (27%), while Islam had l-3m. (6%), traditional tribal religions 4m. (19%) and others 400,000 (2%). Education. Primary (1983). 11,966 primary schools with 4-3m. pupils and 82,983 teachers. Secondary (1983). There were 2,230 secondary schools with a total enrolment of 494,000 and 8,797 teachers. Technical(1983). 18 technical colleges with 9,258 pupils and 368 teachers. Teacher training (1982). 14,000 students were training as teachers in 20 colleges with 900 lecturers. Higher Education. The University of Nairobi was inaugurated on 10 Dec. 1970 and provides courses in arts, science, education, agriculture, medicine, art, archi-

KENYA

767

tecture, engineering, veterinary, law and domestic science. In 1983 there were 8,761 students and 928 lecturers. Moi University opened in 1985 with 90 students. Health. In 1981 beds in hospitals (including mission hospitals) totalled 28,108. 1,328 health centres, including sub-centres and dispensaries, were in operation. Free medical service for all children and adult out-patients was launched in 1965. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Kenya in Great Britain (24-2 5 New Bond St., London, W1Y 9HD) High Commissioner: Dr Sally J. Kosgei. Of Great Britain in Kenya (Bruce Hse., Standard St., Nairobi) High Commissioner: J. R. Johnson, CMG. Of Kenya in the USA (2249 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: SospeterO. Mageto. Of the USA in Kenya (Moi/Haile Selassie Ave., Nairobi) Ambassador: Elinor G. Constable. Of Kenya to the United Nations Ambassador: Raphael Muli Kiilu. Books of Reference Kenya Development Plan, 1984-88. Nairobi, 1984 Kenya Economic Survey, 1983. Nairobi, 1984 Statistical Abstract. Government Printer, Nairobi, 1982 Standard English-Swahili Dictionary. Ed. Inter-territorial Language Committee of East Africa. 2 vols. London, 1939 Who's Who in Kenya 1982-1983. London, 1983 Arnold, G., Kenyatta and the Politics of Kenya. London, 1974.—Modern Kenya. London, 1982 Bienen, H., Kenya: The Politics of Participation and Control. Princeton Univ. Press, 1974 Bigsten, A., Education and Income Distribution in Kenya. Brookfield, Vermont, 1984 Bolton, K., Haramble Country: A Guide to Kenya. London, 1970 Collison, R. L., Kenya. [Bibliography] London and Santa Barbara, 1982 Harbeson, J. W., Nation-Building in Kenya: The Role of Land Reform. Northwestern Univ. Press, 1973 Hazlewood, A., The Economy of Kenya: The Kenyatta Era. OUP, 1980 Langdon, S. W., Multinational Corporations in the Political Economy of Kenya. London, 1981 Miller, N. N., Kenya, the Quest for Prosperity. Boulder and London, 1984 Tomkinson, M., Kenya: A Holiday Guide. 5th ed. London and Hammamet, 1981

Capital: Tarawa Population: 66,250 ( 1987) GNPper capita: US$390 (1985)

KIRIBATI

H I S T O R Y . The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were proclaimed a protectorate in 1892 and annexed (at the request of the native governments) as the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony on 10 Nov. 1915 (effective on 12 Jan. 1916). On 1 Oct. 1975 the former Ellice Islands severed its constitutional links with the Gilbert Islands and took a new name Tuvalu. Internal self-government was obtained on 1 Nov. 1976 and independence achieved on 12 July 1979 as the Republic of Kiribati. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kiribati (pronounced Kiribass) consists of 3 groups of coral atolls and one isolated volcanic island, spread over a large expanse of the Central Pacific with a total land area of 7 1 7 1 sq. km (276 -9 sq. miles). It comprises Banaba or Ocean Island (5 sq. km), the 16 Gilbert Islands (295 sq. km), the 8 Phoenix Islands (55 sq. km), and 8 of the 11 Line Islands (329 sq.km), the other 3 Line Islands (Jarvis, Palmyra and Kingman Reef) being uninhabited dependencies of the US. Population, 1985 census, 63,848; estimate (1987) 66,250. Banaba, all 16 Gilbert Islands, and 3 atolls in the Line Islands (Teraina, Tabuaeran and Kiritimati—formerly Washington, Fanning and Christmas Islands respectively) are inhabited; their populations in 1985 (census) were as follows: Banaba (Ocean Is.) 189 Makin 1,777 Butaritari 3,622 Marakei 2,693 Abaiang 4,386 Tarawa 24,598 Maiana 2,141

Abemama Kuria Aranuki Nonouti Tabiteuea Beru Nikunau

2,966 1,052 984 2,930 4,493 2,702 2,061

Onotoa Tamana Arorae Phcenix Island Teraina Tabuaeran Kiritimati

1,927 1,348 1,470 24 416 445 1,737

The remaining 13 atolls have no permanent population; the 8 Phoenix Islands comprise Birnie, Rawaki (formerly Phoenix), Enderbury, Kanton (or Abariringa), Manra (formerly Sydney), Orona (formerly Hull), McKean and Nikumaroro (formerly Gardner), while the others are Maiden and Starbuck in the Central Line Islands and Caroline, Flint and Vostok in the Southern Line Islands. The population is almost entirely Micronesian. C L I M A T E . The Line Islands, Phoenix Islands and Banaba have a maritime equatorial climate, but the islands further north and south are tropical. Annual and daily ranges of temperature are small and mean annual rainfall ranges from 50" (1,250 mm) near the equator to 120" (3,000 mm) in the north. Tarawa. Jan. 83°F (28 • 3°C), July 82°F (27 • 8°C). Annual rainfall 79" (1,977 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the independence Constitution the republic has a unicameral legislature, comprising 36 members elected from 20 constituencies for a 4-year term. The Beretitenti (President) is both Head of State and of Government. In Sept. 1985 the government was composed as follows: President and Foreign Affairs: Ieremia Tabai, GCMG. Vice-President, Home Affairs and Decentralization: Teatao Teannaki. Trade, Industry and Labour: Teewe Arobati. Finance: Boanareke Boanareke. Health and Family Planning: Binata Tetaeka. Natural Resource Development: Babera Kirata, OBE. Education: Baitika Toum. Communications: Taomati Iuta, OBE. Minister for the Line and Phcenix Group of Islands: Uera Rabaua. Works and Energy: Tiwau Awira. Attorney-General: Michael Takabwebwe. National flag: Red, with blue and white wavy lines in base, and in the centre a gold rising sun and a flying frigate bird. 768

769

KIRIBATI

National anthem: Teirake Kain Kiribati. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kiribati is a member of the Commonwealth, South Pacific Forum and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Budget estimates for 1985 show revenue, $A16,243,000; principal items: fishing licences, $A2,178,000; customs duties, $A3,400,000; direct taxation, $A920,000. Expenditure amounted to $A 16,243,000. Currency. The currency in use is the Australian dollar. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power production (1986) was 8m. kwh. Minerals. Phosphate production was discontinued in 1979. Agriculture. Land under agriculture and permanant cultivation, 50-7%; forest, 2-8%; other, 46-5%. The land is basically coral reefs upon which coral sand has built up, and then been enriched by humus from rotting vegetation and flotsam which has drifted ashore. The principal tree is the coconut, which grows prolifically on all the islands except some of the Phoenix Islands. Other food-bearing trees are the pandanus palm and the breadfruit. As the amount of soil is negligible, the only vegetable which grows in any quantity is a coarse calladium (alocasia) with the local name 'babai', which is cultivated most laboriously in deep pits. Pigs and fowls are kept throughout Kiribati. Copra production is mainly in the hands of the individual landowner, who collects the coconut products from the trees on his own land. Production (1986) 12,000 tonnes; coconuts, 90,000 tonnes. Livestock(1986): Pigs, 10,000; poultry (1982), 163,000. Fisheries. Tuna fishing is an important industry and licenses have been granted to USSR fleets. T R A D E . The principal imports (1984, in A$lm.) are: Machinery and transport equipment, 8-5; food, 5-5; manufactured goods, 3-1; fuels, 2-25. The value of exports for 1981 amounted to $A3 -6m. Exports are almost exclusively copra. Total trade between Kiribati and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1985 209 775

1986 4 179

¡987 8 301

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 640 km of roads, of which 483 km suitable for vehicles. Shipping. The main port is at Betio (Tarawa). Other ports of entry are Christmas Island and Banaba. In 1980,71 vessels were handled at Betio. Aviation. Air Tungaru is the national carrier. It operates services from Tarawa to the other 15 outer Islands in the Gilbertese Group, services varying between one and four flights each week. There is a charter service weekly to Christmas Island, in the Line Islands, which continues to Honolulu. A fortnightly service operates to Funafuti and weekly to Majuro and Nandi. Air Nauru has a weekly flight between Nauru and Tarawa. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,400 telephones in 1984. Radio Tarawa transmits daily in English and I-Kiribati. A telephone line to Australia was installed in 1981. There were (1983 estimate) 10,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 5 cinemas with a seating capacity of 2,000.

770

KIRIBATI

Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 bi-lingual weekly newspaper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1985 Kiribati had a police force of 236 under the command of a Commissioner of Police. The Commissioner of Police is also responsible for prisons, immigration, fire service (both domestic and airport) and firearms licensing. Religion. The majority of the population belong to the Roman Catholic or Protestant (Congregational) church; there are small numbers of Seventh-day Adventist, Mormons, Baha'i and Church of God. Education. In 1985 the government maintained boarding school had an enrolment of 467 pupils and there were 108 primary schools, with a total of 13,308 pupils, 5 secondary schools with 970 pupils, and 2 community high schools with 587 pupils. The Government also maintains a teachers' training college with 90 students in 1985 and a marine training school which offers training for about 70 merchant seamen each year. The Tarawa Technical Institute at Betio offers a variety of parttime and evening technical and commercial courses and had 461 students in 1985. In 1978, 120 islanders were in overseas countries for secondary and further education or training. Welfare. Government maintains free medical and other services. There are few towns, and the people are almost without exception landed proprietors, thus eliminating child vagrancy and housing problems to a large extent, except in the Tarawa urban area. Destitution is almost unknown. There were 16 doctors in 1986. There is a general hospital on Tarawa and dispensaries on other islands, with 283 beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Kiribati in Great Britain High Commissioner: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Kiribati (Tarawa) High Commissioner: Charles Thompson. Of Kiribati in the USA Ambassador: Atenroi Ba'teke, OBE (resides in Tarawa). Books of Reference Kiribati, Aspects of History. Univ. ofSouth Pacific, 1979 Bailey,E., The Christmas Island Story. London, 1977 Cowell,R., Structure of Giibertese. Suva, 1950 Grimble, Sir Arthur, A Pattern of Islands. London, 1953.—Return to the Islands. London, 1957 Maude, H. E., Of Islands and Men. London, 1968.—Evolution of the Giibertese Boti. Suva, 1977 Sabatier, E., Astride the Equator. Melbourne, 1978 Whincup, T.,Nareau's Nation. London, 1979

ICORFA

Capital: Seoul Population A\ -8m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$2,850 (1987)

Han Kook

HISTORY. Korea was united in a single kingdom under the Silla dynasty from 668. China, which claimed a vague suzerainty over Korea, recognized Korea's independence in 1895. Korea concluded trade agreements with the USA (1882), Great Britain, Germany (1883). After the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 Korea was virtually a Japanese protectorate until it was formally annexed by Japan on 29 Aug. 1910 thus ending the rule oftheYi dynasty which had begun in 1392. Following the collapse of Japan in 1945, American and Russian forces entered Korea to enforce the surrender of the Japanese troops there, dividing the country for mutual military convenience into two portions separated by the 38th parallel of latitude. Negotiations between the Americans and Russians regarding the future of Korea broke down in May 1946. On 25 June 1950 the North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. The same day, the Security Council of the United Nations asked all member states to render assistance to the Republic of Korea. When the UN forces had reached the Manchurian border Chinese troops entered the war on the side of the North Koreans on 26 Nov. 1950 and penetrated deep into the south. By the beginning of April 1951, however, the UN forces had regained the 38th parallel. On 23 June 1951 Y. A. Malik, President of the Security Council, suggested a cease-fire, and on 10 July representatives of Gen. Ridgway met representatives of the North Koreans and of the Chinese Volunteer Army. An agreement was signed on 27 July 1953. For the contributions of member-nations of the United Nations to the war, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1954,p. 1195,and 1956,p. 1180. On 16 Aug. 1953 the USA and Korea signed a mutual defence pact and on 28 Nov. 1956a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation. On 4 July 1972 it was announced in Seoul and Pyongyang (North Korea) that talks had taken place aimed at 'the peaceful unification of the fatherland as early as possible'. In Nov. 1984 agreement was reached to form a joint economic committee. A North Korean-UN agreement of 6 Sept. 1976 established a joint security area 850 metres in diameter, divided into 2 equal parts to ensure the separation of the two sides. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . South Korea is bounded north by the demilitarized zone (separating it from North Korea), east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Korea Strait (separating it from Japan) and west by the Yellow Sea. The area was (1985) 99,022 sq. km (38,232 sq. miles). The population (census, 1 Nov. 1985) was 40,466,577 (male, 20,280,857). Estimate (1987) 41,826,706. The areas (in sq. km) and 1985 census populations of the Regions were as follows: Region Seoul (city) Pusan (city) Taegu(city) Inchon (city) Kyonggi Kangwon North Chungchong

sq. km 627 433 455 201 10,875 16,894 7,430

1985 9,645,824 3,516,768 2,030,649 1,387,475 4,794,240 1,726,029 1,391,084

Region South Chungchong North Cholla South Cholla North Kyongsang South Kyongsang Cheju 771

sq. km 8,807 8,052 12,189 19,427 11,850 1,825

1985 3,001,538 2,202,218 3,748,442 3,013,276 3,519,121 489,458

772

KOREA

The chief cities (populations, census 1985) are: Seoul Pusan Taegu Inchon

9,645,824 3,516,768 2,030,649 1,387,475

Kwangchu Taejon Ulsan Puch'on

905,896 866,303 551,219 456,311

Masan Seongnam Suweon Chonchu

449,236 447,832 430,827 426,490

C L I M A T E . The extreme south has a humid warm temperate climate while the rest of the country experiences continental temperate conditions. Rainfall is concentrated in the period April to Sept. and ranges from 4 0 " (1,020 mm) to 6 0 " (1,520 mm). Pusan. Jan. 36°F (2-2°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,407 mm). Seoul. Jan. 23°F(-5°C), July 77°F(25°C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,250 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was approved by national referendum in Oct. 1987 and came into force on 25 Feb. 1988. It provides for a President, to be directly elected for a single 7-year term (by an electoral college of 5,271 directly-elected members), a State Council of ministers whom he appoints and leads, and a National Assembly (276 members) directly elected for 4 years (184 from 2-member constituencies and 92 by proportional representation). TTie National Assembly elected on 25 March 1981 comprised 151 members of the Democratic Justice Party, 81 Democratic Korea Party, 25 Korean National Party, 8 from other parties and 11 independents. President of the Republic: Roh Tae-woo (took office 25 Feb. 1988). The Cabinet at Feb. 1988 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Lee Hyun-jae. Deputy Prime Minister and Economic Planning: Rha Woong-bae. Foreign Affairs: Choi Kwang-soo. Home Affairs: Lee Sang-hee. Finance: SaKong-II. Justice: Chung Hae-chang. National Defence: Oh Ja-bok. Education: Kim Youngsik. Sports: Cho Sang-ho. Agriculture, Forestry-Fisheries: Yun Kun-hwan. Trade and Industry: Ahn Byong-wha. Energy and Resources: Lee Bong-suh. Construction: Choe Dong-sup. Health and Social Affairs: Kwon E-hyock. Labour Affairs: Choi Myung-hun. Transportation: Rhee Bomb-june. Communications: Oh Myung. Culture and Information: Chung Han-mo. Government Administration: Kim Yong-kap. Science and Technology: Lee Kwan. National Unification: Lee Hong-koo. Second State Minister for Political Affairs: Cho Kyung-hee. Office of Legislation: Hyun Hong-choo. Patriots and Veterans Affairs Agency: Juhn Suk-hong. Nationalflag: White charged in the centre with the yang-um in red and blue and with 4 black pal-kwar trigrams. Local government: South Korea is divided into 9 provinces (Do) and 4 cities with provincial status (Seoul, Pusan, Taegu and Inchon); the provinces are sub-divided into 139 districts (Gun) and 57 cities (Si). D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 30-36 months in all services. Army. The Army is organized in 19 infantry divisions, 2 mechanized infantry divisions, 7 independent special forces brigades, 2 anti-aircraft artillery brigades, 2 surface-to-air missile brigades, 1 army aviation brigade and 2 surface-to-surface battalions. Equipment includes 350 M-47 and 950 M-48A5 main battle tanks. Army aviation equipment includes about 200 Hughes 500 and 8 AH-1G Huey Cobra helicopters for anti-armour operations, observation and liaison, plus 60 UH-1 Iroquois transport helicopters. Strength (1988) 542,000, with a Regular Army Reserve of 1 -4m. and a Homeland Reserve Defence Force of 3-3m. Paramilitary Civilian Defence Corps, 3 • 5m. Navy. The Fleet comprises 2 new very small submarines (built in South Korea), 2 indigenously built modem frigates, 11 aged (1943-46) ex-US destroyers, 4 equally old ex-US frigates (former fast transports, ex-destroyer escorts), 4 new missile

KOREA

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corvettes, 12 gun corvettes, 11 fast missile patrol craft, 65 fast attack craft, 10 fast gunboats, 3 coastal patrol boats, 8 coastal minesweepers, 8 landing ships, 7 medium landing craft, 20 utility landing craft, 1 repair ship, 7 surveying vessels, 2 salvage ships, 4 supply ships, 6 oilers, 13 auxiliary ships, 35 service craft, and 2 tugs. Nearly all South Korea's naval vessels are ex-US ships. The Navy has a small aviation element with 20 S-2A/F Tracker anti-submarine aircraft. Ten 500MD helicopters and 12 Alouette helicopters are operated by the Marine Corps. It was reported that the first submarine built in South Korea entered service in 1983. Probably the first of a class of four or five, she displaces only 175 tons. The South Korean Coastguard operates 25 small ships and over 200 light vessels including rescue craft and tugs. Personnel in 1988 totalled 29,000 in the Navy; plus 25,000 in the Marine Corps. Air Force. With a 1988 strength of about 33,000 men, the Air Force is undergoing rapid expansion with U S assistance. Its combat aircraft include 36 F-16C/D Fighting Falcons being delivered in 1986-87, about 75 F-4D/E Phantoms, 78 F-5A/B tactical fighters, more than 200 F-5E/F tactical fighters (being delivered from local production), 20 OV-IO Bronco light strike aircraft, 6 RF-5A reconnaissance fighters, 10 0 - 2 A forward air control aircraft and 10 Hughes 500-D Defender helicopters. There are also 10 C-54 and 10 C-123 piston-engined transports, 2 HS.748s, 1 Boeing 737 and 1 DC-6 for VIP transport; UH-1, Bell 212 and Bell 412 transport helicopters, and T-41, T-28, T-33 and T-37C trainers. ECONOMY Planning. The fifth 5-year social and economic plan (1982-86) was revised in 1983 to aim at an annual growth rate of 7 • 5% from 1984-86. Budget. The 1986 budget balanced at 13,800,000m. won of which 31 % defence and 20% education. Currency. Notes are issued by the Bank of Korea in denominations of 10,000, 5,000, 1,000 and 500 won and coin in denominations of 500, 100, 50, 10, 5 and 1 won. The exchange rate is determined daily by the Bank of Korea. In March 1988, 761 won=US$1; 1,347-38 won=£ 1 sterling. Banking. State-run banks include the Bank of Korea, the Korean Development Bank, the Medium & Small Industry Bank, the Citizen's National Bank, the Korea Exchange Bank, the National Agricultural Co-operatives Federation, the Federation of Fisheries Co-operatives serving as banking and credit institutions for farmers and fishermen, the Korea Housing Bank, the Export and Import Bank of Korea. There are 5 commercial banks: the Bank of Seoul & Trust Co. Ltd, the Cho Heung Bank Ltd, the Commercial Bank of Korea, the Korea First Bank, the Hanil Bank, Ltd, the Taegu Bank Ltd. The Bank of Korea is the central bank and the only note-issuing bank, the authorized purchaser of domestically produced gold. In addition, there are non-bank financial institutions consisting of 19 insurance companies, the Land Bank of Korea, the Credit Guarantee Fund, 10 short-term financial companies, 211 mutual credit companies, and the Merchant Banking Corporation. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Electricity generated (1986) was 65,000m. kwh. Supply 100 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. The KODECO Energy Co. and the Indonesian state-run oil company Pertamin are developing an oil field off the coast of Indonesia's Madura Island. KODECO began drilling operations in 1982 and began producing oil in Sept. 1985 from the Madura field, which contains 2 2 - l m . bbls of proven oil deposits. The state-run Korean Petroleum Development Corp. (PEDCO) and the US company Hadson Petroleum International are exploring for oil in the southern part of the

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KOREA

Fifth Continental Shelf oil mining block off the coast of the Korean Peninsula. Oil worth US$6,490m. was imported in 1985. Minerals. Mineral deposits are mostly small, with the exception of tungsten; the Sangdong mine is one of the world's largest deposits of tungsten. Output, 1985, included (in tonnes): Anthracite coal, 22-4m.; iron ore, 670,000; tungsten ore, 4,643; kaolin, 634,202; copper ore, 1,228; lead ore, 18,947; gold, 2,345; silver, 126,133; zinc ore, 92,509. Agriculture. The arable land in South Korea comprised 2,144,000 hectares in 1985, of which 1,325,000 hectares were rice paddies and 819,000 hectares dry fields. Production (1985, in 1,000 tonnes) of rice was 5,262; of total crops from dry fields, 1,364, including barley, 584; of cash crops: Vegetables, 7,083; fruits, 1,463. Output of tobacco manufactures, a government monopoly, was 94,524 tonnes in 1983. In 1986 cattle numbered2,864,000; pigs, 2,853,000; poultry, 52m. Fisheries. Fishery exports (1985) US$960m. In 1985,603 Korean deep-sea fishing vessels were operating overseas. In 1982, there was a total of 86,515 boats (808,570 gross tons). The fish catch (inland and marine) was 2,990,000 tonnes in 1985. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing industry, which (1985) employed 3,654,000 persons, was concentrated primarily in 1985 on oil, petrochemical, chemical fibre, construction, iron and steel, cement, machinery, shipbuilding, automobile and electronics. Commerce. In 1986 the total exports were US$33,913m., while imports were US$29,707m. In 1985 USA provided 20-8% and Japan 24-3% of imports; USA received 35 • 5% of exports, Japan 15%. Major exports, 1985, included (in USSlm.): Heavy and chemical products, 16,466; light industrial products, 11,173. Major imports included: Crude oil and raw materials, 17,400; capital goods, 11,079; grain and other goods, 1,637. Total trade between Korea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 443,819 219,406

1985 480,448 247,887

1986 661,975 288,421

1987 936,038 427,229

Tourism. In 1986 there were 1,659,000 foreign tourists. They spent about US$784m. in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 53,936 km of roads. In 1985 motor vehicles totalled 1,113,430 including 412,739 trucks, 128,309 buses, 556,659 passenger cars. Railways. In Dec. 1985, 6,285 km of railways existed, including 3,113-4 km of commercial railways, 441 km of which were electrified. In 1985 railways carried 519m. passengers and 58m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. In Dec. 1985, 35 countries maintained aviation agreement with Korea and had 34 air routes with 24 cities in 16 countries. The Ministry of Transportation opened Seoul-Kuala Lumpur-Bangkok cargo route and Seoul-Singapore-Bangkok and Cheju-Pusan-Tokyo passenger routes in 1985. In Dec. 1985 Korea had 108 commercial aircraft (46 Korean Air Lines passenger-cargo planes, 18 light planes and 35 helicopters). In 1985, 3-47m. passengers and 66,000 tons of cargo were carried on domestic routes and 4-41m. passengers on international routes. Shipping. In Dec. 1985, there were 24 first-grade ports and 22 second-grade ports, and 7,516,000 gross tons in various vessels. Of the total tonnage, national-flag ocean-going vessels accounted for 6,118,000 tons, chartered vessels for 966,000 tons and coastal passenger-cargo vessels for 432,000 tons. Passenger ships accounted for 43,000 tons, cargo vessels 5,954,000 tons and oil tankers 1,519,000.

KOREA

775

Post and Telecommunications. Post offices total 2,556 (1985); telephones (all government-owned) were 6,517,395 in 1985. The fourth satellite earth station was opened in Jan. 1985, bringing the number of communications circuits via satellite to 2,290. There were 4-73m. television receivers in 1985. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 452 with a seating capacity of400,000. Newspapers (1985). There were 25 daily papers, including 6 national dailies and 2 in English appearing in Seoul. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. Basically the religions of Korea have been Animism, Buddhism (introduced A.D. 372) and Confucianism, which was the official faith from 1392 to 1910. Catholic converts from China introduced Christianity in the 18th century, but the ban on Roman Catholics was not lifted until 1882. Christian population in 1983 was 6,927,833. Education. In 1985 Korea had 4,856,752 pupils enrolled in 6,519 elementary schools, 2,782,173 pupils in 2,371 middle schools and 2,152,802 pupils in 1,602 high schools (including 635 vocational schools). For higher education, 1,018,236 students attended 312 universities, colleges and junior colleges in 1985. There are 86 graduate schools granting master's degrees in 2 years and doctor's degrees in 4 years, where 14,274 students attended in 1985. An Open University was inaugurated in March 1982. The Korean language belongs to the Ural-Altaic group, is polysyllabic, agglutinative and highly developed syntactically. The modern Korean alphabet of 10 vowels and 14 consonants forms a script known as Hangul. Health. In 1985 there were 29,596 physicians, 3,789 oriental medical doctors, 5,436 dentists, 6,247 midwives, 59,104 nurses, and 29,866 pharmacists. There were 16,679 hospitals and clinics in 1985 with 74,365 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Korea in Great Britain (4 Palace Gate, London, W8 5NF) Ambassador: Jay Hee Oh (accredited 16 Dec. 1987). Of Great Britain in Korea (4 Chung-Dong, Chung-Ku, Seoul) Ambassador and Consul-General: Lawrence J. Middleton, CMG. Of Korea in the USA (2370 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Kim Kyong-Won. Of the USA in Korea (Sejong-Ro, Seoul) Ambassador: James R. Lilley. Books of Reference A Handbook of Korea. 4th ed. Seoul, 1982 Guide to Investment in Korea. Economic Planning Board. Seoul, 1980 Korea Annual 1983.20th ed. Seoul, 1983 Korea Statistical Year Book. Seoul, 1981 Major Economic Indicators, 1979-80. Seoul, 1980 Monthly Statistics of Korea. Seoul Hastings, M., The Korean War. London, 1987 Lew, H. J., New Life Korean-English, English-Korean Dictionary. 2 vols. Seoul, 1947-50 Martin, S. F. (ed.), A Korean-English Dictionary. Yale Univ. Press, 1968 Srivastava, M.P., The Korean Conflict: Search for Unification. New Delhi, 1982

NORTH

Capital: Pyongyang Population: 20-55m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,180 (1985)

KOREA

Chosun Minchu-chui Inmin Konghwa-guk

H I S T O R Y . In northern Korea the Russians, arriving on 8 Aug. 1945, one month ahead of the Americans, established a Communist-led 'Provisional Government'. The newly created Korean Communist Party merged in 1946 with the New National Party into the Korean Workers' Party. In July 1946 the KWP, with the remaining pro-Communist groups and non-party people, formed the United Democratic Patriotic Front. On 25 Aug. 1948 the Communists organized elections for a Supreme People's Assembly, both in Soviet-occupied North Korea (212 deputies) and in US-occupied South Korea (360 deputies, of whom a certain number went to the North and took their seats). A People's Democratic Republic was proclaimed on 9 Sept. 1948. Proposals for talks between North and South Korea on reunification began in 1980, but have repeatedly broken down. A series of North-South economic talks began in 1985, and an exchange of visits between divided families was held. Relations with the USSR have intensified since 1985. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . North Korea is bounded north by China, east by the sea of Japan, west by the Yellow Sea and south by South Korea, from which it is separated by a demilitarized zone of 1,262 sq km. Its area is 120,538 sq. km. Population estimate in 1986, 20-55m. Rate of population increase, 2-2% per annum. Death rate, 1979: 4-4 per mille. Marriage is discouraged before the age of 32 for men and 29 for women. Expectation of life in 1986 was 74 years. The capital is Pyongyang, with l -28m. inhabitants in 1981. Other large towns (with 1981 population): Hamhung (775,000); Chongjin (490,000); Kimchaek (formerly Songjin) (490,000); Wonsan (398,000); Sinuiju (305,000); Kaesong (259,000); Nampo (241,000); Haeju (213,000 in 1983). C L I M A T E . There is a warm temperate climate, though winters can be very cold in the north. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months. Pyongyang. Jan. 18°F (-7 -8°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 3 7 " (916 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The political structure is based upon the Constitution of 27 Dec. 1972. The Constitution provides for a Supreme People's Assembly elected every 4 years by universal suffrage. Citizens of 17 years and over can vote and be elected. Elections were held in 1948, 1957, 1962, 1972, 1977, 1982 and 2 Nov. 1986. At the latter it was claimed that 100% of the electorate voted for the list of single candidates presented. There are 655 deputies. The government consists of the Administration Council directed by the Central People's Committee (Secretary, Chi Chang Ik). In Nov. 1985 several Commissions were set up superordinate to ministries within the Council. In practice the country is ruled by the Korean Workers' (i.e., Communist) Party which elects a Central Committee which in turn appoints a Politburo. In March 1988 this was composed of: Marshal Kim II Sung, (General Secretary of the Party, President of the Republic, Chairman of the Central People's Committee, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forcesj; Kim Jong II (Kim II Sung's son and designated successor) (Vice-President of the Republic)', O Jin U (Defence Minister) (The latter 3 constituting the Politburo's Presidium); Kang Song San; Li Jong Ok (VicePresident of the Republic); Pak Sung Chul (Vice-President of the Republic); Rim Chun Chu (Vice-President of the Republic); So Choi; Kim Yong Nam (Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Minister)-, Kim Hwan; Yon Hyong Muk; O Guk Ryol; So Yun Sok; Li Gun Mo (Prime Ministerj; Ho Dam (Deputy Prime Ministerj; Hong 776

NORTH KOREA

777

Song N a m (First Deputy Prime Minister). There were also 10 candidate members. Ministers not full members of the Politburo include Kim Yun Hyok (Deputy Prime Minister)-, Yun Gi Jong (Finance)', Chong Song N a m (Foreign Economic Affairs)', Pak N a m Gi (Chairman, State Planning Commission)-, Rim Bok Sin; Chong Jun Gi, Kim Yun Hyok, Kim Chang Ju (Deputy Prime Ministers)-, Choe Jong G u n (Foreign Trade)-, Paek Hak Rim (Public Security). In 1981 the Party had some 2m. members. There are also the puppet religious Chongu and Korean Social Democratic Parties and various organizations combined in a Fatherland Front. National flag: Blue, red and blue horizontal stripes separated by narrow white bands. The red stripe bears a white circle within which is a red 5-pointed star. National anthem: 'A chi mun bin na ra i gang san' (Shine bright, o dawn, on this land so fair'). Words by Pak Se Yong; music by Kim Won Gyun. The country is divided into 13 administrative units: 4 cities (Pyongyang, Chongjin, Hamhung and Kaesong) and 9 provinces (capitals in brackets): South Pyongan (Nampo), North Pyongan (Sinuiju), Jagang (Kanggye), South Hwanghai (Haeju), North Hwanghai (Sariwon), North Kangwon (Wonsan), South Hamgyong (Hamheung), North Hamgyong (Chongjin), Yanggang (Hyesan). These are subdivided into 152 counties. Local government is administered by 26,539 deputies in People's Assemblies at city/province, county and commune level. The latest elections were on 15 Nov. 1987. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory at the age of 16 for periods of 5-8 years in the Army and Navy and 3 - 4 years in the Air Force. In 1987 defence spending was 22% of GNP. North Korea adhered to the 1968 Non-Proliferation Treaty on nuclear weapons in 1985. Army. The Army is organized in 2 armoured, 5 motorized infantry, 25 infantry and 2 anti-aircraft divisions; 8 armoured, 21 infantry and 25 special forces brigades; 250 artillery, 82 multiple-rocket-launcher and 6 surface-to-surface missile battalions. Equipment includes 2,900 T-34/-55/-62 and 175 Type-59 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 750,000, with 500,000 reserves. There is also a paramilitary militia of some 3m. men and a ranger commando force of 100,000. The militia (men of 18-40 not in the armed forces or reserves, single women of 18-30) is estimated at 3m. It was announced in Jan. 1988 that 100,000 troops had been demobilized. Navy. The Navy comprises 19 diesel-powered patrol submarines (15 ex-Chinese and indigenously-built and 4 ex-Soviet), 2 small frigates, 28 fast missile boats, 156 fast torpedo boats, 139 fast gunboats, 32 patrol vessels, 30 coastal patrol craft, 30 light gunboats, 8 medium landing ships, 25 utility landing craft, 20 mechanised landing craft, 100 small assault landing craft, 30 trawlers and auxiliaries, 2 exSoviet ocean tugs and 100 service craft. U p to 20 small submarines are reported as built locally with a dozen X-craft in commission. Personnel in 1988 totalled 33,000 officers and men with 40,000 reserves. Air Force. The Air Force had a total of about 854 combat aircraft and 55,000 personnel in 1987. Since 1985 the USSR has supplied 50 supersonic MiG-23 interceptors and 30 SA3 surface-to-air missiles. Other equipment is believed to include about 160 supersonic MiG-21 interceptors, more than 100 F-6s (Chinese-built MiG-19s), 250 MiG-17s for ground attack and reconnaissance, 30 Su-7 fighterbombers, 60 11-28 twin-jet light bombers, 250 AN-2 light transport aircraft, 40 Mi-4 and Mi-8 transport helicopters and 80 US Hughes 300 and 500 helicopters. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

North Korea is a member of W H O and an observer at U N .

778

NORTH

KOREA

ECONOMY Planning. For previous plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1987-88. After a hiatus it was announced in Oct. 1986 that a third 7-year plan would run from 1987 to 1993. Steel production targets have been reduced (to 10m. tonnes) and more emphasis placed on export items, non-ferrous metals and fishery products. Budget (in 1 m. won) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1982 22,680 22,204

1983 24,384 24,018

1 984 26,305 26,158

1 985 27,439 27,329

1 986 28,539 28,396

1 987 30,308 30,308

Defence spending was 13-8%ofthebudgetin 1987(14% in 1986). Local government revenue in 1987:4,185m. won; expenditure, 3,427m. won. Currency. The monetary unit is the won, divided into 100 jun. In March 1988, US$1 =0-94 won; £1 = 1-65 wo«. Tourist rate: US$1 =2-26 won. Weights and Measures. While the metric system is in force traditional measures are in frequent use. The jungbo = 1 hectare; the ri=3,927 metres. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 3 thermal power stations and 4 hydro-electric plants. A nuclear power plant is being built with Soviet help. Output in 1986, was 40,000m. kwh. Installed capacity was 6 1 1 m . kw in 1987. Hydro-electric potential exceeds 8m. kw. A hydro-electric plant and dam under construction on the Pukhan near Mount Kumgang has been denounced as a flood threat by the South Koreans, who are constructing a defensive 'Peace Dam' in retaliation. Oil. Oilwells went into production in 1957. An oil pipeline from China came on stream in 1976. Crude oil refining capacity was 70,000 barrels a year in 1986. Minerals. North Korea is rich in minerals. Estimated reserves in tonnes: Iron ore, 3,300m.; copper, 2 1 5 m . ; lead, 6m.; zinc, 12m.; coal, 11,990m.; uranium, 26m.; manganese, 6,500m. 37-5m. tonnes of coal were mined in 1986. 16m. tonnes of iron ore were extracted in 1984. Agriculture. In 1982 there were 2- lm. hectares of arable land, including 635 ,000 hectares of paddy fields. In 1982,38% of the population made a living from agriculture. Collectivization took place between 1954 and 1958.90% of the cultivated land is farmed by co-operatives. Land belongs either to the State or to co-operatives, and it is intended gradually to transform the latter into the former, but small individuallytended plots producing for 'farmers' markets' are tolerated as a 'transition measure'. Livestock farming is mainly carried on by large state farms. There is a large-scale tideland reclamation project. There were 37,600 km of irrigation canals in 1976, making possible 2 rice harvests a year. In 1982 there were 133,000 tractors (15 h.p. units). The technical revolution in agriculture (nearly 95% of ploughing, etc., is mechanized) has considerably increased the yield of grain (sown on 2-3m. jungbo of land); rice production, 1986, was 2m. tonnes, other grains, 4 • 83m. tonnes. 1,895,000 tonnes of potatoes were produced in 1986. Livestock, 1986:1,122,000 cattle,2-92m. pigs, 19m. poultry. Forestry. Between 1961 and 1970,800,000 hectares were afforested. Fisheries. Catch in 1983: 1 -6m. tonnes. There is a fishing fleet of 28,000 vessels including 19,000 motor vessels. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries were intensively developed by the Japanese, notably cotton spinning, hydro-electric power, cotton, silk and rayon weaving, and chemical fertilizers. Production (in tonnes) in 1982: Pig-iron, 4m.; crude steel, 4m.; rolled

NORTH

779

KOREA

steel, 3-2m.; lead, 30,000; zinc, 140,000; copper, 48,000; ship-building, 400,000; chemical fertilizers, 620,000; chemicals, 20,000; synthetic resins, 90,000; cement (1986), 9,040; textiles (1986), 600m. metres; woven goods, 600m. metres; shoes, 40m. pairs; motor-cars (1986), 20,000; TV sets (1986), 240,000; refrigerators, 10,000. Annual steel production capacity was 4-3m. tonnes in 1987. Labour. The economically-active population was 9m. in 1985. Industrial workers make up some 60% of the work force. Average monthly wage, 1984:90 won. Commerce. North Korea's largest trade partners have been USSR, China and Japan. Estimated exports, 1985: US$l,234-6m. (US$785-3m. to Communist countries); imports US$ 1,991 • 5m. (US$ 1,198 • 6m. from Communist countries). In Aug. 1987 140 Western banks declared North Korea in default on US$770m. in outstanding loans. In 1984 foreign debt was estimated at US$4,000m. (US$2,230m. to non-Communist countries). The chief exports are metal ores and products, the chief imports machinery and petroleum products. Joint ventures with foreign firms have been permitted since 1984. Trade with the USSR is based on 5-year agreements, the last of which was signed in 1986. Exports to the USSR in 1986 (and 1985) were worth 450-7m. (404-4m.) roubles; imports from the USSR, 757-2m. (654-8m.) roubles. Total trade between North Korea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 362 2,527

1984 456 2,935

1985 1,983 2,608

1986 1,374 3,331

1987 641 2,198

Tourism. A 40-year ban on non-Communist tourists was lifted in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 22,000 km of road in 1984, including 240 km of motorways. There were 180,000 motor cars in 1982. Railways. The two trunk-lines Pyongyang-Sinuiju and Pyongyang-Myongchon are both electrified, and the Pyongyang-Sariwon trunk is in course of electrification. The 'Wonra' line runs from Wonsan to Rajin and is electrified from Myongchon to Rajin and beyond to Tumangang. The Namdokchon-Toknam line was opened in 1983. Lines are under construction from Pukchong to Toksong, from Palwon to Kujang and Kanggye via Hyesan to Musan. The Hyesan-Samsok section of the latter opened to traffic in 1971. In 1988 there were 4,549 km of track, (2,706 km were electrified in 1984). In 1986, 89% of trains were hauled by electricity. In 1987 86% of all freight was transported by rail. A weekly service from Pyongyang to Beijing opened in 1983, and a twice-weekly service to Moscow in 1987. Aviation. There are services to Moscow, Khabarovsk, Beijing and Hong Kong. An agreement envisaging a service from Pyongyang to Tokyo was signed in 1986. There are domestic flights from Pyongyang to Hamhung and Chongjin. Shipping. The leading ports are Chongjin, Wonsan and Hungnam. Nampo, the port of Pyongyang, has been dredged and expanded. Pyongyang is connected to Nampo by railway and river. In 1987 the ocean-going merchant fleet numbered 71 vessels totalling 407,253 GRT. The biggest navigable river is the Yalu, 698 km up to the Hyesan district. Post and Broadcasting. There is a central TV station at Pyongyang and stations at Kaesong and Mansudae. In 1982 there were some 200,000 television receivers. The central broadcasting station is Radio Pyongyang. There are several local stations and a station for overseas broadcasts. There were some 10,000 telephones in 1983. Newspapers. There were 11 newspapers in 1984. The party newspaper is Nodong (or Rodong) Sinmun (Workers' Daily News). Circulation about 600,000.

780

NORTH

KOREA

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, whose judges are elected by the Assembly for 3 years; provincial courts; and city or county people's courts. The procurator-general, appointed by the Assembly, has supervisory powers over the judiciary and the administration; the Supreme Court controls the judicial administration. Religion. According to the 1972 Constitution 'The people shall enjoy the freedom of religion as well as the freedom of anti-religious propaganda'. There are 3 religious organizations: The Buddhist League, the Chondoist Society and the Christians' League. Education. Free compulsory universal technical education lasts 11 years: 1 preschool year, 4 years primary education starting at the age of 6, followed by 6 years secondary. In 1988 there were 47,600 kindergartens. In 1980 there were some 10,000 11-year schools. In 1982-83 there were 5-2m. pupils and 110,000 teachers, and nearly lm. students in higher education. In 1985 there were 216 institutes of higher education, including 3 universities—Kim II Sung University (founded 1946), Kim Chaek Technical University, Pyongyang Medical School—and an Academy of Sciences (founded 1952). In 1977-78 Kim II Sung University had some 17,000 students. Health. Medical treatment is free. In 1982 there were 1,531 general hospitals, 979 specialised hospitals and 5,414 clinics. There were 24 doctors and 130 hospital beds per 10,000 population in 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE Of North Korea to the United Nations Ambassador: Pak Gil Yon. Books of Reference An, T. S., North Korea in Transition. Westport, l983;-North Korea: a Political Handbook. Washington, 1983 Baik Bong, Kim II Sung: Biography. 3 vols. New York, 1969-70 Chung, C.-S., (ed.), North Korean Communism: A Comparative Analysis. Seoul, 1980 Kihl, Y. W., Politics and Policies in Divided Korea. Boulder, 1984 Kim Han Gil, Modern History of Korea. Pyongyang, 1979 Kim II Sung, Works. Pyongyang, 1980-83 Kim, Y. S., (ed.), The Economy of the Korean Democratic People's Republic, 1945-1977. Kiel, 1979 Koh, B. C., The Foreign Policy Systems of North and South Korea. Berkeley, 1984 Park, J. K.,and Kim, J.-G., The Politics of North Korea. Boulder, 1979 Scalapino, R. A., and Lee, C.-S., Communism in Korea. Part I: The Movement. Part II: The Society. Univ. ofCalif. Press, 1972—and Kim, J-Y. (eis.), North Korea Today: Strategic and Domestic Issues. Univ. ofCalifomia Press, 1983 Suh, D.-S., Korean Communism, 1945-1980: A Reference Guide to the Political System. Honolulu, 1981 Yang, S. C., Korea and Two Regimes: Kim II Sung and Park Chung Hee. Cambridge, Mass., 1981

KUWAIT

Capital: Kuwait Population: 1 -77m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$11,510 (1985)

Dowlat al Kuwait HISTORY. The ruling dynasty was founded by Shaikh Sabah al-Owel, who ruled from 1756 to 1772. In 1899 the then ruler Shaikh Mubarak concluded a treaty with Great Britain wherein, in return for the assurance of British protection, he undertook not to alienate any of his territory without the agreement of Her Majesty's Government. In 1914 the British Government recognized Kuwait as an independent government under British protection. On 19 June 1961 an agreement reaffirmed the independence and sovereignty of Kuwait and recognized the Government of Kuwait's responsibility for the conduct of internal and external affairs; the agreement of 1899 was terminated and Her Majesty's Government expressed their readiness to assist the Government of Kuwait should they request such assistance. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Kuwait is bounded east by the Gulf, north and west by Iraq and south by Saudi Arabia, with an area of about 6,880 sq. miles (17,819 sq. km); the total population at the census of 1985 was 1,695,128, of which about 60% were non-Kuwaitis. Estimate (1986) 1 -77m. Over 78% speak Arabic, the official language, while 10% speak Kurdish and 4% Iranian (Farsi). English is also used as a second language. The country is divided into 4 governorates: The capital (comprising Kuwait City, Kuwait's 9 islands and territorial and shared territorial waters), with an area of983 sq. km (population 167,750 at 1985 census); Hawalli, 620 sq. km (943,250); Ahmadi, 4,665 sq. km (304,662)and Jahra, 11,550 sq. km (279,466). The chief cities were (1980) Kuwait, the capital (60,525), and its suburbs Hawalli (152,402) and as-Salimiya (145,991). The Neutral Zone (3,560 sq. miles, 5,700 sq. km), jointly owned and administered by Kuwait and Saudi Arabia from 1922 to 1966, was partitioned between the two countries in May 1966, but the exploitation of the oil and other natural resources will continue to be shared. C L I M A T E . Kuwait has a dry, desert climate which is cool in winter but very hot and humid in summer. Rainfall is extremely light. Kuwait. Jan. 56° F (13 • 5°C), July 99°F(36-6°C). Annual rainfall 5" (125 mm). R U L E R . HH Shaikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah the 13th Amir of Kuwait, succeeded on 31 Dec. 1977. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . In 1976 the Amir dissolved the Assembly and at the same time parts of the Constitution were suspended. Elections were held in Feb. 1985 for the 50-member National Assembly. The Cabinet in Jan. 1988 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: HRH Crown Prince Shaikh Saad al-Abdullah as Salim as Sabah. Deputy Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs: Shaikh Sabah al Ahmad al Jabir as Sabah. Finance and Economy: Jassim Mohammed al Kharafi. Education: Anwar Abdullah al Nuri. Waqfs and Islamic Affairs: Khaled Ahmed Saad al Jasir. Defence: Shaikh Nawaf al Ahmad al Jabir as Sabah. Justice, Legal and Administrative Affairs: Dari Abdullah al Uthman. Public Works: Abdel Rahman Ibrahim al Houti. Public Health: Dr Abdurrahman Abdullah al Awadi. Planning: Mohammed Soleiman Said Ali. Oil: Shaikh Ali al Khalifa al Adhibi as Sabah. Communications: Khalid Jumayan Salim al Jumayan. Electricity and Water: Mohammed as Saad Abdel Moshin al Rifai. Information: Shaikh Nasser Mohammed al Ahmad al Jabir as Sabah. Social Affairs and Labour: Jabir Mubarak 781

782

KUWAIT

al Hamad. Interior: Shaikh Salim as Sabah as Salim as Sabah. Trade and Industry: Faisal Abdel Razzaq al Khaled. There are 5 Ministers of State. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, red, with a black trapezium based on the hoist. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 24 months (university students, 12 months). Army. Kuwait maintains a small, well-equipped and mobile army of 2 armoured and 2 mechanized infantry brigades and 1 surface-to-surface missile battalion. Equipment includes 90 Vickers Mk 1,10 Centurion and 160 Chieftain main battle tanks. Strength (1988) about 13,000 men. Navy. The flotillas comprise 6 fast missile craft, 2 larger fast missile gunboats (all eight West German-built); 40 coastal patrol craft built by Vosper/Thornycroft; 13 light patrol boats; 27 US-built very fast cutters; 6 general purpose launches; 6 Vosper Singapore-built landing craft, 4 other amphibious ships and 4 tugs. Six hovercraft are reportedly to be ordered, and probably fast attack craft, patrol vessels and mine countermeasures vessels. A Japanese firm was awarded the contract for the construction of a base to accommodate the planned expansion of the coastguard force. In 1988 personnel totalled 1,100 officers and men. Air Force. From a small initial combat force the Air Force has grown rapidly. It has 2 squadrons with 25 Mirage F1 -C fighters and 4 Mirage F1 -B 2-seat trainers; and 2 squadrons with 30 A-4KU/TA-4KU Skyhawk attack aircraft. Other equipment includes 2 DC-9 jet transports, 4 L-100-30 Hercules turboprop transports and 12 Hawk jet trainers, 10 Puma, 6 Exocet missile-armed Super Puma and 25 missilearmed Gazelle helicopters. Hawk surface-to-air missiles are in service. Personnel strength (1988) about 2,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Kuwait is a member of UN, the Arab League, OPEC and OAPEC. ECONOMY Budget. The financial year runs 1 April-31 March. In 1985-86 revenue, KD 3,116m.; expenditure, KD 4,175m. Currency. The Kuwait dinar of 1,000fils replaced the Indian external rupee on 1 April 1961. Coins in circulation are, 1,5,10,20, 50 and 100 fils and notes of KD, 10,5,1,'A and'A. In March 1988,£1 sterling=KD0-488;US$l =KD0-278. Banking. In addition to the Central Bank, 7 commercial banks (Bank of Kuwait and the Middle East, National Bank of Kuwait, Commercial Bank, Gulf Bank, Al-Ahli Bank, Burgan Bank and Bank of Bahrain and Kuwait) and 3 specialized banks (Credit and Savings Bank, Kuwait Real Estate Bank and Industrial Bank of Kuwait) operate in Kuwait. There is also the Kuwait Finance House, which is not subject to the control of the Central Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system was adopted in 1962. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. 16,360m. kwh. were produced in 1986. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC) was set up in 1980 to reorganize, integrate and develop the oil sector. The functions of the operating oil companies have been reallocated: Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) specializes in exploration, drilling and production in all areas; Kuwait National Petroleum Company (KNPC) is responsible for refining, local marketing and gas liquefaction operations; Kuwait Oil Tankers Company (KOTC) is in charge of transporting crude oil, liquefied gas and oil products to various world markets; Petrochemical Industries

KUWAIT

783

Company is in charge of use of hydrocarbon resources to set up diverse petrochemical industries, and the International Marketing Department of K P C markets and sells oil and gas worldwide. Oil revenues in 1983-84 were KD2,787-6m. Crude oil production in 1987, 61 m. tonnes. As well as selling crude oil, Kuwait is refining, marketing refined products, and prospecting and producing abroad. Production of petroleum products in 1984,24,266,000 tonnes. Gas. Production (1983) 170,200m. cu. ft. Agriculture. Cultivable land area is 8-6%. A five-year development plan was initiated in 1981-82 to increase vegetable growing areas with the aim of meeting 40% of projected domestic demand. Major crops (production, 1986, in tonnes) were melons (2,000), tomatoes (15,000), onions (2,000), dates (2,000), radishes, clover. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 21,000; sheep, 265,000; goats, 344,000; poultry, 8m. Fisheries. Shrimp fishing is becoming one of the important non-oil industries. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries, apart from oil, include boat building, fishing, food production, petrochemicals, gases and construction. The manufacture or import of alcoholic drinks is prohibited. Labour. In 1980 the labour force totalled 813,000, with 492,000 employed. Commerce. The port of Kuwait formerly served mainly as an entrepot for goods for the interior, for the export of skins and wool, and for pearl fishing. Entrepot trade continues but, with the development of the oil industry, is declining in importance. Pearl fishing is now on a small scale. Dhows and launches of traditional construction are still built. In 1984 total imports were valued at KD2,778m.; exports, KD3,517m. Oil accounted for 83 • 5% of exports at KD2,938m. Total trade between Kuwait and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m ] m ¡ m ¡ m m ? ImportstoUK' Exports and re-exports from UK.

67,281 141,606 333,273 301,520 ' Including oil.

156,912 347,915

58,517 300,586

81,530 225,168

Tourism. There were 116,000 visitors in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 3,590 km and the number of vehicles was 535,730. Aviation. There were 29,000 scheduled and unscheduled flights to and from Kuwait International Airport in 1983, carrying about 3m. passengers and 72,000 tonnes of freight. Kuwait Airways flew over 5,000 flights in 1983, carrying about 1 • 5m. passengers. Forty airlines operate at the airport. Shipping. The Kuwaiti merchant fleet in 1982 comprised 217 vessels (of over 100 tonnes) with a total gross tonnage of 2,014,379. The oil terminal is at Mina al-Ahmadi (receiving 3,400 oil tankers a year), while the main ports for other traffic are at Shuwaikh, Doha and Shuaiba. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1984), 419,200 telephones and there is a broadcasting and a television station. In 1985 there were 580,000 TV receivers and 750,000 radios. Cinemas. In 1984 there were 14 cinemas, including 2 drive-ins. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 5 daily newspapers in Arabic and 2 in English, with a combined circulation of about 418,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. In 1960 Kuwait adopted a unified judicial system covering all levels of

784

KUWAIT

courts. These are: Courts of Summary Justice, Courts of the First Instance, Supreme Court of Appeal, Court of Cassation, Constitutional Court and State Security Court. Islamic Sharia is a major source of legislation. Religion. In 1980 about 78% of the population were Sunni Moslems, 14% Shia Moslems, 6% Christians and 2% others. Education. In 1983-84 there were 346,350 pupils in 485 government schools: 21,502 in kindergartens, 130,073 in primary schools, 120,325 in intermediate schools and 74,450 in secondary schools. There were also (1983-84) 87,000 pupils in 72 Arab and foreign private schools. In 1983-84 there were 2,378 students in the Teachers' Training Institute, 1,186 in the Institute of Applied Technology, 1,500 in the Religious Institute, 2,603 in the Commercial Institute and 340 in the Clinical Institute. The University of Kuwait had 14,000 students in 1984. Health. Medical services are free to all residents. There were (1983) 15 hospitals with 6,952 beds in the State and 54 clinics and health centres. The Ministry of Health employed 2,872 doctors and 8,926 nursing staff in 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Kuwait in Great Britain (45 Queen's Gate, London, SW7) Ambassador: Ghazi Mohammed Amin Al-Rayes (accredited 12 Feb. 1981). Of Great Britain in Kuwait (Arabian Gulf St., Kuwait) Ambassador: P. R. M. HinchclifTe, CMG, CVO. Of Kuwait in the USA (2940 Tilden St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Shaikh Saud Nasir Al-Sabah. Of the USA in Kuwait (PO Box 77, Safat, Kuwait) Ambassador: W. Nathaniel Howell. Of Kuwait to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohammad A. Abulhasan. Books of Reference Arabian Year Book. Kuwait, 1978 Annual Statistical Abstracto/Kuwait. Kuwait The Oil of Kuwait: Facts and Figures. 3rd ed. Kuwait Government Press, 1970 Sabah, Y. S. F., The Oil Economy of Kuwait. London, 1980

LAOS

Capital: Vientiane Population: 3-67m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$220 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Lao People's Democratic Republic was founded on 2 Dec. 1975. Until that date Laos was a Kingdom, once called Lanxang (the land of a million elephants). In 1893 Laos became a French protectorate and in 1907 acquired its present frontiers. In 1941 French authority was suppressed by the Japanese. When the Japanese withdrew in 1945 an independence movement known as Lao Issara (Free Laos) set up a government under Prince Phetsarath, the Viceroy of Luang Prabang. This government collapsed with the return of the French in 1946 and the leaders of the movement fled to Thailand. Under a new Constitution of 1947 Laos became a constitutional monarchy under the Luang Prabang dynasty, and in 1949 became an independent sovereign state within the French Union. Most of the Lao Issara leaders returned to Laos but a few remained in dissidence under Prince Souphanouvong, who allied himself with the Vietminh and subsequently formed the 'Pathet Lao' (Lao State) rebel movement. The war in Laos from 1953 to 1973 between the Royal Lao Government (supported by American bombing and Thai mercenaries) and the Patriotic Front Pathet Lao (supported by large numbers of North Vietnamese troops) ended in 1973 when an agreement and a protocol were signed. A provisional coalition government was formed by the two sides in 1974. However, after the communist victories in neighbouring Vietnam and Cambodia in April 1975, the Pathet Lao took over the running of the whole country, although maintaining the façade of a coalition. On 29 Nov. 1975 HM King Savang Vatthana signed a letter of abdication and the People's Congress proclaimed a People's Democratic Republic of Laos on 2 Dec. For the history of Pathet Lao and the military intervention of the Vietminh, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 7 1 - 7 2 , p p . 1 1 2 6 - 2 8 a n d 1 9 7 5 - 7 6 e d . , p p . 1115-16.

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Laos is a landlocked country of about 91,400 sq. miles (236,800 sq. km) bordered on the north by China, the east by Vietnam, the south by Cambodia and the west by Thailand and Burma. Apart from the Mekong River plains along the border of Thailand, the country is mountainous, particularly in the north, and in places densely forested. The population (census, 1985) was 3,584,803 (1,757,115 male); estimate (1986) 3-67m. TTie most heavily populated areas are the Mekong River plains by the Thailand border. Otherwise, the population is sparse and scattered, particularly in the northern provinces, and the eastern part of the country has been depopulated by war. The majority of the population is officially divided into 4 groups: about 56% Lao-Lum (Valley-Lao), 34% Lao-Theung (Lao of the mountain sides); and 9% Lao-Soung (Lao of the mountain tops), who comprise the Meo and Yaoe. Other minorities include Vietnamese, Chinese, Europeans, Indians and Pakistanis. The Lao-Lum and Lao-Tai belong to the Lao branch of the Tai peoples, who migrated into South-East Asia at the time of the Mongol invasion of South China. The valley Lao are Buddhists, following the Hinayana (Theravada) form. The majority of the Lao-Theungma diverse group consisting of many tribes but mostly belonging to the Mon-Khmer group—are animists. The Meo and Yaoe live in northern Laos. Far greater numbers live in both North Vietnam and China, having migrated over the last century. Their religions have strong Confucian and animistic features but some are Christians. There are 16 provinces. Compared with other parts of Asia, Laos has few towns. The administrative capital and largest town is Vientiane, with a population of census (1985) 377,409. Other important towns (1973) are Luang Prabang, 44,244; Pakse, 44,860, in the extreme south, and Savannakhet, 50,690. 785

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LAOS

Language: Lao is the official language of the country. The liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism is Pali. C L I M A T E . A tropical monsoon climate, with high temperatures throughout the year and very heavy rains from May to Oct. Vientiane. Jan. 70°F (21 • PC), July 8 P F (27-2'C). Annual rainfall 6 9 " (1,715 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 2 Dec. 1975 a national congress of 264 people's representatives met and declared Laos a People's Democratic Republic. A People's Supreme Council was appointed to draw up a new Constitution. Acting President: Phoumi Vongvichit. Prime Minister, Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party: Kaysone Phomvihane. First Deputy Prime Minister, Deputy Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party: Nouhak Phounsavanh. The Politbureau of the LPRP comprises the above 3 plus: Phoumi Vongvichit Gen. Phoune Sipraseuth 1 (Minister of Foreign Affairs), Gen. Khamtai Siphandon 1 (Minister of National Defence, Supreme Commander of the Lao People's Army) and Sisomphon Lovansay (Vice-President of the Supreme People's Assembly). Ministers not in the Politbureau include Saly Vongkhamsao 1 (Chairman of State Planning Committee). ' Vice-Chairman ofthe Council ofMinisters.

There are 4 deputy prime ministers. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, blue, red, with blue of double width with in the centre a large white disc. National anthem: Peng Sat Lao (Hymn of the Lao People). Provincial Administration: All provincial administration is in the hands of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Orders come from the Central Committee through a series of 'People's Revolutionary Committees' at the province, town and village level. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. The Army is organized in 5 engineering and 1 artillery divisions; 7 independent infantry regiments and 65 independent infantry companies; and 5 artillery and 9 anti-aircraft battalions. Equipment includes 30 T-34, T-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) about 52,500. Navy. There were nominally 4 squadrons comprising 42 small river patrol craft of 6 different types, of which 14 were in commission and 28 in reserve; but the situation is very uncertain. Some 70 river patrol boats were reportedly transferred from Vietnam and 46 river patrol craft from the USSR in 1986 for operations on the Mekong. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled about 1,700 officers and ratings. Air Force. Since 1975, the Air Force has received aircraft from the USSR, including 40 MiG-21 fighters, 6 An-24 and 3 An-26 turboprop transports and 10 Mi-8 helicopters. They may be supplemented by a few of the C-47 and C-123 transports, and UH-1 Iroquois, supplied by the USA to the former régime. Personnel strength, about 2,000 in 1988. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Laos is a member of UN. Aid. Foreign aid in 1983 (estimate), was US$50m. ECONOMY Planning. Following the completion of the original 3-year Development Plan 1978-80, a 5-year plan (1981-85), which was basically a list of investment projects, was drawn up by the government with Soviet assistance.

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Budget. Total revenue 1983, K.3,496m.; total expenditure, K.6,695m. Currency. The currency is the new kip. 1 kip = 100 att. Coinage, 1, 2 and 5 att; banknotes, 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 kip. Tlie official rate of exchange was (March 1988) K.350=US$l;£l=K620-73. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Only a few towns in Laos have an electricity service. The Nam Ngum Dam situated about 45 miles north of Vientiane was inaugurated in Dec. 1971 with an initial installed capacity of 30,000 kw. and a planned ultimate capacity of 150,000 kw. The generators of Phase II of the scheme were brought into operation in 1978, giving an installed capacity of 110,000 kw. The installation of a fifth generator (Phase III) was due for completion in 1984. Transmission lines to Vientiane and to Thailand have been constructed. Production (1986) 900m. kwh. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Various minerals are found, but only tin is mined to any significant extent at present, and only at 2 mines. Production of tin concentrates (1983) 352 tonnes. There are extremely rich deposits of high-quality iron in Xieng Khouang province and potash near Vientiane. Agriculture. The chief products are rice (production in 1986, l-49m. tonnes), maize (production 37,000 tonnes), tobacco (3,000 tonnes), seed-cotton (18,000 tonnes), citrus fruits, sticklack, benjohn tea and in the Boloven plateau coffee (6,000 tonnes), potatoes, cardamom and cinchara. Opium is produced but its manufacture is controlled by the state. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 593,000; buffaloes, 1,017,000; horses, 42,000; pigs, 1,516,000; goats, 71,000; poultry, 8m. Forestry. The forests, which cover over 50% of the country, produce valuable woods such as teak. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry is limited to beer, cigarettes, matches, soft drinks, plastic bags, saw-mills, rice-mills, weaving, pottery, distilleries, ice, plywood, bricks, etc. but most factories have been working at limited capacity in recent years. Plans for increased production are limited by lack of funds and skilled machine operators. Commerce. In 1981 imports (estimate) amounted to US$12 lm. and exports to US$48m. The main imports were food and beverages, petroleum products and agricultural and other machinery. The chief supplying countries were Thailand and Japan. The main exports were timber, coffee and electricity. Total trade between Laos and UK. (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 56 626

1984 238 721

1985 6 523

1986 150 1,460

1987 621 1,742

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 the national road network, consisted of 1,300 km paved, 5,300 km gravel and 3,600 km earth roads. Railways. There is no railway in Laos, but the Thai railway system extends to Nongkhai, on the Thai bank of the Mekong, which is connected by ferry with Thadeua about 12 miles east of Vientiane. Aviation. Lao Aviation provides scheduled domestic air services linking major towns in Laos and international services to Bangkok, Phnom Penh and Hanoi. Thai Airways, Aeroflot and Air Vietnam provide flights from Bangkok, Hanoi, Rangoon, Ho Chi Min City and Moscow. Shipping. The river Mekong and its tributaries are an important means of trans-

788

LAOS

port, but rapids, waterfalls and narrow channels often impede navigation and make trans-shipments necessary. Telecommunications. There is a radio network in Laos as well as a limited TV service with the main station at Vientiane. There were (1984) about 225,000 radio and 30,000 television receivers. A ground station constructed near Vientiane under the Soviet aid programme enables USSR television programmes to be received in the capital. It also provides a telephone service to Hanoi and Eastern Europe. In 1974 there were 5,506 telephones in Laos. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. The majority of the population is Buddhist (Hinayana) but 34% follow tribal religions. Education. In 1982-83 school year there were 6,525 elementary schools (481,000 pupils); 420 secondary schools (65,000 pupils); 60 senior high schools (17,000 pupils); and 55 vocational schools (13,000 students). Literacy has improved from 40% in 1975,65% in 1978 to 85% in 1981 according to official reports. There is 1 teachers' training college, 1 college of education, 1 school of medicine, 1 agricultural college and an advanced school of Pali. Sisavangvong University in Vientiane (founded 1958) had 1,600 students in 1984, and there are regional technical colleges in Luang Prabang, Savannakhét and Champasak. Health. In 1982 there were about 40 qualified doctors and 8,729 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

The Embassy in London closed on 22 July 1985. Of Great Britain in Laos Ambassador: Derek Tonkin, C M G (resides in Bangkok). Of Laos in USA (2222 S St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Chargé d'Affaires: Done Somvorachit. Of USA in Laos (Rue Bartholome, Vientiane) Chargé d'Affaires: D. Steven May. Of Laos to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Kithong Vongsay. Books of Reference Deuve, J L e royaume du Laos 1949-1965. Paris, 1984 Stuart-Cox, M., Contemporary Laos. Univ. of Queensland Press, 1983.—Laos: Politics, Economics and Society. London, 1986 Zasloff, J. J., The Pathet Lao: Leadership and Organization. Lexington, Toronto and London, 1973

LEBANON al-Jumhouriya al-Lubnaniya

Capital: Beirut Population: 3 -5m. (1984) GNPper capita: No reliable figures available.

HISTORY. After 20 years' French mandatory regime, Lebanon was proclaimed independent at Beirut on 26 Nov. 1941. On 27 Dec. 1943 an agreement was signed between representatives of the French National Committee of Liberation and of Lebanon, by which most of the powers and capacities exercised hitherto by France were transferred as from 1 Jan. 1944 to the Lebanese Government. The evacuation of foreign troops was completed in Dec. 1946. In early May 1958 the opposition to President Chamoun, consisting principally (though not entirely) of Moslem pro-Nasserist elements, rose in insurrection; and for 5 months the Moslem quarters of Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon and the northern Bekaa were in insurgent hands. On 15 July the US Government acceded to President Chamoun's request and landed a considerable force of army and marines who reestablished the authority of the Government. Israeli attacks on Lebanon resulted from the presence and activities of armed Palestinian resistance units. Internal problems, which had long been latent in Lebanese society, were exacerbated by the politically active Palestinian population and by the deeply divisive question of the Palestine problem itself. An attempt to regulate the activities of Palestinian fighters through the secret Cairo agreement of 1969 was frustrated both by the inability of the Government to enforce its provisions and by an influx of battle-hardened fighters expelled from Jordan in Sept. 1970. A further attempt to control the guerrillas in 1973 also failed. From March 1975, Lebanon was beset by civil disorder causing considerable loss of life and economic life was brought to a virtual standstill. By Nov. 1976 however, large scale fighting had been brought to an end by the intervention of the Syrian-dominated Arab Deterrent Force which ensured sufficient security to permit Lebanon to establish quasi-normal conditions under President Sarkis. Large areas of the country, however, remained outside Governmental control, including West Beirut which was the scene of frequent conflict between opposing militia groups. The South, where the Arab Deterrent Force could not deploy, remained unsettled and subject to frequent Israeli attacks. In March 1978 there was an Israeli invasion following a Palestinian attack inside Israel. Israeli troops eventually withdrew in June, but instead of handing over all their positions to UN Peacekeeping Forces they installed Israeli-controlled Lebanese militia forces in border areas. Severe disruption continued in the South. In June 1982, following on the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador in London, Israeli forces once again invaded, this time in massive strength, and swept through the country, eventually laying siege to and devastatingly bombing Beirut. In Sept. Palestinian forces, together with the PLO leadership, evacuated Beirut. On 23 Aug. 1982 Bachir Gemayel was elected President of Lebanon. On 14 Sept. he was assassinated. His brother, Amin Gemayel, was elected in his place on 21 Sept. Since then there has been a state of'no peace, no war' with intermittent clashes between the various de facto forces on the ground. Israeli forces started a complete withdrawal on 16 Feb. 1985. A peace agreement was signed by the leaders of the Druse, Amal and (Christian) Lebanese Forces to end the civil war on 28 Dec. 1985 but its terms were not implemented. Syrian forces were acting as a peace keeping force between rival militias in early 1987. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Lebanon is a mountainous country about 135 miles long and varying between 20 and 35 miles wide, bounded on the north and east by Syria, on the west by the Mediterranean and on the south by Israel. Between 789

790

LEBANON

the two parallel mountain ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon lies the fertile Bekaa Valley. About one-half of the country lies at an altitude of over 3,000 ft. The area of Lebanon is estimated at 10,452 sq. km (4,036 sq. miles) and the population at 3-5m. (1984, estimate) but there are no reliable estimates. The principal towns, with estimated population (1980), are: Beirut (the capital), 702,000; Tripoli 175,000; Zahle, 46,800; Saida (Sidon), 24,740; Tyre, 14,000. The official language is Arabic. French and, increasingly, English are widely spoken in official and commercial circles. C L I M A T E . A Mediterranean climate with short, warm winters and long, hot and rainless summers, with high humidity in coastal areas. Rainfall is largely confined to the winter months and can be torrential, with snow on high ground. Beirut. Jan. 55°F(13°C), July 81 °F(27°C). Annual rainfall 35 -7" (893 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Lebanon is an independent republic. The first Constitution was established under the French Mandate on 23 May 1926. It has since been amended in 1927, 1929,1943 (twice) and 1947. It is a written constitution based on the classical separation of powers, with a President, a single chamber elected by universal adult suffrage, and an independent judiciary. The Executive consists of the President and a Prime Minister and Cabinet appointed by him. The system is, however, adapted to the peculiar communal balance on which Lebanese political life depends. This is done by the electoral law which allocates deputies according to the confessional distribution of the population, and by a series of constitutional conventions whereby, e.g., the President is always a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Moslem and the Speaker of the Assembly a Shia Moslem. There is no highly developed party system other than on religious confessional lines. Former Presidents of the Republic: Bishara al-Khuri, 1 Jan. 1944-23 Sept. 1952 * Camille Chamoun, 23 Sept. 1952-23 Sept. 1958 Gen. Fouad Chehab, 23 Sept. 1958-23 Sept. 1964 Charles Helou, 23 Sept. 1964-17 June 1970

Suleiman Frangie, 17 June 1970-13 Sept. 1976 EliasSarkis, 13 Sept. 1976-23 Sept. 1982 Bachir Gemayel, 23 Aug. 1982-14 Sept. 1982 (assassinated)

President of the Republic: Amin Gemayel (elected on 21 Sept. 1982 and took office on 23 Sept.). On 1 May 1984, a new government was formed and aims to achieve constitutional and power-sharing reforms on the basis of a wide measure of consensus. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Dec. 1987: Acting Prime Minister, Foreign Affairs, Labour and Education: Dr Selim Hoss. Public Works, Transport and Tourism: Walid Jumblatt. Posts and Communications, Health and Social Affairs: Joseph Hashem. Finance, Housing and Co-operatives: Camille Chamoun. Justice, Hydroelectricity, Minister of State for Reconstruction andfor Southern Lebanon: Nabih Bern. Defence, Agriculture: Adel Osseirane. Information: Joseph Skaff. Interior: Abdullah al-Rassi. Economy, Trade and Industry: Victor Kassir. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, red, with the white of double width and bearing in the centre a green cedar of Lebanon. National anthem: Kulluna lil watan lil 'ula lil' alam (words by Rashid Nachleh, tune by Mitri El-Murr). Local government: The 6 governorates (including the city of Beirut) are subdivided into 26 districts. DEFENCE. Army. The strength of the Army was about 15,000 in 1988 but it is in a state of flux

LEBANON

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and most of its units are well below strength. Its equipment includes M-48 and AMX-13 tanks and Saladin armoured cars. In addition, there are numerous private militias under arms in Lebanon, divided between the Maronite-Christian factions, notably the Phalange of some 10,000 men, and the Moslem-Leftist groups, such as the Druze Free Lebanese Militia led by Walid Jumblatt. Navy. The small flotilla includes 4 old French-built patrol boats (replacement craft to be acquired), 2 new French-built landing craft and 8 coastal patrol craft (2 British-built). Personnel in 1988 totalled 250 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force had (1987) about 1,100 men and 50 aircraft. In addition to 6 Hunter jet fighter-bombers, it has (in storage) 9 Mirage III supersonic fighters and 1 Mirage 2-seat trainer. Other aircraft include 1 Dove light transport, 12 Alouette II and III, 4 Gazelle, 11 Puma and 9 Agusta-Bell 212 helicopters, and 5 Fouga Magister jet and 5 piston-engined Bulldog trainers. Serviceability of most aircraft is low because of the troubled national political situation. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Lebanon is a member of U N and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. Since the civil war a Development and Reconstruction Council has been responsible for co-ordinating all efforts. Budget. The budget for 1985 provides for a total expenditure of£Leb. 10,000m. Currency. The Lebanese pound, divided into 100 piastres, is issued by the Banque du Liban, which commenced operations on 1 April 1964. There is a fluctuating official rate of exchange, fixed monthly (March 1988: £Leb.71204 = £1 sterling; £Leb.370 = US$1), this in practice is used only for the calculation of ad-valorem customs duties on Lebanese imports and for import statistics. For other purposes the free market is used. Banking. Beirut was an important international financial centre, and there were about 80 banks registered with the central bank in 1979. As a result of the civil war, Beirut has lost much of its status as an international and regional banking centre; in general only local offices for banks remain. Weights and Measures. The use of the metric system is legal and obligatory throughout the whole of the country. In outlying districts the former weights and measures may still be in use. They are: 1 okiya = 0-47 lb.; 6 okiyas = 1 oke = 2-82 lb.; 2 okes= 1 rottol= 5-64 lb.; 200 okes= 1 kantar. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power production (1986) was 2,270m. kwh. Supply 110 and 120 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. There are 2 oil refineries in Lebanon, one at Tripoli, which refines oil brought by ship from Iraq, and the other at Sidon, which refines oil brought from Saudi Arabia by a pipeline owned by the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Co. These refineries were not fully active in 1987 and the country depends on imports. Minerals. Iron ore exists but is difficult to work. Other minerals known to exist are iron pyrites, copper, bituminous shales, asphalt, phosphates, ceramic clays and glass sand; but the available information is of doubtful value. Agriculture. Lebanon is essentially an agricultural country, although owing to its physical character only about 38% of the total area of the country is at present cultivated. The estimated production (in 1,000 tonnes) of the main crops in 1986 was as follows: Citrus fruits, 366; apples, 133; grapes, 158; potatoes, 230; sugar-beet, 80; wheat, 13; bananas, 19; olives, 9.

792

LEBANON

Livestock (estimated, 1986): Goats, 460,000; sheep, 137,000; cattle, 50,000; pigs, 21,000; horses, 2,000; donkeys, 10,000; mules, 4,000. Forestry. The forests of the past have been denuded by exploitation. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Industry suffered badly during the civil war. The manufacturing industry was small but had doubled in size in the 10 years before the war. As a result of the war some industrial concerns have closed but others are working at reduced capacity. Commerce. Foreign as well as local wholesale and retail trade is the principal source of income in Lebanon. Because of the protectionist policies followed in some neighbouring countries, this sector has been declining, the sectors to gain being those of banking, real estate, government and services. Reliable trade figures have not been published in recent years. Total trade between Lebanon and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 3 j m /9SJ m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

11,521 81,435

6,859 76,223

7,888 52,751

9,845 55,867

9,528 40,707

Tourism. Receipts from tourism were £Leb.573m. in 1973; since 1975 they have been negligible, this sector having suffered badly as a result of the war. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The main roads in Lebanon are not good by international standards. The surface is normally of asphalt and they are well maintained in normal times. Roads between Beirut and the provinces were (1984) controlled by various militia. In 1985 there were about 300,000 cars and taxis. Railways. There are 3 railway lines in Lebanon, all operated by the Office des Chemins de Fer de I'Etat Libanais (CFL): (1) Nakoura-Beirut-Tripoli (standard gauge); the Nakoura-Sidon section has been idle since the establishment of Israel: (2) a narrow-gauge line running from Beirut to Riyak in the Bekaa Valley (now closed) and thence to Damascus, Syria; (3) a standard-gauge line from Tripoli to Homs and Aleppo in Syria, providing access to Ankara and Istanbul. From Horns a branch of the CFL line extends south and re-enters Lebanon, terminating at Riyak. Total length 417 km. Apart from a short section near Beirut these lines were idle in 1984-85 because of insecurity and large sections needed repairs. Aviation. Beirut International Airport is used by a few international airlines. There are 2 national airlines, Middle East Airlines/Air Liban and Trans-Mediterranean Airways. Over the past few years, Beirut airport was closed several times. Shipping. Beirut is the largest port, followed by Tripoli, Jounieh and Sidon. Illegal ports have mushroomed on the coast, very much reducing the legal ports' activity. No reliable figures about tonnage were available in 1987. Post and Broadcasting. There is an automatic telephone system in Beirut which is being extended to other parts of the country. There are no telegraph, postal or telephone communications with Israel. Number of telephones (1986), 150,000. The state radio transmits in Arabic, French, English and Armenian. Tete-Liban, which is 50% government-owned was the only television station in operation in 1984. There were 450,000 TV sets in 1986 and 1 • 5m. radios. Cinemas (1973). There were 161 cinemas with a seating capacity of about 77,400. Newspapers (1985). There were about 30 daily newspapers in Arabic, 2 in French, 1 in English and 4 in Armenian. RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Religion. Probably less than half the population are Christians. The Christian faith has been indigenous since the earliest times. The Christians include the Maronites,

LEBANON

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Greek Orthodox, Armenians, Greek and Roman Catholics, Armenian Catholics and the Protestants. Moslems include the Sunnis, the Shiites and the Druzes. No reliable figures on the numbers of these communities are available. Most Jews left the country after the 1975 disturbances. Education. Government schools in 1984 comprise primary and secondary schools. There were also private primary and secondary schools. There are also 5 universities, namely the Lebanese (State) University, the American University of Beirut, the French University of St Joseph (founded in 1875), the Arab University, a branch of Alexandria, University and Beirut University College. The French Government runs the École Supérieure de Lettres and the Centre d'Études Mathématiques. The Maronite monks run the University of the Holy Spirit at Kaslik. The Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts includes schools of architecture, art, music, political and social science. Health. There are several government-run hospitals, and many private ones. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Lebanon in Great Britain (21 Kensington Palace Gdns., London, W8 4QM) Ambassador.Gen. Ahmad al-Hajj (accredited 25 May 1983). Of Great Britain in Lebanon (Shamma Bldg., Raouché, Ras Beirut) Ambassador: J. W. D. Gray, C M G . Of Lebanon in the USA (2560 28th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Abdallah Bouhabib. Of the USA in Lebanon Ambassador: John Kelly. Of Lebanon to the United Nations Ambassador: Rachid Fakhoury. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Import and export figures are produced by the Conseil Supérieur des Douanes. The Service de Statistique Généralé (M. A. G . Ayad, Chef du Service) publishes a quarterly bulletin (in French and Arabie) covering a wide range of subjects, including foreign trade, production statistics and estimates o f t h e national income. Cobban, H., The Making of Modern Lebanon. London, 1985 Deeb, M., The Lebanese Civil War. New York, 1980 Gilmour, D., Lebanon: The Fractured Country. Oxford and New York, 1983 Gordon, D. C., The Republic of Lebanon: Nation in Jeopardy. London, 1983 Khairallah, S., Lebanon. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1979 Laffin, J., The War of Desperation: Lebanon 1982-85. London, 1985 Rabanovich, I., The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983. Cornell Univ. Press, 1984 Randal, J., The Tragedy of Lebanon. London, 1982 Weinberger, N. J., Syrian Intervention in Lebanon. New York, 1986 National Library: D a r el Kutub, Parliament Sq., Beirut.

LESOTHO

Capital: Maseru Population: 1 -63m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$470 (1983)

H I S T O R Y . Basutoland first received the protection of Britain in 1868 at the request of Moshoeshoe I, the first paramount chief. In 1871 the territory was annexed to the Cape Colony, but in 1884 it was restored to the direct control of the British Government through the High Commissioner for South Africa. On 4 Oct. 1966 Basutoland became an independent and sovereign member of the Commonwealth under the name of the Kingdom of Lesotho. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Lesotho, an enclave within the Republic of South Africa is bounded on the west by the Orange Free State, on the north by the Orange Free State and Natal, on the east by Natal, and on the south by Transkei. The altitude varies from 1,500 to 3,482 metres. The area is 11,720 sq. miles (30,355 sq. km). Lesotho is a purely African territory, and the few European residents are government officials, traders, missionaries and artisans. The census taken on 12 April 1976 showed a total population of 1,216,815 persons. Estimate (1987) 1,626,500. The capital is Maseru (population, 1986, 109,382). The official languages are Sesotho and English. C L I M A T E . A healthy and pleasant climate, with variable rainfall, but averaging 2 9 " (725 mm) a year over most of the country. The rain falls mainly in the summer months of Oct. to April, while the winters are dry and may produce heavy frosts in lowland areas and frequent snow in the highlands. Temperatures in the lowlands range from a maximum of 90°F (32-2°C) in summer to a minimum of 20°F (-6-7°C) in winter. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Lesotho is a constitutional monarchy with HM the King as ceremonial Head of State. Parliament consists of the National Assembly (60 members elected by adult suffrage) and a Senate (22 principal chiefs and 11 members nominated by the King). The elections of 27 Jan. 1970 were declared invalid on 31 Jan. Parliamentary rule, with a National Assembly of nominated members, was reintroduced in April 1973. Chief Jonathan was deposed in a bloodless military coup on 20 Jan. 1986. Ruler: Constantine Bereng Seeiso Motlotlehi Moshoeshoe II, Paramount Chief of the Sotho people since 1940, became King at independence on 4 Oct. 1966. Chairman of the Military Council: Maj.-Gen. Justin Lekhanya. The College of Chiefs settles the recognition and succession of Chiefs and adjudicates cases of inefficiency, criminality and absenteeism among them. National flag: Diagonally white over blue over green with the white of double width charged with a brown Basotho shield in the upper hoist. Local Government. The country is divided into 10 districts as follows: Maseru, Qacha's Nek, Mokhotlong, Leribe, Butha-Buthe, Teyateyaneng, Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka. Each district is subdivided into 22 wards, most of which are presided over by hereditary chiefs allied to the Moshoeshoe family. DEFENCE Police Mobile Unit. Formed in 1978, to facilitate deployment of men and equipment to less accessible regions, this small air wing has 2 Skyvan and 1 King Air 794

LESOTHO

795

twin-turboprop transports, and a total of 6 Bell 412, BO 105, and Bell 47 helicopters. The Skyvans are available also as ambulance aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Lesotho is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth and is an A C P state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A third 5-year plan (1980-85), aimed to exploit natural resources and promote investment in industry. Envisaged investment US$915m. Budget. Expenditure (1986-87) M463m.; revenue, M385m. Currency. The currency is the Loti (plural Maloti) divided into 100 Lisente which is at par with the South African Rand. In March 1988, £1 = 3 -69 Maloti, US$1 = 2 1 1 Maloti. Banking. The Standard Bank of South Africa and Barclays Bank International have branches at Maseru, Mohale's Hoek and Leribe. The Lesotho Bank has branches throughout the country. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. A feasibility study was announced (1982) to be undertaken by the Republic of South Africa and Lesotho to divert river waters from Lesotho to South Africa and to provide hydro-electricity for Lesotho. Production (1985) lm. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. The chief crops were (1986 production in 1,000 tonnes): wheat, 11; maize, 86; sorghum, 33; barley, oats, beans, peas and other vegetables are also grown. Soil conservation and the improvement of crops and pasture are matters of vital importance. A total area of 1,006,817 acres has been protected against soil erosion by means of terracing, training banks, tree planting and grass strips. Efforts are being made to secure the general introduction of rotational grazing in the mountain area. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 520,000; horses, 108,000; donkeys, 108,000; pigs, 65,000;sheep, l -42m.;goats, 1 0 1 m . ; m u l e s , 1,000;poultry, l m . INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial development is progressing under the National Development Corporation. Diamond mining ceased in 1982. Commerce. Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland are members of the South African customs union, by agreement dated 29 June 1910. Total values of imports and exports into and from Lesotho (in Mm.): Imports Exports

1979 312 38

1980 372 45

1981 453 43

1982 541 38

Principal imports were food, livestock, drink and tobacco, machinery and transport equipment, mineral fuels and lubricants; principal exports were wool and mohair and diamonds. The majority of international trade is with the Republic of South Africa. Total trade between Lesotho and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m j / m ] m J m m J Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

216 2,080

78 633

290 3,023

277 2,128

486 1,112

Tourism. In 1986 there were 213,000 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 311 km of tarred roads and 1,500 km of gravel-surfaced

796

LESOTHO

roads. In addition to the main roads there were (1983) 931 km of food aid tracks leading to trading stations and missions. Communications into the mountainous interior are by means of bridlepaths suitable only for riding and pack animals, but a mountain road of 80 miles has been constructed, and some parts are accessible by air transport, which is being used increasingly. In 1982 there were 11,962 commercial vehicles and 5,129 passenger cars. Railways. A railway built by the South African Railways, 1 mile long, connects Maseru with the Bloemfontein-Natal line at Marseilles. Aviation. There is a scheduled passenger service between Maseru and Jan Smuts Airport, Johannesburg, operated jointly by Lesotho National Airways and SAA. There are also 30 airstrips for light aircraft. Post and Broadcasting. There were 5,409 telephones in 1983. Radio Lesotho transmits daily in English and Sesotho. Radio receivers (1986), 600,000. Cinemas. In 1971 there were 2 cinemas with a seating capacity of800. Newspapers. In 1985,3 daily newspapers had a combined circulation of44,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. An appeal court for Lesotho was established at Maseru on 4 Oct. 1966. The police force on 31 Dec. 1982 had an establishment of 348 officers and subordinate officers and 1,530 other ranks. Religion. About 93% of the population are Christians, 44% being Roman Catholics. Education. Education is largely in the hands of the 3 main missions (Paris Evangelical, Roman Catholic and English Church), under the direction of the Ministry of Education. In 1984-85 the total enrolment in 1,141 primary schools was 314,003; in 143 secondary schools, 35,423; in the National Teacher-Training College and 8 technical schools enrolment 2,221. University education is provided at the National University of Lesotho established in 1975 at Roma; enrolment in 1985,1,119 and 146 teaching staff. Health. The government medical staff of the territory consists of 1 Permanent Secretary for Health, 1 Director of Health Services, 1 medical superintendent, 8 district medical officers and a total of 102 doctors including 20 specialists. There are 11 government hospitals staffed by 308 matrons, sisters and nurses. There is accommodation for 2,175 patients in government hospitals. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Lesotho in Great Britain (10 Collingham Rd., London, SW5 ONR) High Commissioner: Dr John T. Kolane (accredited 2 June 1986). Of Great Britain in Lesotho (PO Box Ms 521, Maseru 100) High Commissioner: P. E. Rosling, CMG, LVO. Of Lesotho in the USA (1430 K. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20005) Ambassador: W. T. Van Tonder. Of the USA in Lesotho (PO Box 333, Maseru, 100) Ambassador: Robert M. Smalley. Of Lesotho to the United Nations A mbassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Bureau of Statistics, PO Box 455, Maseru, Lesotho. Ashton, H „ TheBasuto. 2 n d e d . OUP, 1967 Murray, C., Families Divided: The Impact of Migrant Labour in Lesotho. O U P , 1981 Spence, J. E.,Lesotho. OUP, 1968 Stevens, C., Food, Aid and the Developing World. London, 1979

Capital: Monrovia Population: 2-5m.(1987) GNP per capita: US$490 ( 1984)

LIBERIA

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Liberia had its origin in the efforts of several American philanthropic societies to establish freed American slaves in a colony on the West African coast. In 1822 a settlement was formed near the spot where Monrovia now stands. On 26 July 1847 the State was constituted as the Free and Independent Republic of Liberia. The new State was first recognized by Great Britain and France, and ultimately by other powers. On 12 April 1980, President Tolbert was assassinated; his government was overthrown and the Constitution suspended. President Tolbert's party, the True Whig Party, was formed in 1860 and had been in power since 1870. Recent economic decline and pressure for change had undermined the Government. In March 1980, the newly formed People's Progressive Party was banned and its leaders arrested. The coup was led by Master-Sergeant Doe who was later installed as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the army. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Liberia has about 350 miles of coastline, extending from Sierra Leone, on the west, to the Cote d'lvoire, on the east. It stretches inland to a distance, in some places, of about 250 miles and is bounded in the north by Guinea. The total area is about 42,989 sq. miles (111,370 sq. km). At the census (1984) population 2,232,000. Estimate (1987) 2 • 5m. The indigenous natives belong in the main to 3 linguistic groups: Mande, West Atlantic, and the Kwa. These are in turn subdivided into 16 ethnic groups: Bassa, Bella, Gbandi, Mende, Gio, Dey, Mano, Gola, Kpelle, Kissi, Krahn, Kru, Lorma, Mandingo, Vai and Grebo. Monrovia, the capital, had (1984) a population of425,000. It is one of the 4 ports of entry, the others being Buchanan (Grand Bassa), River Cess, Greenville (Sinoe), Harper (Maryland). Other towns are Kolba City, Voinjama, Tubmanburg, Bensonville, Zorzor, Kakata, Suakoko, Gbamga, Ganta, Sanniquellie, Saclape, Tappita, Robertsport, Bendja, Yekepa and Zwedru. The country is divided into 13 counties and the district of Careysburg. C L I M A T E . An equatorial climate, with constant high temperatures and plentiful rainfall, though Jan. to May is drier than the rest of the year. Monrovia. Jan. 79°F(26- 1°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 206" (5,138 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved by referendum in July 1984 and came into force on 6 Jan. 1986. The National Assembly consists of a 26-member Senate and a 64-member House of Representatives. General elections were held on 15 Oct. 1985. The National Democratic Party of Liberia gained 21 seats in the Senate; the Liberal Action Party, 3 seats and the Liberian Unification Party and the Unity Party one each. President and Commander-in-Chief: Samuel Kanyon Doe. Vice President: Harry F. Moniba. The official language is English. National flag: Six red and 5 white horizontal stripes alternating. In the upper corner, nearest the staff, is a square of blue covering a depth of 5 stripes. In the centre of this blue field is a 5-pointed white star. National anthem: All hail, Liberia, hail! (words by President Warner; tune by O. Lucas, 1860). DEFENCE Army. The establishment organized on a militia basis numbers 5,300 (1988), divided into 6 infantry battalions with support units. 797

798

LIBERIA

Navy. The small naval service or coastguard comprises 3 cutters, 3 small patrol boats, and 1 aircraft. Personnel in 1988 totalled 440 officers and men. Air Force. The nucleus of an Air Force has been formed, as the Air Reconnaissance Unit, to support the Liberian Army. Equipment includes 2 C-47 transports, 3 Israeli-built Arava twin-turboprop light transports and a small number of Cessna 172,185 and 337G light aircraft. Personnel about 250. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Liberia is a member of UN, OAU, ECOWAS and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 Development Plan envisaged expenditure of US$615m. of which US$203m. was devoted to the development of agriculture. Budget. Revenue and expenditure was as follows (in US$ 1,000): 1984-85 ¡985-86 1986-87 Revenue Expenditure

315,000 371,000

237,600 366,700

366,400 366,400

Currency. The legal currency of Liberia is the dollar which is equivalent to US$1 which itself has been in circulation since 3 Nov. 1942, but there is a Liberian coinage in silver and copper. Official accounts are kept in dollars and cents. The Liberian coins are as follows: Silver,$5, $1, 50-, 25-, 10- and 5-cent pieces; alloy, 2-cent and copper 1-cent pieces. The Government has not yet issued paper money. In March 1988, £1 = 1-77 Liberian $; US$1 = 1 Liberian $. Banking. The First National City Bank (Liberia) was founded in 1935. An Italian bank, Tradevco, started business in 1955. The International Trust Co. of Liberia opened a commercial banking department at the end of 1960. The Liberian Bank of Development and Investment (LBDI) was founded in 1964 and began operations in 1965. The National Bank of Liberia opened on 22 July 1974, to act as a central bank. The National Housing and Savings Bank opened on 20 Jan. 1972. The Liberian Finance & Trust Corporation was incorporated Oct. 1976 and began operations in May 1977. The Liberian Agricultural and Co-operative Development Bank started operations in 1978. The Bank of Credit & Commerce International opened in Sept. 1978 and Meridien Bank ofLiberia in July 1985. Weights and Measures. Weights and measures are the same as in U K and USA. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) was 655m. kwh. Supply 120 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Iron ore production was valued at US$241 • lm. tonnes in 1982. Total employment in iron ore mining was 8,815 in 1981. Gold production (1986) 21,125 oz valued at US$7-3m. and diamond production (1982) 337,732 carats valued at US$20-8m. Agriculture. Over 65% of the labour force is engaged in agriculture. The soil is productive, but due to excessive rainfall (from 160 to 180 in. per year), there are large swamp areas. Rice, cassava, coffee, citrus and sugar-cane are cultivated. The Government is negotiating the financing of large-scale investment in rice production aimed at malang the country self-sufficient in rice production. Coffee, cocoa and palm-kernels are produced mainly by the traditional agricultural sector. The Liberia Produce Marketing Corporation (LPMC) operates an oil-mill in Monrovia, processing most of the palm-kernels. There were 2 large commercial oil-palm plantations in the country. The Liberia Industrial Co-operative (LBINC) has 6,000 acres of oil-palm (of which 5,000 acres are in production) in Grand Bassa County, and West Africa Agricultural Co. (WAAC) has 4,020 acres in production in Grand Cape Mount County.

799

LIBERIA

Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 295; cassava, 326; coffee, 9; citrus, 7; sugar-cane, 159; cocoa, 5; palm-kernels, 8. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 43,000; pigs, 131,000; sheep, 246,000; poultry, 4m. Forestry. The Firestone Plantation Co. have large rubber plantations, employing over 40,000 men. Their concession comprises about lm. acres and expires in the year 2025. About 100,000 acres have been planted. Independent producers have a further 65,000 acres planted. In 1976 the total area under rubber cultivation was 294,400 acres, of which 195,800 acres were under actual production. The foreign concessions produced 131 -6m. lb. in 1981 while independent Liberian farmers produced 148 -7m. lb. in 1981. The production of logs in 1981 was 451 m. cu. metres; 1980,745m. Fisheries. Catch (1982) 13,600 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There are a number of small factories (brick and tile, soap, nails, mattresses, shoes, plastics, paint, oxygen, acetylene, tyre retreading, a brewery, soft drinks, cement, matches, candy and biscuits). Commerce. Foreign trade for 6 calendar years was as follows (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1978 486 481

1979 537 505

1 980 533.8 600-4

1981 477-4 529-2

1982 353-9 ...

1983 424 429

In 1987, iron ore accounted for about 70% of total export earnings, rubber 15% and sawn timber over 5%. Other exports were coffee, cocoa, palm-kernel oil, diamonds and gold. Total trade between Liberia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 7,181 13,877

1984 6,975 30,980

1985 7,967 15,957

1986 7,574 22,056

1987 7,284 13,538

The figures for exports f r o m the U K include the value o f s h i p p i n g transferred to the Liberian flag; the genuine exports are considerably lower.

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981, there were 4,794 miles of public roads (1,165 primary, 366 paved, 799 all-weather, 3,629 secondary and feeder) and 1,474 miles of private roads (93 paved, 1,381 laterite and earth). The principal highway connects Monrovia with the road system of Guinea, with branches leading into the Eastern and Western areas of Liberia. The latter branch reaches the Sierra Leone border and joins the Sierra Leone road system. A bridge over the St Paul River carries road traffic to the iron-ore mines at Bomi Hills. Railway. A railway (for freight only) was built in 1951, connecting Monrovia with the Bomi Hills iron-ore mines about 69 km distant; this has been extended to the National Iron Ore Co. area by 79 km. A line from Nimba to Lower Buchanan was completed in 1963 and another line from Bong to Monrovia (78 km) was completed in 1965. Aviation. The airport for Liberia is Roberts International Airport (30 miles from Monrovia). The James Spriggs Payne Airfield, 5 miles from Monrovia, can be used by light aircraft and mini jumbo jets. Air services are maintained by Ghana Airways, Swissair, British Caledonian, Air Guinea, SABENA, Iberia Airlines, Romanian Airlines and Air Liberia. Shipping. Over 2,000 vessels enter Monrovia each year. The Liberian merchant navy, in 1976, consisted of2,666 ships of 76,412,842 GRT. The Liberian Government requires only a modest registration fee and an almost nominal annual charge and maintains no control over the operation of ships flying the Liberian flag. Post and Broadcasting. There is cable communication with Europe and America

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LIBERIA

via Dakar, and a wireless station is maintained by the Government at Monrovia. There is a telephone service (8,510 telephones, 1983), in Monrovia, which is gradually being extended over the whole country. There are wireless stations at Monrovia, Bassa, Harper, Kolahun, Cape Mount and Sinoe. There were (1986) 320,000 radio and 21,000 television receivers. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by a Supreme Court of 5 judges, 14 circuit courts and lower courts. A new Liberian code of laws has been published (5 vols, to 1956). Religion. The main denominations represented in Liberia are Methodist, Baptist, Episcopalian, African Methodist, Pentecostal, Seventh-day Adventist, Lutheran and Roman Catholic, working through missionaries and mission schools. There were (1985) about 670,000 Moslems. Education. Schools are classified as: (1) Public schools, maintained and run by the Government; (2) Mission schools, supported by foreign Missions and subsidized by the Government, and operated by qualified Missionaries and Liberian teachers; (3) Private schools, maintained by endowments and sometimes subsidized by the Government. In 1986 there were estimated to be 1,830 schools with 8,744 teachers and 443,786 pupils. Health. There were 236 doctors in 1981 and about 3,000 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Liberia in Great Britain (2 Pembridge PL, London, W2) Ambassador: W. A. Givens. Of Great Britain in Liberia (Mamba Point, Monrovia) Ambassador and Consul-General. M. E. J. Gore. Of Liberia in the US A (5201 16th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20011) Ambassador: Eugenia Wordsworth-Stevenson. Of the USA in Liberia (United Nations Drive, Monrovia) Ambassador: James K. Bishop. Of Liberia to the United Nations Ambassador: Sylvester O. Jarrett. Books of Reference Economic Survey of Liberia, 1981. Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs Dunn, D. E., The Foreign Policy of Liberia during the Tubman Era, 1944-71. London, 1979 Fraenkel, M., Tribe and Class in Monrovia. OUP, 1964 Wilson, C. M., Liberia: Black Africa in Microcosm. New York, 1971

R ID V A

Capital: Tripoli Population: 3-96m.(1986) GNPper capita: US$7,180 ( 1985)

Al-Jamahiriya Al-Arabiya Al-Libiya Al-Shabiya Al-Ishtirakiya Al-Uzma

H I S T O R Y . Tripoli fell under Turkish domination in the 16th century, and though in 1711 the Arab population secured some measure of independence, the country was in 1835 proclaimed a Turkish vilayet. In Sept. 1911 Italy occupied Tripoli and on 19 Oct. 1912, by the Treaty of Ouchy, Turkey recognized the sovereignty of Italy in Tripoli. After the expulsion of the Germans and Italians in 1942 and 1943, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were placed under British, and the Fezzan under French, military administration. Britain recognized the Amir Mohammed Idris Al-Senussi as Amir of Cyrenaica in June 1949. Libya became an independent, sovereign, federal kingdom under the Amir of Cyrenaica, Mohammed Idris Al-Senussi, as King of the United Kingdom of Libya, on 24 Dec. 1951, when the British Residents in Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and the French Resident in the Fezzan transferred their remaining powers to the federal government of Libya, in pursuance of decisions passed by the United Nations in 1949 and 1950. On 1 Sept. 1969 King Idris was deposed by a group of army officers. Twelve of the group of officers formed the Revolutionary Command Council chaired by Col. Muammar Qadhafi and proclaimed a republic. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Libya is bounded north by the Mediterranean Sea, east by Egypt and Sudan, south by Chad and Niger and west by Algeria and Tunisia. The area is estimated at 1,759,540 sq. km (679,358 sq. miles). The population, at the census on 31 July 1984, was 3,637,488; estimate (1986) 3,955,000. In 1985, 65% of the population was urban. The chief cities (1981) were: Tripoli, the capital (858,000), Benghazi (368,000) and Misurata (117,000). The populations (1984) of the municipalities were as follows: Ajdabiya Awbari Aziziyah Benghazi Dema Fatah Ghadames Gharyan

100,547 48,701 85,068 485,386 105,031 102,763 52,247 117,073

Jabal al-Akhdar Khums Kufrah Marzuq Misurata Nigat a l - K h u m s Sabha Sawfajjin

120,662 149,642 25,139 42,294 178,295 181,584 76,171 45,195

Shati Surt Tarhunah Tobruk Tripoli Yafran Zavia Zlitan

46,749 110,996 84,640 94,006 990,697 73,420 220,075 101,107

C L I M A T E . The coastal region has a warm temperate climate, with mild wet winters and hot dry summers, though most of the country suffers from aridity. Tripoli. Jan. 52°F (11 TC), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 16" (400 mm). Benghazi. Jan. 56°F(13 -3°C), July 77°F(25°C). Annual rainfall 11" (267 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . In March 1977 a new form of direct democracy, the 'Jamahiriya' (state of the masses) was promulgated and the official name of the country was changed to Socialist Peoples Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Under this system, every adult is supposed to be able to share in policy making through the Basic People's Congresses of which there are some 2,000 throughout Libya. These Congresses appoint Popular Committees to execute policy. Provincial and urban affairs are handled by Popular Committees responsible to Municipality People's Congresses, of which there are 13. Officials of these 801

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LIBYA

Congresses and Committees form at national level the General People's Congress which now normally meets for about a week each December or January. This is the highest policy-making body in the country. The General People's Congress appoints its own General Secretariat and the General People's Committee, whose members (the equivalents of ministers under other forms of government) head the 10 government departments which execute policy at national level. Until 1977 Libya was ruled by a Revolutionary Command Council headed by Col. Muammar Qadhafi. Upon its abolition in that year the 5 surviving members of the RCC became the General Secretariat of the General People's Congress, still under Qadhafi's direction. In 1979 they stood down to be replaced by elected officials. Since then, Col. Qadhafi has retained his position as Leader of the Revolution. But neither he nor his former RCC colleagues have any formal posts in the present administration, although they continue to wield authority. Arabic is the official language. Tripoli is the capital. Secretary-General of the General Secretariat of the General People's Congress: Omar al-Muntasir. Foreign Affairs: Jadallah Azzuz al-Talhi. Nationalflag: Plain green. D E F E N C E . There is selective conscription with terms varying from 3-4 years. Enrolment in the reserves, numbering about 40,000, continues until age 49. Army. The Army is organized into 30 tank battalions, 50 mechanized infantry, 1 National Guard, 10 artillery, 2 anti-aircraft, 2 surface-to-surface missile battalions and 14 parachute commando battalions. Equipment includes 2,100 T-54/-55/-62 and 180 T-72 main battle tanks. The Army has an aviation component; equipment includes over 70 helicopters, notably 40 armed Gazelles, and about 10 O-l Bird Dog observation aircraft. Strength (1987) 55,000. The paramilitary Pan-African Legion numbers 7,000. Navy. The fleet comprises 6 ex-Soviet diesel-driven submarines, 6 ex-Yugoslav 2-man midget submarines, 3 missile-armed frigates, 7 missile-armed corvettes, 1 gun corvette, 8 ocean minesweepers, 25 fast missile craft, 14 fast gunboats, 8 patrol boats, 1 medium (dock type) logistic support ship, 2 landing ships, 3 medium landing ships, 16 landing craft, 1 maintenance repair craft, 1 diving ship, 1 salvage ship, 1 transport and 10 tugs. Under construction are 4 missile-armed fast attack craft. One missile-armed fast corvette was sunk on 24 March 1986 and one severely damaged next day by US naval forces. Libya has procured naval equipment and weapons from both the East (particularly the USSR) and the West; and the modern fleet constitutes a force of some importance in the Mediterranean, although training, maintenance and logistic support are questionable. Personnel in 1988 exceeded 4,000 officers and ratings, including coastguard. A large proportion of personnel have trained in the Soviet Union since 1975. Air Force. The creation of an Air Force began in 1959. In 1974, delivery was completed of a total of 110 Mirage 5 combat aircraft and trainers, of which about 50 remain. They have been followed by 10 Tu-22 supersonic reconnaissance bombers, 70 MiG-25 interceptors and reconnaissance aircraft, 100 Su-22 ground attack fighters, 94 MiG-21s, and about 140 MiG-23 variable-geometry fighters and fighter-bombers from the USSR. Other equipment includes 40 Mirage F1 fighters from France, 6 Mirage F l - B two-seat trainers, 20 Mi-24 gunship helicopters, Mi-14 anti-submarine helicopters, 9 C-130H Hercules and 20 Aeritalia G222T transports, 8 Super Frelon and 20 Agusta-built CH-47C Chinook heavy-lift helicopters, and a total of 16 Bell 212, Bell 47, Alouette III and Mi-8 helicopters. Training is performed on piston-engined SF.260Ms (some of which are armed for light attack duties) from Italy; L-39 Albatross, Galeb and Magister jet aircraft; and twin-engined L-410s built in Czechoslovakia. Personnel total (1988) about 10,000, with many of the combat aircraft operated by foreign aircrew.

LIBYA

INTERNATIONAL

803

RELATIONS

Membership. Libya is a member of UN, OAU, OIC, OPEC and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. Declining oil revenues (50% down on 1980 levels) has meant postponing of most projects envisaged in the 5-year development plan (1981-85) and no new development plan had been announced by Dec. 1987. Budget. A development budget of LD1,450m. was announced for 1987 but is likely to be under-spent. Currency. The currency is the Libyan dinar which is divided into 1,000 millemes. Rate of exchange, March 1988: LD0-50=£1;LD0-28=US$1. Banking. A National Bank of Libya was established in 1955; it was renamed the Central Bank of Libya in 1972. All foreign banks were nationalized by Dec. 1970. In 1972 the government set up the Libyan Arab Foreign Bank whose function is overseas investment and to participate in multinational banking corporations. The National Agricultural Bank, which has been set up to give loans and subsidies to farmers to develop their land and to assist them in marketing their crops, has offices in Tripoli, Benghazi, Sebha and other agricultural centres. The National Industrial and Real Estate Bank has been divided to form a Real Estate Bank to provide loans for house-buyers and the Development Bank to finance industrial projects. Weights and Measures. Although the metric system has been officially adopted and is obligatory for all contracts, the following weights and measures are still used: oke= 1 -282 kg; kantar= 51 -28 kg; draa=46 cm;handaza=68 cm. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity capacity (1985)5,615 mw. Production (1986) 2,126m. kwh. Supply 110,115 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Production (1987) 46 • 5m. tonnes. Reserves (1985) 21,000m. bbls. The Libyan National Oil Corporation (NOC) was established in March 1970 to be the state's organization for the exploitation of Libya's oil resources. NOC does not participate in the production of oil but has a majority share in all the operating companies with the exception of two small producers Aquitaine-Libya and Wintershall Libya. The largest producers are Waha (formerly Oasis, until the withdrawal of US oil companies at the end of June 1986) and AGOCO who together produce more than 50% of total production. The other significant producers are Zuweitina (formerly Occidental Libya), AGIP, Sirte Oil Company, and Veba (also known as Mobil Oil Libya, although Mobil Inc. withdrew in July 1982 after EXXON'S withdrawal from the Sirte Oil Company in Oct. 1981). Gas. Reserves (1985) 600,000m. cu. metres. Production (1982) 29,000m. cu. metres. In 1983 a gas pipeline was under construction which will take gas from Brega, along the coast to Misurata. In 1987 agreement was reached with Algeria and Tunisia to construct a gas pipeline to supply western Libya with Algerian gas. Water. Since 1984 a major project has been under way to bring water from wells in southern Libya to the coast. This scheme, called the 'Great Man-made River', is planned, on completion, to irrigate some 185,000 acres of land with water brought along some 4,000 km of pipes. Factories for the construction of the 4 metre diametre pipes which will be used were opened in Aug. 1986. Minerals. There were (1984) 5 cement factories with a capacity of4-75m. tonnes per annum. Two new plants were under construction in 1984 with a capacity of 2-5m. tonnes. Gypsum output (1982) 172,400 tonnes. Iron ore deposits have been found in the south and uranium has reportedly been found in the region of Ghat in the south-west. Agriculture. Tripolitania has 3 zones from the coast inland—the Mediterranean, the sub-desert and the desert. The first, which covers an area of about 17,231 sq.

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LIBYA

miles, is the only one properly suited for agriculture, and may be further subdivided into: (1) the oases along the coast, the richest in North Africa, in which thrive the date palm, the olive, the orange, the peanut and the potato; (2) the steppe district, suitable for cereals (barley and wheat) and pasture; it has olive, almond, vine, orange and mulberry trees and ricinus plants; (3) the dunes, which are being gradually afforested with acacia, robinia, poplar and pine; (4) the Jebel (the mountain district, Tarhuna, Garian, Nalut-Yefren), in which thrive the olive, the fig, the vine and other fruit trees, and which on the east slopes down to the sea with the fertile hills of Msellata. Of some 25m. acres of productive land in Tripolitania, nearly 20m. are used for grazing and about 1 m. for static farming. The sub-desert zone produces the alfa plant. The desert zone and the Fezzan contain some fertile oases, such as those of Ghadames, Ghat, Socna, Sebha, Brak. Cyrenaica has about 10m. acres of potentially productive land, most of which, however, is suitable only for grazing. Certain areas, chief of which is the plateau known as the Barce Plain (about 1,000 ft above sea-level), are suitable for dry farming; in addition, grapes, olives and dates are grown. With improved irrigation, production, particularly of vegetables, could be increased, but stock raising and dry farming will remain of primary importance. About 143,000 acres are used for settled fanning; about 272,000 acres are covered by natural forests. The Agricultural Development Authority plans to reclaim 6,000 hectares each year for agriculture. In the Fezzan there are about 6,700 acres of irrigated gardens and about 297,000 acres are planted with date palms. Production (1985, in tonnes): Wheat, 149,000; barley, 80,000; milk, 98,000; meat, 153,000. Olive trees number about 3-4m. and productive date-palm trees about 3m. Livestock (1985): 5 • 5m. sheep, 900,000 goats, 200,000 cattle, 25m. poultry. Fisheries. The catch in 1982 was 7,425 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Among the traditional industries of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica are sponge fishing, tunny fishing, tobacco growing and processing, dyeing and weaving of local wool and imported cotton yarn, and olive oil. Tripolitania also produces bricks, salt, leather and esparto grass for paper-making. Home industries of both territories include the making of matting, carpets, leather articles and fabrics embroidered with gold and silver. The Government has embarked on an ambitious programme of industrial development aimed at the local manufacture of building materials (steel and aluminium pipes and fittings, electric cables, cement, bricks, glass, etc.), foodstuffs (dairy products, flour, tinned fruits and vegetables, dates, fish processing and canning, etc.), textiles and footwear (ready-made clothing, woollen and cotton cloth, blankets, leather footwear, etc.) and development of mineral deposits (iron ore, phosphates, mineral salts). Small scale private sector industrialization is encouraged by government loans and subsidies. From 21 Sept. 1969 all businesses, except oil and banks, were Libyan-owned. Commerce. Total imports in 1986 were valued at US$4,553 (f.o.b.) and exports at US$6,412 (f.o.b.), virtually all crude oil. In 1986,23% of imports came from Italy, while 28% of exports were to Italy, 14% to the Federal Republic of Germany and 13% to Spain. Total trade between Libya and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 224,050 155,276 311,764 136,390 133,649 274,169 246,467 237,639 260,529 220,626

Tourism. There were 100,000 visitors in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 25,675 km of roads. In 1982 there were 415,509 passenger cars and 334,405 commercial vehicles.

LIBYA

805

Railways. In 1988 there were no operating railways. Aviation. A national airline, the Libyan Arab Airlines (LAA), was inaugurated on 30 Sept. 1965. Benghazi and Tripoli are linked by LAA and other international airlines to Athens, Rome, Madrid, Moscow, Frankfurt, Paris, Amsterdam, Vienna and Zurich. Post and Broadcasting. Tripoli is connected by telegraph cable with Malta and by microwave link with Bengardane (Tunis). There are overseas wireless-telegraph stations at Benghazi and Tripoli, and radio-telephone services connect Libya with most countries of western Europe. In 1982 some 102,000 telephones were in use and in 1983 there were 165,000 radio sets and 170,000 television receivers. Newspapers. There was (1984) one daily in Tripoli with a circulation of about 40,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Civil, Commercial and Criminal codes are based mainly on the Egyptian model. Matters of personal status of family or succession matters affecting Moslems are dealt with in special courts according to the Moslem law. All other matters, civil, commercial and criminal, are tried in the ordinary courts, which have jurisdiction over everyone. There are civil and penal courts in Tripoli and Benghazi, with subsidiary courts at Misurata and Derna; courts of assize in Tripoli and Benghazi, and courts of appeal in Tripoli and Benghazi. Religion. Islam is declared the State religion, but the right of others to practise their religions is provided for. In 1982,97% were Sunni Moslems. Education. There were (1981-82) 718,124 pupils in primary schools, 286,414 in preparatory and secondary schools, 44,789 pupils in technical schools and 25,700 students in higher education. There are 2 universities of A1 Fatah (in Tripoli) and Garyounes (in Benghazi). Health. In 1981 there were 74 hospitals with 15,375 beds, 4,690 physicians, 314 dentists, 420 pharmacists, 1,080 midwives and 5,346 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES U K broke off diplomatic relations with Libya on 22 April 1984. Saudi Arabia looks after Libyan interests in U K and Italy looks after UK's interests in Libya. USA suspended all embassy activities in Tripoli on 2 May 1980. Of Libya to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Ali Treiki. Books of Reference Allen, J. A., Libya: The Experience of Oil. London and Boulder, 1981.—Libya since Independence. London,1982 Bearman, J., Qadhafi'sLibya. London, 1986 Blundy, D. and Lycett, A., Qadhafi and the Libyan Revolution. London, 1987 Cooley, J. K.., Libyan Sandstorm: The Complete Account ofQaddafi's Revolution. London and New York, 1983 Fergiani, M. B., The Libyan Jamahiriya. London, 1984 Harris, L. C., Libya: Qadhafi's Revolution and the Modern State. Boulder and London, 1986 Lawless, R. I., Libya. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Waddhams, F. C., The Libyan Oil Industry. London, 1980 Wright, J., Libya: A Modern History. London, 1982

LIECHTENSTEIN

Capital: Vaduz Population: 21AQQ (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 15,000 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . The Principality of Liechtenstein, situated between the Austrian province of Vorarlberg and the Swiss cantons of St Gallen and Graubiinden, is a sovereign state whose history dates back to 3 May 1342, when Count Hartmann III became ruler of the county of Vaduz. Additions were later made to the count's domains, and by 1434 the territory reached its present boundaries. It consists of the two former counties of Schellenberg and Vaduz (until 1806 immediate fiefs of the Roman Empire). The former in 1699 and the latter in 1712 came into the possession of the house of Liechtenstein and, by diploma of 23 Jan. 1719, granted by the Emperor Charles VI, the two counties were constituted as the Principality of Liechtenstein. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Liechtenstein is bounded on the east by Austria and the west by Switzerland. Area, 160 sq. km (61 • 8 sq. miles); population, of Alemannic race (census 1980), 25,215; estimate, 1986, 27,400. In 1986 there were 351 births and 188 deaths. Population of Vaduz (census 1980), 4,606; estimate, 1986,4,920. The language is German. R E I G N I N G P R I N C E . Francis Joseph II, born 16 Aug. 1906; succeeded his great uncle, 26 July 1938; married on 7 March 1943 to Countess Gina von Wilczek; there are 4 sons, Prince Hans Adam (Has exercised the prerogatives to which the Sovereign is entitled from 26 Aug. 1984, bom 14 Feb. 1945; married on 30 July 1967 to Countess Marie Aglae Kinsky), Prince Philipp Erasmus (married on 11 Sept. 1971 to Isabelle de l'Arbre de Malander), Prince Nikolaus Ferdinand (married on 20 March 1982 to Princess Margaretha of Luxembourg) and Prince Franz Josef Wenzel, and one daughter, Princess Nora Elisabeth. The monarchy is hereditary in the male line. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the princes of the House of Liechtenstein. The present constitution of 5 Oct. 1921 provides for a unicameral parliament (Diet) of 15 members elected for 4 years. Election is on the basis of proportional representation. The prince can call and dismiss the parliament. On parliamentary recommendation, he appoints the prime minister and the 4 councillors for a 4-year term. Any group of 900 persons or any 3 communes may propose legislation (initiative). Bills passed by the parliament may be submitted to popular referendum. A law is valid when it receives a majority approval by the parliament and the prince's signed concurrence. The capital and seat of government is Vaduz and there are 10 more communes all connected by modem roads. The 11 communes are fully independent administrative bodies within the laws of the principality. They levy additional taxes to the state taxes. Since Feb. 1921 Liechtenstein has had the Swiss currency, and since 29 March 1923 has been united with Switzerland in a customs union. At the elections for the Diet, on 2 Feb. 1986, the Fatherland Union obtained 8 seats, the opposition Progressive Citizens' Party, 7 seats. Head of Government: Hans Brunhart. Nationalflag: Horizontally blue over red, with a gold coronet in the first quarter. National anthem: Oben am jungen Rhein (words by H. H. Jauch, 1850; tune, 'God save the Queen'). INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Liechtenstein is a member of EFTA, the Council of Europe and the International Court of Justice. 806

LIECHTENSTEIN

807

ECONOMY Budget. Budget estimates for 1987: Revenue, 347,378,000 Swiss francs; expenditure, 331,914,000 Swiss francs. There is no public debt. Currency. The Swiss franc. Banking. There were (1988) 3 banks: Liechtensteinische Landesbank, Bank in Liechtenstein Ltd, Verwaltungs-und Privatbank Ltd. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity produced in 1986 was 43,371,000 kwh. Agriculture. The rearing of cattle, for which the fine alpine pastures are well suited, is highly developed. In March 1987 there were 6,487 cattle (including 2,999 milk cows), 189 horses, 2,337 sheep, 80 goats, 2,606 pigs. Total production of dairy produce, 1986,13,338,845 kg. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The country has a great variety of light industries (textiles, ceramics, steel screws, precision instruments, canned food, pharmaceutical products, heating appliances, etc.). Since 1945 Liechtenstein has changed from a predominantly agricultural country to a highly industrialized country. The farming population has gone down from 70% in 1930 to only 3% in 1986. The rapid change-over has led to the immigration of foreign workers (Austrians, Germans, Italians, Spaniards). Industrial undertakings affiliated to the Liechtenstein Chamber of Industry and Commerce in 1986 employed 6,657 workers earning 315,336,000 Swiss francs. Commerce. Exports of home produce, for firms in membership of the Chamber of Commerce, in 1986 amounted to 1,291m. Swiss francs. 25-8% went to EFTA countries, of which Switzerland took 248 lm. (19-2%) and 40% went to EEC countries. Total trade with UK is included with Switzerland from 1968. Tourism. In 1986,76,440 visitors arrived in Liechtenstein. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 250 km of roads. Postal buses are the chief means of public transportation within the country and to Austria and Switzerland. Railways. The 18-5 km of main railway passing through the country is operated by Austrian Federal Railways. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 13,156 telephones, 468 telex, 9,218 wireless sets and 8,674 television sets. The post and telegraphs are administered by Switzerland. Cinemas. There were 2 cinemas in 1988. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 2 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 15,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The principality has its own civil and penal codes. The lowest court is the county court, Landgericht, presided over by one judge, which decides minor civil cases and summary criminal offences. The criminal court, Kriminalgericht, with a bench of 5 judges is for major crimes. Another court of mixed jurisdiction is the court of assizes (with 3 judges) for misdemeanours. Juvenile cases are treated in the Juvenile Court (with a bench of 3 judges). The superior court, Obergericht, and

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LIECHTENSTEIN

Supreme Court, Oberster Gerichtshof, are courts of appeal for civil and criminal cases (both with benches of 5 judges). An administrative court of appeal from government actions and the State Court determines the constitutionality of laws. The death penalty was abolished in 1987. Police. The principality has no army. Police force, 42; auxiliary police, 29(1987). Religion. In 1986, 87 -1% of the population was Roman Catholic and 8 -6% was Protestant. Education (1987-88). In 14 primary, 3 upper, 5 secondary, 1 grammar and 3 (for backward children) schools there were 3,486 pupils and 204 teachers. There is also an evening technical school, a music school and a children's pedagogic-welfare day school. Health. In 1984 there was 1 hospital, but Liechtenstein has an agreement with the Swiss cantons of St Gallen and Graubünden and the Austrian Federal State of Vorarlberg that her citizens may use certain hospitals. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES In 1919, Switzerland agreed to represent the interests of Liechtenstein in countries where she has diplomatic missions and where Liechtenstein is not represented in her own right. In so doing Switzerland always acts only on the basis of mandates of a general or specific nature, which she may either accept or refuse, while Liechtenstein is free to enter into direct relations with foreign states or to set up her own additional diplomatic missions. British Consul-General: G. A. Duggan (resident in Zürich). USA Consul-General: L. Segesvary (resident in Zürich). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Amt fur Volkswirtschaft, Vaduz. Rechenschaftsbericht der Fürstlichen Regierung. Vaduz. Annual, f r o m 1922 Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins. Vaduz. A n n u a l since 1901 Kranz, W., The Principality of Liechtenstein. Press and Information Office. 5th ed. Vaduz, 1981 The Economy of the Principality of Liechtenstein. Press and Information Office, Vaduz, 1984 Batliner, E. H., Das Geld- und Kreditwesen des Fürstentums Liechtenstein in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. 1959 Green, B., Valley of Peace. Vaduz, 1967 Larke, T. A. T., Index and Thesaurus of Liechtenstein. 2nd ed. Berkeley, 1984 Malin, G . , Kunstführer Fürstentum Liechtenstein. Berne, 1977 Raton, P., Liechtenstein: History and Institutions of the Principality. Vaduz, 1970 Seger, O., A Survey of Liechtenstein History. 4th English ed. Vaduz, 1984 Steger, G., Fürst und Landtag nach Liechtensteinischem Recht. Vaduz, 1950

LUXEMBOURG

Capital: Luxembourg Population: 369,500 (1987) GNP per capita: US$ 12,990(1985)

Grand-Duché de Luxembourg

H I S T O R Y . The country formed part of the Holy Roman Empire until it was conquered by the French in 1795. In 1815 the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was formed under the house of Orange-Nassau, also sovereigns of the Netherlands. In 1839 the Walloon-speaking area was joined to Belgium. In 1890 the personal union with the Netherlands ended with the accession of a member of another branch of the house of Nassau, Grand Duke Adolphe of Nassau-Weilburg. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Luxembourg has an area of 2,586 sq. km (998 sq. miles) and is bounded on the west by Belgium, south by France, east by the Federal Republic of Germany. The population (1987) was 369,500. The capital, Luxembourg, had 76,640 inhabitants; Esch-Alzette, the centre of the mining district, 23,720; Differdange, 16,000; Dudelange, 14,060, and Petange, 11,590. In 1984 the foreign population was about 96,700. Vital statistics (1986): 4,309 births, 3,970 deaths, 1,892 marriages. C L I M A T E . Cold, raw winters with snow covering the ground for up to a month are features of the upland areas. The remainder resembles Belgium in its climate, with rain evenly distributed throughout the year. Jan. 31°F (0-5°C), July 63°F ( 17 • 5°C). Annual rainfall 29 -6" (740 mm). R E I G N I N G G R A N D D U K E . Jean, born 5 Jan. 1921, son of the late Grand Duchess Charlotte and the late Prince Felix of Bourbon-Parma; succeeded 12 Nov. 1964 on the abdication of his mother; married to Princess JoséphineCharlotte of Belgium, 9 April 1953. Offspring: Princess Marie-Astrid, born 17 Feb. 1954, married Christian of Habsbourg-Lorraine 6 Feb. 1982 (Offspring: Marie Christine, born 31 July 1983; Imre, born 8 Dec. 1985); Prince Henri, heir apparent, born 16 April 1955, married Maria Teresa Mestre 14 Feb. 1981; ( O f f spring: Prince Guillaume, born 11 Nov. 1981, Prince Felix, bom 3 June 1984, Prince Louis, born 3 Aug. 1986). Prince Jean, born 15 May 1957, married Hélène Vestur; Princess Margaretha, bom 15 May 1957, married Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein 20 March 1982; Prince Guillaume, bom 1 May 1963. The civil list is fixed at 300,000 gold francs per annum, to be reconsidered at the beginning of each reign. On 28 Sept. 1919a referendum was taken in Luxembourg to decide on the political and economic future of the country. The voting resulted as follows: For the reigning Grand Duchess, 66,811 ; for the continuance of the Nassau-Braganza dynasty under another Grand Duchess, 1,286; for another dynasty, 889; for a republic, 16,885; for an economic union with France, 60,133; for an economic union with Belgium, 22,242. But France refused in favour of Belgium, and on 22 Dec. 1921 the Chamber of the Grand Duchy passed a Bill for the economic union between Belgium and Luxembourg. The agreement, which is for 60 years, provides for the disappearance of the customs barrier between the two countries and the use of Belgian, in addition to Luxembourg, currency as legal tender in the Grand Duchy. It came into force on 1 May 1922. The Grand Duchy was under German occupation from 10 May 1940 to 10 Sept. 1944. The Grand Duchess Charlotte and the Government carried on an independent administration in London. Civil government was restored in Oct. 1944. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white and light blue. 809

810 National Zinnen).

LUXEMBOURG anthem: Ons Hemecht (words by M. Lentz, 1859; tune by J. A.

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a constitutional monarchy, the hereditary sovereignty being in the Nassau family. The constitution of 17 Oct. 1868 was revised in 1919,1948,1956 and 1972. The revision of 1948 has abolished the 'perpetually neutral' status of the country and introduced the concepts of right to work, social security, health services, freedom of trade and industry, and recognition of trade unions. The revision of 1956 provides for the devolution of executive, legislative and judicial powers to international institutions. The national language is Luxemburgish; French, German and English are widely used. The country forms 4 electoral districts. An elector must be a citizen (male or female) of Luxembourg and have completed 18 years of age; to be eligible for election the citizen must have completed 21 years of age. The Chamber of Deputies consists of 25 Christian Social, 21 Socialists, 14 Democrats, and 2 Communists, and 1 Green alternative (Ecologisti and 1 nonattached deputy (elections of 17 June 1984). Members are elected for 5 years; they receive a salary and a travelling allowance. The head of the state takes part in the legislative power, exercises the executive power and has a certain part in the judicial power. The constitution leaves to the sovereign the right to organize the Government, which consists of a Minister of State, who is President of the Government, and of at least 3 Ministers. The Cabinet was, in Jan. 1986, composed as follows: President of the Government, Minister of State, Minister for Finance: Jacques Santer. Vice-President of the Government, Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Cooperation, Economy and Middle Classes, Exchequer: Jacques F. Poos. Health and Social Security: Benny Berg. Justice, Cultural Affairs, Environment: Robert Krieps. National Education and Youth, Tourism: Fernand Boden. Interior, Family Affairs, Social Solidarity: Jean Spautz. Labour, Finance and Budget: Jean-Claude Juncker. Transport, Public Works, Energy: Marcel Schlechter. Agriculture and Viticulture, Armed Forces, Civil Service, Physical Education ana Sports: Marc Fischbach. Secretary of State for Economy: Johny Lahure. Secretary of State for Agriculture and Viticulture: René Steichen. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Co-operation, Middle Classes: Robert Goebbels. Besides the Cabinet there is a Council of State. It deliberates on proposed laws and Bills, and on amendments; it also gives administrative decisions and expresses its opinion regarding any other question referred to it by the Grand Duke or the Government. The Council of State is composed of 21 members chosen for life by the sovereign, who also chooses a president from among them each year. D E F E N C E . A law passed by Parliament on 29 June 1967 abolished compulsory service and instituted a battalion-size army of volunteers enlisted for 3 years. Strength (1988) 630. The defence estimates for 1987 amounted to 2,018m. francs. Luxembourg is an original member of NATO and the battalion is committed to NATO ACE mobile force. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Luxembourg is a member of the U N , Benelux, the European Communities, OECD, the Council of Europe, NATO and WEU. ECONOMY

Budget. Revenue and expenditure (including extraordinary) for years ending 30 April (in l m . francs): Revenue Expenditure

1983 71,828-6 74,075-3

1984 75,047-9 73,599-3

1985 81,363-8 79,536-8 ' Provisional.

1 986 78,625-9 78,280-4

1987 80,063-9 80,217-8

1 988' 84,738-7 84,141-6

LUXEMBOURG

811

Consolidated debt at 31 Dec. 1986 amounted to 17,084m. francs (long-term) and 3,432 • 1 m. francs (short-term). Currency. On 14 Oct. 1944 the Luxembourg franc was fixed at par value with the Belgian franc. Notes of the Belgian National Bank are legal tender in Luxembourg. Banking. On 31 Dec. 1986 depositors in the State Savings Bank with a total of 45,466m. francs to their credit. There were (1987) 122 banks and 21 non-bank credit institutions established in Luxembourg which has become an international financial centre. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Power production was 976m. kwh. in 1986. Minerals. In 1986 production (in tonnes) of pig-iron, 2,649,700; of steel, 3,705,300. Agriculture. Agriculture is carried on by about 7,000 of the population; 126,960 hectares were under cultivation in 1986. The principal crops are potatoes, barley, beet, oats, wheat and maize. In 1986, 159,700 hectolitres of wine were produced from 1,163 hectares. Livestock(1986): 1,699 horses, 222,864 cattle, 75,609 pigs, 5,900 sheep. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Commerce. By treaty of 5 Sept. 1944, signed in London, and the treaty of 14 March 1947, signed in The Hague, the Grand Duchy, together with Belgium and the Netherlands, became a party to the Benelux Customs Union, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1948. For further particulars see p. 198. Total trade between Luxembourg and U K included with Belgium from 1974. Tourism. In 1986 there were 462,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1987 the network had a total of 5,220 km. Motor vehicles registered in Luxembourg on 1 Jan. 1987 included 162,481 passenger cars, 9,627 trucks, 701 buses, 18,871 tractors and special vehicles. Railways. In 1986 there were 270 km of railway (standard gauge) of which 162 km electrified. It carried 604m. tonne-km and 278m. passenger-km. Aviation. Findel is the airport for Luxembourg and 877,000 passengers and 78,372 tonnes of freight were handled in 1986. Post and Broadcasting. In 1982 the telephone system had more than 5,200 km of telegraph and telephone line, 157,100 telephones (1986), 106 post offices and 387 telegraph offices (1985). Compagnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion broadcasts 1 programme in Luxembourgian on FM. Powerful transmitters on long-, mediumand short-waves are used for commercial and religious programmes in French, Dutch, German, English and Italian. Ten T V programmes are broadcast. Colour transmission by SECAM system. Cinemas (1987). There were 11 cinemas. Newspapers (1986). There were 6 daily newspapers with a circulation of 130,000. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. The population is 95% Roman Catholic. The remaining 5% is mainly Protestant or Jewish, or does not belong to any religion. The Protestant Church is organized on an interdenominational basis. Education ( 1986-87). Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 15. The nursery schools had 8,315 pupils; primary schools had 22,059

812

LUXEMBOURG

pupils; technical secondary schools, 13,135 pupils; secondary schools, 7,197 pupils; t h e Superior Institute of Technology, 2 6 2 pupils; pedagogic e d u c a t i o n , 145 pupils; university studies ( 1984-85), 587 pupils. Health. In 1986 there were 6 8 6 doctors a n d 4,616 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f L u x e m b o u r g in G r e a t Britain (27 W i l t o n Crescent, L o n d o n , S W I X 8SD) Ambassador: Jean Wagner (accredited 4 M a r c h 1986). O f G r e a t Britain in L u x e m b o u r g ( 14 Blvd Roosevelt, L u x e m b o u r g ) Ambassador and Consul-General: Juliet C a m p b e l l . Of L u x e m b o u r g in the U S A (2200 Massachusetts Ave., N W , Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: A n d r é Philippe. Of t h e U S A in L u x e m b o u r g (22 Blvd. E m m a n u e l Servais, Luxembourg) Ambassador: J e a n Broward-Shevlin G e r a r d . O f L u x e m b o u r g to t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: Jeart Feyder. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service Central de la Statistique et des Études Économiques was founded in 1900 and reorganized in 1962 (19-21 boulevard Royal, C.P. 304 LuxembourgCity). Director: Georges Als. Main publications: Bulletin du Statec.—Annuaire statistique.— Cahiers économiques. Bulletin de Documentation. Government Information Service. From 1945 (monthly) The Institutions of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Press and Information Service, Luxembourg, 1982 Als, G., Le Luxembourg, situation politique, économique et sociale. Luxembourg, 1982 Calmes,C., Au Fil de l'Histoire. Luxembourg, 1977 Heiderscheid, A., Aspects de Sociologie Religieuse du Diocèse de Luxembourg. 2 vols. Luxembourg, 1961 Hury, C. and Christophory, J., Luxembourg. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Majerus, P., Le Luxembourg indépendant. Luxembourg, 1948.—L'État Luxembourgeois. Luxembourg, 1983 Newcomer, J., The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: The Evolution of Nationhood, 963 A.D. to 1983. Washington, 1983 Trausch, G., Le Luxembourg à l'Époque Contemporaine. Luxembourg, 1975 Archives of the State: Luxembourg-City. Director: Paul Spang. National Library: Luxembourg-City, 37 Boulevard Roosevelt. Director: Jules Christophory.

Capital: Antananarivo Population: 10-57m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$2 50 ( 1984)

MADAGASCAR Repoblika Demokratika n'i Madagaskar

H I S T O R Y . Madagascar was discovered by the Portuguese, Diego Diaz, in 1500. The island was unified under the Imerina monarchy between 1797 and 1861, but French claims to a protectorate led to hostilities culminating in the establishment of a protectorate on 30 Sept. 1895. The monarchy was abolished and Madagascar became a French Colony on 6 Aug. 1896. Madagascar became an Overseas Territory in 1946,and on 140ct. 1958,following a referendum, was proclaimed the autonomous Malagasy Republic within the French Community, achieving full independence on 26 June 1960. The government of Philibert Tsiranana, President from independence, resigned on 18 May 1972 and executive powers were given to Maj.-Gen. Gabriel Ramanantsoa, who replaced Tsiranana as President on 11 Oct. 1972. On 5 Feb. 1975, Col. Richard Ratsimandrava became Head of State, but was assassinated 6 days later. A National Military Directorate under Brig.-Gen. Gilles Andriamahazo was established on 12 Feb. On 15 June it handed over power to a Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) under Didier Ratsiraka. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Madagascar is situated off the south-east coast of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique channel, the least distance between island and continent being 250 miles (400 km); its length is 980 miles (1,600 km); greatest breadth, 360 miles (570 km). The area is 587,041 sq. km (226,658 sq. miles). In 1975 (census) the population was 7,603,790. Estimate (1987) 10,568,000. Province Antseranana Mahajanga Toamasina Antananarivo Fianarantsoa Toliary

Area in sq. km 43,046 150,023 71,911 58,283 102,373 161,405

Population 1978 620,228 857,610 1,254,639 2,322,019 1,908,465 1,084,083 '1985.

Chieftown Antseranana Mahajanga Toamasina Antananarivo Fianarantsoa Toliary

Population 1982 49,000 80,881 82,907 662,585 1 72,901 48,929

Vital statistics, 1984: Births, 456,000; deaths, 146,000. The indigenous population are of Malayo-Polynesian stock, divided into 18 ethnic groups of which the principal are Merina (26%) of the central plateau, the Betsimisaraka (15%) of the east coast, and the Betsileo (12%) of the southern plateau. Foreign communities include Europeans, mainly French (30,000), Indians ( 15,000), Chinese (9,000), Comorians and Arabs. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but the mountains cause big variations in rainfall, which is very heavy in the east and very light in the west. Antananarivo. Jan. 70°F (21 • TC), July 59°F(15°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,350 mm). Toamasina. Jan. 80°F (26-7'C), July 70°F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 128" (3,256 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The new Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Madagascar was approved by referendum on 21 Dec. 1975 and came into force on 30 Dec. It provides fora National People's Assembly of 137 members elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term from the single list of the Front National pour la Défense de la Révolution Socialiste Malgache; following the general elections held on 28 Aug. 1983, this comprised 117 members of the 813

814

MADAGASCAR

Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache, 9 of the Parti du Congrès de l'Indépendence and 11 others. Executive power is vested in the President, directly elected for 7 years, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him, with the guidance of the 20-member Supreme Revolutionary Council. President: Adm. Didier Ratsiraka (re-elected 7 Nov. 1982). The Council of Ministers in Feb. 1988 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Lieut.-Col. Victor Ramahatra. Foreign Affairs: Jean Bemananjara. Defence: Gen. Christophe Bienaimé Raveloson-Mahasampo. Interior: A m p y Portos. Civil Service and Labour: Georges Ruphin. Finance and Economy: Pascal Rakotomavo. Health: Dr Jean-Jacques Séraphin. Commerce: Georges Solofoson. Industry, Energy and Mines: José Rakotomavo. Animal Production, Water Resources and Forestry: Joseph Randrianasolo. Agricultural Production and Agrarian Reform: José-Michel Andrianoélison. Posts and Telecommunications: Rakotovoa Andriantiana. Secondary and Basic Education: Charles Zeny. Higher Education: Ignace Rakoto. Guidance: Scientific Research: Antoine Zafera. Information and Ideological Simon Pierre. Revolutionary Art and Culture: Gisèle Rabesahala. Transport and Tourism: Jean Emile Tsaranazy. Public Works: (Vacant). Population, Social Welfare, Youth and Sport: Jean-André Ndremanjary. Justice: Joseph Bedo. Special Economic Advisor: Nirina Andriamanerasoa. Nationalflag: Horizontally red over green, in the hoist a vertical white strip. National anthem: Ry tanindrazanay maiala ô! Malagasy, which is a language of Malayo-Polynesian origin, is the official language. French and English are understood and taught in Malagasy schools. Local Government: The six provinces are sub-divided into 110 Fivondronana, which in turn are divided into 1,252 Firaisana and finally into 11,393 Fokontany (the traditional communal divisions). Each level is governed by an elected council. DEFENCE Army. The Army is organized in 2 battalion groups, and 1 engineer, 1 signals, 1 service and 7 construction regiments. Equipment includes PT-76 light tanks and M-8 armoured cars. Strength (1988) 20,000 and gendarmerie 7,500. Navy. The small maritime guard in 1988 had a strength of 600 (including 120 marines), equipped with 1 large patrol craft, 5 patrol boats, 1 medium landing ship, 1 landing craft, 4 minor landing craft and a large trawler training ship. Air Force. Created in 1961, the Malagasy Air Force received its first combat equipment in 1978, with the arrival of 8 MiG-21 and 4 MiG-17 fighters, plus flying and ground stafT instructors, from North Korea. Other equipment includes 1 An-12 and 4 An-26 turboprop transports, 1 Britten-Norman Defender armed transport, 5 C-47s, 1 HS. 748 and 1 Yak-40 for VIP use, 1 Aztec, 3 Cessna Skymasters, 4 Cessna 172Ms and 6 Mi-8 helicopters. Personnel ( 1988) 500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Madagascar is a member of U N , O A U and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-87 agricultural plan aimed at food self-sufficiency and envisaged investment of US$219m. Budget. The budget 1985, envisaged revenue of241,000m. F M G and expenditure of436,200m. FMG. Currency. The Malagasy franc is the unit of currency. There are coins of 1,2, 5,10, 50 and 100 francs and banknotes o f 5 0 , 1 0 0 , 500,1,000 and 5,000 francs. In March 1988, £1 = 1,967 FMG; US$1 = 1,277-60 FMG. Banking. A Central Bank was formed in July 1973, replacing the former Institut

815

MADAGASCAR

d 'Emission Malgache as the central bank of issue. All commercial banking and insurance was nationalised in June 1975. Industrial development is financed through the Bankin 'ny Indostria, and other commercial banking undertaken by the Bankin'ny Tantsaha Mpamokatra and the Banky Fampandrosoana ny Varotra. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production (1986) 479m. kwh. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The oil refinery at Toamasina has a capacity of 12,000 bbls a day. Minerals. Mining production in 1986 included: Graphite, 161,788 tonnes; chromite, 82,910 tonnes; zircon (1985), 650 kg; beryl (1985), (industrial), 129,507 kg; mica, 1,775 kg; gold (1985), 181-6 grammes; industrial garnet (1985), 52-2 kg. Agriculture. The principal agricultural products in 1985 were (in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 2,178; cassava, 2,142; mangoes, 172; bananas, 225; potatoes, 264; sugarcane, 1,744; maize, 140; sweet potatoes, 450; coffee, 82; oranges, 82; pineapples, 51; cotton, 37; groundnuts, 32; sisal, 20; tobacco, 5. Cattle breeding and agriculture are the chief occupations. There were, in 1986, 10,485,000 cattle, 1.35m. pigs, 604,000 sheep, 1,225,000 goats and 25m. poultry. Forestry. The forests contain many valuable woods, while gum, resins and plants for tanning, dyeing and medicinal purposes abound. Production (1984) 6-26m. cu. metres. Fisheries. The fish catch in 1983 was 54,500 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry, hitherto confined mainly to the processing of agricultural products, is now extending to cover other fields. Commerce. Trade in l m . FMG: Imports (c.i.f) Exports (f.o.b)

1983

166,750 127,257

1984

213,531 192,267

1985

265,916 181,530

1986

238,458 205,875

The chief exports in 1984 were coffee (41%), cloves (13%) and vanilla (16%). France took 42% of exports, the USA, 15% and Japan, 9%, while France took 36% of imports, the USA, 7%, Federal Republic of Germany 4% and Japan 4%. Total trade between Madagascar and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1984

4,529 6,936

1985

6,236 9,484

1986

6,432 6,872

1987

6,925 6,382

Tourism. There were 27,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 49,637 km of roads of which 4,774 km bitumenized. In 1983 there were 33,000 private cars and lorries. Railways. In 1985 there were 883 km of railways, all metre gauge. In 1986, 3,161,000 passengers and 735,000m. tonnes of cargo were transported. Aviation. Air France and Air Madagascar connect Antananarivo (International airport, Ivato) with Paris, Alitalia connects with Rome. Several weekly services operated by Air Madagascar connect the capital with the ports and the chief inland towns. In 1985, 138,362 passengers and 5,144 tonnes of cargo arrived and departed. Shipping. In 1986, 705,824 tonnes were loaded and 1,153,133 tonnes unloaded at

816

MADAGASCAR

Toamasina, Mahajanga and other ports. In 1980, registered merchant marine was 56 vessels (of more than 100 G R T ) with a total of 91,211 G R T . Post and Broadcasting. There were in 1978, 547 post offices and agencies. There were ( 1983) 37,100 telephone subscribers, 910,000 radio receivers and 71,000 television receivers. Newspapers. In 1985 there were 7 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 68,000. Cinemas. There were, in 1974,31 cinemas with a seating capacity of 12,500. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal are in Antananarivo. In most towns there are Courts of First Instance for civil and commercial cases. For criminal cases there are ordinary criminal courts in most towns. Religion. 47% of the population follow animist religions; 28% are R o m a n Catholic, 22% Protestant (mainly belonging to the Fiangonan'i Jesosy Kristy eto Madagaskar) and 3% Moslem. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 years of age in the primary schools. In 1978 there were 1,311,000 pupils and 23,937 teachers in public primary schools, while in 1976 there were 114,468 pupils in secondary schools and about 7,000 in technical schools. The University of Madagascar has a main campus at Antananarivo and 5 university centres in the other provincial capitals, with 32,599 students in 1984. There are also 4 agricultural schools at Nanisana, Ambatondrazaka, Marovoay and Ivoloina. Health. In 1978 there were 749 hospitals and dispensaries with 20,625 beds; there were (1981) 901 doctors, 52 dentists, 87 pharmacists, 839 midwives and 770 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Madagascar in Great Britain Ambassador: François de Paul Rabotoson (resides in Paris) Of Great Britain in Madagascar (Immeuble Ny Havana, Cite de 67 Ha, Antananarivo) Ambassador: A. V. Hayday. Of Madagascar in the USA (2374 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Leon M. Rajaobelina. Of the USA in Madagascar ( 14 rue Rainitovo, Antsahavola, Antananarivo) Ambassador: Patricia Gates Lynch. Of Madagascar to the United Nations Ambassador: Blaise Rabetafika. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service de Statistique Générale in Antananarivo published the Bulletin mensuel de Madagascar (from 1971); continuation of the trimestrial Bulletin de statistique générale (1949-71), the Revue de Madagascar, the Madagascar à travers ses provinces (latest issue, 1953) and the Statistiques du Commerce Extérieur de Madagascar. Bulletin de l'Académie Malgache (from 1902) Brown, M., Madagascar Rediscovered. London, 1978 Deschamps, H., Histoire de Madagascar. Paris, 4th ed. 1972

MALAWI

Capital: Lilongwe Population: 7 • 1 m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$210 (1983)

H I S T O R Y . Malawi was formerly the Nyasaland (until 1907 British Central Africa) Protectorate, constituted on 15 May 1891. Nyasaland became a self-governing country on 1 Feb. 1963, and on 6 July 1964 an independent member of the Commonwealth under the name of Malawi. It became a republic on 6 July 1966. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Malawi lies along the southern and western shores of Lake Malawi (the third largest lake in Africa), and is otherwise bounded north by Tanzania, south by Mozambique and west by Zambia. Land area (excluding inland water of Lakes Palombe, Chilwa and Chiuta) 36,325 sq. miles, divided into 3 regions and 24 districts, each administered by a District Commissioner. Lake Malawi waters belonging to Malawi are 9,250 sq. miles and the whole Lake Malawi (including the waters under Mozambique by an agreement made between the two countries in 1950) is 11,650 sq. miles. Population at census 1977, 5,547,460 (males, 2,673,589). Estimate (1985), 7,058,800. Over 90% ofthe population live in rural areas. Population of main towns (estimate 1985) was as follows: Blantyre, 355,200; Lilongwe, 186,800; Mzuzu, 82,700; Zomba, 53,000. Population ofthe regions, 1986 (and census 1977): Northern, 815,000 (648,853); Central, 2,938,300 (2,143,716); Southern, 3,525,600 (2,754,891). The official languages are Chichewa, spoken by over 50% of the population, and English. C L I M A T E . The tropical climate is marked by a dry season from May to Oct. and a wet season for the remaining months. Rainfall amounts are variable, within the range of 29-100" (725-2,500 mm), and maximum temperatures average 75-89°F (24-32°C), and minimum temperatures 58-67°F (14-4-19-4°C). Lilongwe. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 60°F (15-6°C). Annual rainfall 36" (900 mm). Blantyre. Jan. 75°F (23-9°C), July 63"F (17-2°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,125 mm). Zomba. Jan. 73°F (22 • 8°C), July 63°F (17-2°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,344 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The President ofthe republic is also head of Government and of the Malawi Congress Party. Malawi is a one-party state. Parliament is composed of 102 elected members elected for up to 5 years, and 5 nominated by the President. Life President, External Affairs, Agriculture, Justice, Works and Supplies: Ngwazi Dr H. Kamuzu Banda. (Took office 6 July 1966 and became Life President on 6 July 1971). The Cabinet in Jan. 1988 was composed as follows: Finance: Dalton S. Katopola. Trade, Industry and Tourism: Wadson B. Deleza. Education and Culture: Solomon J. Tseka Phiri. Local Government: Richard Mussa Banda. Health: Louis J. Chimango. Labour: Stanford Demba. Transport and Communications: Edward Chitsulo Isaac Bwanali. Community Services: Elia C. Katola Phiri. Forestry and Natural Resources: B. L. Kapichira Banda. At Large: Sydney B. Somanje. Without Portfolio, Administrative Secretary of Malawi Congress Party: Maxwell Pashane. National flag: Three equal horizontal stripes of black, red, green, with a red rising sun on the centre of the black stripe. D E F E N C E . All services form part ofthe Army and have a strength (1988) 5,250. Army. The army is organized into 3 infantry battalions and 1 support battalion. Equipment includes scout cars. 817

818

MALAWI

Navy. There are 3 small lake patrol boats and 2 gunboats. Uniformed personnel in 1988 totalled 36. Air Wing. To support the infantry battalion, the Air Wing has 3 Do 2 8 D Skyservant and 3 Do 228 light transports, and 2 Puma, 1 Ecureuil, 1 Dauphin, and 1 Alouette III helicopters. An HS 125 jet is used for VIP transport. Personnel (1988) 150. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Malawi is a member of U N , the Commonwealth, O A U , SADCC and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Government of Malawi operates a 3-year 'rolling' public-sector investment programme, revised annually to take into account changing needs and the expected level of resources available. The greatest part of the development programme is annually financed from external aid, and priority in the use of resources has always been given to providing the counterpart contributions to funds received from external sources. The balance of these local resources is used for financing projects commanding high national priority for which no external funds can be secured. Budget. Revenue Account receipts and expenditure (in K. 1,000) for years ending 31 March: 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 Revenue Expenditure

458,140 449,747

353,200 416,800

450,200 523,600

512,300 547,000

Currency. The currency is the kwacha (dawn), which is subdivided into 100 tambala (cockerels). From 9 June 1975 the kwacha has been pegged to Special Drawing Rights. In March 1988: £1 sterling= K.4-42, US$1 = K.2 • 53. Banking. In July 1964 the Reserve Bank of Malawi was set u p with a capital of K . l m . to be responsible for the issue of currency and the holding of external reserves and to issue treasury bills and local registered stock on behalf of the Government. Since then, the Reserve Bank has fully assumed the responsibilities of a Central Bank. The National Bank of Malawi has a total of 14 branches in major urban areas and 25 static and 41 mobile agencies in rural areas. The Commercial Bank of Malawi Ltd opened in 1970 and has branches at Limbe, Lilongwe, Mzuzu and Zomba and an agency in Dedza and headquarters at Blantyre. It has 4 permanent and 65 mobile agencies. In 1972 The Investment Development Bank of Malawi was established in Blantyre. Its resources are derived from domestic and foreign official sources and its objective is to provide medium and long-term credits to private entities considered of importance to the economy. The post office savings bank had (1985) 257 offices conducting savings business throughout the country, and the New Building Society has agencies in Limbe, Mzuzu, Zomba, Muloza and Blantyre with its head office in Lilongwe. Weights and Measures. The metric system became fully operational in 1982. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. The Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi is the sole supplier of electrical power and energy and the demand and supply of electricity and power on the inter-connected system was met from the hydro-electric generator sets installed at Tedzani Falls and Nkula Falls stations which together have a total capacity of 124 mw as at 1984. The inter-connected system extends from the Shire River hydro stations and covers most areas of the Southern and Central Regions, and part of the Northern Region. Production (1986) 466m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Thermal plant of 23 -8 mw capacity is available on the inter-connected system and there are stations at Blantyre, Lilongwe, Mtunthama, Kasungu, and Mzuzu.

MALAWI

819

The capacity of the isolated station at Karonga was increased to 480 kw with the installation of 120 kw diesel generator set. Minerals. The main product in 1976 was marble (149,254 tonnes) for the manufacture of cement. Coal mining began in 1985. Agriculture. Malawi is predominantly an agricultural country. In 1983 agriculture contributed about 43% to the GDP, and agricultural produce accounted for 90% of total exports. Maize is the main subsistence crop and is grown by over 95% of all smallholders; production (1986) 1,374,000 tonnes. Tea cultivation is of growing importance; in 1986, 42,000 tonnes were produced. Almost all the surplus crops produced by smallholders are sold to the Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation. Production (1986): Tobacco, 71,000 tonnes; sugar-cane, l-6m. tonnes. Livestock in 1986: Cattle, 930,000; sheep, 180,000; goats, 690,000; pigs, 240,000. Forestry. In 1983-84,11,108 cu. metres of sawn timber were removed. Fisheries. Landings in 1984 were 65,073 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Index of manufacturing output in 1985 (1970 = 100): manufacturing for domestic consumption 419-7 (229-5 in 1980); of this consumer goods were at 183-4(252-5) and intermediate goods mainly for building and construction were at 111-1(150-4). Manufacturing for export, 236-3 (201 -6). Commerce. Exports 1985 (in K.lm.): Tobacco, 229-9; tea, 113-3; sugar, 28-9; pulses, 6 -4; groundnuts, 1 •1;rice, 3; other crops including manufactures, 53 -4. Trade statistics for calendar years are (in K. 1 m.): Imports Exports

1983 363-7 270-6

1984 381-5 446-2

1985 492-5 419-6

Total trade between Malawi and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): , m ] m m 5 m ? Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

65,327 22,995

87,218 20,525

56,983 28,557

44,223 18,069

Tourism. There were 41,145 visitors to Malawi in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 2,671 km of main road, of which 1,776 km were bitumen surfaced and 410 km gravel; 2,781-5 km of secondary roads, of which 285 km were surfaced, 204-8 km of gravel and 2,291-7 km of earth roads. In 1984 there were 15,584 cars, 12,605 commercial vehicles and l,115busesand hire vehicles. Railways. Malawi Railways (789 km-1,067 m m gauge) operates a main line from Salima to the Mozambique border near Nsanje, from which running powers over the Trans-Zambesia Railway allow access to the port of Beira; a branch opened in 1970 runs eastwards from a point 16 km south of Balaka to the Mozambique border to give a direct route to the deep-water port of Nacala. The 26-km section from Nsanje to the border is operated by the Central Africa Railway Co. Ltd. An extension of 111 km from Salima to the new state capital of Lilongwe was opened in Feb. 1979, and a further extension to Mchinji on the Zambian border (120 km) was completed in 1981. In 1985-86, 461,000 tonnes hauled, 121 -5m. passengerkmrun. Aviation. In 1983 the Kamuzu International Airport at Lilongwe was inaugurated. It handled (1984) 56,580 passengers and 893 tonnes. In 1982 Chileka Airport handled 184,700 passengers and 5,598 tonnes of freight. Shipping. In 1982 lake ships carried 1 -48m. passengers. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1982) 16,445. The Malawi Broad-

820

MALAWI

casting Corporation broadcasts in English and Chichewa. There were l m . radio sets in 1983. Newspapers (1984). The Daily Times (English, Monday to Friday); 14,000 copies daily. Malawi News (English and Chichewa, Saturdays); 21,000 copies weekly. The Odini (English and Chichewa, 7,000 fortnightly). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered in the High Court, the magistrates' courts and traditional courts. There are 23 magistrates' courts, 176 traditional courts and 23 local appeal courts. Appeals from traditional courts are dealt with in the traditional appeal courts and in the national traditional appeal court. Appeals from magistrates' courts lie to the High Court, and appeals from the High Court to Malawi's Supreme Court of Appeal. Religion. In 1983 the Roman Catholic Church claimed 1 -2m. members; Church of Central Africa Presbyterian, 366,377; Diocese of Southern Malawi and Lake Malawi (part of the Province of Central Africa (the Anglican Communion), 70,606; Seventh Day Adventist Church (1984), 59,319. Zambezi Evangelical Church (formerly Nyasa mission), 26,000; Assembly of God, 10,000; Seventh Day Baptist (Central Africa Conference), 5,198; Church of Christ, 50,000+; African Evangelical Church, 6,000. Moslems are estimated to number about 500,000. Education In 1983-84 the number of pupils in primary schools was 847,157; in secondary schools, 22,245. There were 14,499 teachers in primary schools and 1,079 in secondary schools. The primary school course is of 8 years' duration, followed by a 4-year secondary course. English is taught from the 1st year and becomes the general medium of instruction from the 4th year. There were 1,890 students in teacher training schools and 522 in government technical schools. The University of Malawi was inaugurated in 1965. In 1983-84 there were 1,961 students taking degree and diploma courses. Health. In 1984 there were two central hospitals, one general hospital, one mental hospital, 43 hospitals of which 21 are government district hospitals. There are 6,596 hospital beds of which 1,448 are for maternity. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Malawi in Great Britain (3 3 Grosvenor St., London, W 1 X ODE) High Commissioner: Bernard Brenn Mtawali. Of Great Britain in Malawi (Lingadzi Hse., Lilongwe, 3) High Commissioner: Dr D. G. Osborne. Of Malawi in the USA (1400 20th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador. T. S. Mangwazu. Of the USA in Malawi (PO Box 30016, Lilongwe) Chargé d'Affaires: Dennis C. Jett. Of Malawi to the United Nations Ambassador: T. S. Mangwazu. Books of Reference General Information: The Chief Information Officer, P O Box 494, Blantyre. Boeder, R. B. Malawi. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 McMaster,C., Malawi: Foreign Policy and Development. London, 1974

Capital: Kuala Lumpur Population: 16-5m. (1987) GNP per capila: US$ 1,870 ( 1985)

MALAYSIA

H I S T O R Y . On 16 Sept. 1963 Malaysia came into being, consisting of the Federation of Malaya, the State of Singapore and the colonies of North Borneo (renamed Sabah) and Sarawak. The agreement between the UK and the 4 territories was signed on 9 July (Cmnd. 2094); by it, the UK relinquished sovereignty over Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak from independence day and extended the 1957 defence agreement with Malaya to apply to Malaysia. Malaysia became automatically a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. See map in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 .

On 9 Aug. 1965, by a mutual agreement dated 7 Aug. 1965 between Malaysia and Singapore, Singapore seceded from Malaysia to become an independent Sovereign nation. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Malaysia comprises 11 states and a federal territory in the Malay Peninsula (bounded north by Thailand), together with a further 2 states and a second federal territory lying on the island of Borneo (bounded south by Indonesia). Singapore and Brunei form enclaves along the coasts of these two parts. The area of Malaysia is 329,759 sq. km (127,317 sq. miles) and the population (1987 estimate) is 16,527,000. The growth of Census population has been: Year 1970 1980

Peninsular Malaysia 8,809,557 11,426,613

Sarawak 975,918 1,307,582

Sabah/Labuan 655,295 1,011,046

Total Malaysia 10,440,770 13,745,241

The areas, populations and chief towns of the states and federal territories are: Census 19801 1,638,229 1,116,140 893,753 977,102 464,754 573,578 798,782 1,805,198 148,276 954,638 1,515,536 540,627

State Johor Kedah Kelantan Kuala L u m p u r 1 Melaka Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Pinang Selangor Terengganu

Sq. km 18,985 9,425 14,931 243 1,658 6,646 35,960 21,005 795 1,033 7,956 12,955

Pen insular Malaysia

131,592

11,426,613

1

98 73,613 124,449

12,219 998,827 1,307,582

198,160

2,318,628

Labuan Sabah Sarawak

East Malaysia 1

Revised figures

2

Capital Johor Baharu Alor Setar Kota Baharu Kuala Lumpur Melaka Seremban Kuantan Ipoh Kangar Pinang (Georgetown) Shah Alam Kuala Terengganu

Victoria Kota Kinabalu Kuching

Census 1980 249,880 71,682 170,559 937,875 88,073 136,252 136,625 300,727 12,956 250,578 24,138 186,608

55,997 74,229

Federal Territories.

Other large cities (1980 Census): Petaling Jaya (207,805), Kelang (192,080), Taiping (146,002), Sibu (85,231), Sandakan (70,420) and Miri (52,125). Of the total population in 1980,47% were Malay, 32% Chinese, 8% Indian and 13% others. Over 58% speak Malay, the official language, 9% Chinese, 4% Tamil and 3% Iban. C L I M A T E . Malaysia is affected by the monsoon climate. The N.E. monsoon 821

822

MALAYSIA

prevails from Oct. to Feb., bringing rain to the east coast of the peninsula. The S.W. monsoon lasts from mid-May to Sept. and affects the opposite coastline the most. Temperatures are uniform throughout the year. Kuala Lumpur. Jan. 81°F (27-2'C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 97-6" (2,441 mm). Penang. Jan. 82°F (27-8°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 109 -4" (2,736 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of Malaysia is based on the Constitution of the former Federation of Malaya, but includes safeguards for the special interests of Sabah and Sarawak. It was amended in 1983. The federal capital is Kuala Lumpur, established on 1 Feb. 1974 with an area of approximately 94 sq. miles. The official language is Bahasa Malaysia. The Constitution provides for one of the 9 Rulers of the Malay States to be elected from among themselves to be the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of the Federation). He holds office for a period of 5 years. The Rulers also elect from among themselves a Deputy Supreme Head of State, also for a period of 5 years. Supreme Head of Stale ( Yang di-Pertuan Agong): HM Sultan Mahmood Iskandar ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Ismail DK, SPMJ, SPDK, DK (Brunei) SSIJ, PIS, BSI, elected as 8th Yang di-Pertuan Agong from 26 April 1984, proclaimed 15 Nov. 1984. Raja of Perlis: HRH Tuanku Syed Putra ibni Al-Marhum Syed Hassan Jamalullail, DK, DKM, DMN, SMN, SPMP, SPDK, acceded 12 March 1949. Sultan of Kedah: HRH Tuanku Haji Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah ibni AlMarhum Sultan Badlishah, DK, DKH, DKM, DMN, DUK, SPMK, SSDK, acceded 20 Feb. 1959. Regent of Johor: HRH Tengku Ibrahim Ismail ibni Sultan Mahmood Iskandar Al-Haj, DK, SPMJ, appointed from 15 Nov. 1984. Sultan of Selangor: HRH Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Hisamuddin 'Alam Shah Al-Haj, DK, DMN, SPMS, SPDK, acceded 3 Sept. 1960. Raja of Perak: HRH Raja Tun Azlan Shah, DK, DMN, PMN, SPCM, SPMP, acceded 3 Feb. 1984. Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan: HRH Tuanku Ja'afar ibni AlMarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman, DMN, DK, acceded 8 April 1968. Sultan of Kelantan: HRH Sultan Ismail Petra ibni Al-Marhum Sultan Yahya Petra, DK, SPMK, SJMK, SPSM, appointed 29 March 1979. Sultan of Trengganu: HRH Sultan Mahmud AI Marhum ibni Al-Marhum Tuanku Al-Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin Shah, DK, SPMT, SPCM, appointed 2 Sept. 1979. Sultan of Pahang: Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah Al-Musta'in Billah ibni AlMarhum Sultan Abu Bakar Ri'Ayatuddin Al-Mu'Adzam Shah, DKM, DKP, DK, SSAP, SPCM, SPMJ. Yang di-Pertua Negeri Pulau Pinang: HE Tun Dr Awang bin Hassan, DUPN, SPMJ, appointed 1 May 1981. Governor of Malacca: HE Tuan Yang Terutama Tan Sri Datuk Sri Utama Syed Ahmad Al-Haj bin Syed Mahmud Shahabudin, PSM, SPMK, DUNM, SSDK, PNBS, PGDK, JMN, JP, appointed 4 Dec. 1984. Yang di-Pertua Negeri Sarawak: HE Datuk Patinggi Haji Ahmad Zaidi Adruce bin Muhammed Noor, DPSS, DP, PNBS, appointed 2 April 1985. Yang di-Pertua Negeri Sabah: HE Datuk Mohamad Adnan Robert, SMN, SPDK, SPMP, DUPN, DP, appointed 26 June 1978. Parliament consists of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and two Majlis (Houses of Parliament) known as the Dewan Negara (Senate) of 68 members and Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) of 177 members. There are 169 members from the states in Malaysia and 8 from the Federal Territory. Appointment to the Senate

MALAYSIA

823

is for 3 years. The maximum life of the House of Representatives is 5 years, subject to its dissolution at any time by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of his Ministers. National flag: Fourteen horizontal stripes of red and white, with a blue quarter bearing a crescent and a star of 14 points, all in gold. The elections to the House of Representatives held on 2 - 3 Aug. 1986, returned the following members: National Front, 148; Democratic Action Party, 24; PAS, 1; Independent, 4. The Cabinet was in Jan. 1988 composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of Home Affairs: Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad, SSDK, SSAP, SPMS, SPMJ, DP(Sk), D U P N , SPNS, SPDK, SPCM, SSMT, DUMN. Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of National and Rural Development: Abdul Ghafar Baba. Ministers in the Prime Minister's Department: Dr Yusof Mohd Nor; Kasitah Gadam. Works: S. Samy Vellu. Primary Industries: D r Lim Keng Yaik. Information: Dato Mohamed Rahmat. Trade and Industry: Datin Paduka Rafidah Aziz. Energy, Telecommunications and Posts: Leo Moggie. Public Enterprises: Dato Napsiah Omar. Land and Regional Development: Dr Sulaiman Daud. Agriculture: Sanusi Junid. Defence: Tenglen Ahmad Rithandeen. Foreign Affairs: Abu Hassan Omar. Science, Technology and Environment: Amar Stephen Yong. Welfare: Mustaffa Mohammad. Education: Anwar Ibrahim. Finance: Daim Zainuddin. Transport: Dr Ling Liong Sik. Health: Chan Siang Sun. Labour: Lee Kim Sai. Youth and Sports: Najib Tun Razak. Housing and Local Government: Ng Cheng Kiat. Justice: Vacant. Culture and Tourism: Sabbaruddin Chik. D E F E N C E . The Malaysian Constitution provides for the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Supreme Head of State) to be the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces who exercises his powers and authority in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet. Under the general authority of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the Cabinet, there is the Armed Forces Council which is responsible for the command, discipline and administration of all other matters relating to the Armed Forces, other than those relating to their operational use. The Armed Forces Council is chaired by the Minister of Defence and its membership consists of the chief of the Defence Forces, the 3 Service Chiefs and 2 other senior military officers, the Secretary-General of the Ministry of Defence, a representative of State Rulers and an appointed member. The chief of the Armed Forces Staff is the professional head of the Armed Forces and the senior military member in the Armed Forces Council. He is the principal adviser to the Minister of Defence on the military aspects of all defence matters. The chief of the Armed Forces Staffs committee, established under the authority of the Armed Forces Council, is the highest level at which joint planning and coordination with the Armed Forces are carried out. The Committee is chaired by the chief of the Armed Forces Staff and its membership consists of the chief of the Army, Navy and Air Force, the chief of Personnel Staff, the chief of logistic Staff and the chief of Staff of the Ministry of Defence. Army. The Army is organized into 4 divisions, comprising 9 infantry brigades made up of 36 infantry battalions; 4 cavalry, 5 field artillery, 5 engineer and 5 signals regiments and 2 anti-aircraft battalions. There is also a special service regiment. Equipment includes 26 Scorpion light tanks. Strength (1988) about 90,000, with as reserves the Malaysian Territorial Army (45,000) and the regular reservists who have completed their full-time service. Navy. The Royal Malaysian Navy is commanded by the Chief of the Navy from the integrated Ministry of Defence in Kuala Lumpur. The main naval bases are K D Malaya at Lumut Perak, K D Sri Labuan on Labuan Island and K D Pelandok in Lumut, Perak. These establishments are responsible for the operation and administration of the ships, and K D Pelandok for the training of personnel. The ships include 2 new German-built (Kiel) frigates, 2 British (Yarrow)-built frigates (including the former H M S Mermaid), 2 new corvettes, 4 new Italian-built

824

MALAYSIA

minehunters, 2 logistic support ships, 8 fast missile craft, 6 fast gunboats, 21 patrol craft, 2 landing ships, 1 diving tender, 2 survey vessels, 200 very small amphibious craft and 6 tugs. The peace-time tasks include fishery protection and anti-piracy patrols. There are also 50 armed patrol launches, 48 operated by the Royal Malaysian Police and 2 by the Government of Sabah (North Borneo) which also operates 4 other patrol boats, 1 landing craft and a yacht. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled over 11,000 officers and ratings. Air Force. Formed on 1 June 1958, the Royal Malaysian Air Force is equipped primarily to provide air defence and air support for the Army, Navy and Police. Its secondary role is to render assistance to Government departments and civilian organizations, especially during periods of national disasters. There were in late 1987 12 squadrons, of which 9 operated transport aircraft and helicopters. 39 ex-US Navy A-4L/C Skyhawks equip 2 squadrons as the primary attack force. Other equipment includes 14 F-5E Tiger II jet fighter-bombers, 2 RF-5E reconnaissance-fighters, and 3 F-5F trainers, 2 F.28 Fellowship and 2 Challenger VIP transports, 9 C-130 Hercules four-engined transport and patrol aircraft, 15 Caribou twin-engined STOL transports, 2 HU-16 amphibians, 3 5 Sikorsky S-61A-4 Nuri heavy troop and cargo transport helicopters, 20 Alouette III, and 9 Bell 47 helicopters, 11 Cessna 402Bs for twin-engine training and liaison, 44 PC-7 TurboTrainers, 11 MB.339 jet trainers and 2 H.S. 125 Merpati twin-jet executive transports. Personnel (1988) totalled about 12,000. Volunteer Forces. The Army Volunteer Force (Territorial Army) consists of firstline infantry, signals, engineer and logistics units able to take the field with the active army, and a second-line organization to provide local defence. There is also a small Naval Volunteer Reserve with Headquarters in Penang and Kuala Lumpur. The Royal Malaysian Air Force Volunteer Reserve has both air and ground elements. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Malaysia is a member of U N , the Commonwealth, Non-Aligned countries, the Colombo Plan, Organization of Islamic Conference and ASEAN. ECONOMY Planning. The fifth 5-year plan, 1986-90 envisages an expenditure of M$74,000m. and aims at stimulating economic growth through development of manufacturing industries, revitalization of agriculture and improvement of productivity in all sectors. Budget. Revenue and expenditure for calendar years, in M$ 1 m.: Revenue Operating expenditure Development expenditure

1982 16,434 16,185 10,434

1983 18,608 16,124 9,416 1

1984 20,805 17,506 8,074

1985 21,114 20,066 6,756

1986 19,518 20,075 6,949

1987' 17,278 20,793 6,192

Estimate.

Currency. Bank Negara Malaysia (Central Bank of Malaysia) assumed sole currency issuing authority in Malaysia on 12 June 1967. The unit of currency issued by Bank Negara Malaysia is the Malaysian ringgit ($) which is divided into 100 sen. Currency notes are of denominations of $1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and $1,000. Coins are of denominations of 1 sen, 5, 10,20, 50 sen and $ 1, $5 and $ 100. On 31 Dec. 1984, currency issued by Bank Negara Malaysia amounted to M$6,561 -4m., of which M$6,147 • 6m. (93%) was notes and M$413 • 8m. (6 • 3%) coins. Rate of exchange, March 1988:2 • 58 ringgit=US$ 1; 4 • 57 ringgit=£1. Banking. Thirty-nine banks were operating in Aug. 1985; of these 23 were domestic banks with over 650 banking offices. Five were banks incorporated in Singapore with 63 banking offices and the remaining 12 banks were foreign incor-

MALAYSIA

825

porated with 85 banking offices. Total deposits amounted to M$56,453 • 1 m. on 30 June 1987 and loans and advances amounted to M$51,235-4m. The National Savings Bank (formerly known as the post office savings bank) held M$973-8m. due to 3,600,948 depositors at 31 Dec. 1978. Weights and Measures. The standard measures are the imperial yard, pound and gallon. The Weights and Measures Act of 1972 provides for a 10-year transition to the metric system, and was completed by 31 Dec. 1981. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Oil. Production (1987) 23-5m. tonnes. Gas. Natural gas reserves, 1987, 1,400,000m. cu. metres. Production of LNG in 1986 was approximately 5 • 3m. tonnes, most of which was exported to Japan. Minerals. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Bauxite, 566; iron ore, 208; copper, 115; tin, 29. Agriculture. Production, 1986: Pineapples, 188,000 tonnes; tobacco leaves, 12,000 tonnes from 15,000 hectares; pepper (1984), 15,000 tonnes from 10,550 hectares; cocoa, 130,000 tonnes from 245,000 hectares. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 620,000, buffaloes, 250,000; sheep, 69,000; pigs, 2-15m.; goats, 347,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE. Industry. The total labour force was 6,259,000 in 1987, of whom 5,687,800 were employed: 2,005,500 in agriculture, 820,500 in manufacturing, 843,900 in government. Production, 1987 (1,000 tonnes): Rubber, 1,600; tin, 32; crude palm oil, 4,400; sawlogs, 30,700,000 cu. metres. Commerce. In 1987 exports totalled M$41,036m. and imports M$31,087m. Chief imports (1987, provisional): Machinery and transport equipment, M$13,585m.; manufactured goods, M$4,787m.; food, beverages and tobacco M$3,233m.; crude petroleum and related products, M$2,054m. Chief exports (1986): Manufactured goods (M$18,147m.); rubber (M$3,784m.); crude petroleum (M$6,223m.); palm oil (M$3,038m.); saw logs (M$3,218m.); tin, MS857. In 1986 imports came chiefly from Japan (20-5%); USA (18-8%); and Singapore (15%). Exports in 1986 went chiefly to Japan (22 • 7%), Singapore (17-1%) and USA (16-6%). Total trade of Malaysia with UK. (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ] m /9(W 1986 1987 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

320,325 283,269

383,860 281,671

350,058 226,912

397,122 257,970

COMMUNICATIONS Post and Broadcasting. The Postal Services in Malaysia are under the Ministry of Energy, Telecommunications and Post and are headed by the Director-General of Post, Malaysia. There were 849,129 telephone subscribers in 1984; telephone connections between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak are by satellite and submarine cable. As at 31 Dec. 1979, 445 post offices, 1,381 postal agencies, 177 mobile post offices and 1 riverine postal office were operating in Malaysia, and the cash turnover for the year amounted to M$4,688,113,241. In 1984,279,370 radio licences and 1,414,960 television licences were issued. Cinemas. In 1974 there were 500 cinemas with a seating capacity of345,400. Newspapers. Papers are published in Malay (1,226,000 daily sales in 1984), English (830,000), Chinese (387,000) and Tamil (19,000). J U S T I C E . By virtue of Art. 121(1) of the Federal Constitution judicial power in

826

MALAYSIA

the Federation is vested on 2 High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction and status namely the High Court of Malaya and the High Court of Borneo, and the inferior courts. The Federal Court with its principal registry in Kuala Lumpur is the Supreme Court in the country. The Lord President as the supreme head of the Judiciary, the 2 Chief Justices of the High Courts and 6 other Judges form the constitution of the Federal Court. Apart from having exclusive jurisdiction to determine appeals from the High Court the Federal Court is also conferred with such original and consultative jurisdiction as is laid out in Articles 128 and 130 of the Constitution. A panel of 3 Judges or such greater uneven number as may be determined by the Lord President preside in every proceeding in the Federal Court. The right of appeal to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (who in tum refers the appeal to the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council) from a decision of the Federal Court in respect of criminal and constitutional matters was abolished on 1 July 1978. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Malaysia in Great Britain (45 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X 8QT) High Commissioner: Datuk Jamaluddin Abu Bakar. Of Great Britain in Malaysia (Wisma Damansara, Jalan Semantan, Kuala Lumpur) High Commissioner:]. Nicholas T. Spreckley, CMG. Of Malaysia in the USA (2401 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Albert S. Talalla. Of the USA in Malaysia (376 Jalan Tun Razak, Kuala Lumpur) Ambassador:io\mC. Monjo. Of Malaysia to the United Nations Ambassador: YusofM. Hitam. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, was set up in 1963, taking over from the Department of Statistics, States of Malaya. Chief Statistician: Khoo Teik Huat. Main publications: Peninsular Malaysia Monthly and Annual Statistics oj External Trade; Malaysia External Trade (quarterly); Peninsular Malaysia Statistical Bulletin (monthly); Rubber Statistics (monthly); Rubber Statistics Handbook (annual); Oil Palm Statistics (monthly); Oil Palm, Coconut and Tea Statistics (annual). Malaysia 1985, The Department of Information, Kuala Lumpur, 1986 Anand, S., Inequality and Poverty in Malaysia. OUP, 1983 Brown, I., and Ampalavanar, R., Malaysia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Gullick, J., Malaysia: Economic Expansion and National Unity. Boulder and London, 1982 Meerman, J., Public Expenditure in Malaysia. OUP, 1980 Snodgrass, D. R., Inequality and Economic Development in Malaysia. OUP, 1982

PENINSULAR MALAYSIA AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The total area of Peninsular Malaysia is about 50,810 sq. miles (131,598 sq. km). Population (1986 estimate) 13,324,000. The federal capital is Kuala Lumpur (244 sq. km). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The States of the Federation of Malaya, now known as Peninsular Malaysia, comprises the 11 States of Johore, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Perak, Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, Trengganu, Penang and Malacca. For earlier history of the States and Settlements see THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1 9 5 7 , p . 2 4 1 .

The Constitution is based on the agreements reached at the London conference

PENINSULAR

MALAYSIA

827

of Jan.-Feb. 1956, between HM Government in the UK, the Rulers of the Malay states and the Alliance Party (which at the first federal elections on 27 July 1955 obtained 51 of the 52 elected members), and subsequently worked out by the Constitutional Commission appointed after that conference. ECONOMY Budget. See p. 824. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1986,10,700m. kwh. were generated. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Production (1985) 20 -2m. tonnes of crude oil. Minerals. Production (in tonnes): Tin-in-concentrates: 1983, 41,400; 1982, 52,300. Iron ore: 1983, 113,700; 1982, 340,300. Bauxite: 1983, 501,800; 1982, 589,000. Copper: 1983,123,400; 1982,128,800. Gold: 1980,4,621 troyoz.; 1979, 5,273. Agriculture. Production in 1985 (in tonnes): Rice, 1,895,000 from 675,000 hectares; rubber, l -54m.; palm oil, 4 1 3 m . ; palm kernels, l-21m.; cocoa, 100,000; coconuts, 1,721,000; copra, 216,000; vegetables, 481,000; fruit, 898,000; sugarcane, 1 -2m.; tea, 4,000; cassava, 370,000; sweet potatoes, 50,000; roots and tubers, 505,000; maize, 24,000. Forestry (1984). Reserved forests, 4-7m. hectares. Production of logs (1984), 10-7m. cu. metres; sawn timber, 5-8m. cu. metres; plywood, 630,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. Landings in 1983 493,117 tonnes. Fishermen (1985) 87,000; 70% offshore. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Trade Unions. There were, in Aug. 1985, 287 registered trade unions with over 500,000 members in Peninsular Malaysia. Tourism. In 1986 there were 3,027,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 the Public Works Department maintained 25,540 km of roads of which 79% were paved. In 1985 the 8-mile road bridge between the mainland and Penang island opened. In 1983, 3,229,371 motor vehicles were registered, including 974,170 private cars, 16,069 buses, 195,752 lorries and vans, 1,948,342 motorcycles. Railways. The Malayan Railway main line runs from Singapore to Butterworth opposite Penang Island. From Bukit Mertajam 8 miles south of Butterworth a branch line connects Peninsular Malaysia with the State Railways of Thailand at the frontier station of Padang Besar. Other branch lines connect the main line with Port of Klang, Teluk Anson, Port Dickson and Ampang. The east-coast line, branching off the main line at Gemas, runs for over 300 miles to Tumpat, Kelantan's northernmost coastal town; a 13-mile branch line linking Pasir Mas with Sungei Golok makes a second connexion with Thailand. In 1986 there were 1,639 km (metre gauge) which carried 6 -7m. passengers and 2 • 8m. tonnes of freight. Aviation (1985). International air services are operated into Kuala Lumpur Johor and Penang airports. The national carrier, Malaysian Airlines System (MAS), began operation on 1 Oct. 1972 to provide both domestic and international services. Civil aviation statistics for airports in Peninsular Malaysia (1984): Aircraft movements, 97,890; terminal passengers, 6,078,273; freight, 80,232 tonnes; mail, 7,163 tonnes.

828

MALAYSIA

Shipping. The major ports of Peninsular Malaysia are Port Kelang, Penang, Johor and Kuantan. In 1984 Port Kelang handled 12,357,262 tonnes of cargo valued at M$16,318-4m., of which imports totalled 7,744,789 tonnes (M$9,532-9m.) and exports 4,612,473 tonnes (M$6,785-5m.). A total of 4,630 ships, G R T 35m. tonnes, called in 1984. In 1984 the Port of Penang handled 7,960,506 tonnes of cargo, of which 5,220,550 tonnes were imports and 2,739,956 tonnes exports. The total cargo handled in all ports during 1984 was 31,986,000 tonnes. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Unlike the Federal Court and the High Court which were established under the Constitution, the subordinate courts in Peninsular Malaysia comprising the sessions court, the Magistrate's court and the Penghulu's court were established under a Federal Law (the subordinate Courts Act, 1948 (Revised 1972)). All offences other than those punishable with death are tried before a Sessions Court President who is empowered to pass any sentence allowed by law other than the sentence of death. In civil matters, the sessions court has jurisdiction to hear all actions and suits where the amount in dispute does not exceed M$25,000. A First Class Magistrate's criminal jurisdiction is limited to offences for which the maximum term provided by law does not exceed 10 years' imprisonment and to certain specified offences where the term of imprisonment provided for may be extended to 14 years' imprisonment or which are punishable with fine only. Juvenile courts established under the Juvenile Courts Act, 1947 for juvenile offenders below the age of 18 are presided over by a First Class Magistrate assisted by 2 advisers. There are 30 penal institutions, including Borstal establishments and an open prison camp. Religion. More than half the population are Moslems, and Islam is the official religion. In 1970 there were 4,673,670 Moslems, 765,250 Hindus, 220,897 Christians and 2,495,739 Buddhists. Education. In 1984 there were 4,459 state assisted primary schools with 1,756,825 pupils and 67,244 teachers and in 1980, 208 private primary schools with 5,130 pupils and 224 teachers. In 1984 there were 929 secondary schools with 1,079,424 pupils and 48,098 teachers. There were (1980): 10 special schools with 1,312 pupils and 104 teachers; 401 classes for further education with 10,281 students and 997 teachers; 25 teacher training colleges with over 12,000 students. In the academic year 1981-82 there were 10 institutions of higher learning: Ungku Omar Polytechnic, Ipoh Kuantan Polytechnic, Kuantan MARA Institute of Technology, Shah Alam TunkuAb. Rahman College, Kuala Lumpur University ofMalaya, Kuala Lumpur University of Kebangsaan, Bangi University of Science, Penang University of Agriculture, Serdang University of Technology, Kuala Lumpur

Slaff 112 49 665 156 1,085 864 417 502 431

1981-82

Students 2,449 575 11,108 6,285 9,310 7,514 4,387 4,136 4,862

The International Islamic University opened in 1983. Health. In 1983 Government maintained 60 general, district hospitals with 21,164 beds and 4 special medical institutions with 8,497 beds, and there were 99 private hospitals, nursing and maternity homes with 3,024 beds. In 1983 there were 4,082 doctors, 774 dentists, 13,874 midwives and 17,916 nurses. Books of Reference Morris, M. W., Local Government in Peninsular Malaysia. London, 1980 Wilkinson, R. J., Malay-English Dictionary. 2 vols. New ed. London, 1956 Winstedt, Sir R., Malaya and Its History. 3rd ed. London, 1953.—An English-Malay Dictionary. 3rded. Singapore, 1949.—The Malays: A Cultural History. London, 1959

SABAH

829

SABAH HISTORY. The territory now named Sabah, but until Sept. 1963 known as North Borneo, was in 1877-78 ceded by the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu and various other rulers to a British syndicate, which in 1881 was chartered as the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company. The Company's sovereign rights and assets were transferred to the Crown with effect from 15 July 1946. On that date, the island of Labuan (ceded to Britain in 1846 by the Sultan of Brunei) became part of the new Colony of North Borneo. On 16 Sept. 1963 North Borneo joined the new Federation of Malaysia and became the State of Sabah. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Area, about 28,460 sq. miles (73,710 sq. km), with a coastline of 973 miles (1,577 km). The interior is mountainous, Mount Kinabalu being 13,455 ft (4,175 metres) high. Population, 1980 census 1,011,046, (1987 estimate, 1,322,000), of whom, 838,141 were Pribumis, 163,996 Chinese, 5,613 Indians, 3,296 others. The native population comprises Kadazans (largest and mainly agricultural), Bajaus and Bruneis (agriculture and fishing), Muruts (hill tribes), Suluks (mainly seafaring) and several smaller tribes. The island of Labuan became Federal territory on 16 April 1984,35 sq. miles (75 sq. km) in area, lying 6 miles (9-66 km) off the north-west coast of Borneo is a free port. It has a fine port, Victoria Harbour. The principal towns are situated on or near the coast. They include Kota Kinabalu, the capital (formerly Jesselton), 1980 census population (preliminary), 108,725, Tawau (113,708), Sandakan (113,496), Keningau in the hinterland (41,204), and Kudat (38,397). C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical monsoon, but on the whole is equable, with temperatures around 80°F (26-5°C) throughout the year. Annual rainfall varies, according to locality, from 10" (250 mm) to 148" (3,700 mm). The north-east monsoon lasts from Dec. to April and chiefly affects the east coast, while the southwest monsoon from May to Aug. gives the west coast its wet season. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the State of Sabah provides for a Head of State, called the Yang Dipertua Negeri Sabah. Executive authority is vested in the State Cabinet headed by the Chief Minister. Head of State: Tan Seri Mohamad Said Keruak. Chief Minister: Datuk Joseph Pairin Kittingan. Flag: Horizontally blue over white with a red triangle based on the hoist. The Legislative Assembly consists of the Speaker, 48 elected members and not more than 6 nominated members. The official language was English for a period of 10 years from Sept. 1963 but in Aug. 1973 Bahasa Malaysia was introduced and in 1974 was declared the official language. English is widely used especially for business. ECONOMY Budget. Budgets for calendar years, in MS 1,000: Ordinary Budget Revenue Expenditure Development Budget Revenue Expenditure

1980 1,538,251 1,383,482

1981 1,206,110 1,738,218

1982 1,481,738 1,340,536

1983 1,315,650 1,645,666

1 984 1,336,171 1,437,179

331,754 396,635

898,051 798,727

546,902 555,460

492,806 328,983

195,099 299,889

Banking. There are branches of The Chartered Bank at Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Tawau, Labuan, Kudat, Tenom and Lahad Datu. The Hongkong and Shanghai

830

MALAYSIA

Bank has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, Labuan, Beaufort, Papar and Tawau. The Hock Hua Bank (S) has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan and Tawau. The Chung Khiaw Bank has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Tuaran and Sandakan. Malayan Banking Ltd has branches at Kota Kinabalu, Tawau, Semporna and Sandakan. United Overseas Bank and the Overseas Chinese Banking Corporation have each a branch at Kota Kinabalu. Bank Bumiputra Malaysia has branches at Kota Kinabalu. Lahad Datu, Sandakan and Keningau. Overseas Union Bank and the Development and Commercial Bank have each a branch at Sandakan. The Sabah Bank Berhad and Sabah Development Bank were established in Kota Kinabalu in 1979. The National Savings Bank has taken over the functions of the post office savings bank as from 1 Dec. 1974 and had (1984) M$28 -3m. due to 148,180 depositors. It also provides additional services to depositors including the granting of loans for housing. C O M M E R C E . The main imports are machinery, tobacco, provisions, petroleum products, metals, rice, textiles and apparel, vehicles, sugar, building material. Statistics for calendar years, in M$: Imports Exports

1981 1980 3,060,819,153 3,644,281,463 4,455,982,812 4,357,069,182

1982 3,217,971,724 5,726,240,301

1983 3,802,333,624 5,432,972,223

1984 3,647,743,664 5,522,111,454

Tourism. In 1984 some 60,923 tourists visited Sabah. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1984). There were 6,652 km of roads, of which 1,997 km were bitumen surfaced, 4,484 km gravel surfaced and 171 km of earth road. Work is in progress on a network of roads, notably the Kota Kinabalu-Sandakan and Sandakan-Lahad Datu road links. Railways. A metre-gauge railway, 134 km, runs from Kota Kinabalu on Gaya Bay to Tenom in the interior. It carried 445,937 passengers and 168,936 tonnes in 1986. Aviation. External communications are provided from the international airport at Kota Kinabalu by Cathay Pacific Airways Ltd to Hong Kong; Malaysian Airways to Hong Kong, Manila, Brunei, Kuching, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur; Brunei Airways to Brunei and Kuching and Philippine Airlines to Manila. The total air traffic handled at Sabah airports during 1984 was 2,386,304 passengers, 18,154,314 kg freight and 3,162,385 kg mail. Shipping (1985). Merchant shipping totalling 13,339,002 N R T used the ports, handling 15,813,000 tonnes of cargo. Post. As at 31 Dec. 1984 there were 39 post offices, 18 mobile post offices and 128 postal agencies. There were 75,514 telephones on 31 Dec. 1984. As at 31 Dec. 1984, there were 55,203 wireless and 85,376 television licences issued. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Pursuant to the Subordinate Courts Ordinance (Cap. 20) (1951) Courts of a Magistrate of the First Class, Second Class and Third Class were established to adjudicate upon the administration of civil and criminal law. The civil jurisdiction of a First Class Magistrate is limited to cases where the amount in dispute does not exceed MS 1,000. but provision is made for the Chief Justice to enlarge that jurisdiction to M$3,000. This has been established so as to confer this jurisdiction on all stipendiary magistrates. A Second Class Magistrate can only try suits where the amount involved does not exceed M$500 and a Third Class Magistrate where it does not exceed M$ 100. The criminal jurisdiction of these Magistrates' Courts is limited to offences of a less serious nature although stipendiary magistrates have enhanced jurisdiction. There are no Juvenile Courts.

SARAWAK

831

There are also Native Courts with jurisdiction to try cases arising from breach of native law and custom (including Moslem Law and custom) where all parties are natives or one of the party is a native (if the matter is a religious, matrimonial or sexual one). Appeals from Native Courts lie to a District Judge or a Native Court of Appeal presided over by a Judge. In 1984,4,228 convictions were obtained in 1,212 cases taken to court. Education. In 1985, there were 194,808 primary and (1984) 80,377 secondary pupils. There are 837 primary schools (659 government, 167 grant-aided and 11 private), and 113 general secondary schools (62 government, 37 grant-aided and 14 private) throughout the State. There were 3 teacher-training colleges, with (1984) 1,290 students. The Government also runs 5 vocational schools in Kota Kinabalu and Sandakan offering caipentry, motor mechanics, electrical installation, fitting/turning, radio and television and heavy plant fitting. The Department of Education also runs further education classes in most towns and districts. The main medium of instruction in primary schools is Bahasa Malaysia although there are some Chinese medium primary schools. Secondary education is principally English but this is being replaced by Bahasa Malaysia. Health. The principal diseases are malaria, pulmonary tuberculosis and intestinal infestations. Specific control programmes for malaria and tuberculosis have drastically reduced the incidence of these two diseases. As at 31 Dec. 1984 there were 16 hospitals (2,596 beds). Sixty-four fixed dispensaries in outlying districts providing in-patient and out-patient care are staffed by hospital assistants under the supervision of district medical officers. There is one mental hospital at Kota Kinabalu. There are 18 district health centres and 45 travelling clinics throughout the State providing maternal and child health care. Book of Reference Statistical Information: Director, Federal Department of Information, Kota Kinabalu. Tregonning, K. G„ North Borneo. HMSO, 1960

SARAWAK HISTORY. The Government of part of the present territory was obtained on 24 Sept. 1841 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Various accessions were made between 1861 and 1905. In 1888 Sarawak was placed under British protection. On 16 Dec. 1941 Sarawak was occupied by the Japanese. After the liberation the Rajah took over his administration from the British military authorities on 15 April 1946. The Council Negeri, on 17 May 1946, authorized the Act of Cession to the British Crown by 19 to 16 votes, and the Rajah ceded Sarawak to the British Crown on 1 July 1946. On 16 Sept. 1963 Sarawak joined the Federation of Malaysia. AREA AND POPULATION. The area is about 48,250 sq. miles(124,449 sq. km), with a coastline of450 miles and many navigable rivers. The population at 1980 census was 1,294,753 (1985 estimate, 1,477,000, including 439,000 Ibans; 300,000 Malays; 434,000 Chinese; 123,000 Bidayuhs; 85,000 Melanaus; 78,000 other indigenous; 18,000 others). The chief towns are the capital, Kuching, about 21 miles inland, on the Sarawak River (1983 population: 300,000), Sibu, 80 miles up the Rejang River, which is navigable by large steamers (1984 population: 170,000), and Miri, the headquarters of the Sarawak Shell Ltd ( 1983 population: 120,000). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 24 Sept. 1941 the Rajah began to rule through a constitution. Since 1855 two bodies, known as Majlis Mesyuarat Kerajaan Negeri (Supreme Council) and the Dewan Undangan Negeri (State Legislature), had been in existence. By the constitution of 1941 they were

832

MALAYSIA

given, by the Rajah, powers roughly corresponding to those of a colonial executive council and legislative council respectively. Sarawak has retained a considerable measure of local autonomy in state affairs. The State or Legislature consists of 48 elected members and sits for 5 years unless sooner dissolved. In 1985 the Assembly approved a bill to increase its seats to 56 but this has not been implemented. A ministerial system of government was introduced in 1963. The Chief Minister presides over the Supreme Council, which contains no more than 8 other Council Negeri members, all of whom are Ministers. Elections to the State Legislature on 15 and 16 April 1987 returned 28 members of the Sarawak Barisan Nasional comprising the Party Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB), the Sarawak United Peoples' Party and the Sarawak National Party. Sarawak has 24 seats in the Malaysia House of Representatives (154 members) and 5 seats in the Senate (58 members). Sarawak has 9 divisions each under a Resident. Head of State: Tun Datuk Patinggi Haji Ahmad Zaidi Adruce bin Muhammed Noor, SSM, DP, PNBS, Bintang Mahaputera Adipradana (Indonesia). Chief Minister: Datuk Patinggi Haji Abdul Taib Mahmud, DP, SPMJ, PGDK, Kt. WE (Thailand) KOU (Korea), KEPN (Indonesia). Deputy Chief Ministers: Tan Sri Datuk Amar Sim Kheng Hong, DA, PSM, PGDK, JMN. Datuk Alfred Jabu anak Numpang, PNBS, KMN. Environment and Tourism: Datuk Amar James Wong Kim Min, DA, PNBS. Infrastructure Development: Datuk Dr Wong Soon Kai, PNBS, PBS. Housing: Datuk Celestine Ujang anak Jilan, PNBS. Industrial Development: Abang Abdul Rahman Zohari bin Tun Datuk Abang Haji Openg, JBS. Land Development: Encik Adenan bin Haji Satem, JBS. Special Functions: Dr George Chan Hong Nam, KMN, PBS. State Secretary: Datuk Amar Haji Bujang Mohd. Nor, DA, PNBS, JSM, AMN. State Attorney-General: Datuk Haji Mohammad Jemuri bin Seijan, PNBS, JMN, PPC. State Financial Secretary: Datuk Liang Kim Bang, PNBS, JBS, PPC, KMN. The official language is Bahasa Malaysia. The use of English as official language in Sarawak was abolished in 1985. Flag: Horizontally red over white with a blue triangle on the hoist. ECONOMY Budget. In 1987 State revenue was M$772 1m.; expenditure, M$802-4m. The revenue is mainly derived from royalties on oil, timber and gas. The fifth Malaysia 5-year development plan (1986-90) provides for Sarawak an expenditure of M$4,731 m.; of this sum about 90% was to be spent on infrastructure, public utilities, agriculture and land development, education and medical services. Currency. The Malaysian ringgit is on a par of £0 • 3 34 or US$0 -426. Banking. The National savings bank had 150,000 depositors in Aug. 1987; the amount to their credit was M$64m. There are branches of Bank Negara Malaysia in Kuching, and branches of the Chartered Bank, the Hongkong & Shanghai Bank, Bank Bumiputera Malaysia, the Overseas Chinese Banking Corporation, the Malayan Bank. Nine local banks have branches in major towns. Sibu is the centre for local commercial banking with Hock Hua Bank (established in 1951,13 branches and assets of M$872-4m. in 1983) and Kwong Ming Bank (established in 1964, 8 branches and assets of M$ 170m. in 1983). Both are locally owned and have branches in Kuala Lumpur and other towns. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry includes petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, timber and timber products and rubber. Emphasis is being given to the development of petro-chemical, timber-based and agro-based industries. Commerce. Exports in 1986 totalled M$6,685m. Crude petroleum, the chief

SARAWAK

833

export, accounted for 26% of the total, with 6,348,000 tonnes, value M$l,755m., exported to Japan (28%), Korea (24%), Peninsular Malaysia (15%), Philippines (12%), Singapore (8%), Taiwan (5%) and Thailand (3%) in 1986. Liquified natural gas accounted for 28% of the total at M$ 1,848m., exported solely to Japan, in 1986. The other main exports in 1986 were sawn logs (19% of the total; 10-3m. cu. metres, value M$ 1,291m.) and petroleum products (5% of the total). The major agricultural exports, which together accounted for 4% of the total in 1986, were pepper, cocoa beans, crude palm oil and rubber. Total import value, 1986,M$3,312m. Sarawak's major trading partners in 1986 were Japan (export, 48%; import, 13%), Peninsular Malaysia (export, 7%, import, 37%); Singapore (export, 11 -3%, import, 11 %); Korea (export, 10%, import, 4%); Sabah (export, 7%, import, 0 -8%). Tourism. In 1986 there were 189,452 foreign tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 4,620 km of roads, consisting of 1,490 km of bitumen surfaced, 2,980 km of gravel or stone surfaced and 150 km of earth roads. There are no railways. Aviation. There are daily Malaysian Airline System (MAS) B737 and Airbus flights between Kuching and Kuala Lumpur via Singapore, and also scheduled flights between Kuching, Brunei and Hong Kong. Major towns in Sarawak are linked up by internal air routes. Shipping. In 1986 Sarawak ports handled a total of 27m. tonnes of cargo. Kuching wharf, operational since 1974, can accommodate vessels up to 15,000 tonnes. The Bintulu Port, the largest in the State, handled more than 4m. tonnes in 1984. Post and Broadcasting. There are 54 post offices, 18 mobile offices and 203 postal agencies. The Telecommunications department was privatized in 1986 and renamed Syarikat Telekoms Malaysia (STM). A telephone system with 65 automatic exchanges (84,048 telephones) covers the country. There are International Subscribers Dialling (ISD) links with 75 countries and Atur system was introduced in 1985. The government radio and television service had, in 1986,245 electric radio, 28,693 battery radio and 92,739 TV registered receivers. Newspapers (1987). There are 1 Malay bi-weekly, 3 English and 7 Chinese dailies. One Malay and 1 Iban monthly newspapers are published by Government. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice (1987). In Sarawak there are the High Court and the Subordinate Court. High Court cases go on appeal to the Supreme Court which sits in Sarawak and Sabah twice a year. The Subordinate Courts (Amendment) Act 1987 was extended to Sarawak on 1 Sept. 1987 in which the jurisdiction of the Sessions Court judges and magistrates of the First Class and Second Class was enhanced. In 1986 a Moslem Court was established. Police. There is a Royal Malaysia Police, Sarawak Component, with a total establishment of about 9,000 regular officers and men. Religion. There are Church of England, Roman Catholic, American Methodist, Seventh-day Adventist and Borneo Evangelical missions. There is a large Moslem population and many Buddhists. Islam is the national religion. Education (1987). There were 1,266 government and government-aided primary schools with 219,405 pupils and 10,735 teachers, and 121 secondary schools with 120,321 pupils and 5,106 teachers. There were 3 teacher-training centres and an agricultural university campus conducting pre-university courses. The MARA Institute of Technology campus, established in 1973, had 960 students in 1987 and offers 3-year courses leading to diploma in accountancy, stenography and business studies and a 6-month pre-commerce course. Health. In 1987 there were 17 government hospitals, 154 static and 118 travelling

834

MALAYSIA

dispensaries, 145 public dental and school dental clinics and 130 matemal and child health centres. There were 302 doctors and 55 registered dentists. Books of Reference Population and Housing Census of Malaysia, 1980. Dept. of Statistics, Kuala Lumpur Sarawak Annual of Statistics. Dept. ofStatistics, Kuching, 1981 Sarawak Annual External Trade Statistics. Dept. ofStatistics, Kuching, 1982 1983 Sara wak Budget. Information Dept., Sarawak Milne, R. S., and Ratnam, K. J., Malaysia, New States in a New Nation: Political Development of Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia. London, 1974 Runciman, S., The White Rajahs. CUP, 1960 Scott, N. C., Sea Dyak Dictionary. Govt. Printing Office, Kuching, 1956 National Library: The Sarawak Central Library, Kuching.

MALDIVES Divehi Jumhuriya

Capital: Male Population: 189,000 (1986) GNPper capita: US$470 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . The islands were under British protection from 1887 until complete independence was achieved on 26 July 1965. Maldives became a republic on 11 Nov. 1968. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Republic of Maldives, some 400 miles to the south-west of Sri Lanka, consists of 1,200 low-lying coral islands (only 202 inhabited), grouped into 12 clearly defined clusters of atolls. Area 115 sq. miles (298 sq. km). Population (census 1985), 181,453, of which 45% under 15 years. Estimate (1986) 189,000. Capital, Male (46,334). C L I M A T E . The islands are hot and humid, and affected by monsoons. Male. Average temperature 81°F (27°C). Annual rainfall 59" (1,500 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The President is elected every 5 years by universal adult suffrage. He is assisted by the Ministers' Majlis, a cabinet of ministers of his own choice whom he may dismiss at will. There is also a Citizens' Majlis (Parliament) which consists of 48 members, 8 of whom are nominated by the President and 40 directly elected (2 each from Male and the 19 administrative districts) for a term of 5 years. There are no political parties. President, Minister of Defence and National Security: Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. Attorney-General: Ahmed Zaki. Atolls Administration: Abdullah Hameed. Education: Mohamed Zahir Hussain. Fisheries: Abdul Sattar Moosa Didi. Foreign Affairs: Fathulla Jameel. Health: Abdulla Jameel. Home Affairs and Social Services: Umar Zahir. Trade and Industry: Ilyas Ibrahim. Transport and Shipping: Ahmed Mujuthaba. The official and spoken language is Divehi, which is akin to Elu or old Sinhalese. Nationalflag: Red with a green panel bearing a white crescent. Local government: Maldives is divided into the capital and 19 other administrative districts, each under an appointed governor (verin) assisted by local chiefs (katheebun), who are also appointed. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS.

Membership. The Maldives is a member of UN and the Commonwealth. ECONOMY Budget. In 1985 revenue totalled 177m. rufiyaa and expenditure 165-5m. rufiyaa. Currency. The rufiyaa is divided into 100 laari; there are notes of 1,2, 5 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 5 0 and 100 rufiyaa. In March 1988, £1 = 17-91 rufiyaa;US$1 = 10-10 rufiyaa. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production, 1986,9m. kwh. Agriculture. The islands are covered with coconut palms and yield millet, cassava, yams, melons and other tropical fruit as well as coconut produce. Production in 1985 included (in 1,000 tonnes): Coconuts, 10; copra, 2. Fisheries. Catch, mainly tuna (1985) 61,900 tonnes. 835

836

MALDIVES

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main industries are fishing, tourism, shipping, reedware, lacquerwork, coconut processing and garment manufacturing. Commerce. Bonito ('Maldive fish') is the main export commodity. It is exported principally to Thailand, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Japan and some European markets. Total trade between the Republic of Maldives and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 44 840

1984 529 747

1985 73 1,243

1986 276 1,321

1987 440 2,772

Tourism. Tourism, introduced in 1972, is expanding and there were 114,544 visitors in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 336 cars, 941 motorbikes, 432 handcarts and 13,162 other vehicles. Aviation. There are direct flights to Europe, Dubai, Karachi, Singapore and neighbouring countries. Service to Australia is available via Singapore. In 1985, 3,027 aircraft, 259,497 passengers and 2,731,045 kg of freight were handled at Male International Airport. There are 2 domestic airports. Air Maldives operates domestic flights only. Shipping. The Maldives Shipping Line operated (1984) 32 vessels. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1985) 2,429 telephones. There is one AM and one FM radio station broadcasting to (1985) 19,146 receivers. In 1987 there were 3,828 television sets and 2 television transmitters. Newspapers. There were (1985) 2 daily newspapers, 1 weekly and 1 monthly magazine. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is based on the Islamic Shari'ah. Religion. The State religion is Islam. Education. In 1983-84 there were 65 primary schools with 42,598 pupils and 590 teachers and 4 secondary schools with 841 students and 93 teachers. Health. There is an 84-bed hospital in Male and 3 regional hospitals. In 1987 there were 7 doctors, 1 dentist and 19 nurses. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in the Republic of Maldives High Commissioner: D. A. S. Gladstone (resides in Colombo). Of the Republic of Maldives to the United Nations A mbassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Bell, H. C. P., History, Archaeology and Epigraphy of the Maldive Islands. Ceylon Govt. Press, Colombo, 1940 Bernini, F. and Corbin, G., Maldives. Turin, 1973

Capital: Bamako Population: 8 -73m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$ 150 ( 1983)

MALI République du Mali

HISTORY. Annexed by France between 1881 and 1895, the region became the territory of French Sudan as a part of French West Africa. It became an autonomous state within the French Community on 24 Nov. 1958, and on 4 April 1959 joined with Sénégal to form the Federation of Mali. The Federation achieved independence on 20 June 1960, but Sénégal seceded on 22 Aug. and Mali proclaimed itself an independent republic on 22 Sept. The National Assembly was dissolved on 17 Jan. 1968 by President Modibo Keita, whose government was then overthrown by an Army coup on 19 Nov. 1968; power was assumed by a Military Committee for National Liberation led by Lieut, (now General) Moussa Traoré, who became President on 19 Sept. 1969. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mali is a landlocked state, consisting of the Middle and Upper Niger basin in the south, the Upper Sénégal basin in the southwest, and the Sahara in the north. It is bounded west by Sénégal, north-west by Mauritania, north-east by Algeria, east by Niger and south by Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea. The republic covers an area of 1,240,142 sq. km (478,832 sq. miles) and had a population of 6,398,914 at the 1976 Census; the latest estimate ( 1987) is 8 • 73m. In 1985,21 % lived in urban areas. The areas, populations and chief towns of the regions are: Region Kayes Koulikoro Capital District Sikasso Ségou Mopti Tombouctou Gao

Sq.km 197,760 89,833 267 76,480 56,127 88,752 408,977 321,996

Estimate 1986 1,093,100 1,169,600 862,600 1,383,300 1,316,000 1,416,000 601,400 461,000

Chief town Kayes Koulikoro Bamako Sikasso Ségou Mopti Tombouctou Gao

Census 1976 44,736 16,876 404,022 47,030 64,890 53,885 20,483 30,714

The various indigenous languages belong chiefly to the Mande group; of these the principal are Bambara (spoken by 60% of the population), Soninké, Malinké and Dogon; non-Mande languages include Fulani, Songhai, Senufo and Tuareg. The official language is French. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with adequate rain in the south and west, but conditions become increasingly arid towards the north and east. Bamako. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,120 mm). Kayes. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 93°F (33-9°C). Annual rainfall 29" (725 mm). Tombouctou. Jan. 7TF(21 -7°C), July 90°F(32-2°C). Annual rainfall 9" (231 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was announced on 26 April 1974 and approved by a national referendum on 2 June; it was amended by the National Assembly on 2 Sept. 1981. The sole legal party is the Union démocratique du peuple malien (UDPM), formally constituted on 30 March 1979 and governed by a 19-member Central Executive Bureau responsible to a 137-member National Council who nominate all candidates for election. The President is directly elected for a term of 6 years. The 82-member National Assembly is also directly elected, for a term of 3 years. Elections for both were held on 9 June 1985. The Council of Ministers in Aug. 1987 comprised: President, Head of Government, Secretary-General of UDPM: Gen. Moussa 837

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Traoré (assumed office Sept. 1969, re-elected 1985). Prime Minister: Dr Mamadou Dembélé. Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation: Modibo Keita. Defence: Gen. Sékou Ly. Planning: Ousmane Mohamed Diallo. State Companies and Enterprises: Anthioumane N'Diaye. Industrial Development and Tourism: Drissa Keita. Finance and Trade: Zoumane Sacko. Justice: Diango Sissoko. National Education: Oumar Isslaka Bah. Agriculture: Lieut.-Col. Issa Ongoiba. Natural Resources and Animal Husbandry: Oumar Tall. Labour and Civil Service: Hama Ag Mahmoud. Public Works and Transport: Oumar Doumbia. Public Health and Social Affairs: Sidibé Aissata Cissé. Interior (Territorial Administration and Basic Development): Lieut.-Col. Abdourahmane Maiga. Information and Telecommunications: Fatou Gakou Niang. Sports, Arts and Culture: Bakari Traoré. Nationalflag: Three vertical stripes of green, yellow, red. Local Government: Mali is divided into the Capital District of Bamako and 7 regions, sub-divided into 46 cercles and then into 279 arrondissements. D E F E N C E . There is a selective system of 2 years' military service. Army. The Army consists of 4 infantry battalions, 2 tank, 1 engineer, 1 parachute, 1 special force, 2 artillery battalions and support units. Equipment includes 21 T-34 tanks. Strength (1988) 6,900. There is also a paramilitary force of7,800 men. Air Force. The Air Force has 5 MiG-17 jet fighters, 1 MiG-15UTI jet trainer, some Yak-18 piston-engined trainers, 2 An-24, 2 An-26 and 3 An-2 transports, and 3 Mi-8 and Mi-4 helicopters from USSR. A twin-turbofan Corvette is used for VIP transport. Personnel (1988) total about 400. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Mali is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 Four Year Plan provided for expenditure of M F 795,200m. Budget. The budget for 1986 provided for revenue of 69,180m. francs CFA and expenditure of 69,080m. francs CFA, of which 19% was on defence and 13% on education. Currency. Mali introduced its own currency, the Mali franc, in July 1962 but reverted to the franc CFA on 1 June 1984 at a rate of 2 Mali francs to 1 franc CFA. There are coins of 1 , 2 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 5 , 5 0 and 100 francs CFA, and notes of 50,100, 500, 1,000,5,000 and 10,000/rancs CFA. Banking. The Banque Centrale du Mali (founded in 1968) is the bank of issue. There are 4 domestic and 2 French-owned banks. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production (1986) totalled 161m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Mineral resources are limited, but marble (at Bafoulabé) and limestone (at Diamou) are being extracted in the Upper Sénégal valley; iron ore deposits in this area await development. Salt is mined at Taoudenni in the far north (3,000 tonnes a year) and phosphates at Bouren ( 10,000 tonnes). Agriculture. Production in 1986 included (in 1,000 tonnes): Millet, 1,284; sugarcane, 210; groundnuts, 120; rice, 249; maize, 200; seed cotton, 195; cotton lint, 70; cassava, 76; sweet potatoes, 57. Livestock, 1986: Cattle, 4,676,000; horses, 62,000; asses, 550,000; sheep, 5 • 5m.; goats, 5 • 5m.; camels, 241,000; chickens, 15m. Fisheries. About 100,000 tonnes of fish per annum are caught in the rivers.

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TRADE. Exports in 1985 totalled 77,200m. francs CFA. Chief imports are foodstuffs, automobiles, petrol, building material, sugar, salt and beer. France and Côte d'Ivoire are the main sources of imports. Cotton formed 41 % of exports and livestock in 1983; 25% went to Belgium and 16% to France. Total trade between Mali and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 6

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 3,833 15,856

1984 5,646 5,471

1985 4,804 7,294

1986 8,282 4,121

1987 6,937 5,573

Tourism. There were 54,000 foreign tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1981) 15,700 km of roads. There were 25,000 road vehicles in 1982. Railways. Mali has a railway from Kayes to Koulikoro by way of Bamako, a continuation of the Dakar-Kayes line in Sénégal. Total length 642 km (metre-gauge) and in 1985 carried 695,563 passengers and 574,972 tonnes offreight. Aviation. Air services connect the republic with Paris, Dakar and Abidjan. There are international airports at Bamako and Mopti, and Air Mali operates domestic services to 10 other airports. Shipping. For about 7 months in the year small steamboats perform the service from Koulikoro to Tombouctou and Gao, and from Bamako to Kouroussa. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1984, 9,537 telephones and 110,000 radio receivers. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court was established at Bamako in 1969 with both judicial and administrative powers. The Court of Appeal is also at Bamako, at the apex of a system of regional tribunals and local juges de paix. Religion. In 1980, 90% of the population were Sunni Moslems, 9% animists and 1% Christians. Education. In 1982-83 there were 364,382 pupils and 10,912 teachers in 1,558 primary and intermediate schools, 13,227 pupils and 890 teachers in 20 senior schools, 12,612 students in 11 technical schools. There were 5,792 students and 491 teaching staffin 7 higher educational establishments in 1979. Health. In 1980 there were 12 hospitals, 327 health centres and 445 dispensaries, with a total of3,200 beds; there were 319 doctors, 18 surgeons, 14 dentists (1978), 24 pharmacists (1978), 250 midwives and 1,312 nursing personnel. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Mali in Great Britain Ambassador: Lamine Keita(accredited 18 Feb. 1988). Of Great Britain in Mali Ambassador: John Macrae, CMG (resides in Dakar). Of Mali in the USA (2130 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Nouhoum Samassekou. Of the USA in Mali (Rue Testard and Rue Mohamed V, Bamako) Ambassador: Robert J. Ryan, Jr. Of Mali to the United Nations Ambassador: Seydou Niare.

MALTA

Capital: Valletta Population: 343,334 (1986) GNP per capita: US$3,103(1984)

Repubblika Ta' Malta

HISTORY. Malta was held in turn by Phoenicians, Carthaginians and Romans, and was conquered by Arabs in 870. From 1090 it was joined to Sicily until 1530, when it was handed over to the Knights of St John, who ruled until dispersed by Napoleon in 1798. The Maltese rose in rebellion against the French and the island was subsequently blockaded by the British aided by the Maltese from 1798 to 1800. The Maltese people freely requested the protection of the British Crown in 1802 on condition that their rights and privileges be preserved. The islands were finally annexed to the British Crown by the Treaty of Paris in 1814. On 15 April 1942, in recognition of the steadfastness and fortitude of the people of Malta during the Second World War, King George VI awarded the George Cross to the island. Malta became independent on 21 Sept. 1964 and became a republic within the Commonwealth on 13 Dec. 1974. For earlier constitutional and government history see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1980-81,p. 837. In 1971 Malta began to follow a policy of strict non-alignment and closed the NATO base. In March 1972 agreement was reached on the phasing out of the British Military base which was closed down completely on 31 March 1979. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area of Malta is 246 sq. km (94-9 sq. miles); Gozo, 67 sq. km (25 -9 sq. miles); Comino, 3 sq. km (1 • 1 sq. miles); total area, 316 sq. km (121 -9 sq. miles). Population, census 16 Nov. 1985, 345,418; estimate (1986) 343,334. Malta, 318,222; Gozo and Comino, 25,112. Chief town and port, Valletta, population 9,263 but the urban harbour area, 213,600. Vital statistics, 1986, estimate: Births, 5,245; deaths, 2,824; marriages, 2,619; emigrants, 737; returned emigrants, 622 (estimate). C L I M A T E . The climate is Mediterranean, with hot, dry and sunny conditions in summer and very little rain from May to Aug. Rainfall is not excessive and falls mainly between Oct. and March. Average daily sunshine in winter is 6 hours and in summer over 10 hours. Valletta. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 23" (578 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Malta is a democratic republic and the Constitution, provides for a Parliament consisting of a President of the Republic, a House of Representatives of elected members and a Cabinet consisting of the Prime Minister and such number of Ministers as may be appointed. The Constitution which is founded on work, makes provision for the protection of fundamental rights and freedom of the individual, and ensures that all persons in Malta shall have full freedom of conscience and religious worship. In Jan. 1987 the 2 Political Parties agreed to amend the Constitution to provide that any political party winning more than 50% of all valid votes (but less than 50% of elected members) shall have the number of its members increased in order to have a majority in the House of Representatives. Elections were held in May 1987 in which the Nationalist Party obtained 50-91% of the votes but less seats than the Malta Labour Party. As a result of the above Amendment the Nationalist Party now commands a majority with 35 seats to the MLP 34 seats. Maltese and English are the official languages. Elections were held on 9 May 1987. State of parties on 31 Dec. 1987: Malta Labour Party, 34; Nationalist Party, 35. 840

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Acting President: Paul Xuereb. The Cabinet (Nationalist Party) was as at Dec. 1987: Prime Minister: Dr Eddie Fenech Adami. Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Internal Affairs and Justice: Dr Guido De Marco. Foreign Affairs: Dr Censu Tabone. Education: Dr Ugo Mifsud Bonnici. Social Policy: Dr Louis Galea. Finance: Dr George Bonello Dupuis. Development of Infrastructure: Michael Falzon. Productive Development: Lawrence Gatt. Development of Tertiary Sector: Dr Emmanuel Bonnici. Gozo: Anton Tabone. There are 8 Parliamentary Secretaries. Nationalflag: Vertically white and red, with a representation of the George Cross medal in the canton. D E F E N C E . The Maltese armed forces include 910 personnel, organized into 1 infantry battalion, and support companies including a Helicopter Flight equipped with 3 Agusta-Bell 47G light helicopters and 2 AB.204s. Duties of the Flight include patrol, search and rescue. There is also a para-military force of900. A coastal patrol force of small craft was formed in 1973. It is manned by the Maltese Regiment and primarily employed as a coastguard. In 1988 it comprised 11 patrol and 4 support craft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Malta is a member of UN, the Commonwealth and the Council of Europe. ECONOMY Planning. National economic strategy aims especially at the attraction of new investment and the creation of new employment in the directly productive and market services (tertiary) sectors as a means of stimulating export-oriented growth. The objective is to promote the location in Malta of new manufacturing industry with higher skill production and to develop the island as an offshore financial centre. Other important economic activities include ship repair and shipbuilding, food production and tourism. Plans are also under way to encourage foreigners to take up permanent residence in Malta and to convert Marsaxlokk port into a freeport zone for transhipment and related activities. Malta's economic orientation is largely geared towards private sector initiative. The Government's declared longterm economic strategic aim is that of seeking full membership by Malta of the European Communities with suitable terms of accession. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Lm): Revenue Expenditure

1982 210,724,438 216,494,068

1983 224,522,930 220,908,608

1984 218,557,730 223,982,512

1985 220,548,389 227,644,950

1986 225,853,367 240,463,632

The most important sources of revenue are customs duties, income tax, National Insurance contributions and receipts from the Central Bank of Malta. Currency. The Maltese currency is (Lm) Lira Maltija (Maltese Lira). Central Bank of Malta notes of Lm2, Lm5, LmlO and Lm20 denominations are in circulation. Malta coins are issued in the following denominations: Lml, 50,25,10, 5,2 and 1 cents; 5, 3 and 2 mils. Total notes and coins in circulation on 31 Aug. 1987, Lm294-8m. In March 1988, £1 sterling=Lm0-576;US$l=Lm0-305. Banking. The Central Bank of Malta was founded in 1968. Commercial banking facilities are provided by Bank of Valletta Ltd, Lombard Bank (Malta) Ltd and MidMed Bank Ltd. The other domestic banking institutions are the Investment Finance Bank (long-term industrial loans), the Apostleship of Prayer Savings Bank Ltd, Lohombus Corporation Ltd (house mortgage) and Melita Bank International Ltd (offshore bank).

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MALTA

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Up to Sept. 1986 the islands obtained their electricity power supplies from 2 interconnected power stations located at Marsa, having a total installed generating capacity of 192 mw. The larger station with a capacity of 164 mw is also equipped with multi-stage sea water distillation plants for the production of fresh water for public consumption. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. The gross electricity generated in 1985-86 was 822 -93m. kwh. Agriculture. In 1985 agriculture contributed Lm 18 • 8m. to the Gross Domestic Product as against Lml8-7m. in 1984. (The 1985 figure represents a share of 4-4% in the GDP.) In 1983 there was a slight decrease in the cultivable area, which totalled 11,491 hectares as against 11,639 hectares in 1982. In 1983 agriculture employed 4,373 full-time farmers, 341 full-time wage earners and 10,903 part-time farmers against, 4,332,346 and 11,026 respectively in 1982. In 1986 the value of Malta's main agricultural exports reached Lml,124,500. The 1986 exports consisted mainly of: Potatoes, Lm417,859; seeds, cut-flowers and plants, Lm578,802; wine, Lml4,947; hides and skins, Lm93,832; capers, Lml9,783. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 14,000; pigs, 95,000; sheep, 5,000; goats 5,000; poultry, lm. Fisheries. In 1986 the fishing industry occupied 1,270 power propelled and 86 other fishing boats, engaging 269 full-time and 676 part-time fishermen. The catch in 1986 was 1,067 tonnes valued at Lm858,998. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Foreign investors in industry in Malta are offered the following advantages: political stability, excellent industrial relations, a strategic geographic location, a special association agreement with the EEC, a fully developed and highly functional infrastructure, free repatriation of profits and capital, easily trainable and highly adaptable labour force, financing facilities at favourable rates of interest, ready-built factories at subsidized rents, tax holidays, training grants, soft loans. Over 300 state-aided manufacturing enterprises are in operation in various industrial sectors, of which the majority are foreign-owned or have foreign interests. The Malta Development Corporation is the Government agency responsible for promoting and implementing new industrial projects. Labour. The total work force in Dec. 1986 was 124,137; males, 93,851; females, 30,286, distributed as follows: Agriculture and fisheries, 3,291; manufacturing, 30,452; building, construction and quarrying, 6,646; services, 37,610; electricity, gas and drydocks, 5,831; government, 27,475; armed forces, 869; Dejma and auxiliary workers, 2,935. The number of registered unemployed under Part I of the Employment Register was 8,499, and under Part II, 529. There were 21 trade unions registered as at 30 June 1987, with a total membership of60,625 and 21 employers' associations with a total membership of5,534. Commerce. Imports and exports including bullion and specie (in Lm1,000): Imports Exports

1980 323,737 166,722

1981 332,269 173,725

1982 325,073 169,036

1983 316,633 156,748

1984 330,489 181,364

1985 354,139 187,099

1986 347,909 194,668

In 1986 the principal items of imports were: Semi-manufactures, Lml01-6m.; machinery and transport, Lm96-5m.; food, Lm38-8m.; fuels, Lm21m.; manufactures, Lm38-5m.; chemicals, Lm27-9m.; others, Lm23-7m. Of domestic exports: Manufactures, Lml01-9m.; machinery and transport, Lm45m.; semi-manufactures, Lm20-2m.; beverages and tobacco, Lm4-9m.; food, Lm4-6m.; others, Lm3-8m. In 1986, Lm81-lm. of the imports came from Italy, Lm61-6m. from UK, Lm65-8m. from Federal Republic of Germany, Lml8-2m. from USA, Lm22-5m. from Asia, Lml4-7m. from the EFTA, Lm9-3m. from Africa, Lml-7m. from

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MALTA

Oceania, Lm66-7m. from other European countries; of domestic exports, Lm59-3m. to Federal Republic of Germany, Lm25-6m. to UK, Lm20m. to Italy, Lm9 • 6 m. to Africa, Lm 12 • 5m. to Asia, Lm 14 • 3 m. to US A, Lm5 • 2m. to EFTA and Lm32m. to other European countries. Total trade between Malta and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 40,852 71,895

1984 45,076 89,468

1985 51,794 101,247

1986 49,197 101,877

1987 52,105 107,941

Tourism. In 1986, 574,189 tourists visited Malta, 329,390 from UK, 36,475 from Italy, 23,177 from Scandinavia, 59,711 from Federal Republic of Germany, 23,141 from Libya, 25,482 from France and 5,199 from USA. In 1986, gross tourist expenditure was Lm79m. (estimate). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Every town and village is served by motor omnibuses. There are ferry services running between Malta and Gozo; cars can be transported on the ferries. In 1984 there were 1,324 km of roads. Motor vehicles registered at 31 Dec. 1986 totalled 114,197, of which 82,580 were private cars, 3,022 hire cars, 18,544 commercial vehicles, 646 buses and 9,405 motor cycles. Aviation. In 1987 the main scheduled airlines, Air Malta, Alitalia, British Airways, Corse Air, Interflug, JAT, KLM, Lufthansa, Libyan Arab Airlines, Balkan Bulgarian Airlines, Czechoslovakian Airlines, Austrian Airlines, Swissair, Aeroflot and Tunisavia, operated scheduled services between Malta and U K , German Democratic Republic, Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Libya, Netherlands, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Austria, USSR, Tunisia, Greece and Hungary. In 1986 there were 13,631 civil aircraft movements at Luqa Airport. 1,243,357 passengers, 5,975 tonnes offreight and 641 tonnes of mail were handled. Shipping. The number of yachts and ships registered in Malta on 31 Dec. 1986 was 660; 1,740,150 G R T . Ships entering harbour, excluding yachts and fishing vessels, during 1986,1,894. Post and Telecommunications. Telegraph and telephone services are administered by Telemalta Corporation with exchanges at Malta and Gozo. On 31 Dec. 1987 there were 154,000 telephones. In 1985 there were 90,500 television and 151,000 radio sets. Cinemas (1985). There were 22 cinemas with a seating capacity of 15,939. Newspapers. There were (1987) 1 English, 2 Maltese daily newspapers and 5 weekly papers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The number of persons convicted of crimes in 1986 was 1,024; those convicted for contraventions against various laws and regulations numbered 8,823. Fifty-three were committed to prison and 6,461 were awarded fines. Police. On 31 Dec. 1986 police numbered 50 officers and 1,333 other ranks, including 65 women police. Religion. The majority of the population belong to the Roman Catholic Church. Education. Education in Malta is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16 and free in government schools. Kindergarten education is provided for 4-year old children. The primary level enrols children between 5 and 11 years in a 6-year course. In 1986, there were 25,227 children (13,205 boys and 12,072 girls) in 80 government schools. Another 1,188 pupils were enrolled in preparatory (secondary) classes and classes for weaker pupils. Six Junior Lyceums (4 in Malta and 2 in Gozo) had a total of 5,234 students (2,112 boys, 3,122 girls). There were 31 other government secondary schools with a total of 7,833 (3,098 boys, 4,735 girls). Secondary schools run

844

MALTA

5-year courses leading to GCE ' 0 ' level. Two-year courses leading to GCE 'A' level on a worker/pupil system which alternates work with study periods are provided for in the New Lyceum, i.e., upper secondary schools (1,375 students). A higher Secondary School catering for students at GCE O and A level enrolled 777 students. Enrolment in craft and technician courses in 3 technical institutes amounted to 1,050, while 4,149 (2,776 boys and 701 girls) were enrolled in the 12 trade schools for boys and 6 trade schools for girls. Junior Craft Schools for students of lower ability enrolled 1,190 boys and 701 girls. Other students are enrolled in specialized vocational schools. Trade schools offer 2- to 4-year courses in specialized trades and are open to students who finish their third year of secondary education. The number ofchildren in special education amounted to 773. There were 80 private schools with a population of 4,426 at the nursery level, 10,005 at the primary level and 6,835 at the secondary level. About 5,000 students attended evening courses in academic, commercial, technical and practical subjects established in 82 centres. Other schools run on a mainly part-time basis by the Education Department for adult students are the School of Art, the School of Music and the School of Art and Design. The University of Malta consists of 6 faculties: Law, Medicine and Surgery, Engineering and Architecture, Dental Surgery, Education and Management Studies (1,386 students in 1984-85). Social Security. The National Insurance Act, 1956, provides cash benefits for marriage, maternity, sickness, unemployment, widowhood, orphanhood, invalidity, old age, children's allowances and industrial injury. The total number of persons in receipt of benefits on 31 Dec. 1986 was 86,615, viz., 647 in receipt of sickness benefit, 505 unemployment benefit, 206 special unemployment benefit, 59 injury benefit, 279 disablement benefit, 91 death benefit, 21,675 retirement pensions, 9,120 widows' pensions, 9 widows' special allowance, 13 guardian's allowance, 5,398 invalidity pensions, 48,223 children's allowances and 390 maternity benefit. The National Assistance Act, 1956, provides for the payment of social assistance and medical assistance, while the Old Age Pensions Act of 1948 provides for the payment of non-contributory pensions to persons over 60 years of age, to blind persons over the age of 14 years and to handicapped persons over the age of 16 years. The number of households in receipt of social assistance and of medical assistance on 31 Dec. 1986 was 7,205 and 6,836 respectively, and the number of pensioners in receipt of a non-contributory pension under the Old Age Pensions Act, 1948,was6,712. Health. In 1982 there were 413 doctors, 57 dentists, 369 pharmacists, 225 midwives, 2,962 nursing personnel and (1983) 7 hospitals with 3,431 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Malta in Great Britain (16 Kensington Sq., London, W8 5HH) High Commissioner: John A. Manduca. Of Great Britain in Malta (7 St Anne St., Floriana) High Commissioner: Brian Hitch. Of Malta in the USA (2017 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Alfred Falzon. Of the USA in Malta (Development Hse., St Anne St., Floriana) Ambassador: Peter R. Sommer. Of Malta to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Alexander Borg Olivier. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Office of Statistics (Auberge d'ltalie, Valletta) was set u p in 1947. It publishes Statistical Abstracts of the Maltese Islands, a quarterly digest of statistics, quarterly and annual trade returns, annual vital statistics and annual publications on shipping

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and aviation, education, agriculture and industry and National Accounts and Balance of Payments. Government publications: Department of Information (Auberge de Castille, Malta), set up in 1955, publishes The Malta Government Gazette (twice weekly), II- Gzejjer (monthly), Malta Review (bi-monthly), Malta Handbook, Economic Survey, Malta: Guidelines for Progress, Development Plan for Malta 1981-85 and Supplement Paper Currency in Malta, Heritage of an Island, Reports on the Working of Government Departments. Malta, 1982. A nnual Reports. Central Bank of Malta Trade Directory. Chamber ofCommerce (annual) The Year Book. Sliema (annual) Malta Independence Constitution (Cmnd2406). HMSO, 1964 Constitution of the Republic of Malta. Information Division, 1975 Malta Manufacturers and Exporters. Department oflndustry, 1981 Economic Survey 1985. Malta, 1985 Bannerman, D. A., and Vella-Gaffiero, S. A., Birds of the Maltese Archipelago. Valletta, 1976 Blouet, Brian, The Story of Malta. London, Rev. ed. 1981 Cremona, J. J., The Malta Constitution of1835 and its Historical Background. Malta, 1959.— The Constitutional Developments of Malta under British Rule. Malta Univ. Press, 1963.—Human Rights Documentation in Malta. MaltaUniv. Press, 1966 Gerada, E. and Zuber, C., Malta: An Island Republic. Paris, 1979 Haslam, S. M., Sell, P. D., and Wolseley, P. A., A Flora of the Maltese Islands. Malta Univ. Press, 1977 Luke, Sir Harry, Malta. 2nd ed. London, 1962 Price, G. A., Malta and the Maltese: A Study in 19th-century Migration. Melbourne, 1954 Thackrah, J. R., Malta. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985

MAURITANIA

Capital: Nouakchott Population: 2 0 1 m . (1987) GNP per capita: US$450 (1985)

République Islamique de Mauritanie

H I S T O R Y . Mauritania became a French protectorate in 1903 and a colony in 1920. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 28 Nov. 1958 and achieved full independence on 28 Nov. 1960. Under its first President, Moktar Ould Daddah, Mauritania became a one-party state in 1964, but following his deposition by a military coup on 10 July 1978, the ruling Parti du peuple mauritanien was dissolved. Following the Spanish withdrawal from Western Sahara on 28 Feb. 1976, Mauritania occupied the southern part (88,667 sq. km) of this territory and incorporated it under the name of Tiris el Gharbia. In Aug. 1979 Mauritania renounced sovereignty and withdrew from Tiris el Gharbia. Following the coup of 10 July 1978, power was placed in the hands of a Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN); the constitution was suspended and the 70-member National Assembly dissolved. On 6 April 1979 the CMRN was renamed the Military Committee for National Salvation (CMSN). A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mauritania is bounded west by the Atlantic ocean, north by Western Sahara, north-east by Algeria, east and south-east by Mali, and south by Sénégal. The total area is 1,030,700 sq. km (398,000 sq. miles) of which 47% is desert, and the population at the Census of 1976 was 1,419,939 including 12,897 in Tiris el Gharbia; latest estimate (1987) 2,015,000. The capital Nouakchott had a population of over 500,000 in 1985; other towns (1976) were Nouâdhibou (21,961 ), Kaédi (20,848), Zouérate ( 17,474), Rosso ( 16,466)and Atâr (16,326). The areas and populations of the Capital District and 12 Regions are: Region Sq. km Estimate 1982 Nouakchott District 120 150,000 Hodhech-Chargui 182,700 235,000 Hodh el-Gharbi 53,400 154,000 Açâba 36,600 152,000 Gorgol 13,600 169,000 Brakna 33,000 171,000 Trarza 67,800 242,000

Region Sq. km Estimate 1982 Adrar 215,300 60,000 Dakhlet Nouâdhibou 22,300 30,000 Tagant 95,200 84,000 Guidimaka 10,300 102,000 TirisZemmour 252,900 28,000 Inchiri 46,800 23,000

In 1983,34% of the population were urban and 25% were nomadic. In 1980 81 % of the inhabitants were Moorish, speaking the Hassaniyah dialect of Arabic, while the other 19% consist of Negro peoples, mainly Fulfulde-speaking Tukulor (8%) and Fulani (5%) who together with the Soninike (Sarakole) and Wolof groups all inhabit the Sénégal valley in the extreme south. The official languages are Arabic and French. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, but conditions are generally arid, even near the coast, where the only appreciable rains come in July to Sept. Nouakchott. Jan. 71 °F (21 • 7°C), July 82°F (27 -8°C). Annual rainfall 6 " (158 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 24-member CMSN wields all executive and legislative powers, working through an appointed Council of Ministers composed as follows in Nov. 1987: President, Prime Minister, Minister of Defence and Secretary-General of CMSN: Col. Moaouia Ould Sidi Mohamed Taya (assumed office 12 Dec. 1984). 846

MAURITANIA

847

Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Capt. Mohamed Lemine Ould N'Diayane. Interior: Lieut.- Col. Djibril Ould Abdallahi. Justice and Islamic Affairs: Hamdi Samba Diop. Finance and Economy: Cdr Mohamed Salem Ould Leknal. Fisheries and Maritime Economy: Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi. Mines and Industry: Mahfoud Ould Lemrabott. Energy and Water: Soumare Oumar. Rural Development: Messmoud Ould Belkhair. Equipment: Lieut.-Col. Brahim Ould Alioune Ndiaye. Transport and Trade: Capt. Dia al-Hadj Abderahmane. National Education: Hassiny Ould Didi. Civil Service, Cadre Training, Labour, Youth and Sports: Lieut.-Col. Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Deh. Public Health and Social Affairs: Maj. N'Daye Kane. Information, Posts and Telecommunications: Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Weddadi. Secretary-General to the Government: Barou Abdallah. Deputy Interior Minister: N'Gam Lirwane. Nationalflag: Green, with a crescent beneath a star in yellow in the centre. Local Government: Mauritania is divided into a capital district and 12 regions and sub-divided into 49 départements. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 infantry and 1 artillery battalion, 1 Camel Corps, 3 armoured car squadrons and support units; total strength, 14,400 in 1988. Navy. The Navy consists of 4 patrol vessels, 4 small patrol craft and 2 light aircraft. Personnel (1988) 320. Air Force. The Air Force has 6 Britten-Norman Defender armed light transports, 2 Maritime Surveillance Cheyennes for coastal patrol, 2 Buffalo and 2 Skyvan transports, 4 Reims-Cessna 337 Milirole twin-engined counter-insurgency, forward air control and training aircraft and 4 Hughes 500 helicopters for communications. Personnel (1988) 150. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mauritania is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1981-85 development plan stressed the development of agriculture and light industry. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1986 balanced at 18,600m. ouguiyas. Currency. The monetary unit is the ouguiya which is divided into 5 khoums. Banknotes of 1,000, 500,200 and 100 ouguiya and coins of 20,10, 5 and 1 ouguiya and 1 khoum are in circulation. In March 1988, £1 = 128-42 ouguiya; US$1 = 72-41 ouguiya. Banking. The Banque Centrale de Mauritanie (created 1973) is the bank of issue, and there are 5 commercial banks situated in Nouakchott. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 74m. kwh. Minerals. Iron ore production (1984) 9-5m. tonnes. Copper mining at Akjoujt (by the state-owned SOMIMA), suspended in 1978, resumed in 1983. Agriculture. Agriculture is mainly confined to the south, in the Sénégal river valley. Production in tonnes (1986) of millet, 94,000; dates, 12,000; potatoes, 1,000; maize, 1,000; sweet potatoes, 2,000; rice, 16,000; groundnuts, 2,000. In 1986 there were 787,000 camels, lm. cattle, 149,000 asses, 16,000 horses, 3m. sheep, 3-25m. goats. Forestry. There are 151,340 sq. km of forests, chiefly in the southern regions, where wild acacias yield the main product, gum arabic. Fisheries. About 350,000 tonnes of fish are caught in Mauritanian coastal waters each year, but only 50,000 tonnes (1985) are landed in the country (mainly at Nouâdhibou) with another 10,000 tonnes caught in inland waters.

848

MAURITANIA

T R A D E . In 1985 imports totalled 15,758m. ouguiya, and exports, 28,887 ouguiya of which iron ore comprised 40% of exports and salted and dried fish 60%; 24% of all exports went to Italy, 22% to Japan, 18% to Belgium and 15% to France, while France provided 22% of imports and Spain 20%. Total trade between Mauritania and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): B ' ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 6,044 1,719

1984 10,343 2,656

1985 6,311 2,069

1986 2,184 2,495

1987 8,724 3,862

Tourism. In 1975 there were 20,700 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 8,900 km of roads in 1983. In 1981 there were 11,262 passenger cars and 8,437 commercial vehicles. Railways. A 652-km railway links Zouérate with the port of Point-Central, 10 km south of Nouädhibou, and is used primarily for iron ore exports. In 1984 it carried 9 1 m . tonnes and 19,353 passengers. Aviation. There are international airports at Nouakchott, Nouädhibou and Néma. Shipping. The major ports are at Point-Central (for mineral exports), Nouakchott and Nouädhibou. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1985, 3,161 telephones and (1983) 95,000 radio receivers and about 750 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1977 there were 12 cinemas with a seating capacity of8,800. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are tribunaux de première instance at Nouakchott, Atar, Kaédi, A'ioun el Atrouss and KifFa. The Appeal Court and Supreme Court are situated in Nouakchott. Islamic jurisprudence was adopted in Feb. 1980. Religion. Over 99% of Mauritanians are Sunni Moslem, mainly of the Qadiriyah sect. Education. In 1982 there were 107,390 pupils in primary schools, 25,700 in secondary schools, 1,004 (1981) in technical schools, 1,027 in teacher-training establishments and 400 (1984) students in higher education. The University of Nouakchott (founded 1983) had 974 students in 1984. Health. In 1979 there were 12 hospitals and clinics with 561 beds. In 1977 there were 99 doctors, 4 dentists, 6 pharmacists, 19 midwives and 192 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mauritania in Great Britain Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Mauritania Ambassador: John Macrae, CMG (resides in Dakar). Of Mauritania in the USA (2129 Leroy PL, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Abdellah Ould Daddah. Of the USA in Mauritania (PO Box 222, Nouakchott) Ambassador: Robert L. Pugh. Of Mauritania to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohamed Mahjoub Ould Boye. Books of Reference Stewart, C. C., and Stewart, E. K., Islam and Social Order in Mauritania. New York, 1970 Westebbe, R. M., The Economy of Mauritania. New York, 1971

Capital: Port Louis Population: 1,041,000(1987) GNP per capita: US$1,150 (1983)

MAURITIUS

HISTORY. Mauritius was known to Arab navigators probably not later than the 10th century. It was probably visited by Malays in the 15th century, and was discovered by the Portuguese between 1507 and 1512, but the Dutch were the first settlers (1598). In 1710 they abandoned the island, which was occupied by the French under the name of lie de France (1715). The British occupied the island in 1810, and it was formally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris, 1814. Mauritius attained independence on 12 March 1968. In 1965 the Chagos Archipelago was transferred to the British Indian Ocean Territory. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mauritius, the main island, lies 500 miles (800 km) east of Madagascar. Rodrigues (formerly a dependency and now a part of Mauritius) is about 350 miles (560 km) east of Mauritius. The outer islands consist of Agalega and the St Brandon Group. Population estimate (1987) 1,041,000. Island Mauritius Rodrigues Dependencies Agalega St Brandon Total

Area in sq. km 1,865 104

Census 1972 826,199 24,769

Census 1983 966,863 33,082

70 1

366

487

2,040

851,334

1,000,432

Port Louis is the capital (138,482, 1986). Other towns, Beau Bassin-Rose Hill, 92,896; Curepipe, 64,417; Quatre Bornes, 64,732; Vascoas-Phoenix, 55,023. Vital statistics, 1986: Births, 18,225 (18-3 per 1,000); marriages, 10,337; deaths, 6,622 (6-7 per 1,000). The official language is English. C L I M A T E . The sub-tropical climate produces quite a difference between summer and winter, though conditions are generally humid. Most rain falls in the summer so that the pleasantest months are Sept. to Nov. Rainfall amounts vary between 40" (1,000 mm) on the coast to 200" (5,000 mm) on the central plateau, though the west coast only has 35" (875 mm). Mauritius lies in the cyclone belt, whose season runs from Nov. to April, but is seldom affected by intense storms. Port Louis. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 8 P F (27 2°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,000 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Mauritius became an independent state and a monarchial member of the British Commonwealth on 12 March 1968 after 7 months of internal self-government. The Governor-General is the local representative of HM the Queen, who remains the Head of the State. The Cabinet is presided over by the Prime Minister. Each of the other 18 members of the Cabinet is responsible for the administration of specified departments or subjects and is bound by the rule of collective responsibility. 10 Parliamentary Secretaries may also be appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Speaker, elected from its own members, and 62 elected members (3 each for the 20 constituencies of Mauritius and 2 for Rodrigues) and 8 additional seats in order to ensure a fair and adequate representation of each community within the Assembly. General Elections are held every 5 years on the basis of universal adult suffrage. At the General Election held on 30 Aug. 1987,41 of the 62 seats were won by the 849

850

MAURITIUS

ruling Alliance (Mouvement Socialiste Mauricien, 26; Mauritius Labour Party, 9; Parti Mauricien Social-Démocrate, 4; Organisation du Peuple Rodriguais, 2) and 21 by the opposition Union for the Future (the Mouvement Militant Mauricien and its allies); of the 8 additional seats awarded to the highest losers in each community, 5 went to the Alliance and 3 to the Union. Governor-General: Sir Veerasamy Ringadoo, G C M G , QC. The Cabinet was composed as follows in Jan. 1988: Prime Minister, Defence and Internal Security, Information, External Communication and the Outer Islands: Rt Hon. Anerood Jugnauth, PC, QC. Deputy Prime Minister, Employment and Tourism: Sir Gaétan Duval, QC. Attorney-General, Justice, External Affairs and Emigration: Sir Satcam Boolell, QC. Finance: Seetanah Lutchmeenaraidoo. Economic Planning and Development: Beergoonath Ghurburrun. Education, Arts and Culture: Armoogum Parsuraman. Trade and Shipping: Dwarkanath Gungah. Energy and Internal Communications: Mahyendrah Utchanah. Industry: Joseph Herve Duval. Labour and Industrial Relations, Women's Rights and Family Welfare: Sheilabai Bappoo. Youth and Sports: Michael James Kevin Glover. Health: Jagdishwar Goburdhun. Agriculture, Fisheries and Natural Resources: Murlidas Dulloo. Social Security, National Solidarity and Reform Institutions: Dineshwur Ramjuttun. Works: Ramduthsing Jaddoo. Rodrigues: Louis Serge Clair. Housing, Lands and the Environment: Ramesh Jeewoolall. Local Government: Joseph Clarel Desire Malherbe. Cooperatives: Vishwanath Sajadah. Nationalflag: Horizontally 4 stripes of red, blue, yellow and green. D E F E N C E . The Mauritius Police, which is responsible for defence, is equipped with arms; its strength was ( 1987) 5,367 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Mauritius is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, O A U and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Rs 1 m.) for years ending 30 June: 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 Revenue Expenditure

3,256 4,073

3,559 4,261

4,131 4,488

5,009 4,635

Principal sources of revenue, 1986-87 (estimate): Direct taxes, Rs 761 -3m.; indirect taxes, Rs 3,563-2m.; receipts from public utilities, Rs 212-4m.; receipts from public services Rs 127-9m.; interest and reimbursement, Rs 334-8m. Capital expenditure was Rs 1,764-9m. Capital revenue, Rs 1,448m. On 30 June 1987 the public debt of Mauritius was Rs 8,293 • 1 m. Currency. The unit of currency is the Mauritius Rupee, divided into 100 cents. The currency consists of: (i) Bank of Mauritius notes of Rs 200, 100, 50, 25, 10 and 5; (ii) Cupro-nickel coins of 1 rupee, xk rupee, 'A rupee and 10 cents; (iii) Bronze coins of 5 cents, 2 cents and 1 cent. In March 1988, £1 = 2 2 - 5 0 rupees; US$1 = 12-85. Banking. The Bank of Mauritius was established in 1966, with an authorized capital of Rs 10m., to exercise the function of a central bank. There are 13 commercial banks, the Mauritius Commercial Bank Ltd (established 1838), Barclays Bank PLC, the Bank of Baroda Ltd, The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Mauritius Co-operative Central Bank Ltd, Banque Nationale de Paris (Intercontinentale), the Habib Bank Ltd, the State Commercial Bank, the Bank of Credit and Commerce International SA, Indian Ocean International Bank Ltd, Mauritius Commercial Bank Finance Corporation Ltd, Union International Bank Ltd and Habib Bank (Zurich). On 31 Dec. 1987 the Post Office Savings Bank held deposits amounting to Rs 205 -4m., belonging to 252,686 depositors.

851

MAURITIUS

ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power production (1986) was 373m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. In 1986 84,900 hectares were planted with sugar-cane. There were 19 factories and sugar production (1986 in tonnes) was: Raw sugar, 668,710; white sugar, 38,129; molasses, 173,402. The main secondary crops in 1986 were tea (4,000 hectares from which 8,000 tonnes were produced), tobacco (1,000 tonnes), potatoes (25,000 tonnes) and maize (5,000 tonnes). In 1984 poultry production totalled 6,500 tonnes, beef 980 tonnes, pork 620 tonnes and goat meat 110 tonnes. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 61,000; goats, 71,000; poultry, 2 m. Forestry. The total forest area was estimated (1987) at 21,161 hectares including some 11,730 hectares of plantations. In 1983 sales of forest produce from Crown land totalled 29,876 cu. metres, round wood. Fisheries. Total catch (1984) 4,176 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufactures include: Knitwear, clothing, footwear, diamond cutting, jewellery, furniture, watchstraps, sunglasses, plastic ware and chemical products. Total employment in manufacturing 91,800 out of a total labour force of238,300. Labour. In 1986 the labour force was 360,000, 13% of whom were employed in sugar production. There were 291 registered trade unions. Commerce. Total trade (in Rs 1 m.) for calendar years: Imports c.i.f. Exports f.o.b.

1984 6,494 5,180

1985 8,010 6,644

1986 9,090 9,063

In 1986, Rs 1,242m. of the imports came from France, Rs 910m. from the Republic of South Africa, Rs 686m. from UK, Rs 249m. from Australia. Rs 2,415m. of the exports went to UK, Rs 2,108m. to France, Rs 1,455m. to USA and Rs 661 m. to Federal Republic of Germany. Sugar exports in 1985 were 624,950 tonnes, Rs 3,553m. Other major exports (1984) included clothing, Rs 1,592m.; tea, Rs 249m. and toys, Rs 100m. Major imports, 1984, included textiles and fabrics, Rs 1,296m.; petroleum products, Rs 1,038m. and machinery and transport equipment, Rs 752m. Total trade between Mauritius and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 128,437 22,499

1984 160,042 24,358

1985 122,829 28,512

1986 153,271 32,087

1987 163,271 44,395

Tourism. In 1987,180,000 tourists visited Mauritius. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1987 there were 27 km of motorway, 840 km of main roads, 934 km of rural roads. At 31 Dec. 1986 there were 23,560 cars, 1,360 buses, 9,005 motor cycles, 20,211 auto cycles and 7,463 lorries and vans. Aviation. Mauritius is linked by air with Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia by the following airlines: Air France, Air India, Air Malawi, Air Mauritius, British Airways, Lufthansa, South African Airways and Zambia Airways. In addition to passenger services a weekly cargo flight is operated by Air France on the MauritiusParis route. In 1984, 192,920 passengers arrived at Plaisance airport and 2,789 tonnes of freight were unloaded. Shipping. In 1986 1,286 vessels entered Port Louis; total tonnage of cargo, about 2,084,000 tonnes.

852

MAURITIUS

Post and Broadcasting. In Dec. 1983 there were 31 telephone exchanges and 48,462 individual telephone installations in Mauritius and Rodrigues. Communication with other parts of the world is established via satellite. At 31 Dec. 1986 there were 115,000 television sets and (1984) 719,112 radio sets. Cinemas (1987). There were 36 cinemas, with a seating capacity of about 40,000. Newspapers. There were (1987) 5 French daily papers (with occasional articles in English) and 2 Chinese daily papers with a combined circulation of about 80,000. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. At the 1983 Census (excluding Rodrigues), Hindus formed 53% of the population, Roman Catholics 26%, Moslems 13% and Protestants 4%. Education. Education is free but not compulsory. In 1986 there were 138,765 pupils at 273 primary schools and 68,604 pupils at 127 secondary schools. In 1987 over 618 students were enrolled at the University of Mauritius. Health. In 1986 there were 761 doctors, including 144 specialists, and 2,841 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Mauritius in Great Britain (32-33 Elvaston PL, London, SW7) High Commissioner: Soo Soobiah (accredited 18 Feb. 1988). Of Great Britain in Mauritius (King George V Ave., Port Louis) High Commissioner: R. B. Crowson, CMG. Of Mauritius in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) A mbassador: Chitmansing Jesse ramsing. Of the USA in Mauritius (Rogers Bldg., John Kennedy St., Port Louis) Ambassador: Ronald D. Palmer. Of Mauritius to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr S. Peerthum. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Information Office (Rose Hill, Mauritius) was founded in July 1945. Its main publication is the Bi-annual Digest of Statistics. Buckory, S., Our Constitution. Port Louis, 1971.—An Outline of Local Government. Port Louis, 1970 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Fruits of Political and Social Democracy.— Mauritius Facts and Figures 1980 Simmons, A. S., Modern Mauritius: The Politics of Decolonization. Indiana Univ. Press, 1982 Société de l'Histoire de l'lle Maurice. Dictionnaire de biographie mauricienne. Port Louis, 1967 Toussaint A., History of Mauritius. London, 1978 Library: The Mauritius Institute Public Library, Port Louis.

Capital: M e x i c o City Population: 7 6 m . (1987) GNPper capita: US$2,200 ( 1984)

MEXICO Estados Unidos Mexicanos

H I S T O R Y . Mexico's history falls i n t o f o u r epochs: t h e era of the Indian empires (before 1521), t h e Spanish colonial phase (1521-1810), t h e period of national form a t i o n (1810-1910), which includes t h e war of independence ( 1 8 1 0 - 2 1 ) a n d t h e long presidency of Porfirio Diaz ( 1 8 7 6 - 8 0 , 1884-1911), a n d the present period which began with the social revolution of 1910—21 a n d is regarded by Mexicans as the period of social a n d national consolidation. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . M e x i c o is at t h e southern extremity of N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d is b o u n d e d in t h e n o r t h by U S A , west a n d south by the Pacific, southeast by G u a t e m a l a , Belize a n d t h e C a r i b b e a n , a n d north-east by t h e G u l f of Mexico. It comprises 1,958,201 sq. k m (756,198 sq. miles), including u n i n h a b i t e d islands (5,073 sq. km) offshore. T h e p o p u l a t i o n at recent censuses has been as follows: 1900 13,607,272 1950 25,791,017 1970 48,225,238 1930 16,552,722 1960 34,923,129 1980 66,846,833 T h e areas (in sq. km), p o p u l a t i o n s a n d capitals of the states are: States Aguascalientes Baja California Baja California Sur Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila Colima Distrito Federal Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco México Michoacán de Ocampo Morelos Nayarit Nuevo León Oaxaca Puebla Querétaro Quintana Roo San Luis Potosí Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Veracruz Yucatán Zacatecas

Sq. km 5,471 69,921 73,475 50,812 74,211 244,938 149,982 5,191 1,479 123,181 30,491 64,281 20,813 80,836 21,355 59,928 4,950 26,979 64,924 93,952 33,902 11,449 50,212 63,068 58,328 182,052 25,267 79,384 4,016 71,699 38,402 73,252

Census 1980 519,439 1,177,886 215,139 420,553 2,084,717 2,005,477 1,557,265 346,293 8,831,079 1,182,320 3,006,110 2,109,513 1,547,493 4,371,998 7,564,335 2,868,824 947,089 726,120 2,513,044 2,369,076 3,347,685 739,605 225,985 1,673,893 1,849,879 1,513,731 1,062,961 1,924,484 556,597 5,387,680 1,063,733 1,136,830

Estimate 1983 593,623 1,289,023 256,463 494,497 2,306,271 2,152,094 1,735,586 383,621 9,663,360 1,289,775 3,287,919 2,332,230 1,692,791 4,811,551 9,223,725 3,134,536 1,091,280 790,932 2,834,325 2,542,094 3,704,627 837,003 290,242 1,846,726 2,089,168 1,661,898 1,180,689 2,111,730 611,650 6,001,856 1,182,180 1,209,951

Capital Aguascalientes Mexicali La Paz Campeche Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chihuahua Saltillo Colima México City Victoria de Durango Guanajuato Chilpancingo Pachuca de Soto Guadalajara Toluca de Lerdo Morelia Cuernavaca Tepic Monterrey Oaxaca de Juárez Puebla de Zaragoza Querétaro Chetumal San Luis Potosí Culiacán Rosales Hermosillo Villahermosa Ciudad Victoria Tlaxcala Jalapa Enríquez Mérida Zacatecas

At t h e 1980 census 33,039,307 were males, 33,807,526 females. Estimate (1987) 7 6 m . U r b a n p o p u l a t i o n was 66-3% a n d rural p o p u l a t i o n was 33-7%. Estimate (1986) 81,315,000. T h e official language is Spanish, t h e m o t h e r tongue of over 92% 853

854

MEXICO

of the population, but there are 5 indigenous language groups (Náhuatl, Maya, Zapotee, Otomi and Mixtee) from which are derived a total of 59 dialects spoken by 5,181,038 inhabitants (1980 census). In 1980, about 16% of the population were of European ethnic origin, 55% mestizo and 29% Amerindian. The populations (1980 Census) of the largest cities were: 321,758 Ensenada 175,425 Saltillo México' 12,932,116 Poza Rica de Hidalgo 166,799 Victoria de Durango 321,148 Guadalajara 2 2,244,715 Veracruz Llave 305,456 Tuxtla Gutiérrez 166,476 Monterrey' 1,916,472 293,586 Ciudad Obregón 165,572 Querétaro Puebla de Zaragoza 835,759 267,957 Salamanca 160,040 Tampico Léon de los Aldamas 655,809 250,903 Oaxaca de Juárez 157,284 Villa Hermosa Ciudad Juárez 567,365 249,988 Ciudad Victoria 153,206 Mazatlán Culiacán Rosales 560,011 246,308 Campeche 151,805 Irapuato Mexicali 510,554 238,840 Uruapan 146,998 Matamoros Tijuana 461,257 232,355 Minatitlán 145,268 Cuemavaca Mérida 424,529 219,010 Pachuca de Soto 135,248 Celaya Acapulco de Juárez 409,335 212,769 Ciudad Madero 132,444 Jalapa Enríquez 406,830 Chihuahua 211,412 Cordoba 126,179 Reynosa 406,630 San Luis Potosí 203,286 Los Mochis 122,531 Nuevo Laredo Torreón 363,886 Monclova 119,609 Atizapán de Zaragoza 188,497 359,454 Aguascalientes 186,129 Gómez Palacio 116,967 Coatzacoalcos Toluca de Lerdo 357,071 177,007 Orizaba 114,848 Tepic 353,055 Morelia Hermosillo 340,779 1 Metropolitan Area, including Netzahualcóyotl (1,341,230). 2 Metropolitan Area, includingZapopan (345,390) and Tlaquepaque (135,500). 5 Metropolitan Area, including Guadalupe (370,524) and San Nicolás de los Garzas (280,696).

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1982 1983

Births 2,392,849 2,609,088

Deaths 412,345 413,403

Marriages 528,963 507,550

Divorces 25,901 29,427

Crude birth rate in 1983 was 35 per 1,000 population; crude death rate, 5-5; marriage rate 6-8. In 1980 there were 73,260 permanent immigrants. There were 500,000 (estimate) refugees from Central America. C L I M A T E . Latitude and relief produce a variety of climates. Arid and semi-arid conditions are found in the north, with extreme temperatures, whereas in the south there is a humid tropical climate, with temperatures varying with altitude. Conditions on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico are very warm and humid. In general, the rainy season lasts from May to Nov. Mexico City. Jan. 55°F (12-6°C), July 61°F (16 TC). Annual rainfall 30" (747 mm). Guadalajara. Jan. 59°F (15-2°C), July 69°F (20-5°C). Annual rainfall 36" (902 mm). La Paz. Jan. 64°F (17-8°C), July 85°F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 6 " (145 mm). Mazatlan Jan. 66°F (18-9°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 33" (828 mm). Merida. Jan. 72°F (22-2°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 3 8 " (957 mm). Monterrey. Jan. 58"F(14-4°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (588 mm). Puebla de Zaragoza. Jan. 54°F (12 • 2°C), July 63°F(17-2°C). Annual rainfall 3 4 " (850 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 5 Feb. 1917 and has been amended from time to time. Mexico is a representative, democratic and federal republic, comprising 31 states and a federal district, each state being free and sovereign in all internal affairs, but united in a federation established according to the principals of the Fundamental Law. Citizenship, including the right of suffrage, is vested in all nationals of 18 years of age and older who have 'an honourable means of livelihood'. There is complete separation of legislative, executive and judicial powers (Art. 49). Legislative power is vested in a General Congress of 2 chambers, a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate (Art.50). The Chamber of Deputies consists of400 members directly elected for 3 years, 300 of them from single-member constituencies and 100 chosen under a system of proportional representation (Arts.51-55). In Nov. 1986 a programme of electoral reform was introduced which would have the effect

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of increasing opposition representation in the Chamber of Deputies. At the general elections held on 7 July 1985, 289 of the single-member seats were won by the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), 9 by the Partido de Acción Nacional (PAN) and 2 by the Partido Auténtico de la Revolución (PARM); of the extra 100 seats, 32 were won by PAN, 12 by the Partido Socialista Unificado de México, 11 by the Partido Popular Socialista, 12 by the Partido Socialista de los Trabajadores, 12 by the Partido Demócrata Mexicano, 7 by the PARM, 6 by the Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores, 6 by the Partido Mexicano de los Trabajadores and 2 others. The Senate comprises 64 members, 2 from each state and 2 from the federal district, directly elected for 6 years (Arts.56-58). At the elections of 4 July 1982, the PRI won all 64 seats. Members of both chambers are not immediately re-eligible for election (Art.59). Congress sits from 1 Sept. to 31 Dec. each year; during the recess there is a permanent committee of 15 deputies and 14 senators appointed by the respective chambers. The PRI won all the elections for State Governors held in 1986. The President is the supreme executive authority. He appoints the members of the Council of Ministers and the senior military and civilian officers of the state. He is directly elected for a single 6-year term. The names of the presidents from 1958 are as follows: Adolfo López Mateos, 1 Dec. 1958-30 Nov. 1964. Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, 1 Dec. 1964-30 Nov. 1970.

Luis Echeverría Alvarez, 1 Dec. 1970-30 Nov. 1976. José López Portillo y Pacheco, 1 Dec. 1976-30 Nov. 1982.

President: Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (born in 1934), formerly Minister of Planning, elected 4 July 1982. He assumed office on 1 Dec. 1982. In Jan. 1987 the Council of Ministers was composed as follows: Agrarian Reform: Rafael Rodríguez Barrera. Agriculture and Water Resources: Eduárdo Pesqueira Olea. Commerce and Industrial Development: Héctor Hernández Cervantes. Communication and Transport: Daniel Díaz Diaz. Finance and Public Credit: Gustavo Petricioli Iturbide. Foreign Relations: Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor. Interior: Manuel Bartlett Diaz. Health and Assistance: Dr Guillermo Soberón Acevedo. Urban Development and Environment: Victor Manuel Carracho Solis. Labour and Social Welfare: Arsenio Farell Cubillas. National Defence: Gen. Juan José Arévalo Gardoqui. Navy: Adm. Miguel Angel Gómez Ortega. Energy, Mines and State Industries: Alfredo del Mazo González. Planning and Budget: Carlos Salinas de Gortari. Public Education: José Miguel González Avelar. Tourism: Antonio Enriquez Savignac. Fisheries: Pedro Ojeda Paullada. Comptroller-General: Ignacio Pichardo Pagaza. Attorney-General: Dr Sergio Garcia Ramirez. Governor of the Federal District: Ramón Aguirre Velázquez. Attorney-General of the Federal District: Renato Sales Gasque. Head of Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX): Francisco Rojas González. Governor ofthe Bank of Mexico: Miguel Mancera Aguayo. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, red, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Mexicanos, al grito de guerra (words by F. González Bocanegra; tune by Jaime Nunó, 1854). Local Government. Mexico is divided into 31 states and a Federal District. The latter is co-extensive with Mexico City and is administered by a Governor appointed by the President. Each state has its own constitution, with the right to legislate and to levy taxes (but not inter-state customs duties); its Governor is directly elected for 6 years and its unicameral legislature for 3 years; judicial officers are appointed by the state governments. Mexico City is sub-divided into 16 municipalities and the 31 states into 2,378 municipalities. DEFENCE. Army. Enlistment into the regular army is voluntary, but there is conscription into a part-time militia, which numbers some 250,000. The regular army consists of 3

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infantry brigades (one of which is mechanized), 3 armoured regiments, a garrison for each of the country's 36 military zones, and support units. Equipment includes 45 M-3/-8 tanks and some 140 armoured cars. Strength of the regular army (1988) 105,000; reserve, 60,000. Navy. The fleet comprises 3 very old ex-US destroyers, 5 very old ex-US frigates (including 4 former destroyer escort transports), 8 modern light frigate or corvettetype with small helicopter and hangar and 1 frigate-size listed as patrol ships, 1 ancient frigate-size armed transport used as patrol ship, 18 old ex-US fleet minesweepers, 12 old ex-US escort minesweepers, 21 fishery protection cutters of 130 tons built in Britain in 1974-76 and 15 similar-design patrol craft built in Mexico in 1978-88, 7 patrol boats, 25 river patrol craft, 7 survey ships, 1 transport, 3 armed landing ships (2 used for rescue and 1 (with helicopter landing deck) for light forces repair), 2 oilers, 1 training ship, 21 auxiliary vessels and 8 tugs. There are 6 naval zones on the Gulf and 11 on the Pacific coast and 6 naval air bases holding 54 aircraft, including 10 Aviocars and 12 HU-16 Albatross for maritime patrol, and about 20 transports and 20 helicopters and other aircraft for SAR and communications. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled nearly 24,000 officers and men including naval air force and over 3,800 marines. Air Force. The Air Force had (1988) a strength of about 6,500 officers and men, and has nine operational groups, each with one or two squadrons. No. 1 Group comprises No. 208 Squadron with 10 IAI Aravas for transport, search and rescue and counter-insurgency duties; and No. 209 Squadron with Bell 205A, 206B JetRanger, Alouette III and Puma helicopters. No. 2 Group has two Squadrons (Nos. 206 and 207) of Swiss-built Pilatus PC-7 Turbo-Trainers for light attack duty. No. 3 Group (203 and 204 Squadrons) also operates PC-7s; No. 4 Group (201 and 205 Squadrons) is equipped with PC-7s. No. 5 Group consists of No. 101 communications Squadron and a photo-reconnaissance unit, both equipped with Aero Commander 500S piston-engined light twins. Nos. 301 and 302 Squadrons, in No. 6 Group, operate a total of 5 C-54,2 C-118 A and 1 DC-7 piston-engined transports. The main combat Group, No. 7, comprises No. 401 Squadron with 11 F-5E Tiger II and F-5F 2-seat fighters; and No. 202 Squadron with AT-33A jet trainer/fighterbombers. No. 8 Group has 7 C-47s in a VIP transport squadron. No. 9 Group operates the Air Force's remaining 12 or more C-47s in Nos. 311 and 312 transport Squadrons. There is a Presidential Squadron with 7 Boeing 727s, 2 737s, 1 HS. 125, 1 Electra, 1 JetStar, 1 Islander and 1 Bell 212. The Military Academy continues to fly 14 veteran Stearman PT-17 biplanes. Other training aircraft include 20 Mudry CAP-lOBs, 20 Beech Musketeers, 40 Bonanzas, over 30 T-28 Trojans and PC-7 Turbo-Trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Mexico is a member of UN, OAS and ALADI (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY Budget. The 1984 budget provides for expenditure of 12,023,282m. pesos. Currency. The monetary unit is the peso. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 200 pesos; and banknotes of 500, 1,000, 2,000, 5,000 10,000, 20,000, and 50,000pesos. Total currency in circulation (1984) was 1,192,000m. perns. Rate of exchange, March 1988:2,300 pesos=US$1; 4,095 pesos=£l. Banking. The Bank of Mexico, established 1 Sept. 1925, is the central bank of issue; it is modelled on the Federal Reserve system, with large powers to 'manage' the currency. On 1 Sept. 1982 the private banking sector was nationalized. The total external debt (June 1986) was US$97,000m. Weights and Measures. The metric system was introduced in 1896, and its sole use is enjoined by law of 14Dec. 1928. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1985 the 498 generating plants had installed capacity of21,492,000

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kw. (34% hydro-electric). Production (1986) 90,490m. kwh. Supply 120 volts; 50 Hz and some 120 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. The chief Mexican oilfields had proven reserves of oil and gas, in 1983, of 72,500m. bbls. Since the nationalization of the industry in 1938, Petróleos Mexicanos, a government-owned enterprise, has exclusive rights to the exploitation, refining and sale of oil and its by-products. Initially centred on the northeast coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, the industry developed with the discovery of rich fields in the south and southeast, particularly in Veracruz, Tabasco and Chiapas. Offshore wells and those from the southeast now provide the main yields. Exploration has been primarily in recent years in deep waters on the continental shelf in the Gulf coast area, as well as in the northern and southern zones inland. Crude petroleum output was 165m. tonnes in 1985. Gas. Natural gas production came to 37,160m. cu. metres in 1985. Minerals. Uranium deposits were discovered in the states of Chihuahua, Durango, Sonora and Queretaro in 1959, rich deposits have been located in Nuevo León. Total reserves (proven 1982) 15,000 tonnes of uranium 308; potential reserves, 150,000 tonnes. Silver output (tonnes) was 2,153 in 1985; gold 7,524 kg. Mexico has large coal resources, calculated at 5,448m. tonnes, including 1,675m. tonnes (65% cokeable) including high-grade coking coal in Coahuila. Output, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes): Lead, 207; copper, 179; zinc, 275; fluorite, 708; pig iron, 5,244; sulphur, 2,052; manganese, 153; gypsum, 2,300 (1984); phosphorus, 518 (1984); barite, 475. Agriculture. About 80% of Mexico's territory is unsuitable for agriculture. In 1981 Mexico had 21-9m. hectares of arable land, 74-4m. hectares of meadows and pastures, 48 lm. hectares of forests, l-6m. hectares of permanent crops and 40-6m. hectares of other land. Grains occupy most of the cultivated land, with about 43% given to maize, 10% to sorghum and 5% to wheat. In 1982 there were 146,083 tractors. It is estimated that Mexico should be self-supporting with at least 17m. hectares of land under irrigation and 20- 3m. hectares under cultivation. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 37-45m.; sheep, 6-5m.; pigs, 19m.; horses, 6,135,000; goats, 10- 5m.; mules, 3 • 13m.; donkeys, 3,183,000; poultry, 216m. Mexico's basic food crop is maize, and a rapid expansion of this crop is one of the chief aims of Mexican agricultural policy, balanced by the demand for 'cash crops' for export, such as cotton, sugar, garbanzos (chick peas), bananas, winter vegetables and coffee. Production of crops for 1984 was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes): Crop Maize Sorghum Wheat Barley Rice Chickpeas Cotton

1984 12,932 4,974 4,506 619 484 173 828

Crop Sugar-cane Tomatoes Potatoes Dry beans Soybeans Coconuts Coffee

1984 34,910 1,687 1,017 974 685 1,008 240

Crop Oranges Bananas Lemons Pineapples Apples Grapes Mangoes

1984 1,720 2,093 847 453 459 539 850

Forestry. Forests extended over 48m. hectares in 1981, containing pine, spruce, cedar, mahogany, logwood and rosewood. There are 14 forest reserves (nearly 800,000 hectares) and 47 national park forests of 750,000 hectares. In 1984 total roundwood production amounted to 9 -45m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch (1984, in tonnes): sardines, 284,204; anchoveta, 125,884; shrimp and prawns, 76,114; oysters, 42,807; tunny, 57,420; shark, 20,488; sea perch (mojarras), 75,273; sea bass, 20,750. Total catch in 1984 was 1,134,592 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1983, the primary sector (agriculture etc.) provided 7-9% of GDP, the mining, oil and petrochemical industry 11 -2%, manufacturing and construction 27-4% and the service sector (commerce, transport and communications, power supply and other services) 54-6%.

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Labour. In 1987 unemployment was estimated to be over 50%. Real wages had fallen by about 45% since 1982. In 1980, the economically active population was 22,066,084, of whom 5-7m. were engaged in the primary sector and 2-6m. in manufacturing. Approximately 5m. people belong to trade unions, of whom 85% are affiliated to the Congreso del Trabajo. Commerce. Trade for calendar years in US$ 1 m.: Imports Exports

1982 15,057 21,230

1983 9,006 22,312

1984 11,788 24,054

1985 13,994 21,820

Of total imports in 1985, 63-7% came from USA, 3-8% from Federal Republic of Germany and 5 -2% from Japan. Leading imports were mechanical and transport equipment, machine tools, parts and spares. Of total exports in 1985, 61 • 1% went to USA, 7-8% to Spain, 7-8% to Japan, 3-7% to France and 3 1 % to UK. The main exports (1984) were crude petroleum (62%) vehicles (6%) and petroleum products (5%). The 1,200 in-bond assembly plants situated along the US-Mexican border generate the second largest flow of foreign exchange after oil, earning US$1,300m. in 1986 and employing 300,000 people. Total trade between Mexico and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡983 m 4 ¡985 ¡ m ¡9g7 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

160,978 95,674

175,487 150,126

236,811 203,404

116,078 162,328

244,719 198,992

Tourism. In 1986, there were 4,625,000 tourists; gross revenue (1983), including border visitors, amounted to US$1,625m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length, (1982) 214,073 km, of which 1,178 km were motorways. Motor vehicles registered in 1982 comprised 5,221,159 passenger cars, and 1,978,327 commercial vehicles. Railways. The principal group is the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México, with 25,474 km of track. In 1984, FNM carried 60m. tonnes of freight and 20-8m. passengers. Several lines were privately owned including a new line Ferrocarril Norte de México completed in 1984 from Los Mochis to Chihuahua. In Mexico City an urban railway system opened in 1969 had 120 km of route and 7 lines in 1985. In 1985 it carried 1,324m. passengers. Aviation. There are 32 international and 40 national airports. Each of the larger states has a local airline which links them with main airports, which, in turn, furnish services to US, Central and South America and Europe. Thirty-four companies maintained international services, of which Aeromexico and Mexicana de Aviación are Mexican. Domestic flights are handled by 77 companies. In 1983 commercial aircraft carried 20m. national and international passengers and some 127,000 tonnes of mail and freight. Shipping. Mexico has 49 ocean ports, of which, on the Gulf coast, the most important include Coatzacoalcos, Carmen (Campeche), Tampico, Veracruz and Tuxpan. On the Pacific are Salina Cruz, Isla de Cedros, Guaymas, Santa Rosalia, Manzanillo, Lázaro Cárdenas and Mazatlán. Merchant shipping loaded 72 -4m. tonnes and unloaded 1 lm. tonnes of international traffic in 1984. Passengers (1982), embarked and disembarked 2-8m. In 1982, the merchant marine comprised 545 vessels (of over 100 GRT) with a total tonnage of 1,251,630 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. In 1980 the telegraph and telephone system had 7,140 offices and 184,641 km of telegraph lines and 30 • 56m. km of telephone line. Teléfonos de México, a state-controlled company, controls about 98% of all the telephone service. Telephones in use, Jan. 1983,6,395,000. In 1983 there were 1,014 commercial radio stations and 47 cultural government radio stations while (1982) 10,338,024 homes had receiving sets. In 1982 commer-

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cial television stations numbered 191 and cultural stations 8; there were 4,589,170 homes with receiving sets. Cinemas (1983). Cinemas numbered 1,751 with annual attendance of 271 -8m. Newspapers (1982). There were 362 dailies and 36 weeklies, with an aggregate circulation of 9 -5m. In Mexico City the main dailies are, Excelsior, El Sol de México, Uno más Uno, La Prensa, El Heraldo de México, Novedades, El Universal and Esto, withacombinedcirculation(1984) l-8m. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Magistrates of the Supreme Court are appointed for 6 years by the President and confirmed by the Senate; they can be removed only on impeachment. The courts include the Supreme Court with 21 magistrates, 12 collegiate circuit courts with 3 judges each and 9 unitary circuit courts with 1 judge each, and 68 district courts with 1 judge each. The penal code of 1 Jan. 1930 abolished the death penalty, except for the armed forces, and set up a commission of alienists and other specialists, in place of courts, to deal with criminal cases (for federal offences); each state also appoints its own local magistrates. The Mexican Constitution provides a guarantee of individual rights by means of a judicial procedure known as amparo, which gives any injured person whose constitutional rights have, in his opinion, been infringed, right to immediate access to the courts and full remedy, combining the swiftness of the Anglo-Saxon writ of habeas corpus and the breadth of remedy available through the injunction. Religion. The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic (92-6% of the population in 1980); with (1983) 3 cardinals, 12 archbishops and 87 bishops, but by the constitution of 1857, the Church was separated from the State, and the constitution of 1917 provided strict regulation of this and all other religions. No ecclesiastical body may acquire landed property, and since 1917 the property of the Church has been held to belong to the State. In the 1920s the Government suppressed the political influence of the priesthood and temporarily (1929-31) closed the churches. An understanding between State and Church was, however, reached, and all churches eschewing public affairs flourish freely. At the 1980 census there were also 3-3% Protestants, and 4 • 1 % members of other religions. Education. Primary and secondary education is free and compulsory, and secular. Clergy are forbidden to establish primary schools. All private schools must conform to government standards. In the Federal District education is controlled by the national government; elsewhere by the state authorities. In 1984-85 there were: _, , , ... , c, , , Nursery Primary Secondary Preparatory/Vocational Teacher-training Higher education

Establishments 31,022 76,183 17,620 4,300 515 1,305' ' 1983-84.

Teachers 72,325 437,408 230,656 112,775 13,930 92,338'

Students 2,147,495 15,219,245 4,396,087 1,734,737 106,886 1,121,252'

The most important university is the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) in México City which, with its associated institutions, had, in 1982, 136,534 students (excluding post-graduates). U N A M was founded in 1551, re-organized in 1910, and granted full autonomy in 1920. Other universities of particular importance in México City are the Instituto Politécnico Nacional, specializing in technology and applied science, with 52,694 students, and the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana with 27,452 students, opened in 1973. Outside México City the principal universities are the Universidad de Guadalajara (in Guadalajara) with 65,799 students; the Universidad Veracruzana (in Jalapa) with 57,755 students; the Universidad Autónoma de Nueva León (in Monterrey) with 48,124 students; the Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (in Puebla) with 39,505 students; the Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa (in Culiacán)

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with 33,366 students; a n d t h e U n i v e r s i d a d M i c h o a c a n a (in Morelia) with 2 3 , 9 3 5 students. Health. In 1980 M e x i c o h a d 6 6 , 3 7 3 physicians; there were 6,315 state a n d private hospitals a n d clinics with 82,717 beds. Social Welfare. T h e social welfare system a d m i n i s t e r e d m a i n l y by t h e M e x i c a n Social Security Institute covered 2 7 m . o n 31 Dec. 1983. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f M e x i c o in G r e a t Britain (8 H a l k i n St., L o n d o n , S W 1 X 7 D W ) Ambassador: Jorge E d u a r d o N a v a r r e t e . O f G r e a t Britain in M e x i c o ( L e r m a 71, Col. C u a u h t é m o c , M é x i c o City 0 6 5 0 0 , D.F.) Ambassador: J o h n A . M o r g a n , C M G . Of M e x i c o in the U S A (2829 16th St., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 9 ) Ambassador: Jorge Espinosa de los Reyes. Of t h e U S A in M e x i c o (Paseo de la R e f o r m a 305, M é x i c o City 5, D.F.) Ambassador: C h a r l e s J. Pilliod, Jr. O f M e x i c o to the U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: Mario Moya-Palencia. Books of Reference Anuario Estadístico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Annual Revista de Estadística (Monthly); Revista de Economia (Monthly) Alba, V.,A Concise History of Mexico. London, 1973 Banco de México S.A., Annual report Banco Nacional de Comercio Exterior. Comercio Exterior, monthly.—Mexico. Annual (in Spanish or English) Bazant, J ,,A Concise History of Mexico. CUP, 1977 Carrada-Bravo, F., Oil, Money, and the Mexican Economy. Boulder, 1982 Domínguez, J. 1., (ed.) Mexico 's Political Economy: Challenges at Home and Abroad. London, 1982 Hamilton, N., and Harding, T. F., (eds.) Mexico: State, Economy and Social Conflict. London, 1986 Kaufman, S., (ed.) The Politics of Mexican Oil. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1981 Newell, R. G., and Rubio, L. F., Mexico's Dilemma: The Political Origins of Economic Crisis. Epping, 1984 Philip, G., (ed.) Politics in Mexico. London, 1985 Riding, A., Distant Neighbours. London, 1985.—Mexico: Inside the Volcano. London, 1987 Robbins, N., Mexico. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Velasco, S. J-A., Impacts of Mexican Oil Policy on Economic and Political Developments. Aldershot, 1983 Wyman, D. L.,(ed ) Mexico's Economic Crisis: Challenges and Opportunities. San Diego, 1983

Capital: Monaco Population: 27,063(1982)

MONACO

HISTORY. Monaco is a small Principality on the Mediterranean, surrounded by the French Department of Alpes Maritimes except on the side towards the sea. From 1297 it belonged to the house of Grimaldi. In 1731 it passed into the female line, Louise Hippolyte, daughter of Antoine I, heiress of Monaco, marrying Jacques de Goyon Matignon, Count of Torigni, who took the name and arms of Grimaldi. The Principality was placed under the protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treaty of Vienna, 1815, and under that of France in 1861. Prince Albert I (reigned 1889-1922) acquired fame as an oceanographer; and his son Louis II (1922-49) was instrumental in establishing the International Hydrographic Bureau. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The area is 195 hectares or 481 acres. The Principality is divided into 4 districts: Monaco-Ville, la Condamine, Monte-Carlo and Fontvieille. Population (1982), 27,063. The official language is French. C L I M A T E . A Mediterranean climate, with mild moist winters and hot dry summers. Monaco. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 30" (758 mm). R E I G N I N G P R I N C E . Rainier III, born 31 May 1923, son of Princess Charlotte, Duchess of Valentinois, daughter of Prince Louis II, 1898-1977 (married 19 March 1920 to Prince Pierre, Comte de Polignac, who had taken the name Grimaldi, from whom she was divorced 18 Feb. 1933). Prince Rainier succeeded his grandfather Louis II, who died on 9 May 1949. He married on 19 April 1956 Miss Grace Kelly, a citizen of the USA (died 14 Sept. 1982). Issue: Princess Caroline Louise Marguerite, born 23 Jan. 1957; married Philippe Junot on 28 June 1978, divorced, 9 Oct. 1980, married Stefano Casiraghi on 29 Dec. 1983, offspring: Andrea, born 8 June 1984, Charlotte, born 3 Aug. 1986, Pierre, born 7 Sept. 1987. Prince Albeit Alexandre Louis Pierre, born 14 March 1958 (heir apparent). Princess Stephanie Marie Elisabeth, born 1 Feb. 1965. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Prince Rainier III on 28 Jan. 1959 suspended the Constitution of 5 Jan. 1911, thereby dissolving the National Council and the Communal Council. On 28 March 1962 the National Council ( 18 members elected every 5 years, last elections 1983) and the Communal Council ( 15 members elected every 4 years, last elections 1987) were re-established as elected bodies. On 17 Dec. 1962 a new constitution was promulgated. It maintains the hereditary monarchy, though Prince Rainier renounces the principle of divine right. The supreme tribunal becomes the custodian of fundamental liberties, and guarantees are given for the right of association, trade union freedom and the right to strike. It provides for votes for women and the abolition of the death penalty. The constitution can be modified only with the approval of the elected National Council. Women were given the vote in 1945. Monegasque relations with France were based on a convention of neighbourhood and administrative assistance of 1951. This was terminated by France on 11 Oct. 1962, but has been replaced by several new conventions signed on 18 May 1963. Nationalflag: Horizontally red over white. ECONOMY Planning. A 55-acre site has been reclaimed from the sea at Fontvieille. This land has been earmarked for office and residential development. The present industrial zone is to be reorganized and developed with a view to attracting new light industry to the Principality. 861

862

MONACO

Budget. The budget (in 1,000 francs) was as follows: Revenue Expenditure

1983 1,811,896 1,266,623

1984 1,842,237 1,460,102

1985 1,964,790 1,550,748

1986 2,139,305 1,999,764

1987 2,232,032 2,229,806

Currency. The monetary unit is the French franc divided into 100 centimes. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Trade Unions. Membership of trade unions is estimated at 2,000 out of a work force of25,000 (1986). Commerce. International trade is included with France. Tourism. There were210,558 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 47 • 8 km of roads in 1984. Railways. The 1 -6m. km of main line passing through the country is operated by the French National Railways (SNCF). Aviation. The nearest airport is at Nice, France and a heliport at Fontvieille. Shipping. The harbour has an area of 40 acres, depth at the entrance 98 ft, and alongside the quay 23 ft at least. Post and Broadcasting. Telephone subscribers numbered about 20,830 in 1986 and telex subscribers (1984), 597. Monaco issues its own postage stamps. Radio Monte Carlo broadcasts FM commercial programmes in French (longand medium-waves). Radio Monte Carlo owns 55% of Radio Monte Carlo Relay Station on Cyprus. The foreign service is dedicated exclusively to religious broadcasts and is maintained by free-will contributions. It operates in 36 languages under the name 'Trans World Radio' and has relay facilities on Bonaire, West Indies, and is planning to build relay facilities in the southern parts of Africa. Télé MonteCarlo broadcasts TV programmes in French, Italian and English. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 4 cinemas (one open air) with seating capacity of 1,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are the following courts, Juge de Paix, Tribunal of the First Instance, a Court of Appeal, Criminal Tribunal, Cour de Révision Judiciaire and a Supreme Tribunal. Police: There is an independent police force (Sûreté Publique) which comprised (1986) 390 policemen and inspectors. Religion. There has been since 1887 a Roman Catholic bishop elevated since 1982 to an archbishop, directly dependent on the Holy See. Education. In 1987 there were 5,160 pupils with over 420 teachers. Health. In 1986 there were 432 hospital beds and 53 physicians. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

British Consul-General (resident in Marseille): T. E. J. Mound, OBE. British Honorary Consul (resident in Nice): Lieut.-Col. R. W. Challoner, OBE. Consul-Generalfor Monaco in London: I. S. Ivanovic. Books of Reference Journal de Monaco. Bulletin Officiel. 1858 ff. Handley-Taylor, G., Bibliography of Monaco. London, 1968

Capital: Ulan Bator Population: 1 -97m. (1987) GNPper capita: USS940 (1978)

MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC Biigd Nayramdakh Mongol Ard Uls

HISTORY. Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province from 1691 to 1911, an autonomous state under Russian protection from 1912 to 1919 and again a Chinese province from 1919 to 1921. On 13 March 1921 a Provisional People's Government was established which declared the independence of Mongolia and on 5 Nov. 1921 signed a treaty with Soviet Russia annulling all previous unequal treaties and establishing friendly relations. On 26 Nov. 1924 the Government proclaimed the country the Mongolian People's Republic. On 5 Jan. 1946 China recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia after a plebiscite in Mongolia (20 Oct. 1945) had resulted in an overwhelming vote for independence. A Sino-Soviet treaty of 14 Feb. 1950 guaranteed this independence. In Aug. 1986 a consular agreement, and in June 1987 a boundary agreement, were signed with China. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Mongolia is bounded north by the USSR, east and south and west by China. Area, 1,567,000 sq. km (605,022 sq. miles); population (1987) 1,965,300 (52-5% urban; 51% male). Density (1987), 1 -22 per sq. km. Birth rate (1983), 36-2 per 1,000; death rate, 9-8 per 1,000; marriage rate, 5-7 per 1,000; divorce rate, 0-3 per 1,000. Rate of increase (1987), 27-5 per 1,000. The population is predominantly made up of Mongolian peoples (77 -5% Khalkha). There is a Turkic Kazakh minority (5 -3% of the population) and 8 Mongol minorities. The official language is Mongolian. Expectation of life in 1987 was 65 years. 45% of the population is under 16. The republic is administratively divided into 3 cities (Ulan Bator, the capital, population 479,500 (1984), Darkhan, 63,600 (1984) and Erdenet 40,000 (1984)), and 18 provinces (aimag). Local government is administered by People's Deputies' Khurals. The provinces are sub-divided into 258 districts (somon). C L I M A T E . A very extreme climate, with six months of mean temperatures below freezing, but much higher temperatures occur for a month or two in summer. Rainfall is very low and limited to the months mid-May to mid-Sept. Ulan Bator. Jan. -14"F (-25-6°C), July 61°F (161°C). Annual rainfall 8" (208 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . According to the fourth Constitution (1960) legislative power is vested in the Great People's Khural of deputies elected for 5 years by universal suffrage of voters over 18 years of age on a basis of 1 deputy per 2,500 inhabitants. It elects from its number 9 members of the Presidium, which carries on current state affairs. At the election of 22 June 1986 it was stated that turn-out was 99-99%, and 99 • 99% of votes were cast for the 370 deputies (92 women). Defacto power is in the hands of the only political party, the Mongolian People's Revolutionary (i.e., Communist) Party, which had 89,588 members and candidates in 1987 (workers, 33-2%; white collar, 50%; peasants, 16-8%; women, 30-9%; 15 -6% under 30). The youth organization had over 180,000 members in 1982. The Chairman of the Presidium of the Khural (head of state) and General Secretary of 863

864

MONGOLIA

the Party is Dr Jambyn Batmunkh. The other members of the Politburo of the Party are: Dumaagiyn Sodnom, Prime Minister, B.-O. Altangerel, First Deputy Prime Minister, D. Molomjamts, Ts. Namsra, B. Dejid. Candidate members: N. Jagvaral, B. Lamjav, S. Luvsangombo. Ministers not in the Politburo intlude: Chairman, State Planning Commission: P. Jasrai. Minister of Defence: Col.-Gen. J. Yondon; Minister of Public Security: A. Jamsranjav; Foreign Minister: Mangalyn Dugersuren; Minister of Foreign Trade: J. Dulmaa. Minister of Agriculture: S. Sodnomdoij. National flag: Red-sky-blue-red (vertical), with a golden 5-pointed star and under it the golden soyombo emblem on the red stripe nearest to the flagpole. The last local elections to the 380 khurals took place in June 1984. Turn-out was announced to be 99-99% of the electorate. There are some 15,000 councillors. White-collar, 50%; collective farmers, 30%; industrial workers, 20%; Communist Party members, 60%; women, 33%; under-30,20%, first term of office, 50%. D E F E N C E . Military service is 3 years. Army. The Army comprises 4 infantry divisions. Equipment includes T-54/-55/-62 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 30,000, with reserves of200,000. There is a paramilitary Ministry of Public Security force of about 15,000 men. A civil defence force was set up in 1970. There were some 75,000 Soviet service personnel in Mongolia, but in Aug. 1987 the USSR announced it had withdrawn one division of about 10,000 troops. Air Force. The Air Force has about 100 pilots and more than 70 aircraft, including 12 MiG-21 and 10 MiG-17 fighters; a total of about 30 An-2, An-24 and An-26 transports used mainly on civil air services; 3 Wilga utility aircraft; 10 Mi-4 and 3 Mi-8 helicopters; and Yakovlev trainers. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Mongolia is a member of UN and Comecon. Aid. Mongolia receives economic aid from the USSR and other communist countries. There is also a UN development aid programme running at US$2m. per annum. Treaties. Relations with the USSR are based on a 15-year treaty of economic and technical co-operation (1985). Sino-Mongolian relations deteriorated after the estrangement between China and USSR, but have improved slightly recently. ECONOMY Planning. Mongolia has had for centuries a traditional nomadic pastoral economy, which the Government aims to transform into an 'agricultural-industrial economy'. The eighth 5-year plan is running from 1986 to 1990. For earlier plans see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1 9 8 7 - 8 8 .

Budget (in 1 m. tugriks): Revenue Expenditure

1978 3,660 3,650

1980 4,070 4,058

1982 4,830 3,131

1983 5,255 3,356

1984 ... ...

1985 5,743 5,693

Sources of revenue, 1983: turnover tax, 64%; profits tax, 28%; social insurance, 3 • 5%. Expenditure: economy, 40%; social and cultural, 40%. Currency. 100 mongo = 1 tugrik. Notes are issued for 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 tugriks; and coins for 1,3,5, 10, 15,20, 50 mongo and 1 tugrik. Official exchange rates: £1 =5-9 tugriks; 1 rouble = 4-76 tugriks; US$ 1 = 3 • 36 tugriks. Banking. The Mongolian State Bank (established 1924) is the sole bank, being at once a bank of issue and a commercial, savings and development bank. It has 21 main branches. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use.

865

MONGOLIA

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. There are 6 thermal electric power stations. Production of electricity, 1986,2,800m. kwh. Minerals. There are large deposits of copper, nickel, zinc, molybdenum, phosphorites, tin, wolfram and fluorspar; production of the latter in 1984, 747,000 tonnes, entirely exported to the USSR. The copper/molybdenum ore-dressing plant at Erdenet was completed in 1981. Coal reserves are 17,000m. tonnes. Coal accounted for 74-6% of energy production in 1980. There are major coalmines near Ulan Bator and Darkhan. Coal (mainly lignite) production in 1984 was 5 -4m. tonnes. Agriculture. 68% of agricultural production derives from cattle-raising. In 1985 there were 1,971,000 horses, 2,408,000 cattle, 13,248,800 sheep, 559,000 camels and 4,298,600 goats. Ownership of livestock (in lm.)in 1983: Cattle Camels Horses Sheep Goats

Collective farms 114 0-48 111 10-92 3-55

State farms 0 02 0 01 0 08 1 04 0-07

Private 0-98 0 08 0-73 1-93 0-91

In 1983 there were 45,100 pigs and 240,200 poultry. 230,300 tonnes of meat and 6 • 5m. litres of fermented mare's milk were produced in 1984. Milk production was 44-7m. litres in 1986. In 1983 there were 255 collective farms, 39 inter-farm associations, 14 fodder supply farms and 51 state farms. All cultivated land belongs to collective or state farms. The total agricultural area in 1983 was 124-98m. hectares, of which 1 -3m. were arable (1 -2m. sown) and 12-37m. meadows and pastures. 78-5% of the sown area belongs to state farms, 21-2% to collectives. In 1985 81% was sown to cereals, 17% to fodder and 2% to vegetables. The 1986 crop was 664,000 tonnes of wheat; 1,700 tonnes of rye (1980); 50,000 tonnes of oats; 146,000 tonnes of barley. In 1986, 133,000 tonnes of potatoes were harvested. In 1981 there were 7,500 tractors (15 h.p. units) and 2,000 combine harvesters. Forestry. Forests, chiefly larch, cedar, fir and birch, occupy 156,700 sq. km. Production, 1983:683,100 cu. metres of timber. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry though still small in scale and local in character, is being vigorously developed and now accounts for a greater share of G N P than agriculture. The food industry accounts for 20% of industrial production. The main industrial centre is Ulan Bator; others are at Erdenet and Baga-Nuur, and a northern territorial industrial complex is being developed based on Darkhan and Erdenet to produce copper and molybdenium concentrates, lime, cement, machinery and wood- and metal-worked products. Production figures (1983): wool, 12,100 tonnes; cement, 165,300 tonnes; leather footwear, 2-2m. pairs; meat, 64,400 tonnes; soap, 10,800 tonnes. Employment. The labour force was 365,000 in 1983, including 82,200 in industry, 41,200 in agriculture, 26,700 in building, 39,700 in transport and communications and 38,900 in trade. In 1983 48-4% of the labour force was female. Average wage was 500 tugriks per month in 1981. Trade union membership was 530,000 in 1988. There is a labour shortage necessitating the employment of military personnel, and workers from the USSR and Eastern Europe. Commerce. Foreign trade is a state monopoly. Trade figures for 1983 (in lm. tugriks): exports, 1,816; imports, 2,764. The main exports are live cattle and horses, wool and hair, meat, grain, hides, furs, ores, and butter. 97% of foreign trade is with communist countries. Just over 25% of imports are consumer goods and the

866

MONGOLIA

remainder are machinery and industrial raw materials. Imports from the USSR totalled 1,014-6m. roubles in 1984, exports to the USSR, 387-4m. roubles. Total trade between Mongolia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 4,561 100

1985 3,264 142

1986 4,750 1,031

1987 3,847 941

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are fewer than 1,000 km of surfaced roads running around Ulan Bator, from Ulan Bator to Darkhan, at points on the frontier with USSR and towards the south. Truck services run where there are no surfaced roads. 30-8m. tonnes offreight were carried in 1983, and 144-9m. passengers. Railways. The Trans-Mongolian Railway ( 1,423 km in 1983) connects Ulan Bator with the Soviet Union and China. The Moscow-Ulan Bator-Beijing express runs each way once a week. There are spur lines to Erdenet and to the coalmines at Nalaykha and Sharin Gol. A separate line connects Choybalsan in the east with Borzya on the Trans-Siberian railway. 1 -9m. passengers and 12m. tonnes of freight were carried in 1983. Aviation. Mongolian Airlines (MIAT) operates internal services, a flight to Irkutsk which links with the Soviet airlines (Aeroflot) stopping service to Moscow and a thrice-weekly non-stop service to Moscow from Ulan Bator. 10,000 tons offreight were carried in 1983 and 500,000 passengers. Some charter flights were operated to Beijing in 1986. Ulan Bator airport (Buyant Uhaa) was modernized and expanded in 1985. Shipping. There is a steamer service on the Selenge River and a tug and barge service on Hobsgol Lake. 3,000 tonnes offreight were carried in 1976. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1983, 414 post offices and 264 telephone exchanges. Number of telephones (1983), 44,600. There are wireless stations at Ulan Bator, Gobi Altai and Olgiy. In 1983 there were 186,600 radio and 70,700 television receivers. Television services began in 1967. A Mongolian television station opened in 1970. Mongolia is a member of the international TV organization Intervision. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 26 cinemas, 493 mobile cinemas and 20 theatres. Newspapers and books. In 1983, 37 newspapers and 39 journals were published. The Party daily paper Unen ('Truth') had a circulation of 112,000 in 1978. 400 book titles were published in 1982 in 70m. copies JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Procurator-General is appointed, and the Supreme Court elected, by the Khural for 5 years. There are also courts at province, town and district level. Lay assessors sit with professional judges. Religion. Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the prevalent form of religion. It was suppressed in the 1930s, and only one functioning monastery exists today, at Ulan Bator, with about 100 lamas. Education. In 1985 there were 680 nurseries with 62,500 children. Schooling begins at the age of 7. In 1984-85 there were 911 general education schools with 444,000 pupils and 15,900 teachers, 28 specialized secondary schools with 23,000 students and 1,200 teachers and 40 vocational technical schools with 25,000 pupils. There is a state university (founded 1942) at Ulan Bator (40 professors, 240 lecturers and 10,000 students in 1982), and 7 other institutes of higher learning (teacher training, medicine, agriculture, economics, etc.) with 26,000 students in 1983 and 1,400 teachers under the supervision of an Academy of Sciences (founded 1961) which has 15 institutes and 190 research workers. Some 6,000 students a year are sent to study abroad, principally in the USSR.

MONGOLIA

867

In 1946 the Mongolian alphabet was replaced by a modern Cyrillic alphabet. Health and Welfare. In 1 9 8 3 6 8 3 m . tugriks were spent on maternity benefits. Annual average per capita consumption (in kilogrammes) of foodstuffs over 1981-83: Meat, 91 -4; milk and products, 147-7; sugar, 21 -3; flour, 97-7; potatoes, 17-9; fresh vegetables, 14-5. In 1987 there were 24 doctors and 111 hospital beds per 10,000 population. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Mongolia in Great Britain (7 Kensington Ct., London, W8 5DL) Ambassador: Ishetsogyin Ochirbal. Of Great Britain in Mongolia (30 Enkh Taivny Gudamzh, Ulan Bator) Ambassador: G. W. P. Hart, OBE. Of Mongolia to the United Nations Ambassador: Gendengiin Nyamdoo. In Jan. 1987 the USA announced it would be establishing diplomatic relations with Mongolia at ambassadorial level. Books of Reference The Central Statistical Office: National Statistical Collection. Ulan Bator, 1984

Economy

of the MPR,

1924-1984:

Anniversary

Bawden, C. R., The Modern History of Mongolia. London, 1968 Boberg, F., Mongolian-English, English-Mongolian Dictionary. 3 vols. Stockholm, 1954-55 Haltod, M. (ed.), Mongolian-English Dictionary. Berkeley, Cai., 1961 Jagchid, S., and Hyer, P. Mongolia's Culture and Society. Folkestone, 1979 Lattimore, O., Nationalism and Revolution in Mongolia. Leiden, 1955.—Nomads and Commissars. OUP, 1963 Lòrinc, L., Histoire de la Mongolie des Origines à nos Jours. Budapest, 1984 Mongolskaia Narodnaia Respublika: Spravochnik. Moscow, 1986 News from Mongolia. Ulan Bator, fortnightly, Jan. 1980 Rupen, R. A., How Mongolia is Really Ruled: A Political History of the Mongolian People's Republic, 1900-1978. Stanford, 1979 Sanders, A. J. K.., The People's Republic of Mongolia: A General Reference Guide. OUP, 1968.—Mongolia: Politics, Economics and Society. London, 1987 Shirendev, B., and Sanjdorj, M. (eds.), History of the Mongolian People's Republic. Vol. 3 (vols. 1 and 2 not translated). Harvard Univ. Press, 1976 Socialist Mongolia. Ulan Bator, 1981

Capital: Plymouth Population: 11,852 (1985) GNP per capita: US$3,127 (1985)

MONTSERRAT

H I S T O R Y . Montserrat was discovered by Columbus in 1493 and colonized by Britain in 1632 who brought Irish settlers to the island. Montserrat formed part of the federal colony of the Leeward Islands from 1871 until 1956, when itbecamea separate colony following the dissolution of the Federation. The island's Constitution came into force in 1960 and the title Administrator was changed to that of Governor in 1971. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Montserrat is situated in the Caribbean Sea 25 miles south-west of Antigua. The area is 39 -5 sq. miles (106 sq. km). Population, 1985,11,852. Chief town, Plymouth, 3,500 inhabitants. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate but with no well-defined rainy season, though July to Dec. shows slightly more rainfall, with the average for the year being about 6 0 " (1,500 mm). Dec. to March is the cooler season while June to Nov. is the hotter season, when hurricanes may occur. Plymouth. Jan. 76°F (24-4°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 6 5 " (1,628 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Montserrat is a crown colony. The Executive Council is composed of 4 elected Ministers (the Chief Minister and 3 other Ministers) and 2 civil service officials (Attorney-General and Financial Secretary). The Legislative Council consists of 7 elected and 2 civil service officials (the Attorney-General and Financial Secretary) and 2 nominated members. The Executive Council is presided over by the Governor and the Legislative Council by the Speaker. In elections to the Legislative Council in 1987,4 seats were won by the People's Liberation Movement, 2 by the National Development Party and 1 by the Progressive Democratic Party. Governor: C. J. Turner, OBE. Chief Minister: Hon. J. A. Osborne. Wag.'The British Blue Ensign with the shield of Montserrat in the fly. ECONOMY. Budget. In 1986 the budget expenditure was at EC$25m. of which EC$7m. was capital expenditure. In 1981 the territorial budget ceased to be grant-aided by the British Government. Currency. 100cents= 1 Eastern Caribbean dollar (ECS). Coins: 1,2, 5,25,50 cents. Notes: 1,5,10,20 and 100 dollars. Banking. There are 5 recognized banks on Montserrat. These are the Barclays Bank, the Royal Bank of Canada, The First American Bank, the Government Savings Bank and the Montserrat Building Society. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 11 -6m. kwh. Agriculture. Agriculture has been in decline for several years, but is likely to recover with the progress of the Integrated Sea Island Cotton Project and revised land tenure and settlement arrangements associated with the government's acquisition of a number of estates. Attempts are being made to bring about self-sufficiency in selected foodstuffs with any surplus for export. Livestock (1986); Cattle, 3,500; pigs, 1,000; sheep, 5,000; goats, 6,500. 868

869

MONTSERRAT

Fisheries. Catch (1983) 150 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Considerable light industry was attracted to the territory from abroad during 1979-81 and there is 83,000 sq. ft of modern factory space available. Commerce. Imports in 1986 totalled EC$55m.; domestic exports, EC$5m. Chief imports were manufactured goods, food and beverages, machinery and transport equipment and fuel. Chief exports in 1986 were electronic parts and lighting fittings. Total trade between Montserrat and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 1 15 1,999

1985 414 2,330

1986 358 3,926

1987 139 2,432

Tourism. In 1986,26,076 tourists arrived in Montserrat. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 290 km of roads, 212 km paved, 1,217 passenger cars and 215 commercial vehicles. Aviation. At Blackbume airport 4,422 aircraft landed in 1985, disembarking 25,380 passengers and 132-4 tonnes of cargo. Shipping. In 1986, 299 cargo vessels arrived, landing 22,207 and loading 66 tonnes of cargo. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1986), 3,738; telex, 33. In 1984 there were 4,000 radio and 1,100 TV receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 2 magistrates' courts, at Plymouth and Cudjoe Head. Strength of the police force (1986), 3 gazetted officers, 3 inspectorate and 89 other ranks. Religion. In 1980 (census) there were 1,368 Roman Catholics, 3,676 Anglicans, 2,742 Methodists, 1,041 Seventh Day Adventists, 1,503 Pentecostals and 285 members of the Church of God. There is also a Christian Council of Churches. Education. There are 9 government and 4 private nursery schools for children up to age 5; 9 government, 2 grant-aided and 3 private primary schools for children between 5-12 years; 1 comprehensive secondary school with 3 campuses and 2 private secondary schools for students 12 years and above. In 1986,1,351 children were enrolled in the primary schools, with 67 teachers; 1,016 in the secondary schools, with 74 teachers. There is 1 government owned technical college with 53 students and 11 teachers. Health. In 1985 there were 8 doctors and 67 hospital beds. Books of Reference Population Census 1980. Montserrat Overseas Trade 1983. Montserrat Government Preliminary National Account Statistics, 1975-1982. 1982 Vital Statistics Report. Montserrat Government, 1983 Statistical Digest 1984. Montserrat Government Fergus, H.A., Montserrat: Emerald Isle ofthe Caribbean. London, 1983 Library: Public Library, Plymouth. Librarian: Miss Ruth Allen.

Capital: Rabat Population: 23m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$500 ( 1984)

MOROCCO al-Mamlaka al-Maghrebia

H I S T O R Y . From 1912 to 1956 Morocco was divided into a French protectorate (established by the treaty of Fez concluded between France and the Sultan on 30 March 1912), a Spanish protectorate (established by the Franco-Spanish convention of 27 Nov. 1912) and the international zone of Tangier (set up by France, Spain and Great Britain on 18 Dec. 1923). On 2 March 1956 France and the Sultan terminated the treaty of Fez; on 7 April 1956 Spain relinquished her protectorate, and on 29 Oct. 1956 France, Spain, Great Britain, Italy, USA, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden and Portugal abolished the international status of the Tangier Zone. The northern strip of Spanish Sahara was ceded by Spain on 10 April 1958, and on 30 June 1969 the former Spanish province of Ifni was returned to Morocco. A tripartite agreement was announced on 14 Nov. 1975 providing for the transfer of power from Spanish Sahara (Western Sahara) to the Moroccan and Mauritanean governments on 28 Feb. 1976. Spanish troops left El Aaiun on 20 Dec. 1975. On 14 April 1976 a Convention was signed by Mauritania and Morocco in which the 2 countries agreed to partition the former Spanish territory, but on 14 Aug. 1979 Mauritania renounced its claim to its share of the territory (Tiris ElGharbiya) which was added by Morocco to its area. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Morocco is bounded by Algeria to the east and south-east, Western Sahara to the south-west, the Atlantic ocean to the north-west and the Mediterranean to the north. Excluding the Western Saharan territory claimed and occupied since 1976 by Morocco, the total area is 458,730 sq. km and its total population at the Sept. 1982 census was 20,255,687; the latest estimate (1987) is 23m. The areas (in sq. km) and populations (census 1982) of the provinces are: Province Agadir Taroudant Al-Hoceima Azilal Beni Mellal Ben Slimane Boulemane Casablanca-Anfa 1 1 A'in Chok-Hay Hassani 1 1 Ben Msik-Sidi Othmane Hay Mohamed-Ai'n Sebäa 1 Mohamedia-Znata 1 J Chechaouèn El Jadida El Keläa-Srarhna Er Rachidia Es Saouira Fez Figuig Guelmim Kénitra Sidi Kacem Khémisset Khcnifra Khouribga Marrakesh Meknès Ifrane

1982

Sq. km

579,741

5,910 16,460

558,501

3,550

3 1 1 , 2 9 8

10,050

387,1

7,075

15

6 6 8 , 7 0 3

2 , 7 6 0

174,464

14,395

131,470 i

9 2 3 , 6 3 0 2 9 8 , 3 7 6

1,615

6 3 9 , 5 5 8 4 2 1 , 2 7 2 1

153,828

4 , 3 5 0

3 0 9 , 0 2 4

6 , 0 0 0

763,351

10,070

5 7 7 , 5 9 5

59,585

4 2 1 , 2 0 7

6,335

3 9 3 , 6 8 3

5,400

8 0 5 , 4 6 4

5 5 , 9 9 0

101,359

2 8 , 7 5 0

128,676

4,745

7 1 5 , 9 6 7

4 , 0 6 0

5 1 4 , 1 2 7

8,305

4 0 5 , 8 3 6

12,320

3 6 3 , 7 1 6

4 , 2 5 0

4 3 7 , 0 0 2

14,755

1,266,695

3,995

6 2 6 , 8 6 8

3,310

1

Province Nador Ouarzazate Oujda Rabat-Salé 1 Safi Settat Tangier Tan-Tan Taounate Tata Taza Tétouan Tiznit Morocco Boujdour (Bojador) Es Semara (Smara) Laâyoune (Al Aaiün) Oued Ed Dahab

100,255

Urban prefectures

870

Sahara

Sq. km 6 , 1 3 0 4 1 , 5 5 0

1982 5 9 3 , 2 5 5 5 3 3 , 8 9 2

2 0 , 7 0 0

7 8 0 , 7 6 2

1,275

1,020,001

7,285

7 0 6 , 6 1 8

9 , 7 5 0

6 9 2 , 3 5 9

1,195

4 3 6 , 2 2 7

17,295

4 7 , 0 4 0

5,585

5 3 5 , 9 7 2

2 5 , 9 2 5

9 9 , 9 5 0

15,020

6 1 3 , 4 8 5

6,025

7 0 4 , 2 0 5

6 , 9 6 0

3 1 3 , 1 4 0

4 5 8 , 7 3 0

2 0 , 2 5 5 , 6 8 7

100,120

8,481

6 1 , 7 6 0

2 0 , 4 8 0

3 9 , 3 6 0

113,411

5 0 , 8 8 0

2 1 , 4 9 6

2 5 2 , 1 2 0

163,868

MOROCCO

871

Population of cities (estimates, 1981): Casablanca, 2,408,600; Rabat-Salé, 841,800; Fez, 562,900; Marrakesh, 548,700; Meknès, 486,600; Oujda, 470,500; Kénitra, 449,700; Tétouan, 371,700; Tangier, 304,000; Safi, 255,700; Agadir, 245,800; Khouribga, 229,600; Beni Mellal, 204,800, Settat, 167,000; Al-Jadida, 164,000; Taza, 146,500; Nador, 115,300; Khémisset, 100,100. The official language is Arabic, spoken by 75% of the population; the remainder speak Berber. French and Spanish are considered subsidiary languages. C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from semi-arid in the south to warm temperate Mediterranean conditions in the north, but cooler temperatures occur in the mountains. Rabat. Jan. 55°F (12-9°C), July 72"F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (564 mm). Agadir. Jan. 57°F ( 13 -9°C), July 72°F (22 -2°C). Annual rainfall 9 " (224 mm). Casablanca. Jan. 54°F (12 -2°C), July 72°F(22 2°C). Annual rainfall 16" (404 mm). Marrakesh. Jan. 52°F(11 • 1°C), July 84°F (28 9°C). Annual rainfall 10" (239 mm). Tangier. Jan. 53°F (11 -70C), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 3 6 " (897 mm). R E I G N I N G K I N G . Hassan II, b o m on 9 July 1929, succeeded on 3 March 1961, on the death of his father Mohammed V, who reigned 1927-61. The royal style was changed from 'His Sherifian Majesty the Sultan' to 'His Majesty the King' on 18 Aug. 1957. Heir apparent: Crown Prince Sidi Mohammed, born 21 Aug. 1963. The King holds supreme civil and religious authority; the latter in his capacity of Emir-el-Muminin or Commander of the Faithful. He resides usually at Rabat, but occasionally in one of the other traditional capitals, Fez (founded in 808), Marrakesh (founded in 1062), or at Skhirat. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved by referendum in March 1972 and amendments were approved by referendum in May 1980. The Kingdom of Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with a legislature of a single chamber composed of 306 deputies. Deputies for 102 seats are elected by indirect vote through an electoral college representing the town councils, the regional assemblies, the chambers of commerce, industry and agriculture, and the trade unions. Deputies for the remaining 204 seats are by general election. The King, as sovereign head of State, appoints the Prime Minister and other Ministers, has the right to dissolve Parliament and approves legislation. In the General Elections held on 14 Sept. 1984, the new Union constitutionelle (founded Jan. 1983) won 83 seats, the Rassemblement nationale des indépendants 61 seats, the Union socialiste des forces populaires 36 seats, the Mouvement populaire 47 seats, Istiqlal (Independence) 41 seats; others 3 8 seats. Nationalflag: Red, with a green pentacle star in the centre. Cabinet in Dec. 1987: Prime Minister:'N. Azzeddine Laraki. Justice: Moulay Mustapha Belarbi Alaoui. Interior: Driss Basri. Foreign Affairs, Co-operation and Information: Abdellatif Filali. Planning: Rachid Ghazouani. National Education: Mohamed Hilali. Economic Affairs: Moulay Zine Zahidi. Finance: Abdellatif Jouahri. Trade, Industry and Tourism: Abdallah al-Azmani. Handicrafts and Social Affairs: Mohamed Labied. Transport: Mohamed Bouamoud. Energy and Mining: Mohamed Fettah. Health: Tayeb Bencheikh. Maritime Fishing and Merchant Navy: Bensalem Smili. Secretary-General of the Government: Abbas Kaissi. Cultural Affairs: Mohamed Benaissa. Housing and Land Management: Abderrahmane Boufettas. Equipment, Executive and Professional Training: Mohamed Kabbaj. Posts and Telecommunications: Mohand Laensar. Agriculture and Land Reform: Otman Demnati. Relations with Parliament: Tahar Afifi. Youth and Sports: Abdellatif Semlali. Labour: Hassan Abbadi. Islamic Affairs: Abdelkbar Alaoui Medaghri. Administrative Affairs: Abderrahim Ben Abdeljalil. Saharan Province: Khali H. Ould Rachid. Relations with the European Community: Azzedine Guessous. There was 1 Minister of State.

872

MOROCCO

Local Government: The country is administratively divided into 39 provinces and 8 urban prefectures. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 18 months. Army. The Army comprises 2 mechanized infantry, 1 light security, 1 parachute brigade and 1 anti-aircraft group; 4 mechanized infantry regiments; 9 artillery groups; 7 armoured, 1 Royal Guard, 3 camel corps, 2 desert cavalry, 1 mountain, 4 commando and 10 engineer battalions; and 7 armoured car squadrons. Equipment includes 110 M-48 A5 main battle tanks, 110 light tanks and 1,400 armoured cars. Strength ( 1988) 170,000 men. There are also 35,000 paramilitary troops. Navy. Navy includes 1 modern missile-armed light frigate, 4 new missile armed large patrol vessels or small corvettes, 2 modern fast attack (corvette size) gunboats, 1 ex-coastal minesweeper used for patrol duties, 1 patrol vessel, 1 gunboat, 1 seaward patrol craft, 9 coastal patrol boats, 4 landing craft acquired from France and 2 logistic support vessels. Six corvettes of new design have been ordered. There were also 13 small customs cutters and 24 more building. Personnel in 1988 was considerably increased to 6,000 officers and ratings including 600 marines. Air Force. The Air Force was formed in Nov. 1956. Equipment in current use is mainly of US and West European origin. It includes 40 Mirage Fis, a total of 25 F-5 A/B/E/F fighter-bombers and RF-5 A reconnaissance-fighters, 4 OV-10 Bronco counter-insurgency aircraft, 2 Falcon 20s for electronic warfare, and 24 Gazelle armed helicopters, 24 Alpha Jet advanced trainers, 22 Magister armed jet basic trainers, 12 T-34C-1 turboprop basic trainers, 10 Swiss-built Bravo primary trainers, 2 Mudry CAP 10B aerobatic trainers, 4 Broussard liaison aircraft, 85 AgustaBell 205 and 212, Puma and JetRanger helicopters, 10 Do 28D Skyservants for coastal patrol, 11 CH-47C heavy-lift helicopters, 20 C-130H turboprop transport aircraft, 3 KC-130H tanker/transports, a Falcon 50 and a Gulfstream III VIP transport, 2 Boeing 707s and 5 turboprop King Air light transports. Personnel strength (1988)about 15,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Morocco is a member of UN, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Islamic Conference and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The Development Plan, 1981-85, envisaged an investment of DH 110,900m. and gave priority to housing, health services, industry and agriculture. Budget. The budget for 1986 envisaged revenue of 51,100m. DH and expenditure of59,700m. DH. Debt. In April 1985 foreign debt was estimated at US$12,500m. (£9,800m.). Currency. In Oct. 1959, a national currency was introduced. Its unit is the dirham (abbreviated DH), equalling 100 centimes. Notes: 10, 50, 100 DH; coins: 0 1 0 , 0-20,0-50, 1 DH. The exchange rate in March 1988 was£l sterling= 14-10 DH; US$1 =8-06 DH. Banking. The central bank is the Banque al Maghrib. Authorized banks are: La Banque Marocaine du Commerce Extérieur, La Banque Marocaine pour le Commerce et l'Industrie, La Banque Commerciale du Maroc, Compagnie Marocaine du Crédit et de Banque, Société Générale Marocaine de Banque, Crédit du Maroc, Union Marocaine de Banque, Société de dépôt et de crédits, Arab Bank Ltd, Bank of America, Banco Espagnol en Maruecos, Banque de Paris et des PaysBas, First National City Bank, Société Hollandaise de Banque et de Gestion, The British Bank of the Middle East, Société de Dépôt et de Crédits, Wafabank, Citibank, Algemene Bank Nederland and Banque Américano-Suisse pour le Maroc. The Banque Centrale Populaire and regional Banques populaires also provide

873

MOROCCO

banking services for small and medium businesses. There are 3 development banks: Banque Nationale du Development Economique, whose major area of investment has been industry; Credit Industrial et Hotelier, which finances housing on easy terms; Caisse Nationale du Credit Agricole, which specializes in agriculture. La Banque National pour le Développement économique grants loans to the industrial sector. Le Credit Immobilier et Hotelier grants loans for construction. La Caisse de Dépót et de Gestión is responsible for the centralization of savings and their management. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures is the sole legal system. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electric power-plants produced 6,920m. kwh. in 1986. Supply 110, 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Crude oil production, 17,500 tonnes 1981. Refined oil production (including imported crude), 4-5m. tonnes in 1983. Minerals. The principal mineral exploited is phosphate, the output of which was 21-4m. tonnes in 1986. Other important minerals (in tonnes, 1985) are: Anthracite (774,500), iron ore (190,258), lead (153,636), copper (59,245), zinc (27,153), manganese (43,690), baryt (463,380), fluorine (74,350), salt (118,173). Agriculture. Land suitable for cultivation, 1984,7 -7m. hectares, of which (in 1,000 hectares): Cereals, 4,500; leguminous vegetables, 400; market gardening, 150; oilproducing and industrial cultivation, 130; fodder, 110; dense fruit plantations, 400; fallows, 2,000. Production in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 3,809; barley, 3,563; maize, 307; fruit, 1,725 (of which citrus fruits, 1,224); pulses, 393; sunflower seeds, 21; groundnuts, 36; sugar beets, 2,500; sugar-cane, 790; olives, 330; potatoes, 56; tomatoes, 400; onions, 260. Dairy production in 1986 included: Milk, 910,000 tonnes; butter, 13,723 tonnes; cheese, 6,396 tonnes. Meat production (1986) 327,000 tonnes. Livestock (in 1,000 heads), 1984-85: Cattle, 2,870; sheep, 14,640; goats, 6,320. Forestry. Forests cover 5m. hectares (8% of land area) and employed (1984) 50,000. They produce mainly firewood, building and industrial timber, some cork and charcoal. Fisheries. The industry employed 83,000 workers in 1987. Total catch in 1986 was 591,000 tonnes, value 2,442,404,000 DH. The value offish exports in 1986 was 2,860,552,000 DH. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1984 industry represented 14% of the GNP. Manufacturing industries are concentrated in Casablanca (metallurgy, car assembly, sugar-producing and pharmaceutical products), Fez, Rabat, Muhammadia (textile), Safi (chemicals, manure, fish treatment) and Agadir(fish treatment, canning factories). There are 8 cement factories, with an output of3,848,200 tonnes in 1983, when self-sufficiency was achieved. The agricultural and food industries produce 40% of the whole industrial output. The sugar industry meets 76% of the country's needs and produced 426,800 tonnes of crude sugar in 1983. Trade Unions. In 1984 there were 8 trade unions. Commerce. Imports and exports were (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1983 3,530 2,030

1984 3,880 2,150

1985 3,750 2,160

1986 3,800 2,500

Exports (1986) of phosphates 13 -7m. tonnes, value DH3,840fn. Exports in 1985 went mainly to France (24%), Spain (7%), Federal Republic of

874

MOROCCO

Germany (7%), Italy (6%) and UK (3%). Imports were mainly from France (25%), Spain (14%), Federal Republic of Germany (8%), Italy (6%) and UK (3%). Total trade between Morocco and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m } } m y9g5 l m m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

Tourism. In DH6,200m.

75,602 99,727

79,738 79,850

74,820 92,658

65,419 84,510

61,108 94,487

1986, l-47m. visitors came to Morocco, spending (1985)

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 57,592 km of classified roads, of which 19,099 km were surfaced. A motorway links Rabat to Casablanca. At the end of 1981 there were in use 207,370 lorries, 445,000 private cars and 18,424 motorcycles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,779 km of railways, of which 794 km were electrified. The principal standard-gauge lines are from Casablanca eastward to the Algerian border, forming part of the continuous rail line to Tunis; Casablanca to Marrakesh with 2 important branches, one eastward to Oued Zem tapping the Khouribga phosphate mines, the other westward to the port of Safi. Another branch serves the manganese mines at Bou Arfa. Two new double-track electrified lines are to serve a new deep-water port at Jorf Lasfar. In 1986 the railways carried 958m. passenger-km and 4,502 tonne-km. Aviation. There are 15 international airports as well as national airports. The most important, Mohamed V airport in Casablanca, handled 18,154 flights with 1,367,548 passengers and 24,968-8 tonnes of freight including mail in 1983. Total flights, 1983, 44,606 with 3,176,648 passengers and 29,882-7 tonnes of freight including mail. Shipping. In 1983, 17,555 vessels entered and cleared the ports of Morocco and 19,393,000 tonnes of merchandise, including 13,891,500 tonnes of phosphate, were loaded and 11,260,000 tonnes unloaded. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 359 post offices. Telephone subscribers totalled 265,672 in 1983. There are broadcasts in Arabic, Berber, French, Spanish and English from Rabat and Tangier; television in Arabic and French began in 1962. In 1984 there were 2-5m. radio receivers and in 1983 1,044,895 television receivers. Cinemas. There were about 235 cinemas in 1971. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 12 daily newspapers (7 Arabic, 5 French) and 18 main weeklies and monthlies (10 Arabic, 8 French). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A uniform legal system is being organized, based mainly on French and Islamic law codes and French legal procedure. The judiciary consists of a Supreme Court, courts of appeal, regional tribunals and magistrates' courts. Religion. Islam is the established state religion. 98% are Sunni Moslems of the Malekite school and 2% are Christians, mainly Roman Catholic. Education. In 1959 a standardization of the various school systems (French, Spanish, Israeli, Moslem, etc.) was begun. Education is compulsory from the age of 7 to 13. In 1984 there were 2,550,000 pupils and 75,094 teachers in 3,144 state primary schools; 1,050,000 pupils and 51,711 teachers in secondary schools; 10,020(1981) students in technical schools and 16,148 (1981) students in teacher-training establishments. The language of instruction in primary and secondary schools is Arabic. Some scientific courses were (1985) still taught in French. Professional and vocational colleges had 6,942 students in 1983. There were 30,000 students abroad.

MOROCCO

875

There are six universities, Mohamed V at Rabat, Hassan II at Casablanca, Mohamed Ben Abdallah at Fez, Quaraouyine at Fez, Mohamed I at Oujda and Cadi Ayyad at Marrakesh with a total enrolment of 99,637 students and 3,146 teaching staffin 1984. Health. In the public sector, 1984, there were 1,048 medical centres and dispensaries, 5,258 doctors, 63 chemists and 4,424 (1983) registered nurses. In the private sector, 1984, there were 1,971 doctors, 6,713 (1983) chemists and 709 registered nurses. There were 14,847 qualified nurses in 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Morocco in Great Britain (49 Queen's Gate Gdns., London, SW7 5NE) Ambassador: Abdeslam Zenined, GCVO. Of Great Britain in Morocco (17 Blvd de la Tour Hassan, Rabat) Ambassador: J. W. R. Shakespeare, CMG, LVO. Of Morocco in the USA ( 1601 21 st St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: M'hamed Bargach. Of the USA in Morocco (2 Ave. de Marrakech, Rabat) Ambassador: Thomas A. Nassif. Of Morocco to the United Nations Ambassador: Driss Slaoui. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Service Central des Statistiques (BP 178, Rabat) was established in 1942. Its publications include: Annuaire de Statistique Générale.—La Conjoncture Économique Marocaine (monthly; with annual synthesis).—Bulletin économique et social du Maroc (trimestral) Bulletin Official (in Arabic and French). Rabat. Weekly Findlay, A. M. and A. M., and Lawless, R. I., Morocco. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Kinross, Lord, and Hales-Gary, D., Morocco. London, 1971 National Library: Bibliothèque Générale et Archives, Rabat.

Capital: Maputo Population: 14-54m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$90 (1986)

MOZAMBIQUE República Popular de Moçambique

HISTORY.Trading settlements were established by Arab merchants at Sofala (Beira), Quelimane, Angoche and Mozambique Island in the fifteenth century. Mozambique Island was visited by Vasco da Gamba's fleet on 2 March 1498, and Sofala was occupied by Portuguese in 1506. At first ruled as part of Portuguese India, a separate administration was created in 1752, and on 11 June 1951 Mozambique became an Overseas Province of Portugal. Following a decade of guerrilla activity, Portugal and the nationalists jointly established a transitional government on 20 Sept. 1974. Independence was achieved on 25 June 1975. In March 1984 the Republic of South Africa and Mozambique signed a non-agression pact. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mozambique is bounded east by the Indian ocean, south by South Africa, south-west by Swaziland, west by South Africa and Zimbabwe and north by Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania. It has an area of 799,380 sq. km (308,642 sq. miles) and a population, according to the census of 1980, of 11,673,725. Estimate (1987) 14,543,000 of whom (1986) 882,800 lived in the capital, Maputo. Other chief cities are Beira (1986 population, 269,700) and Nampula (182,600). The areas, populations and capitals of the provinces are: Province Cabo Delgado Niassa Nampula Zambézia Tete Manica Sofala Inhambane Gaza Province of Maputo City of Maputo

Sq. km 82,625 129,056 81,606 105,008 100,724 61,661 68,018 68,615 75,709 25,756 602

Census 1980 940,000 514,100 2,402,700 2,500,200 831,000 641,200 1,065,200 997,600 990,900 491,800 755,300

Estimate 1986 1,098,700 600,900 2,808,300 2,922,300 971,300 749,500 1,245,000 1,166,000 1,158,200 574,800 882,800

Capital Pemba Lichinga Nampula Quelimane Tete Chimoio Beira Inhambane Xaixai Maputo

The main ethnolinguistic groups are the Makua/Lomwe (52% of the population), mainly in the 4 provinces in the north, the Malawi (12%), Shona (6%) and Yao (3%) in Tete, Manica and Sofala, and the Thonga (24%) in the 3 provinces in the south. Portuguese remains the official language, but Swahili serves as a lingua franca north of the Zambezi. C L I M A T E . A humid tropical climate, with a dry season from June to Sept. In general, temperatures and rainfall decrease from north to south. Maputo. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 65°F (18-3°C). Annual rainfall 30" (760 mm). Beira. Jan. 82°F (27 -8°C), July 69°F (20 6°C). Annual rainfall 6 0 " (1,522 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution adopted at independence on 25 June 1975, the directing power of the state is vested in the Frente de Libertafäo de Mozambique (FRELIMO), the liberation movement, which in Feb. 1977 was reconstituted as sole political Party. A new Constitution was under discussion in 1987. The legislative organ is the People's Assembly of 250 members, elected in Dec. 1986. The Council of Ministers in Dec. 1987 consisted of: President, and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces: Joaquim Alberto Chissano. Prime Minister and Planning: Mario da Graga Machungo. 876

MOZAMBIQUE

877

Foreign Affairs: Pascoal Mocumbi. Defence: Alberto Joaquim Chipande. Deputy Minister of Defence, Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces: Antonio Hama Thai. Co-operation: Jacinto Veloso. Minister in the Presidency: Feliciano Gundana. Minister in the Presidency for State Administration: José Oscar Monteiro. Security: Mariano de Araujo Matsinhe. Health: Fernando Everard do Rosario Vaz. Education: Gra^a Machel. Interior: Manuel Antonio. Finance: Abdul Magid Osman. Construction and Water: Joào Salomào. Trade: Manuel Aranda da Silva. Agriculture: Joào Ferreira. Transport and Communications: Armando Emilio Guebuza. Industry and Energy: Antonio José Lima Rodrigues Branco. Justice: Ali Ossumane Dauto. Information: Teodato Hunguana. Mineral Resources: John Kachamila. Labour: Aguiar Real Mazula. Culture: Luis Bernardo Honwana. There are 14 Deputy Ministers and 11 Secretaries of State. National flag: Horizontally green, black, yellow with the black fimbriated in white; a red triangle based on the hoist, charged with a yellow star surmounted by an open white book and a crossed rifle and hoe in black. Local Government. The capital of Maputo and 10 provinces, each under a Governor who is automatically a member of the Council of Ministers, are sub-divided into 112 districts. D E F E N C E . Selective conscription for2 years is in force. Army. The Army consists of 1 tank brigade and 7 infantry brigades, 2 independent mechanized and 7 anti-aircraft artillery battalions. Equipment includes T-34/-54/-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 30,000. There are also 9,500 Border Guards and various militias. Navy. The small flotilla comprises 4 Indian-built (Goa) patrol craft, 2 ex-Soviet anti-submarine vessels, 6 former Portuguese coastal patrol boats, 6 ex-Soviet gunboats, 4 ex-Netherlands patrol craft, 10 Goa-built inshore patrol boats and 2 exPortuguese minor landing craft. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 800 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force is reported to have about 20 MiG-17 and 30 MiG-21 fighters, probably flown by Cuban pilots, An-26 turboprop transports, and a few C-47 piston-engined transports. About 10 Mi-24 armed helicopters and 8 Mi-8 transport helicopters, a small number of L-39 jet trainers, Zlin 326 primary trainers and a few ex-Portuguese Air Force Alouette liaison helicopters. Personnel (1988)1,000. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Mozambique is a member of UN, OAU, SADCC and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Economic Recovery Programme (1987-90) aims to stimulate production and to restore the real value of wages and earnings as an incentive to productivity in industry and agriculture. Budget. In 1987 the revenue was US$2-77-87m.; expenditure, US$427-91m. Foreign debt (1986) US$3,200m. Currency. In June 1980 the currency became the metical (pi. meticais) divided into 100 centavos. The metical was established at par with the former escudo. In March 1988, £1 =806 meticais; US$ 1 =454 meticais. Banking. Most banks had been nationalized by 1979. The Banco de Mozambique (bank of issue) and the Banco Popular de Desenvolvimento (state investment bank) each have a capital of 1,000m. meticais. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force.

878

MOZAMBIQUE

ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 1,640m. kwh. Capacity (1986) 2,225,000 kw. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. The hydro-electric dam at Cabora Bassa on the Zambezi is the largest producer in Africa. Minerals. Coal is the main mineral being exploited. Output was 380,000 tonnes in 1983. Coal reserves (estimate) 400m. tonnes. Small quantities of bauxite, gold, titanium, fluorite and colombo-tantalite are produced. Iron ore deposits and natural gas are known to exist. Agriculture. Production in tonnes (1986): Cereals, 610,000; tea, 15,000; maize, 350,000; bananas, 75,000; sisal, 3,000; rice, 60,000; groundnuts, 65,000; copra, 67,000; vegetables, 191,000; citrus, 42,000; potatoes, 65,000; cashews, 30,000; sunflower seed, 20,000; cotton (lint), 17,000; sugar, 26,000. Livestock 1986: l-34m. cattle, 365,000 goats, 116,000 sheep, 150,000 pigs, 20,000 asses. Forestry. Forests represent 20% of land area. Production (1985) 35,000 cu. metres of cut timber. Fisheries. In 1984 the prawn catch was 5,800 tonnes; other fish 11,700 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Although the country is overwhelmingly rural, there is some substantial industry in and around Maputo (steel, engineering, textiles, processing, docks and railways). Commerce. Imports in 1986 totalled US$546-8m. and exports US$79m. In 1985 20% of imports came from the USSR, 12% from the Republic of South Africa and 12% from the USA. 23% of exports were to Spain, 19% to the USA, 16% to Japan and 12% to the Federal Republic of Germany. Shrimps made up 44% of exports; cashews, 15%; cotton fibre, 7%; sugar, 9%; copra, 7% and petroleum products, 5%. Total trade between Mozambique and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡ m ¡ m m ¡ ¡ m m ? Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

9,176 28,618

8,549 15,671

6,908 11,343

1,335 13,175

6,580 21,168

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1982, 26,000 km of roads, of which 4,600 km were tarred. Motor vehicles, in 1980, included 99,400 passenger cars and 24,700 lorries and buses. The Government is devoting effort to constructing a new North/South road link, and to improving provincial rural feeder road systems. Railways. The Mozambique State Railways consist of 5 independent networks known as the Maputo, Mozambique, Sofala (Beira), Inhambane and Gaza, and Quelimane systems. The Maputo system has a link at Komatipoort with the Republic of South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe railways; the Sofala system links with Zimbabwe at Machipanda (near Umtali); and the Mozambique system links with Malawi at Entre Lagos. Total route-km (1986), 2,988 km (1,067 mm gauge), and 143 km (762 mm gauge). In 1986,6-8m. passengers and 301m. tonnekm of goods were carried. Aviation. There are international airports at Maputo, Beira and Nampula with regular services to European and Southern African destination by several foreign airlines and by Linhas Aéreas de Mogambique, who also serve 13 domestic airports. Shipping. The total tonnage handled by Mozambique ports (1981) was 9 • 12m. The principal ports are Maputo, Beira, Nacala and Quelimane. Post and Broadcasting. Maputo is connected by telegraph with the Transvaal system. Quelimane has telegraphic communication with Chiromo. Number of telephones (1982), 56,305.

MOZAMBIQUE

879

Radio Moçambique broadcasts 5 programmes in Portuguese, English, Afrikaans, Ronga and Shangane as well as 4 regional programmes in 8 languages. Number of receivers (1985): radio, 450,000; TV, 6,500. Cinemas. There were, in 1971,31 cinemas with a seating capacity of20,195. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 daily newspapers in Mozambique: Noticias, published in Maputo (circulation, 45,000), and Diario de Mozambique in Beira (15,000). J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. A system of People's Courts exists at all levels. Religion. About 60% of the population follow traditional animist religions, while some 18% are Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) and 16% Moslem. Education. In 1983 there were 1,402,541 pupils in 8,528 primary schools and 106,975 in 136 secondary schools. The Universidade Eduardo Mondlane had 2,500 students in 1985. About 500,000 attend adult literacy classes. Health. There were (1985) 258 hospitals and medical centres with 12,472 beds; there were 317 doctors, 871 midwives and 2,590 nursing personnel. In 1980 there were 96 dentists and 8 pharmacists. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Mozambique (Ave. Vladimir 1 Lenine 310, Maputo) Ambassador: J. N. Allan, CBE. Of Mozambique in the USA(1990 M. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Valeriano Ferrao. Of the USA in Mozambique (35 Rua Da Mesquita, Maputo) Chargé d'Affaires: Michael E. Ranneberger. Of Mozambique to the United Nations Ambassador: Manuel dos Santos. Books of Reference Darch, C.,Mozambique. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Hanlon, S.,Mozambique: The Revolution under Fire. London, 1984 Henriksen,T. H., Mozambique: A History. London and Cape Town, 1978 Houser, G., and Shore, H., Mozambique: Dream the Size of Freedom. New York, 1975 Isaacman, A., A Luta Continua: Building a New Society in Mozambique. New York, 1978. —Mozambique: From Colonization to Revolution, ¡900-1982. Aldershot and Boulder, 1984 Mondlane, E., The Struggle for Mozambique. London, 1983 Munslow, B., Mozambique: The Revolution and its Origins. London and New York, 1983

NAURU

Population:^,042 (1983) GNPper capita: US$9,091 (1985)

H I S T O R Y . The island was discovered by Capt. Fearn in 1798, annexed by Germany in Oct. 1888, and surrendered to the Australian forces in 1914. It was administered under a mandate, effective from 17 Dec. 1920, conferred on the British Empire and approved by the League of Nations until 1 Nov. 1947, when the United Nations General Assembly approved a trusteeship agreement with the governments of Australia, New Zealand and UK as joint administering authority. Independence was gained in 1968. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island is situated 0° 32'S. lat. and 166° 56' E. long. Area, 5,263 acres (2,130 hectares). It is an oval-shaped upheaval coral island of approximately 12 miles in circumference, surrounded by a reef which is exposed at low tide. There is no deep water harbour but offshore moorings, reputedly the deepest in the world, are capable of holding medium-sized vessels, including 30,000 tonne capacity bulk carriers. On the seaward side the reef dips abruptly into the deep waters of the Pacific at an angle of 45°. On the landward side of the reef there is a sandy beach interspersed with coral pinnacles. From the sandy beach the ground rises gradually, forming a fertile section ranging in width from 150 to 300 yd and completely encircling the island. There is an extensive plateau bearing phosphate of a high grade, the mining rights of which were vested in the British Phosphate Commissioners until 1 July 1970, subject to the rights of the Nauruan landowners. In July 1970 the Nauru Phosphate Corporation assumed control and management of the enterprise. It is chiefly on the fertile section of land between the sandy beach and the plateau that the Nauruans have established themselves. With the exception of a small fringe round a shallow lagoon, about 1 mile inland, the plateau, which contains the phosphate deposits, has few foodbearing trees and is not settled by the Nauruans. At the census held on 13 May 1983 the population totalled 8,042, of whom 4,964 were Nauruans. Vital statistics, 1982: Births, 286 (224 Nauruan); deaths, 77 (42 Nauruan). C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, tempered by sea breezes, but with a high and irregular rainfall, averaging 8 2 " (2,060 mm). Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 7 5 " (1,862 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A Legislative Council was established by the Nauru Act, passed by the Australian Parliament in Dec. 1965 and was inaugurated on 31 Jan. 1966. The trusteeship agreement terminated on 31 Jan. 1968, on which day Nauru became an independent republic but having special relationship with the Commonwealth. An 18-member Parliament is elected on a 3-yearly basis. President and Minister for Foreign Affairs: Hammer DeRoburt, GCMG, OBE. National flag: Blue with a narrow horizontal gold stripe across the centre, beneath this near the hoist a white star of 12 points. F I N A N C E . Revenue and expenditure (in $A) for financial year ending 30 June 1983 (estimate): revenue, 97,279,300; expenditure, 111,284,800 (health, 1,602,200; education, 2,004,200). The interests in the phosphate deposits were purchased in 1919 from the Pacific Phosphate Company by the governments of the UK, the Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand at a cost of £Stg3 • 5m., and a Board of Commissioners representing the 3 governments was appointed to manage and control the working of the deposits. In May 1967, in Canberra, the British Phosphate Corporation agreed to hand over the phosphate industry to Nauru and on 15 June 1967 agreement was reached that the Nauruans could buy the assets of the B.P.C. for 880

NAURU

881

approximately $A20m. over 3 years. It is estimated that the deposits will be exhausted by 1993. Phosphate sales (1984-85) $A100m. COMMERCE. The export trade consists almost entirely of phosphate shipped to Australia, New Zealand and Japan. The imports consist almost entirely of food supplies, building construction materials and machinery for the phosphate industry. Total trade between Nauru and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 3 m 4 m 5 m 6 ] m ImportstoUK Exports from U K

1,421 1,715

916 1,332

479 1,199

148 1,239

674 394

COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. There is an airfield on the island capable of accepting medium size jet aircraft. Air Nauru, a wholly owned government subsidiary, operates services with Boeing 727 and 737 aircraft to Melbourne, Sydney, Apia, Honiara, Guam, Tarawa, Majuro, Kagoshima, Okinawa, Noumea, Port Vila, Suva, Nadi, Ponape, Manila, Taipei, Truk, Saipan, Korer (Pelan), Honolulu, Singapore, Auckland, Pago Pago and Niue. Shipping. The Nauru Local Government Council, through its agency the Nauru Pacific Shipping Line, owns 6 ships and 2 fishing boats. These snips ply between Australia, Pacific Islands, west coast of USA, New Zealand, Japan, Singapore etc. Other shipping coming to the island consists of those under charter to the phosphate industry. Telecommunications. Number of telephones (1978) 1,500 and (1984) 5,500 radio receivers. Direct daily high frequency service is maintained with Tarawa and both long- and short-wave transmissions with merchant shipping. A separate tele-radio service exists between Nauru and Ocean Island. Cinemas. In 1978 there were 7 cinemas with seating capacity of 1,500. JUSTICE, RELIGION AND EDUCATION Justice. The highest Court is the Supreme Court of Nauru. It is the Superior Court of record and has the jurisdiction to deal with constitutional matters in addition to its other jurisdiction. There is also a District Court which is presided over by the Resident Magistrate who is also the Chairman of the Family Court and the Registrar of Supreme Court. The laws applicable in Nauru are its own Acts of Parliament and a large number of British statutes and the common law have been adopted for Nauru. Religion. The population is mainly Roman Catholic or Protestant. Education. Attendance at school is compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 16. In June 1983 there were 8 infant and primary schools and 2 secondary schools. There were 44 teachers and 2,164 pupils in infant, primary and secondary schools. In addition, there is a trade school with 4 instructors and an enrolment of 74 trainees. Scholarships are available for Nauruan children to receive secondary and higher education and vocational training in Australia and New Zealand. In 1984, 88 Nauruans were receiving secondary and tertiary education abroad. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Nauru High Commisioner: R. A. R. Barltrop, CVO (resides in Suva). Of Nauru in the USA Ambassador: T. W. Star (resides in Melbourne). Books of Reference Packett, C. N . , Guide to the Republic of Nauru. Bradford, 1970 P i t t m a n , G . A.,Nauru, the Phosphate Island. London, 1959 Viviani, N., Phosphate and Political Progress. Canberra, 1970

NFPA T

Capital:Kathmandu Population: 16-63m. (1985) GNPper capita: US$ 170 (1983)

i>

Nepal Adhirajya HISTORY. From 1846 to 1951 Nepal was virtually ruled by the Rana family, a member of which always held the office of prime minister, the succession being determined by special rules. The last Rana prime minister (and, until 18 Feb. 1951, Supreme C.-in-C.) was HH Maharaja Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, who resigned in Nov. 1951. AREA AND POPULATION. Nepal, is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Sikkim and West Bengal, on the south and west by Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. There are 3 geographical regions: The fertile Tarai plain in the south; a central belt containing the Mahabharat Lekh and Churia Hills and the basins of the Inner Tarai; and the Himalayas in the north. Area 56,827 sq. miles (147,181 sq. km); population (estimate, 1985), 16,625,439; (census, 1981) 15,022,839 of whom 52 • 4% were Nepali-speaking and 18-5% Bihari-speaking. Capital, Kathmandu, 75 miles from the Indian frontier; population (census 1981) 235,160. Other towns include Patan (also called Lalitpur), 79,875; Morang (Biratnagar), 93,544; Bhadgaon (Bhaktapur), 48,472. The aboriginal stock is Mongolian with a considerable admixture of Hindu blood from India. They were originally divided into numerous hill clans and petty principalities, one of which, Gorkha or Gurkha, became predominant in 1559 and has since given its name to men from all parts of Nepal. The 15 feudal chieftainships were integrated into the kingdom on 10 April 1961. C L I M A T E . The rainfall is high, with maximum amounts from May to Sept., but conditions are very dry from Nov. to Jan. The range of temperature is moderate. Kathmandu. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 57" (1,428 mm). RULING KING. The sovereign is HM Maharajadhiraja Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev, who succeeded his father Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev on 31 Jan. 1972. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. On 18 Feb. 1951 the King proclaimed a constitutional monarchy, and on 16 Dec. 1962 a new Constitution of the 'Constitutional Monarchical Hindu State'. The village and town panchayat, recognized as the basic units of democracy, elect the district panchayat, these elect the zonal panchayat, and these finally the 112 members of the national panchayat. The Constitution was amended in 1975 and 1980. In addition, 28 representatives of professional organizations and royal nominees not exceeding 15% of the elected members, will be included in the national panchayat. The executive power is vested in the King, who appoints a council of ministers from the national panchayat. A state council will advise the King and proclaim the successor or, if the heir is a minor, a regency council. Art. 81 empowers the King to declare a state of emergency and to suspend the Constitution. The Cabinet in Jan. 1987 was as follows (for reshuffle March 1988 see Addenda): Prime Minister, Defence, General Administration and Royal Palace Affairs: Marich Man Singh Shrestha. Finance: Bharat Bahadur Pradhan. Foreign Affairs and Land Reform: Shilendra Kumar Upadhayay. Transport, Public Works and Communications: Hari Bahadur. Panchayat and Local Development: Pashupati Shumshere Rana. Agriculture, Law and Justice: Hari Narayan Rajauriya. Forests and Soil Conservation: Hem Bahadur Malla. Commerce: Bijaya Prakash Thebey. Water Resources: Yadav 882

NEPAL

883

Prasas Pant. Local Supply: Parshu Narayan Chaudhury. Public Health: Gunjeswori Prasad Singh. There were also 4 Ministers of State. National flag: Two triangular parts of red, with a blue border all round, bearing symbols of the moon and the sun in white. National anthem: 'May glory crown our illustrious sovereign' (1952). Local Government: The country is administratively divided into 14 zones (Bagmati, Bheri, Dhaulagiri, Gandaki, Janakpur, Karnali, Kosi, Lumbini, Mahakali, Mechi, Narayani, Rapti, Sagarmatha and Seti) and thence into 75 districts and over 3,500 villages. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 6 infantry brigades, and single artillery, engineer, signals, parachute and transport battalions, and 1 air squadron. Equipment includes AMX-13 light tanks. Strength of all services (1988) about 30,000, and there is also a 25,000-strong paramilitary police force. Air Force. Independent of the army since 1979, the Air Force has 3 Skyvan transport aircraft, 1 Puma helicopter and 3 Chetak helicopters. An H.S. 748 turboprop transport and 1 Super Puma and 1 Puma helicopter are operated by the Royal Flight. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nepal i s a m e m b e r o f U N and theColomboPlan. ECONOMY Planning. The seventh (1985-90) plan envisages expenditure of NRs 50,500m. Priority will be given to education, transport, communications, power, agriculture and irrigation. Budget. The general budget for the fiscal year 1987-88 envisaged current expenditure of NRs 4,307m. Domestic revenue were estimated at NRs 5,875m. Currency. The Nepalese rupee is 171 grains in weight, as compared with the Indian rupee, which weighs 180 grains. The rate of exchange is 135 Nepalese rupees for 100 Indian rupees. 100 Nepalese pice = 1 Nepalese rupee. Coins of all denominations are minted. The Rastra Bank also issues notes of 1, 5, 10, 100 and 1,000 rupees. In March 1988, US$1 =21 00 rupees; £1 = 37 -24 rupees. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 395m. kwh. A hydro-electric power scheme on the Karnali river costing US$4,500m. was being planned in 1986. Agriculture. Nepal has valuable forests in the southern part of the country. In the northern part, on the slopes of the Himalayas, there grow large quantities of medicinal herbs which find a world-wide market. Of the total area, nearly onethird (11-2m. acres) is under forest; 5-4m. acres is covered by perpetual snow; 9-6m. acres is under paddy, 2-9m. maize and millet, 800,000 wheat. Production (1986 in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 2,350; maize, 880; wheat, 598; sugar-cane, 558; potatoes, 357; millet, 138. Livestock (1985); Cattle, 7 05m., including about 438,000 cows; 4-5m. buffaloes; sheep, 2-55m.; goats, 2-65m.; pigs, 400,000; poultry, 25m. Fisheries. Catch (1983)2,100 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries, such as jute- and sugar-mills, match, leather, cigarette, and shoe factories, and chemical works have been established, including two industrial estates at Patan and Balaju. Production (1982 in 1,000 tonnes): Jute goods, 15-7; sugar, 2 1 1 ; cement, 30; iron goods, 7 -4.

884

NEPAL

Commerce. The principal articles of export are food grains, jute, timber, oilseeds, ghee (clarified butter), potatoes, medicinal herbs, hides and skins, cattle. The chief imports are textiles, cigarettes, salt, petrol and kerosene, sugar, machinery, medicines, boots and shoes, paper, cement, iron and steel, tea. Imports and exports in NRs 1,000: Imports Exports

1982 4,930,200 1,491,400

1983 6,172,500 1,132,000

¡984 6,514,300 1,703,900

1985 7,742,000 2,741,000

Total trade between Nepal and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m ] m J m J m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

6,115 5,011

5,564 6,453

9,347 7,835

5,966 4,672

8,331 8,707

Tourism. There were 223,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. With the co-operation of India and the USA 900 miles of motorable roads are being constructed, including the East-West Highway through southern Nepal. A road from the Tibetan border to Kathmandu was recently completed with Chinese aid. There are about 1,300 miles motorable roads. A ropeway for the carriage of goods covers the 14 miles from Dhursing above Bhimphedi into the Kathmandu valley. A road connects Kathmandu with Birgung. Railways. Railways (762 mm gauge) connect Jayanagar on the North Eastern Indian Railway with Janakpur and thence with Bizalpura (54 km). Aviation. The Royal Nepal Airline Corporation has linked Kathmandu, the capital, with 11 districts of Nepal; and in 1984,30 airfields were in regular use. The airline carried 424,000 passengers and 2,900 tonnes of freight in 1983-84. The Royal Nepalese Airline Corporation has services between Kathmandu and Calcutta, Patna, New Delhi, Bangkok, Rangoon and Dacca, employing Boeing 727 jet aircraft. Post and Broadcasting. Kathmandu is connected by telephone with Birganj and Raxaul (North Eastern Indian Railway) on the southern frontier with Bihar; and with the eastern part of the Terai foothills; an extension to the western districts is being completed. Number of telephones (1978) 9,425, of which 5,431 were in Kathmandu. Under an agreement with India and the USA, a network of 91 wireless stations exists in Nepal, with further stations in Calcutta and New Delhi. Radio Nepal at Kathmandu broadcasts in Nepali and English. In 1983 there were 300,000 radio receivers and in 1985 the first television station opened. Newspapers. In 1983 there were 7 daily newspapers with a circulation of 75,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court Act, established a uniform judicial system, culminating in a supreme court of a Chief Justice and no more than 6 judges. Special courts to deal with minor offences may be established at the discretion of the Government. Religion. Hinduism is the religion of 90% of the people. Buddhists comprise 5% and Moslems 3%. Christian missions are permitted, but conversion is forbidden. Education. In 1984 there were 1,748,000 primary school pupils, 454,000 secondary school pupils and the Tribhuvan University (founded 1960). In 1981,23% of the population were literate. Health. There were about 420 doctors and 2,586 hospital beds in 1979. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Nepal in Great Britain (12a Kensington Palace Gdns., London, W8 4QU) Ambassador: Ishwari Raj Pandey, GCVO (accredited 4 Aug. 1983).

NEPÄL

Of Great Britain in Nepal (Läinchäur, Käthmändu) Ambassador: R. E. Burges Watson, CMG. Of Nepal in the USA (2131 Leroy PL, NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of the USA in Nepal (Pani Pokhari, Käthmändu) Ambassador: Leon J. Weil. Of Nepäl to the United Nations Ambassador: Jai Pratap Rana. Books of Reference Statistical Information: A Department of Statistics was set up in Käthmändu in 1950. Barai, L. S., Political Development in Nepal. London,1980 Bezruchka, S., A Guide to Trekking in Nepal. Leicester, 1981 Turner, R. L., Nepali Dictionary. 1980. Wadhwa, D. N., Nepal. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986

Capital: Amsterdam Seat of Government: The Hague Population: 14-62m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$8,500 (1984)

THE NETHERLANDS Koninkrijk der Nederlanden

H I S T O R Y . William of Orange (1533-84), as the German count of Nassau, inherited vast possessions in the Netherlands and the Princedom of Orange in France. He was the initiator of the struggle for independence from Spain (1568-1648); in the Republic of the United Netherlands he and his successors became the 'first servants of the Republic' with the title of'Stadhouder' (governor). In 1689 William III acceded to the throne of England, becoming joint sovereign with Mary II, his wife. William III died in 1702 without issue, and after a stadhouderless period a member of the Frisian branch of Orange-Nassau was nominated hereditary stadhouder in 1747; but his successor, Willem V, had to take refuge in England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French Army. In Nov. 1813 the United Provinces were freed from French domination. The Congress of Vienna joined the Belgian provinces, the 'Austrian Netherlands' before the French Revolution, to the Northern Netherlands. The son of the former stadhouder Willem V was proclaimed King of the Netherlands at The Hague on 16 March 1815 as Willem I. The union was dissolved by the Belgian revolution of 1830, and the treaty of London, 19 April 1839, constituted Belgium an independent kingdom. Netherlands 1815-1840 (died 1843) 1840-1849 1849-1890

Willem I Willem II Willem III

Sovereigns Wilhelmina Juliana Beatrix

1890-1948 (died 1962) 1948-1980 1980-

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Netherlands is bounded north and west by the North Sea, south by Belgium and east by the Federal Republic of Germany. Growth of census population: 1829 1849 1869 1889

2,613,298 3,056,879 3,579,529 4,511,415

1909 1920 1930 1947

5,858,175 6,865,314 7,935,565 9,625,499

1960 1971

11,461,964 13,060,115

Area, density and estimated population on 1 Jan. 1977 and 1987: Province Groningen Friesland Drenthe Overijssel Flevoland 1 Gelderland Utrecht Noord-Holland Zuid-Holland Zeeland Noord-Brabant Limburg

Land area (insq. km) 1987 2,345-52 3,353 06 2,653-91 3,339-20 1,442-01 5,011-35 1,331-43 2,665-03 2,907-99 1,791-97 4,946-01 2,169-87

Population ¡977 1987 544,264 558,378 566,042 599,061 409,874 434,038 948,009 1,003,915 85,619 185,365 1,653,516 1,771,972 873,753 953,957 2,299,410 2,334,209 3,049,570 3,186,249 335,624 335,434 1,991,176 2,139,626 1,055,619 1,091,553

Density per sq. km 1987 238 179 164 301 131 354 716 876 1,096 198 433 503

' T h e new province Flevoland, former Ijsselmeerpolders, established on 1 Jan. 1906. The Noordoostpolder (drained in 1942) and the Zuidelijke Ijsselmeerpolders (drained in 1957) are parts of the former Zuiderzee, now called Ijsselmeer.

886

THE

Province Central Population Register ' Total

NETHERLANDS

Land area (insq. km) 1987 33,937-33

887

Population 1977 1987 2,019 1,368 13,814,495

14,615,125

Density per sq. km 1987 — 431

2

The Central Population Register includes persons who are residents of the Netherlands but who have no fixed residence in any particular municipality (living in caravans and houseboats, population on inland vessels, etc.). Of the total population on 1 Jan. 1987, 7 , 2 2 4 , 3 2 3 were males, 7 , 3 9 0 , 8 0 2 females. The total area o f the Netherlands is 4 1 , 8 6 3 sq. k m (16,163 sq. miles), o f which 3 3 , 9 3 7 sq. k m ( 1 3 , 1 0 3 sq. miles)is land area. O n 14 June 1 9 1 8 a law was passed concerning the reclamation o f the Zuiderzee. The work was begun in 1920; the following sections have been completed: 1. The Noordholland-Wieringen Barrage (2-5 km), 1924; 2. T h e Wieringermeer Polder (210 sq. km), 1930 (inundated by the Germans in 1945, but drained again in the same year); 3. T h e Wieringen-Friesland Barrage (30 km), 1932; 4. The Noordoost Polder (501 sq. km), 1942; 5. Oost Flevoland (604 sq. km), 1957; 6. Zuidelijk Flevoland (499 sq. km), 1967. The reclamation of the Markerwaard is still a subject of political discussion. A portion of what used to be the Zuiderzee behind the barrage will remain a freshwater lake: Ijsselmeer ( 1 , 4 0 0 sq. km). The 'Delta-project', completed in 1 9 8 6 , comprises (semi) enclosure dams in the estuaries between the islands in the southwestern part of the country, excluding the sea-entrances to the ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp. See m a p in T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 9 . Vital statistics for calendar years: Live births Net Total Illegitimate Still births Marriages Divorces Deaths migration 1983 170,246 11,857 1,002 78,451 32,589 117,761 +5,978 1984 174,436 13,445 1,036 81,655 34,068 119,812 +8,053 1985 178,136 14,766 1,054 82,747 34,044 122,704 +24,147 P o p u l a t i o n of p r i n c i p a l m u n i c i p a l i t i e s o n 1 J a n . 1987: Aalsmeer 21,456 Achtkarspelen 27,216 Alkmaar 87,034 Almelo 62,222 Almere 50,881 Alphen a/d Rijn 57,184 Amersfoort 91,587 Amstelveen 68,581 682,702 Amsterdam Apeldoorn 145,696 Amhem 127,671 Assen 48,131 Baarn 24,764 Barneveld 40,283 Bergen op Zoom 46,353 Best 20,601 Beuningen 20,263 Beverwijk 34,809 De Bilt 31,688 Borne 20,444 Boxtel 24,667 Breda 119,427 Brummen 20,540 Brunssum 29,804 Bussum 32,540 Capelle a/dljssel 55,919 Castricum 22,658 Culemborg 20,607 Delft 87,736 Delfzijl 24,042

Deurne Deventer Doetinchem Dongen Dongeradeel Dordrecht Dronten Edam-Volendam Ede Eindhoven Elburg Emmen Enschede Epe Ermelo Etten-Leur Franekeradeel Geldermalsen Geldrop Geleen Gendringen Gilze en Rijen Goes Gorinchem Gouda 's-Gravenhage Groningen Haaksbergen Haarlem Haarlemmermeer

29,054 65,423 40,682 20,816 24,726 106,987 22,617 24,251 90,186 190,962 20,266 91,968 144,227 33,845 25,165 31,906 21,074 21,541 25,837 34,078 20,052 21,817 31,497 28,016 61,458 445,127 168,019 22,407 149,099 89,447

Hardenberg Harderwijk Heemskerk Heemstede Heerenveen Heerhugowaard Heerlen Heiloo Den Helder Hellendoom Hellevoetsluis Heimond Hengelo (O.) 's-Hertogenbosch Hilversum Hoogeveen HoogezandSappemeer Hoorn Houten Huizen Kampen Katwijk Kerkrade Krimpen a/d Ijssel Landgraaf Leeuwarden Leiden Leiderdorp Leidschendam

31,923 33,866 32,494 26,380 37,528 35,264 93,888 20,622 62,943 33,967 31,974 63,909 76,714 89,732 85,449 45,282 34,745 53,788 20,104 40,285 32,527 39,034 52,827 27,809 40,049 85,191 106,808 21,340 31,762

888 Lelystad Leusden Lisse Loon op Zand Losser Maarssen Maassluis Maastricht Meerssen Meppel Middelburg Naaldwijk Nieuwegein Nijkerk Nijmegen Noordoostpolder Noordwijk Nuenen c.a. Nunspeet Oldebroek Oldenzaal Oosterhout Ooststellingwerf Opsterland Oss Papendrecht Purmerend Putten Raalte Renkum Rheden

THE 58,663 26,587 20,449 20,640 22,408 35,671 32,890 115,272 20,283 23,106 39,044 26,933 56,719 24,984 146,639 37,820 24,776 20,619 23,766 20,751 29,188 47,401 24,895 26,410 50,636 26,589 52,257 20,469 26,251 33,911 46,762

NETHERLANDS

Ridderkerk 46,247 Rijssen 23,370 Rijswijk 48,551 Roermond 38,291 Roosendaal en Nispen 57,930 Rosmalen 25,636 Rotterdam 572,642 Rucphen 20,622 Schiedam 69,349 Schijndel 21,023 Sittard 44,251 Skarsterlân 23,182 22,734 Slied recht Smallingerland 50,757 Sneek 29,578 Soest 40,931 62,394 Spijkenisse Stadskanaal 33,506 Steenwijk 20,861 Stein 26,445 35,411 Terneuzen Tiel 30,568 Tietjerksteradeel 29,975 Tilburg 153,625 Uden 34,434 Uithoorn 21,372 Utrecht 229,326 Valkenswaard 29,396 Veendam 28,359

Veenendaal Veghel Veldhoven Velsen Venlo Venray Vlaardingen Vlissingen Voorburg Voorschoten Voorst Vught Waalwijk Waddinxveen Wageningen Wassenaar Weert Weststellingwerf Wierden Wijchen Winschoten Winterswijk Woerden Zaanstad Zeist Zevenaar Zoetermeer Zutphen Zwijndrecht Zwolle

45,501 25,492 37,149 56,802 63,598 33,964 75,430 44,863 41,196 22,161 23,598 23,477 28,557 23,865 32,418 26,188 39,793 24,533 21,940 31,855 20,030 27,937 27,226 128,388 59,873 26,329 85,349 31,127 40,772 89,348

Urban agglomerations as at 1 Jan. 1987: Rotterdam, 1,030,696; Amsterdam, 1,015,916; The Hague, 678,173; Utrecht, 516,064; Eindhoven, 378,247; Arnhem, 295,380; Heerlen-Kerkrade, 266,642; Enschede-Hengelo, 248,832; Nijmegen, 239,535; Tilburg, 224,050; Haarlem, 214,418; Groningen, 206,910; DordrechtZwijndrecht, 201,121; 's-Hertogenbosch, 190,842; Leiden, 181,095; GeleenSittard, 177,432; Maastricht, 159,632; Breda, 155,033; Zaanstad, 140,538; Velsen-Beverwijk, 124,105; Hilversum, 102,775. C L I M A T E . A cool temperate maritime climate, marked by mild winters and cool summers, but with occasional continental influences. Coastal temperatures vary from 37°F (3°C) in winter to 6 P F (16°C) in summer, but inland the winters are slightly colder and the summers slightly warmer. Rainfall is least in the months Feb. to May, but inland there is a well-defined summer maximum in July and Aug. The Hague. Jan. 37°F (2 7°C), July 61°F (16-3°C). Annual rainfall 32-8" (820 mm). Amsterdam. Jan. 36°F(2-3°C), July 62°F(16-5°C). Annual rainfall 34" (850 mm). Rotterdam. Jan. 36-5°F (2-6°C), July 62°F (16-6°C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). R E I G N I N G Q U E E N . Beatrix Wilhelmina Armgard, born 31 Jan. 1938 daughter of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard; married to Claus von Amsberg on 10 March 1966; succeeded to the crown on 1 May 1980, on the abdication of her mother. Offspring: Prince Willem-Alexander, born 27 April 1967; Prince Johan Friso, born 25 Sept. 1968; Prince Constantijn, born 11 Oct. 1969. Mother of the Queen: Queen Juliana Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina, born 30 April 1909, daughter of Queen Wilhelmina (born 31 Aug. 1880, died 28 Nov. 1962) and Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (born 19 April 1876, died 3 July 1934); married to Prince Bernhard Leopold Frederick Everhard Julius Coert Karel Godfried Pieter of Lippe-Biesterfeld (born 29 June 1911) on 7 Jan. 1937. Abdicated in favour of her daughter, the Reigning Queen, on 30 April 1980. Sisters of the Queen: Princess Irene Emma Elisabeth, born 5 Aug. 1939, married to Prince Charles Hugues de Bourbon-Parma on 29 April 1964, divorced 1981 (sons:

THE N E T H E R L A N D S

889

Prince Carlos Javier Bernardo, born 27 Jan. 1970; Prince Jaime Bernardo, born 13 Oct. 1972; daughters: Princess Margarita Maria Beatriz, born 13 Oct. 1972; Princess Maria Carolina Christina, born 23 June 1974); Princess Margriet Francisca, born in Ottawa, 19 Jan. 1943, married to Pieter van Vollenhoven on 10 Jan. 1967 (sons: Prince Maurits, born 17 April 1968; Prince Bernhard, bom 25 Dec. 1969; Prince Pieter-Christiaan, born 22 March 1972; Prince Floris, born 10 April 1975); Princess Maria Christina, born 18 Feb. 1947, married to Jorge Guillermo on 28 June 1975 (sons: Bernardo, born 17 June 1977; Nicolas Daniel Mauricio, born 6 July 1979; daughter: Juliana, born 8 Oct. 1981). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. According to the Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Kingdom consists of the Netherlands, Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles. Their relations are regulated by the 'Statute' for the Kingdom, which came into force on 29 Dec. 1954. Each part enjoys full autonomy; they are united, on a footing of equality, for mutual assistance and the protection of their common interests. The first Constitution of the Netherlands after its restoration as a Sovereign State was promulgated in 1814. It was revised in 1815 (after the addition of the Belgian provinces, and the assumption by the Sovereign of the title of King), 1840 (after the secession of the Belgian provinces), 1848, 1884, 1887, 1917, 1922, 1938, 1946, 1948,1953,1956,1963,1972 and 1983. The Netherlands is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is in the direct male or female line in the order of primogeniture. The Sovereign comes of age on reaching his/her 18th year. During his/her minority the royal power is vested in a Regent—designated by law—and in some cases in the Council of State. The central executive power of the State rests with the Crown, while the central legislative power is vested in the Crown and Parliament (the Staten-Generaal), consisting of 2 Chambers. After the 1956 revision of the Constitution the Upper or First Chamber is composed of 75 members, elected by the members of the Provincial States, and the Second Chamber consists of 150 deputies, who are elected directly from all Netherlands nationals who are aged 18 or over on polling day. Members of the States-General must be Netherlanders or recognized as Netherlands subjects and 21 years of age or over; they may be men or women. They receive an allowance. First Chamber (as constituted in 1987): Labour Party, 26; Christian Democratic Appeal, 26; People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, 12; Democrats '66, 5; Party of Political Radicals, 1; Communist Party, 1; Pacifist Socialist Party, 1; Calvinist Party, 1; Reformed Political Federation, 1; Calvinist Political Union, 1. Second Chamber (elected on 21 May 1986): Christian Democratic Appeal, 54; Labour Party, 52; People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, 27; Democrats '66, 9; Party of Political Radicals, 2; Pacifist Socialist Party, 1; Calvinist Party, 3; Reformed Political Federation, 1; Calvinist Political Union, 1. The revised Constitution of 1917 has introduced an electoral system based on universal suffrage and proportional representation. Under its provisions, members of the Second Chamber are directly elected by citizens of both sexes who are Netherlands subjects not under 18 years (since 1972). The members of the First Chamber and of the Second Chamber are elected for 4 years, and retire in a body. The Sovereign has the power to dissolve both Chambers of Parliament, or one of them, subject to the condition that new elections take place within 40 days, and the new House or Houses be convoked within 3 months. Both the Government and the Second Chamber may propose Bills; the First Chamber can only approve or reject them without inserting amendments. The meetings of both Chambers are public, though each of them may by a majority vote decide on a secret session. It is a fixed custom, that Ministers and Secretaries of State, on their own initiative or upon invitation of the Parliament, attend the sessions to defend their policy, their budget, their proposals of Bills, etc., when these are in discussion. A Minister or Secretary of State, however, cannot be a member of Parliament at the same time. The Constitution can be revised only by a Bill declaring that there is reason for

890

THE NETHERLANDS

introducing such revision and containing the proposed alterations. The passing of this Bill is followed by a dissolution of both Chambers and a second confirmation by the new States-General by two-thirds of the votes. Unless it is expressly stated, all laws concern only the realm in Europe, and not the oversea part of the kingdom, the Netherlands Antilles. Every act of the Sovereign has to be covered by a responsible Minister. The Ministry, a coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals, was composed as follows in July 1986: Prime Minister: Ruud Lubbers (CDA). Deputy Prime Minister and Economic Affairs: Rudolf de Korte ( W D ) . Foreign Affairs: Hans van den Broek (CDA). Finance: Onno Ruding (CDA). Defence: Willem van Eekelen (WD). Development Aid Co-operation: Piet Bukman (CDA). Social Affairs and Employment: Jan de Koning (CDA). Home Affairs: Kees van Dijk (CDA). Justice: Frits Korthals Altes (WD). Agriculture and Fisheries: Gerrit Braks (CDA). Welfare, Public Health and Culture: Eelco Brinkman (CDA). Education and Science: Wim Deetman (CDA). Transport and Public Works: Neelie Smit-Kroes (WD). Housing, Physical Planning and Environment: Ed Nijpels (WD). There are also 11 state secretaries. The Council of State (Raad van State), appointed by the Crown, is composed of a vice-president and not more than 28 members. The Queen is president, but the day-to-day running of the council is in the hands of the vice-president. The Council can be consulted on all legislative matters. Decisions of the Crown in administrative disputes are prepared by a special section of the Council. The Hague is the seat of the Court, Government and Parliament; Amsterdam is the capital. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, blue. National anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassoue (words by Philip Marnix van St Aldegonde, c. 1570). Local Government. The kingdom is divided in 12 provinces and 714 municipalities. Each province has its own representative body, the Provincial States. The members must be 21 years of age or over; they are elected for 4 years, directly from the Netherlands inhabitants of the province who are 18 years of age or over. The electoral register is the same as for the Second Chamber. The members retire in a body and are subject to re-election. The number of members varies according to the population of the province, from 83 for Zuid-Holland to 39 for Flevoland (a new province in the Zuiderzee area). The Provincial States are entitled to issue ordinances concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes pursuant to legal provisions. The provincial budgets and the provincial ordinances and resolutions relating to provincial property, loans, taxes, etc., must be approved by the Crown. The members of the Provincial States elect the First Chamber of the StatesGeneral. They meet twice a year, as a rule in public. A permanent commission composed of 6 of their members, called the 'Deputy States', is charged with the executive power and, if required, with the enforcement of the law in the province. Deputy as well as Provincial States are presided over by a Commissioner of the Queen, appointed by the Crown, who in the former assembly has a deciding vote, but attends the latter in only a deliberative capacity. He is the chief magistrate in the province. The Commissioner and the members of the Deputy States receive an allowance. Each municipality forms a Corporation with its own interests and rights, subject to the general law, and is governed by a Municipal Council, directly elected from the Netherlands inhabitants, and, under certain circumstances, non-Netherlands inhabitants of the municipality who are 18 years of age or over, for 4 years. All Netherlands inhabitants and non-Netherlands inhabitants who meet certain requirements aged 21 or over are eligible, the number of members varying from 7 to 45, according to the population. The Municipal Council has the right to issue bye-laws concerning the communal welfare. The Council may levy taxes pursuant to legal provisions; these ordinances must be approved by the Crown. All bye-laws

THE N E T H E R L A N D S

891

may be vetoed by the Crown. The Municipal Budget and resolutions to alienate municipal property require the approbation of the Deputy States of the province. The Council meets in public as often as may be necessary, and is presided over by a Burgomaster, appointed by the Crown. The day-to-day administration is carried out by the Burgomaster and 2-7 Aldermen (wethouders), elected by and from the Council; this body is also charged with the enforcement of the law. The Burgomaster may suspend the execution of a resolution of the council for 30 days, but is bound to notify the Deputy States of the province. In maintaining public order, the Burgomaster acts as the chief of police. The Burgomaster and Aldermen receive allowances. DEFENCE. The Netherlands are bordered on the south by Belgium, on the east by the Federal Republic of Germany. On both sides the country is quite level and has no natural defences, except the barriers of some large rivers, running east to west and south to north. The country has an excellent roadnet and a vast railway system, enabling rapid movement. The western part of the country is densely populated. Army. Service is partly voluntary and partly compulsory; the voluntary enlistments are of small proportion to the compulsory. The total peacetime strength amounts to 68,000, including Military Police. The number of regulars is 25,000. The Army also employs 13,000 civilians. The legal period of active service for national servicemen is 22-24 months; the actual service period is 16 months for reserve-officers and n.c.o.s and 14 months for other ranks. The balance is spent as 'short leave'. After their period of actual service or short leave, conscript personnel are granted long leave. However, they will be liable to being called up for refresher training or in case of mobilization until they have reached the age of 35 (n.c.o.s 40, reserve officers 45). The 1 st Netherlands Army Corps is assigned to NATO. It consists of 10 brigades and Corps troops. The active part of the Corps comprises 2 armoured brigades and 4 armoured infantry brigades, grouped in two divisions and 40% of the Corps troops. Part of this force is stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany. The peacetime strength of the active brigades is 80% of the war-authorized strength. The mobilizable part of the Corps comprises 1 armoured brigade, 2 armoured infantry brigades, 1 infantry brigade and the remaining Corps troops. The mechanized brigades comprise tank battalions (Leopard I improved and Leopard 2), armoured infantry battalions (YP-408 and YPR-765), medium artillery battalions (155 mm self-propelled), armoured engineer units and armoured anti armour units. The Corps troops comprise headquarters units, combat-support units, including Engineer and Corps artillery (203 mm, 155 mm and Lance) and service-support units. Helicopter squadrons are also available. The National Territorial Command forces consist of territorial brigades, security forces, some logistical units and staffs. The major part of these units is mobilizable. Some units in the Netherlands are earmarked for assignment to the United Nations as peace-keeping forces. The army is responsible for the training of these units. In time of war, the civil defence operations will be closely co-ordinated with the local civilian authorities. Navy. The Royal Netherlands Navy has its main base in the Netherlands at Den Helder and minor bases at Flushing and Curaçao (Netherlands Antilles). The Ministry of Defence is located in The Hague. The fleet comprises 6 diesel-electric patrol submarines, 18 frigates, 2 large (fast) combat support ships (aircraft carrying capacity 5 helicopters), 1 mine countermeasures support ship (ex-ocean minesweeper), 15 coastal minehunters, 11 coastal minesweepers, 2 diving vessels, 1 torpedo tender, 3 minelayer survey ships, 11 minor landing craft, 3 training ships, 12 tugs and 30 small auxiliary ships. Four diesel-electric patrol submarines, 4 frigates, 2 coastal minehunters and 9 minor landing craft are under construction. The future construction programme includes 2 more diesel-electric patrol submarines. In 1988 personnel totalled 16,880 officers and other ranks, including 1,700 in

892

THE

NETHERLANDS

the Naval Air Service, 560 female, and 2,800 in the Royal Netherlands Marine Corps. The naval air service maintains 13 Orion P3C, 16 Westland Lynx SH14B/C embarked and 5 Lynx UH 14A for SAR, utility and transport. Air Force. The Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) was established 1 July 1913. Its strength (1987) was 18,300 personnel and it has a first-line combat force of 9 squadrons of aircraft and 3 groups of surface-to-air missiles in the Federal Republic of Germany. All squadrons are operated by Tactical Air Command. Aircraft operated are F-16A/B (5 squadrons for air defence and ground attack, 1 for tactical reconnaissance), and NF-5A/B fighter-bombers (3 squadrons, to be reequipped with F-16s in 1988 through 1994). Also under control of Tactical Air Command is 1 squadron of the USAF, flying F-15C/D Eagles in the air defence role. 3 squadrons of Alouette III and Bôlkow Bo 105C helicopters are under control of the Royal Netherlands Army, but flown and maintained by the RNLAF for use in the communications and observation roles. Also operated is 1 squadron of F.27 Friendship/Troopship transport aircraft, and another (based in Curaçao) with F.27 maritime patrol aircraft. Training of RNLAF pilots is undertaken in the USA, Belgium and the Netherlands. The surface-to-air missile force consists of 1 group of Nike Hercules (to be disbanded in 1988), 1 group of Hawk and Patriot missile systems and 1 group of Hawk (to be partly re-equipped with Patriot as of 1989). Hawk missiles are also used for air defence in the Netherlands. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. The Netherlands is a member of UN, the European Communities, OECD, the Council of Europe and NATO. ECONOMY Budget. The revenue and expenditure of the central government (ordinary and extraordinary) were, in 1 m. guilders, for calendar years: 19802 Revenue' 107,162 5 Expenditure 121,090 1 4

19822 113,967 142,586

198n 110,913 130,589

Without the revenue of loans. Revised budget figures.

2 5

19832 115,002 146,622

1984' 127,918 157,709

Accounts. Without redemption of loans.

J 6

19854 138,605 162,085

1986« 159,633 167,366

Preliminary accounts. Budget figures.

The revenue and expenditure of the Agriculture Equalization Fund, the Fund for Central Government roads, the Property Acquisition Fund and of the Investment Account Fund (established in 1978) have been incorporated in the general budget.

The national debt, in 1 m. guilders, was on 31 Dec.: Internal funded debt „ floating „ Total

1982 122,777 21,878

1 983 153,262 21,535

1 984 183,312 19,806

1 985 208,484 19,799

1 986 219,466 19,969

144,655

174,797

203,118

228,283

239,435

Currency. The monetary unit is the gulden (guilder, florin) of 100 cents. In March 1988 the rate of exchange was US$ 1 = 1 -89 guilders; £1=3-36 guilders. Legal tender are bank-notes, silver 10-guilder pieces, nickel 2Vi- and 1-guilder pieces, 25-cent, 10-cent pieces and bronze 5-cent pieces. Banking. The Netherlands Bank, founded as a private institution, was nationalized on 1 Aug. 1948, the shareholders receiving, for a share of 1,000 guilders, a security of2,000 guilders on the 2lh% National Debt. Since 1863 the bank has the sole right of issuing bank-notes. The capital amounts to 75m. guilders. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was adopted in the Netherlands in 1820.

THE NETHERLANDS

893

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total production of electrical energy (in lm. kwh.) amounted in 1938 to 3,688; 1958, 13,854; 1970, 40,859; 1980, 64,806; 1984, 62,778; 1985, 62,936; 1986,67,148. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Gas. Production of manufactured gas (milliard k joule): 1978, 181,033; 1979, 233,553; 1980, 210,011; 1981, 197,586; 1982, 244,438; 1983, 258,515; 1984, 267,643. Production of natural gas in 1950, 8m. cu. metres; 1955,139; 1960,384; 1970, 31,688; 1980, 91,153; 1981, 84,617; 1982, 72,035; 1983, 76,536; 1984, 77,251 ; 1985,80,721 ; 1986,74,037. Minerals. On 1 Jan. 1975 all coalmines were closed. The production of crude petroleum (in 1,000 tonnes) amounted in 1943 (first year) to 0-2; 1953,820; 1970,1,919; 1978,1,402; 1979,1,316; 1980,1,280; 1981, 1,348; 1982,1,637; 1983,2,589; 1984,3,102; 1985,3,729. There are saltmines at Hengelo and Delfzijl; production (in 1,000 tonnes), 1950, 412-6; 1960, 1,096; 1970, 2,871; 1978, 2,939; 1979, 3,951; 1980, 3,464; 1981, 3,578; 1982,3,191; 1983,3,124; 1984,3,674; 1985,4,154; 1986,3,763. Agriculture. The net area of all holdings was divided as follows (in hectares): Field crops Grass Market gardening Land for flower bulbs Flower cultivation Nurseries Fallow land Total

1982 726,591 1,178,098 69,906 14,189 5,472 6,386 4,577

1983 728,663 1,181,297 66,828 14,165 5,615 6,431 5,713

1984 738,808 1,178,534 68,110 14,558 5,824 6,498 3,763

1985 749,722 1,164,290 72,288 15,055 5,965 6,738 4,965

1986 763,075 1,141,978 72,352 15,564 6,216 7,037 6,367

2,005,219

2,008,712

2,016,095

2,019,023

2,012,589

The net areas under special crops were as follows (in hectares): Products Autumn wheat Spring wheat Rye Autumn barley Spring barley Oats Peas 1

1985 1986 Products 1985 121,385 110,636 Colza 10,120 6,734 Flax 5,677 4,368 4,571 4,140 Agricultural seeds 15,959 1 108,745 6,765 9,198 Potatoes, edible 32,072 60,241 32,786 Potatoes, industrial 2 11,278 6,475 Sugar-beet 130,507 19,879 22,411 Fodder-beet 2,242 2 Including early and seed pototoes. Including seed potatoes.

1986 5,849 3,136 19,559 107,075 59,961 137,691 1,986

The yield of the more important products, in tonnes, was as follows: Crop Wheat Rye Barley Oats Field beans Peas Colza Flax, unrippled Potatoes, edible 2 Potatoes, industrial Sugar-beet Fodder-beet

Average 1940-49 322,003 439,055 145,892 315,642 15,799 65,460 24,763 82,906 2,861,793 1,242,326 1,667,711 1

Average 1950-58 348,464 454,992 258,049 464,041 5,693 93,664 18,358 138,165 2,745,505 1,003,994 2,935,881

1986 figures provisional.

1984 1,131,329 24,650 191,747 57,906 9,377 56,406 37,771 32,260 4,344,458 2,328,579 6,955,462 170,804 2

1985 851,034 19,265 197,387 58,133 10,448 71,290 30,580 35,714 4,688,386 2,461,220 6,334,835 189,113

1986 < 872,832 19,442 256,390 36,561 114,521 19,880 25,633 4,561,099

Including early potatoes.

Livestock, May 1986: 5,122,950 cattle, 13,481,358 pigs; 63,060 horses and ponies; 868,112 sheep, 92-3m. poultry. In 1985 the production of butter, under state control, declined to 230,169 tonnes; that of cheese, under state control, increased to 541,407 tonnes. Export value (processed and unprocessed) of arable crops amounted to 18,883m. guilders; animal produce, 19,834m. guilders and horticultural produce, 10,769m. guilders.

894

THE

NETHERLANDS

Fisheries. The total produce of fish landed from the sea and inshore fisheries in 1981 was valued at 5 9 5 m . guilders; the total weight amounted to 3 9 9 , 4 3 8 tonnes. In 1981 the herring fishery had a value o f 2 6 m . guilders and a weight o f 16,710 tonnes. The quantity of oysters produced in 1981 amounted to 5 7 3 tonnes (10m. guilders). INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. N u m b e r s e m p l o y e d (in 1,000) and turnover (in 1 m. guilders) in manufacturing enterprises with 10 employees and more, excluding building: Numbers employed Turnover 1984 1984 Class in industry 1985 1985 83 80 38-8 34-9 Mining and quarrying 788-4 264-2 Manufacturing industry 798-3 256-8 75-2 74-1 Foodstuffs and tobacco products 133-9 132-8 Textile industry 23-3 23-5 4-7 5-0 Clothing 10-5 10-4 1-3 1-4 Leather and footwear 6-0 6-0 0-9 1-0 Wood and furniture industry 23-8 23-9 3-8 3-9 23-4 Paper industry 22-8 6-5 6-9 Graphic industry, publishers 60-7 61-6 10 6 11-4 Petroleum industry 9-7 9-7 30-2 29-6 84-4 416 Chemical industry, artificial yarns and fibre industry 83-6 43-6 Rubber and synthetic materials processing industry 25-2 25-9 5-6 6-0 Building industry, earthenware and glass 28-7 29-2 5-8 60 Basic metal industry 30-0 30-3 9-8 10 3 Metal products (excl. machinery and means of transport) 68-9 69-7 11-5 12-7 75-8 79-1 14-6 14-5 Machinery Electrical industry 112-7 116-8 215 23-7 Means oftransport 61-3 60-0 11-9 12-6 7-0 7-3 0-9 0-9 Instrument making and optical industry 4-4 4-2 0-6 0-7 Other industries Public utilities 25-6 22-9 25-9 Commerce. O n 5 Sept. 1944 and 14 March 1947 the Netherlands signed agreements with Belgium and Luxembourg for the establishment of a customs union. O n 1 Jan. 1948 this union c a m e into force and the existing customs tariffs o f the Belg i u m - L u x e m b o u r g E c o n o m i c U n i o n and of the Netherlands were superseded by the joint Benelux Customs U n i o n Tariff. It applies to imports into the 3 countries from outside sources, and exempts from customs duties all imports into each o f the 3 countries from the other two. The Benelux tariff has 991 items and 2 , 4 0 0 separate specifications. Returns of special imports and special exports for calendar years (in 1,000 guilders): Imports Exports Imports Exports 1949 5,331,569 3,851,126 1983 173,544,395 184,352,354 1959 14,968,454 13,702,927 1984 198,813,498 210,663,054 1969 39,955,406 36,205,110 1985 216,031,008 226,017,400 1979 134,885,386 127,689,416 1986 184,791,270 196,976,543 Value of the trade with leading countries (in 1,000 Imports 1984 Country 1985 1986 Belgium-Luxembourg 22,359,926 26,640,785 26,254,666 France 12,957,439 14,459,136 13,295,354 Germany (Fed. Rep.) 43,708,174 48,326,397 48,831,569 Indonesia 782,072 792,064 636,218 Italy 5,791,941 6,531,097 7,032,609 2,794,530 3,124,506 1,533,321 Kuwait Sweden 3,719,399 4,087,953 4,076,202 UK 17,299,342 21,541,672 15,128,266 USA 17,718,030 17,834,450 14,554,444 304,107 301,908 83,875 Venezuela

guilders): 1984 29,392,295 21,842,951 62,516,199 875,737 11,628,047 374,133 3,741,810 19,887,707 10,574,458 366,256

Exports 1985 31,901,604 23,411,539 67,683,921 534,332 13,006,527 350,155 3,745,261 21,408,907 11,842,083 303,207

1986 28,059,944 21,252,072 55,660,199 485,836 12,479,537 298,297 3,538,064 20,086,964 9,325,971 268,014

895

THE N E T H E R L A N D S

Total trade between the Netherlands and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m j j m m 5 J m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

5,097,673 5,440,701

6,14738 6,127,991

6,550,735 7,344,681

6,615,851 5,442,503

7,148,036 5,856,164

Tourism. There were 3,142,000 foreign visitors in 1986 (hotels only). 636,000 came from the Federal Republic of Germany, 578,000 from UK and 390,000 from USA. Total income from tourism (1986) US$2,228m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 the length of the Netherlands network of surfaced inter-urban roads was 54,525 km, of which 2,040 km were motor highways. Number of private cars (1986), 4-9m. Railways. All railways are run by the mixed company 'N.V. Nederlandse Spoorwegen'. Length of line in 1986 was 2,817 km, of which 1,841 km were electrified. Passengers carried (1986), 210m.; goods transported, 18 • 3m. tonnes. Aviation. The Royal Dutch Airlines (KLM) was founded on 7 Oct. 1919. Revenue traffic, 1986-87: Passengers, 5 • 7m.; freight, 342m. kg; mail, 18m. kg. Sea-going Shipping. Survey of the Netherlands mercantile marine as at 1 Jan. (capacity in 1,000GRT): Ships under Netherlands flag Passenger ships ' Freighters (100 GRT and over) Tankers 1

1986 Number Capacity 4 20 489 2,736 65 631

1987 Number Capacity 4 49 476 2,506 69 721

558 3,387 549 With accommodation for 13 or more cabin passengers.

3,276

In 1986,44,847 sea-going ships of 361 m. gross tons entered Netherlands ports. Total goods traffic by sea-going ships in 1986 (with 1985 figures in brackets), in lm. tonnes, amounted to 258 (250) unloaded, of which 122 (114) tankshipping, and 79 (79) loaded, of which 28 (26) tankshipping. The total seaborne freight traffic at Rotterdam was 258m. (251 m.) and at Amsterdam 29m. (28m.) tonnes. The number of containers (excluding flats) at Rotterdam in 1986 (with 1985 figures in brackets) was: unloaded from ships, 979,834 (920,548), of which 287,632 (258,208) from North America, and 997,295 (946,160) loaded into ships, of which 156,300 (158,228) to North America. Inland Shipping. The total length of navigable rivers and canals is 4,832 km, of which about 2,387 km is for ships with a capacity of 1,000 and more tonnes. On 1 Jan. 1986 the Netherlands inland fleet actually used for transport (with carrying capacity in 1,000 tonnes) was composed as follows: Self-propelled barges Dumb barges Pushed barges

Number 5,323 429 541

Capacity 3,057 437 1,184

6,293

5,479

In 1986, 271m. (1985: 254m.) tonnes of goods were transported on rivers and canals, of which 188m. (179m.) was international traffic. Goods transport on the Rhine across the Dutch-German frontier near Lobith amounted to 137m. (133m.) tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 6m. telephone connexions (41 per 100 inhabitants). Number of telex lines, 40,000. Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) provides 5 programmes on medium-waves and FM in cooperation with broadcasting organizations. Regional programmes are also broadcast.

896

THE

NETHERLANDS

Advertisements are transmitted. NOS broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Advertisements, in the last quarter of 1980, were restricted to 4% of the transmission time in the evening. Television sets (1 Jan. 1985) totalled 4-5m.; holders of television licences may, in addition, have wireless receiving sets. Cinemas (end 1986). There were 451 cinemas with a seating capacity of 119,000. Newspapers (Sept. 1986). There were 85 daily newspapers with a total circulation of nearly 4-6m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the High Court of the Netherlands (Court of Cassation), by 5 courts ofjustice (Courts of Appeal), by 19 district courts and by 62 cantonal courts; trial by jury is unknown. The Cantonal Court, which deals with minor offences, is formed by a single judge; the more serious cases are tried by the district courts, formed as a rule by 3 judges (in some cases one judge is sufficient); the courts of appeal are constituted of 3 and the High Court of 5 judges. All judges are appointed for life by the Sovereign (the judges of the High Court from a list prepared by the Second Chamber of the States-General). They can be removed only by a decision of the High Court. At the district court the juvenile judge is specially appointed to try children's civil cases and at the same time charged with administration ofjustice for criminal actions committed by young persons between 12 and 18 years old, unless imprisonment of more than 6 months ought to be inflicted; such cases are tried by 3 judges. Number of sentences, and cases in which prosecution was evaded by paying a fine to the public prosecutor (excluding violation of economic and tax laws): Major offences 1983 90,010 1984 91,145 1985 93,855 In addition, prosecution was evaded by paying a 1985.

Minor offences 1983 1,059,902 1984 1,029,334 1985 972,863 fine to the police in 1,550,130 cases in

Police. There are both State and Municipal Police. The State Police, about 8,900 men strong, serves 593, and the Municipal Police, about 20,700 men strong, serves 148 municipalities. The State Police includes ordinary as well as water, mounted and motor police. The State Police Corps is under the jurisdiction of the Police Department of the Ministry of Justice, which also includes the Central Criminal Investigation Office, which deals with serious crimes throughout the country, and the International Criminal Investigation Office, which informs foreign countries of international crimes. Religion. Entire liberty of conscience is granted to the members of all denominations. The royal family belong to the Dutch Reformed Church. The number of adherents of the Churches according to survey estimates of 1983 was: Roman Catholics, 5,180,000; Dutch Reformed Church, 2,770,000; Reformed Churches, 1,134,000; other creeds, 631,000; no religion, 4,635,000. The government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian. On 1 July 1972 the Dutch Reformed Church had 1 synod, 11 provincial districts, 54 classes, 147 districts and 1,905 parishes. Their clergy numbered 2,000. The Roman Catholic Church had, Jan. 1973, 1 archbishop (of Utrecht), 6 bishops and 1,815 parishes and rectorships. The Old Catholics had (1 July 1972) 1 archbishop (Utrecht), 2 bishops and 29 parishes. The Jews had, in 1970,46 communities. Education. Statistics for the scholastic year 1985-86:

THE

Full-time Pupils/Students Schools Total 8,401 1,468,720 987 99,545 1,382 803,782

Basic schools Special schools Secondary general schools Secondary vocational schools: Junior— Technical, nautical Agricultural Domestic science Other Senior— Technical, nautical Agricultural Service trade and health care training Teachers' training (nursery schools) Other Third level non-university training: Technical, nautical Agricultural Arts Teachers' training Other ' Including apprenticeship

1

Female 724,010 31,249 425,118

Part-time Pupils/Students Schools Total Female —

—

—

—

79 103,580

— —

74,923

385 132 510 246

186,080 35,367 93,466 44,339

16,152 10,096 88,432 26,687

130 61

81,029 19,188

7,687 3,622

51 39

7,070 5,251

287 672

291

72,617

66,485

62

10,827

7,367

47 200

2,138 101,269

2,097 46,563

47 2,669 503 163,276

2,646 59,054

183 82 1

5,776 1,530 122

—

37 497 120

—

—

70 37,457 4,083 23 4,303 438 1,403 8 362 58 18 6,599 48 15,401 8,451 27 4,813 2,410 159 26,067 15,575 115 44,954 20,524 137 63,339 36,579 53 18,167 9,249 schemes, young workers' educational institutes.

Academic

University education: Humanities Social sciences Natural sciences Technical sciences Medical sciences Agricultural sciences

897

NETHERLANDS

Schools

Year 1985-86 Full-time Students Total Female

21

29,835 67,009 14,545 22,476 18,398 6,412

16,449 26,562 3,400 1,896 7,670 2,188

Part-time Students Total Female 825 9,105 161

443 3,350 37

93

56

Health. On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 33,330 doctors and about 67,545 licensed hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Netherlands in Great Britain (38 Hyde Park Gate, London, SW7 5 DP) Ambassador: Hans Jonkman, GCVO (accredited 20 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in the Netherlands (Lange Voorhout, 10, The Hague) Ambassador.M. R. H. Jenkins. Of the Netherlands in the USA (4200 Linnean Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Richard H. Fein. Of the USA in the Netherlands (Lange Voorhout, 102, The Hague) Ambassador: John S. Shad. Of the Netherlands to the United Nations Ambassador: Adriaan Jacobovits de Szeged. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The 'Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek' at Voorburg and Heerlen, is the official Netherlands statistical service. Director-General of Statistics: Prof. Dr W. Begeer. The Bureau was founded in 1899. Prior to that year, statistical publications were compiled by the 'Centrale commissie voor de statistiek', the 'Vereniging voor staathuishoudkunde en

898

THE

NETHERLANDS

statistiek' and various government departments. These activities have gradually been taken over and co-ordinated by the Central Bureau, which now compiles practically all government statistics. Its current publications include: Statistical Yearbook of the Netherlands. From 1923/24 (preceded by Jaarcijfers voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, 1898-1922); latest issue, 1987 (in English) Statistisch zakboek (Pocket Year Book). From 1899/1924(1 vol.); latest issue, 1987 CBS Select (Statistical Essays). From 1980; latest issue, 1987 Statistisch Bulletin (From 1945; weekly statistical bulletin) Maandschrift (From 1944; monthly bulletin) 85 Jaren Statistiek In Tijdreeksen (historical series of the Netherlands 1899-1984) Nationale Rekeningen (National Accounts). From 1948-50; latest issue, 1987 Statistisch Magazine. From 1981 Statistische onderzoekingen. From 1977 Statistical Studies. From 1953 RegionaalStatistisch Zakboek (Regional Pocket Yearbook). From 1972, latest issue 1986 Environmental Statistics of the Netherlands, 1987 (in English) Other Official Publications Central Economic Plan. Centraal Plan bureau, The Hague (Dutch text), annually, from 1946 Netherlands. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris, annual from 1964 Staatsalmanak voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. Annual. The Hague, from 1814 Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden. The Hague, from 1814 Staatscourant (State Gazette). The Hague, from 1813 Atlas van Nederland. Government Printing Office, The Hague, 1970 and supplements up to and including 1973 Memoranda on the Condition of the Netherlands State Finances. Ministry of Finance, The Hague, from 1906 Basic Guide to the Establishing of Industrial Operations in the Netherlands 1976. Ministry of Economic Affairs, The Hague, 1976 The Kingdom ofthe Netherlands. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, Occasional Huggett, F. E., The Dutch Today. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, 1973.—The Dutch Connection. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, 1982 Aspects of Dutch Agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, The Hague, 1976 Non-Official Publications Jansonius, H., Nieuw Groot Nederlands—Engels Woordenboek Voor Studie en Praktijk. 3 vols. Leiden, 1973 (Vols. 1-3) King, P. K.., and Wintle, M., The Netherlands. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1988 Newton, G., The Netherlands: An Historical and Cultural Survey, 1795-1977. Boulder, 1978 Pinder, D., The Netherlands. Folkestone, 1976 Pyttersen's Nederlandse Almanak. Zaltbommel, annual, from 1899 Commerce and Industry in the Netherlands. Amsterdam-Rotterdam Bank. Amsterdam, 1977 Foreign Investment in the Netherlands. The Hague, 1975 A Compact Geography of the Netherlands. Utrecht, 1980 National Library: De Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Prinz Willem Alexanderhof 5, The Hague. Director: Dr C. Reedijk.

ARUBA H I S T O R Y . D i s c o v e r e d b y A l o n z o d e O j e d a in 1499, t h e island of A r u b a was c l a i m e d for Spain b u t n o t settled. It was a c q u i r e d b y t h e D u t c h in 1634, b u t a p a r t f r o m garrisons was left t o t h e i n d i g e n o u s C a i q u e t i o s ( A r a w a k ) I n d i a n s u n t i l t h e 19th c e n t u r y . F r o m 1828 it f o r m e d p a r t of t h e D u t c h West Indies a n d , f r o m 1845, p a r t of t h e N e t h e r l a n d s Antilles, w i t h w h i c h o n 2 9 D e c . 1954 it a c h i e v e d i n t e r n a l self-government. Following a r e f e r e n d u m in M a r c h 1977, t h e D u t c h g o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d o n 28 Oct. 1981 t h a t A r u b a w o u l d p r o c e e d t o i n d e p e n d e n c e separately f r o m t h e o t h e r islands. A r u b a was c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e N e t h e r l a n d s A n t i l l e s f r o m 1 J a n . 1986, a n d full i n d e p e n d e n c e h a s b e e n p r o m i s e d b y t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a f t e r a 10-year p e r i o d .

THE

899

NETHERLANDS

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The island, which lies in the southern Caribbean 24 km north of the Venezuelan coast and 68 km west of Curaçao, has an area of 193 sq. km (75 sq. miles) and a population at the 1981 census of 60,312; estimate (1985) 61,000. The chief towns are Oranjestad, the capital (17,000) and Sint Nicolaas, site of the former oil refinery ( 17,000). Dutch is the official language, but the language usually spoken is Papiamento, a Creole language. Unlike other Caribbean islands, over half the population is of Indian stock, with the balance chiefly of Dutch, Spanish and mestizo origin. C L I M A T E . Aruba has a tropical marine climate, with a brief rainy season from Oct. to Dec. Oranjestad. Jan. 79°F (26 0°C), July 84°F (29 0°C). Annual rainfall 17" (432 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the separate constitution inaugurated on 1 Jan. 1986, Aruba is an autonomous part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands with its own legislature, government, judiciary, civil service and police force. The Netherlands is represented by a Governor appointed by the monarch. The unicameral legislature (Staten) consists of 21 members; at the general elections held on 27 Nov. 1985, 8 seats were won by the (Movimento Electoral di Pueblo, 7 by the Arubaanse Volks Partij, and 2 each by 3 smaller parties with whom the AVP formed a coalition government. Governor: Felipe B. Tromp. Prime Minister, Minister of General Affairs:]. Henny Eman. Deputy Prime Minister, Transport and Communications: Benny Nisbet. Economic Affairs and Labour: Leonard Berlinski. Justice: Watty Vos. Education and Welfare: Mito Croes. Utilities and Public Works: Charo Kelly. Finance: Armand W. Englebrecht. Flag: Blue, with 2 narrow horizontal yellow stripes, and in the canton a red 4-pointed star fimbriated in white. ECONOMY Budget. The 1984 budget totalled 207m. guilders revenue and 278m. guilders expenditure. Currency. From 1 Jan. 1986 the currency has been the Aruban florin, at par with the Netherlands Antilles guilder. In March 1 9 8 8 , £ 1 = 3 1 7 Aruban florins-, US$ 1 = 1 -79 Aruban florins. Banking. As well as the Aruba Bank, there are local branches of the Algemene Bank Nederland, Barclays Bank International, Caribbean Mercantile Bank and Citibank. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Generating capacity totals 310,000 kw. Production ( 1986) 945m. kwh. Oil. The Exxon refinery dominated the economy from 1929-85, when it was closed, resulting in unemployment reaching 40% by the end of 1985. Minerals. Gold, first discovered in 1825, is still found but in uneconomic quantities. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Trade. Total trade between Aruba and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1986 572 6,972

1987 296 5,652

Tourism. Tourism is now the main economic sector. In 1986 there were 181,000 tourists.

900

THE N E T H E R L A N D S

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 380 km of surfaced highways. In 1984 there were 23,409 passenger cars and 582 commercial vehicles. Aviation. There is an international airport (Prinses Beatrix) served by numerous airlines. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were S radio stations and 1 television station. In 1983 there were 17,000 telephones. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. The Aruban judiciary is now separated from that of the Netherlands Antilles. There is a Court of First Instance and a Court of Appeal situated in Oranjestad. Religion. In 1981,89% of the population were Roman Catholic and 7% Protestant. Education. In 1983 there were 33 elementary schools with 6,763 pupils, 10 junior high schools with 3,082 pupils and 4 senior schools and colleges with 881 students. Health. In 1985 there were 59 doctors, 16 dentists, 9 pharmacists, 189 nursing personnel and one hospital with 279 beds.

THE N E T H E R L A N D S ANTILLES De Nederlandse Antillen H I S T O R Y . Bonaire and Curaçao islands, originally populated by Caiquetios Indians, were discovered in 1499 by Amerigo Vespucci and Alonso de Ojeda respectively, and claimed for Spain. They were settled in 1527, and the indigenous population exterminated and replaced by a slave-worked plantation economy. The 3 Windward Islands, inhabited by Caribs, were discovered by Columbus in 1493. They were taken by the Dutch in 1632 (Saba and Sint Eustatius), 1634 (Curaçao and Bonaire) and 1648 (the southern part of Sint Maarten, with France acquiring the northern part). With Aruba, the islands formed part of the Dutch West Indies from 1828, and the Netherlands Antilles from 1845, with internal self-government being granted on 29 Dec. 1954. Aruba was separated from 1 Jan. 1986. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Netherlands Antilles comprise two groups of islands, the Leeward group (Curaçao and Bonaire) being situated 100 km north of the Venezuelan coast and the Windward Islands situated 800 km away to the north-east, at the northern end of the Lesser Antilles. The total area is 800 sq. km (308 sq. miles) and the Census population in 1981 was 171,620. Estimate (1985) 183,000. Willemstad is the capital. The areas, populations and chief towns of the islands are: Island Bonaire Curaçao Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten 1 1

Sq. km 288 444 13 21 34

1981 Census 8,753 147,388 965 1,358 13,156

Chieftown Kralendijk Willemstad Leverock Oranjestad Philipsburg

Population 1,200 50,000 -

-

6,000

The southern part belongs to the Netherlands Antilles, the northern to France.

Dutch is the official language, but the languages usually spoken are Papiamento (a creóle language) on Curaçao and Bonaire, and English in the Windward Islands. Vital statistics (1980, including Aruba): Live births, 4,018; marriages, 1,340; deaths, 1,132. C L I M A T E . All the islands have a tropical marine climate, with very little differ-

THE NETHERLANDS

901

ence in temperatures over the year. There is a short rainy season from Oct. to Jan. Willemstad. Jan. 79°F (26- 1°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (582 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 29 Dec. 1954, the Netherlands Antilles became an integral part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands but are fully autonomous in internal afTairs, and constitutionally equal with the Netherlands and Aruba. The Sovereign of the Kingdom of the Netherlands is Head of State and Government, and is represented by a Governor. The executive power in internal affairs rests with the Governor and the Council of Ministers, who together form the Government. The Ministers are responsible to a unicameral legislature (Staten) consisting of 22 members (since 1985, 14 from Curaçao, 3 from Bonaire, 3 from Sint Maarten, and 1 each from Saba and Sint Eustatius) elected by universal suffrage. In general elections held on 22 Nov. 1985, 9 seats were won by the Democratische Partij, 6 by the Nationale Volks Partij, 4 by the Movimento Antijas Nobo, and 1 each by three smaller parties. The executive power in external affairs is vested in the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom, in which the Antilles is represented by a Minister Plenipotentiary with full voting powers. On each of the insular communities, local autonomous power is divided between an Island Council (elected by universal suffrage), the Executive Council and the Lieut.-Governor, responsible for law and order. Governor: Dr Rene A. Romer. Prime Minister: Domenico Felip Martina. Economic Affairs: Marco de Castro. Labour and Social Affairs: Winston Laurens. Finance: Leslie Navarro. Health: Frank Rosendal. Justice, Transport and Communications: Leo Chance. Co-operation and Development: Jopie Abraham. Flag: White, with a red vertical strip crossed by a blue horizontal strip bearing 5 white stars. ECONOMY. Budget. The central budget for 1984 envisaged 342-3m. N A guilders revenue and 394 • 5m. guilders expenditure. Currency. The currency is the Netherlands Antilles guilder of 100 cents. There are notes o f 2 5 0 , 1 0 0 , 5 0 , 2 5 , 1 0 , 5,2'/2and 1 guilder, and coins of 2'A and 1 guilder and 25, 10, 5, 2Ú and 1 cent. The official rate of exchange was £1 = 3 1 7 NA guilder; US$1 = 1 -79 NA guilder in March 1988. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production (1986) totalled 365m. kwh. Oil. The economy was formerly based largely on oil refining at the Shell refinery on Curaçao, but following an announcement by Shell that closure was imminent, this was sold to the Netherlands Antilles government in Sept. 1985, and leased to Petróleos de Venezuela to operate on a reduced scale thus retaining some (1,500) employment. Minerals. About 100,000 tons of calcium phosphate are mined annually. Agriculture. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 9,000; goats, 23,000. Figures include Aruba. Fisheries. Catch (1982) 11,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Curaçao has one of the largest ship-repair dry docks in the western hemisphere. Curaçao has a paint factory, 2 cigarette factories, a textile factory, a brewery and some smaller industries. The Texas Instruments Co. and Electronic Fabriek have established electronic factories. Bonaire has a textile factory and a modern-equipped salt plant. Sint Maarten has a rum factory and fishing is important. Sint Eustatius and Saba are of less economic importance.

902

THE

NETHERLANDS

Trade (1980). Total imports amounted to US$5,944m., total exports to US$6,054m. Total trade between the Netherlands Antilles and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 25,871 78,879 1

1984 221,012 20,235

1985 163,236 19,844

1986' 78,509 17,260

1987' 5,133 19,635

Excluding Aruba.

Tourism. In 1986, 594,000 tourists visited the islands (Sint Maarten, 439,000; Curaçao, 128,000; Bonaire, 27,000) excluding 441,000 cruise passengers (Curaçao, 126,000; Sint Maarten, 314,000). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984, the Netherlands Antilles had 820 km of surfaced highway distributed as follows: Curaçao, 550; Bonaire, 210; Sint Maarten, 3. Number of motor vehicles (31 Dec. 1975): 41,955 in Curaçao. Aviation. There are international airports on Curaçao (Dr Albert Plesman Airport), Bonaire (Flamingo Field) and Sint Maarten (Juliana Airport). Shipping (1977). There entered the port of Curaçao, 11,432 vessels of 95m. gross tons. Curaçao has a dry dock of 120,000 tons. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones, 1 Jan. 1983, 48,000. Eight radio stations are operating on medium-waves from Curaçao, Aruba, Bonaire, and Sint Maarten. These stations broadcast in Papiamento, Dutch, English and Spanish and are mainly financed by income from advertisements. In addition, Radio Nederland and Trans World Radio have powerful relay stations operating on medium- and short-waves from Bonaire. There were (1984, including Aruba) 160,000 radio and 57,000 TV receivers. Cinemas (1973). Curaçao and Aruba had 13 cinemas with a seating capacity of 11,000. There is a drive-in for 500 cars in Curaçao, and for 200 cars in Sint Maarten. Newspapers. In 1985 there were 4 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 44,500. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N AND WELFARE Justice. There is a Court of First Instance, which sits in each island, and a Court of Appeal in Willemstad. Religion. In 1981, 84% of the population were Roman Catholics, 10% were Protestants (Sint Maarten and Sint Eustatius being chiefly Protestant). Education. In 1983 there were 24,578 pupils and 1,248 teachers in 91 primary schools, 8,623 pupils and 633 teachers in 22 secondary schools, 732 students and 79 teachers in 3 technical and teacher-training colleges, and 677 students with 53 teaching staff in higher education. Health. In 1985 there were 184 doctors and 1,500 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVE USA Consul-General: Martin McLean. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Statistical publications (on population, trade, cost of living, etc., are obtainable on request from the Statistical Office, Willemstad, Curaçao. Statistical Jaarboek 1970 (text in Dutch, English and Spanish). De West Indische Gids. The Hague. Monthly from 1919

NEW

Capital: Wellington Population: 3-3m.(1987) GNPper capita: US$5,276 (1985)

ZEALAND

HISTORY. The first European to discover New Zealand was Tasman in 1642. The coast was explored by Capt. Cook in 1769. From about 1800 onwards, New Zealand became a resort for whalers and traders, chiefly from Australia. By the Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, between Governor William Hobson and the representatives of the Maori race, the Maori chiefs ceded the sovereignty to the British Crown and the islands became a British colony. Then followed a steady stream of British settlers. The Maoris are a branch of the Polynesian race, having emigrated from the eastern Pacific before and during the 14th century. Between 1845 and 1848, and between 1860 and 1870, misunderstandings over land led to war, but peace was permanently established in 1871, and the development of New Zealand has been marked by racial harmony and integration. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . New Zealand lies south-east of Australia in the south Pacific, Wellington being 1,983 km from Sydney by sea. There are two principal islands, the North ana South Islands, besides Stewart Island, Chatham Islands and small outlying islands, as well as the territories overseas (see pp. 918-20). New Zealand (i.e., North, South and Stewart Islands) extends over 1,750 km from north to south. Area, excluding territories overseas, 268,046 sq. km comprising North Island, 114,685 sq. km; South Island, 149,813 sq. km; Stewart Island, 1,746 sq. km; Chatham Islands, 963 sq. km; minor islands, 829 sq. km. Growth in census population, exclusive of territories overseas: Average anAverage anTotal nual increase Total nual increase % population % population — 115,462 1858 1926 1,408,139 2 06 — 1874 344,984 1936 1,573,810 113 458,007 1945' 1878 7-33 1,702,298 0-83 1,939,472 1881 534,030 5 10 1951' 237 620,451 1956' 2,174,062 2-31 1886 305 668,632 1961' 2,414,984 2-12 1891 150 1966' 2,676,919 1896 743,207 2-13 210 1-34 1901* 815,853 1-89 1971' 2,862,631 936,304 1906 2-75 1976' 3,129,383 1-71 1911 1,058,308 2-52 1981' 3,175,737 020 3,307,084 0-82 19161 1,149,225 150 1986' 1921 1,271,644 2-27 The census of New Zealand is quinquennial, but the census falling in 1931 was abandoned as an act of national economy, and owing to war conditions the census due in 1941 was not taken until 25 Sept. 1945. ' Excluding members of the Armed Forces overseas.

The areas and populations of local government regions (with principal centres) at4March 1986 were as follows ':

Local Government Region (andprincipal centre) Northland (Whangarei) Auckland (Auckland) 1 Thames Valley (Thames-Coromandel) Bay of Plenty (Tauranga) Waikato (Hamilton) Tongariro (Taupo) East Cape (Gisborne) Hawke's Bay (Napier, Hastings) Taranaki (New Plymouth) Wanganui (Wanganui) Manawatu (Palmerston North) Horowhenua (Levin) Wellington (Wellington) Wairarapa (Masterton) Total, North

Island*

Area2 (sq.km) 12,604 5,201 4,666 9,126 13,241 12,085 11,461 12,396 7,876 9,171 6,669 1,614 1,379 6,894 114,383

903

Total Population 1981 census 1986 census 113,994 126,999 827,408 887,448 54,343 58,665 172,480 187,462 221,850 228,303 40,089 40,793 53,295 53,968 137,840 140,709 103,798 107,600 68,702 69,439 113,238 115,500 49,296 53,592 323,162 328,163 39,689 39,608 2,319,184

2,438,249

5 1

904

NEW

ZEALAND Area2 (sq. km) 10,197 12,882 22,893 17,465 19,910 28,982 10,590 27,716

Local Government Region (andprincipal centre) Nelson Bays (Nelson) Marlborough (Blenheim) West Coast (Greymouth) Canterbury (Christchurch) Aorangi (Timaru) Clutha-Central Otago Coastal-North Otago (Dunedin) Southland (Invercargill)

Total Population 1981 census 1986 census 65,934 69,648 37,557 38,225 34,178 34,942 336,846 348,712 84,772 81,294 45,402 48,771 138,164 137,393 107,905 104,618

Intercensal change(%) 5-6 18 2-2 3-5 -41 7-4 -0-6 -30

Total, South Island1 150,635 850,758 863,603 265,018 3,169,942 3,301,852 Total, New Zealand 2 1 Excludes Great Barrier Island and Chatham Island Counties. 2 Excludes Extra County Islands.

1-3 4-2

New Zealand-born residents made up 84 -5% of the population at the 1986 census. Foreign-born (provisional): UK, 196,872; Australia, 46,839; Netherlands, 24,159; Samoa, 33,864; Cook Islands, 15,540; others (including USA and Ireland), 187,644. Maori population: 1896, 42,113; 1936, 82,326; 1945, 98,744; 1951, 115,676; 1961,171,553; 1971,227,414; 1976,270,035; 1981,279,255; 1986,294,201. Populations of statistical divisions and main urban areas as at 31 March 1987 were as follows: Auckland Christchurch Dunedin Hamilton Napier-Hastings Palmerston North Wellington Urban areas: Gisborne

889,200 333,200 113,300 169,000 115,700 93,700 351,400 32,000

Invercargill Nelson New Plymouth Rotorua Tauranga Timaru Wanganui Whangarei

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1984 1985 1986

Total live births 51,636 51,798 52,824

Ex-nuptial births 12,556 12,921 14,237

Deaths 25,378 27,480 27,045

52,400 44,900 47,400 52,200 60,500 28,500 40,900 43,600

Divorces (decrees Marriages absolute) 9,166 25,272 8,607 24,657 24,037

Birthrate, 1986,16 11 per 1,000; death rate, 8-25 per 1,000; marriage rate, 7-33 per 1,000; infant mortality, 11-21 per 1,000 live births. External migration (exclusive of crews and through passengers) for years ended 31 M a r c h . Arrivals Departures 1982 946,287 951,030 1983 915,463 900,021 1984 922,868 912,311 Population and Migration: Part B—External Annually

Arrivals Departures 1985 1,017,212 1,016,995 1986 1,111,926 1,130,444 1987 1,321,729 1,317,372 Migration. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington,

C L I M A T E . Lying in the cool temperate zone, New Zealand enjoys very mild winters for its latitude owing to its oceanic situation, and only the extreme south has cold winters. The situation of the mountain chain produces much sharper climatic contrasts between east and west than in a north-south direction. Observations for 1983: Auckland. Jan. 65-5°F (18-6'C), July 50°F (10-2'C). Annual rainfall 4 1 5 " (1,053 mm). Christchurch. Jan. 61-3'F (16-3°C), July 42-4°F (5-8°C). Annual rainfall 29" (737 mm). Dunedin. Jan. 57-4°F (14-TC), July 43-2°F (6-2-C). Annual rainfall 3 8 1 " (968 mm). Hokitika. Jan. 56 I T (13-4°C), July 43-5°F (6-4°C). Annual rainfall 132-2" (3,357 mm). Rotorua. Jan. 61-2°F (16-2°C), July 43-7°F (6-5°C). Annual rainfall 49-9" (1,268 mm). Wellington. Jan. 59-9°F(15 • 5°C), July 46 -4°F(8 0"C). Annual rainfall 51 -2" (1,300 mm).

NEW ZEALAND

905

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Definition was given the status of New Zealand by the (Imperial) Statute of Westminster of Dec. 1931, which had received the antecedent approval of the New Zealand Parliament in July 1931. The Governor-General's assent was given to the Statute of Westminster Adoption Bill on 25 Nov. 1947. The powers, duties and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. In the execution of the powers vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council. The following is a list of Governors-General, the title prior to June 1917 being Governor: Earl of Liverpool Viscount Jellicoe Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt Lord Bledisloe Viscount Galway Sir Cyril Newall Lord Freyberg, VC Lord Norrie

1917-20 1920-24 1924-30 1930-35 1935-41 1941-46 1946-52 1952-57

Viscount Cobham Sir Bernard Fergusson Sir Arthur Porrit, Bt Sir Denis Blundell Sir Keith Holyoake Sir David Beattie Sir Paul Reeves

1957-62 1962-67 1967-72 1972-77 1977-80 1980-85 1985-

National flag: The British Blue Ensign with 4 stars of the Southern Cross in red, edged in white, in the fly. National anthems: God Save the Queen; God Defend New Zealand (words by Thomas Bracken, music by John J. Woods). Since Nov. 1977 both 'God Save the Queen' and 'God Defend New Zealand' have equal status as national anthems. Parliament consists of the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since 1 Jan. 1951. The statute law on elections and the life of Parliament is contained in the Electoral Act, 1956. In 1974 the voting age was reduced from 20 to 18 years. The House of Representatives from Aug. 1987 consists of 97 members, including 4 members representing Maori electorates, elected by the people for 3 years. The 4 Maori electoral districts cover the whole country and adult Maoris of half or more Maori descent are the electors. From 1976 a descendant of a Maori is entitled to register either for a general or a Maori electoral district. Women's suffrage was instituted in 1893: women became eligible as members of the House of Representatives in 1919. The House in 1987 included 12 women members. During Parliamentary sittings the proceedings of the House are broadcast regularly on sound radio. House of Representatives as composed following the General Election in Aug. 1987: Labour, 58; National Party, 39. The Executive Council was composed as follows in Aug. 1987: Governor-General and C.-in-C.: The Most Rev. Sir Paul Reeves (from Nov. 1985). Prime Minister, Education, Security Intelligence Service: David R. Lange. Deputy Prime Minister, Attorney-General, Justice, Environment: Geoffrey W. R. Palmer. Overseas Trade and Marketing: Michael K. Moore. Finance: Roger O. Douglas. State OwnedEnterprises, Postmaster-General, Works and Development, Pacific Island Affairs, Broadcasting, Public Trust Office, Railways: Richard W. Prebble. Maori Affairs: Koro T. Wetere. Health, Trade and Industry: David F. Caygill. Foreign Affairs, Disarmament and Arms Control: Cedric R. Marshall. Internal Affairs, Local Government, Civil Defence, Arts and Culture: Michael E. R. Bassett. Minister of State, Leader of the House: Jonathon L. Hunt. Defence, Science and T;chno/ogy: Robert J. Tizard. Agriculture, Fisheries. Colin J. Moyle.

906

NEW ZEALAND

Labour, Immigration, State Services: Stanley J. Rodger. Employment, Youth Affairs, Tourism: Philip B. Goffi Women's Affairs, Consumer Affairs, Statistics: Margaret K. Shields. Police, Forestry, Lands, Recreation and Sport, Survey and Land Information, Valuation Department: Peter Tapsell. Housing, Conservation: Helen Clark. Social Welfare, War Pensions: Michael J. Cullen. Transport, Civil Aviation, Meteorological Services: William P. Jeffries. Energy, Regional Development: David J. Butcher. Ministers not in Cabinet but on Executive Council: Trevor A. de Cleene, Fran Wilde, Philip T. E. Woollaston, Peter Neilson. The Prime Minister (provided with residence) had in 1987 a salary of NZ$129,250 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $23,400 per a n n u m ; Ministers with portfolio, $90,200 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $9,600 (Minister of Foreign Affairs $15,600) per annum; Minister without portfolio, $73,150 plus a tax-free expense allowance of $7,500 per annum; Parliamentary UnderSecretaries, $70,400 plus an expense allowance of $7,500 per a n n u m . In addition, Ministers and Parliamentary Under-Secretaries not provided with residence at the seat of Government receive $1,000 per annum house allowance. An allowance of $200 per day while travelling within New Zealand on public service is payable to Ministers. The Speaker of the House of Representatives receives $83,600 plus an expense allowance of $12,600 per a n n u m in addition to his electorate allowance, and residential quarters in Parliament House, and the Leader of the Opposition $90,200 plus expense allowance of $9,600 per annum, and allowances for travelling and housing. Members were paid $49,500 per annum, plus an expense allowance varying from $7,000 to $ 17,000 according to the area of electorate represented. There is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members; retiring allowances are payable to a member after 9 years' service and the attainment of 45 years of age. Dollimore, H. N., The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rded. Wellington, 1973 Scott, K.J., The New Zealand Constitution. OUP, 1962

Local Government. New Zealand is divided into 22 regions, excluding the Chatham Islands and various uninhabited minor islands. Of these, two (Auckland and Wellington Regions) are under directly-elected Regional Councils with direct rating powers, while the other twenty are under United Councils, appointed by constituent second-tier authorities upon which they precept. The regions are subdivided into (at 31 March 1987) 85 counties, 18 districts, 118 boroughs (and cities) and 3 town districts; further districts are being formed by the amalgamation of counties, boroughs and town districts, which they will eventually replace fully. Great Barrier Island and the Chatham Islands form the 86th and 87th counties outside the regional structure. There are also numerous other local authorities created for specific functions. D E F E N C E . The control and co-ordination of defence activities is obtained through the Ministry of Defence. This is a unitary department combining not only all joint-Service functions but also the former Departments of Army, Navy and Air. Army. The Chief of the General Staff commands the Army, assisted by the General Staff and the staffs of Defence Headquarters. A regular force battalion is stationed in Singapore. There are 2 infantry battalions, 1 artillery battery, 1 light armoured squadron. Regular personnel, in 1987, totalled 5,848 all ranks; reserves, 1,338, territorial personnel totalled 5,759; the cadet corps totalled (1987) 1,190 Army School cadets. Navy. The Royal New Zealand Navy is administered by the Chief of Naval Staff and the Deputy Chief of Naval Staff at Defence Headquarters. The R N Z N ships include 4 frigates (including Wellington (ex-Bacchante) and

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Southland (ex-Dido) transferred from the Royal Navy in 1982 and 1983 respectively), 1 large fleet supply ship with helicopter deck, 1 surveying vessel, 4 patrol craft, 4 new inshore defence boats, 1 old harbour defence motor launch, 2 survey boats, 2 oceanographic research ships, 1 diving tender, 1 training ship and 1 tug. Personnel, in 1987, totalled 2,626 officers and ratings and 447 in the naval reserve. Air Force. The Chief of Air Staff and Air Officer Commanding the R N Z A F exercises command and administration of the RNZAF. Operational units of the R N Z A F comprise a utility helicopter support unit (UH-1H Iroquois) based in Singapore as part of the N Z force, South-east Asia. Maritime (P-3B Orion), long and medium-range transport (Boeing 727, C-130H Hercules, Andover, F.27 Friendship) and helicopter (Sioux, Iroquois, Wasp) squadrons are based at R N Z A F Base Auckland; and Hobsonville; and offensive support (A-4 Skyhawk) at R N Z A F Base Ohakea. Flying training units (Airtrainer, Strikemaster, TA-4 Skyhawks, Sioux) are located at R N Z A F Bases Wigram and Ohakea; ground training is carried out at R N Z A F Bases Auckland, Woodbourne and Wigram. The strength as at 31 March 1987 was 4,195 regular personnel, 1,016 reserves. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. New Zealand is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OECD, South Pacific Forum and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. The following tables of revenue and expenditure relate to the Consolidated Account, which covers the ordinary revenue and expenditure of the general government—i.e., apart from capital items, commercial and special undertakings, advances, etc. Revenue in the Account (in NZ$ 1 m.) was as follows: Year ended 31 March 1984 1985 1986 1987

Customs and excise 805 6 1,003-6 966-9 1,577-0

Sales tax 1,312-3 1,561-0 1,553-6 1,016-7

Income tax 7,453-3 8,348-5 10,567-2 12,431-8

Other taxes 617-8 666-4 724-5 1,963-6

Trading profits and departmental receipts 759-9 884-7 1,287-3 1,470-0

Interest 796-2 984-7 1,446-7 1,616-5

Total 11,744-9 13,448-9 16,546-2 20,075-6

Expenditure from Consolidated Account, year ended 31 March, was as follows (in N Z $ 1 m.): 1984 1985 1986 1987

Debt Social Industrial services services' development Defence 2,229-2 7,618-5 2,134-8 673-0 2,781-4 8,254-1 1,984-8 756-4 3,622-4 10,041-1 1,697-3 870-5 4,411-9 12,334-9 11,531-5 1,096-0 ' Includes education, health and social welfare.

Total (including other) 14,221-5 16,162-4 18,317-6 32,039-5

Taxation receipts in 1986-87 for all purposes amounted to $ 17,408m., giving an average of $5,301 per head of mean population. Included in the total taxation is $419m. National Roads Fund taxation. The estimate for 1987-88 is $21,250m„ the total being inclusive of an estimated $465m. of National Roads Fund taxation. The gross public debt at 31 March 1987 was $42,479m., of which $20,744m. was held in New Zealand, $5,872m. in Europe, $8,969m. in USA and $6,894m. in Canada, Australia and other sources. The gross annual interest charge on the public debt at 31 March 1987 was $4,069,438,000. New Zealand System of National Accounts. This replaces the National Income and Expenditure Accounts which have been produced since 1948. National Accounts aggregates for 4 years are given in the following table (in NZ$ 1 m.): Year ended 31 March 1983 1984 1985 1986

Gross domestic product 31,160 34,329 38,667 44,868

Gross national product 30,300 33,031 36,763 42,824

National income 28,084 30,416 33,678 39,068

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Currency. The monetary unit is the New Zealand dollar, divided into 100 cents. In March 1988, £1 =2-66NZ$;US$l = 1-51NZS. Banking. The Reserve Bank is the sole note-issuing authority. Seven denominations ofReserve Bank notes are issued: NZ$1,2,5, 10,20,50,100. The New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank, the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, and 4 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has a private savings bank subsidiary. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits to clients. The primary functions of the Reserve Bank are to act as the central bank, to advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking and overseas exchange, and to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government. At the end of March 1987 the amount on deposit at trading banks was NZ$17,362 -5m., while advances amounted to NZ$14,051-4m. The weekly average of bank debits for 1986 was NZ$ 11,189 • 6m. excluding government. The number of accounts with the post office savings bank at 31 March 1987 was 3-72m.; amount deposited during year ended March 1987, $9,647m.; withdrawn, $9,518m., total amount to credit of depositors at end of year, $3,052m. At 31 March 1987, $4,418m. was on deposit in Trustee Savings Banks to the credit of 3 • 31 m. depositors. The amount to the credit of depositors with savings accounts in the trading banks was $435-9m.at31 March 1987. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures operates. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The general policy of the Government in regard to electric power is to supply power in bulk, leaving the reticulation and retail supply in the hands of local authorities; some of these are cities and boroughs but most are electric power boards. During the year ending 31 March 1986 hydro energy provided 73% of the national electricity supply, the balance coming from coal, oil, natural gas and geothermal energy. The last is obtained from Wairakei in the thermal region; natural steam is used to drive the turbines. The transmission systems of the North and South Islands are linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission and 40 km of submarine cable in Cook Strait. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Principal statistics for 4 years ended 31 March are: 1983 Number of establishments 82 5,820 Generators (capacity) AC (1,000 kw.) Units generated (1 m. kwh.) 24,301 Revenue ($1,000) 1,720,058 Expenditure: Ope rating ($1,000) 947,179 Management, etc. ($1,000) 163,403 Capital charges ($1,000) 359,989 Capital outlay: During year ($1,000) 491,286 To date ($1,000) 4,116,100

1984

89 6,382 25,855 1,852,830

1985 94 6,988 26,765 2,014,438

1986 95 7,435 27,017 2,524,772

978,261 168,655 383,720

1,070,187 185,057 461,946

1,394,049 220,022 568,540

488,700 4,493,200

411,100 4,770,900

456,300 5,067,700

Natural Gas. In 1987 there were 4 gasfields in production: Kapuri (on stream 1970), Maui (1979), McKee (1984) and Kaimaro (1984). Natural gas represents 29% of primary energy consumption. Minerals. New Zealand's production of minerals in 1986 included 1,265 kg of gold, 3,140 tonnes of bentonite, 104,532 tonnes of clay for bricks, tiles, etc., 28,464 tonnes of potters' clays, 2,689,000 tonnes of iron sand, 723,000 tonnes of limestone for agriculture and 257,600 tonnes of limestone for industry, 1,012,000 tonnes of limestone, marl, etc., for cement, 43,800 tonnes of pumice, 22,400

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tonnes of serpentine, 114,200 tonnes of silica sand. Mineral fuel production amounted to 2,517,000 tonnes of coal. Agriculture. Two-thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable for agriculture and grazing. The total area under cultivation at 30 June 1986 was 21,331,194 hectares (includingi residential area and domestic orchards). There were 13,831,833 hectares of grassland, lucerne and tussock, 90,071 hectares of land for horticulture, 417,740 hectares of grain or fodder crops and 1,150,331 hectares of plantations. The area of Crown lands (other than reserves) leased under various tenures at 31 March 1987 was4,714,766 hectares. The largest freehold estates are held in the South Island. The extent of occupied holdings as at 30 June 1986 (exclusive of holdings within borough boundaries) was as follows: Size of holdings (hectares) Under 5 5-19 20-39 40-59 60-99 100-199 200-399

Number of farms 10,167 15,216 8,036 7,360 10,100 11,476 9,718

Aggregate area (hectares) 30,278 150,402 227,153 356,255 779,949 1,645,056 2,701,680

Size of holdings Number (hectares) offarms 400-799 4,409 1,242 800-1,199 934 1,200-1,999 2,000-3,999 571 4,000 and over 595 Total

79,824

Aggregate area (hectares) 2,403,793 1,200,428 1,425,968 1,554,245 8,855,987 21,331,194

The area and yield for each of the principal crops are given as follows (area and yield for threshing only, not including that grown for chaff, hay, silage, etc.): Crop years 1985 1986

Wheat Area (1,006 Yield(1,000 hectares)' tonnes) 71-8 309 6 91-4 379-7

Maize Area (1,000 Yield(1,000 hectares) tonnes) 17-8 174-6 19-5 187-7

Barley Area (1,000 Yield(1,000 hectares) tonnes) 152-3 644-4 138-6 556-2

Private air companies are carrying out such aerial work as top-dressing, spraying and crop-dusting, seed-sowing, rabbit poisoning, aerial photography and surveying, and dropping supplies to deer cullers and dropping fencing materials in remote areas. In 1986 a total area of 4,719,731 hectares was top-dressed with fertilizer and lime. Livestock 1986: 8,279,000 cattle, 67-5m. sheep and 435,000 pigs. Total meat produced in the year ended 30 Sept. 1986 was estimated at 1 1 3 m . tonnes (including 451,600 tonnes of beef and 465,000 tonnes of lamb). Total liquid milk produced in the year ended 31 May 1986 was 7,963m. litres. Production of wool for 1985-86,358,000 tonnes (greasy basis). Agricultural Statistics. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington. Annual.

Forestry. Of the 6 • 2m. hectares of indigenous forest, most is protected in National Parks or State Forests. Declining quantities of indigenous timber are being produced from restricted areas of State Forest and from privately owned forest. There are just over lm. hectares of productive exotic forest, and this produces far more timber than the indigenous forests. Introduced pines form the bulk of the large exotic forest estate and among these radiata pine is the best multi-purpose tree, reaching log size in 25-30 years. Other species planted are Douglas fir and Eucalyptus species. The table below shows production of rough sawn timber in cu. metres for years ending 31 March:

1983-84 1984-85 1985-86

Indigenous Rimuand Miro Beech 99,541 15,651 101,792 17,076 96,153 12,620

Total 136,286 140,766 132,740

Exotic Exotic Douglas Pines Fir 1,748,467 170,950 1,636,000 174,780 2,043,759 182,911

AllSpecies Total 1,959,284 2,164,880 2,264,873

Total 2,095,570 2,305,646 2,397,613

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Forest industries consist o f 4 4 9 saw-mills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 8 pulp and paper mills and 2 fibreboard mills. The basic products of the pulp and paper mills are mechanical and chemical pulp which are converted into newsprint, krafl and other papers, paperboard and fibreboard. Production of woodpulp, 31 March 1986, amounted to 1 • 1 l m . tonnes and of paper (including newsprint paper and paperboard) to 611,000 tonnes. Fisheries. The total value of New Zealand Fisheries exports during the year ended 30 June 1985 was $513-7m., an increase of $144-4m. (39-1%) over the previous yearFinfish or wetfish Rock lobster Shellfish (squid, mussels, oysters, etc)

Exports, ¡986 Value Quantity $(1,000) kg (1,000) 319,808 91,593 89,262 2,894 97,704 36,883 506,774

131,370

Total

Exports, 1987 Value Quantity $(1,000) kg (1,000) 457,107 110,949 109,023 2,871 145,339 42,961 156,782

711,469

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Major industrial developments in recent years have included the establishment of an oil refinery, an iron and steel industry using New Zealand iron sands, a petro-chemical industry and an aluminium smelter using hydro-electric power. Statistics of manufacturing industries: Production year 1985-86

Persons engaged 304,640

Salaries and wages paid (NZ$1,000) 5,479,271

Cost of materials (NZ$1,000) 17,502,521

Sales and other income (NZ$1,000) 31,799,989

Value added (NZ$1,000) 9,342,728

The following is a statement of the provisional value of thè products (including repairs) of the principal industries for the year 1985-86 (in NZ$ 1,000): Industry group Food,beverage and tobacco manufacturing Textile, wearing apparel, leather industries Wood and wood products (including furniture) Paper and paper products, printing and publishing Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products Non-metallic mineral products (excludes products of petroleum and coal) Basic metal industries Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment Other manufacturing industries Total

Purchases & operating expenses

Sales and other Value income added (NZ$1,000)

Additions to fixed tangible assets

8,651,628

9,174,803

2,395,813

469,275

2,740,161

2,914,926

911,462

151,353

1,948,056

2,086,568

707,513

167,887

3,126,013

3,385,798

1,207,900

247,746

3,883,330

3,847,384

986,496

1,374,006

1,011,316 1,128,821

1,153,771 1,222,812

358,202 345,503

58,513 531,083

7,352,124

7,728,508

2,333,535

344,495

259,679

285,419

96,304

14,438

30,101,128

31,799,989

9,342,728

3,358,796

Enterprise Survey. Dept. of Statistics, Wellington. Annual

Labour. In Dec. 1986 there were 215 industrial unions of workers with a total of 489,763 members. The industrial distribution of the labour force as estimated in Feb. 1984 was: Primary industries, 148,400; manufacturing, 302,300; construction, 87,700; commerce, 220,900; transport and communication, 103,100; services, 315,200; armed forces, 13,000; unemployed, 77,500; total labour force, 1,371,100.

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By the Accident Compensation Act 1972 immediate compensation without proof of fault is provided for every injured person and wherever the accident occurred. Compensation is paid both for permanent physical disability and also—in the case of earners—for income losses on an income related basis. Regular adjustment in the level of payment is provided for in accordance with variations in the value of money. Non-earners such as tourists, housewives, children, students, retired people do not normally qualify for earnings related compensation but are eligible for all other benefits. These are not taxable. Housewives—including visiting women from overseas—who are non-earners are eligible for the benefits available to non-earners and home help can be paid for or the husband compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the home until the injured wife can resume her duties. After the first week's incapacity and for the ensuing 4 weeks the earner can be paid 80% of his average earnings for the 28 days preceding the accident; after that the 80% is related to average earnings over the 12 preceding months. In addition— for earners—lump sums are payable for impairment, pain and disfigurement and for funeral expenses and weekly sums and lump payments to their widows and dependent children. All employees are covered by the Accident Compensation Act 1972. Commerce. Trade (excluding specie and bullion) in NZ$1 m. for 12 months ended 30 June: Total merchandise Exports of Total merchandise 1 imported (v.f.d.) 8,197-9 11,344-2 10,468-3 10,803-4

1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87

domestic produce 8,366-1 11,011-9 10,139-0 11,723-9 1 Value for duty.

Re-exports 257-7 303-9 432-7 383-3

11,315-8 10,571-7 12,107-2

The principal imports for the 12 months ended 30 June 1987: Value (NZ$1,000) Commodity (c.i.f.) 39,334 Cereals and cereal preparations Fruit and vegetables 190,040 Sugar and sugar preparations 71,369 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, etc. 102,128 Beverages 96,556 28,249 Tobacco and manufactures 37,984 Crude rubber Textile fibres 32,146 Crude fertilizers and minerals other than coal 88,253 Petroleum and petroleum products 759,469 Organic chemicals 199,333 Inorganic chemicals 147,382 Dyeing, tanning, etc. materials 93,676 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products 288,169 Fertilizers, manufactured 59,781 Plastic materials, etc. 438,661 151,742 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products 108,652 Rubber manufactures 1 288,219 Paper and paperboard manufactures 742,465 Textile yarn and fabrics, etc. 199,782 Non-metallic mineral manufactures 1 453,128 Iron and steel 174,600 Non-ferrous metals 297,051 Manufactures of metals 526,229 General industrial machinery 595,658 Electrical machinery 1,320,644 Road vehicles 238,999 Professional scientific instruments 593,744 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 1 2 Total merchandise imported 11,800,187 1

Not elsewhere specified.

2

Including commodities not listed.

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T h e principal exports o f N e w Z e a l a n d p r o d u c e for the 12 m o n t h s e n d e d 3 0 June 1 9 8 7 were: Value Value Commodity (NZSlm.) Commodity (NZSlm.) Forest products Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen 1,024-5 Sawn timber 92-8 Beef and veal 952-9 Radiata pine logs 406 Lamb Mutton 252-9 141-5 Wood pulp 800-3 Dairy products Fruit and vegetables 60-7 Skimmed milk powder 221-2 Inedible tallow Butter 510-1 Casein and caseinates 281-1 Iron ore and concentrates 30-3 Cheese 276-7 Aluminium and aluminium alloys 503 -9 Hides, skins and fur skins 537-8 1,566-9 Carpets and carpeting 810 Wool Sausage casings 94-0 Domestic electrical equipment 66-7 Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen 457-1 (incl. parts) Rock lobster (crayfish) 108-3 12,107-2 Total produce exported T h e f o l l o w i n g table s h o w s the trade w i t h different c o u n t r i e s for the year e n d e d 3 0 June (in N Z S 1,000): Imports v.J.d. from Exports and re-exports f.o.b. to 1987 1986 1987 Countries 1986 1,821,754 1,794,912 Australia 1,725,495 1,942,097 Bahrain 104,930 8,627 10,624 8,891 121,994 Belgium 96,857 161,457 82,130 172,717 198,854 Canada 226,566 236,447 China 83,778 84,667 229,578 425,488 Fiji 24,837 119,523 123,106 20,748 191,383 147,772 226,003 France 175,556 Germany, Fed. Rep. of 622,635 641,557 269,868 310,773 1,994 1,590 71,748 72,975 Greece Hong Kong 186,232 129,669 182,648 161,075 India 38,112 41,980 52,761 71,483 Iran 982 300,967 195,084 487 240,279 227,144 301,890 Italy 168,131 1,823,080 Japan 2,194,371 2,235,401 1,531,459 Korea, Republic of 83,927 178,340 153,027 244,970 64 19,902 Kuwait 9,401 20,247 Malaysia 50,327 48,418 117,726 133,376 131,176 156,564 158,106 165,451 Netherlands 24,552 58,110 94,428 Philippines 20,958 85,041 Saudi Arabia 210,986 203,903 99,006 170,167 Singapore 396,297 184,955 171,462 Sweden 118,345 16,109 18,755 103,515 UK 985,521 1,060,655 933,870 1,125,092 241,257 205,081 USSR 5,353 7,828 USA 1,944,831 1,823,091 1,729,477 1,612,219 Total trade b e t w e e n N e w Z e a l a n d a n d U K was as f o l l o w s (British D e p a r t m e n t o f Trade returns, in £ 1 , 0 0 0 sterling): 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 Imports to U K 486,305 483,749 533,047 455,694 487,332 Exports and re-exports from U K 266,054 367,512 396,595 343,145 378,368 T o u r i s m . T h e c o u n t r y has a g r o w i n g tourist industry. In the year e n d e d 31 M a r c h 1 9 8 7 , 7 6 3 , 2 0 9 travellers visited N e w Z e a l a n d (including 5 9 8 , 7 0 0 tourists), c o m pared with 6 8 9 , 0 7 3 (including 5 4 4 , 5 1 7 tourists) in 1 9 8 6 .

COMMUNICATIONS R o a d s . Total length o f f o r m e d roads a n d streets in N e w Z e a l a n d at 31 M a r c h 1 9 8 6 w a s 9 2 , 9 7 1 k m . There were 1 4 , 9 4 9 bridges o f o v e r 3 metres in length with a total length o f 3 3 5 , 0 0 0 metres at 31 M a r c h 1 9 8 6 . T h e n e t w o r k o f state h i g h w a y s c o m p r i s e d , a t 3 1 M a r c h 1 9 8 6 , 1 1 , 5 5 5 k m , i n c l u d i n g the principal arterial traffic routes. Total expenditure o n roads, streets a n d bridges b y the central g o v e r n m e n t a n d local authorities c o m b i n e d for the financial year 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 a m o u n t e d t o $ 3 3 9 - 9 m .

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At 31 March 1986 motor vehicles licensed numbered 2,437,329, of which 1,531,425 were cars and 5,038 omnibuses and service vehicles. Included in the remaining numbers were 134,214 motor cycles, 895 power cycles, 305,984 trucks, 385,916 trailers and caravans and 62,827 farm tractors and other farm equipment. Railways. On 31 March 1987 there were 4,273 km of 1,067 mm gauge railway open for traffic (519 km electrified). In 1985-86, railways carried 9m. tonnes and 151m. passengers. Operating earnings from government railways, 1986-87, $468,865,000. Three rail/road ferries maintain a regular service between the North and South Islands. The total revenue (including road motor and other subsidiary services) amounted to $666 • 1 m., and total expenditure $690-1 m. in 1986-87. Aviation. International services are operated to and from New Zealand by a stateowned company, Air New Zealand Ltd, and by a number of overseas companies. Air New Zealand Ltd also operates most domestic scheduled passenger services. Non-scheduled services are run by the main companies and also by a number of small operators and aero clubs. Domestic scheduled services during the 12 months ended Dec. 1985: Passengers carried, 3,255,000. International services: Passengers carried, 2,061,000; mail, 3,936 tonnes; freight, 92,227 tonnes. Shipping. Container ships operate from Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton and Port Chalmers to the UK, Europe, North America and Japan. The government-owned New Zealand Shipping Corporation has begun to increase its activity into New Zealand—UIC and Pacific trades. Entrances and clearances of vessels from overseas: 1984 1985 1986

Entrances No. Tons 3,193 14,001,000 2,932 14,607,000 2,519 13,388,000

Clearances No. Tons 3,174 13,934,000 2,935 14,613,000 2,527 13,365,000

Post and Broadcasting. Receipts of the Post Office for year ended 31 March 1987 were $2,271 -6m.; total expenditure was $l,912-6m. The average staff for 1986-87 was 40,891. The telegraph and telephone systems are operated by the Post Office. At 31 March 1987 there were 2,315,000 telephones. The telecommunications receipts for the year 1986-87 were $ 1,529m. An earth satellite station has been built north of Auckland to link with the Pacific satellite Intelsat III to augment the Compac and Seacon telecommunications systems which link New Zealand with overseas countries. There are 2 TV channels both operated by the state-owned New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation, which also operates most of the broadcasting stations. Over 85% of New Zealand households have TV sets. There are 64 medium-wave broadcasting stations and 2 short-wave transmitters. Some commercial material is broadcast by both sound and TV services. Number of TV receiving licences at 31 March 1987 was914,689. Cinemas. There were in 1981,154 cinemas withaseatingcapacity of89,364. Newspapers. There were (1987), 34 daily newspapers (10 morning and 24 evening) with a combined circulation of 1,134,835. Seven of these newspapers (2 each in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch and 1 in Dunedin) had a circulation of 711,538. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The judiciary consists of the Court of Appeal, the High Court and District Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Other special courts

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include the Maori Land Court, Family Courts and Young Persons' Courts. At the end of Dec. 1986 the gaols and Borstal institutions contained 2,690 prisoners, 2,578 males and 112 females. The death penalty for murder was replaced by life imprisonment in 1961. The Criminal Injuries Act, 1963, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1964, provided for compensation of persons injured by certain criminal acts and the dependants of persons killed by such acts. However, this has now been phased out in favour of the Accident Compensation Act, 1972, except in the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. Since 1970 legal aid in civil proceedings (except divorce) has been available for persons of small or moderate means. For the year ended 31 Dec. 1986 expenditure amounted to $8,505,761 and 31,295 applications for aid were granted. Police. The police in New Zealand are a national body maintained wholly by the central government. The total strength at 31 March 1987 was 5,291, the proportion of police to population being 1 to 627. The total cost of police services for the year 1986-87 was NZ$32 lm., equivalent to $97 per head of population. In New Zealand the police do not control traffic. Ombudsmen. The office of Ombudsman was created in 1962. From 1975 additional Ombudsmen have been authorized. There are currently two. Ombudsmen's functions are to investigate complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of government departments, local authorities and statutory organizations. During the year ended 31 March 1987, 1,747 complaints were received, 93 of which were sustained. Religion. No direct state aid is given to any form of religion. For the Church of England the country is divided into 7 dioceses, with a separate bishopric (Aotearoa) for the Maoris. The Presbyterian Church is divided into 23 presbyteries and the Maori Synod. The Moderator is elected annually. The Methodist Church is divided into 10 districts; the President is elected annually. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into 4 dioceses, with the Archbishop of Wellington as Metropolitan Archbish

°P'

Number of

clergy Number of adherents (April ¡977) 1981 census 1986 census' Religious denomination Church of England 780 814,740 784,059 Presbyterian 686 523,221 586,530 Roman Catholic (including 'Catholic' undefined) 931 456,858 495,300 Methodist 148,512 349 152,955 Baptist 254 50,043 67,716 Brethren 187 24,324 Ratana 142 35,781 — Protestant (undefined) 16,986 Salvation Army 241 20,490 Latter-day Saints (Mormon) 162 37,686 Congregationalist 10 3,825 Seventh-day Adventist 55 11,523 871,689 Ringatu 88 6,114 — Christian (undefined) 101,901 Jehovah's Witnesses 125 13,737 Hebrew 7 3,360 — All other religious professions 279,768 — Agnostic 24,201 — Atheist 21,528 — Not specified 108,015 59,385 Object to state 473,115 244,152 — Total

4,712 1

3,175,737

3,261,786

Provisional.

Education. New Zealand has 6 universities, the University of Auckland, University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Victoria University of Wellington, Massey University (at Palmerston North), the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch) and the Uni-

NEW ZEALAND

915

versity of Otago (at Dunedin). There is, in addition, Lincoln College near Christchurch, a university college of agriculture, which is a constituent college of the University of Canterbury. The number of students in 1986 was 61,979. There were 6 teachers' training colleges with 3,553 students in 1986. At 1 July 1986 there were 315 state secondary schools with 14,344 full-time teachers and 214,300 pupils. There were also 36 district high schools with 3,191 scholars in the secondary division. At 1 July 1986, 84,617 part-time pupils attended technical classes, and 33,598 received part-time instruction from the technical correspondence institute. At 1 July 1986, 1,109 pupils received tuition from the secondary department of the correspondence school. There were 21 registered private secondary schools with 433 teachers and 11,816 pupils. At 1 July 1986, there were 2,418 state primary schools (including intermediate schools and departments), with 414,731 pupils; the number of teachers was 18,830. A correspondence school for children in remote areas and those otherwise unable to attend school had 1,606 primary pupils. There were 69 registered private primary schools with 336 teachers and 11,417 pupils. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. Children aged 3 and 4 years may enrol at the 552 free kindergartens maintained by Free Kindergarten Associations, which receive government assistance. There are also 657 play centres which also receive government subsidy. In July 1986 there were 41,822 and 14,509 children on the rolls respectively. Total expenditure out of government funds in 1986-87 upon education was NZ$2,598m. The universities and the affiliated agricultural colleges are autonomous bodies. Most secondary schools are controlled by their own boards. Virtually all state primary schools are controlled by the district education boards: there are 10 education districts. The Department of Education exercises certain defined functions in connexion with the general supervision of the education provided in state primary and secondary schools and disburses the government grants payable to controlling authorities for the running of those schools. Education in state schools is free for children under 19 years of age. Private schools are regularly visited by state school inspectors. Report of the Minister of Education ('E.l. Report'). Annually. Wellington, Government Printer NZ Committee on Secondary Education. Towards Partnership. Dept. of Education, 1976

Health. At 30 June 1987 there were 8,312 doctors on the medical register. At 31 March 1986 there were 23,759 public hospital beds, of which 2,070 were for maternity cases. Social Welfare. New Zealand's record for progressive legislation reaches back to 1898, when it was second only to Denmark in introducing non-contributory old-age pensions. The present system came into operation from 1 April 1972. It provides for retirement, unemployment, widowhood, invalidity and sickness, as well as hospital and other medical care. Since 1 April 1969 the scheme has been financed from general taxation. Previously there was a special social security tax on virtually all income of individuals and companies in excess of $4 a week which met approximately three-quarters of the cost of the scheme, the balance being met from general taxation. At 31 March 1987 the current weekly rates of widows', invalids', sickness, domestic purposes, unemployment and miners' benefits were $218-60 for a married couple, $131-16 for an unmarried person aged 18 years or over, and $ 106 • 13 for those under 18 years. There are additional payments for dependent children. All benefits except superannuation and family allowances are subject to an income test. Family Benefit. A family benefit of $6 a week is payable for each dependent child. Unemployment Benefit. The payment is subject to the condition that the applicant is capable and willing to undertake suitable employment.

916

NEW

ZEALAND

Sickness Benefit. Payment is subject to medical evidence of incapacity of a person who has suffered a loss of weekly earnings as a result. Other benefits include emergency benefits and additional benefits for those in need but who either do not qualify for one of the standard benefits or who have special needs or commitments for which a benefit at the standard rate is insufficient. Medical, Hospital and Related Benefits. Medical, hospital and other related benefits are also provided under the Social Welfare scheme. These consist mainly of the payment of certain fees for medical attention by private practitioners, free treatment in public and mental hospitals, certain fees for treatment in private hospitals, maternity benefits (including ante-natal and post-natal treatment and services of doctors and nurses at confinements), pharmaceutical benefits (medicines, drugs, etc., prescribed by medical practitioners), etc. There are also benefits in connexion with dental services up to the age of 16, X-ray diagnosis, massage, home-nursing, artificial aids, etc. Pensions. Provision is made for the payment of pensions and allowances to members or dependants of disabled, deceased or missing members, of the New Zealand Forces who served in the South African War, the two World Wars, the Korean War and the Vietnam War, to members of the New Zealand Mercantile Marine during the Second World War, or in connexion with any emergency whether arising out of the obligations undertaken by New Zealand in the Charter of the United Nations or otherwise. Principal rates are: War pensions are payable to widows at a rate of $68-28 a week, together with a mother's allowance of $36 a week, increased by $16 a week for each additional child, in addition to the normal child allowances of $6 per week for each child. These rates may be increased by an amount not exceeding $46-82 per week if the pensioner is suffering from total blindness, two or more serious disabilities or one extremely severe disability. An 'economic pension' is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is additional to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. The maximum weekly rates are $218 • 60 to a married person (if unmarried, $131-16); to the widow or dependent widowed mother of a member, $178-60. War veterans' allowances are $ 131 • 16 weekly for a single person and $218 • 60 for a married person, plus an equal amount to a wife, increased by $ 1.50 a week each at age 65, subject to income qualifications. Domestic Purposes Benefit. A domestic purposes benefit is payable to unsupported male and female solo parents including divorced, separated and unmarried persons, prisoners' spouses and also to those who are required to give full-time care to a person (other than their spouse) who would otherwise have to be admitted to hospital. Death Benefit. A death benefit of $ 1,260 is payable to a widow or widower if totally dependent on the deceased plus $630 for each dependent child but not exceeding $1,600. Social Welfare Benefits and War Pensions: ,,, Total payments Number Benefits

force at 31 March 1987

1986-87 (NZ$1,000)

SOCIAL W E L F A R E :

Monetary— Superannuation Widows Family care Family Invalids Miners and orphans Unemployment Sickness Domestic purposes Total

473,401 13,019 246,495 450,072 23,087 506 63,922 11,116 69,146

3,650,165 94,732 68,969 273,248 159,823 1,774 459,685 124,292 709,568

1,350,764

5,542,256

NEW

917

ZEALAND Total payments 1986-87 (NZ$1,000)

Benefits

SOCIAL WELFARE (contd.):

Health, etc.— Medical Hospital Maternity Pharmaceutical Supplementary

93,943 65,318 30,445 444,295 58,002

Total

692,003

WAR PENSIONS as at 31 March 1987: Type of Person War disablement Dependants of disabled Widows Other dependants of deceased Economic War service War veteran's allowance Police

Number in Force 21,481 50 4,211

Total

30 1,307 1,825 745 32 29,681

Dependent Wives Included -

I J

_ 48 1,079 328 -

1,455

Annual Value (NZ$1,000) 34,775 283 14,989 8,976 17,456 7,127 59 83,665

Reciprocity with Other Countries. There are reciprocal arrangements between New Zealand and Australia in respect of age, invalids', widows', family, unemployment and sickness benefits, and between New Zealand and the U K in respect of family, age, superannuation, widows', orphans', invalids', sickness and unemployment benefits. Superannuation. Following the change of Government in Dec. 1975 the earningsrelated superannuation scheme described in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1977-78, was abolished. Under the new system (operative from Feb. 1977) superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders on reaching the age of 60. It is taxable but not subject to an income test. The rates are based on the national average wage, of which married couples now receive 80% and single persons 60% of the married rate.

MINOR ISLANDS The minor islands (total area, 320 sq. miles, 829 sq. km) included within the geographical boundaries of New Zealand (but not within any local government area) are the following: Kermadec Islands (34 sq. km), Three Kings Islands (8 sq. km), Auckland Islands (606 sq. km), Campbell Island (114 sq. km), Antipodes Islands (606 sq. km), Bounty Islands (1 sq. km), Snares Islands (3 sq. km), Solander Island (1 sq. km). With the exception of meteorological station staff on Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group (5 in 1986) and Campbell Island (10 in 1986) there are no inhabitants. The Kermadec Islands were annexed to New Zealand in 1887, have no separate administration and all New Zealand laws apply to them. Situation, 29° 10' to 31° 30' S. lat., 177° 45' to 179° W. long., 1,000 miles N N E of New Zealand. The largest of the group is Raoul or Sunday Island, 29 sq. km, smaller islands being Macauley and Curtis, while Macaulay Island is 3 miles in circuit.

918

NEW

ZEALAND

TERRITORIES OVERSEAS Territories Overseas coming within the jurisdiction of New Zealand consist of Tokelau and the Ross Dependency. Tokelau. Situated some 480 km to the north of Western Samoa between 8° and 10° S. lat., and between 171° and 173° W. long., are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu and Fakaofo of the Tokelau (Union) group. Formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, the group was transferred to the jurisdiction of New Zealand on 11 Feb. 1926. By legislation enacted in 1948, the Tokelau Islands were declared part of New Zealand as from 1 Jan. 1949. The area of the group is 1,011 hectares; the population at 10 Oct. 1986 was 1,690. By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now invested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. In Dec. 1976 the territory was officially renamed 'Tokelau', the name by which it has customarily been known to its inhabitants. From 8 Nov. 1974 the office of Administrator was invested in the Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Certain powers are delegated to the district officer in Apia, Westem Samoa. Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the islanders agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to March 1975, 528 migrants entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. At the request of the people the scheme has now been suspended. New Zealand Government aid to Tokelau totalled $3 -3m. for the year ended 31 March 1987. Ross Dependency. By Imperial Order in Council, dated 30 July 1923, the territories between 160° E. long, and 150° W. long, and south of 60° S. lat. were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. The region was named the Ross Dependency. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The mainland area is estimated at 400,000-450,000 sq. km and is mostly icecovered. In Jan. 1957 a New Zealand expedition under Sir Edmund Hillary established a base in the Dependency. In Jan. 1958 Sir Edmund Hillary and 4 other New Zealanders reached the South Pole. The main base—Scott Base—at Pram Point, Ross Island—is manned throughout the year, about 12 people being present during winter. Vanda Station in the dry icefree Wright Valley is manned every summer. Quartermain, L. B., New Zealand

and the Antarctic. Wellington, 1971

SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES OVERSEAS THE COOK ISLANDS HISTORY. The Cook Islands, which lie between 8° and 23° S. lat., and 156° and 167° W. long., were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888, and on 11 June 1901 were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand. In 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing territory in 'free association' with New Zealand. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The islands within the territory fall roughly into two groups—the scattered islands towards the north (Northern group) and the islands towards the south known as the Lower group. The names of the islands with their populations as at the census of 1 Dec. 1981 were as follows:

THE COOK Area Lower Group— sq. km Rarotonga 67-2 518 Mangaia Atiu 26-9 Aitutaki 180 184 Mauke (Parry Is.) 22-3 Mitiaro Manuae and Te au-o-tu 6-2 Takutea 1-3

Population 9,530 1,364 1,225 2,335 681 256 12

919

ISLANDS

Area Northern Group— sq.km 12 Nassau Palmerston (Avarau) 2-0 Penrhyn (Tongareva) 98 Manihiki (Humphrey) 5-4 41 Rakahanga (Reireon) Pukapuka (Danger) 5-1 Suwarrow(Anchorage) 0-4

Population 134 51 608 405 272 796 —

—

-

Total

293

17,754

Vital statistics (1985): Births, 418; marriages, 105; deaths, 117. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964, which provides for the establishment of internal self-government in the Cook Islands, came into force on 4 Aug. 1965. The Act establishes the Cook Islands as fully self-governing but linked to New Zealand by a common Head of State, the Queen, and a common citizenship, that of New Zealand. It provides for a ministerial system of government with a Cabinet consisting of a Premier and 6 other Ministers. The New Zealand Government is represented by a New Zealand Representative and the position of a Queen's Representative has recently been created by changes in the Constitution. New Zealand continues to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, subject to consultation between the New Zealand Prime Minister and the Prime Minister. The changed status of the Islands does not affect the consideration of subsidies or the right of free entry into New Zealand for exports from the group. The capital is Rarotonga, which was devastated by a hurricane in Jan. 1987. The unicameral Parliament comprises 24 members elected for a term of 5 years; at general elections held in Nov. 1983, the Democratic Party won 13 seats and the Cook Islands Party 11 seats. There is also an advisory council composed of hereditary chiefs, the 15-member House of Ariki, without legislative powers. Prime Minister: Dr Pupuke Robati. ECONOMY AND TRADE Budget. Budget 1987-88, NZ$40,104,700. Revenue is derived chiefly from customs duties which follow the New Zealand customs tariff, income tax and stamp sales. Grants from New Zealand, mainly for medical, educational and general administrative purposes totalled NZ$7m. in 1982-83. Currency. The Cook Island dollar is at par with the New Zealand dollar. Agriculture. Livestock (1986): Pigs, 17,000; goats, 3,000. Fisheries. Catch (1984) 800 tonnes. Commerce. Exports, mainly to New Zealand, were valued at $6-5m. in 1984. Main items of export were fresh fruit and vegetables, fruit juice, copra and clothing. Imports totalled $30m. in 1984. The main items were foodstuffs, manufactured goods (including transport equipment), petrol and petroleum products. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 280 km of roads and 1,417 vehicles. Aviation. New Zealand has financed the construction of an international airport at Rarotonga which became operational for jet services in Sept. 1973. Shipping. A fortnightly cargo shipping service is provided between New Zealand, Niue and Rarotonga. Telecommunications. Wireless stations are maintained at all the permanently

920

NEW

ZEALAND

inhabited islands. In 1983 there were 2,052 telephones. There are 2 radio stations on Rarotonga with (1983) 10,000 receivers. Newspapers. The Cook Islands News (circulation 2,000) is the sole daily newspaper. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D HEALTH Justice. There is a High Court and a Court of Appeal, from which further appeal is to the Privy Council in the UK. Religion. Some 60% of the population belong to the Cook Islands Congregational Church, about 20% are Roman Catholics, and the rest chiefly Mormons and Seventh-Day Adventists. Education. In 1986 there were 30 primary schools with 165 teachers and 3,183 pupils, and 8 secondary schools with 146 teachers and 2,156 pupils on Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Mangaia, Atiu, Mauke and Pukapuka. Health. All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment in their villages, the hospital and the tuberculosis sanatorium. Cook Islands Maori patients in the hospital and the sanatorium and all schoolchildren receive free dental treatment.

NIUE History. Niue achieved internal self-government in Oct. 1974. Area and Population. Distance from Auckland, New Zealand, 1,343 miles; from Rarotonga, 580 miles. Area, 258 sq. km; height above sea-level, 220 ft. Population at 31 Dec. 1987 was 2,442. During 1987 births registered numbered 50, deaths 15. Migration to New Zealand is the main factor in population change. The capital is Alofi (986 inhabitants in 1981). Constitution and Government. There is a Legislative Assembly of 20 members, and legislative measures apply as in the case of the Cook Islands. Premier: Robert R. Rex, CMG, OBE. Budget. Financial aid from New Zealand, 1987-88, totalled $8,500,000. Agriculture. The most important products of the island are coconuts, honey, limes and root crops. Trade. Exports, 1985, $175,924 (main export, coconut cream); imports, $3,753,384. Communications. There is a wireless station at Alofi, the port of the island. A weekly commercial air service links Niue with New Zealand. Telephones (1986) 460. Justice. There is a High Court under a Chief Justice, with a right of appeal to the New Zealand Supreme Court. Religion. 75% of the population belong to the Congregational (Ekalesia Niue); 10% are Mormons and 5% Roman Catholics. Education. There were 7 government schools with 702 pupils in 1987. Health. In 1986 there were 3 doctors, 3 dentists, 7 midwives and 27 nursing personnel. There is a 25-bed hospital at Alofi. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of New Zealand in Great Britain (New Zealand Hse, Haymarket, London, SW1Y 4TQ) High Commissioner: Bryce Harland.

NIUE

921

Of Great Britain in New Zealand (Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bldg., 2 The Terrace, Wellington, 1 ) High Commissioner: R. A. C. Byatt, CMG. Of New Zealand in the USA (37 Observatory Cir., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: H. H. (Tim) Francis. Of the USA in New Zealand (29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington) Ambassador: Paul Cleveland. Of New Zealand to the United Nations Ambassador: David K. McDowell. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The central statistical office for New Zealand is the Department of Statistics (Wellington, 1). The beginning of a statistical service may be seen in the early 'Blue books' prepared annually from 1840 onwards under the direction of the Colonial Secretary, and designed primarily for the information of the Colonial Office in England. A permanent statistical authority was created in 1858. The Department of Statistics functions under the Statistics Act 1975 and reports to Parliament through the Minister of Statistics. A comprehensive statistical service has been developed to meet national requirements, and close contact is maintained with the United Nations Statistical Office and other international statistical organizations; through the Conference of Asian Statisticians assistance is being given with the development of statistics in the region. The oldest publications consist of (a) census results from 1858 onwards and (b) annual volumes of statistics (first published 1858 but covering years back to 1853). Main current publications: New Zealand Official Yearbook. Annual, from 1893 Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics. 1972 Statistical Reports of New Zealand. Annual Monthly Abstract of Statistics. From 1914 Pocket Digest of Statistics. Annual, 1927-31,1938 ff. Parliamentary Reports of Government Departments. Annual Pacific Islands Yearbook. Sydney, 1977 Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. 2 vols. Wellington, 1940 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. 3 vols. Wellington, 1966 National Bibliography. Wellington, 1968 Alley, R., New Zealand and the Pacific. Boulder, 1984 Bedggood,D., Rich and Poor in New Zealand. Sydney, 1980 Bush, G., Local Government and Politics in New Zealand. Sydney, 1980 Easton, B., Social Policy and the Welfare State in New Zealand. Auckland, 1980 Grover, R. R., New Zealand. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 H a w k e . G . R., The Making of New Zealand: A n Economic History. CUP, 1985 Holcroft, M. H., The Shaping of New Zealand. Auckland, 1975 Morrell, W. P., and Hall, D. O. W., A History of New Zealand Life. Christchurch and London, 1957 Oliver, W . H . (ed.), The Oxford History of New Zealand. OUP, 1981 Robson, J. L. (ed.), New Zealand: The Development of its Laws and Constitution. 2nd ed. London,1967 Sinclair, K.., A History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. London, 1980 Thakur, R., In Defence of New Zealand. Wellington, 1984 Wards, I., A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand. Wellington, Government Printer, 1976

Capital: Managua Population: 3 • 5m. ( 1987) GNP per capita: US$960 ( 198 5)

NICARAGUA República de Nicaragua

HISTORY. Active colonization of the Pacific coast was undertaken by Spaniards from Panama, beginning in 1523. After links with other Central American territories, and Mexico, Nicaragua became completely independent in 1838, but subject to a prolonged feud between the 'Liberals' of León and the 'Conservatives' of Granada. Mosquitia remained an autonomous kingdom on the Atlantic coast, under British protection until 1860. On 5 Aug. 1914 the Bryan-Chamarro treaty between Nicaragua and the US was signed, under which the US in return for US$3m. acquired a permanent option for a canal route through Nicaragua and a 99-year option for a naval base in the Bay of Fonseca on the Pacific coast and Com Islands on the Atlantic coast. It was ratified by Nicaragua on 7 April 1916 and by the US on 22 June 1916. US Marines finally left in 1933. The Bryan-Chamarro treaty was abrogated on 14 July 1970 and the Corn Islands handed back in 1971. The 46-year political domination of Nicaragua by the Somoza family ended on 17 July 1979, after the 17 years long struggle by the Sandinista National Liberation Front flared into civil war. A Government Junta of National Reconstruction was established by the revolutionary government on 20 July 1979 and a 51-member Council of State later created; both were dissolved on 10 Jan. 1985 following new Presidential and legislative elections. On 9 Jan. 1987 the President signed the new Constitution, but immediately reimposed a state of emergency, suspending many of the liberties granted under the Constitution. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Nicaragua is bounded north by Honduras, east by the Caribbean, south by Costa Rica and west by the Pacific. Area 127,849 sq. km (49,363 sq. miles) or 118,558 sq. km (45,775 sq. miles) if the lakes are excluded. The coastline runs 540 km on the Atlantic and 350 km on the Pacific. Population at the census of April 1971 was 1,877,972. Estimate (1987) 3-5m. Nicaragua is the largest in area and most thinly populated of the Central American republics, 30 inhabitants per sq. km in 1987. In 1984, births, 139,800; marriages, 13,600; deaths, 30,700. The people of the western half of the republic are principally of mixed Spanish and Indian extraction, some of pure Spanish descent and many Indians. TTie population of the eastern half is composed mainly of Mosquito and other Indians and Zambos, and Negroes from Jamaica and other islands of the Caribbean. The main ethnic groups in 1980 were: Mestizo, 69%; white, 14%; black, 8%; amerindian, 4%. The areas, estimated populations (1985) and capitals of the 6 regions and 3 special zones are as follows: Region 1 2 3 4 5 6

Capital Sq.km Esteli 7,598 León 9,896 Managua 3,597 Jinotepe 4,726 Juigalpa 9,929 Matagalpa 16,370

1985 334,717 545,321 903,998 514,113 209,218 406,913

Special Zone Zelaya Norte Zelaya Sur Rio San Juan 1

Capital Sq.km Rosita 59,094 Bluefields ' San Carlos 7,448

1985 325,454 ' 34,330

Included in Zelaya Norte.

The capital is Managua, situated on the lake of the same name, 180 ft above sea level, with (1985) 682,111 inhabitants. Other cities: León, 100,982; Granada, 88,636; Masaya, 74,946; Chinandega, 67,792; Matagalpa, 36,983; Esteli, 30,635; Tipitapa, 30,078; Chichigalpa, 28,889; Juigalpa, 25,625; Corinto, 24,250; Jinotepe, 23,538. 922

NICARAGUA

923

CLIMATE. The climate is tropical, with a wet season from May to Jan. Temperatures vary with altitude. Managua. Jan. 79°F (26°C), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall 45" (1,140 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The National Assembly drafted and approved on 19 Nov. 1986 the new Constitution which was promulgated on 9 Jan. 1987. It provided for a unicameral National Assembly comprising 90 members directly elected by proportional representation, together with unsuccessful presidential election candidates obtaining a minimum level of votes. The President and Vice-President are directly elected for a 6-year term commencing on the 10 Jan. following their date of election. Under Article 185 of the Constitution, the President is empowered to declare a state of emergency and suspend certain of the civil rights provisions enshrined therein; this was done by the President immediately upon the promulgation of the Constitution. President: Daniel Ortega Saavedra (elected 4 Nov. 1984, took office 10 Jan. 1985). Vice-President: Sergio Ramírez Mercado. The Council of Ministers in Aug. 1987 was composed as follows: Foreign Affairs: Miguel d'Escoto Brockman. Defence: Gen. Humberto Ortega Saavedra. Interior: Cdr Tomas Borge Martinez. Presidency: René Núñez Téllez, Cdr Luis Carrión Cruz (First Vice-Minister). International Co-operation: Cdr Henry Ruiz Hernández. Agriculture: Cdr Jaime Wheelock Román. Industry: Emilio Baltodano. Foreign Trade: Dr Alejandro Martinez Cuenca. Domestic Trade: Cdr Ramón Cabrales. Transport: Cdr William Ramírez Solórazano. Finance: William Hupper Argello. Environment: Miguel Ernesto Vigil Icaza. Housing and Construction: Cdr Mauricio Valenzuala. Labour: Benedicto Meneses Fonseca. Health: Dora Maria Téllez Argello. Education: Fernando Cardenal Martínez. Justice: Dr Rodrigo Reyes Portocarrero. Culture: Ernesto Cardenal Martínez. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, blue, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Salve a ti Nicaragua (words by S. Ibarra Mayorga, 1937). Local government. Since 26 July 1982 the country has been divided into 6 administrative regions and 3 special zones. Article 181 of the new Constitution provides for autonomous governments for Zelaya Norte and Zelaya Sur to offer selfgovernment for the ethnic minorities who chiefly inhabit the Atlantic coast Miskitos, Sumos, Ramos, creóles, garifunas (mixed black and amerindian) and mestizos. DEFENCE. Conscription for 2 years was introduced in 1983 for men between 17 and 22 years. Army. The Army is organized into 1 motorized infantry brigade, 5 armoured, 10 infantry, and 4 engineer battalions; 4 field artillery brigades and 1 anti-aircraft artillery group. Equipment includes 150 T-54/-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 74,000 including reservists and Militia. Navy. To picket the east and west coasts the Marina de Guerre Sandinista operates 8 ex-Soviet fast gunboats, 2 ex-North Korean fast torpedo boats, 2 ex-Soviet inshore minehunters, 4 ex-Soviet minesweeping boats, 4 coastguard cutters, 18 coastal patrol craft and 3 minor landing craft. Personnel in 1988 totalled 600 officers and men. Air Force. Formed in June 1938 as the Nicaraguan Army Air Force, the Air Force has been semi-independent since 1947. Its combat units are reported to have 10 L-39 Albatross light jet attack/trainers, 4 T-33 armed jet trainers, and 3 T-28 armed piston-engined trainers but confirmation is not available. Other equipment includes 4 C-47s, 2 Spanish-built Aviocar and 2 Israeli-built Arava STOL transports

924

NICARAGUA

and smaller communications aircraft and helicopters, including 10 Mi-8s, 2 Mi-2s and 5 Mi-24 gunships and 6 SF.260s for counter-insurgency duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nicaragua is a member of the UN, OAS and the Central American Common Market. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue in 1984 was 11,460m. córdobas and expenditure 14,311m. córdobas. Currency. The monetary unit is the new córdoba (C$), divided into 100 centavos. Bills form the greater part of the currency, in denominations from 1,000 córdobas to 1 córdoba. Coins are 5 and 1 cordobas and 50, 25, 10 and 5 centavos. March 1988, US$1 = 10 new córdobas; £ 1 = 17 05 new córdobas. Banking. The Central Bank of Nicaragua came into operation on 1 Jan. 1961 as an autonomous bank of issue, absorbing the issue department of the National Bank. In July 1979 private financial banking was nationalized and branches of foreign banks were prohibited from receiving deposits. Weights and Measures. Since 1893 the metric system of weights and measures has been recommended. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity for electric energy was 398,000 kw. in 1986 and 1,200 kwh. was produced. Supply 120 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Production of gold in 1980 was 67,000 troy oz.; of silver, 167,000 troy oz.; of copper, 3,000 tonnes. Large deposits of tungsten in Nueva Segovia were reported in 1961. Agriculture. Agriculture is the principal source of national wealth, finding work for 65% of the labour force. Of the total land area (about 36 • 5m. acres), about 17 • 5m. acres are under timber 900,000 acres are used for grazing and 2 1m. acres are arable. The unit of area used locally is the manzana (= 1-73 acres). Of the arable only 1 -2m. acres are actively cultivated, 780,000 in annual crops such as cotton and rice and the remainder in perennial crops such as coffee and sugar-cane, or in two harvests a year in the cases of maize, sorghum and beans. The products of the western half are varied, the most important being cotton, coffee, now under the aegis of the new Instituto del Café, sugar-cane, cocoa, maize, sesame and beans. Production (1986): Coffee, 44,000 tonnes; sugar-cane, 2,810,000 tonnes; cotton, 46,000 tonnes. There were about 2 1m. head of cattle in 1986 and 750,000 pigs. Forestry. Timber production has been declining, though the forests, which cover 10m. acres, contain mahogany and cedar, which were formerly largely exported, three varieties of rosewoods, guayacán (lignum vitae) and dye-woods. Production of sawn wood in 1983,222,000 tonnes. Fisheries. On the Atlantic coast fisheries are an important subsistence activity. Catch (1984) 4,300 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Chief local industries are cane sugar, cooking oil, cigarettes, beer, leather products, plastics, textiles, chemical products, metal products, cement (100,000 tonnes in 1982), strong and soft drinks, soluble coffee, dairy products, meat, plywood. Production of oil products (1983) 489,000 tonnes. Labour. In 1980 there were some 813,000 persons gainfully employed.

925

NICARAGUA

Commerce. The foreign trade of Nicaragua, in US$1 m. (1984): Exports, 390m. consisting of cotton, coffee, chemical products, meat, sugar; imports, 750m. Total trade between Nicaragua and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m ¡ m J m ] m ¡ m Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

1,810 2,367

2,176 4,755

1,324 6,368

1,307 7,349

717 7,883

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984, 4,000 km were paved, out of a total of 25,000 km. The whole 368 -5 km of the Nicaraguan section of the Pan-American Highway is now paved. The all-weather Roosevelt Highway linking Managua with the river port Rama was completed in 1968, to provide the first overland link with the Atlantic coast. There are paved roads to San Juan del Sur, Puerto Sandino and Corinto. In 1981 there were 66,000 vehicles in use including 23,000 cars. Railways. The Pacific Railroad of Nicaragua, owned and operated by the Government, has a total length of 334 km, all single-track, and connects Corinto, Chinandega, León, Managua, Masaya and Granada. Passengers carried (1986) 3 • 5m. and 2 • 5m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. LANICA, the Nicaraguan airline has daily flights to Miami and 6 flights a week to Guatemala and to the inner cities of Bluefields, Puerto Cabezas and the mining towns of Siuna and Bonanza. PAN AM and TACA (Transportes Aéreos Centroamericanos), COPA (Compañía Panameña de Aviación), have daily services to Panama, Mexico, the other Central American countries and USA. SAM (Servicio Aéreo de Medellín) has 3 flights a week to Nicaragua and Colombia. Shipping. The Pacific ports are Corinto (the largest), San Juan del Sur and Puerto Sandino through which pass most of the external trade. The chief eastern ports are El Bluff (for Bluefields) and Puerto Cabezas. The merchant marine consists solely of the Mamenic Line with 8 vessels. In 1980,471,000 tonnes of goods were loaded and 114m. tonnes unloaded at Nicaraguan ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 51,237 telephones. The Tropical Radio Telegraph Company maintains a powerful station at Managua, and branch stations at Bluefields and Puerto Cabezas. The Government operates the National Radio with 47 broadcasting stations: there are 31 commercial stations and some 70 others. Number of wireless sets in 1984 was 200,000 and television sets 127,000. There are 2 television stations at Managua. Cinemas. Cinemas numbered over 100 in 1977 and seated over 60,000. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 3 daily newspapers (2 in Managua and 1 in León), with a total circulation of about 105,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court of Justice at Managua, 5 chambers of second instance (León, Masaya, Granada, Matagalpa and Bluefields) and 15 3 judges of inferior tribunals. Religion. The prevailing form of religion is Roman Catholic, but religious liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution. The republic constitutes 1 archbishopric (seat at Managua) and 7 bishoprics (León, Granada, Esteli, Matagalpa, Juigalpa, Masaya and Puerto Cabezas). Protestants, established principally on the Atlantic coast, numbered 54,100 in 1966. Education. There were, in 1983, 4,976 primary schools, with a total of 534,996 pupils and 14,105 teachers; and 323 secondary schools, with 151,012 pupils. It was claimed that the illiteracy rate was 12% in 1983. In 1977 there were 6 universities and technical colleges with 1,204 professors and 23,171 students. Health. In 1984 there were 2,172 doctors, 222 dentists, 5,649 nursing personnel and 49 hospitals with 5,045 beds.

926

NICARAGUA

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Nicaragua in Great Britain (8 Gloucester Rd., London, SW7 4PP) Ambassador: Francisco d'Escoto. Of Great Britain in Nicaragua Ambassador and Consul-General: M. F. Daly (resides in San José). Of Nicaragua in the USA (1627 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Dr Carlos Tunnermann. Of the USA in Nicaragua (Km. 4Vi Carretera Sur., Managua) A mbassador: (Vacant). Of Nicaragua to the United Nations Ambassador: Nora Astorga-Gadea. Books of Reference Dirección General Estadística y Censos, Boletín de Estadística (irregular intervals); and Indicadores Económicos. Black,G., Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution inNicaragua. London, 1981 Boletín de la Superintendencia de Bancos. Banco Central, Managua Booth, J. A., The End of the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution. Boulder, 1982 Christian, S., Nicaragua: Revolution in the Family. New York, 1985 McGinnis, J., Solidarity with the People of Nicaragua. New York, 1985 Rosset, P., and Vandermeer, J., (eds.) The Nicaragua Reader: Documents of a Revolution under Fire. New York, 1984 Walker, T. W., Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino. Boulder, 1982.—Nicaragua: The First Five Years. New York, 1985 Weber, H., Nicaragua: The Sandinista Revolution. London and New York, 1981 Woodward, R. L., Nicaragua. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Managua, D.N.

NIGER

Capital: Niamey Population: 6-6m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$240 ( 1985)

République du Niger HISTORY. Niger was occupied by France between 1883 and 1899, and constituted a military territory in 1901, which became a part of French West Africa in 1904. It became an autonomous republic within the French Community on 18 Dec. 1958 and achieved full independence on 3 Aug. 1960. On 15 April 1974 the first President, Hamani Diori, was overthrown in a military coup led by Lieut.-Col. Seyni Kountche, who suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly and banned political groups. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Niger is bounded north by Algeria and Libya, east by Chad, south by Nigeria, south-west by Benin and Burkina Faso, and west by Mali. Area, 1,186,408 sq. km (458,075 sq. miles), with a population at the 1977 census of 5,098,657. Estimate (1987) 6,608,000. The major towns (populations 1983) are: Niamey, the capital (399,100 inhabitants), Zinder (82,800), Maradi (65,100), Tahoua (41,900), Agadez (27,000). Arlit (28,000), Akouta (26,000). In 1985,16% of the population was urban, and 47% were under 15 years. The population is composed chiefly of Hausa (54%), Songhai and Djerma (23%), Fulani (10%), Beriberi-Manga (9%) and Tuareg (3%). The official language is French but Hausa is understood by 85% of the population. C L I M A T E . Precipitation determines the geographical division into a southern zone of agriculture, a central zone of pasturage and a desert-like northern zone. The country lacks water, with the exception of the south-western districts, which are watered by the Niger and its tributaries, and the southern zone, where there are a number of wells. Niamey, 95°F (35°C). Annual rainfall varies from 22" (560 mm) in the south to 7" (180 mm) in the Sahara zone. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The country is administered by a Supreme Military Council of 12 officers led by the President, who appoints a Council of Ministers to assist him. A system of elected Development Councils at all levels has been created, culminating in a 150-member National Development Council with limited legislative powers charged with drafting a new constitution. The Council of Ministers, in Oct. 1987, comprised: Head of State, President of SMC, Defence and Interior: Col. Ali Seybou. Prime Minister: Hamid Algabid. Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Mahamane Sani Bako. Finance: Boukari Adji. Planning: Almoustapha Somaila. Commerce, Industry and Transport: Madou Mahamadou. Culture and Communication: Daouda Diallo. Civil Service and Labour: Lieut-Col. Mamadou Beidari. Mines and Energy: Amadou Noudou. Agriculture and Environment: Allele Habibou. Animal and Water Resources: Salha Haladou. National Education and Professional Training: Amadou Madougou. Higher Education, Research and Technology: Ilia Maikassoua. Public Works and Housing: Abdou Aboubacar. Youth and Sport: Maj. Toumba Boubacar. Public Health and Social Affairs: Maj. Mainassara Bare. Justice: Capt. Malam Oubandawaki. Ministers-Delegate: Amadou Fity Maiga (Interior), Maina Moussa Boukar (Public Establishments, State Enterprises and Companies). Secretaries of State: Amadou Mamadou (Agriculture and Environment), Brigi Rafini (Interior). National flag: Three horizontal strips of orange, white and green, with an orange disc in the middle of the white strip. 927

928

NIGER

Local government: Niger is divided into 7 départements (Agadez, Diffa, Dosso, Maradi, Niamey, Tahoua and Zinder), each under a prefect, sub-divided into 38 arrondissements, each under a sub-prefect, and some 150 communes. D E F E N C E . Selective military service for2 years operates. Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured reconnaissance squadrons, 6 infantry, 1 engineer, 1 parachute and 1 support company. Equipment includes 10 M-8, 18 AML-90 and 18 AML-60-7 armoured cars. Strength (1988) 3,150. There are additional paramilitary forces of some 2,550 men. Air Force. The Air Force had (1988) 140 officers and men, 2 C-130H and 3 Noratlas transports, 1 Boeing 737 VIP transport, 2 Cessna Skymasters and 3 Do 28D Skyservants and 1 Do 228 for communications duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Niger is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 10-year plan (1981-90) provided for an investment of 520,000m. francs CFA in the first phase (1981-85) with a prime aim of obtaining selfsufficiency in food and developing the mining sector. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1986-87 balanced at 105,575m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA, with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. Banking. The Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest is the bank of issue, and there are 9 commercial banks in Niamey. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) amounted to 265m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Deposits in the Lake Chad area, located in 1978, are to be exploited. Minerals. Large uranium deposits are mined at Arlit and Akouta, in the Air mountains of northern Niger, with French and Japanese assistance. Concentrate production (1983) 3,416 tonnes. Phosphates are mined in the Niger valley, and coal reserves are being exploited by open-cast mining. Salt and natron are produced at Manga and Agadez, tin ore in Air, iron ore at Say. Agriculture. The chief foodcrops in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Millet, 1,383; pulses, 313; sorghum, 360; cassava, 200; sugar-cane, 110; onions, 120; rice, 75. The main cash crops are ground-nuts (42), cotton and gum arabic. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 3-3m.; horses, 292,000; asses, 507,000; sheep, 3 • 5m.; goats, 7 • 5m.; camels, 415,000; chickens, 14m. Forestry. Production ( 1984) 3 • 81 m. cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch (1983) 6,840 tonnes. INDUSTRY A N D TRADE Industry. Some small manufacturing industries, mainly in Niamey, produce textiles, food products, furniture and chemicals. Trade Unions. The sole national body is the Union Nationale des Travailleurs du Niger, which has 15,000 members in 31 unions. Commerce. Imports in 1983 were valued at 123,288m. francs CFA and exports at 113,896m. francs CFA. In 1981, France provided 36% of imports and took 36% of the exports. Main exports were uranium (79%) and livestock, 12%. Total trade between Niger and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1983 1984 1 985 1 986 1987 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

6,854 9,650

391 10,682

399 12,076

848 10,367

10,556 7,026

NIGER

929

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were 8,547 km of roads. Niamey and Zinder are the termini of two trans-Sahara motor routes; the Hoggar-Aïr-Zinder road extends to Kano and the Tanezrouft-Gao-Niamey road to Benin. A 648-km 'uranium road' runs from Arlit to Tahoua. There were (1984), 23,100 private cars and 5,074 goods vehicles. Aviation. There are international airports at Niamey, Zinder and Maradi. Air Niger operates domestic services to over 20 other public airports. Shipping. Sea-going vessels can reach Niamey (300 km. inside the country) between Sept. and March. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1981) 9,320 telephones. In 1984 there were 160,000 radio and 11,000 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1970 there were 4 cinemas with a seating capacity of3,800. Newspapers. In 1984 there was 1 daily newspaper, Le Sahel, with a circulation of 5,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are Magistrates' and Assize Courts at Niamey, Zinder and Maradi, and justices of the peace in smaller centres. The Court of Appeal is at Niamey. Religion. In 1980, 97% of the population was Moslem and the remainder mainly followed animist beliefs. There were about 30,000 Christians. Education. There were, in 1980-81, 228,855 pupils and 5,518 teachers in 1,664 primary schools, 45,846 (1981) and 1,371 teachers in seconda^ schools, and 2,351 students and 120 teachers in the technical and teacher-training colleges. In 1982 there were 1,825 students and 273 teaching staff at the University of Niamey. Health. In 1982 there were 2 hospitals, 36 medical centres and 116 dispensaries. In 1980 there were 136 doctors, and (in 1978) 10 dentists, 12 pharmacists, 88 midwives and 1,080 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Niger in Great Britain Ambassador: Abdou Garba (resides in Paris). Of Great Britain in Niger Ambassador and Consul- General: V. E. Sutherland (resides in Abidjan). Of Niger in the USA (2204 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Joseph Diatta. Of the USA in Niger (PO Box 11201, Niamey) Ambassador:Richard W. Bogosian. Of Niger to the United Nations Ambassador: Joseph Diatta. Books of Reference Bonardi, P., La République du Niger. Paris, 1960 Fugelstad, F., A History of Niger, ¡850-1960. OUP, 1984 Séréde Rivières, E., Histoire du Niger. Paris, 1965

Capital: Lagos Population: 105m. (1988) GNPper capita: US$730 (1986)

NIGERIA Federal Republic ofNigeria

HISTORY. The Federal Republic comprises a number of areas formerly under separate administrations. Lagos, ceded in Aug. 1861 by King Dosunmu, was placed under the Governor of Sierra Leone in 1866. In 1874 it was detached, together with Gold Coast Colony, and formed part of the latter until Jan. 1886, when a separate 'colony and protectorate of Lagos' was constituted. Meanwhile the United African Company had established British interests in the Niger valley, and in July 1886 the company obtained a charter under the name of the Royal Niger Company. This company surrendered its charter to the Crown on 31 Dec. 1899, and on 1 Jan. 1900 the greater part of its territories was formed into the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Along the coast the Oil Rivers protectorate had been declared in June 1885. This was enlarged and renamed the Niger Coast protectorate in 1893; and on 1 Jan. 1900, on its absorbing the remainder of the territories of the Royal Niger Company, it bfecame the protectorate of Southern Nigeria. In Feb. 1906 Lagos and Southern Nigeria were united into the 'colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria', and on 1 Jan. 1914 the latter was amalgamated with the protectorate of Northern Nigeria to form the 'colony and protectorate of Nigeria', under a Governor. On 1 Oct. 1954 Nigeria became a federation under a Governor-General. In 1967,12 states were created and in 1976 this was increased to 19. On 1 Oct. 1960 Nigeria became sovereign and independent and a member of the Commonwealth and on 1 Oct. 1963 Nigeria became a republic. For the history ofNigeria from 1961 to 1978, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1979-80, pp. 923-924.

AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Nigeria is bounded north by Niger, east by Chad and Cameroon, south by the Gulf of Guinea and west by Benin. It has an area of 356,669 sq. miles (923,773 sq. km). Census population, Nov. 1963, 55,670,052. The results of the 1973 census have been officially repudiated. There is considerable uncertainty over the total population, but one estimate based on electoral registration in 1978 is95m. Estimate(1988) 105m. There are 19 states and a Federal Capital Territory (Abuja): States Anambra Bauchi Bendel Benue Borno Cross River Gongola Imo Raduna Kano

Area Population (in sq. km) 1984 17,675 6,029,500 64,605 4,075,800 35,500 4,125,500 45,174 4,068,600 116,400 5,025,000 27,237 5,830,800 91,390 4,367,600 11,850 6,157,000 70,245 6,868,800 43,285 9,681,000

States Kwara Lagos Niger Ogun Ondo Oyo Plateau Rivers Sokoto

Area (in sq. km) 66,869 3,345 65,037 16,762 20,959 37,705 58,030 21,850 102,535

Population 1984 2,884,400 2,825,200 1,961,800 2,596,000 4,617,200 8,732,300 3,397,500 2,883,300 7,608,900

The populations (1983) of the largest towns were as follows: Lagos Ibadan Ogbomosho Kano Oshogbo Ilorin Abeokuta Port Harcourt Zana

1,097,000 1,060,000 527,400 487,100 344,500 343,900 308,800 296,200 274,000

Ilesha Onitsha Ado-Ekiti Iwo Kaduna Mushin Maiduguri Enugu Ede

273,400 268,700 265,800 261,600 247,100 240,700 230,900 228,400 221,900

930

Aba Ife Ila Oyo Ikerre-Ekiti Benin City Iseyin Katsina Jos

216,000 214,500 189,700 185,300 176,800 165,900 157,000 149,300 149,000

931

NIGERIA Sokoto Ilobu Offa Owo Calabar Shaki

148,000 143,800 142,300 132,600 126,000 125,800

Ondo Akure Gusau Ijebu-Ode Effon-Alaiye Kumo

122,600 117,300 114,100 113,100 110,600 107,000

Shomolu Oka-Akoko Ikare Sapele Minna Warri

106,800 103,500 101,700 100,600 98,900 91,100

It was announced in Feb. 1976 that the federal capital would be moved from Lagos to the Abuja area and, in Sept. 1982, Abuja was established as the future capital. CLIMATE. Lying wholly within the tropics, temperatures everywhere are high. Rainfall varies very much, but decreases from the coast to the interior. The main rains occur from April to Oct. Lagos. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,836 mm). Ibadan. Jan. 80°F (26-7X), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,120 mm). Kano. Jan. 70°F ( 2 M X ) , July 79°F (26-PC). Annual rainfall 35" (869 mm). Port Harcourt. Jan. 79°F (26-l°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 100" (2,497 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution drafted and ratified in 1977-78, Nigeria is a sovereign, federal republic comprising 19 states and a federal capital district. Elections were held in Aug. 1983 and President Shagari was returned with 48% of the vote but in Dec. 1983 the military again took over control in a coup and in Jan. 1984 a Supreme Military Council under Maj.-Gen. Mohammed Buhari took office. In Aug. 1985 there was a coup following which a 29-member Armed Forces Ruling Council was sworn in on 30 Aug. 1985. Return to civilian rule is envisaged for 1992. Head of Slate, Chairman ofAFRC and C.-in-C. ofthe Armed Forces: Maj.-Gen. Ibrahim Babangida. On 12 Sept. 1985 the AFRC appointed a National Council of Ministers comprising the following in Dec. 1987: Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development: Maj.-Gen. Gado Nasko. Communications: Col. David Mark. Defence: Maj.-Gen. Domkat Yah Bali. Education: Jibril Aminu. External Affairs: Maj.-Gen. Ike Nwachukwa. Federal Capital Territory: Air Cmdre. Hamza Abdullah. Finance: Chu Okongwu. Health: Koye Ransome-Kuti. Industry: Lieut.-Gen. A. I. Akinrinade. Information: Prince Tony Momoh. Internal Affairs: Lieut.-Col. J. N. Shagaya. Justice: Prince Bola Ajibola. Mines, Power and Steel: Buna Sherrif Musa. National Planning: Dr Kalu I. Kalu. Petroleum Resources: Rilwanu Lukman. Science and Technology: Emmanuel Emovon. Social Development, Youth and Culture: Air Cmdre. Bayo Lawal. Special Duties: Air Vice-Marshal Aboyi I. Shekari. Trade: Samaila Mamman. Transport: Dr Kalu I. Kalu. Works and Housing: Abubakar Umar. A viation: Air Vice-Marshal Tony Okper. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of green, white, green. Local Government: Each of the 19 states is administered by a military governor, who appoints and presides over a State Executive Council. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured division, 2 mechanized divisions and 1 airborne and amphibious forces division, each with supporting artillery and engineer and reconnaissance units. Equipment includes 60 T-55 and 72 Vickers Mk 3 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 80,000 men. Navy. The Nigerian Navy was established in 1958. It comprises the frigates Aradu (completed in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1982) and Obuma (ex-Nigeria) acting as training ship (completed in the Netherlands in 1965), 4 corvettes built in Britain in 1970-72 (Dorina and Otobo), and 1975-80 (Erinmi and Enyimiri), 6 fast missile-armed attack vedettes (3 built in France and 3 in FR Germany), 2 minehunters, 9 patrol craft, 16 coastal patrol boats, 2 tank landing ships, 2 utility landing craft, 1 survey ship, 1 training ship, 57 launches and 8 tugs.

932

NIGERIA

The new construction programme provided for the delivery of 30 fast light craft ordered from Great Britain (6), United States (6), France (6) and Netherlands (12), this urgent expansion of armed light forces being necessitated by the continuing maritime lawlessness apparently endemic off the Nigerian coast. There are also over 80 small patrol launches operated by the Nigerian Police. The Navy has a small aviation component, formed recently, equipped with 3 Lynx anti-submarine helicopters. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 550 officers and 4,500 ratings. Air Force. The Nigerian Air Force was established in Jan. 1964. Pilots were trained initially in Canada, India and Ethiopia. The Air Force was built up subsequently with the aid of a Federal Republic of Germany mission; much first-line equipment has since been received from the Soviet Union. It has 18 MiG-21 supersonic jetfighters, 16 Jaguar attack aircraft and MiG-21U fighter-trainers, and 22 Alpha Jet light attack/trainers. About 20 BO 105 twin-turbine helicopters have been acquired from the Federal Republic of Germany for search and rescue, while 2 F.27MPAs were recently delivered for maritime patrol. Transport units operate 9 C-130H-30 and C-130H Hercules 4-turboprop heavy transports, 5 twin-turboprop Aeritalia G222s, 3 DO 228s, a Boeing 727 and a Gulfstream II for VIP use, 16 Domier 128-6 twin-turboprop and 20 DO 28D twin-piston utility aircraft, 2 Navajos and a Navajo Chieftain. Training types include 25 Bulldog primary trainers and about 12 MB 339 jets for instrument training, transport and ambulance duties. Fourteen medium-lift Aérospatiale Puma helicopters are also in service. Personnel (1988) total about 9,500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Nigeria is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, ECOWAS, OAU, OPEC and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth plan (1981-85) was launched in 1981 but was rescheduled because of lower oil prices. Budget. The 1987-88 budget provided for expenditure (capital and recurrent) of N24,300m. and revenue of N15,700m. Currency. Since 1 Jan. 1973 a decimal currency has been issued by the Central Bank of Nigeria, consisting oi Nairn (N) and divided into 100 kobo (k). Notes in circulation N 2 0 , N 1 0 , N 5 , N 1 , 50k. Coins, 25k, 10k, 5k, 1 k, 'Ak. In March 1988, £1 = N7-77; US$1 = N4-23. The currency is unconvertible and subject to stringent exchange controls. Banking. There are 16 commercial banks: First Bank of Nigeria, Union Bank, United Bank for Africa, International Bank for West Africa, Nigeria Arab Bank, Allied Bank of Nigeria, Savannah Bank of Nigeria, National Bank of Nigeria, African Continental Bank, Bank of the North New Nigeria Bank, Habib Bank Nigeria, Société Generale Bank, Progress Bank Nigeria, Commercial Credit and Commercial International (Nigeria Limited). Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The National Electric Power Authority generated 10,730m. kwh. in 1986. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. There are refineries at Port Harcourt, Warn and at Kaduna. Oil represents 95% of exports. Production, 1987,64m. tonnes. Gas. Natural gas is being used at electric power stations at Afam and Ughelli. Reserves: 4,000,000m. cu.metres. Minerals. Production: Tin, 1980, 2,527 tonnes; columbite, 1977 (the world's

933

NIGERIA

largest producer), 800 tonnes; coal (1981) 114,875 tonnes. There are large deposits of iron ore, coal (reserves estimate 245m. tonnes), lead and zinc. There are small quantities of gold and uranium. Agriculture. Main food crops are millet and sorghum in the north, plantains and oil palms in the south, and maize, yams, cassava and rice in much of the country, the north being, however, the main food producing area. 1985 production figures (in 1,000 tonnes) are: Millet, 3,600; sorghum, 3,500; plantains, 1,350; maize, 3; yams, 18,300; cassava, 13,000; rice, 1,430. In the 1970s food imports rose rapidly, especially of rice, but import curbs have cut this since 1982 and rice production has risen rapidly. In 1985-86 imports of rice, maize and vegetable oil were banned to encourage higher local production. Production of crops for export or local industry has greatly declined since the early 1970s. Groundnut production in 1985 was 600,000 tonnes, but very little was sold to the government marketing board which until 1986 bought supplies for export and industry. Cotton lint production (1985) 17,000 tonnes. Cocoa production has declined in recent years, to 112,000 tonnes in 1985; palm kernel was 370,000 tonnes and palm oil, 770,000 tonnes. In 1986 the marketing boards were abolished. State governments and private and co-operative buyers are all now able to buy any crops, all monopolies being ended. Livestock (1986). There were 12,169,000 cattle, 13-16m. sheep, 26,328,000 goats, 1,351,000 pigs and 169m. poultry. Forestry. There are plywood factories at Epe, Sapele and Calabar, and numerous saw-mills. The most important timber species include mahogany, iroko, obeche, abwa, ebony and camwood. Fisheries. The total catch (1984) was 373,800 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. There were more than 2,000 industrial establishments in 1982. Timber and hides and skins are major export commodities. Industrial products include soap, cigarettes, beer, margarine, groundnut oil, meat and cake, concentrated fruit juices, soft drinks, canned food, metal containers, ply-wood, textiles, ceramic products and cement (3m. tonnes, 1985). Of growing importance is the local assembly of motor vehicles, bicycles, radio equipment, electrical goods and sewing machines. In 1982, the Delta Steel Plant opened at Ovwian—Aladja. Under a decree on indigenization Nigerians must have a minimum of 40% shareholding in all foreign enterprises. Trade Unions. All trade unions were dissolved in 1976 and 42 new unions, each organized around a particular occupation, have since been created. Commerce. There is a great deal of internal commerce in local foodstuffs and imported goods moving by rail, lorry and pack animals overland, and by launches, rafts and canoes along an extensive and complex network of inland waterways. Total trade in Nm. for 4 years: 1

Imports (c.i.f.) Exports and re-exports (f.o.b.)

1983 6,588 7,723

1984 7,200 8,700

1985 8,300 12,600

1986 6,700 6,800

Total trade between Nigeria and UK (according to British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 387,975 798,276

1984 375,796 768,449

1985 660,410 960,703

1986 329,036 566,176

1987 159,386 481,568

Tourism. There were 340,000 foreign visitors in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1980). There were 108,000 km of maintained roads and 633,268 vehicles were registered.

934

NIGERIA

Railways. There are 3,505 route-km of line 1,067 mm gauge, which in 1984 ran 1,246m. tonne-km and carried 15 -3m. passengers. Aviation. There is an extensive system of internal and international air routes, serving Europe, USA, Middle East and South and West Africa. Regular services are operated by Nigerian Airways (WAAC), British Caledonian, UTA, KLM, SABENA, Swissair, PANAM and other lines. In 1981, 2- 3m. passengers were carried on domestic and international routes. Shipping. The principal ports are Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warri and Calabar. Post and Broadcasting. Postal facilities are provided at 1,667 offices and agencies; telegraph, money order and savings bank services are provided at 280 of these. Most internal letter mail is carried by air at normal postage rates. External telegraph services are owned and operated by Nigerian External Telecommunications, Ltd, at Lagos, from which telegraphic communication is maintained with all parts of the world. There were 708,390 telephones in use in 1982, of which 249,150 were in Lagos and33,138 in Ibadan. There is also a telex service. Federal and some state governments have established commercial corporations for sound and television broadcasting, which are widely used in schools. In 1985 there were 15 -7m. radio and 500,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1974). There were 120 cinemas, with a seating capacity of 60,000. Mobile cinemas are used by the Federal and States Information Services. Newspapers. In 1984 there were 18 daily and 30 weekly newspapers. The aggregate circulation is about lm., of which the Daily Times (Lagos) has about 400,000. (Another 2 dailies were published in Lagos, 4 in Ikeja, 3 in Enugu, and 4 in Ibadan.) JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The highest court is the Federal Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice of the Republic, and up to 15 Justices appointed by AFRC. It has original jurisdiction in any dispute between the Federal Republic and any State or between States; and to hear and determine appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal, which acts as an intermediate appellate Court to consider appeals from the High Court. High Courts, presided over by a Chief Justice, are established in each state. All judges are appointed by the AFRC. Magistrates' courts are established throughout the Republic, and customary law courts in southern Nigeria. In each of the northern States of Nigeria there are the Sharia Court of Appeal and the Court of Resolution. Moslem Law has been codified in a Penal Code and is applied through Alkali courts. Religion. Moslems, 48%; Christians, 34% (17% Protestants and 17% Roman Catholic); others, 18%. Northern Nigeria is mainly Moslem; Southern Nigeria is predominantly Christian and Western Nigeria is evenly divided between Christians, Moslems and animists. Education. In 1976 primary education became free throughout the country. Literacy rate (1973) 25%. In 1982-83 there were 15,021,100 primary school pupils, and 2,421,625 secondary grammar/commercial school pupils. Teacher-training institutions totalled 157 in 1973, and in 1982-83 there were 309,442 students enrolled in Grade II teacher-training colleges and 36,772 in advanced teachers' colleges/colleges of education. There were also in 1982-83 86,290 students in secondary technical/vocational schools and 46,244 in polytechnics/colleges of technology. There are 24 universities with 121,430 full-time students in 1984 in Nigeria, providing 3-5-year courses leading to the award of a first degree in various disciplines; these include 7 Federal Universities of Technology. There are also opportunities for taking higher degrees. Free tuition was provided from 1977. Health. Most tropical diseases are endemic to Nigeria. Blindness, yaws, leprosy,

NIGERIA

935

sleeping sickness, worm infections, malaria are major health problems which, however, are yielding to remedial and preventative measures. In co-operation with the World Health Organization river blindness and malaria are being tackled on a large scale, while annual campaigns are undertaken against the danger of smallpox epidemics. Dispensaries and travelling dispensaries are found in most parts of the country. In 1980 there were 8,000 doctors and 75,000 hospital beds. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Nigeria in Great Britain (9 Northumberland Ave., London, WC2 5 BX) High Commissioner: George Dove-Edwin (accredited 29 May 1986). Of Great Britain in Nigeria ( 11 Eleke Cres., Victoria Island, Lagos) High Commissioner: Sir Martin Ewans, KCMG. Of Nigeria in the USA (2201 M. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Hamzat Ahmadu. Of the USA in Nigeria (2 Eleke Cres., Lagos) Ambassador: Princeton N. Lyman. Of Nigeria to the United Nations Ambassador: Maj.-Gen. Joseph N. Garba. Books of Reference Nigeria Digest of Statistics. Lagos, 1951 ff. (quarterly) Annual Abstract of Statistics. Federal Office of Statistics. Lagos, 1960 ff. Nigeria Trade Journal. Federal Ministry of C o m m e r c e and Industries (quarterly) Achebe, C., The Trouble with Nigeria. London, 1984 A d a m o l e k u n , L., Politics and Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan, 1986 Barbour, K. M. (ed.), Nigeria in Maps. London, 1982 Burns, A., History of Nigeria. 8th ed. London, 1978 Crowder, M., and Abdullahi, G., Nigeria, an Introduction to its History. London, 1979 Ikoku, S. G., Nigeria's Fourth Coup: Options for Modern Statehood. Enugu, 1984 Kirk-Greene, A., a n d Rimmer, D., Nigeria since 1970. London, 1981 Nwabueze, B. O., The Presidential Constitution of Nigeria. Lagos and London, 1982 Oyediran, O., Nigerian Government and Politics under Military Rule, 1966-1979. New York, 1980 Oyovbaine, S.E., Federalism in Nigeria: A Study in the Development of the Nigerian State. London,1985 Shaw, T . M., and Aluko, O., Nigerian Foreign Policy: Alternative Perceptions and Projections. London,1984 Simmons, M., a n d O b e , O. A., Nigerian Handbook 1982-83. London, 1982 Tijjani, A. and Williams, D.,{eds.) Shehu Shagari: My Vision of Nigeria. London, 1981 Van Apeldoorn, G . J., Perspectives on Drought and Famine in Nigeria. London, 1981 Williams, D., President and Power in Nigeria. London, 1982 Z a r t m a n , I. W., The Political Economy of Nigeria. New York, 1983

N

O

R

W

A

Y

Capital: O s l o Population: A-2m. GNPper

Kongeriket Norge

( m e )

capita: U S $ 1 6 , 4 0 0 ( 1 9 8 6 )

H I S T O R Y . B y the Treaty o f 14 Jan. 1 8 1 4 N o r w a y w a s c e d e d t o t h e K i n g o f S w e d e n b y the K i n g o f D e n m a r k , b u t the N o r w e g i a n p e o p l e declared t h e m s e l v e s i n d e p e n d e n t a n d e l e c t e d P r i n c e Christian Frederik o f D e n m a r k as their king. T h e foreign P o w e r s refused t o r e c o g n i z e this e l e c t i o n , a n d o n 14 A u g . a c o n v e n t i o n p r o c l a i m e d the i n d e p e n d e n c e o f N o r w a y in a personal u n i o n w i t h S w e d e n . T h i s w a s f o l l o w e d o n 4 N o v . b y t h e e l e c t i o n o f Karl XIII (II) as K i n g o f N o r w a y . N o r w a y declared this u n i o n dissolved, 7 J u n e 1 9 0 5 , a n d S w e d e n agreed t o the repeal o f the u n i o n o n 2 6 Oct. 1905. T h e t h r o n e w a s offered t o a p r i n c e o f the reigning h o u s e o f S w e d e n , w h o declined. A f t e r a plebiscite, Prince Carl o f D e n m a r k w a s f o r m a l l y elected K i n g o n 18 N o v . 1 9 0 5 , a n d t o o k the n a m e o f H a a k o n VII. Inge Baardss0n Haakon Haakonss0n Magnus Lagabeter Eirik Magnussen Haakon V Magnussen Magnus Eriksson Haakon VI Magnussen Olav Haakonssan Margrete

Norwegian 1204 1217 1263 1280 1299 1319 1343 1381 1388

Sovereigns Erik of Pomerania Kristofer af Bavaria Karl Knutssen Same Sovereigns as in Denmark Christian Frederik Same Sovereigns as in Sweden Haakon VII Olav V

1389 1442 1449 1450-1814 1814 1814-1905 1905 1957

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . N o r w a y is b o u n d e d n o r t h b y the A r c t i c o c e a n , east b y the U S S R , F i n l a n d a n d S w e d e n , s o u t h b y the Skagerrak Straits a n d west b y the N o r t h Sea. Census Pop. per sq. km Area population Population Fylker (counties) (sq. km) 1 Nov. 1980 1 Jan. 1987 (total area) 1987 Oslo (City) 454 0 452,023 451,099 993-6 Akershus 4,916-5 369,193 399,443 81-3 0stfold 4,183-4 233,301 235,655 56-3 Hedmark 27,388-3 187,223 186,065 6-8 Oppland 25,259-7 180,765 181,436 7-2 Buskerud 14,927-3 214,571 221,182 14 8 Vestfold 2,215-9 186,691 192,823 87-0 Telemark 15,315-1 162,050 162,448 10-6 Aust-Agder 9,211-7 90,629 95,377 10-4 Vest-Agder 7,280-5 136,718 141,165 19-4 Rogaland 9,140-7 305,490 326,489 35-7 Hordaland 15,633-8 391,463 402,086 25-7 Sogn og Fjordane 105,924 105,862 18,633-5 5-7 More og Romsdal 15,104-2 236,062 237,279 15-7 Sar-Trandelag 18,831-4 244,760 247,154 13-1 Nord-Trendelag 22,463-4 125,835 126,549 5-6 Nordland 38,327-1 244,493 240,763 6-3 Troms 25,953-8 146,818 146,476 5-6 Finnmark 48,637-3 78,331 74,654 1-5 Mainland total

323,877-7 >

4,092,340

4,174,005

12-9

Svalbard and Jan Mayen have an area of63,080 sq. km. Persons staying on Svalbard and Jan Mayen are registered as residents of their home Norwegian municipality. 1

125,049 sq. miles.

O n 1 N o v . 1 9 8 0 , 2 , 8 7 4 , 9 9 0 persons lived in d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d areas a n d 1 , 1 9 7 , 9 3 9 in sparsely p o p u l a t e d areas. 936

937

NORWAY

Population o f t h e principal towns at 1 Jan. 1987: Oslo Bergen Trondheim Stavanger Kristiansand Drammen Tromso Skien

451,099 208,809 134,496 95,437 63,293 51,324 48,829 47,237

Sandnes Sandefjord Älesund Bodo Porsgrunn Haugesund Ringerike Fredrikstad

41,938 35,441 35,314 34,962 31,289 26,878 26,776 26,650

Gjovik Halden Moss Lillehammer Harstad Moide Kongsberg Steinkjer

25,929 25,802 24,660 22,186 22,093 21,625 21,199 20,393

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1983 1984 1985 1986 2

Marriages 20,803 20,537 20,221

Divorces 7,668 7,974 8,090

Births 49,937 50,274 51,134 52,514 1 Excluding still-bora.

Still-born Illegitimate 303 9,616 261 10,687 279 13,203 268 14,673 2 Provisional.

1

Deaths 42,224 42,581 44,372

C L I M A T E . There is considerable variation in the climate because o f t h e extent of latitude, the topography and the varying effectiveness of prevailing westerly winds and the Gulf Stream. Winters along the whole west coast are exceptionally mild but precipitation is considerable. Oslo. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 63°F (17°C). Annual rainfall 2 7 " (683 mm). Bergen. Jan. 35°F(1 -5°C),July61°F(16 r C ) . Annual rainfall 78-3" (1,958 mm). Trondheim. Jan. 26°F (-3-5°C), July 57°F (14"C). Annual rainfall 32-1" (870 mm). R E I G N I N G K I N G . Olav V, b o m 2 July 1903, married on 21 March 1929 to Princess Martha of Sweden (born 28 March 1901, died 5 April 1954), daughter of the late Prince Carl (son of King Oscar II). He succeeded on the death of his father, King Haakon VII, on 21 Sept. 1957. Offspring: Princess Ragnhild Alexandra, born 9 June 1930 (married, 1953, Erling Lorentzen); Princess Astrid Maud Ingeborg, born 12 Feb. 1932 (married, 12 Jan. 1961, Hr. Johan Martin Ferner); Crown Prince Harald, born 21 Feb. 1937, married, 29 Aug. 1968, Sonja Haraldsen. Offspring: Princess Martha Louise, born 22 Sept. 1971; Prince Haakon Magnus, born 20 July 1973. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Norway is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is in direct male line in the order of primogeniture. In default of male heirs the King may propose a successor to the Storting, but this assembly has the right to nominate another, if it does not agree with the proposal. The Constitution, voted by the constituent assembly at Eidsvoll on 17 May 1814 and modified at various times, vests the legislative power of the realm in the Storting (Parliament). The royal veto may be exercised; but if the same Bill passes two Stortings formed by separate and subsequent elections it becomes the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The King has the command of the land, sea and air forces, and makes all appointments. Since June 1938 all branches of the Government service, including the state church, are open to women. Nationalflag: Red with a blue white-bordered Scandinavian cross. National anthem: Ja, vi elsker dette landet (words by B. Bjemson, 1865; tune by R. Nordraak, 1865). The Storting assembles every year. The meetings take place suo jure, and not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin on the first weekday in Oct. each year, until June the following year. Every Norwegian subject of 18 years of age is entitled to vote, unless he is disqualified for a special cause. Women are, since 1913, entitled to vote under the same conditions as men. The mode of election is direct and the method of election is proportional. The country is divided into 19 districts, each electing from 4 to 15 representatives. At the elections for the Storting held in 1985 the following parties were

938

NORWAY

elected: Labour, 71; Conservative, 50; Centre Party, 12; Christian Democratic Party, 16; Socialist Left Party, 6; Party of Progress, 2. The Storting, when assembled, divides itself by election into the Lagting and the Odelsting. The former is composed of one-fourth of the members of the Storting, and the other of the remaining three-fourths. Each Ting (the Storting, the Odelsting and the Lagting) nominates its own president. Most questions are decided by the Storting, but questions relating to legislation must be considered and decided by the Odelsting and the Lagting separately. Only when the Odelsting and the Lagting disagree, the Bill has to be considered by the Storting in plenary sitting, and a new law can then only be decided by a majority of two-thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the Constitution, which can only be decided by the Storting in plenary sitting. The Storting elects 5 delegates, whose duty it is to revise the public accounts. The Lagting and the ordinary members of the Supreme Court of Justice (the Hoyesterett) form a High Court of the Realm (the Riksrett) for the trial of ministers, members of the Hoyesterett and members of the Storting. The impeachment before the Riksrett can only be decided by the Odelsting. The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority through the Cabinet or Council of State (Statsrad), composed of a Prime Minister (Statsminster) and (at present) 17 ministers (Statsrader). The ministers are entitled to be present in the Storting and to take part in the discussions, but without a vote. A Labour Government was formed and took office on 9 May 1986. The members of the Government were in Oct. 1987: Prime Minister: Gro Harlem Brundtland. Foreign Affairs: Thorvald Stoltenberg. Cultural and Scientific Affairs: Hallvard Bakke. Environment: Sissel Renbeck. Industry: Finn Kristensen. Petroleum and Energy: Arne 0ien. Local Government and Labour: William Engeseth. Development: Vesla Vetlesen. Trade and Shipping: Kurt M. Mosbakk. Fisheries: Bjarne Mark Eidem. Defence: Johan Jorgen Hoist. Communications: Kjell Borgen. Justice: Helene Besterud. Finance: Gunnar Berge. Church and Education: Kirsti Kolle Grendahl. Health and Social Affairs: Tove Strand Gerhardsen. Agriculture: Gunhild Oyangen. Customer Affairs and Government Administration: Anne-Lise Bakken. The official languages are Bokm&l (or Riksmil) and Nynorsk (or Landsmdl). Local Government. For the purposes of administration the country is divided into 19 counties (fylker), in each of which the central government is represented by a county governor (fylkesmannen). In addition, there are 47 urban districts (bykommuner) and 407 rural districts (herredskommuner), each of which usually corresponds in size to a parish (prestegjeld). The districts are administered by district councils (kommunestyrer), whose membership may vary between 13 and 85 councillors, and by a committee (formannskap) which is elected by and from the members of the council. The council is four times the size of the committee. The council elects a chairman and a vice-chairman from among the committee members. Each of the 18 counties forms a county district (fylkeskommune), while the remaining one, Oslo, comprises an urban district. The supreme authority in a county district is the county council (fylkestingj. The members of the county council are elected directly by the electors of the county and the number of representatives varies between 25 and 85. In a county district the county committee (fylkesutvalg) occupies a position corresponding to that of the committee (formannskap) in the primary districts. The county committee is elected by and from among the members of the county council. The number of county committee members is onefourth of the membership of the county council, but must be not more than 15. The county council elects from among the members of the county committee a county sheriff (fylkesordferer) and a deputy sheriff. D E F E N C E . Service is universal and compulsory, liability in peace-time commencing at the age of 19 and continuing till the age of 44. The training period

NORWAY

939

in the Army is 12 months, in the Navy and Air Force, 15 months. The Norwegian Defence forces are organized into 2 integrated regional commands. Army. In Northern Command the largest standing element is Brigade North. There are also 2 infantry battalions and 1 tank platoon, 1 SP field artillery battery and 1 AD battery in the North. Southern Command comprises 1 infantry battalion, 1 tank company and 1 self-propelled field artillery battery. Equipment includes 80 Leopard I and 39 M-48A5 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 19,000 (including 13,200 conscripts). Reserves number 146,000. Navy. The Royal Norwegian Navy comprises the Navy, the Coast Guard and the Coastal Artillery. The main combatants include 11 coastal submarines, 5 frigates, 2 corvettes, 38 missile-armed fast attack craft, 8 fast torpedo boats, 7 coastal minesweepers, 1 minehunter, 2 minelayers, 1 submarine and missile torpedo boat tender, 7 landing craft and 27 auxiliaries. In addition all 6 Coast Guard Vessels are prepared for the escort role. The Coastal Artillery includes 55 coastal batteries and other static defence systems. Personnel strength (1988) totalled 9,000 officers and ratings. Coastguard. The Coastguard main tasks are Fishery Protection and Economic Zone Patrol. The Coastguard assists other government agencies in rescue service, environment, surveillance and police duties. It comprises 3 frigate-size monitors each equipped with a Lynx helicopter, 3 corvette type cutters, 12 survey ships and 7 inspection vessels. Air Force. The Royal Norwegian Air Force consists of 4 squadrons of F-16 Fighting Falcons, 1 squadron of F-5 fighter-bombers, 1 maritime patrol squadron of P-3 B Orions, 1 squadron of C-130H Hercules transports and Jet Falcons equipped for EW duties, 1 squadron with Twin Otter light transports and 2 squadrons of UH-1B helicopters, being replaced by Bell 412SPs, in 1988-89. Ground based air defence forces deploy 4 Nike surface-to- air missile batteries and several light antiaircraft artillery units. Hawk missiles provide area and airfield defence. Nine Westland Sea King helicopters are used for search and rescue duties; 6 Lynx helicopters are operated for the Coast Guard. Total strength (1988) is about 9,100 personnel, including 5,300 conscripts. Home Guard. The Home Guard is organized in small units equipped and trained for special tasks. Service after basic training is 1 week a year. The total strength is approximately 85,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Norway is a member of UN, NATO, EFTA, OECD, the Council of Europe and the Nordic Council. ECONOMY Budget. Current revenue and expenditure for years ending 31 Dec. (in 1,000 kroner): 1982 1983' 1984' 19851 19861 1987" Revenue 110,539,000 165,421,000 192,896,000 222,994,000 246,466,000 247,612,000 Expenditure 100,898,000 157,432,000 171,369,000 198,332,000 225,144,000 247,534,000 1 2 Including National Insurance. Voted budget.

National debt 1 for years ending 31 Dec. (in 1,000 kroner): 1978 1979 1980

86,556,000 103,605,000 106,908,000

1981 1982 1983

107,662,000 103,799,400 92,406,100

1984 1985 1986

115,805,000 142,392,600 194,287,500

1 At the rate of par on foreign loans: including treasury bills (in 1 m. kroner) which amounted to 6,000 in 1978; 9,600 in 1979; 14,600 in 1980, 17,200 in 1981, 13,880 in 1982, 13,413 in 1983,24,558 in 1984,35,111 in 1985 and48,975 in 1986.

Currency. The Norwegian krone, of 100 0re, is of the value of about 11 kroner to £ 1

940

NORWAY

sterling. National bank-notes of 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 kroner are legal means of payment. March 1988,US$1 =6-38 kroner,£1 = 11 -27 kroner. On 31 Aug. 1987 the nominal value of the coin in circulation was 1,779m. kroner; notes in circulation, 25,169m. kroner. Banking. The Bank of Norway is governed by laws enacted by the State, and its directors are elected by the Storting, except the president and vice-president of the head office, who are nominated by the King. It is the only bank of issue. At the end of 1986 there were 29 private joint-stock banks. Their total amount of capital and funds was 13,222m. kroner (capital 6,456m., funds 6,766m.). Deposits amounted to 188,129m. kroner, of which 46,848m. kroner were at call and notice, and 141,271 m. kroner on time. The number of savings banks at the end of 1986 was 192. The total amount of funds of the savings banks amounted to 8,975m. kroner, and total deposits 149,766m. kroner, of which 37,330m. kroner were at call and notice and 112,436m. kroner on time. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures has been obligatory since 1875. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Norway is a large producer of hydro-electric energy. The potential total hydro-electric power at regulated mean water flow is estimated at 162,000m. kwh. annually. By the end of 1985 the capacity of the installations for production of thermoelectric energy was 255 mw. and the capacity for production of hydro-electric energy was 23,513 mw. In 1986 the total production of electricity amounted to 97,156m. kwh. of which 99-6% was produced by hydro-electric plants. Most of the electricity is used for industrial purposes, especially by the chemical and basic metal industries for production of nitrate of calcium and other nitrogen products, carbide, ferrosilicon and other ferro-alloys, aluminium and zinc. The paper and pulp industries are also big consumers of electricity. Supply 130, 150, 220 and 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. In 1963 sovereignty was proclaimed over the Norwegian continental shelf and in 1966 the first exploration well was drilled. By 1986 production was 6 times the domestic consumption of petroleum and is valued at about 11% of the GNP. Production (1987) 50m. tonnes. Gas. Production (1986) 953,370m. cu. ft. Minerals. Production and value of the chief concentrates, metals and alloys were: Concentrates and minerals Copper concentrates Pyrites Titanium ore Zinc and lead concentrates Metals and alloys Copper Nickel Aluminium Ferro-alloys Pig-iron Zinc Leadandtin

Tonnes 96,286 428,438 651,834 60,218

1984 1,000 kroner 231,285 74,637 ... 141,546

Tonnes 97,035 395,162 735,842 59,084

36,821 35,548 765,083 1,003,286 545,972 94,248 62

... ... 8,529,557 3,573,347 ... ... ...

37,828 37,513 742,686 921,903 596,031 97,762 61

1985 1,000 kroner 261,621 70,973 110,413

7,841,702 3,318,867

Agriculture. Norway, including Svalbard and Jan Mayen, is a barren and mountainous country. The arable soil is found in comparatively narrow strips, gathered in deep and narrow valleys and around fiords and lakes. Large, continuous tracts fit for cultivation do not exist. Of the total area, 79-3% is unproductive, 18% productive forest and 2 • 7% under cultivation.

941

NORWAY Principal crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Hay

1984 33,450 1,670 171,220 123,640 19,170 428,870

Area

1

(hectares) 1985 1986 39,090 39,570 1,060 1,000 170,550 174,230 129,260 127,230 18,610 17,130 424,460 424,860

1984 170,400 6,700 657,600 581,200 488,700 3,147,300

Produce ' (tonnes) 1986 1985 158,400 169,900 3,500 3,100 600,000 544,700 400,400 494,200 440,100 398,300 2,978,300 2,880,300

Livestock, 1986': 16,300 horses, 967,500 cattle (363,200 milch cows), 2,339,900 sheep, 94,600 goats, 737,900 pigs, 4,082,800 hens. Fur production in 1985-86 was as follows (1984-85 in brackets): Silver fox, 97,800 (67,000); silver-blue fox, 74,000 (90,900); blue fox, 303,000 (240,700); mink, 553,000 (516,000). 1

Holdings with at least 5 decares agricultural area in use.

Forestry. About 83% of the total forest area consists of conifers and 17% of broadleaves. The annual increment (estimate, 1987) is about 19m. cu. metres with bark. The area of productive forests is 66,600 sq. km. Forests in public ownership cover 8,470 sq. km of this area. Between 1976-77 and 1985—86 an annual average of 8-4m. cu. metres was cut for sale: 8 - lm. for industrial use, 300,000m. for fuel. Of industrial use, 4-5m. cu. metres in the lumber industry, 3m. as pulp, 200,000 as particle board. About 800,000 cu. metres are consumed annually on farms. Fisheries. The total number of registered fishermen in 1986 was 29,981, of whom 7,362 had another chief occupation. In 1985, the number of fishing vessels (all with motor) was 23,202, and of these, 15,256 were open boats. The value of sea fisheries in lm. kroner in 1986 was: Cod, 1,613; capelin, 188; mackerel, 205; coal-fish (saithe), 478; deep-water prawn, 823; haddock, 287; herring, 366; dogfish, 11. The catch totalled in 1986,2- lm. tons, valued at 5,035m. kroner. Fish farming is a growth industry, exports (1986) 1,664m. kroner. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry is chiefly based on raw materials produced within the country (wood, fish, etc.) and on water power, of which the country possesses a large amount. Crude petroleum and natural gas production, the manufacture of paper and paper products, industrial chemicals and basic metals are the most important export manufactures. In the following table are given figures for industrial establishments in 1985, excluding one-man units. Electrical plants, construction and building industry are not included. The values are given in 1 m. kroner. Industries Coalmining Crude petroleum and natural gas Metal-mining Other-mining Food manufacturing Beverages Tobacco Textiles Clothing, etc. Footwear Leather Wood Furniture and fixtures Pulp and paper Printing and publishing Chemical, industrial Chemical, other

Establishments 1 8 14 413 2,257 63 4 414 304 33 55 1,485 528 131 1,771 63 172

Number of Employees 770 12,818 3,213 3,170 49,660 4,344 928 8,454 4,678 684 804 19,933 8,877 13,709 34,608 8,991 6,158

Gross value ofproduction 238 105,210 1,675 1,830 47,154 3,973 2,305 3,165 1,417 211 270 10,975 4,228 13,295 15,124 12,742 4,899

Value added 105 91,010 404 815 5,681 2,556 1,888 1,150 548 84 85 3,380 1,519 3,451 6,698 3,640 1,620

942

NORWAY

Industries Petroleum, refined Petroleum and coal Rubber Plastics Ceramics Glass Other mineral products Iron, steel and ferro-alloys Non-ferrous metals Metal products, except machinery Machinery and equipment Electrical apparatus and supplies Transport equipment Professional and scientific instruments, photographic and optical goods Other manufacturing industries Total (all included)

Establishments 3 74 73 322 32 66 487 51 64 1,587 1,280 445 902

Number of Employees 898 1,714 1,733 6,620 1,084 1,982 7,695 9,950 12,791 25,426 41,600 20,782 30,698

Gross value ofproduction 15,784 2,059 817 3,719 275 1,012 5,558 9,074 15,854 10,748 36,984 10,502 14,764

Value added 208 547 363 1,312 156 443 1,917 2,377 4,737 4,369 9,707 4,384 4,937

56 303

1,379 2,938

754 1,069

349 442

13,461

349,039

357,684

160,884

The following table sets forth the estimated value of net production, at factor cost by industries, in lm. kroner: Agriculture Forestry Fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Crude petroleum and gas production Electricity, gas and water Construction 2 Wholesale and retail trade Restaurants and hotels Water transport Other t r a n s p o r t ' Financial institutions Real estate Business services Government services, social and personal services Imputed bank service charge Net production at factor cost + Indirect taxes -Subsidies

1981 8,852 2,260 2,048 1,179 44,845

1982 10,090 2,164 1,655 1,147 46,869

1983 9,366 2,054 2,335 1,370 51,748

1984 10,608 2,458 2,536 1,531 59,522

19851 10,500 2,503 2,780 1,392 63,298

1986' 10,794 2,718 3,299 1,518 71,911

37,395 5,852 17,274 27,405 3,674 6,263 12,912 12,726 9,710 7,600

39,879 7,168 19,949 31,073 4,277 3,469 14,866 15,320 1 1,244 9,372

47,968 9,072 21,011 32,413 5,029 2,473 16,486 16,874 12,643 10,502

59,720 10,543 21,626 35,240 5,675 5,228 16,996 16,266 13,993 13,086

65,076 11,952 23,765 38,565 6,521 6,339 17,867 17,253 15,052 16,648

26,968 12,875 25,281 41,371 7,335 7,331 22,907 24,351 16,538 21,277

57,074 64,954 71,906 77,924 85,600 95,820 -11,349 - 1 4 , 3 1 8 - 1 5 , 9 6 0 - 1 5 , 4 4 3 - 1 5 , 8 5 7 - 2 2 , 0 0 8 245,720 269,178 297,289 337,509 369,254 370,286 55,696 61,747 69,733 78,200 91,992 101,084 21,795 23,662 24,439 25,709 26,936 29,686

Net domestic product (marketprice) 279,621 307,263 342,583 390,000 434,310 441,684 1 Provisional figures. 1 Including drilling of crude oil and natural gas wells. 3 Including pipeline transport of oil and gas.

Labour. Distribution of employed persons by occupation in 1986 showed 444,000 (21%) in technical, physical science, humanistic and artistic work; 134,000 (6%) administration; 228,000 (11%) clerical; 211,000 (10%) sales; 141,000 (7%) agriculture, forestry, fishing etc.; 11,000 (0-5%) mining and quanting; 147,000 (7%) transport and communication; 468,000 (23%) manufacturing; 271,000 (13%) service, and 16,000 (1%) military and occupations not specified. Source: Labour Force Sample Surveys.

Commerce. Total imports and exports in calendar years (in 1,000 kroner): Imports Exports

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 89,687,802 99,747,271 98,407,773 113,102,212 132,563,356 104,265,370 113,236,296 131,396,960 154,034,540 170,732,779

1986 150,052,325 133,847,404

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NORWAY

Trading according to countries was as follows (in 1,000 kroner): Countries Argentina Australia and New Zealand Belgium and Luxembourg Brazil Canada Czechoslovakia Denmark Fed. Republic ofGermany Finland France India Italy Netherlands Poland Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland UK USA USSR

Imports 326,011 695,539 3,698,414 1,182,491 2,512,297 303,439 8,961,950 21,297,332 5,382,342 5,536,51 1 143,303 4,435,407 4,686,170 423,841 1,053,081 1,291,799 23,699,533 2,058,802 13,222,638 9,554,428 1,450,358

1985

Exports 80,108 471,756 1,646,708 416,100 625,132 193,074 6,165,410 26,548,826 2,686,649 8,951,789 448,775 2,232,488 10,360,395 268,244 595,337 591,546 15,016,633 1,186,504 61,039,782 8,722,732 629,210

Imports 318,704 622,742 4,397,737 1,046,830 2,000,803 328,908 10,704,384 25,418,960 5,995,158 6,109,453 168,589 5,657,178 5,726,149 805,715 1,247,301 1,509,911 26,950,235 2,548,454 13,194,894 10,288,375 805,715

1986

Exports 32,553 399,595 1,585,464 651,742 705,812 138,475 5,969,916 25,313,058 2,343,720 4,639,154 313,182 2,456,464 8,118,643 198,272 462,650 759,1 12 13,377,274 1,118,668 3,678,950 7,304,233 671,899

Principal items of import in 1986 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery, transport equipment, etc., 60,796,759; fuel oil, etc., 8,859,517; base metals and manufactures thereof, 13,898,325; chemicals and related products, 10,123,453; textiles, 3,744,734. Principal items of export in 1986 (in 1,000 kroner): Machinery and transport equipment, 23,718,106; base metals and manufactures thereof, 17,417,106; crude oil and natural gas, 53,076,842; edible animal products, 8,684,375; pulp and paper, 6,624,607. Total trade between Norway and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): } m ] m ] m / m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,820,760 3,852,657 4,367,154 3,265,157 3,290,339 828,612 968,404 1,140,376 1,147,790 1,220,844

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1986 the length of the public roads (including roads in towns) was 86,143 km. Of these, 52,708 km were main roads; 55,453 km had some kind of paving, mostly bituminous and oil-gravel treatment, the rest being gravelsurfaced. Number of registered motor vehicles (31 Dec. 1986) was 2,780,311, including 1,592,195 passenger cars (including taxis), 264,517 lorries and vans, 18,278 buses, 170,838 motor cycles and mopeds. The scheduled bus and lorry services in 1986 drove 3,877m. passenger-km and 699m. net ton-km. Railways. The length of state railways on 31 Dec. 1986 was 4,219 km; of private companies, 16 km. On 2,451 km of state and 16 km of private railways electric traction is installed. Total receipts of the state railways and road traffic in 1986 were 2,798m. kroner; total expenses (excluding depreciation and interest on capital), 4,024m. kroner. The state railways carried 25-7m. tonnes of freight (of which 14m. was iron ore on the Ofoten railway) and 35m. passengers. Aviation. Det Norske Luftfartselskap (DNL) started its post-war activities on 1 April 1946. On 1 Aug. 1946 DNL, together with DDL (Danish Airlines) and ABA/ SILA (Swedish Airlines), formed the 'Scandinavian Airlines System'—SAS. The 3 companies remained independent units, but all services were co-ordinated. In 1951 a new agreement was signed (retroactive from 1 Oct. 1950) according to which the 3 national companies became holding partners in a new organization which took over the entire operational system. Denmark and Norway hold each two-sevenths

944

NORWAY

and Sweden three-sevenths of the capital, but they have joint responsibility towards third parties. In the autumn of 1986 SAS had a fleet of 104 jet planes. Length of route network, about 252,000 km. Scheduled air services are run by SAS, Braathens SouthAmerican and Far East Air transport service (SAFE) and Wideroes Flyveselskap service. The Norwegian share of the scheduled air service run by SAS is twosevenths of the SAS service on international routes and the total SAS service in Norway.

1983 1984 1985 1986

1,000 km flown 59,638 59,359 63,666 73,774

Passengers carried 5,610,866 6,114,038 6,799,735 7,490,448

7,000 passengerkm 4,345,000 4,533,000 4,791,000 5,030,000

Post, luggage, freight and passengers (1,000 ton-km) Total Of which post 514,000 19,000 534,000 18,000 557,000 19,000 578,000 20,000

Shipping. The total registered mercantile marine on 1 Jan. 1987 was 1,335 vessels, 7m. gross tons (steam and motor vessels above 100 gross tons). These figures do not include fishing and catching boats, tugs, salvage vessels, icebreakers and similar special types of vessels, totalling 767 vessels of340,000 gross tons. Vessels en tering Norway Total from foreign countries 1983 No. Net tons Norwegian 6,970 17,470 Foreign 10,013 31,264 Total entered

16,983

48,734

Goods (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1985 discharged, 19,012; loaded, 53,309, of which 14,564 was Swedish iron ore shipped from Narvik. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephone connexions on 31 Dec. 1986 was I,861,412 (44-6 per 100 of population). Receipts, ll,909-9m. kroner; expenses, II,003-2m. kroner (interest on capital included) for State Telecommunications. Norsk Rikskringkasting is a non-commercial enterprise operated by an independent state organization and broadcasts 1 programme (PI) on long-, medium-, and short-waves and on FM and 1 programme (P2) on FM. Local programmes are also broadcast. It broadcasts 1 TV programme from 1,980 transmitters. Colour programmes are broadcast by PAL system. Number of television licences, 1,443,020. Cinemas. There were 448 cinemas with a seating capacity of 123,090 in 1985. Newspapers. There were 63 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 2,008,000 in 1986. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicature is common to civil and criminal cases. The same professional judges, who are legally educated, preside over both kinds of cases. These judges are as such state officials. The participation of lay judges and jurors, both summoned for the individual case, varies according to the kind of court and kind of case. The ordinary Court of First Instance (Herredsrett and Byrett) is in criminal cases composed of one professional judge and 2 lay judges, chosen by ballot from a panel elected by the district council. In civil cases 2 lay judges may participate. The ordinary Court of First Instance is in general competent in all kinds of cases with the exception of criminal cases where the maximum penalty prescribed in the Criminal Code for the offence in question exceeds five years imprisonment. Altogether there are about 100 ordinary courts of first instance. In every community there is a Conciliation Council (Forliksrad) composed of 3 lay persons elected by the district council. A civil lawsuit usually begins with mediation in the council which also has judicial authority in minor civil cases. The ordinary Courts of Second Instance (Lagmannsrett'), of which there are 5, are composed of 3 professional judges. Additionally, in civil cases 2 or 4 lay judges may be summoned. In criminal cases a jury of 10 lay persons is summoned to determine whether the defendant is guilty according to the charge. Four lay persons take part in the assessment of the punishment. In civil cases, the Court of Second

NORWAY

945

Instance is an ordinary court of appeal. In criminal cases in which the lower court does not have judicial authority, it is itself the court of first instance. In other criminal cases it is an appeal court as far as the appeal is based on an attack against the lower court's assessment of the facts when determining the guilt of the defendant. An appeal based on any other alleged mistakes is brought directly before the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court (Heyesterett) is the court of last resort. There are 18 Supreme Court judges. Each individual case is heard by 5 judges. Some major cases are determined in plenary session. The Supreme Court may in general examine every aspect of the case and the handling of it by the lower courts. However, in criminal cases the Court may not overrule the lower court's assessment of the facts as far as the guilt of the defendant is concerned. The Court of Impeachment (Riksretten) is composed of 5 judges of the Supreme Court and 10 members of Parliament. All serious oIFences are prosecuted by the State. The Public Prosecution Authority (Patalemyndigheten) consists of the Attorney General (Riksadvokaten), the district attorneys (statsadvokater) and legally qualified officers of the ordinary police force. Counsel for the defence is in general provided for by the State. Religion. There is complete freedom of religion, the Evangelical Lutheran Church, however, being the national church, endowed by the State. Its clergy are nominated by the King. Ecclesiastically Norway is divided into 11 Bispedemmer (bishoprics), 91 Prostier (provostships or archdeaconries) and 620 Prestegjeld (clerical districts). There were 140,202 members of registered religious communities outside the Evangelical Lutheran Church, subsidized by central government and local authorities in 1984. The Roman Catholics are under a Bishop at Oslo, a Vicar Apostolic at Trondheim and a Vicar Apostolic at Tromso. Education. In Norway the children normally start their school attendance the year they are 7 years of age and finish compulsory school the year they complete 16 years of age. On 1 Oct. 1986 the number of primary schools and pupils were as follows: 3,509 primary schools, 519,867 pupils; 87 special schools for the handicapped, 2,911 pupils. On 1 Oct. 1985 the number of pupils in upper secondary schools, i.e., folk high schools, secondary general schools and vocational schools, was 209,629. There are in Norway 4 universities and 9 institutions equivalent to universities. In autumn 1986 the total number of students was 43,341. The University of Oslo, founded in 1811,had 19,202 students. The University of Bergen, founded in 1948, had 8,368 students. The University of Trondheim consists of the Norwegian Institute of Technology, founded in 1910, and the College of Arts and Science, founded in 1925. At each of them the number of students was in autumn 1986, 5,463 and 3,292 respectively. The University of Tromso was established in 1968; 2,240 students were registered in autumn 1986. The other university institutions had 4,647 students. On 1 Oct. 1985 there were at other schools of higher education, 45,901 students. These included 12,391 at colleges for teachers, 7,755 at colleges for engineers and 6,806 at district colleges. In 1985-86 there were 6,673 Norwegian students and pupils attending foreign universities and schools. Health. In 1985 there were 10,324 doctors and 66,539 hospital beds. Social Security. In 1986, about 82,000m. kroner were paid under different social insurance schemes, amounting to approximately 19% of the net national income. The National Insurance Act of 17 June 1966, which came into force on 1 Jan. 1967, replaced the schemes relating to old age pensions, disability benefits, widows' and mothers' pensions, benefits to unmarried women, 'survivors' benefit for children and rehabilitation aid. Schemes relating to health insurance, unemployment insurance and occupational injury insurance were revised and incorporated in National Insurance Scheme on 1 Jan. 1971. As from 1 Jan. 1981, benefits to divorced and separated supporters also are covered by the National Insurance Scheme.

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NORWAY

The following conspectus gives a survey of schemes established by law. Many municipalities grant additional benefits to old-age, disablement and survivor's pensions. Type of scheme National insurance Medical care and sickness cash benefits

Introduced1 Scope 1967 (1987) 1911 All residents

Nearly earners

all

Principal benefits as from I May 1987 Medical benefits: all hospital expenses; cost share of expense of medical consultation, important medicines, travel expenses, etc. (such costs exceeding 880kr. a calendar year are paid in full by the National Insurance). wage- Daily sickness allowances: kr. 58 to 690 per day cash (5 days a week). The new sickness allowance scheme (1 July 1978) entitles employees to a daily allowance equal to 100% of their gross earned income (within certain limits) from and including the first day of absence; self-employed persons, ordinarily 65% of gross earned income as from the 15th day. Supplementary insurance available

All female residents Maternity allowances: same as giving birth sickness allowances for 100 days (time sharing with the father is possible) or a lump sum of kr. 4,360 per child Unemployment benefits2

1939

Nearly earners

all

wage- Daily allowance during unemployment kr. 46 to 359 per day, excluding supplement for supported child(ren) (six days a week). Contributions to training and retraining, removal expenses, wage subsidies

Rehabilitation benefits1

1961

Persons unfit for work because of disablement and persons who have a substantially limited general functional capacity

Training; treatment; rehabilitation allowance grants and loans Full rehabilitation allowance equals old age pension (however, no special supplement is granted, see below.)

Disability benefits3

1961

All residents

A basic grant and an assistance grant to persons with special needs. Basic grant: kr. 4,104 to kr. 13,656 per annum (However, for many diabetes cases kr. 2,004 per annum.) Assistance grant: kr. 6,828, may be increased for children below 18 years of age to a maximum of kr. 38,232 per annum

All residents between Disability pension to persons bet16 and 67 years of age ween 16 and 67 years of age, occupationally disabled by at least 50%, unfit for rehabilitation Full disability pension equals old age pension For notes see p. 948.

NORWAY Type of scheme Occupational injury benefits2 (industrial workers 1895; fishermen 1909; seamen 1913; military personnel 1953, combined in the act of occupational injury insurance 1960) Old age pensions'

Introduced 1 Scope 1960 All employed persons, school children and students; self-employed on a voluntary basis

1937

947 Principal benefits as from I May 1987 The ordinary benefits of the National Insurance, alternative calculation of pensions etc. which in many cases are more favourable for the insured person—or his survivors than the ordinary rules An occupational injury compensation, alone or in addition to a disability pension

All persons above 67 Basic pensions: Single, kr. 29,900; couples, kr. 44,850 per annum; years of age supplementary pensions based on previous pensionable income; supplement for supported spouse kr. 14,950 per annum; supplement for supported child(ren) kr. 7,475 or kr. 3,738 per child per annum; see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Compensation supplement' A certain amount fixed by the All residents Storting, for the time being kr. 4,000

Death grants

1967

Survivors' benefits '

1965

All residents

Children's pension '

1958

Benefits married

to unsupporters5

1965

Benefits to divorced and separated supporters 4

1972

Under 18 (20) years of 40% of basic amount (kr. 11,960) age, after loss of one or for first child, 25% (kr. 7,475) for each additional child. Ifboth parboth parents ents are dead, full survivors' pension for first, 40% of basic amount for second, 25% third, etc., child Unmarried mothers An additional maternity benefit or fathers of kr. 8,282, transitional benefit, full amount kr. 29,900 per annum, child care allowance and educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Family allowances') Divorced and separat- Same kind of benefits as unmarried supporters above ed supporters

Benefits to unmarried persons forced to live at homeJ

1965

Special supplement to National Insurance pensions or transitional benefits For notes see p. 948.

Full pension = kr. 29,900 per annum + 55% of the supplementary pension due to the deceased, transitional benefits, child care allowance and educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Compensation supplement')

Unmarried persons under 67 years of age having stayed at home for at least 5 years to give necessary care and attention to parents or other near relatives

Transitional benefit or a pension kr. 29,900 per annum, educational allowances (see below under 'Special supplement' and 'Compensation supplement')

1969 Pensioners and per(1984) sons with transitional allowance on basic rates

Full special supplement, 54-5% of basic amount, i.e. kr. 16,296. For a married pensioner full supplement is lower when spouse has her/his own pension (49 • 75%)

948

NORWAY

Type of scheme Compensation supplement to National Insurance pensions or transitional benefits Family allowances

Introduced 1 Scope 1970 Pensioners, persons transitional (1984) with (except benefits unmarried, divorced and separated supporters) or rehabilitation allowances families with 1946 All (1986) children under 16 years ofage

1946 War victims, 1939-45 (1986)

War pensions

Special pension schemes: Forestry workers

Persons with at least: 5 1952 750 premium weeks (1987) (1,500 „ „)

Fishermen

1958 750 premium weeks (1987) (1,500 „ „)

Seamen

1948 150 months service (1987) (360 „ „ )

Principal benefits as from 1 May 1987 Full compensation supplement kr. 500 for single persons and kr. 750 for married couples

Kr. 6,180 per annum for the first child, kr. 6,672 for the second, kr. 8,088 for the third, kr. 8,712 for the fourth and kr. 9,096 for the fifth and each additional child. Single supporters receive benefits for one child more than the actual number Pensions up to kr. 118,344 per annum for single pensioners/ couples (excluding supplement for supported child(ren); widows' and children's pensions Maximum old-age pension: Kr. 29,900 per annum (for supported spouse an additional 33'/)%, 10% supplement per child, maximum 5 children) Kr. 29,900 per annum (for supported spouse an additional 50%, 30% supplement per child) Kr. 97,978 6 per annum (officers) Kr. 69,984' „ „ (others) (no spouse supplement, an additional 10% per child)

1

Date of latest revision of law in brackets. Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1971. Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1967. 4 Transferred to national insurance scheme and revised in 1981. 5 Requirements for maximum pensions in brackets. 6 Supplements for service during war not included. 1 3

Provisions have been laid down for the integration of more than one benefit, pension, etc., so as to limit the total amount. As a main rule all running benefits are taxable, while lump sums are not taxed. Certain tax modifications apply to all pensioners and pensioners with no other income than minimum benefits are not charged for tax.

SVALBARD A n archipelago situated between 10° and 35° E. long, and between 74° and 81° N . lat. Total area, 6 2 , 0 0 0 sq. k m ( 2 4 , 0 0 0 sq. miles). The main islands of the archipelago are Spitsbergen (formerly called Vestspitsbergen), Nordaustlandet, Edgeoya, Barentsoya, Prins Karls Forland, Bjernoya, H ö p e n , K o n g Karls Land, Kvitoya, and many small islands. T h e arctic climate is tempered by mild winds from the Atlantic. The archipelago was probably discovered by N o r s e m e n in 1194 and rediscovered by the D u t c h navigator Barents in 1596. In the 17th century the very lucrative whale-hunting caused rival D u t c h , British and D a n i s h - N o r w e g i a n claims to sovereignty and quarrels about the hunting-places. But when in the 18th century the whale-hunting ended, the question of the sovereignty o f Svalbard lost its significance; it was again raised in the 20th century, o w i n g to the discovery and exploitation o f coalfields. By a treaty, signed o n 9 Feb. 1920 in Paris, Norway's sovereignty over the archipelago was recognized. O n 14 Aug. 1925 the archipelago was officially incorporated in Norway. Coal is the principal product. O f the 3 Norwegian and 3 Soviet mining camps,

NORWAY

949

2 Norwegian and 2 Soviet camps are operating. Total population on 31 Dec. 1986 was 3,942, of which 1,387 were Norwegians, 2,535 Soviet citizens, and 10 Poles. In 1986, 349,204 tonnes of coal were exported from the Norwegian and 510,086 tonnes from the Soviet mines. Norwegian and foreign companies have been prospecting for oil. So far 5 deep drillings have been made, but oil and gas finds have not been reported. There are Norwegian meteorological and/or radio stations at the following places: Bjerneya (since 1920), Hopen (1945), Isfjord Radio (1933), Longyearbyen (1930), Svalbard Lufthavn (1975) and Ny-Álesund (1961). A research station, administered by Norsk Polarinstitutt, was erected at Ny-Álesund in 1968 for various observations and investigations. An airport near Longyearbyen (Svalbard Lufthavn) opened in 1975. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Skrifter, Oslo, from 1948 (under different titles from 1922) G r e v e , T . , Svalbard: Norway in the Arctic. Oslo, 1975 Hisdal, V., Geography of Svalbard. Norsk Polarinstitutt, Oslo, rev. ed., 1984 Orvin, A. K., 'Twenty-five Years of Norwegian Sovereignty in Svalbard 1925-1950' (in The Polar Record, 1951)

JAN MAYEN This bleak, desolate and mountainous island of volcanic origin and partly covered by glaciers, is situated 71" N. lat. and 8° 30' W. long., 300 miles N N E of Iceland. The total area is 380 sq. km (147 sq. miles). Beerenberg, its highest peak, reaches a height of2,277 metres. Volcanic activity, which had been dormant, was reactivated in Sept. 1970. The island was possibly discovered by Henry Hudson in 1608, and it was first named Hudson's Tutches (Touches). It was again and again rediscovered and renamed. Its present name derives from the Dutch whaling captain Jan Jacobsz May, who indisputably discovered the island in 1614. It was uninhabited, but occasionally visited by seal hunters and trappers, until 1921 when Norway established a radio and meteorological station. On 8 May 1929 Jan Mayen was officially proclaimed as incorporated in the Kingdom of Norway. Its relation to Norway was finally settled by law of 27 Feb. 1930. A LORAN station (1959) and a CONSOL station (1968) have been established.

BOUVET ISLAND Bouveteya This uninhabited volcanic island, mostly covered by glaciers and situated 54° 25' S. lat. and 3" 21' E. long., was discovered in 1739 by a French naval officer, Jean Baptiste Loziert Bouvet, but no flag was hoisted till, in 1825, Capt. Norris raised the Union Jack. In 1928 Great Britain waived its claim to the island in favour of Norway, which in Dec. 1927 had occupied it. A law of 27 Feb. 1930 declared Bouvetoya a Norwegian dependency. The area is 50 sq. km (19 sq. miles). From 1977 Norway has had an automatic meteorological station on the island, and 5 men operated a meteorological station there during the 1978-79 season.

PETER I ISLAND Peter 1 0 y This uninhabited island, situated 68° 48' S. lat. and 90° 35' W. long., was sighted in 1821 by the Russian explorer, Admiral von Bellingshausen. The first landing was made in 1929 by a Norwegian expedition which hoisted the Norwegian flag. On 1 May 1931 Peter I Island was placed under Norwegian sovereignty, and on 24 March 1933 it was incorporated in Norway as a dependency. The area is 180 sq. km (69 sq. miles).

950

NORWAY

QUEEN MAUD LAND Dronning Maud Land On 14 Jan. 1939 the Norwegian Cabinet placed that part of the Antarctic Continent from the border of Falkland Islands dependencies in the west to the border of the Australian Antarctic Dependency in the east (between 20° W. and 45° E.) under Norwegian sovereignty. The territory had been explored only by Norwegians and hitherto been ownerless. Since 1949 expeditions from various countries have explored the area. In 1957 Dronning Maud Land was given the status of a Norwegian dependency. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Norway in Great Britain (25 Beigrave Sq., London, SW1X 8QD) Ambassador: Rolf T. Busch. Of Great Britain in Norway (Thomas Heftyesgate 8,0264 Oslo, 2) Ambassador: J. A. Robson, CMG. Of Norway in the USA (2720 34th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Kjell Eliassen. Of the USA in Norway (Drammensveien 18,0255 Oslo, 2) Ambassador: Robert D. Stuart Jr. Of Norway to the United Nations Ambassador: Tom Eric Vraalsen. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistisk Sentralbyra (Skippergaten 15, P.B.8131 Dep.0033, Oslo 1), was founded in 1876 as an independent state institution. Director general: Arne 0 i e n . The earliest census of population was taken in 1769. The Sentralbyrä publishes the series Norges Offisielle Statistikk, Norway's official statistics (from 1828), and Social Economic Studies (from 1954). The main publications are: Statistisk Arbok for Norge (annual, from 1880; from 1952 bilingual Norwegian-English) Okonomisk Utsyn (annual, from 1935; with English s u m m a r y from 1952) Historisk Statistikk 1978 (historical statistics; bilingual Norwegian-English) Statistisk Mänedshejle (monthly, from 1880; with English index) Sosialt Utsyn 1983 (social survey). Irregular Miljöstatistikk 1983 (environmental statistics). Irregular Norges Statskalender. From 1816; annual from 1877 Facts about Norway. Ed. by Aftenposten. 20th ed. Oslo, 1986-87 Aratzen, J. G., and Knudsen, B. B., Political Life and Institutions in Norway. Oslo, 1981 Derry, T. K., A History of Modern Norway, 1814-1972. O U P , 1973.—A History of Scandinavia. London, 1979 Glässer, E., Norwegen [Bibliography] Darmstadt, 1978 Gleditsch, Th., Engelsk-norsk ordbok, 2nd ed. Oslo, 1948 Greve, T., Haakon VI of Norway, Founder of a New Monarchy. London, 1983 Grönland, E., Norway in English, Books on Norway... 1 742-1959. Oslo, 1961 Haugen, E., Norwegian-English Dictionary, Oslo, 1965 Helvig, M., Norway: Land, People, Industries, a Brief Geography. 3rd ed. Oslo, 1970 Holtedahl, O. (ed.), Geology of Norway. Oslo, 1960 Hornby, A. S.,and Svenkerud, H., Oxford engelsk-norsk ordbok. Oslo, 1983 Hove, O., The System of Education. Oslo, 1968 Imber, W „ Norway. Oslo, 1980 Knudsen, O., Norway at Work. Oslo, 1972 Larsen, K., A History of Norway. New York, 1948 Midgaard, i.,A Brief History of Norway. Oslo, 1969 Nielsen, K., and Nesheim, A., Lapp Dictionary: Lapp-English-Norwegian. 5 v o l s . , O s l o 1963 Orvik, N . (ed.), Fears and Expectations: Norwegian Attitudes Toward European Integration. Oslo, 1972 Paine, R., Coast Lapp Society. 2 vols. Tromso, 1957-65 Popperwell, R. G., Norway. London, 1972 Sather, L. B., Norway. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Udgaard, N . M . , Great Power Politics and Norwegian Foreign Policy. Oslo, 1973 Vorren, 0 . (ed.), Norway North of 65. Oslo, 1960 National Rugaas.

Library: The University Library, Drammensvein 42b, 0255 Oslo. Director:

Ben

Capital: Muscat Population: 1 -2m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$7,080 (1985)

OMAN Sultanate of Oman

HISTORY. Oman was dominated by Portugal from 1507-1649. The Al-Busaid family assumed power in 1744 and have ruled to the present day. The Sultanate of Oman, known as the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman until 1970, is an independent sovereign state, situated in south-east Arabia. AREA AND POPULATION. Its coastline is over 1,000 miles long and extends from the Ras al Khaimah Shaikdom near Bukha on the west side of the Musandum Peninsula to Fujairah Shaikdom on the east side, then again from the southern boundary of Fujairah to Ras Dharbat Ali, which marks the boundary between Oman and the territory of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. The Sultanate extends inland to the borders of the Rub' al Khali ('Empty Quarter') across three geographical divisions—a coastal plain, a range of hills and a plateau. The coastal plain varies in width from 10 miles near Suwaiq to practically nothing in the vicinity of Mutrah and Muscat towns, where the hills descend abruptly into the sea. These hills are for the most part barren except at the highest part of the mountainous region of the Jebel Akhdar (summit 9,998 ft) where there is some cultivation. The plateau has an average height of 1,000 ft. With the exception of oases there is little or no cultivation. North-west of Muscat the coastal plain, known as the Batinah, is fertile and prosperous. The date gardens extend for over 150 miles. Whereas the coastline between the capital, Muscat, and the southern province of Dhofar is barren, Dhofar itself is highly fertile. Its principal town is Salalah on the coast which is served by the port of Raysut. The area has been estimated at about 105,000 sq. miles (300,000 sq. km) and the population at 1 • 2m., chiefly Arabs; of these, some 40,000 live in Dhofar. The town of Muscat is the capital which, while formerly of some commercial importance, has now lost most of its trade to the adjacent port of Mutrah, the starting point for the trade routes into the interior. The population of both towns consists of pure Arabs, Indians, Pakistanis and Negroes; numerous merchants are Khojas (from Sind and Kutch) and Hindus (mostly from Gujarat and Bombay). Estimated population of the Capital area (comprising Muscat, Mutrah, Ruwi and Seeb), 1985, 250,000. Other principal towns are Nizwa, 10,000 and Salalah, 10,000. Other ports are Sohar, Khaburah and Sur on the Gulf of Oman and Raysut in the south; only Raysut affords shelter from bad weather. The port of Gwadur and a small tract of country on the Baluchistan coast of the Gulf of Oman were handed over to Pakistan on8Sept. 1958. The Kuria Muria islands were ceded to the UK in 1854 by the Sultan of Muscat and Oman. On 30 Nov. 1967 the islands were retroceded to the Sultan of Muscat and Oman, in accordance with the wishes of the population. C L I M A T E . Oman has a desert climate, with exceptionally hot and humid months from April to Oct., when temperatures may reach 117°F (47°C). From Dec. to the end of March, the climate is more pleasant. Light monsoon rains fall in the south from June to Sept., with highest amounts in the western highland region. Muscat. Jan. 72°F (22-2°C), July 91°F (33-3°C). Annual rainfall 4-0" (99-1 mm). Salalah. Jan. 72°F (22 -2°C), July 78°F (25 -6°C). Annual rainfall 3 • 3" (81 • 3 mm). RULER. The present Sultan is Qaboos bin Said (born Nov. 1940). He took over from his father Said bin Taimur, on 23 July 1970 in a Palace coup. In Oct. 1981 the Sultan issued three decrees establishing a 45-member State consultative council. The number of Council members was increased to 55 in 1983. 951

952

OMAN

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Oman is an absolute monarchy and there is no formal constitution. The Sultan legislates by decree and appoints a Cabinet to assist him; he holds the posts of Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Defence and Finance. Besides 17 departmental Ministers, the Cabinet also includes: Deputy Prime Minister for Security and Defence: Sayyid Fahar Bin-Taimur al-Said. Deputy Prime Minister for Finance and Economy: Qais bin Abdal Munim al-Zawawi. Deputy Prime Minister for Legal Affairs: Sayyid Fahad Bin-Mahmoud al-Said. Special Adviser to Sultan, Governor of Muscat: Sayyid Thuwaini BinShihab al-Said. Special Adviser to Sultan on Religious and Historical Affairs: Mohammad Bin-Ahmad A1 Bu Saidi. Minister of State for Foreign Affairs: Yusuf Bin Alawi Bin Abdullah. Minister of State, Governor ofDhofar: Musallim Bin Ali Bu Saidi. National flag: Red, with a white panel in the upper fly and a green one in the lower fly, and in the canton the national emblem in white. Local government: Oman is divided into 10 provinces (liwas) and sub-divided into 41 govemates (wilayats) each under a governor (wali). DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 headquarter brigades; 1 armoured, 1 reconnaissance and 3 artillery regiments; 8 infantry battalions; 1 special force, 1 signals regiment, 1 engineer regiment and 1 parachute regiment. Equipment includes 6 M-60A1 and 33 Chieftain main battle tanks. Strength (1988) about 16,500. Navy. The Navy comprises 4 new very fast missile-armed corvettes, 4 fast gunboats, 4 inshore patrol craft, 1 training ship/offshore patrol vessel, 2 logistic support ships, 5 landing craft, 1 troop transport,, 1 survey craft, 1 supply ship and 1 training ship. All the warships are British-built. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 2,400 officers and ratings. The marine police operate 12 coastal patrol boats, 2 logistics support craft, 3 inshore patrol boats and 8 launches. Air Force. The Air Force, formed in 1959, had in 1987 two strike/interceptor squadrons of Jaguars, a ground attack/interceptor squadron of Hunters, a squadron of Strikemaster light jet training/attack aircraft, 1 DC-8, 3 BAC One-Eleven and 1 Falcon VIP transports, 3 C-130H Hercules, 6 Defender and 15 Skyvan light transports, 35 Agusta-Bell 205, 212, 214B and JetRanger, and Bell 214 ST helicopters for security duties, 2 Super Puma VIP helicopters and 2 Bravo piston-engined trainers. Air defence force has batteries of Rapier low-level surface-to-air missiles. Personnel (1988) about 3,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Oman is a member of UN, the Arab League, the Islamic Conference Organisation and the Gulf Co-operation Council. Treaties. The Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Britain and the Sultan signed on 20 Dec. 1951, reaffirmed the close ties which have existed between the British Government and the Sultanate of Oman for over a century and a half. A Memorandum of Understanding signed in June 1982 provided for regular consultations on international and bilateral issues. ECONOMY Planning. The third 5-year plan (1986-90) envisages expenditure of R.0.9,250m. Budget. Revenue (1987) R.0.1,335m. (1,081 m. from oil); expenditure, 1,610m. Currency. The Rial Omani was introduced in Nov. 1972 replacing the Rial Saidi. It is divided into 1,000 baiza. There are notes of 100, 200 and 500 baiza and 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 Rial Omani and coins of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250 and 500 baiza. The exchange rate in March 1988 was£l =683 baiza;US$l =385 baiza. Banking. In Dec. 1986 there were 22 commercial banks operating in Oman, of

OMAN

953

which 13 were foreign institutions. There are 3 specialized banks: The Oman Development Bank, the Oman Housing Bank and the Oman Bank for Agriculture and Fisheries. The Central Bank ofOman commenced operations in 1975. Weights and Measures. The metric system of measurement is in operation. Transactions in the former measurements are now illegal. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production ( 1986) 2,920m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. The economy of Oman is dominated by the oil industry, which provides nearly all Government revenue. In 1937 Petroleum Concessions (Oman) Ltd, a subsidiary of the Iraq Petroleum Co., was granted a 75-year oil concession extending over the whole of Oman, although it relinquished Dhofar in 1950. In 1951 the company's name was changed to Petroleum Development (Oman) Ltd. The company (PDO) regained the Dhofar concession area in 1969. When some of the IPC partners withdrew from Oman in 1960, Shell took over the management of PDO with an 85% interest (minority interests were held by Compagnie Française des Pétroles, 10% and Gulbenkian, 5%). At the beginning of 1974 the Oman Government bought a 25% share in PDO, increasing this retroactively to 60% in July. A Joint Management Committee was established. Other companies active in exploration activities in Oman, with mixed success, include Amoco, Elf-Acquitaine and a consortium of Deminex, Agip and Hispanoil with BP as operator. Oil in commercial quantities was discovered in 1964 and production began at a rate of200,000 bbls per day in 1967. Production has fluctuated from year to year, peaking in 1976 at 366,000 bbls per day. Production in 1987 was 28-25m. tonnes. Total proven reserves were estimated in 1986 to be 4,200m. bbls, or sufficient for 22 years at the current rate of production. Since the first oil refinery became operational in 1982, Oman has been self-sufficient in most oil-derived products. Oman is not a member of OPEC or OAPEC but tends to follow OPEC pricing policy. Gas. Production (1982) 290m. cu. ft per day. In 1987 reserves were estimated at 7-7m. cu. ft. Water Resources. Oman relies on a combination of water and desalination plants for its water. Two desalination plants at Ghubriah, built in 1972 and 1982, provide most of the water needs of the capital area. Minerals. Production of refined copper at the smelter at Sohar was about 14,000 tonnes in 1984. Agriculture. About 41,000 hectares are under cultivation. In the valleys of the interior, as well as on the Batinah, date cultivation has reached a high level, and there are possibilities of agricultural development subject to present water resources and soil surveys. The crop of dates was 77,000 tonnes in 1986, most of which is exported to India. Other main crops are limes, bananas, coconuts, mangoes and alfalfa. Camels (79,000 in 1986) are bred in large numbers by the inland tribes. Fisheries. Catch (1985) 114,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing accounts for 3% of GDP and apart from oil production, copper mining and smelting and cement production there are no industries of any importance. Fishing, water resources, soil and agricultural surveys are being undertaken. The government gives priority to import substitute industries. Commerce. The total imports for 1985 were valued at R.O. 1,162m., including machinery and transport equipment (455m.), manufactured goods (240-9m.), food and live animals (124- lm.), petroleum products (19 -7m.) and chemicals (31-7m.). In 1985, 18-9% ofimports came from Japan, 15-4% from UK, 5-3% from USA

954

OMAN

and 7 -3% from the Federal Republic of Germany; 66 -3% of oil exports went to Japan, 14 -1% to South Korea, 6 -7% to Thailand, 2 -9% to Singapore and 2 -7% to Taiwan. Total trade between Oman and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 91,216 448,900

1984 82,655 390,275

1985 69,015 489,926

1986 87,235 399,647

¡987 49,487 249,916

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. A network of adequate graded roads links all the main sectors of population, and only a few mountain villages are not accessible by Land-Rover. In Dec. 1983 there were 3,222 km of paved roads and 18,667 km of graded roads. In 1985 there were 200,000 vehicles. Aviation. Gulf Air run regional services in and out of Seeb international airport (20 miles from Muscat) to Bahrain, Doha, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Karachi, Bombay and operate daily flights to and from London. Other airlines serving Muscat are British Airways, KLM, Thai International, British Caledonian, Air Tanzania, MEA, Kuwait Airlines, PIA, Air India, Iran Air, TMA (cargo) and Trade Winds (cargo). Domestic flights are provided by Oman Aviation Services. Shipping. In Mutrah a deep-water port (named Mina Qaboos) was completed in 1974 at a cost of R.O. 18-2m. It provides 12 berths, 9 of which are deep-water berths, warehousing facilities and a harbour for dhows and coastal vessels. The annual handling capacity has been raised to 1 -5m. tons. Mina Raysut, the port of Salalah, has a capacity of 1 m. tons per year. Post and Broadcasting. There are Sultanate post offices in Muscat and Mutrah, relying solely upon a Post Office Box system for delivery. Omantel maintain a telegraph office at Muscat and an automatic telephone exchange (23,000 lines, 1984) which includes Mutrah, Bait-al-Falaj and Mina al-Fahal, the oil company terminal. A high-frequency radio link with Bahrain was opened in Aug. 1972 providing communications with other parts of the world. Internally, there are radio telephone, telex and telegraph services direct between Salalah and Muscat, and a VHF radio link between Seeb international airport and Muscat. The airport is also served by a SITA telex system. Radio Oman broadcasts daily for 17 hours in Arabic and 2 hours in English. A colour television service covering Muscat and the surrounding area started transmission in Nov. 1974. A television service for Dhofar opened in 1975. Total number of televisions, 23,500 and radios, 800,000 in 1985. Newspapers. There were (1987) 2 Arabic and 1 English daily newspapers and 2 English weekly newspapers. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. In 1985-86, there were 531 schools with 195,847 pupils and (1984-85) 9,236 teachers. Plans have been implemented for the development of technical and agricultural training and craft training at intermediate and secondary level. Oman's first university, the Sultan Qaboos University, opened in Sept. 1986. There are also programmes to combat adult illiteracy. Health. Health services in 1984 were widely spread with 15 hospitals in use with 2,142 beds, and 1 more hospital planned, 21 health centres, 74 dispensaries, 572 doctors and 1,753 nurses. There are also Save the Children Fund Welfare Clinics at SoharandSur. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Oman in Great Britain (44A Montpelier Sq., London, SW7 1JJ) Ambassador: Hussain Bin Mohammad Bin Ali. Of Great Britain in Oman (PO Box 300, Muscat) Ambassador: Robert John Alston, CMG.

OMAN

955

O f O m a n in the U S A ( 2 3 4 2 Massachusetts Ave., N W , Washington, D.C., 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: Ali Salim Bader Al-Hinai. O f the U S A in O m a n (PO Box 9 6 6 , Muscat) Ambassador: G. C. Montgomery. O f O m a n to the United Nations Ambassador: Salim Bin M o h a m m e d Al-Khussaiby. B o o k s of Reference Oman in 10years. Ministry oflnformation. Oman, 1980 Oman: A MEED Practical Guide. London, 1981 Carter, J. R. L., Tribes of Oman. London, 1981 Clements, F. A., Oman: The Reborn Land. London and New York, 1980.—Oman. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1981 Graz, L., The Omani's:Sentinels ofthe Gulf. London, 1982 Hawley, D., Oman and its Rennaissance. London, 1977 Peterson, J. E., Oman in the Twentieth Century. London and New York, 1978 Peyton, W. D., Oman before 1970: The End of an Era. London, 1985 Pridham, B. R., (ed.) Oman: Economic, Social and Strategic Developments. London, 1987 Shannon, M. O., Oman and South-eastern Arabia: A Bibliographic Survey. Boston, 1978 Skeet, I., Muscat and Oman: The End of an Era. London, 1974 Thesiger, V!Arabian Sands. London, 1959 Townsend, J., Oman. London, 1977 Ward, P., Travels in Oman. Cambridge, 1987 W i k a n , U B e h i n d the Veil in Arabia: Women in Oman. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1982

PAKISTAN

Capital: Islamabad Population: 102-2m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$390 (1983)

Islamic Republic of Pakistan H I S T O R Y . Pakistan was constituted as a Dominion on 14 Aug. 1947, under the provisions of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, which received the royal assent on 18 July 1947. The Dominion consisted of the following former territories of British India: Balüchistän, East Bengal (including almost the whole of Sylhet, a former district of Assam), North-West Frontier, West Punjab and Sind; and those States which had acceded to Pakistan. On 23 March 1956 an Islamic republic was proclaimed after the Constituent Assembly had adopted the draft constitution on 29 Feb. On 7 Oct. 1958 President Mirza declared martial law in Pakistan, dismissed the central and provincial Governments, abolished all political parties and abrogated the constitution of 23 March 1956. Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, the Army Commander-in-Chief, was appointed as chief martial law administrator and assumed office on 28 Oct. 1958, after Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza had handed all powers to him. His authority was confirmed by a ballot in Feb. 1960. He proclaimed a new constitution on 1 March 1962. On 25 March 1969 President Ayub Khan resigned and handed over power to the army under the leadership of Maj.-Gen. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan who immediately proclaimed martial law throughout the country, appointing himself chief martial law administrator on the same day. On 29 March 1970 the Legal Framework Order was published, defining a new constitution: Pakistan to be a federal republic with a Moslem Head of State; the National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies to be elected in free and periodical elections, the first of which was held on 7 Dec. 1970. At the general election the Awami League based in East Pakistan and led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gained 167 seats and the Peoples' Party 90. Martial law continued pending the settlement of differences between East and West, which developed into civil war in March 1971. The war ended in Dec. 1971 and the Eastern province declared itself an independent state, Bangladesh. On 20 Dec. 1971 President Yahya Khan resigned and Mr Z. A. Bhutto became President and chief martial law administrator. On 30 Jan. 1972, Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth. A new Constitution was adopted by the National Assembly on 10 April 1973 and enforced on 14 Aug. 1973. It provided for a federal parliamentary system with the President as constitutional head and the Prime Minister as chief executive. President Bhutto stepped down to become Prime Minister and Fazal Elahi Chaudhry was elected President. The Chief of the Army Staff, Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq, proclaimed martial law on 5 July 1977 and the armed forces took control of the administration; scheduled elections were postponed. Mr Bhutto was hanged (for conspiracy to murder) on 4 April 1979. Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq succeeded Fazal Elahi Chaudhry as President in Sept. 1978. Governors-General of Pakistan: Quaid-I-Azam Mohammed Ali Jinnah (14 Aug. 1947-11 Sept. 1948); Khawaja Nazimuddin (14 Sept. 1948-18 Oct. 1951; took over the premiership after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan); Ghulam Mohammad (19 Oct. 1951-6 Aug. 1955); Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza (assumed office of President on 6 Oct. 1955, elected President on 5 March 1956). Presidents of Pakistan: Maj.-Gen. Iskander Mirza (23 March 1956-28 Oct. 1958); Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan (28 Oct. 1958-25 March 1969); Maj.-Gen. Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan (31 March 1969-20 Dec. 1971); 956

PAKISTAN

957

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (20 Dec.1971-14 Aug. 1973); Fazal Elahi Chaudhri (14 Aug. 1973-16 Sept. 1978); Gen. Mohammad Ziaul-Haq (16 Sept. 1978-). AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Pakistan is bounded north-west by Afghanistan, north by the USSR and China, east by India and south by the Arabian Sea. The total area of Pakistan is 307,293 sq. miles (796,095 sq. km); population (1981 census), 84-25m.; males, 44,232,000; females, 40,021,000. Density, 105-8 per sq. km. Estimate (1987) 102 -2m. Urban population, 28-3%. The population of the principal cities is: Islamabad Karachi Lahore Faisalabad Rawalpindi Hyderabad

201,000 5,103,000 2,922,000 1,092,000 928,000 795,000

Census of 1981 Multan 730,000 Gujranwala 597,000 Peshawar 555,000 Sialkot 296,000 Sargodha 294,000 Quetta 285,000

Jhang Sukkur Bahawalpur Kasur Gujrat Okara

195,000 191,000 178,000 155,000 154,000 154,000

Population of the provinces (census of 1981) was (1,000): North-west Frontier Province Federally admin. Tribal Areas Fed. Cap. Territory Islamabad Punjab Sind Baluchistan

Area (sq.km)

1981 density 1981 census population persq.km Estimated Total Male Female Urban (number) total 1985

74,521

1 1,061

5,761

5,300

1,665

148

12,287

27,219

2,199

1,143

1,056

-

81

2,467

907 205,344 140,914 347,190

340 47,292 19,029 4,332

185 24,860 9,999 2,284

155 22,432 9,030 2,048

376 230 135 12

379 53,840 21,682 4,908

204 13,051 8,243 677

By Jan. 1987 there were 3m. Afghan refugees in Pakistan, of whom most were in the North-west Frontier Province, and small numbers in Baluchistan and the Punjab. Language. The commonest languages are Urdu and Punjabi. Urdu is the national language while English is used in business and in central government. Provincial languages are Punjabi, Sindhi, Pushtu (North-West Frontier Province), Baluchi and Brahvi. C L I M A T E . A weak form of tropical monsoon climate occurs over much of the country, with arid conditions in the north and west, where the wet season is only from Dec. to March. Elsewhere, rain comes mainly in the summer. Summer temperatures are high everywhere, but winters can be cold in the mountainous north. Islamabad. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 90°F (32 2°C). Annual rainfall 36" (900 mm). Karachi. Jan. 61°F (161°C), July 86°F (30°C). Annual rainfall 8" (196 mm). Lahore. Jan. 53°F (11-7°C), July 89°F (31-7°C). Annual rainfall 18" (452 mm). Multan. Jan. 51°F (10-6°C), July 93°F (33-9°C). Annual rainfall 1" (170 mm). Quetta. Jan. 38°F(3-3°C), July 80°F(26-7°C). Annual rainfall 10" (239 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution of 1973 Parliament is bi-cameral, comprising the National Assembly and the Senate. The strength of the National Assembly is 210 including 10 women. The Senate consists of 63 members, 14 from each province, 5 from Federally Administered Tribal Areas and 2 from the federal capital area, elected by the members of the Provincial Assemblies. A constitutional amendment of 29 March 1976 provided 6 National Assembly seats reserved for non-Moslem minority representatives. With the proclamation of martial law the Constitution was kept in abeyance, but not abrogated. The Constitution obliges the Government to use such ways and means as may enable the people to order their lives collectively and individually in accordance with the principles of Islam. The Constitution (Ninth Amendment) Bill, 1986, consolidated Islam as the basis of law.

958

PAKISTAN

An Ombudsman was appointed in Jan. 1983. National elections were held in Feb. 1985 on the basis of the 1973 Constitution, amended to provide wider presidential powers. On 19 Dec. 1984 a referendum had been held to determine whether the President should continue in office for a 5-year term, following the elections; results were announced as 98% in favour. The Pakistan People's Party won 47 seats in the new Assembly, the Muslim League 17 and the Jamaat Islami Party, 9. In March 1985 the President set up a new National Security Council, led by himself; he assumed power to appoint and dismiss ministers and retained the final decision on legislation. In April 1985 the Council was replaced by a Federal Cabinet. On 30 Dec. 1985 martial law ended. President, Establishment: Gen. M. Zia-ul-Haq. Federal Cabinet in March 1988: Prime Minister: Mohammad Khan Junejo. Acting Foreign Affairs: Zain Noorani. Finance and Economic Affairs, Petroleum and Natural Resources: Mian M. Y. K. Wattoo. Communications and Railways: M. A. Khan Khattak. Education, Health, Special Education, Social Welfare: Nasim A. Aheer. Food and Agriculture: M. I. Baluch. Industries and Production: C. S. Husain. Information and Broadcasting, Water and Power: Q. A. M. Abid. States and Frontier Areas: S. Q. Shah. Justice, Parliamentary Affairs, Interior: W. Sajjad. Housing: H. H. Tayyeb. Local Government, Rural Development: A. A. Chaudhary. Federal Minister: I. A. Khan. Commerce, Planning and Development: M. Haq. Labour, Manpower and Overseas Pakistanis: S. M. Pasha Khuro. Religious and Minority Affairs: H. M. Saifullah Khan. There are 4 Ministers of State. On 18 Jan. 1986 the Prime Minister was elected leader of the Muslim League Party. National flag: Green, charged at the centre, with a white crescent and white 5-pointed star, a white vertical stripe at the mast to one-quarter of the flag. Local Government. Pakistan comprises the Federal Capital Territory (Islamabad), the provinces of the Punjab, the North-West Frontier, Sind and Baluchistan, and the tribal areas of the north-west. The provincial capitals are Peshawar (NW Frontier Province), Lahore (Punjab), Karachi (Sind) and Quetta (Baluchistan). Provincial governors are appointed by the President and are assisted by elected provincial councils. Within the provinces there are divisions administered by Commissioners appointed by the President; the divisions are divided into districts and agencies administered by Deputy Commissioners or Political Agents who are responsible to the Provincial Governments. The tribal areas (Khyber, Kurram, Malakand, Mohmand, North Waziristan, South Waziristan) are administered by political agents responsible to the federal government. Kashmir. Pakistan controls the northern and western portions of Kashmir, an area of about 84,160 sq. km with a population of about 2 • 8m. in 1985. Under a United Nations resolution of 1949 its future was to be decided by plebiscite; it is still a disputed territory. The people of Azad Kashmir (the west) have their own Assembly (42 members including 2 women), their own Council (of 14 members), High Court and Supreme Court. TTiere is a Parliamentary form of Government with a Prime Minister as the executive head and the President as the Constitutional head. Elections to the Legislative's 40 general seats are to be held within 10 days of the general elections in Pakistan, according to a presidential proclamation of 8 Oct. 1977. The seat of government is Muzaffarabad. The Pakistan Government is directly responsible for Gilgit and Baltistan (the north).

PAKISTAN

959

DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 armoured and 17 infantry divisions; 4 independent armoured, 8 independent infantry, 8 artillery and 3 anti-aircraft brigades; 6 armoured reconnaissance regiments, 7 surface-to-air missile batteries and 1 Special Services Group. Equipment includes 450 M-47/-48, 51 T-54/-55 and 1,100 Type-59 main battle tanks. The Army has an air component with about 70 fixedwing aircraft for transport, reconnaissance and observation duties and over 100 helicopters for anti-armour operations, transport, liaison and training. Strength (1988) 450,000, with a further 500,000 reservists. There are also 164,000 men in paramilitary units: National Guard, Frontier Corps, Pakistan Rangers, Coast Guard and Frontier Constabulary. Navy. The fleet comprises 6 diesel-powered patrol submarines (completed in France in 1969-80), 3 midget submarines, 1 'County' class destroyer, Babur (ex-HMS London) transferred from the Royal Navy in 1982, the ex-British very old light cruiser (harbour training ship) ex-HMS Diadem, re-named Jahangir, 1 very old destroyers (6 ex-US and 1 ex-British), 4 ex-Chinese corvette-type patrol vessels, 8 ex-Chinese fast missile craft, 12 ex-Chinese fast gunboats, 4 ex-Chinese fast (hydrofoil) torpedo boats, 1 seaward defence boat, 1 oceanographic survey ship, 3 coastal minesweepers, 1 fleet replenishment ship, 1 degaussing vessel, 1 rescue ship, 2 landing craft, 1 water carrier and 4 tugs. The naval air arm has 3 Atlantics and 1 Fokker for patrol and transport duties, 6 Sea King anti-submarine warfare helicopters and 4 Alouette III liaison helicopters. The principal naval base and dockyard are at Karachi. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 1,250 officers and 14,550 ratings. Air Force. The Pakistan Air Force came into being on 14 Aug. 1947. It has its headquarters at Peshawar and is organized within 3 air defence sectors, in the northern, central and southern areas of the country. Air defence units include 2 squadrons of F-16 Fighting Falcons and at least 6 squadrons of Chinese-built F-6s (MiG-19). Tactical units include 5 squadrons of Mirage III-EP/5 supersonic fighters and 5 with A-5 fighter-bombers, 1 squadron equipped with Mirage III-RP reconnaissance aircraft, and 1 with C-130 Hercules turboprop transports. Flying training schools are equipped with Masshaq (Saab Supporter) armed piston-engined primary trainers, T-37B/C jet trainers supplied by the USA, Mirage III-DPs and Chinese-built FT-5s (two-seat MiG-17s) and FT-6s (two-seat MiG-19s). A VIP transport squadron operates the Presidential F27 turboprop aircraft, 3 twin-jet Falcon 20s and smaller types. There is a flying college at Risalpur and an aeronautical engineering college at Korangi Creek. Total strength in 1988 was about 381 combat aircraft and 17,600 all ranks. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS External Debt (30 June 1986), US$ 16,349 -8m. Membership. Pakistan is a member of the UN, the Colombo Plan, and Regional Co-operation for Development. Treaties. A mutual defence assistance agreement between Pakistan and the USA was signed in Karachi on 19 May 1954. ECONOMY Planning. The sixth 5-year plan (1983-88) envisages a total fixed investment of Rs 495,000m. including Rs 77,000m. for industry, of which Rs 62,000m. would be spent in the private sector. Real growth in GDP is planned at 6 -5% annually (agriculture 5%; industry 9%). Expenditure will be met mainly (75%) from internal resources. Allocations for energy (Rs 116,000m.), agriculture and irrigation (Rs 88,000m.), special development programmes (Rs 22,000m.) and family planning (Rs 1,800m.) have been made. Budget. The following table shows the budget for the years 1985-86 and 1986-87 inRs lm.:

960

PAKISTAN

Revenue receipts of which taxes Capital receipts of which External Revenue expenditure Capital expenditure

1985-86 Revised 93,716-4 58,207-9 57,866-7 19,962-0 98,783-1 45,008-0

1986-87 Budget 105,396-9 61,194-6 52,426-0 25,944-4 114,654-4 39,918-9

Currency. The monetary unit is the Pakistan rupee. In March 1988 Rs30-60 = £1; Rs 17-59 = US$1. Decimal coinage was introduced on 1 Jan. 1961. The rupee, which previously consisted of 64 pice, now consists of 100 paisas. The notes are of Rs 100, 50, 10 and 5 denominations issued by the State Bank in the name of the Government, and Rs 1 issued by the State Bank incurring no liability; the coinage in the decimal series is 0 • 5,0-25,0 1,0 05 and 0 0 1 rupee. Total monetary assets (including currency in circulation and deposits) on 31 March 1987 amounted to Rs 230,978m. Currency in circulation, Rs 73,596m. Banking. As from 1 Jan. 1985, banks and other financial institutions will abandon the payment of interest on new transactions. This does not apply to international business, but does apply to the domestic business of foreign banks operating in Pakistan. Investment partnerships, between bank and customer, are to replace straight loans at interest. The aim is to bring all domestic financial transactions into conformity with Islamic teaching. The State Bank of Pakistan has prepared a schedule of acceptable practice. The State Bank of Pakistan is the central bank; it came into operation as the Central Bank on 1 July 1948 with an authorized capital of Rs 30m. and was nationalized in Jan. 1974. At end June 1987 total assets or liabilities of the issue department amounted to Rs 78,18 lm. and those of the banking department Rs 79,165m.; total deposits, Rs 48,675m. It is the sole bank of issue for Pakistan, custodian of foreign exchange reserves and banker for the federal and provincial governments and for scheduled banks. It also manages the rupee public debt of federal and provincial governments. It provides short-term loans to the Government and commercial banks and short- and medium-term loans to specialized banks. The Bank's subsidiary Federal Bank for Co-operatives makes loans to provincial co-operative banks. There were 32 scheduled banks in Pakistan on 30 June 1987. Of these 9 were Pakistani (nationalized since 1974). Total liabilities or assets of all scheduled banks stood at Rs 399,692-6m., of which time liabilities, Rs 105,389-5m., on the last working day of June, 1987. The National Bank of Pakistan acts as an agent of the State Bank for transacting Government business and managing currency chests at places where the State Bank has no offices of its own. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity of the state power system (1986-87) by type of generation: Thermal 3,263 mw., hydro-electric, 2,898 mw.; the Karachi Electric Supply Corporation had 17-9%. Total generated electrical energy in 1986-87, 28,236m. kwh; 15,241m. kwh of this was hydro-electricity, the main source being the Tarbela Dam. By June 1986 21,846 villages (of a total 43,244) had access to electric power. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Oil comes mainly from the Potowar Plain, from fields at Meyal, Tut, Balkassar, Joya Mair and Dhullian. Production in 1987 was 2-4m. tonnes. Oil reserves were also found at Dhodak in Dec. 1976. Exploitation is mainly through government incentives and concessions to foreign private sector companies. The Pak-Arab refinery pipeline runs 865 km. from Karachi to Multan; capacity, 4-5m. tonnes of oil annually. Gas. Gas pipelines from Sui to Karachi (345 miles) and Multan (200) supply natural gas to industry and domestic consumers. A pipeline between Quetta and

PAKISTAN

961

Shikarpur was constructed in 1982. There are 4 other productive fields. Reserves (1983), 500,000m. cu. metres; production in 1986-87 was 11,045m. cu. metres. Water. The Indus water treaty of 1960, concluded between India and Pakistan, has created the basis for a large-scale development programme. The Indus Basin Development Fund Agreement has been subscribed by Australia, Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, New Zealand, U K and USA and is administered by the International Bank; the works to be constructed call for expenditure of US$1,000m. The main purpose of the treaty is the division of the water power of the Indus and its 5 tributaries between India and Pakistan. After the construction of some 460 miles of canals, the Indus and the 2 western tributaries will serve Pakistan and the entire flow of the 3 eastern tributaries will be released for use in India. The largest project is the construction of the Tarbela Dam, an earth-and-rock filled dam on the river Indus, 485 ft high, which has a gross storage capacity of 1 1 1 m . acre feet of water for irrigation. The Lloyd Barrage and Canal Construction Scheme, consists of a barrage across the river Indus at Sukkur and 7 canals—4 on the left and 3 on the right bank. Another barrage across the Indus, A {h miles north of Kotri, called the Ghulam Muhammad Barrage, was completed in 1955. The Taunsa barrage on the Indus, 80 miles downstream of Kalabagh, was completed in 1958. The Gudu barrage, 10 miles from Kashmore, was completed in 1962. The province of the Punjab set up in 1949 the Thai Development Authority to colonize the Thai desert between the Indus and Jhelum rivers. The Chashma canal will carry water 172 miles across Dera Ismail Khan from the Chashma barrage on the Indus. The Mangla Dam on the Jhelum was inaugurated in Nov. 1967. Minerals. The main agencies are the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation, the Resource Development Corporation and the Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan. Coal is mined at Sharigh and Harnai on the Sind-Pishin railway and in the Bolan pass, also in Sor Range and Degari in the Quetta-Pishin district and in the Punjab; total recoverable reserves, about 480m. tonnes, mainly low-grade. A further 55m. tonnes was found at Lakhra in 1980 and reserves of over 500m. tonnes were found in the 300 sq. mile Thatta Sadha field in 1981. Copper ore reserves at Saindak, in Baluchistan, 412m. tons, containing (1984 estimate) 1 • 69m. tons of copper; 2-24m. oz. of gold; 2-2m. oz. of silver. Chromite is extracted in and near Muslimbagh. Limestone is quarried generally. Gypsum is mined in the Sibi district and elsewhere; reserves (1983), about 370m. tonnes. Iron ore is being worked in Kalabagh and elsewhere; reserves, about 400m. tonnes, low-grade. A further 18m. tonnes, high-grade, has been found in Baluchistan. Uranium has been found in Dera Ghazi Khan. Production (tonnes, 1986-87): Coal, 2 - 14m.; chromite, 7,873; limestone, 6-6m.; gypsum, 379,000; rock salt, 546,000; fire clay, 94,820. Other minerals of which useful deposits have been found are magnesite, sulphur, barites, marble, bauxite, antimony ore, bentonite, celestite, dolomite, fireclay, fluorite, fuller's earth, phosphate rock, silica sand and soapstone. Agriculture. The entire area in the north and west is covered by great mountain ranges. The rest of the country consists of a fertile plain watered by 5 big rivers and their tributaries. Agriculture is dependent almost entirely on the irrigation system based on these rivers. It employs (1986) 54% of labour and provides about 2 6 % of GNP and 45% of foreign exchange earnings. Growth rate, 1986-87, 5 -86%. The main crops are wheat, cotton, maize, sugar-cane and rice, while the Quetta and Kalat divisions (Baluchistan) are known for their fruits and dates. Pakistan is self-sufficient in wheat, rice and sugar. Production, 1985-86, in 1,000 tonnes: Rice (cleaned), 2,918-9; wheat, 13,923; sugar-cane, 27,856-3; cotton (lint, 1,000 bales), 7,155. An ordinance of Jan. 1977 reduced the upper limit of land holding to 100 irrigated or 200 non-irrigated acres; it also replaced the former land revenue system with a new agricultural income tax, from which holders of up to 25 irrigated or 50

962

PAKISTAN

unirrigated acres are exempt. Of about 4m. farms, 89% are of less than 25 acres. Of the surveyed area of 156m. acres, cultivated land accounts for 63m. acres, of which 11 m. acres consist of fallow land, so that the net area sown is 52m. acres. Livestock (estimate, 1987): Cattle, 16,900,000; bufTaloes, 13,700,000; sheep, 26,600,000; goats, 31,900,000; poultry, 121 • 7m. Forestry. In 1983-84 the forest departments managed 6-8m. hectares, including range-lands. Productive forests covered 1 -29m. hectares, and produced (1986-87) 733,000 cu. metres of timber and firewood. Forest lands are also used as national parks, wildlife and game reserves. Fisheries. In 1985 landings were 320,000 tonnes of marine and 70,600 of inland water fish. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry employs about 10% of the population, contributing (1984-85) about 19% of GDP. The growth rate in manufacturing, 1986-87, was an estimated 7-44%. In 1972 public sector companies were re-organized under a Board of Industrial Management. Government policy since 1977 has been to encourage private industry, particularly small industry. The public sector, however, is still dominant in large industries; in 1981-82 its gross value added was Rs. 4,291 -8m., number of employees 81,689, investment Rs. 45,886-98m., of which 60% was for Pakistan Steel. Steel, cement, fertilizer and vegetable ghee are the most valuable public sector industries. A public sector steel-mill (Pakistan Steel) has been built at Port Qasim near Karachi, capacity 1 1 m . tonnes; production of coke and pig-iron began in autumn 1981 and of steel in 1983. A private sector ferrous alloys plant has been approved near Peshawar, capacity 40 tonnes of ferrous silicon and manganese per day. There is an Export Processing Zone at Karachi, covering 500 acres; at 30 June 1981 investment here stood at US$58 • 8m. The largest project (approved Aug. 1981) is a Pakistan-Saudi aluminium extrusion plant. Production 1986-87 (tonnes): Refined sugar, l-3m.; vegetable products, 590,278; jute textiles, 109,748; soda ash, 130,274; sulphuric acid, 77,610; caustic soda, 41,931; chip board and paper board, 66,945; cycle tyres and tubes, 10-6m. units; bicycles, 593,058 units; cotton cloth, 234-7m. sq. metres; cotton yarn, 578- lm. kg.; cement, 5-4m.; steel billets 253,848; hot-rolled steel sheets and coils, 399,613; cold-rolled, 122,887; mild steel products, 746,189; pre-recorded cassettes, 8-2m. units. Labour. The 1981 census gave the total work force as 22 • 62m. Estimates (1985-86) give 28-9m., employed workforce 27-86m. of whom 15-05m. (54%) were engaged in agriculture, forestry and fishing, 3 -73m. (13%) in manufacturing; the textile industry was the largest single manufacturing employer. Of the home work force, 26-26% were unpaid family helpers, 26-77% were wage employees. Commerce. Total value of exports during 1985-86 amounted to Rs 49,592-2m., and the total value of imports to Rs 90,946-3m. In 1986-87, exports were Rs 63,267-9m., imports, Rs 92,430-8m. The value of the chief articles imported into and exported from Pakistan (in Rs 1 m.): Imports

Minerals, fuels, lubricants Machineryand transport equipment Edible oils Chemicals

1985-86

1986-87

17,629-8

14,806-2

27,247-7 8,874-0 11,663-2

27,543-5 5,003 -4 15,773-1

Exports

Rawcotton Cottoncloth Textileyams Rice Carpets, tapestries

1985-86 1986-87 8,290-5 5,082-7 4,572-5 5,527-2 2,668-4

7,675-8 5,931-1 8,765-6 5,052-6 3,419-5

Of exports (1986-87), Rs 17,503-5m. went to the European Community; Rs9,608-6m. to the middle east, of which Rs4,509-6m. was to Saudi Arabia; Rs 6,421-8m. went to USA. Of imports, Rs 22,423-4m. came from the European Community; Rs 10,195m. from USA; Rs 16,613-6m. from the middle east, of which Rs 4,920-3m. was from Saudi Arabia.

963

PAKISTAN

Total trade between Pakistan and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 80,277 191,647

1984 93,136 282,356

1985 119,006 255,419

1986 131,296 227,064

1987 167,315 252,978

Tourism. In 1986 there were 432,000 tourist arrivals spending US$ 180 -2m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985-86 Pakistan had 106,580 km of roads, of which 45,686 km were all-weather roads. The Karakoram highway to the Chinese border, through Kohistan and the Hunza valley, was opened in 1978. An all-weather road linking Skardu and the remote N E Indus valley to the highway was built in 1980. In 1985 there were l -8m. vehicles registered, including 925,977 motor-cycles and 426,419 cars, jeeps and station wagons. Railways. Pakistan Railways had (1986) a route of 8,775 km (of which 290 km electrified) mainly on 1,676 mm. gauge, with some metre gauge and narrow gauge line. In 1985-86 there were 82-9m. passengers and 11 -8m. tonnes of freight. Gross earnings, 1985-86, Rs 4,367-7m. Aviation. Karachi is served by British Airways, KLM, P A N A M , Lufthansa, Swissair, SAS, Iran National Airlines, Air France, Garuda, Gulf Air and by Philippine, Japanese, Chinese, East African, Syrian, Iraqui, Kuwait, Jordanian, Saudi Arabian, Romanian, Egyptian and Russian airlines. Pakistan International Airlines (founded 1955; the majority of shares is held by the Government) had 4 DC-10s, 7 Boeing 707Cs, 5 720Bs, 2 747Bs and 8 Fokker F27s in 1977; 2 other Boeing 720Bs were on lease to Air Malta. Services operate to 20 home airports, New York, Paris, Amsterdam, Copenhagen, Istanbul, Athens, Rome, Cairo, Tripoli, Nairobi, Dhahran, Damascus, Amman, Baghdad, Persian Gulf points, Tokyo, Peking (Beijing), Zahedan, Singapore, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, Colombo, London, Frankfurt, Bombay, Delhi, Dacca, Kabul, Tehran and Jeddah. Shipping. There is a seaport at Karachi, dry-cargo-handling capacity 6m. tonnes a year, oil-handling, 10m. The second port, 26 miles east of Karachi, is Port M u h a m mad Bin Qasim; it has iron and coal berths for Pakistan Steel Mills, multi-purpose berths, bulk-cargo handling, oil and container-traffic terminals; the first seven berths were operational in 1983. Shipping entered and cleared (1985-86): Karachi 1,828 and 1,787 vessels; Port Qasim 239 and 243. Cargo handled: Karachi 15 -8m. tonnes, Port Qasim 4-4m. The Pakistan National Shipping Corporation had 35 vessels in 1985, of 596,973 D W T . National flag carriers now operate between Pakistan and UK; USA and Canada; the Far East; the (Persian) Gulf, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea, Black Sea and Mekran Coast; Continental Europe and the Middle East. The Karachi Shipyard and Engineering Works Ltd construct all types of vessels u p to 27,000 D W T and repairs all types; dry-dock and under-water repairs can be done on vessels u p to 29,000 DWT, above-water repairs on vessels and drilling rigs of all sizes. Post and Broadcasting. The telegraph and telephone system is government-owned. Telephones, on 31 March 1987, numbered 643,500; a nationwide dialling system is in operation between 46 cities. In 1987 there were 12,116 post offices. Pakistan has international telephone connections by 102 satellite, 7 HF, 4 microwave and 10 carrier circuits. An international direct-dialling exchange with 25,000 connections was opened in July 1980. The Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation had 16 radio stations in Dec. 1984. Television stations operate in Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta and Rawalpindi-Islamabad. Cinemas (1983). There are about 600 cinemas. Newspapers. Dailies and periodicals numbered 1,156 in 1983: 763 were in Urdu, 272 in English and 70 in Sindhi; 121 were dailies, 315 weeklies, 562 monthlies and 158 quarterlies. Top circulation 300,000 for an Urdu daily paper.

964

PAKISTAN

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The Central Judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, which is a court of record and has three-fold jurisdiction, namely, original, appellate and advisory. There are 4 High Courts in Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta and Karachi. Under the Constitution, each has power to issue directions of writs of Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Certiorari and others. Under them are district and sessions courts of first instance in each division; they have also some appellate jurisdiction. Criminal cases not being sessions cases are tried by district magistrates and subordinate magistrates. There are subordinate civil courts also. The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, as the greatest safeguard of citizens' rights. The Laws (Continuance in Force) (Eleventh Amendment) Order, 1980, prescribed the date of 14 Aug. 1981 by which the judiciary shall be separated from the executive. There is an Attorney-General, appointed by the President, who has right of audience in all courts. A Federal Shariat Court at the Supreme Court level has been established to decide whether any law is wholly or partially un-Islamic. Islamic law is to be enforced as the law of the state; penalties for offences involving intoxicating liquor, offences against property and sexual offences have been specified. Imprisonment remains as a penalty in general use, but some offences in all the above categories are liable to whipping and some property offences, to amputation. Religion. Religious groups (1981 census): Moslems, 96-68%; Christians, 1-55%; Hindus, 1-51%; Parsees, Buddhists, and others. There is a Minorities Wing at the Religious Affairs Ministry to safeguard the constitutional rights of religious minorities. Education. At the census of 1981, 23 -3% of the population were able to read and write. Estimate (1985), 26%. Adult literacy programmes have been established. The principle of free and compulsory primary education has been accepted as the responsibility of the state; duration has been fixed provisionally at 5 years. About 49% of children aged 5-9 are enrolled at school. Present policy stresses vocational and technical education, disseminating a common culture based on Islamic ideology. Figures for 1985-86 in 1,000: Primary Middle High Colleges Universities

Enrolment Teachers 7,735 199-7 1,891 61-8 739 91-6 61-5 22-4 56-6 3-8 ' Numbers.

Institutions 86-1 6-2 5-1 584' 20'

Sixth plan (1983-88) expenditure: Rs. 11,000m. on primary and secondary schools; Rs. 1,300m. on colleges and Rs. 2,100m. on universities. Health. In 1986 (provisional) there were 670 hospitals and 3,441 dispensaries (57,709 beds) and 46,494 doctors. Sixth plan (1983-88) expenditure: Rs. 15,750m. Social Security. In 1981-82 expenditure on cash benefits under the employees' social security scheme was Rs 15 • 3m., on medical care, Rs.93 -2m. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Pakistan in Great Britain (35 Lowndes Sq., London, SW1X9JN) Ambassador: Shaharyar M. Khan (accredited 26 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in Pakistan (Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna 5, Islamabad) Ambassador: N. J. Barrington, CMG, CVO. Of Pakistan in the USA (2315 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Jamsheed K. A. Marker. Of the USA in Pakistan (Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna, 5, Islamabad) Ambassador: Arnold L. Raphel.

PAKISTAN

965

Of Pakistan to the United Nations Ambassador: S. Shah Nawaz. Books of Reference Pakistan Economic Survey 1984-85. Ministry of Finance, Islamabad, 1985 Pakistan Year-Book, Annual Ahmed, A. S., Religion and Politics in Muslim Society: Order and Conflict in Pakistan. CUP, 1973 Ali,T., Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of the State. Harmondsworth, 1983 Burke, S. M., Pakistan 's Foreign Policy. OUP, 1973 Burki, S. J., Pakistan Under Bhutto. London, 1980 Griffin, K., and Khan, A. R. (ed.), Growth and Inequality in Pakistan. London and New York 1972 Hasan, M., (ed.) Pakistan in a Changing World. Karachi, 1978 Jennings, Sir Ivor, Constitutional Problems in Pakistan. CUP, 1957 Siddiqui, K., Conflict, Crisis and War in Pakistan. London, 1972

Capital: Panama City Population: 2-2 8m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$2,060 ( 198 5)

PANAMA República de Panamá

H I S T O R Y . A revolution, supported by the USA, led to the separation of Panama from the United States of Colombia and the declaration of its independence on 3 Nov. 1903. The de facto Government was on 5 Nov. recognized by the USA, and soon afterwards by the other Powers. In 1924 Colombia agreed to recognize the independence of Panama. On 8 May 1924 diplomatic relations between Colombia and Panama were established. On 1 Oct. 1979 Panama assumed sovereignty over what was previously known as the Panama Canal Zone and now called the Canal Area. For the treaties regulating the relations between Panama and the USA see pp. 967-68. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Panama is bounded north by the Caribbean, east by Colombia, south by the Pacific and west by Costa Rica. Extreme length is about 480 miles (772 km); breadth between 37 (60) and 110 miles (177 km); coastline, 426 miles (685 km) on the Atlantic and 767 (1,234 km) on the Pacific; total area is 29,768 sq. miles (77,046 sq. km); population according to the census of 11 May 1980 was 1,830,175. Estimate (1987) 2,277,000. Over 75% are of mixed blood and the remainder Indians, negroid, white and Asiatic. The largest towns (census, 1980) are Panama City, the capital on the Pacific coast (386,393); its suburb San Miguelito (156,361); Colon, the port on the Atlantic coast (59,043); and David (50,621). The areas and populations of the 9 provinces and the Special Territory were: Province Bocas del Toro Chiriquí Veraguas Herrera Los Santos Coclé Colón Terr. de San Blas Panama Darién

Sq. km Census 1980 5,711 53,579 8,758 287,801 173,195 11,086 2,427 81,866 3,867 70,200 5,035 140,320 8,167 '¡166,439 3,206 J 12,022 830,278 26,497 16,803

Estimate ¡985 75,400 347,500 206,800 99,800 83,600 156,500 Í 158,500 1 39,100 976,800 36,900

Capital Bocas del Toro David Santiago Chitré Las Tablas Penonomé Colón El Porvenir Panama City La Palma

Vital statistics (1980): Births, 52,626; marriages, 8,850; deaths, 7,959. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, unvaryingly with high temperatures and only a short dry season from Jan. to April. Rainfall amounts are much higher on the north side of the isthmus. Panama City. Jan. 79°F (26- 1°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 70" (1,770 mm). Colon. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 80°F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 127" (3,175 mm). Balboa Heights. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 70" (1,759 mm). Cristobal. Jan. 80°F(26-7°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 130" (3,255 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1972 Constitution, as amended in 1978 and 1983, provides a president and two vice-presidents to be elected by direct popular vote and a 67 seat Legislative Assembly to be elected on a party basis; in 28 of the 40 constituencies the party winning the vote obtaining one seat; in the other 12, the 39 remaining seats being allocated on a system of proportional party representation. There is also a 505-member National Assembly 966

PANAMA

967

elected, one member for each electoral district. However effective power is held by the commander of the defence forces, Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega. Elections, the first to be held in Panama for 16 years, were held in May 1984. Nicholas Barletta was elected president and took office in Nov. 1984, but he resigned in Sept. 1985 and was succeeded by one of his vice-presidents. In the Legislative Assembly the National Democratic Union (UNADE), a coalition party, won 40 seats; the Democratic Opposition Alliance (ADO) 27 seats. On 26 Feb. 1988 General Manuel Antonio Noriega deposed President Eric Arturo Delvalle and appointed Manuel Solis Palma in his place. See Addenda. The official language is Spanish. National flag: Quarterly: first a white panel with a blue star, second red, third blue, fourth white with a red star. National anthem: Alcanzamos por fin la victoria (words by J. de la Ossa; tune by Santos Jorge, 1903). Local government: The 9 provinces and a Special Territory (another is envisaged) are sub-divided into 65 municipal districts and are further sub-divided into 505 corregimientos (electoral districts). DEFENCE Army. The Army (National Guard) numbered (1988) 4,500 men organized in 8 light infantry companies, equipped with 16 V-150 and 12 V-300 armoured cars. There is one air-bome group. Navy. Divided between both coasts, the flotilla comprises 2 patrol craft, 2 coastguard cutters, 4 coastal launches, 3 medium landing ships, 3 utility landing craft and 3 logistic support vessels. In 1988 personnel totalled some 550 officers and men. Air Force. The air force has 3 CASA 212,2 Islander and 3 Twin Otter transports, 4 Cessna and 2 DHC-3 Otter liaison aircraft, a Shorts Skyvan, a Falcon 20 and a Boeing 727 for VIP transport, 21 UH-1B/D/H Iroquois and twin-engined UH-1N helicopters plus a Super Puma for official use. Personnel (1988) 200. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Panama is a member of UN and OAS. ECONOMY Budget. The 1987 budget provided for expenditure of 1,705m. balboas and revenue of 1,405m. balboas. Public sector debt was US$3,691m. in 1985. Currency. The monetary unit is the balboa. Other coins are the half-balboa (equal to 50 cents US); the quarter and tenth of a balboa piece; a cupro-nickel coin of 5 cents, and a copper coin of 1 cent. US coinage is also legal tender. The only paper currency used is that of the USA. In March 1988, US$1 = 1 balboa; £1 = 1 -77 balboas. Banking. There is no statutory central bank. The Government accounts are handled through the Banco National de Panama. The number of commercial banks was 132 in June 1986; 67 have a general licence, 30 an international licence, 13 a representational licence and 14 a fiduciary licence. Leading banks are the Citibank, Lloyds Bank International (Bahamas) Ltd., and the Chase Manhattan Bank of New York. Other foreign-owned banks include the Bank of America, as well as Canadian. Panama is a relatively small offshore banking centre. The total assets of Panamanian banks increased to US$41,000m. between 1976-83. Weights and Measures. English weights and measures are in general use; those of the metric system are also used.

968

PANAMA

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 3,120m. kwh. Supply 110 and 120 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. There are known to be copper deposits in the provinces of Chiriqui, Colón and Darien. The most important, containing possibly the largest undeveloped reserves in the world, is Cerro Colorado (Chiriqui) on which a feasibility study was undertaken by the Rio Tinto Zinc Corporation Ltd. If it is eventually decided to develop the mine, it is expected that the annual production of copper will reach 260,000 to 280,000 tonnes within a few years. The deposit has estimated reserves of 1,300m. tonnes, with an average grade of 0 - 76% copper. Agriculture. Of the whole area (1981) 15-6% is cultivated, 57-6% is natural or artificial pasture land and 8 -6% is fallow. Of the remainder only a small part is cultivated, though the land is rich in resources. About 60% of the country's food requirements are imported. Production in 1985 totalled 1 1 m . tonnes of bananas and 160,000 tonnes of raw sugar. Oranges (34,000 tonnes) and mangoes (28,000 tonnes) are also produced. Most important food crop, for home consumption, is rice, grown on 80% of the farms; Panama's per capita consumption is very high. Production of rice was 199,000 tonnes in 1985. Other products are maize (70,000 tonnes in 1985), cocoa (1,000 tonnes), coffee (16,000 tonnes) and coconuts (22,000 tonnes). Beer, whisky, rum, 'seco', anise and gin are produced. Coffee is mainly grown in the province of Chiriqui, near the Costa Rican frontier. The country has great timber resources, notably mahogany. Livestock (1986): 1,443,000 cattle, 205,000 pigs and 8m. poultry. Forestry. Production(1984)2-05m. cu. metres. Fisheries. The catch in 1982 was 337,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Local industries include cigarettes, clothing, food processing, shoes, soap, cement factories; foreign firms are being encouraged to establish industries, and a petrol refinery is operating at Colón. Commerce. The imports and exports (including re-exports) for the Republic of Panama, for 4 calendar years are as follows (in 1,000 balboas; 1 balboa=US$ 1): 1982 1983

Imports

1,569,300 1,441,900

Exports

308,100 299,300

1984 1985

Imports

1,423,000 3,140,800

Exports

251,500 789,000

Chief exports (36-7% to the USA) in 1983 were: Food and live animals, petroleum products and manufactured goods. Chief imports (17-4% from USA), 1983, were valued (in lm. balboas f.o.b.) were: Mineral fuels 392-3, machines and transport equipment 324-7, basic manufactures 233-5, and chemicals 166-7. Total trade between Panama (including Colón Free Zone) and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1983 1984 1985 1986 Imports to UK 5,341 9,681 14,612 4,950 1 Exports and re-exports from U K 42,276 74,322 55,424 44,975 1 Including new ships built for foreign owners and registered in Panama.

1987 4,919 40,020

Tourism. In 1986,467,000 people visited Panama. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Panama had in 1985,9,694 km of roads. The road from Panama City westward to the cities of David and Concepción and to the Costa Rican frontier, with several branches, is part of the Pan-American Highway. A concrete highway connects Panama City and Colón. On 1 Jan. 1981 registered motor vehicles, private and commercial, numbered 166,498.

PANAMA

969

Railways. The Ferrocarril de Panama (Panama Railroad) (1,524 mm gauge) (through the Canal area), which connects Ancón on the Pacific with Cristóbal on the Atlantic, is the principal railway. It is 190 km long and runs along the banks of the Canal. As most vessels unload their cargo at Cristóbal (Colón), on the Atlantic side, the greater portion of the merchandise destined for Panama City is brought overland by the Ferrocarril de Panama. The United Brands Company runs 3 76 km of railway, and the Chiriqui National Railroad 171 km. Aviation. Eastern Airlines, Swissair, Varig, JAL, Alitalia, KLM, Iberia Airlines, Aeromexico, VIASA, Air France and other international companies operate at Tocumen Airport, 12 miles from Panama City. Air Panama provides services between Panama City and New York, Los Angeles, Miami, Central America and some countries in South America. The Compañía Panameña de Aviación (COPA) and Aerolíneas Las Perlas provide a local service between Panama City and the provincial towns. COPA also provides an international service to Central America. Shipping. Ships under Panamanian registry in 1986 numbered 12,000 gross tons; most of these ships elect Panamanian registry because fees are labour laws lenient. All the international maritime traffic for Colón and runs through the Canal ports of Cristóbal, Balboa and Bahia Las Minas Almirante is used for both the provincial and international trade. There transfer terminal at Puerto Armuelles on the Pacific coast.

of 44m. low and Panama (Colón); is an oil

Panama Canal. On 18 Nov. 1903 a treaty between the USA and the Republic of Panama was signed making it possible for the US to build and operate a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. The treaty granted the US in perpetuity the use, occupation and control of a Canal Zone, approximately 10 miles wide, in which the US would possess full sovereign rights 'to the entire exclusion of the exercise by the Republic of Panama of any such sovereign rights, power or authority'. In return the US guaranteed the independence of the republic and agreed to pay the republic $10m. and an annuity of $250,000. The US purchased the French rights and properties—the French had been labouring from 1879 to 1899 in an effort to build the Canal—for $40m. and in addition, paid private landholders within what would be the Canal Zone a mutually agreeable price for their properites. Two new treaties between Panama and USA were agreed on 10 Aug. and signed on 7 Sept. 1977. One deals with the operation and defence of the canal until the end of 1999 and the other guarantees permanent neutrality. The USA maintains operational control over all lands, waters and installations, including military bases, necessary to manage, operate and defend the canal until 31 Dec. 1999. A new agency of the US Government, the Panama Canal Commission, operates the canal, replacing the Panama Canal Co. A policy-making board of 5 US citizens and 4 Panamanians serves on the Commission's board of directors. Until 1990 the canal administrator will be a US citizen and the deputy will be Panamanian. After that date the position will be reversed. Six months after the exchange of instruments of ratification Panama assumed general territorial jurisdiction over the former Canal Zone and became able to use portions of the area not needed for the operation and defence of the canal. Panamanian penal and civil codes became applicable. At the same time Panama assumed responsibility for commercial ship repairs and supplies, railway and pier operations, passengers, police and courts, all of which were among other areas formerly administered by the Canal Co. and the Canal Zone Government. 66% of the electorate of Panama agreed to the ratification of the treaties when a referendum was held on 23 Oct. 1977 and on 18 April 1978 the treaty was ratified by the US Congress. The treaty went into effect on 1 Oct. 1979. At the end of 1962 the US completed the construction of a high-level bridge over the Pacific entrance to the Canal, and the flags of Panama and the US were flown jointly over areas of the Canal Zone under civilian authority. Following the devaluation of the dollar in 1972 and 1973, the annuity was adjusted proportionally to US$2- lm. andUS$2-33m. respectively.

970

PANAMA

In 1986 a tripartite commission, formed by Japan, Panama and the USA, began studies on alternatives to the Panama Canal. Options are: To build a sea-level canal, to enlarge the existing canal with more locks, to improve the canal alongside upgraded rail and road facilities, to continue with the existing facilities. The Panama Canal Commission, a US Government Agency, is concerned primarily with the actual operation o f t h e Canal. On 8 July 1974, 18Nov. 1976and 10 Oct. 1979 tolls were increased. These were the first increases of toll rates in the history of the Canal. Tolls were raised again on 12 March 1983. The new rates are US$ 1.83 a Panama Canal ton for vessels carrying passengers or cargo and US$ 1 -46 per ton for vessels in transit in ballast. A Panama Canal ton is equivalent to 100 cu. ft of actual earning capacity. The new toll rate for warships, hospital ships and supply ships, which pay on a displacement basis, is US$ 1 02 a ton. The changes were designed to continue the approximately break-even financial operating results after paying its own expenses and paying interest on the net direct investment of the US in the Canal. Administrator ofthe Panama Canal Commission: Dennis P. Mc Auliffe. Deputy Administrator: Fernando Manfredo Jr. (Panama). The total civilian and military population of the Canal area is 29,000 (estimate). The total permanent force employed by the Panama Canal Commission on 30 Sept. 1987 was 7,555, comprising 1,167 US citizens, 6,247 Panamanians and 141 others. The Canal was opened to commerce on 15 Aug. 1914. It is 85 ft above sea-level. It is 51 -2 statute miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific ocean, and 36 statute miles from shore to shore. The channel ranges in bottom-width from 500 to 1,000 ft; the widening of Gaillard Cut to a minimum width of 500 ft was completed in 1969. Normally, the average time of a vessel in Canal waters is about 24 hours, 8-12 of which are in transit through the Canal proper. A m a p showing the Panama, Suez and Kiel canals on the same scale will be f o u n d in THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1959 a n d a f u r t h e r m a p in t h e 1978-79

edition. Particulars of the ocean-going commercial traffic through the canal are given as follows (vessels o f 3 0 0 tons Panama Canal net and 500 displacement tons and over; cargo in long tons): Fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1984 1985 1986 1987 1 All annual

North-bound South-bound (Pacific to Atlantic) (Atlantic to Pacific) Total Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo Vessels Cargo 5,455 62,211,519 5,775 78,259,299 11,230 140,470,818 5,612 64,492,298 5,903 74,150,945 11,515 138,643,243 5,712 67,229,841 6,214 72,580,652 11,926 139,810,493 5,766 61,683,921 6,464 87,006,459 12,230 148,690,380 tolls figures have been revised to show total tolls collected instead commercial tolls.

Tolls levied' (inUS$) 289,155,035 300,807,914 322,734,202 329,858,775 of oceangoing

In the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1987, 12,230 ships passed through the Canal. Transits by flag included 2,467 Panamanian; 1,225 Liberian; 1,170 Japanese; 665 US; 678 Greek; 635 Russian; 533 Ecuadorian; 396 British; 269 Fed. German; 448 Cyprian; 305 Filippino. Statistical Information: The Panama Canal Commission Office of Public Affairs. Annual Reports on the Panama Canal, by the Administrator of the Panama Canal Commission. Rules and Regulations Governing Navigation of the Panama Canal. The Panama Canal Commission, Miami, Florida or Washington, DC Cameron, I., The Impossible Dream. London, 1972 Le Feber, W., The Panama Canal: The Crisis in Historical Perspective. OUP, 1978 McCullough, D., The Path Between the Seas. New York and London, 1978

Post and Broadcasting. There are telegraph cables from Panama to North America and Central and South American ports, and from Colon to the USA and Europe. There is also inter-continental communication by satellite. There were (1985) 97 licensed commercial broadcasting stations, nearly all operated by private

PANAMA

971

companies, one of which functions in the canal. There are 12 television stations, one of them run by the US Army at Fort Clayton. In 1985 there were 295,000 radio and 400,000 television sets. On 1 Jan. 1983 there were 202,627 telephones. Cinemas. In 1977 there were 52 cinemas in the district of Panama. All films must have Spanish subtitles. Newspapers. There were (1986) 1 English language and 7 Spanish language daily morning newspapers and 1 English/Spanish evening newspaper. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court consists of 9 justices appointed by the executive. There is no death penalty. Religion. 85% of the population is Roman Catholic, 5% Protestant, 4-5% Moslem. There is freedom of religious worship and separation of Church and State. Clergymen may teach in the schools but may not hold public office. Education. Elementary education is compulsory for all children from 7 to 15 years of age, with an estimated 552,172 students in schools in 1985. The University of Panama at Panama City, inaugurated on 7 Oct. 1935, h a d a total enrolment (1985) of 55,000 students. The Catholic university Sta. Maria La Antigua, inaugurated on 27 May 1965, had 1,916 students in Sept. 1978. Health. In 1983 there were 2,149 doctors, 409 dentists, 1,962 nursing personnel and 50 hospitals with 7,448 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Panama in Great Britain (119 Crawford St., London, W1) Ambassador: Guillermo Vega (accredited 29 May 1984). Of Great Britain in Panama (Via España 120, Panama City 1) Ambassador: Margaret Bryan, CMG. Of Panama in the USA (2862 McGill Terr., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Juim B. Sosa. Of the USA in Panama (Apartado 6959, Panama City 5) Ambassador: Arthur Davis. Of Panama to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Jorge Ritter. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Comptroller-General of the Republic (Contrataría General de la República, Calle 35 y Avenida 6, P a n a m a City) publishes an annual report and other statistical publications. Jorden, W. J., Panama Odyssey. Univ. of Texas Press, 1984 Langstaff, E. DeS., Panama. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara 1982 R o p p , S. C., Panamanian Politics. New York, 1982 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, D e p a r t a m e n t o de Información. Calle 22, P a n a m a .

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Capital: Port Moresby Population:?) Aim. (1987) GNPpercapita:\JS$15 \ (1986)

H I S T O R Y . To prevent that portion of the island of New Guinea not claimed by the Netherlands or Germany from passing into the hands of a foreign power, the Government of Queensland annexed Papua in 1883. This step was not sanctioned by the Imperial Government, but on 6 Nov. 1884 a British Protectorate was proclaimed over the southern portion of the eastern half of New Guinea, and in 1887 Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria undertook to defray the cost of administration, and the territory was annexed to the Crown the following year. The federal government took over the control in 1901; the political transfer was completed by the Papua Act of the federal parliament in Nov. 1905, and on 1 Sept. 1906 a proclamation was issued by the Governor-General of Australia declaring that British New Guinea was to be known henceforth as the Territory of Papua. The northern portion of New Guinea was a German colony until the First World War. It became a League of Nations mandated territory in 1921, administered by Australia, and later a UN Trust Territory (of New Guinea). The Papua New Guinea Act 1949-1972 provides for the administration of the UN Australian Trust Territory of New Guinea in an administrative union with the Territory of Papua, in accordance with Art. 5 of the New Guinea Trusteeship Agreement, under the title of Papua New Guinea. Australia granted Papua New Guinea self-government on 1 Dec. 1973 and, on 16 Sept. 1975, Papua New Guinea became a fully independent state. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Papua New Guinea extends from the equator to Cape Baganowa in the Louisiade Archipelago to 11° 40' S. lat. and from the border of West Irian to 160° E. long, with a total area of462,840 sq. km. According to the census the 1980 population was 3,010,727. Estimate (1987) 3-48m. Port Moresby, (1980) 123,624; Lae, 61,617; Rabaul, 14,954; Madang, 21,335; Mount Hagen, 13,441. Area and population of the provinces: Provinces Milne Bay Northern Central National Capital District Gulf Western Southern Highlands Enga Western Highlands Chimbu Eastern Highlands Morobe Madang East Sepik West Sepik Manus West New Britain East New Britain New Ireland North Solomons

Sq.km 14,000 22,800 29,500 240 34,500 99,300 23,800 12,800 8,500 6,100 11,200 34,500 29,000 42,800 36,300 2,100 21,000 15,500 9,600 9,300

Census 1980 Estimate 1987 127,975 153,800 77,442 92,200 116,964 135,000 123,624 145,300 64,120 72,600 78,575 93,600 236,052 262,400 164,534 180,100 265,656 304,800 178,290 186,800 276,726 310,300 310,622 364,400 211,069 251,100 221,890 260,000 114,192 130,100 26,036 30,500 88,941 110,600 133,197 157,800 66,028 78,900 128,794 159,100

Capital Alotau Popondetta Port Moresby —

Kerema Daru Mendi Wabag Mount Hägen Kundiawa Goroka Lae Madang Wewak Vanimo Lorengau Kimbe Rabaul Kavieng Arawa

Vital statistics (1987, estimate): Crude birth rate, 35 per 1,000; crude death rate, 13. C L I M A T E . There is a monsoon climate, with high temperatures and humidity the year round. Port Moresby is in a rain shadow and is not typical of the rest of 972

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

973

Papua New Guinea. Jan. 82°F (27-8°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,011 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Papua New Guinea has a Westminster type of government. A single legislative house, known as the National Parliament, is made up of 109 members from all parts of the country. The members are elected under universal suffrage and general elections are held every 5 years. All persons over the age of 18 who are Papua New Guinea citizens are eligible to vote and stand for election. Voting is by secret ballot and follows the preferential system. The first Legislative Council was established in 1951. It was abolished in 1964 and replaced with the House of Assembly. In 1950 the first village council was formed which established the basis of an extensive local government system. A system of provincial government was introduced in 1976 and, since then, the importance of lower-level local government has diminished. In the national elections of 1982 a Pangu government, supported by the United Party, came to power with 67 members of Parliament. In Nov. 1985 a vote of no confidence resulted in a coalition government led by the People's Democratic Movement. The administrative centre and capital is located at Port Moresby. National administration is carried out by a public service under the direction of 25 ministries. The country is divided into the National Capital District and 19 provinces: Western, Gulf, Central, Milne Bay, Northern, Southern Highlands, Enga, Western Highlands, Chimbu, Eastern Highlands, Morobe, Madang, East Sepik, West Sepik, Manus, New Ireland, East New Britain, West New Britain, and North Solomons. Each of the provincial governments has a secretariat headed by an Administrative Secretary. In many provinces the system of local governments still operates, although the provinces may make changes to this if they wish. Governor-General: Sir Kingsford Dibela, GCMG. A coalition government led by the People's Democratic Movement was elected in 1987. The Cabinet in Aug. 1987 was as follows: Prime Minister: Rt. Hon. Paias Wingti, PC. Deputy Prime Minister, Trade and Industry: Sir Julius Chan. Administrative Services: Johnson Maladina. Agriculture and Livestock: Gai Duwabane. Civil Aviation, Tourism and Culture: Hugo Berghuser. Communications: Gabriel Ramoi. Correctional Services: Aron Noaio. Defence: James Pokasui. Education and Foreign Affairs: (Vacant). Environment and Conservation: Parry Zeipi. Finance: Galeva Kwarara. Fisheries and Marine Resources: Allen Marai Ebu. Forests: Tom Horik. Health: Timothy Ward. Home Affairs and Youth: Esorom Burege. Housing: Tom Amaiu. Justice: Albert Kipalan. Labour and Employment: Masket Iangalio. Lands and Physical Planning: Kala Swokin. Minerals and Energy: John Kaputin. Police: Legu Vagi. Provincial Affairs: Jacob Lemeki. Public Services: Dennis Young. Transport: Roy Yaki. Works: Aita Ivarato. Without Portfolio: Ted Diro. The seat of the Government is at Port Moresby. National flag: Diagonally ochre-red over black, on the red a bird of paradise in gold, and on the black 5 stars of the Southern Cross in white. D E F E N C E . The Papua New Guinea Defence Force has a total strength of 3,525 (1988) consisting of land, maritime and air elements. The Army is organized in 2 infantry battalions, 1 engineer and 1 signals battalion with logistic units. The Navy has 4 attack class patrol craft and 2 heavy landing craft. The Defence Force has an Air Transport Squadron with (1988) about 130 personnel. Current equipment comprises 6 C-47 transports, and 4 Australian-built N22B Nomads and 3 Israelibuilt Aravas for both transport and border patrol duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Papua New Guinea is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the Colombo Plan, the South Pacific Commission and is an ACP state of EEC.

974

PAPUA NEW

GUINEA

ECONOMY Budget. Revenue (in Kl ,000) for calendar years was: Source Customs, excise and export tax Other taxes Foreign government grants 1 Loans Other revenue Total

1984 171,700 195,100 231,900 45,100 101,800

1985 179,200 219,800 215,500 44,800 105,200

1986 202,900 217,100 205,000 82,500 123,600

745,600

764,500

831,100

1984 396,830 84,390 264,380

1985 517,030 62,940 184,530

1986 513,350 138,830 178,930

745,600

764,500

831,100

' Mainly from Australia.

Expenditure (in K1,000) for the same periods: Source Consumption Capital Other expenditure Total

' Includes transfers to provincial governments.

Currency. The unit of currency is the kina divided into 100 toea and is the sole legal tender. In March 1988, £1 = K1 58; US$ 1 = K0-90. Banking. The Bank of Papua New Guinea assumed the central banking functions formerly undertaken by the Reserve Bank of Australia on 1 Nov. 1973. A national banking institution which has been named the Papua New Guinea Banking Corporation, has been established. This bank has assumed the Papua New Guinea business of the Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia except where certain accounts give rise to special financial or contractual problems. The subsidiaries of 3 Australian commercial banks also operate in Papua New Guinea. These are the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group (PNG) Ltd, the Bank of New South Wales (PNG) Ltd, and the Bank of South Pacific Ltd, all of which offer trading and savings facilities. As from 1 Nov. 1973 these banks operated under Papua New Guinea banking legislation. In 1983, two additional commercial banks Indosuez Niugini Bank Ltd and Niugini Lloyds International Bank Ltd began operating, each with 51% national ownership, and the remaining 49% held by the affiliate of a major international bank. In addition to these five commercial banks, the Agriculture Bank of Papua New Guinea (formerly the Development Bank) has provided long-term development finance with a particular attention to the needs of small-scale enterprises since 1967. The country's first merchant bank, Resources and Investment Finance Ltd (RIFL), specializing in large-scale financial services began business in late 1979. Its shares are owned by the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Commonwealth Trading Bank of Australia and the Papua New Guinea Banking Corporation. On 30 June 1987 commercial banks deposits totalled K762 • 2m. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1986 installed capacity was 494,300 mw, production l,602-4m. kwh. Minerals. Copper is the main mineral product. Oil companies have been searching for oil, but by 1986 no commercial deposits had been found. Gold, copper and silver are the only minerals produced in quantity. Major copper deposits in the Kieta district of Bougainville have proved reserves of about 800m. tonnes and have been worked by Bougainville Copper Ltd since 1972. Copper and gold deposits in the Star Mountains of the Western Province are being developed by Ok Tedi Mining Ltd at the Mt. Fubilan mine. Production of gold commenced in 1984 and

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

975

of copper concentrates in 1987. In 1986, B.C.L. produced 586,552 tonnes of copper concentrate containing approximately 178,593 tonnes of copper, 16,367 kg of gold and 50,385 kg of silver; Ok Tedi Mining Ltd produced 18,277 kg of gold and 5,677 kg of silver. Agriculture. At 31 Dec. 1983, the total area of larger holdings was 397,081 hectares, of which 180,000 hectares were for agricultural purposes, the principal crops being coffee, copra, cocoa and palm oil. Minor commercial crops include pyrethrum, tea, peanuts and spices. Locally consumed food crops include sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, rice and sago. Tropical fruits grow abundantly. There is extensive grassland. A newly-established sugar industry has made the country selfsufficient in this commodity while a beef-cattle industry is being developed. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): CofFee, 54; copra, 145; cocoa beans, 30; palm oil, 125. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 123,000; pigs, 1,489,000; goats, 16,000; poultry, 4m. Forestry. Timber production is of growing importance for both local consumption and export. In 1986, 1 -7m. cu. metres of logs were harvested; logs exported, 1 -3m. cu. metres. Production of sawn timber, 1986, 84,000 cu. metres, exports, 7,438 cu. metres; exports of woodchips, 81,037 tonnes. Fisheries. Tuna, both skipjack and yellowfin species, is the major fisheries resource; in 1980 the catch was 33,000 tonnes but has diminished sharply since then due to oversupply conditions on world markets. Exports of various crustacea, 1986,1,575 tonnes, value K10-47m. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Secondary and service industries are expanding for the local market. Industries include the manufacture of paint, gases, concrete, twist tobacco and cigarettes, matches, soap, brewing, boat-building, furniture and the assembly of electrical appliances. In 1985 there were 707 factories employing 27,195 persons. Value of output K695m. Labour. In 1980 about 733,000 were gainfully employed. Trade. Imports (in K1,000) for calendar years: Food and live animals Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible, except fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials Oils and fats (animal and vegetable) Chemicals Manufactured goods, chiefly by material Machinery and transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles Commodities and transactions of merchandise trade, not elsewhere specified Total imports

1983 134,813 8,269 4,876

1984 154,767 11,248 6,289

1985 153,734 9,604 6,928

167,380 2,525 64,050 130,559 232,770 60,339

156,278 3,927 68,171 140,064 243,538 70,064

153,793 3,399 65,455 134,336 262,074 74,594

9,285

12,485

10,856

814,866

866,831

874,774

Exports (in K1,000) for calendar years: 1983

1984

1985

23,891 20,038 1,433

49,372 40,421 1,389

33,922 22,706 938

Total

45,452

91,182

57,566

Coffee beans Cocoa beans C r u d e rubber Tea Pyrethrum extract

94,659 41,376 2,153 10,391 397

113,317 67,084 2,543 19,057 442

117,110 62,764 3,736 13,330 704

Coconut and copra products— Copra C o p r a (coconut) oil Copra cake and pellets

976

PAPUA NEW Forest and timber products Logs Sawn timber Plywood Other Total Crocodile skins Crayfish and prawns Gold Copper concentrate Other domestic produce Total domestic produce

1983

1984

1985

43,576 2,495 1,394 6,517

61,698 2,690 1,285 6,903

55,394 1,845 211 4,985

53,982

72,576

62,435

936 8,788 8,058 364,862 31,878

2,294 6,843 25,175 302,396 79,742

2,370 9,782 175,451 307,038 78,232

662,932

782,651

890,518

Re-exports Total exports

GUINEA

19,236

22,896

27,106

682,168

805,547

917,624

Of exports in 1985, Japan took 22%, Federal Republic of Germany, 29% and Australia, 11%; of imports, Australia furnished about 40%, Singapore, 10% and Japan, 17%. Total trade between Papua New Guinea and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 28,142 18,236

1984 68,245 14,643

1 985 59,642 12,592

1 986 38,474 12,084

1 987 46,045 16,693

Tourism. In 1986, there were 30,934 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were approximately 18,500 km of roads including approximately 1,020 km of urban roads. Motor vehicles numbered (1986) 45,713 including 16,499 cars and station wagons. Aviation. Frequent air services operate to and from Australia (Sydney, Brisbane and Cairns), and there are regular flights to Djayapura (Indonesia), Manila and Singapore. A service is also maintained to Honiara in the Solomon Islands. In addition to Air Niugini, the national flag carrier, Qantas operates in and out of Papua New Guinea. Shipping. There are regular shipping services between Australia and Papua New Guinea ports, and also services to New Zealand, Japan, Hong Kong, US west coast, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Taiwan, Philippines and Europe. Small coastal vessels run between the various ports. In 1985 cargo discharged from overseas was 1 • 5m. tonnes; cargo loaded for overseas was 2 1m. tonnes. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones numbered 63,212 on 31 Dec. 1986. The National Broadcasting Commission operates three networks. A national service is relayed throughout the country by a series of transmitters on medium- and shortwave bands. Local services operate in each of the 19 provinces, mainly on shortwave, while the larger urban centres are also covered by a commercial FM network relayed from Port Moresby. Two commercial television stations broadcast to Port Moresby which had plans (1987) to extend their services to other areas. JUSTICE, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1983, over 1,500 criminal and civil cases were heard in the National Court and an estimated 120,000 cases in district and local courts. Police. Total uniformed strength at 31 Dec. 1986,4,756. Education. At 30 June 1986 about 374,950 children attended 2,461 primary schools and 60,052 enrolled in 234 secondary, technical and vocational schools.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

977

The University of Papua New Guinea and the Papua New Guinea University of Technology had 3,029 students enrolled in full-time courses in 1986. Health. In 1986, there were 19 hospitals, 459 health centres, 2,231 aid posts and 283 doctors. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Papua New Guinea in Great Britain (14 Waterloo PI., London, SW1R 4AR) High Commissioner: Ilinome Frank Tarua, OBE (accredited 25 Oct. 1983). Of Great Britain in Papua New Guinea (Kiroki St., Port Moresby) High Commissioner: M. E. Howell, OBE. Of Papua New Guinea in the USA (1330 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Renagi Lohia. Of the USA in Papua New Guinea (Armit St., Port Moresby) Ambassador: Everett Bierman. Of Papua New Guinea to the United Nations Ambassador: Renagi Lohia. Books of Reference The Territory of Papua. Annual Report. Commonwealth of Australia. 1906-1940-41 and from 1945-46 The Territory of New Guinea. Annual Report. Commonwealth of Australia. 1914-1940-41 and from 1946-47 Papua New Guinea, Annual Report. From 1970-71 Hasluck, P., A Time for Building. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1976 Ross, A. C., and Langmore, J., Alternative Strategies for Papua New Guinea. OUP, 1974 Ryan, J., The Hot Land. London, 1970 Ryan, P. (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Papua and New Guinea. Melbourne Univ. Press, 1972 Skeldon, R. (ed.), The Demography of Papua New Guinea. Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research, 1979

PARAGUAY

Capital: Asunción Population: 3-79m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,175 ( 1984)

República del Paraguay

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spain on 14 May 1811. In 1814 Dr José Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia was elected dictator, and in 1816 perpetual dictator by the National Assembly. He died 20 Sept. 1840. In 1844 a new constitution was adopted, under which Carlos Antonio López (first elected in 1842, died 10 Sept. 1862) and his son, Francisco Solano López, ruled until 1870. During the devastating war against Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay (1865-70) Paraguay's population was reduced from about 600,000 to 232,000. Argentina, in Aug. 1942, and Brazil, in May 1943, voided the reparations which Paraguay had never paid. Further severe losses were incurred during the war with Bolivia (1932-35) over territorial claims in the Chaco. A peace treaty by which Paraguay obtained most of the area her troops had conquered was signed in July 1938. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Paraguay is bounded north-west by Bolivia, north-east and east by Brazil, south-east, south and south-west by Argentina. The area of the Oriental province is officially estimated at 159,827 sq. km (61,705 sq. miles) and the Occidental province at 246,925 sq. km (95,337 sq. miles), making the total area of the republic 406,752 sq. km ( 157,042 sq. miles). The population in 1986 was 3,788,196. In 1984 the capital, Asunción (and metropolitan area), had 729,307 inhabitants; other principal cities: Presidente Stroessner (110,000), Pedro Juan Caballero (80,000), Encarnación (31,445), Pilar (26,352), Concepción (25,607). The capital district and 19 departments had the following populations in 1982: Asunción (city) 1l *7">Q I f i l Central J Caaguazú 299,227 263,021 Itapua 202,152 Paraguari Cordillera 194,826 San Pedro 189,751 Alto Paraná 188,351 143,374 Guaira Concepción 135,068 Caazapá 109,510

Misiones Neembucu Amambay Canendiyú Oriente Presidente Hayes Boquerón Alto Paraguay Chaco Nueva Asunción Occidente

79,278 70,689 68,422 65,807 2,959,568 43,787 14,685 4,535 286 231 63,524

Number of births, 1985, was 121,716; deaths, 14,094. The population is overwhelmingly mestizo (mixed Spanish and Guaraní Indian) forming a homogeneous stock. There are some 46,700 unassimilated Indians of other tribal origin, in the Chaco and the forests of eastern Paraguay. There are some small traces of Negro descent. 40-1% of the population speak only Guaraní; 48 -2% are bilingual (Spanish/Guarani); and 6 -4% speak only Spanish. Mennonites who arrived in 3 groups (1927, 1930 and 1947) are settled in the Chaco and Oriental Paraguay and were estimated in 1969 to number 13,000, of whom 2,000 came from Canada and 11,000 from Germany. The Japanese colonists in the Oriental section, who first came in 1935, were reckoned to number 7,000 in 1983. Under an agreement signed with Japan in 1959 up to 85,000 Japanese were to be admitted over 30 years. An agreement with Korea was signed in 1966 and there were (1988) about 7,575 Korean families living in Paraguay. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate, with abundant rainfall and only a short dry season from July to Sept., when temperatures are lowest. Asunción. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 64°F(17-8°C). Annual rainfall 53" (1,316 mm). 978

PARAGUAY

979

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution replacing that of 1940 was drawn up by a Constituent Convention in which all legally recognized political parties were represented and was signed into law on 25 Aug. 1967. It provides for a two-chamber parliament consisting of a 30-seat Senate and a 60-seat Chamber of Deputies, each elected for a 5-year term. Two-thirds of the seats in each Chamber are allocated to the majority party and the remaining onethird shared among the minority parties in proportion to the votes cast. Voting is compulsory for all citizens over 18. The President is directly elected for a 5-year (renewable) term; he appoints the Cabinet and during parliamentary recess can govern by decree through the Council of State, the members of which are representatives of the Government, the armed forces and other bodies. The state of siege in force since 1947 was lifted on 8 April 1987. President: Gen. Alfredo Stroessner, Commander-in-Chief, elected 11 July 1954 to complete the presidential period of his predecessor. He was re-elected as 'Colorado'candidate in 1958,1963,1968,1973,1978,1983 and 1988. The following is a list of past presidents since 1940, with the date on which each took office: Gen. Higinio Morinigo, 7 Sept. 1940 (reDr Felipe Molas López, 26 Feb. 1949' (resigned). signed). DrJuan Manuel Frutos, 3 June 1948.1 Dr Federico Chávez, 16 July 1950 (resigned). Dr J. Natalicio González, 15 Aug. 1948 (deTomás Romero Pereira, 4 May 1954. posed). Gen. Raimundo Rolón, 30 Jan. 1949. 1 Provisional, i.e., following a coup d'état.

The President has a cabinet of 10 ministers which in July 1987 was composed as follows: Interior: Dr Sabino A. Montanaro. Foreign Affairs: Dr Carlos A. Saldivar. Finance: César Barrientos. Education and Worship: Dr Carlos Ortiz Ramirez. Public Works and Communications: Juan A. Cáceres. Agriculture and Livestock: Hernando Bertoni. National Defence: Gen. Germán G. Martínez. Public Health and Social Welfare: Dr Adán Godoy Giménez. Justice and Labour: Eugenio Jaquet. Industry and Commerce: Dr Delfín Ugarte Centurion. National flag: Red, white, blue (horizontal); the white stripe charged with the arms of the republic on the obverse, and, on the reverse, with a lion and the inscription Paz y Justicia—the only flag in the world with different obverse and reverse. National anthem: ¡ Paraguayos, república o muerte! (words by F. Acuña de Figueroa; tune by F. Dupey). The country is divided into 2 provinces: the 'Oriental', east of Paraguay River, and the 'Occidental', west of the same river. The Oriental section is divided into 14 departments and the capital. The more important departments are supervised by a Delegado appointed by and directly responsible to the central government. The Occidental province, or Chaco, is divided into 5 departments. D E F E N C E . The army, navy and air forces are separate services under a single command. The President of the Republic is the active Commander-in-Chief. The armed forces totalled (1988) about 17,050 officers and men. Army. The Army consists of 1 cavalry division, 8 infantry divisions, 2 independent infantry battalions, 1 Presidential Escort Regiment, 2 infantry regiments and supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. Equipment includes 12 M-4A3 main battle and 12 M-3A1 light tanks. Strength (1988) 12,500 (including 8,100 conscripts), and there are 30,500 reserves. Navy. The flotilla comprises 6 armoured river defence gunboats (1 new Brazilianbuilt, 2 ancient monitors of 636 tons built in Italy and 3 old ex-Argentinian minesweepers of 620 tons), 1 converted landing ship with helicopter deck, 1 river

980

PARAGUAY

patrol boat, 6 coastal patrol craft, 2 landing craft, 1 survey craft, 1 transport training ship, 12 service craft and 2 tugs. There are 5 naval fixed-wing aircraft and 6 helicopters. Personnel in 1988 totalled 2,500 officers and men including coastguard and 500 marines. Air Force. The Air Force came into being in the early thirties. After operating only transport and training aircraft for a number of years, it received 9 Xavante light jet strike/training aircraft from Brazil in 1980. Other types in service include about 6 C-47 and 4 Aviocar twin-engined transports, 1 Convair C-131 A, a Twin Otter, an Otter, 8 Brazilian-built Uirapuru primary trainers, 12 T-6 Texan and 5 Braziliansupplied Universal armed basic trainers and a number of light aircraft and helicopters. H Q and flying school are at Campo Grande, Asunción. Personnel (1988) 1,400. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Paraguay is a member of U N , OAS and LAIA (formerly L a f t a ) . ECONOMY Budget. In 1985 budget balanced at Gs. 463,652,966,167. Currency. The guaraní was established on 5 Oct. 1943 equal to 100 old paper pesos. Total monetary circulation was Gs.81,53 lm. in Dec. 1983. The official rate of exchange for essential imports was (1985) Gs.240=US$ 1. Rate of exchange, March 1988:320 guaraníes=US$1; 566 guaraníes=£ 1. Banking. The Banco Central del Paraguay opened 1 July 1952 to take over the central banking functions previously assigned to the National Bank of Paraguay, which had opened in March 1943 and been reorganized as the Banco del Paraguay in Sept. 1944 with a monetary, a banking and a mortgage department. The Banco del Paraguay closed in Nov. 1961 and has been replaced, with the aid of a U S loan of US$3m., by the Banco Nacional de Fomento. The Banco Nacional de Fomento, Bank of London and South America, Ltd, Banco Exterior do Brasil, Citibank, Banco de Asunción, Banco Exterior SA, Banco Unión SA, Banco Paraguayo de Comercio, Banco Real del Paraguay SA, Banco Alemán Transatlántico, Banco Holandés Unido, Banco Nacional del Estado de Sao Paulo, Yegros y Azara, Interbanco, Banco Paraná and Banco de Inversiones all have agencies in Asunción and branches in some main towns. Weights and Measures. The metric system was officially adopted on 1 Jan. 1901. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Electricity requirements are supplied by Acaray hydro-electric power plant. Production in 1986 was 1,130m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Itaipú, the largest hydro-electric dam in the world, a joint effort of the governments of Brazil and Paraguay was inaugurated in 1982 and it is estimated that the whole project will be completed in 1990. Eventually it will have 18 turbogenerators, each with a capacity of700,000 kw. In 1984 the first turbine started generating power. The Yacyretá project is being carried out by the Binational Commission Yacyretá which was created by a treaty between the governments of Argentina and Paraguay. Work is being carried out on this project and it is hoped that the plant will be in full operation by the end of this decade. Initially 20 turbines each of 135,000 kw generating capacity will be installed giving the plant an initial output of2-7m. kw. Oil. The oil refinery at Villa Elisa, which has been in operation since 1966, has a production of about 3,500 bbls a day. Exploration for petroleum in the Chaco yielded negative results but prospecting was continuing in 1983-84.

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Minerals. Iron, manganese and other minerals have been reported but have not been shown to be commercially exploitable. There are large deposits of limestone, and also salt, kaolin and apatite. National and international firms have acquired licences to prospect for oil and natural gas in the Chaco. Agriculture. In 1981 it was estimated that agriculture absorbs some 51-4m. hectares. In 1986, the main agricultural products (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Mandioca (cassava), 2,875; soybeans, 662; maize, 469; seed cotton, 375; wheat, 253; rice, 77; tobacco, 18; sugar-cane, 1,296; coffee, 18. Wheat, soybeans, cotton, sugar, tobacco, coffee are increasing in importance, as are also essential oils and oilseeds. Yerba maté, or strongly flavoured Paraguayan tea, continues to be produced but is declining in importance. Livestock (1986). Paraguay had about 7,151,000 cattle, 317,000 horses, 1,403,000 pigs, 388,000 sheep. Forestry. In the Oriental section there are reserves of hardwoods and cedars that have scarcely been exploited. Palms, tung and other trees are exploited for their oils. The Japanese are experimenting with mulberries for silk growing. Pines and firs have been introduced under a United Nations project. In the Chaco the accessible Quebracho forests have nearly been worked out but plans are being made to open up new areas. In 1986,181,355 tons of timber were exported. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production, 1983 (tons): Hides, 11,036; frozen meat, 7,506; cotton fibre, 77,157 (1,000 metres); tannin, 12,678; petit grain, 86; tung oil, 17,033; cement, 152,953; sugar, 98,199; cigarettes (lm. packets), 46,598; matches (1,000 boxes), 8,979. There are 3 meat-packing plants and other factories producing vegetable oils. A textile industry in Pilar and Asunción meets a large part of local needs. Labour. Trade unionists number about 30,000 (Confederación Paraguaya Trabajadores and Confederación Cristiana de Trabajadores).

de

Commerce. Imports and exports (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1982 581-4 329-7

1983 478-3 251-5

1984 513 0 334-5

1985 442-3 303-9

1986 509-3 232-5

Chief exports in 1986 included (in US$1,000): Cotton, 80,745; soybeans, 43,867; vegetable oil, 9,215; sawn wood, 17,657; expeliere, 8,776; tobacco, 5,448; cattle hides, 9,732; tannin extract, 3,762; processed meat, 33,918; essential oils, 3,762. Chief imports 1986 (in US$1,000): Fuels and lubricants, 96,918; machinery, 163,529; chemical and pharmaceutical products, 29,561; transport and accessories, 30,663; drinks and tobacco, 33,945; foodstuffs, 17,013; iron and manufactures, 28,803; agricultural implements and accessories, 6,361. Imports and exports (in US$), by country, 1984: Country Argentina Belgium Brazil Federal Republic o f G e r m a n y France Italy Japan Netherlands Spain Switzerland UK Uruguay USA

Imports 80,959 1,151 167,890 16,062 25,965 3,174 60,741 6,669 2,495 5,096 21,455 4,764 44,905

Exports 40,525 9,753 53,219 39,557 8,065 6,013 7,900 41,264 12,108 12,755 651 6,800 17,464

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Total trade between Paraguay and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m j j m ¡ m ¡ m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

3,129 15,263

2,961 16,884

2,086 15,540

1,455 31,010

1,409 25,409

Tourism. Visitors numbered 200,000 in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 20,000 km of roads, of which 2,000 were paved. The principal paved roads are Route No. 2/7 running from Asunción to the bridge over the Paraná at Puerto Presidente Stroessner, and thence down to the ocean at Paranaguá; and Route No. 1 to Encarnación in the south. The other main arteries are Coronel Oviedo-Pedro Juan Caballero road (unpaved from Coronel Oviedo) in the north and the Trans-Chaco road which starts from the bridge across the river Paraguay north of Asunción and ends at Nueva Asunción on the Bolivian border. Unpaved roads are closed when it rains. In the Argentine, a paved road starts from Pilcomayo, opposite Asunción, and provides good communication with Buenos Aires. Motor cars, 1976, numbered 17,600; commercial vehicles, 15,200, and passenger vehicles, 7,580. Railways. The President Carlos Antonio López (formerly Paraguay Central) Railway runs from Asunción to Encarnación, on the Río Alto Paraná, with a length of 441 km (1,435 mm gauge). In 1986, traffic amounted to 156,231 tonnes and 348,535 passengers. Aviation. International services are operated by 8 airlines (1 domestic and 7 foreign) and internal routes by military airlines and some small private lines. Shipping. In flood the Paraguay River, which divides the country into two distinct parts, is navigable for 12ft-draught vessels as far as Concepción, 180 miles north of Asunción, and for smaller vessels for a further distance of 600 miles northward. Drought conditions often restrict navigation to lighter traffic. The Paraná River is navigable by large boats from Corrientes up to Puerto Aguirre, at the mouth of the Yguazú River. Boats of a few hundred tons capacity navigate the tributary rivers. Asunción, the chief port, is 950 miles from the sea. The cargo fleet includes 25 vessels of 300-1,000 tons, 3 tankers of 1,100-1,700 tons, 2 passenger river boats and 1 ocean-going freighter of 713 tons. Post and Broadcasting. The national telegraph (137 offices) connects Asunción with Corrientes and Posadas in the Argentine Republic, and thus with the outside world; new direct links have been opened with the Federal Republic of Germany, USA, Bolivia and Chile. In addition, 34 stations are operated by the President Carlos Antonio López Railway; total, 2,070 miles. Three companies (12 stations) offer radio-telegraph and telex services to several countries. Telephones, 1983, 77,983, of which 59,113 were in Asunción and were automatic. There are 1 state and 9 commercial radio stations in Asunción, 22 in provincial towns, 2 commercial television stations in Asunción and 1 in Encarnación in the south. Cinemas (1986). Cinemas numbered 6 in Asunción. The larger country towns usually have an outdoor cinema. Newspapers (1988). There were 5 daily newspapers in Asunción. JUSTICE, RELIGION A N D EDUCATION Justice. The highest court is the Supreme Court with 5 members. There are special Chambers of Appeal for civil and commercial cases, and criminal cases. Judges of first instance deal with civil, commercial and criminal cases in 6 departments. Minor cases are dealt with by Justices of the Peace. The Attorney-General represents the State in all jurisdictions, with representatives in each judicial department and in every jurisdiction. In matters of revenue, taxes, etc., the State is represented by the Abogado del Tesoro.

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Religion. Religious liberty is guaranteed by the 1967 constitution. Article 6 thereof recognizes Roman Catholicism as the official religion of the country. The same article states that relations between Paraguay and the Holy See shall be regulated by concordats or other bilateral agreements, but no such agreements have yet been negotiated. The Roman Catholic Church is organized into the Archdiocese of Asunción, 3 other dioceses (San Juan Bautista de las Misiones, Concepción and Villarrica); 4 Prelatures (Coronel Oviedo, Encarnación, Alto Paraná and Caacupé); and 2 Vicariates Apostolic (Chaco and Pilcomayo). The bishops meet in a Conference of Paraguayan Bishops. Only civil marriages are legally valid. There are numerous non-catholic communities, the largest of whom are the Mennonites. There is a small Anglican church in Asunción, with missions in the Chaco, which comes under the jurisdiction of an Anglican Bishop resident in Asunción. Education. Education is free and nominally compulsory. In 1985 there were 3,993 government primary schools with 570,775 pupils and 22,764 teachers; (1984) 587 private schools, with 80,807 pupils and (1983) 13,810 teachers. In 1985, 740 secondary schools had 149,140 students and (1982) 2,448 teachers. The National University in Asunción had, in 1985, 19,209 students and 2,694 professors; the Catholic University had 9,945 students and (1984) 900 professors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Paraguay in Great Britain (51 Cornwall Gdns, London, SW7 4AQ) Ambassador: Antonio R. Zuccolillo. Of Great Britain in Paraguay (Calle Presidente Franco, 706, Asunción) Ambassador and Consul-General: John G. MacDonald, MBE. Of Paraguay in the USA (2400 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Dr Marcos Martinez Mendieta. Of the USA in Paraguay (1776 Mariscal López Ave., Asunción) Ambassador: Clyde Taylor. Of Paraguay to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Alfredo Cañete. Books of Reference Gaceta Official, published by Imprenta Nacional, Estrella y Estero Bellaco, Asunción Anuario Daumas. Asunción Anuario Estadístico de la República del Paraguay. Asunción. Annual Lewis, P. H., Paraguay under Stroessner. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1980 Maybury-Lewis, D. and Howe, J., The Indian Peoples of Paraguay: Their Plight and Prospects. Cambridge, Mass., 1980 Nickson, R. A., Paraguay. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, De la Rosidenta, Asunción.

Their

Capital: Lima Population:! 0-2m. (1986) GNPpercapita:US$970 (1985)

PERU República del Perú

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Peru, formerly the most important of the Spanish vice-royalties in South America, declared its independence on 28 July 1821; but it was not till after a war, protracted till 1824, that the country gained its actual freedom. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Peru is bounded north by Ecuador and Colombia, east by Brazil and Bolivia, south by Chile and west by the Pacific ocean. Area 1,285,216 sq. km (496,093 sq. miles). The long-standing dispute with Chile over the provinces of Tacna and Arica (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOIC, 1928, p. 1198) reached an amicable settlement on 3 June 1929 at Lima, Tacna going to Peru and Arica to Chile. In response to demands by Bolivia for permanent access to the Pacific Coast, proposals for a Bolivian corridor to the sea and a new Bolivian port to be built in the disputed area have been put forward by Chile and Peru. To date, little progress has been made. One result has been increased tension along the Chilean-Peruvian border, there is no sign of a settlement of the border dispute, and the armed forces of both countries remain on the alert in the disputed border area. Fighting broke out between Peruvian and Ecuadorean Forces, in early 1981, along part of the disputed border (the Cordillera del Condor) which has to date not been adequately mapped. A number of proposals for settling the issue permanently have been put forward but a final settlement is unlikely to be reached in the near future. For an account of the settlement of other boundary disputes, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-Book, 1948, p. 1173. The census taken in 1981 gave the population as 17,005,210. Estimate (1986) 20,207,100 (10,179,000 male). Lima, the capital, had (1983) 5,258,600 population. Birth rate per 1,000 population (1986), 35-4; death rate, 9-7; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births, 90 -5. The area and population (at Census, 12 July 1981) of the 24 departments and the constitutional province of Callao, together with their capitals, are shown below: Department Sq. km Census 1981 Capital Census 1981 Amazonas 41,297 254,560 Chachapoyas 11,853 Ancash 36,669 818,289 Huaraz 45,116 Apurimac 20,550 323,346 Abancay 19,807 Arequipa 63,528 706,580 Arequipa 447,431 503,392 Ayacucho 44,181 Ayacucho 69,533 Cajamarca 34,930 1,045,569 Cajamarca 60,280 Callao 148 443,413 Callao 260,581 832,504 76,329 Cuzco 181,604 Cuzco 1 Huancavelica 21,079 346,797 Huancavelica 20,889 Huánuco 34,094 484,780 Huánuco 52,628 lea 21,251 433,897 lea 111,087 Junin 41,296 852,238 Huancayo 165,132 23,241 La Libertad 962,949 Trujillo 354,557 Lambayequc 674,442 13,737 Chiclayo 280,244 33,821 Lima 4,745,877 Lima 375,957" Loreto 379,025 445,368 Iquitos 178,738 Madre de Dios 78,403 33,007 Puerto Maldonado 12,693 Moquegua 15,709 101,610 Moquegua 22,224 3 Pasco 24,035 213,125 Cerro de Pasco 71,558 Piura 36,403 1,125,865 Piura 186,354 Puno 72,382 2 890,258 Puno 66,477 San Martín 52,309 319,751 Moyobamba 14,376 Tacna 15,232 143,085 Tacna 97,173 Tumbes 4,732 103,839 Tumbes 47,939 Ucayali 100,831 200,669 Pucallpa 89,604 1 2 Constitutional province. Includes Peruvian zone of Lake Titicaca (4,996 sq. km). 4 > Estimate 1984. Municipality proper; Lima/Callao metropolitan a r e a 4,605,043. Other m a j o r cities (1981 Census) include C h i m b ó t e (216,406).

984

PERU

985

The official languages are Spanish (spoken by 68% of the population) and Quechua (spoken by 27%); 3% speak Aymara. C L I M A T E . There is a very wide variety of climate, ranging from equatorial to desert, (or perpetual snow on the high mountains). In coastal areas, temperatures vary very little, either daily or annually, though humidity and cloudiness show considerable variation, with highest humidity from May to Sept. Little rain is experienced in that period. In the Sierra, temperatures remain fairly constant over the year, but the daily range is considerable. There the dry season is from April to Nov. Desert conditions occur in the extreme south, where the climate is uniformly dry, with a few heavy showers falling between Jan. and March. Lima. Jan. 74° F (23-3°C), July 62°F (16-7°C). Annual rainfall 2 " (48 mm). Cuzco. Jan. 56°F (13-3°C), July 50°F(10°C). Annual rainfall 3 2 " (804 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . O n 3 Oct. 1968 a military junta overthrew the government of President Fernando Belaúnde Terry and installed Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado as President of a 'Revolutionary Government' with a cabinet composed entirely of officers of the armed services. Gen. Velasco was ousted in bloodless coup in Aug. 1975 and was replaced by Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez. The new democratic government, under President Fernando Belaúnde Terry, took office on 28 July 1980. The new Constitution, which became effective when a civilian government was installed in July 1980, provides for a Legislature consisting of a Senate (60 members) and a Chamber of Deputies (180 members) and an Executive formed of the President of the Republic and a Council of Ministers appointed by him. Elections were held in April 1985. They are held every 5 years with the President and Congress elected, at the same time, by separate ballots. All Peruvians over the age of 18 are eligible to vote; in May 1980 the number of registered voters was over 6m., including l m . in Lima province. Voting is compulsory; women were fully enfranchised in 1955. Presidents since 1956 were: Dr Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, 28 July 1956-July 1962. Gen. Ricardo Pérez Godoy, 18 July 1962-3 March 1963.' Gen. Nicolás Lindley López, 3 March-28 July 1963. Fernando Belaúnde Terry, 28 July 1963-3 Oct. 1968.' 1

Gen. Juan Velasco Alvarado, 3 Oct. 196829 Aug. 1975.' Gen. Francisco Morales Bermudez, 29 Aug. 1975-28 July 1980. Fernando Belaúnde Terry, 28 July 1980-28 July 1985. Deposed.

President: Alan García Pérez (sworn in 28 July 1985). The Cabinet was in Dec. 1987 composed as follows: Prime Minister and Minister of the Presidency: Guillermo Larco Cox. Foreign Affairs: Dr Allan Wagner Tizon. Interior: José Barsallo Burga. Finance: Gustavo Saberbein Chevalier. Industry: Alberto Vera La Rosa. Agriculture: Remigio Morales Bermudez. Energy and Mines: Abel Salinas Izaguirre. Education: Mercedes Cabanillas de Llanos de la Mata. Health: Hilda Urizar Peroni de Arias. Transport: Gen. German Parra Herrera. Justice: Carlos Blancas Bustamante. Labour: Orestes Rodriguez Campos. Housing: Luis Bedoya Velez. Fisheries: Javier Labarthe. Defence: Jorge Torres Flores. There are 24 departments divided into 179 provinces (plus the constitutional province of Callao) and 1,764 districts; the province of Callao has some of the functions of a department. National flag: Three vertical strips of red, white, red, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Somos Libres, seámoslo siempre (words by J. de la Torre Ugarte; tune by J. B. Alcedo, 1821 ). DEFENCE. Army. While military service is compulsory youths are only conscripted to fill the

986

PERU

annual quota. The term of service is 2 years and all males of20-25 years of age are liable. The country is divided into 5 military regions. The Army comprises (1988) approximately 75,000 men (including 50,000 conscripts). There are 5 military regions with 2 armoured, 1 cavalry, 7 infantry, 1 airborne and 1 jungle divisions. Of independent groups there are 2 artillery, 1 antiaircraft, 4 infantry battalions, 7 jungle battalions and 4 engineering battalions. There is an air element of 25 Mil Mi-8 and 6 Alouette II helicopters. Equipment consists of approximately 140 tanks l(T-54/-55 and AMX-13), over 400 light armoured fighting vehicles and 105-mm.,/l 30-mm./155-mm. field artillery. The section of the national police force with a para-military role is known as the Guardia Civil and comprises approximately 36,000 personnel. Navy. The principal surface ships of the Peruvian Navy are the cruisers:Slandard Displacement (tons)

Main Guns

Shaft horsepower

Max. Speed (knots)

Completed Name Aircraft 1953 Almirante Grau exAguirre (ex-De 9,850 4 6in. 3 85,000 32 Zeven Provincien) 1953 Proyecto 01 exAlmiranle Grau' 9,530 8 6in. 85,000 32 (ex-De Ruyter) 1 When the Dutch cruiser De Ruyter was purchased in 1973 she was re-named Almirante Grau after Peru's principal naval hero. In consequence the cruiser whose name had been changed from Newfoundland to Almirante Grau when she was purchased from Britain in 1959 was again re-named Capitan Quinones, after an air force hero; but this ship has since been retired (latterly used as harbour training ship); and her sister ship Colonel Bolognesi (ex- HMS Ceylon) was laid up in 1983. Aquirre was bought from the Netherlands in 1976 (in 1986 this ship assumed the name Almirante Grau and the former Almirante Grau became Proyecto 01, a very confusing recent history of renaming).

There are also 12 submarines comprising 6 completed in Federal Republic of Germany in 1974-82,4 completed in USA in 1954-57 and 2 old ex-USN built in 1944; 2 reconstructed 'Daring' class destroyers delivered from Britain during 1973; 6 old destroyers purchased from the Netherlands in 1980-82, 2 Italian-built frigates completed in 1979 and 2 Peruvian completed to same design in 1985-86,6 new French-built fast missile-armed corvettes, 2 medium landing ships; 5 river gunboats; 3 river patrol boats; 2 transports; 3 hospital craft; 1 research craft; 5 oilers; 7 survey vessels; 1 repair ship; 1 torpedo recovery vessel; 1 floating workshop, 4 floating docks; 4 water carriers, and 7 tugs. All naval training takes place in the Callao area at various schools. The main naval base and dockyard are also in Callao. Smaller bases are at Iquitos on the Amazon, and at San Lorenzo. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 2,100 officers and 19,000 men including the Naval Air Arm which recently operated 14 ship-borne anti-submarine helicopters and 12 land-based maritime patrol aircraft. There is a Marine Brigade of 3,000 men. The Coast Guard (originally set up with light forces transferred from the Navy) includes 6 modern patrol vessels built in Peru in 1976-82,3 fast patrol craft built in Britain in 1964-65,2 former US gunboats, 4 coastal patrol boats and 5 river patrol craft. Air Force. The operational force consists of 5 combat groups. No. 13 Group has 2 squadrons of Mirage 5 jet fighters; No. 9 Group has 2 squadrons of Canberra light jet bombers; No. 7 Group has 2 squadrons of A-37B light attack aircraft; No. 12 Group has Soviet-built Su-22 variable-geometry fighter bombers in 2 operational squadrons; No. 11 Group has one squadron of Su-22s and one with A-37Bs. Other aircraft in service include medium transports (1 F.28 Fellowship, 16 An-26, 6 L-100 Hercules), light transports (19 Twin Otter, 15 Buffalo, 1 twin-jet Falcon and 12 Turbo-Porter), helicopters (2 Mi-6 and 6 Mi-8, Bell 212 and 214ST, BO 105, Alouette III and Bell 47G), 70 training aircraft (including Aermacchi MB 339,

PERU

987

T-37 and T-41D) and a small number of miscellaneous types for photographic and communications duties. There are military airfields at Talara, Chiclayo, Piura, Pisco, Lima (2), Iquitos and La Joya, and a seaplane base at Iquitos. All officers and pilots are trained at the Air Academy at Lima (Las Palmas). The approximate strength of the Peruvian Air Force (1988) 15,000 personnel and 100 combat aircraft. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Peru is a member of UN, OAS, Andean Group and LAI A (formerly LAFTA).

ECONOMY Planning. A Public Investment Programme for 1981-85 envisages expenditure of US$11,670m. Budget. The authorized budget for 1985 envisaged expenditure of S/.23,869,000m. Currency. The monetary unit is the inti introduced 1986. One inti = 1,000 soles. In March 1988,£1 =58-43 mi;; US$1 =33 00 inti. Coins include 50,000 soles (gold) and 10,000 soles (silver) coins as well as 10and 5-sole pieces (copper 75%; nickel 25%), the sol and half sol (copper 30%; zinc 70%); the 20, 10 and 5 centavos (copper-zinc) and the 2- and 1-centavo pieces (zinc) have been discontinued. Peru has a paper currency issued by the Banco Central de la Reserva in denominations of 5,000, 1,000, 500,200, 100 and 50. The 10 and 5 soles notes have been discontinued. Banking. The government bank of issue is the Banco Central de la Reserva del Perú, which was established in 1922. The Government's fiscal agent is the Banco de la Nación which, since May 1970, has control of the 'giro' market through which most non-trade foreign currency transactions are channelled. There were in 1983, 7 commercial banks (of which 3 state-owned), 4 foreign commercial banks, 9 development banks (5 state-owned), 6 regional commercial banks and a savings bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was established by law in 1869, and since 1916 has come into general use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1985 the production of electric energy was 12,809m. kwh (9-883m kwh hydro-electric). An electrification programme to construct a series of large hydro-electric power stations, was started in 1980. Supply 220 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Proven oil reserves in the jungle region amount to about 900m. bbls. The new 850 km pipeline, linking the new jungle oilfields to coastal terminals, was opened in 1977. Output amounted to 8m. tonnes in 1987 and Peru became an oil exporter in 1985. Minerals. Peru's mining industry produces 13 metals and 25 non-metallic minerals. Lead, copper, iron, silver, zinc and petroleum are the chief minerals exploited. In 1984 prospecting for uranium was in progress. Mineral exports in 1980: Copper, US$752m.; lead, US$383m.; zinc, US$210m.; silver, US$312m.; iron ore, US$95m.; gold, US$40m. Mineral production (in 1,000 tonnes, 1986) of iron, 3,290; zinc, 598; copper, 397; lead, 194;silver, 1,926,000 kg. Agriculture. There are 4 natural zones: the coast strip, with an average width of 80 km; the Sierra or Uplands, formed by the coast range of mountains and the Andes proper; the Montaña or high wooded region which lies on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the jungle in the Amazon Basin, known as the Selva. In 1984 irrigation was increasing the amount of cultivable acreage in the arid coastal sections of the country, using the abundance of water flowing from the Andes mountains.

988

PERU

Production in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, 6,273; potatoes, 1,687; cotton, 304; coffee, 97; rice, 745; maize, 864. Livestock (1986): 2,435,000 alpacas, 3-95m. cattle, 13 06m. sheep, 2,174,000 pigs, 48m. poultry. Forestry. There are 209m. acres of forests containing valuable hardwoods; oak and cedar account for about 40%. In 1983, total roundwood removals totalled 7-8m. cu metres. Fisheries. Production (1986 in tonnes) 5 -53m., including anchoveta, 3,482,000; sardine, 1,721,000. INDUSTRY AND

TRADE

Industry. About 70% of Peru's manufacturing industries are located in or around the Lima/Callao metropolitan area. Products include pig-iron, blooms, billets, largets, round and round-deformed bars, wire rod, black and galvanized sheets and galvanized roofing sheets. Refractories are manufactured at Lima. The Government has a monopoly of the import and/or local manufacture and sale of guano, salt, alcohol and explosives. Labour. In 1986 the total labour force was considered to number 6,767,900 persons. The population was distributed as follows: Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing, 2,422,900; manufacturing industry, 690,300; commerce, 981,300; construction, 243,700; mining, 162,400; services, 1 -78m.; others, 487,300. Trade Unions. Trade unions have about 2m. members (approximately 1 -5m. in peasant organizations and 500,000 in industrial). The major trade union organization is the Confederación de Trabajadores del Perú, which was reconstituted in 1959 after being in abeyance for some years. The other labour organizations recognized by the Government are the Confederación General de Trabajadores del Peru, the Confederación Nacional de Trabajadores and the Central de Trabajadores de la Revolución Peruana. Commerce. The value of trade has been as follows (in US$ 1 m.): Imports Exports

1981 3,803 3,255

1982 3,678 3,293

1983 2,698 3,015

1984 2,140 3,147

1985 1,806 2,978

1986 2,525 2,509

In 1984 the principal imports were: Machinery and appliances, chemicals, foodstuffs; fuel, lubricants and other non-metallic minerals. Of exports, 36% went to USA, 15% to Japan; of imports, 41% came from USA and 8% from Japan. In 1986 the chief export was minerals, US$ 1,023,000. Total trade between Peru and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ¡ggj m 4 i m i m m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

118,414 32,947

119,423 33,841

108,943 40,371

82,141 48,275

91,689 49,324

Tourism. There were 305,000 visitors in 1986; revenue US$325m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 68,363 km, of which 7,325 km were paved and 13,627 km gravel. In 1981 there were 529,000 registered motor vehicles. Railways. Total length (1984), 1,628 km on 1,435- and 914-mm gauges. In 1983 railways carried 2 • 6m. short tons and 3 1m. passengers. Aviation. There are 3 international and 61 other airports. Shipping. In 1983, 23-5m. tonnes of goods were loaded and unloaded, including 10 -4m. coastal traffic. Post and Broadcasting. An earth satellite ground communication station at Lurin connects Peru through Intelsat. Ill to the US and Europe. In 1983 there were

PERU

989

519,703 telephones, 371,673 in Lima. Radio-telephone circuits connect Lima with distant towns. There are 153 broadcasting stations, of which 29 are in Lima. Radio receivers (1984) 2-24m. and television receivers 520,000. Cinemas. In 1972 there were 276 cinemas. Newspapers. The main Lima newspapers are La Prensa, El Comercio, Expreso, Correo and La Crónica. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Peruvian judicial system is a pyramid at the base of which are the justices of the peace who decide minor criminal cases and civil cases involving small sums of money. The apex is the Supreme Court with a President and 12 members; in between are the judges of first instance, who usually sit in the provincial capitals, and the superior courts. Religion. Religious liberty exists, but the Roman Catholic religion is protected by the State, and since 1929 only Roman Catholic religious instruction is permitted in schools, state or private. In 1972 there were 1 Roman Catholic cardinal, 7 archbishops, 14 bishops, 3 vicars-general, 8 vicars apostolic, 2,672 priests, 506 cloistered monks and 4,558 members of religious orders. Education. Elementary education is compulsory and free for both sexes between the ages of 7 and 16; secondary education is also free. In 1986 there were 3-68m. pupils in primary schools and 1,676,000 pupils in secondary schools. In 1986 the total number of students at 35 universities was 394,000. Health. There were in 1986,353hospitals and 920 health centres. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Peru in Great Britain (52 Sloane St., London, SW1X9SP) Ambassador: Carlos Raffo. Of Great Britain in Peru (Edificio El Pacifico Washington, Ave. Arequipa, Lima) Ambassador: A. J. Beamish. Of Peru in the USA (1700 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Cesar G. Atala. Of the USA in Peru (POBox 1995, Lima) Ambassador: Alexander F. Watson. Of Peru to the United Nations Ambassador: Carlos Alzamora. Books of Reference The official gazette is El Peruano, Lima. Anario Estadístico del Perú. Annual.—Boletín de Estadística Peruana. Quarterly.— Demarcación Politico del Perú. (Dirección Nacional de Estadística), Lima Estadística del Comercio Exterior (Superintendencia de Aduanas). Lima Banco Central de Reserva. Monthly Bulletin.—Renta Nacional del Perú. Annual, Lima Figueroa, A., Capitalist Development and the Peasant Economy of Peru. CUP, 1984 Hemming, J., The Conquest of the Incas. London, 1970 McClintock, C., and Lowental, A. F., (eds.) The Peruvian Experiment Reconsidered. Princeton Univ. Press, 1983 Mejia Baca, J., and Tauro, A., Diccionario Enciclopédico del Peru. 3 vols. 1966 Thorpe, R., and Bertram, G., Peru 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy. London, 1978 National Library: Avenida Abancay, Lima.

Capital: Manila Population: 57 • 36m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$614 ( 1986)

PHILIPPINES Republika ng Pilipinas

H I S T O R Y . Before the Spanish discovery of the Philippines, the native Filipinos came in contact with India, China and Arabia. According to the early records of China, 'some Filipinos from the country of Ma-i arrived in Canton and sold their merchandise' as early as 982. The Philippine islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521 and conquered by Spain in 1565. Following the Spanish-American war, the islands were ceded to the USA on 10 Dec. 1898, after the Filipinos had tried in vain to establish an independent republic in 1896. The Philippines acquired self-government as a Commonwealth of the USA by Act of Congress signed by President Roosevelt on 24 March 1934 and ratified by plebiscite on 14May 1935. This provided for independence a f t e r a 10-year transitional period, at the end of which the Philippines became completely independent on 4 July 1946. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Philippines is situated between 21° 25' and 4° 23' N. lat. and between 116° and 127° E. long. It is composed of 7,100 islands and islets, 2,773 of which are named. Approximate land area, 115,830 sq. miles (300,000 sq. km). The largest islands (in sq. km) are Luzon (104,684), Mindanao (94,627), Samar (13,079), Negros (12,706), Palawan (11,784), Panay (11,515), Mindoro (9,735), Leyte (7,215), Cebu (4,421), Bohol (3,864), Masbate (3,268). Census population 1980 was 48,098,460; 36% urban. Estimate (1987) 57-36m. (41% in 1987). The area and population of the 13 regions are as follows (from north to south): Estimate Estimate 1987 Sq. km 1987 Region Sq. km Region

llocos Cagayan Valley Central Luzon National Capital Southern Tagalog Bicol Western Visayas

21,568 36,403 18,231 636 46,924 17,633 20,223

3,950,000 2,626,000 5,679,000 7,322,000 7,465,000 3,961,000 5,233,000

Central Visayas Eastern Visayas Northern Mindanao Southern Mindanao Central Mindanao Western Mindanao

14,951 21,432 28,328 31,693 23,293 18,685

4,359,000 3,199,000 3,392,000 4,174,000 2,579,000 2,948,000

T h e m a j o r cities (with 1980 census populations) a r e as follows; all o n L u z o n unless indicated in parenthesis. Manila 11,630,485 1 Ba tangas 143,570 Quezon City 11,165,865 1 Cabanatuan 138,298 San Pablo Davao (Mindanao) 610,375 131,655 San Juan del Monte Cebu (Cebu) 490,281 130,088 1 Caloocan Cádiz (Negros) 467,816 1 129,632 1 Makati 372,631 Navotas 126,146' Zamboanga (Mindanao) 343,722 Lipa 121,166 1 Pasay 287,770 Baguio 119,009 Pasig 268,570' Silay (Negros) 111,131 Bacolod (Negros) 262,415 Mandaue (Cebu) 110,590 Iloilo (Panay) 244,827 Lucena 107,880 Cagayan de Oro (Mindanao) 227,312 Calbayog (Samar) 106,719 Valenzuela 212,363 1 Ormoc (Leyte) 104,978 Marikina Tacloban (Leyte) 211,613 1 102,523 208,552 ' San Carlos (Luzon) Paranaque 101,243 Mandaluyong 205,366 ' Legaspi 99,766 188,834 Dagupan Angeles 98,344 Butuan (Mindanao) 172,489 Malolos 95,699 Iligan (Mindanao) 167,358 San Carlos (Negros) 91,627 Olongapo 156,430 90,712 Naga General Santos (Mindanao) 149,396 1 City within Metropolitan Manila (total population 5,925,884).

990

PHILIPPINES

991

In 1980 the national language, Pilipino (based on Tagalog, a Malayan dialect) was spoken by 55% of the population, but as a mother tongue by only 23-8%; among the 76 other indigenous languages spoken, all of the Malayo-Polynesian family, Cebuano was spoken as a mother tongue by 24-4%, Ilocano by 11 • 1%, Hiligaynon by 8% and Bikol by 5%. C L I M A T E . Some areas have an equatorial climate while others experience tropical monsoon conditions, with a wet season extending from May to Nov. Mean temperatures are high all year, with very little variation. Manila. Jan. 77°F (25°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 82" (2,083 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Presidential elections were held on 7 Feb. 1986. Ferdinand E. Marcos was opposed by Corazón Aquino. The elections proved to be fraudulent and although Marcos was proclaimed President, by the National Assembly, on 15 Feb., on 25 Feb. he fled the country. President Corazón Aquino was sworn in on 25 Feb. On 25 March 1986 the President abolished the Parliament and declared a provisional government. A new Constitution was ratified by referendum in 1987 with 78-5% of the voters endorsing it. It aims 'to secure to ourselves and our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality and peace'. At congressional elections held on 11 May 1987,24 senators were elected in the Upper House and 200 congressmen in the House of Representatives. President: Corazón Aquino. Vice President: Salvador Laurel. Foreign Affairs: Raul Manglapus. Finance: Vicente Jayme. Justice: Sedfrey Ordoñez. National Defence: Fidel Ramos. Agriculture and Food: Carlos Domínguez. Environment and Natural Resources: Fulgencio Factoran Jr. Agrarian Reform: Philip Juico. Education, Culture and Sports: Lourdes Quisumbing. Local Government: Lito Monico Lorenzana. Labour and Employment: Franklin Drilon. Public Works and Highways: Fiorello Estuar. Trade and Industry: José Concepción Jr. Transport and Communications: Reinerio Reyes. Tourism: Jiasé Antonio Gonzales. Health: Alfredo Bengzon. Science and Technology: Antonio Arizabal. Social Welfare and Development: Mita Pardo de Tavera. Budget and Management: Guillermo Carague. National Economic and Development Authority: Sólita Monsod. Executive Secretary: Catalino Macaraeg Jr. Press Secretary: Teodoro Benigno Jr. Presidential Commission on Good Government: Ramon Diaz. Central Bank Governor: Jose Fernández. Nationalflag: Horizontally blue over red, with a white triangle based on the hoist bearing a gold sun of 8 rays and 3 gold stars. National hymn: 'Tierra Adorada', 'Land of the Morning', lyric in English by M. A. Sane and C. Osias, in Spanish by José Palma (1899), tune by Julian Felipe (1898); 'Pambansang A wit ng Pilipinas', Tagalog lyric by the Institute of National Language, music by Julian Felipe. Local Government. The country is administratively divided into 13 regions, 73 provinces, 60 cities, 1,532 municipalities, 21 municipal districts and 40,761 barangays. On 14 Nov. 1975 the name of provincial boards and city or municipal boards or councils was changed into SangguniangBayan. D E F E N C E . On 14 March 1947 the Philippine and US Governments signed a 99-year military-base arrangement since reduced to 25 years and will end in 1991. The USA was granted the use of a series of army, navy and air bases, with the right to use a number of others on mutual agreement. On 21 March a second agreement provided for a US Military Advisory Group as well as military assistance. A treaty of mutual assistance was signed in Washington on 30 Aug. 1951; the instruments of ratification were exchanged in Manila on 27 Aug. 1952. The Philippines is also a signatory of the S.E. Asia Collective Defence Treaty. The Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces has overall command over the Army, Air Force, Navy and Constabulary.

992

PHILIPPINES

Army. The Army comprises 5 infantry divisions, 1 ranger regiment, 3 engineer brigades, 1 light armoured regiment and 4 artillery regiments. Equipment includes 28 Scorpion light tanks. Strength (1988) 62,000, with reserves totalling 95,000. There are also paramilitary forces; the Philippine Constabulary (50,000) and the Civil Home Defence Force (65,000). Navy. The fleet includes 3 very old frigates (former US destroyer escorts built in 1943), 10 corvettes (3 ex-US fleet minesweepers and 7 ex-US escorts), 2 ex-US PC-type patrol vessels, 8 other patrol craft, 5 gunboats, 70 coastal patrol craft, 1 training ship, 24 landing ships, 4 medium landing ships, 6 landing craft (3 LSSL and 3 LCU), 3 repair ships, 2 oilers, 3 water carriers, 1 supply ship, 6 survey ships, 5 tenders, 70 minor landing craft, 2 yachts (command ships), 6 tugs and 20 auxiliaries. There are 30 patrol craft and 60 cutters and tenders in the coast guard. The Philippine Navy was considerably increased in 1976 by taking over many vessels (nearly all former US warships) from the Vietnamese Navy which escaped from Indo-China when the Saigon government collapsed in 1975. But some 60 of the larger ships are well over 40 years old. The 4 largest are now non-operational, 4 patrol vessels built in 1979 are unservicable, and all LSTs seriously in need of refit. Of some 250 ships only 100 are servicable and 30 regularly operational. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 14,700 officers and men. There are also 9,250 officers and enlisted men in the marine corps (was to be raised to 15,400), and 2,000 officers and men in the coast guard. Air Force. The Air Force had (1988) a strength of 17,000 officers and men, with 390 aircraft, and was built up with US assistance. Its fighter-bomber wing is equipped with 1 squadron of F-5A and 1 squadron of F-8H Crusaders. A strike wing is equipped with armed trainers, 2 squadrons having T-28s and 1 squadron SF.260WPs. Other units include a maritime patrol squadron with F27 Maritimes and HU-16 Albatross amphibians and 7 transport squadrons (1 with C-130/L-100 Hercules, 1 with F27s, 1 with Nomads, 1 with C-47s, 2 with UH-1 Iroquois helicopters and 1 with S-76 helicopters). Training aircraft include T-41s, T-34s and T-3 3 jets. Two S-70 helicopters are used as VIP transports. Police. Public order is maintained partly through the Philippine constabulary and partly through the local police forces. The constabulary now forms part of the Armed Forces and has 27,000 personnel. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Republic of the Philippines is a member of U N and the Colombo Plan. External Debt. At 31 March 1987 the external debt (monetary and non-monetary) amounted to US$28,581 m. ECONOMY Planning. A development plan, 1983-87, aimed at an average growth rate of 6 • 5%. Budget. The revenues and expenditures of the central government for calendar years were, in 1 m. Philippine pesos, as follows: Revenue Expenditure

1983 46,642 50,271

1984 1985 57,150 68,961 67,797 80,148 1 Estimate.

1986 79,245 114,505

1987' 109,529 160,416

Expenditure (1987) included (in lm. pesos): National defence, 8,222; education, health and social services, 31,251; economic development, 28,660; debt service, 65,895. At Jan. 1987 the total internal public debt outstanding of the national and local governments and monetary institutions, including those of the government corporations, stood at P. 140,978 • 7m. Currency. Total money supply, July

1987, was P.41,887-6m., of which

PHILIPPINES

993

P.27,588-8m. was currency in circulation and P.14,298-8m. were demand deposits. The coins used are: 5 peso, 1 peso, one-half peso, quarter peso, media peseta (10 centavos), all contain 70 grammes copper, 18 grammes zinc and 12 grammes nickel; 5 centavo in copper and zinc, and 1 centavo in aluminium and magnesium zinc. Central Bank notes are issued in 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 pesos denominations. In March 1988,£1 =36-20pesos; US$1 = 2 1 0 1 pesos. Banking. In 1986 there were 30 head offices and 1,735 branches of commercial banks, with 4 overseas, 1 each in New York, Hong Kong, Taipei and London. Agencies exist in Honolulu, San Francisco and Los Angeles. Total deposits of the commercial banks in June 1987 were P.138,587-8m. Total number of Philippine banking institutions, 1986,3,615 with total assets P.661,569 • 1 m. Under the law passed 15 June 1948 the Central Bank of the Philippines was created to have sole control of the credit and monetary supply, independent of the Treasury. It has a capital of P. 10m. furnished solely by the Government. Its total assets,at31 Dec. 1986 were P.313,892m. Central Bank's total assets at July 1987 wereP.318,308-5m. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was established by law in 1869, and since 1916 has come into general use but there are local units including the picul (63 -25 kg) for sugar and fibres, and the cavan (16-5 gallons) for cereals. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Government and private electric systems furnish the Philippines with electric power, with total installed capacity of 6,462,000 mw (1986); production 22,865m. kwh. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 60 Hz. Minerals. Mineral production in 1986 (in tonnes): Nickel metal, 12,740; zinc metal, 1,570; copper metal, 217,020; cobalt metal, 90; coal, 1,235,500; salt, 442,110; gold, 35,430 kg; silver, 51,530 kg. Other minerals include chromite, cement, rock asphalt, sand and gravel. Agriculture. Of the total area of 30m. hectares, 7-04m. hectares are commercial forests; 5-4m. hectares non-commercial forests; 794,000 hectares open grassland; 115,000 hectares mangrove and marshes; 14,794,000 hectares cultivated. About 98 -4% of the total cultivated area is owned by Filipinos; the average size of the farm was 2 -63 hectares in 1980. The principal products are unhusked rice (palay), Manila hemp (abaca), copra, sugar-cane, maize and tobacco. During the first quarter of 1987 10,013,000 persons were employed in agriculture (48-48% of the working population). The products (in 1,000 tonnes) are (1986, provisional): Rough rice, 9,097; copra, 2,314; coconuts, 3,162; sugar (centrifugal muscovado and molasses), 2,135; shelled com, 3,922; bananas, 3,820; tobacco, 47; abaca fibre, 84. Minor crops are fruits, nuts, root crops, vegetables, onions, beans, coffee, cacao, peanuts, ramie, rubber, maguey and kapok. Livestock, estimated in 1986: 2,984,440 carabaos (water buffaloes), 1,814,460 cattle, 7,274,830 pigs, 2,176,930 goats and 58,212,180 poultry. Forestry. The forests covered some 10,765,279 hectares in 1984. Log production, 1986,3,567,720 cu. metres. Fisheries. Fish production from all sources was 2,089,484,000 kg and was valued atP.36,911,321,000 in 1986. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Manufacturing is a major source of economic development contributing 25 19% to G N P in 1986. Leading growth sectors were food manufacturing, textile, footwear and wearing apparel, machinery except electrical, fabricated metal products, wood and cork products, industrial chemicals and other chemical products, furniture and fixtures and publishing and allied industries. In 1985

994

PHILIPPINES

(annual survey), there were 5,369 large manufacturing establishments, of which 1,331 were engaged in food; 413 wearing apparel; 132 footwear; 312 textile; 354 publishing and allied industries; 328 machinery except electrical; 262 fabricated metal products; 294 industrial chemicals and other chemical products; 284 wood and cork products; 157 plastic products and 161 transport equipment. The nonagricultural labour force during the first quarter of 1987 was 10,639,000 out of a total of20,652,000 employed. Commerce. The values of imports and exports (f.o.b.) for calendar years are stated asfollowsinUSSlm.: „, „ , „„ Imports Exports

1983 7,487 5,005

1984 6,070 5,391

1985 5,111 4,629

1986 5,044 4,842

The principal exports in 1985 were (in US$1 m.): Electronics, 1,020; garments, 623; coconut oil (crude), 347; copper concentrates, 84; gold, 100; fresh bananas, 113; petroleum products refined, 39; nickel, 52. Main imports in 1985 (in USSlm.): Petroleum products and related materials, 1,392; machinery other than electric, 125; textile yarns, fabrics, made-up articles and related products, 140; electric machinery apparatus and appliances, 253; cereals and cereal preparations, 278; iron and steel, 135; industrial machinery, equipment and machine parts, 107; metal manufactures, 74; organic chemicals, 137; artificial resins and plastic materials, 94. For over a half-century the foreign trade has been chiefly with the US A. Total trade between the Philippines and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): „, ,„„ „„, ,„„„ 6 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 160,701 102,949

1984 199,659 91,751

1985 179,979 94,370

1986 182,852 79,809

1987 202,707 113,784

Tourism. In 1986,764,000 tourists visited the Philippines spending US$647m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 highways totalled 161,709 km; of this, 9,188 km were concrete; 12,050, asphalt; 9,722, earth; 9,722, macadam. In 1986 there were registered 1,185,832 motor vehicles of all types. Railways. The National Railways totals 1,027 km of 1,067 mm gauge on Luzon, and Phividec Railways operates 116 km on Panay Island. In 1986, 3,744,000 passengers and 64,000 tonnes of freight were carried by rail. Aviation. The Philippine Air Lines, Inc., with a working capital of P.3,061m., in 1986 carried 4,865,689 passengers and 54,980,763 kg of cargo. Shipping. In 1985 there were 302 public and 240 private ports, many serving coastal shipping. In 1984,63,726 vessels of24,097,000 net tons entered and 63,175 vessels of23,449,000 net tons cleared all ports. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were in operation 2,096 post offices and 2,131 telegraph stations. The Philippine Long Distance Telephone Co. had 856,014 telephones in service (company-owned and subscriber-owned) in 1986. Other major operators had 62,429 connexions in 1983. Licensed radio stations in 1986 numbered 11,006, including 1,257 ship stations and 160 aircraft stations. Newspapers (1986). There were 472 registered publications (288 published in Manila), 20 of which were dailies in 1986. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court which is composed of a chief justice and 14 associate justices; it can declare a law or treaty unconstitutional by the concurrent votes of the majority sitting. There is an intermediate appellate court, which consists of a presiding appellate justice and 49 associate appellate justices. There are 13 regional trial courts, one for each judicial region, with a presiding regional trial

PHILIPPINES

995

judge in its 720 branches. There is a metropolitan trial court in each metropolitan area established by law, a municipal trial court in each of the other cities or municipalities and a municipal circuit trial court in each area defined as a municipal circuit comprising one or more cities and/or one or more municipalities. The Supreme Court may designate certain branches of the regional trial courts to handle exclusively criminal cases, juvenile and domestic relations cases, agrarian cases, urban land reform cases which do not fall under the jurisdiction of quasijudicial bodies and agencies and/or such other special cases as the Supreme Court may determine. Religion. In 1970 there were 31,169,488 Roman Catholics, 1,434,688 Aglipayans, 1,584,963 Moslems, 1,122,999 Protestants, 475,407 members of the Iglesia ni Kristo, 33,639 Buddhists and 863,302 others. The Roman Catholics are organized in 12 archbishoprics, 30 bishoprics, 12 prelatures nullius, 4 apostolic vicariates, 4 apostolic prefectures and some 1,633 parishes. The Philippine Independent Church, founded in 1902, and comprising about 3-9% of the population, denies the spiritual authority of the Roman Pontiff It is divided into two groups, one of which has accepted ordinations by the Episcopalian Church. Education. Formal education consists of 3 levels: elementary, secondary and further education. Public elementary education is free and public elementary schools are established in almost every barangay or barrio. The majority of the secondary and post-secondary schools are private, sectarian or non-sectarian. The number of years required to complete the elementary and secondary levels are 6 and 4 years respectively, while the tertiary level requires at least 4 years for an academic degree. Pre-school education is also offered mostly in private schools to children from ages 3-6. Non-formal education consists of adult literacy classes, agricultural and farming training programmes, occupation skills training, youth clubs, and community programmes of instructions in health, nutrition, family planning and cooperatives. Public and private schools in 1986-87 enrolled 9,230,378 pupils in primary schools, 3,420,921 in secondary schools and 1,704,618 students in further education. The University of the Philippines (founded in 1908) had 15,316 students in 1984. Health. In 1982 there were 46,579 registered physicians and (1986) 89,171 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the Philippines in Great Britain (9A Palace Green, London, W8 4QE) Ambassador: Juan T. Quimson (accredited 8 July 1986). Of Great Britain in the Philippines (115 Esteban St., Manila) Ambassador: Keith Maclnnes, CMG. Of the Philippines in the USA (1617 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: Emmanuel N. Pelaez. Of the USA in the Philippines (1201 Roxas Blvd., Manila) Ambassador: Nicholas Piatt. Of the Philippines to the United Nations Ambassador: Emmanuel Pelaez. Books of Reference Philippine Yearbook 1987. National Statistics Office, Manila, 1987 National Power Corporation. Annual Report '83 Foreign Trade Statistics of the Philippines, ¡985. National Statistics Office, Manila, 1985 Bresnan, J. (ed.), Crisis in the Philippines: The Marcos Era and Beyond. Princeton Univ. Press, 1986 Burley, T. M., The Philippines. An Economic and Social Geography. London, 1973 Lightfort, K., The Philippines. London, 1973 May, R. J., and Nemenzo, E (eds.), The Philippines after Marcos. London and Sydney, 1985 Poole, F.,and Vanzi, M., Revolution in the Philippines. New York, 1984

Only settlement: Adamstown Population: 57 (1986)

PITCAIRN ISLAND

H I S T O R Y . It was discovered by Carteret in 1767, but remained uninhabited until 1790, when it was occupied by 9 mutineers of H M S Bounty, with 12 women and 6 men from Tahiti. Nothing was known of their existence until the island was visited in 1808. In 1856 the population having become too large for the island's resources, the inhabitants (194 in number) were, at their own request, removed to Norfolk Island; but 43 of t h e m returned in 1859-64. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Pitcairn Island (1-75 sq. miles; 4-6 sq. km) is situated in the Pacific Ocean, nearly equidistant from New Zealand and P a n a m a (25° 04'S. lat., 130° 06' W. long.). Adamstown is the only settlement. The population on 31 Dec. 1986 was 57. The uninhabited islands of Henderson (12 sq. miles), Ducie (l'/i sq. miles) and Oeno (2 sq. miles) were annexed in 1902 and are included in the Pitcairn group. C L I M A T E . An equable climate, with average annual rainfall of 8 0 " (2,000 mm), spread evenly throughout the year. Mean monthly temperatures range from 75°F (24°C) in Jan. to 66°F ( 19°C) in July. C O N S T I T U T I O N . Pitcairn was brought within the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific in 1898 and transferred to the Governor of Fiji in 1952. When Fiji became independent in Oct. 1970, the British High Commissioner in New Zealand was appointed Governor. The Local Government Ordinance of 1964 constitutes a Council of 10 members, of whom 4 are elected, 5 are nominated (3 by the 4 elected members and 2 by the Governor) and the Island Secretary is an ex-officio member. The Island Magistrate, who is elected triennially, presides over the Council; other members hold office for only 1 year. Liaison between Governor and Council is through a Commissioner in the Auckland, New Zealand, office of the British Consulate-General. Governor: R. A. C. Byatt, C M G (resides in Wellington). Island Magistrate: Brian Young (elected Dec. 1984). Flag: British Blue Ensign with the whole arms of Pitcairn in the fly. T R A D E . Fruit, vegetables and curios are sold to passing ships; fuel oil, machinery, building materials, flour, sugar and other foodstuffs are imported. R O A D S . There were (1987) 6 km of roads. In Aug. 1987 motor cycles provided the sole means of personal automotive transport; there were 9 2-wheelers, 16 3-wheelers and 1 4-wheeled motor cycle. J U S T I C E . The Island Court consists of the Island Magistrate and 2 assessors. E D U C A T I O N . In 1987 there was 1 teacher and 12 pupils. Books of Reference A Guide to Pitcairn. Pitcairn Island Administration, Auckland, revised ed. 1982 Ball, I., Pitcairn: Children of the Bounty. London, 1973 Ross, A. S. C . , a n d Moverly, A. W., ThePitcairneseLanguage. London, 1964

996

POLAND

Capital: Warsaw Population: 37-6m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$6,420 (1985)

Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa HISTORY. In 1966 Poland celebrated its millennium, but modern Polish history begins with the partitions of the once-powerful kingdom between Russia, Austria and Prussia in 1772,1793 and 1795. For 19th century events see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1 9 8 0 - 8 1 .

On 10 Nov. 1918 independence was proclaimed by JozefPilsudski, the founder of the Polish Legions during the war. On 28 June 1919 the Treaty of Versailles recognized the independence of Poland. On 1 Sept. 1939 Germany invaded Poland, on 17 Sept. 1939 Russian troops entered eastern Poland, and on 29 Sept. 1939 the fourth partition of Poland took place. After the German attack on Russia, the Germans occupied the whole of Poland. By March 1945 the country had been liberated by the Russians. In July 1944 the USSR recognized the Polish Committee of National Liberation (Polski Komitet Wyzwolenia Narodowego) established in Lublin as an executive organ of the National Council of the Homeland (Krajowa Rada Narodowa). The Committee was transformed into the Provisional Government in Dec. 1944, and on 28 June 1945, supplemented by members of the Polish Government in London (which had been recognized by the UK and USA), it was re-established—in Moscow—as the Polish Provisional Government of National Unity and on 6 July recognized as such by the UK and USA. Elections were held on 19 Jan. 1947. Of the 12-7m. votes cast, 1 l -24m. were recognized as valid and 9m. were given for the Communist-dominated 'Democratic Bloc'. After riots in Poznari in June 1956 nationalist anti-Stalinist elements gained control of the Communist Party, under the leadership of Wladyslaw Gomuika. In 1970 the Federal Republic of Germany recognized Poland's western boundary as laid down by the Potsdam Conference of 1945 (the 'Oder-Neisse line'). In Dec. 1970 strikes and riots in Gdansk, Szczecin and Gdynia led to the resignation of a number of leaders including Gomulka. He was replaced by Edward Gierek. The introduction of price rises in June 1976 was again followed by strikes and riots. The rises were withdrawn and some demonstrators were imprisoned. In the campaign of protest which followed a Committee for the Defence of the Workers (KOR) was formed. The raising of meat prices on 1 July 1980 resulted in a wave of strikes which broadened into generalized wage demands and eventually by mid-Aug. acquired a political character. Workers in Gdansk, Gdynia and Sopot elected a joint strike committee, led by Lech Wahjsa. On 24 Aug. Gierek reshuffled the Party and Government leadership. On 31 Aug. the Government and Walesa signed the 'Gdansk Agreements' permitting the formation of independent Trade Unions. On 5 Sept. Gierek suffered a heart attack and was replaced as First Secretary by Stanislaw Kania (Gierek was expelled from the Party in July 1981). On 17 Sept. various Trade Unions decided to form a national confederation ('Solidarity') and applied for legal status, which was granted on 24 Oct. after some Government resistance. On 9 Feb. the Defence Minister, Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski became Prime Minister. At an extraordinary Communist Party congress in July a new leadership was elected. At Solidarity's first national congress (4-10 Sept. and 2-8 Oct. 1981) Wah?sa was re-elected chairman and a radical programme of action was adopted. On 18 Oct. Kania resigned from the Party leadership and was 997

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replaced by Jaruzelski. On 13 Dec. 1981 the Government imposed martial law (stan wojenny), banning a wide range of civil liberties, and establishing the rule of a 20-member Military Council of National Salvation (WRON). Solidarity was proscribed and its leaders detained. Martial law was approved by the Sejm on 26 Jan. 1982 with one dissident vote and 5 abstentions. The Party Central Committee approved the measure on 25 Feb. Walesa was released in Nov. 1982. On 8 Oct. the Sejm voted (with 12 dissident votes and 9 abstentions) a law dissolving all registered trade unions including Solidarity. These have been replaced by workplace unions which are required to pledge support for the Communist Party and the Constitution. Martial law was suspended in Dec. 1982 and finally lifted in July 1983. An amnesty of21 July 1984 freed 35,000 common and 652 political prisoners, including 7 Solidarity and 4 KOR leaders. In Nov. 1985 Jaruzelski resigned the Prime Ministership in favour of Zbigniew Messner, and was elected Chairman of the Council of State. In July and Sept. 1986 the Government granted an amnesty to all political prisoners except those accused of terrorism or spying. In Dec. the government established a 56-member Advisory Council of independents from various social spheres. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Poland is bounded north by the Baltic and the RSFSR, east by Lithuania, White Russia and the Ukraine, south by Czechoslovakia and west by the German Democratic Republic. Poland comprises an area of 312,683 sq. km (120,628 sq. miles). The country is divided into 49 voivodships (wojewodztwo) and these in turn are divided into 813 towns and 2,122 wards (gmina). The capital is Warsaw (Warszawa). Area (in sq. km) and population (in 1,000) in 1986 (1984 % urban in brackets). Voivodship BiaJa Podlaska Bialystok Bielsko-Biala Bydgoszcz Chehn Ciechanow Czestochowa Elbhjg Gdansk Gorzow Jelenia Gora Kalisz Katowice Kielce Konin Koszalin Krakow (Cracow) Krosno Legnica Leszno Lodz Lomza Lublin Nowy S^cz Olsztyn

Area 5,348 10,055 3,704 10,349 3,866 6,362 6,182 6,103 7,394 8,484 4,378 6,512 6,650 9,211 5,139 8,470 3,254 5,702 4,037 4,154 1,523 6,684 6,792 5,576 12,327

Population 300 (32-5) 672 (57-7) 879 (48-9) 1,090 (62-8) 243 (39-9) 420 (33-0) 770 (51-2) 470 (58 6) 1,411 (76 2) 487 (60-4) 512 (65-3) 700 (44-5) 3,946 (87-7) 1,113 (44-4) 461 (38-6) 494 (61-0) 1,214 (69-1) 480 (32-8) 497 (66-6) 378 (46-1) 1,150 (91-4) 341 (35-7) 992 (55-5) 674 (35-5) 733 (56-4)

Voivodship Opole Ostrof^ka Pite Piotrköw Ptock Poznan Przemysl Radom Rzeszöw Siedlce Sieradz Skierniewice Shipsk Suwalki Szczecin Tarnobrzeg Tamöw Torun Walbrzych Warsaw Wtoclawek Wroclaw Zamosc Zielona Göra

Area 8,535 6,498 8,205 6,266 5,117 8,151 4,437 7,294 4,397 8,499 4,869 3,960 7,453 10,490 9,981 6,283 4,151 5,348 4,168 3,788 4,402 6,287 6,980 8,868

Population 1,020 (50-9) 372 (30 9) 469 (53 9) 637 (45-3) 511 (45-7) 1,308 (69-7) 398 (35-7) 733 (44-5) 698 (37-7) 640 (28-7) 403 (33-1) 412 (42-2) 400 (53 8) 454 (49-9) 951 (73-9) 584 (34 6) 647 (34-2) 646 (60-8) 738 (88-5) 2,422 (73 0) 427 (44-9) 1,119 (72-4) 489 (24-9) 654 (59 0)

Population (in 1,000) of the largest towns (1985): Warsaw Lodz Krakow (Cracow) Wroclaw (Breslau) Poznan Gdansk (Danzig) Szczecin (Stettin) Katowice

1,649 849 716 636 553 467 391 363

Bydgoszcz Lublin Sosnowiec Czestochowa Bialystok Gdynia Bytom Radom

361 324 255 247 245 243 239 214

Gliwice Kielce Zabrze Torun Tychy Bielsko-Biala Ruda Stgska Olsztyn

213 201 198 186 182 174 165 147

At the census of 6 Dec. 1984 the population was 37,026,000 (18m. males; 60% urban). Population on 1 Jan. 1987, 37,572,000 (19-2m. females; 22-7m. urban),

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density, 120 per sq. km. Vital statistics, 1986 (per 1,000): Marriages, 6-9; divorces, 1-4; live births, 17;deaths, 10-1; infant mortality (per 1,000 live births), 17-3. The rate of natural growth, 1986, 6 -9 per 1,000. Expectation of life in 1984 was 66-8 years. In 1984,55% ofthe population was under 30. Ethnic minorities are not identified. There were estimated to be 1 -2m. Germans in 1984. In 1982 there were 900 immigrants and 32,100 emigrants. In 1983 19,200 Germans emigrated. There is a large Polish diaspora, some 65% in USA. C L I M A T E . C l i m a t e is continental, marked by long and severe winters. Rainfall amounts are moderate, with a marked summer maximum. Warsaw. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 22-1" (553 mm). Gdansk. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7°C), July 63°F (17-2°C). Annual rainfall 22" (559 mm). Krakow. Jan. 27°F (-2-8°C), July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (729 mm). Poznan. Jan. 30° F ( - I P C ) , July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual rainfall 21" (523 mm). Stettin. Jan. 30°F (-1 1°C), July 65°F (18-3°C). Annual rainfall 2 2 " (550 mm). Wroclaw. Jan. 30°F (-1 • 1°C), July 66°F(18-9°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (574 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present Constitution was adopted on 22 July 1952. Amendments were adopted in 1976and 1983. TTie titular head of state is the Chairman of the Council of State, Wojciech Jaruzelski. Deputy Chairmen: Kazimierz Barcikowski, Zenon Körnender, Tadeusz Mlynczak, Tadeusz Szelachowski. Since 1983 the Constitution has defined the position of political parties as follows: 'The alliance and cooperation of the Polish United Workers' (i.e. Communist) Party with the United Peasant Party and the Democratic Party in the construction of socialism and their cooperation with those social organizations and associations that are grounded in the principles ofthe system of the Polish People's Republic form the basis of the Patriotic Movement of National Renaissance.' (PRON). The latter was set up on 15 Oct. 1982. At the 9th, extraordinary, congress of the Communist Party on 19 July 1981 a new Politburo was elected. In March 1988 the Politburo consisted of: Wojciech Jaruzelski (First Secretary'); Kazimerz Barcikowski; JözefBaryla; JözefCzyrek; Jan Glöwczyk; Gen. Czeslaw Kiszczak (Minister of the Interior)-, Zbigniew Messner (Prime Minister)-, Alfred Miodowicz; Wlodzimierz Mokrzyszczak; Zygmunt Muranski; Marian Orzechowski (Foreign Minister); Tadeusz Porebski; Gen. Florian Siwicki (Defence Minister)-, Zofia Stepien; Marian Wozniak. Candidate members: Stanislaw Bejger; Mieczyslaw Rakowski (Chairman, Socio-Economic Council)-, Janusz Kubasiewicz; Zbigniew Michalek; Gabriela Rembisz. Ministers not in the Politburo include 3 Deputy Prime Ministers: Zdzislaw Sadowski (Chairman, Planning Commission)-, Jözef Koziol; Zbigniew Szalajda; Gen. Tadeusz Hupatowski (Chairman, Supreme Chamber of Control); Bazyli Samojlik (Finance); Wiadystaw Gwiazda (Foreign Economic Co-operation); Jerzy Jozwiak (Home Trade); Lech Domeracki (Justice); Janusz Pawlowski (Labour and Social Policy); Stanislaw Zi?ba (Agriculture and Food); Janusz Körnender (Health and Welfare); Jerzy Bilip (Industry); Jerzy Urban (Head of Government Press Office). In 1986 the Polish United Workers' Party had 2,129,000 (3,091,900 in 1980) members (39% workers, 89% over 30 in 1984), the United Peasants' Party had 498,200 in 1986, and the Democratic Party, 117,700 members. The Socialist Youth Union had 1 -5m. members in 1986 (2m. in 1980). The authority o f t h e republic is vested in the Sejm, elected for 4 years by all citizens over 18. The Sejm elects a Council of State and a Council of Ministers. The last elections for the Sejm were held on 13 Oct. 1985, having been postponed from March 1984. 410 seats were contested by 2 candidates each, and 50 seats by one candidate who had to obtain 50% ofthe vote, these latter being mainly Government leaders and 16 independents. All candidates had to support the policies of PRON. Turn-out was said officially to be 78 -86%. Solidarity, which had called for a boycott of the election, claimed a turn-out of 66%. (Tum-out was 98 -87% in the 1980 election). The 460 seats are distributed as follows: 245 United Workers' Party, 106 United Peasants' Party, 35 Democratic Party, 74 independents, including 21 Catholics. The Speaker of the Sejm is Roman Malinowski.

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At a referendum of 29 Nov. 1987 the 28m. voters were asked (i) if they would accept two or three years of sacrifice to save the economy (ii) if they wanted deep democratization of political life. Turn-out was 68%. 44% of the electorate voted for (i) (26% against), 46% for (ii) (24% against), falling short of the 50% approval stipulated to make the conditions legally binding. Local government is carried out by People's Councils elected every 4 years at voivodship and community level. Alongside these are the offices of state administration. "Die chairman of the People's Council is the Secretary of the regional organization for the area. Local elections due in 1982 were postponed until 17 June 1984. The Government announced that 74-95% of the 25 -9m. electorate had voted (a figure claimed by Solidarity to be inflated by 12-15%). There were some 220,000 candidates, all selected by PRON. Nationalflag: Horizontally white over red. National anthem: Jeszcze Polska nie zgin^la (words by J. Wybicki, 1797; tune by M. Ogiriski, 1796). D E F E N C E . A National Defence Committee was set up in Nov. 1983 with Gen. Jaruzelski at its head. Poland is divided into 3 military districts: Warsaw (the eastem part of Poland); Pomerania (Baltic coast, part of central Poland; headquarters at Bydgoszcz); Silesia (Silesia and southern Poland; headquarters at Wroclaw). Armed forces are on Soviet lines and divided into army and air force (2 years' conscription), navy (3 years), anti-aircraft, rocket and radio-technological units (3 years) and internal security forces (2 years). In 1965 the security forces were taken away from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and placed under the Defence Ministry. The military age extends from the 19 th to the 50th year. The strength of the armed forces was (1988) 394,000, plus 87,000 security and frontier forces. Security forces include armoured brigades. Army. The Army consists of 5 armoured, 8 mechanized, 1 airborne and 1 amphibious assault divisions; 5 artillery brigades; 3 anti-tank regiments; 4 surface-tosurface missile brigades; 1 air defence brigade. Equipment includes 3,400 T-54/-55 and 270 T-72 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 230,000 (including 168,000 conscripts). Navy. The fleet comprises 3 ex-Soviet diesel electric propelled patrol submarines, 1 new frigate, 2 missile armed modern corvettes, 24 fleet minesweepers, 12 fast missile craft, 15 patrol boats, 40 coastguard patrol boats, 24 minesweepers, 8 inshore minesweepers, 23 medium landing ships, 3 intelligence vessels, 8 training ships, 3 degaussing vessels, 2 salvage ships, 2 torpedo recovery vessels, 18 minor landing craft, 6 surveying vessels, 7 oilers, 20 tugs and 40 auxiliaries and tenders. The Fleet Air Arm has 90 somewhat dated fixed-wing aircraft (including 40 MiG-17s and 40 MiG-21s) and over 60 helicopters. Personnel in 1988 totalled 19,500 comprising 5,200 afloat, 2,500 under training, 4,100 of coastal defence, 2,500 in naval aviation and 5,200 on shore support. Air Force. The Air Force had a strength (1988) of some 80,000 officers and men and 675 first-line jet aircraft of Soviet design, forming 4 air divisions. There are 11 air defence regiments (33 squadrons) with about 400 MiG-21 and MiG-23 supersonic interceptors, and 6 regiments (18 squadrons) operating variable-geometry MiG-23BM and Su-20, Su-7B and MiG-17 close-support fighters. There are also reconnaissance, ECM, transport, helicopter (including Mi-2s for observation and Mi-24 gunships) and training units. Soviet 'Guideline' 'Goa', 'Ganef, 'Gainful' and 'Gaskin' surface-to-air missiles are operational. Two Soviet armoured divisions are stationed on Polish territory. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Poland is a member of UN, Comecon and the Warsaw Pact and was readmitted to IMF in May 1986.

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ECONOMY Planning. For planning history until 1980 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK. 1981-82, p. 1002. Industrialization without sufficient expenditure on infrastructure; neglect of agriculture and the inefficiency of the planning mechanism, exacerbated by higher prices and declining Western demand for exports, and the social unrest since 1980, brought the economy to a state of paralysis. Some foodstuffs are rationed, and price increases were introduced in 1982 and 1984-88. The economy since 1983 has shown some signs of recovery. Economic reforms involving a closer linking of credits, profits and wages with market forces and efficiency were introduced in 1982 and Oct. 1987. A 5-year National Socio-Economic Plan is running from 1986 to 1990, and into this Central Annual Plans are integrated. Budget. Budget in 1 m. ztotys, for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 ¡986 1,334,700 2,345,300 2,629,100 3,299,700 3,854,200 4,902,700 1,465,600 2,434,200 2,654,400 3,367,800 3,979,200 4,193,200

Main items of 1986 revenue (in 1 m. ztotys): State enterprises, 3,129,300; finance and insurance, 664,200; income tax, 81,700. Main items of 1986 expenditure (in lm. ztotys): The economy, 1,933,500; welfare, 511,400; defence, 381,800; administration, 268,500; education, 483,500. Currency. The currency unit is the zioty, divided into 100 groszy. The currency consists of notes of 10,20, 50,100, 500,1,000,2,000 and 5,000 ztotys; and of coins of 10,20 and 50 groszy and 1,2, 5, 10,20 and 50 ztotys. In Jan. 1982 the ztoty was substantially devalued against Western currencies. In March 1988, £1 sterling = 313-7 ztotys, US$1 =675-93 ztotys. Banking. The National Bank of Poland (established 1945) is the central bank, has exclusive authority to issue currency, is charged with control of money and credit, and has responsibility for financial implementation of the national economic plan. Since its merger with the former Investment Bank on 1 Jan. 1970 it exercises centralized control over investment financing. The Food Economics Bank (Bank Gospodarki 2ywnosciowej) has exclusive responsibility for direct financing of rural areas through both short-term and investment loans. It operates banks. The General Savings Bank (Powszechna Kasa Oszczpdnosci) exercises central control over savings activities, transfers and checking transactions, including activities of workers' co-operative banks. In addition to the National Bank of Poland other authorized foreign-exchange banks are, the Polish Welfare Bank (Bank Polska Kasa Opieki SA) and the Commercial Bank of Warsaw (Bank Handlowy w Warszawie SA). An Export Development Bank was established in 1986. Deposits in savings institutions amounted to 2 -09m. ztotys in 1986. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electricity production (1986) 140,000m. kwh. In 1984 97-5% of electricity was produced by coal-powered thermal plants. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. A nuclear power station is being built at Zarnowiec. Minerals. Poland is a major producer of coal (reserves of some 120,000m. tonnes) and sulphur. Copper reserves are estimated at 56m. tonnes. Production in 1986 (in lm. tonnes): Coal, 192; brown coal, 67-3; copper ore (1985), 29-4; silver, 829 tonnes. Oil was discovered 80 km off the port of Leba in 1985. Total oil reserves amount to some 100m. tonnes. Crude oil production was 190,000 tonnes in 1987, natural gas 5,825m. cu. metres in 1984. Agriculture. In 1986 there were 18-8m. hectares of agricultural land, of which 14-4m. hectares were in private hands, 3-5m. in state farms, 0-7m. in cooperatives and 0-07m. in agricultural associations. 14-5m. hectares were arable, 260,000 orchards, 2-5m. meadows, 1 -6m. pasture lands. Collectivization has been largely abandoned. There were 2,317 co-operatives in

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1986, 1,271 state farms and 392 agricultural associations. In Dec. 1987 a private, Catholic, Foundation for the Development of Polish Agriculture was set up to aid farmers with Western finance. A compulsory contributory pension scheme was introduced in 1978 for farmers who turn over their farms to their successors or the State. Private holdings may not exceed 100 hectares. There were 2 • 84m. in 1986, of which 0 • 86m. were less than 2 hectares. Crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats Potatoes Sugar-beet

Area (1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 1986 1,706 1,885 2,025 3,545 3,083 2,760 1,055 1,242 1,335 934 924 1,086 2,147 2,095 2,009 473 436 423

Yield 1984 6,010 9,540 3,555 2,604 37,437 16,048

(1,000 tonnes) 1985 1986 6,461 7,502 7,600 7,074 4,086 4,412 2,682 2,486 36,546 39,037 14,664 14,217

Livestock (1986, in thousands): 10,919 cattle (5,207 cows), 18,949 pigs, 4,991 sheep, 1,272 horses, 65,000 poultry. Milk production in 1986 was 15,284m. litres, meat, 3 14m. tonnes. Tractors in use in 1986:990,000 (in 15-h.p. units). Forestry. In 1986, 8-7m. hectares were forests (predominantly coniferous). 68,000 hectares were afforested in 1986,and 25-3m. cu. metres of timber gained. Fisheries. In 1985 the fishing fleet had 93 deep-sea vessels totalling 314,000 GRT. In 1985 the catch was 650,600 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production in 1985 (and 1984) (in 1,000 tonnes): Coke, 16,000 (16,600); pig-iron, 9,807 (9,981); crude steel, 16,126 (16,533); rolled steel, 11,845 (12,195); cement, 15,000 (16,600); sulphuric acid (100%), 2,863 (2,769); fertilizers, 2,270 (2,356); aluminium, 47 (46); electrolytic copper, 387 (372); lead, 87 (84); zinc, 180(176); salt, 4,865 (4,711); sugar, 1,708(1,767). In 1985,41 ships over 100 DWT were built (343,000 DWT). 283,000 cars, 54,100 lorries and 8,000 buses were built in 1985. Output of light industry in 1985 (and 1984): Cotton fabrics, 831m. metres (812); woollen fabrics, 105m. metres (103); synthetic fibres. 75m. metres (75); shoes, 164m. pairs (165); household glass, 88,100 tonnes (81,000); paper, 1,071,000 tonnes (1,042,000); washing machines 739,000 (730,000), refrigerators 578,000 (543,000), and TV sets 610,000 (587,000). Labour. In 1986 the total number in employment was 17-2m. (8 1m. women in 1984), of whom 4 -9m. worked in the private sector, and including in agriculture 4-9m., industry 4 -9m., building 1 -3m., trade 1-5m. and transport and communications 1 1 m . There were 5,000 'seeking jobs'. Founded in Aug. 1980 the 'independent self-governing union' organization Solidarity (Chairman Lech Wahjsa) was dissolved in Oct. 1982 along with all other trade unions. New official unions (OPZZ) established in 1983 took over Solidarity's funds in 1985. OPZZ claimed 7m. members in 1987. There are also some 4,000 small unions not affiliated to OPZZ. Average wage in 1986,24,095 zlotys per month. A law of Oct. 1982 makes voluntary unemployment an offence; offenders are liable for compulsory labour for the state. There is a standard, statutory 42-hour working week which may be compulsorily extended in certain workplaces, with 38 free Saturdays a year. Commerce. Trade statistics for calendar years (in 1 m. z-totys): Imports Exports

1981 963,447 846,209

1982 868,908 951,162

1983 970,203 1,060,177

1984 1,209,695 1,336,125

1985 1,594,900 1,691,000

1986 1,964,000 2,115,600

Main imports in 1986 (in tonnes): Petroleum, 14-lm.; iron ore, 16-6m.; fertilizers, 5-3m.; wheat, 1 -7m.; coal, 1 -2m.; passenger cars, 34,300 units. Main exports in 1986 (in tonnes): Coal, 34-3m.; coke, 1 -5m.; copper, 169,000; sulphur, 3 -8m.; pharmaceuticals, 46,336m. zlotys; ships, 381,000 DWT. Foreign trade deals should be made directly with the appropriate foreign trade

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enterprise. Information may be obtained from the Polish Chamber of Foreign Trade, Trebacka 4, 00-950 Warsaw. Joint ventures with Western firms are encouraged both at home and abroad. The Western partner may own up to 49% of the shares of ventures on Polish soil, and is guaranteed a share of profits and interest. 57% of Poland's trade is with Comecon countries (30% with the USSR). Soviet exports include plant and equipment and raw materials; Polish exports, machinery, ships, coal, chemicals and consumer goods. In Oct. 1985 Poland signed a trade agreement with the USSR for 1986-90. This gives the USSR a wider role in the Polish economy, particularly in the supply of oil, and reschedules Poland's 5,000m. rouble debt beyond 1990. Federal Germany and UK are Poland's major non-communist trading partners. In July 1985 Western bankers agreed to reschedule Poland's hard currency debts, spreading total repayment over 1991-97. Polish indebtedness to the West was some US$33,000m. in 1987. In 1985 a 2% levy was imposed on firms' fixed asset to help repay hard currency debts. Poland does not accept liability for the £495,000 debts of pre-war Danzig (Gdansk). Total trade between Poland and UK (British Department of Trade returns £1,000 sterling): ]9g3 ]g84 m 5 ] m } m Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from U K

177,057 151,721

266,961 169,962

320,276 184,143

309,746 182,841

303,418 181,451

An Anglo-Polish 10-year agreement on the development of economic, industrial, scientific and technical co-operation was signed on 20 March 1973, and a 10-year programme implementing this was signed on 4 Sept. 1975. Some Polish imports are subject to quota restrictions. In Feb. 1987 the US restored Poland's most-favoured-nation status and removed other economic sanctions introduced as a response to the imposition of martial law(1981-83). Tourism. In 1986, 3,851,000 tourists visited Poland (746,000 from the West) and 4,313,000 Polish citizens made visits abroad (957,000 to the West). More liberal passport regulations were introduced for Polish citizens in 1987. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 Poland had 153,000 km of hard-surfaced roads. Number of motor vehicles: Passenger cars, 3,671,000 (of which, 3,611,000 private); lorries, 780,000 (297,000 private); motorcycles, 1,547,000. In 1984 road transport carried 2,438m. passengers and 1,421m. tonnes of freight. There were 4,688 fatal road accidents in 1985. Railways. The length of the standard gauge railway system was (1986) 24,333 km (9,452 km electrified) and ran 121,775m. tonne-km and 48,932m. passenger-km. Aviation. In 1985 the state airline 'Lot' had 39 aircraft including 5 Il-62s, operated 9 internal and 34 international routes. 1,853,000 passengers were flown and 9,000 tonnes of freight in 1984. There are British Airways, SABENA, KLM, PANAM, Alitalia, Swissair, Air France, Austrian Airlines and Lufthansa services to Ok^cie (Warsaw) airport. Shipping. The principal ports are Gdynia, Gdansk (Danzig) and Szczecin (Stettin). The merchant marine is grouped into Polish Ocean Lines (150 vessels totalling 1 1 m . DWT in 1985) based on Gdynia and operating regular liner services, and the Polish Shipping Company based on Szczecin and operating carco services. Poland also has a share in the Gdynia America Line. 35 -4m. tonnes of freight and 297,000 passengers were carried in 1984. In 1986 the merchant marine had 261 vessels totalling 2-8m. G R T (including 9 tankers and 17 vessels over 30,000 tons). There are regular lines to London, Hull, China, Indonesia, Australia, Vietnam and some African and Latin-American countries. Total shipping entering Polish ports in 1984 was 10,081 vessels of 27-2m. NRT. There are 3,997 km of inland navigable waterways. 15 • 4m. tonnes of freight and 6 • 5m. passengers were carried in 1984. Pipeline. In 1986 there were 1,986 km of oil pipeline.

1004

POLAND

Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 8,297 post offices. In 1987 there were 2-63m. telephones of which 1 -98m. were private. Polskie Radio i Telewizja broadcasts 3 programmes in Polish on long-, mediumand short-waves and on FM. There are 2 TV programmes. Colour programmes are transmitted by SECAM system. Wireless licences in 1984 numbered 9-29m.; television licences, 8-77m. Cinemas and Theatres. In 1987 there were 2,041 cinemas, 98 theatres and 49 concert halls. In 1986 cinema attendance was 94-3m.; theatres, 7-9m. 39 fulllength films were made. Newspapers (1986). There were 97 newspapers with an overall circulation of 10-63m. and 2,889 other periodicals. The Party newspaper is Trybuna Ludu (People's Tribune), weekend circulation 1 1 m . JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The penal code was adopted in 1969. Espionage and treason carry the severest penalties. For minor crimes there is provision for probation sentences and fines. There exist the following courts: The Supreme Court; voivodship, district and special courts. Judges and lay assessors are elected. The State Council elects the judges of the Supreme Court for a term of 5 years, and appoints the Prosecutor-General. The office of the Prosecutor-General is separate from the judiciary. An ombudsman's office was established in 1987. Family courts were established (1977) for cases involving divorce and domestic relations. Crimes reported in 1983 (and 1984) 466,205 (538,930) including 478 (593) homicides and 1,875 (2,184) rapes. Religion. In 1978, 93% of the population was baptized into the Catholic Church, and 78% of the population attended church regularly. According to a survey published in the Communist Party journal Nowe drogi in 1985, 90% of the population held religious beliefs. Church-State relations are regulated by agreements of 1950, 1956 and 1972. A joint government-episcopal commission was reactivated in Sept. 1980, and religious broadcasting began. The Church has a university (Lublin), an Academy of Catholic Theology and in 1983 46 seminaries. Religious education of children is conducted in 'catechism centres' of which there were some 20,000 in 1985. The archbishop of Warsaw and Gniezno is the primate of Poland (since 1981, Cardinal Jozef Glemp). The Vatican considers the archbishoprics of Lwow and Vilnius (incorporated in the USSR in 1940) as still being under Polish jurisdiction. In 1983 there were 5 archbishoprics, 27 dioceses and 7,496 parishes, 84 bishops, 37,132 monks and nuns and 14,498 churches and 4,201 chapels. In 1986 there were 3 cardinals and 22,381 priests. In Oct. 1978 Cardinal Karol Wojtyla, archbishop of Cracow, was elected Pope as John Paul II. On 28 June 1972 the Vatican adjusted the Church boundaries, to coincide with the State's western frontier ('Oder-Neisse line') and the 4 apostolic administrators in the former German territories became bishops. In Oct. 1984, the radical priest, Jerzy Popieluszko was murdered by secret policemen who were subsequently sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. Figures for other churches in 1983: Polish Autocephalous Orthodox, 5 dioceses, 218 parishes, 301 churches, 226 priests, 1 monastery, 1 nunnery, 600,000 adherents. Lutheran, 6 dioceses, 121 parishes, 173 churches, 153 chapels, 100 parsons (100,000 adherents in 1975). Uniate, 3 dioceses, 85 parishes, 98 churches, 90 priests (200,000 adherents in 1975). Old-Catholic Mariavite, 3 dioceses, 42 parishes, 55 churches, 29 priests (30,000 adherents in 1975). Methodist, 5 districts, 60 parishes, 57 chapels, 36 parsons (4,133 adherents in 1975). United Evangelical, 200 congregations, 56 chapels, 180 parsons. Seventh-day Adventist, 123 communities, 123 churches, 61 parsons. Baptist, 128 congregations, 58 chapels, 58 parsons (2,300 adherents in 1975). Jews, 16 congregations, 10 synagogues (12,000 adherents in 1978). Epiphany World Mission, 9 chapels and 426 priests. In 1985 there were 2,500 Moslems with 3 mosques and 5 priests.

POLAND

1005

Education. Basic education from 7 to 15 is free and compulsory. Free secondary education is then optional in general or vocational schools. Primary schools are organized in complexes based on wards under one director ('gmina collective schools'). In 1986-87 there were: Kindergartens, 25,971 with l-4m. pupils and 86,000 teachers; primary schools, 17,778 with 5,027,600 pupils and 273,000 teachers; secondary schools, 1,135 with 400,000 pupils and 22,000 teachers; vocational schools, 9,333 with 1,600,000 pupils and 83,000 teachers, and 92 institutions of higher education (including 11 universities, 18 polytechnics, 9 agricultural schools, 6 schools of economics, 11 teachers' training colleges and 10 medical schools) with 335,300 students and 57,305 teaching staff. In 1984 administration of schools was transferred from central to local government. Health. In 1986 there were 706 hospitals (including 42 mental hospitals) with 248,000 beds, 6,473 dispensaries and 3,289 health centres. There were 75,400 doctors and 17,400 dentists. Social Security. In 1984, 257,671m. ztotys were paid out in 2 1 m . retirement pensions, 76,955 zlotys in family allowances and 77,830 zfotys in sick pay. Pensions were increased by 15% in 1986. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Poland in Great Britain (47 Portland PI., London, W 1 N 3 AG) Ambassador: Dr Zbigniew Gertych Of Great Britain in Poland (Aleje Roz No. 1, Warsaw) Ambassador: Brian L. Barder. Of Poland in the USA (2640 16th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Jan Kinast. Of the USA in Poland (Aleje Ujazdowskie 29/31, Warsaw) Ambassador: John R. Davis, Jr. Of Poland to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Eugeniusz Noworyta. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office, Warsaw (Wawelska 1-3), publishes Rocznik statystyczny (annual, 1930-39; 1947-); Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland (1959-); Statystyka Polski (irreg., 1947-); Biuletyn statystyczny (monthly, 1957-). Constitution of the Polish People's Republic. Warsaw, 1964 Ascherson, N., The Struggles for Poland. London, 1987 Ash, T. G., The Polish Revolution: Solidarity 1980-82. London, 1983 Aslund, A., Private Enterprise in Eastern Europe: the Non-Agricultural Private Sector in Poland and the GDR, 1945-83. London, 1985 BeneS, V. L., and Pounds, N. G . J., Poland. London, 1970 Bielasiak, J. and Simon, M. D. (eds.), Polish Politics: Edge of the Abyss. New York, 1984 Brandys, K „ Warsaw Diary 1978-1981. New York, 1984 Bromke, A., Poland: the Protracted Crisis. Oakville (Ontario), 1983.—The Meaning and Uses of Polish History. New York, 1987 Brumberg, A., Poland: Genesis of a Revolution. New York, 1983 Bulas, K., and others, English-Polish and Polish-English Dictionary. 2 vols. The Hague, 1959 Burda, A., Parliament ofthe Polish People's Republic. Wroclaw, 1978 Davies, N., Poland, Past and Present: A Select Bibliography of Works in English. Newtonville, 1977 .—God's Playground: A History of Poland. 2 vols. O U P , 1981 —Heart of Europe: a Short History of Poland. OUP, 1984 DeWeydenthal, J. B . , e t a l . The Polish Drama, 1980-1982. Lexington, 1983 Dziewanowski, M. K., Poland in the Twentieth Century. Columbia Univ. Press, 1977 Eringer, R., Strike for Freedom: The Story of Lech Waiesa and Polish Solidarity. New York, 1982 Gieysztor, A., and others, History of Poland. 2nd ed. Warsaw, 1979 Halecki, O., A History of Poland. 4th ed. London, 1983 Jaruzelski, VJ.,Jaruzelski, Prime Minister of Poland: Selected Speeches. Oxford, 1985

1006

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Karpiriski, J., Countdown: the Polish Upheavals of1956,1968,1970,1976,1980. NY, 1982 Kieniewicz, S. (ed.) History of Poland. 2nded. Warsaw, 1979 Landau, Z., The Polish Economy in the Twentieth Century. London, 1985 Leslie, R. F.,(ed.) The History of Poland since 1863. CUP, 1980 Lewanski, R. C., Poland. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Lipski, J. i.,KOR: a History of the Workers' Defense Committee in Poland, 1976-1981. Univ. ofCalifornia Press, 1985 Michnik, A., Letters from Prison and Other Essays. London, 1985 Misztal, B., (ed.), Poland after Solidarity. New Brunswick, 1985 Polonsky, A. and Drukier, B., The Beginnings of Communist Rule in Poland. London, 1980 Pomian-Srzednicki, M. Religious Change in Contemporary Poland: Secularization and Politics. London,1982 Potel, J.-I., The Summer Before the Frost: Solidarity in Poland. London, 1982 Preibisz, J. M., (ed.) Polish Dissident Publications: an Annotated Bibliography. New York, 1982 Raina P., Independent Social Movements in Poland. London, 1981.—Poland 1981: Towards Social Renewal. London, 1985 Ruane, K., The Polish Challenge. London, 1982 Sanford, G., Polish Communism in Crisis. London, 1983 Singer, D., The Road to Gdansk: Poland and the USSR. New York and London, 1981 Staniszkis, J., Poland's Self-Limiting Revolution. Princeton, 1984 Steven, S., The Poles. London, 1982 Szczypiorski, A., The Polish Ordeal: The View from Within. London, 1982 Taras, R., Poland: Socialist State, Rebellious Nation. Boulder, 1986 Wedel, J., The Private Poland. New York, 1986 Weschler, L., Solidarity: Poland in the Season of its Passion. NY, 1982 Who 's Who in Poland. New York, 1983 Wielka Encyklopedia Powszechna. 13 vols. Warsaw, 1962-70 Woodall, J., (ed.) Policy and Politics in Contemporary Poland: Reform, Failure and Crisis. London,1982 National Library: Biblioteka Narodowa, Rakowiecka 6, Warsaw.

Capital: Lisbon Population: 10-29m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$2,190 (1983)

PORTUGAL República Portuguesa

H I S T O R Y . Portugal has been an independent state since the 12th century, apart from one period of Spanish rule (1580-1640). The monarchy was deposed on 5 Oct. 1910 and a republic established. A coup on 28 May 1926 established a military provisional government from 1 June. A corporatist constitution was adopted on 19 March 1933 under which a civil dictatorship governed until a fresh coup on 25 April 1974 established a Junta ofNational Salvation. Following an attempted revolt on 11 March 1975, the Junta was dissolved and a Supreme Revolutionary Council formed which ruled until 25 April 1976 when constitutional government was resumed; the SRC was renamed the Council of the Revolution, becoming a consultative body until its abolition in 1982. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mainland Portugal is bounded north and east by Spain and south and west by the Atlantic ocean. The Atlantic archipelagoes of the Azores and of Madeira form autonomous but integral parts of the republic, which has a total area of91,985 sq. km (35,516 sq. miles) and census populations: 1940 1950

7,755,423 8,510,240

1960 1970

8,889,392 8,648,369

1981

9,833,014

The areas and populations of the districts and Autonomous Regions are: Districts: Aveiro Beja Braga Bragança Castelo Branco Coimbra Evora Faro Guarda Leina Lisboa Portalegre

sq. km 2,808 10,225 2,673 6,608

Census Estimate 1981 31 Dec. 1986 622,988 660,500 188,420 179,900 708,924 763,900 184,252 185,600

6,674 234,230 436,324 3,947 7,393 180,277 4,960 323,534 5,518 205,631 3,515 420,229 2,761 2,069,467 6,065 142,905

226,000 446,200 175,600 339,200 198,300 435,200 2,124,100 138,600

Districts: Porto Santarem Setubal Viana de Castelo Vila Real Viseu Total mainland Autonomous Regions: Azores Madeira

Estimate Census sq. km 1981 31 Dec. 1986 2,295 1,562,287 1,657,700 6,747 454,123 460,800 5,064 658,326 761,000 256,814 264,381 423,648

265,500 264,100 424,800

88,941 9,336,760

9,707,000

2,225 4,328 5,007

2,247 794

243,410 252,844

253,500 269,500

At the 1981 census, 29-7% of the population was urban (living in towns of 10,000 and more) and 48 -2% were male. The chief cities at 31 Dec. 1984 (and census, 1981) are Lisbon, the capital 807,937 (817,627) and Porto 327,368 (330,199); other towns are Amadora 95,518 (93,663), Setubal 77,885 (76,812), Coimbra 74,616 (71,782), Braga 63,033 (63,771), Vila Nova de Gaia 62,469 (60,962), Barreiro 50,863 (50,745), Funchal 44,111 (48,638), Almada 42,607 (41,468), Queluz 42,241 (41,112), Odivelas 38,322 (38,546), Evora 34,851 (34,072), Agualva-Cacem 34,341 (34,041) and Oeiras 32,529 (32,046). The Azores islands lie in the mid-Atlantic ocean, between 1,200 and 1,600 km west of Lisbon. They are divided into 3 widely separated groups with clear channels between, Sao Miguel (747 sq. km) together with Santa Maria (97 sq. km) being the most easterly; about 100 miles north-west of them lies the central cluster of Terceira (397 sq. km), Graciosa (61 sq. km), Sao Jorge (238 sq. km), Pico (433 sq. km) and Faial (172 sq. km); still another 150 miles to the north-west are Flores (143 sq. km) and Corvo (17 sq. km), the latter being the most isolated and primitive of the islands. Sao Miguel contains over half the total population of the archipelago. 1007

1008

PORTUGAL

Madeira comprises the island of Madeira (740 sq. km), containing the capital, Funchal; the smaller island of Porto Santo (42 sq. km), lying 46 km. to the northeast of Madeira; and two groups of uninhabited islets, Ilhas Desertas being 20 km. south-east of Funchal and Ilhas Selvagens near the Canaries. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Live-births 151,029 144,327 142,805 130,492 126,748

Slill-births 1,894 1,791 1,664 1,510 1,390

Marriages 73,660 74,417 69,875 68,461 69,271

Divorces 6,769 7,837 7,034 8,988 8,411

Deaths 92,551 96,150 97,227 97,339 95,828

Emigrants 10,276 7,096 6,556 7,149 6,253

In 1986 the births included 65,427 boys and 61,321 girls; deaths, 50,036 males and 45,792 females. In 1986,924 emigrants went to France, 2,704 to USA and 868 to Australia. C L I M A T E . Because of westerly winds and the effect of the Gulf Stream, the climate ranges from the cool, damp Atlantic type in the north to a warmer and drier Mediterranean type in the south. July and Aug. are virtually rainless everywhere. Inland areas in the north have greater temperature variation, with continental winds blowing from the interior. Lisbon. Jan. 52°F (11°C), July 72°F (22°C). Annual rainfall 27-4" (686 mm). Porto. Jan. 48°F (8-9°C), July 67°F ( 19 • 4°C). Annual rainfall 4 6 " ( 1,151 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution, replacing that of 1976, was approved by the Assembly of the Republic (by 197 votes to 40) on 12 Aug. 1982 and promulgated in Sept. It abolished the (military) Council of the Revolution and reduced the role of the President of the Republic. Portugal is a sovereign, unitary republic with all citizens possessing fundamental rights and duties before the law. Executive power is vested in the President of the Republic, directly elected for a 5-year term (for a maximum of 2 consecutive terms). Presidents since 1926: Marshal Antonio Oscar de Fragoso Cannona, 29 Nov. 1926-18 April 1951 (died). Dr Antonio de Oliveira Salazar (acting), 18 April 1951-22 July 1951. Marshal Francisco Higino Craveiro Lopez, 22 July 1951-9 Aug. 1958. Rear-Adm. Américo de Deus Rodrigues Tomás, 9 Aug. 1958-25 April 1974. (deposed).

Gen. Antonio Sebastiäo Ribeiro de Spinola, 25 April 1974-30 Sept. 1974 (resigned). Gen. Francisco da Costa Gomes, 30 Sept. 1974-14 July 1976. Gen. Antonio Ramalho Eanes, 14 July 1976-9 March 1986.

President of the Republic: Mario Soares, elected 16 Feb. 1986 (took office 9 March 1986). The President appoints a Prime Minister and, upon the latter's nomination, other members of the Council of Ministers, as well as Secretaries and UnderSecretaries of State, who are outside the Council. The Social Democrat government was composed in Aug. 1987 : Prime Minister: Anibal Cavaco Silva. Deputy Prime Minister, Defence: Eurico de Melo. Minister of State and Justice: Fernando Nogueira. Parliamentary Affairs: Antonio Capucho. Finance: Miguel Riberio Cadilhe. Planning and Territorial Administration: Luis Valente de Oliveira. Interior: José Silveira Godinho. Foreign Affairs: Joào de Deus Pinheiro. Agriculture, Fisheries: Alvaro Barreto. Industry and Energy: Luis Mira Amarai. Education: Roberto Carneiro. Public Works and Communication: Joao Oliveira Martins. Health: Leonor Beleza. Labour and Social Security: José Silva Peneda. Trade and Tourism: Joaquim Ferreira do Amarai. Youth: Antonio Couto dos Santos. There is a unicameral legislature, the Assembly of the Republic, comprising 250 deputies elected for 4 years by universal adult suffrage under a system of proportional representation. At the General Election of 19 July 1987, there were 148 seats won by the Partido Social Demócrata (PSD), 60 by the Partido Socialista (PS), 7

PORTUGAL

1009

by the Democratic Renewal Party, 31 by the Communist Party and 4 by the Christian Democrats. National flag: Vertical green and red, with the red of double width, and over all on the dividing line the national arms. National anthem: A Portuguesa (words by Lopes de Mendonga, 1890; tune by Alfredo Keil). Local government: Since 1976, the archipelagoes of the Azores and of Madeira are Autonomous Regions with their own legislatures and governments. Pending the formation of other regional governments, Continental Portugal is divided into 18 districts. Regions and districts are divided into 305 municipal authorities (concelhos) and sub-divided into 4,050 parishes. Each level is governed by an assembly elected by direct universal suffrage under a system of proportional representation, with an executive body responsible to the assembly. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for 12-15 months in the Army and 18-20 months in the Navy and Air Force. Reserves for all services number about 190,000. Army. The Army consists of 1 brigade, 2 cavalry regiments, 1 armoured regiment, 11 infantry regiments, 1 commando regiment and 3 independent battalions, 1 special forces brigade, 3 field, 1 air-defence and 1 coast artillery regiments, 2 engineer and 1 signals regiments and 1 regiment of military police. Equipment includes 60 M-48A5 main battle tanks and 105 Ml 13 armed personnel carriers. Strength (1988) 44,000 (including 35,000 conscripts). Security forces are National Republic Guard (14,600), Public Security Police, 15,300 and the Border Guard (7,400). Navy. The fleet comprises 3 small French-built diesel-powered patrol submarines, 17 frigates, 10 patrol vessels, 4 coastal minesweepers, 24 patrol launches, 1 sail training ship, 3 surveying vessels, 1 fleet oiler, 1 logistic support ship, 3 landing craft, 13 minor landing craft, 3 tugs, 2 training yachts and 3 harbour tankers. The building programme includes 3 frigates and 1 surveying vessel. Navy personnel in 1988 totalled 14,000 officers and men including 2,600 marines. Air Force. Formed in 1912, the Air Force has been independent since 1952, when it was combined with the naval air service and given equal status with the Army and Navy. In 1988,it hadastrength of about 13,350 officers and men. Equipment comprises 2 strike squadrons with 40 A-7P Corsair lis; 2 squadrons of G.91 Rs for ground attack; 1 squadron of 5 C-130H Hercules and 4 squadrons of CASA 212 Aviocars for transport and search and rescue operations; 32 Cessna 337 Skymasters and a force of Puma and Alouette III helicopters. Other aircraft in service include Chipmunk piston-engined trainers, T-37C jet basic trainers, T-33, T-38A Talon and G.9 IT jet advanced trainers. Six P-3B Orion maritime patrol aircraft and 18 Epsilon trainers are on order. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Portugal is a member of UN, the European Communities, OECD, NATO a n d t h e C o u n c i l of E u r o p e .

ECONOMY Planning. The aim of the 1981-84 plan was to modernize existing industry and pave the way for entry into the European Community. Budget. Revenue in 1986,866 • 5m.; expenditure, 1,216-9m. (in escudos). Currency. The unit of currency is the escudo of 100 centavos, which contains 0 06651 gramme of fine gold. It was stabilized on 9 June 1931, and the paper currency re-linked to gold when the notes of the Bank of Portugal became payable in gold or its equivalent in foreign currency. 1,000 escudos is called a conto. In 1986 there were bank notes of 5,000, 1,000, 500 and 100 escudos-, cupro-

1010

PORTUGAL l

nickel coins of 50,25,20, 5 and 2 h escudos, nickel-brass coins of 1 escudo\ bronze coins of 1 and '/i escudo. In March 1988, £1 = 244-50 escudos; US$1 = 138-33 escudos. Banking. Since 1931, the central bank for Portugal and the only bank of issue for the country (including the Azores and Madeira) has been the Banco de Portugal, founded 19 Nov. 1846 and nationalized on 13 Sept. 1974. Its capital is fixed at 200m. escudos. All other Portuguese banks and insurance companies were nationalized on 14 March 1975 but from Feb. 1984 new private banks were allowed to operate. The National Development Bank began operations on 4 Jan. 1960. Its total capital (1985) is 10,500m. escudos. In 1986 there were 27 banks operating in Portugal: 21 commercial banks, 2 investment banks and 4 savings banks. In Feb. 1987 commercial banks' total credits were 1,791,427m. escudos and deposits 3,199,726m. escudos; investment banks' total credits 250,659m. escudos and deposits 141,124m. escudos; savings banks' total credits 1,125,148m. escudos and deposits 1,663,658m. escudos. There are also 9 foreign banks, the Bank of Brazil, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., Manufactures Hanover Trust, Chase Manhattan, Citibank, Crédit FrancoPortugais, Barclays Bank International Ltd, Banque Nationale de Paris and General Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system is the legal standard. The arroba (of 14-69 kg) is sometimes used locally. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Total production of electrical power in 1985 was 19,103m. kwh.; the installed capacity totalled 6,831,753 kva. of which 3,243,074 was hydro-electric. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Portugal possesses considerable mineral wealth. Production in tonnes: 1983 1984 1985 Coal 185,228 194,856 233,414 Cupriferous pyrites 279,960 334,371 355,519 Tin ores 525 453 379 Kaolin 101,594 104,388 104,055

Gold (refined) Uranium Wolframite

1983 0-199 122 2,010

1984 0-193 135 2,549

1985 0 -229 139 2,977

Uranium mining commenced in Aug. 1979. Annual production, 115 tonnes; reserves, 7,000 tonnes. Agriculture. About 30% of the workforce is engaged in agriculture. The following figures show the area (in 1,000 hectares) and production (in 1,000 tonnes) of the

chiefcrops:

Crop Wheat Maize Oats Barley Rye Rice Driedbeans Potatoes

¡gs4

Area 291-1 251-1 194-1 83-7 130-0 29-9 211-2 122-6

Quantity 465-6 491-1 151-9 91-1 103-4 134-0 42-1 1,038-0

1985

Area 282-0 240-3 190-0 85-9 122-7 30-3 194-9 125-6

Quantity 394-8 530-8 118-9 65-2 96-9 146-5 43-8 1,135-9

1986

Area 315 0 252-7 1941 87-1 124-4 32-3 198-4 U8-8

Quantity 499-7 618-4 152-7 89-6 99-9 149-4 44-4 1,067-3

Wine production (in hectolitres), 1986, 7-6m.; olive oil (hectolitres), 411,000 (estimate). In 1986,68,303 tonnes of port wine were exported. Livestock (1986). 30,000 horses, 89,500 mules, 175,000 asses, l -2m. cattle, 750,000 goats, 3m. sheep and 2,400,000 pigs. Forestry. Forest area covers 3m. hectares, of which 1 -38m. are pine, 680,390 cork oak, 534,370 other oak, 243,180 eucalyptus, 30,230 chestnut and 160,890 other species. Portugal surpasses the rest of the world in the production of cork; 103,543 tonnes in 1985. Most of it is exported crude. Production of resin was 107,586 tonnes in 1985; more than two-thirds are exported.

PORTUGAL

1011

Fisheries. The fishing industry for the continent and adjacent isles is of importance. At 31 July 1986 there were 40,058 men and boys employed, with 11,120 boats. The sardine catch, 1986, was 103,832 tonnes valued at 3,329,315 contos; The most important centres of the sardine industry are at Matosinhos, Figueira di Foz, Peniche, Setubal, Portimao and Olhao. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industrial growth rate, 1983, 0-6%; manufacturing provided 30% of G D P and employed about 25% of the workforce. The main groups are textiles, shoes, leather goods, wood and cork products and ceramics; these are produced mainly by small companies. Nationalized steel, oil and engineering industries employed about 5% of the industrial workforce in 1983. Trade Unions. 331 unions had in 1976 a membership of 1,436,142. Commerce. Imports for consumption and exports (exclusive of coin and bullion and re-exports) for calendar years, in 1 m. escudos: Imports Exports

1981 609,014 256,913

1982 753,981 331,743

1983 1 984 1985 899,340 1,160,633 1,302,737 508,568 760,580 967,404

The principal exports in 1985 were clothing (18% by value), textile yarns and fabrics (12%), machinery and transport equipment (6%), petroleum products (4%), chemicals (7%), cork and cork products (4%), footwear (5%), pulp and waste paper (5%) and wine (3%). The distribution of the imports and exports (in 1 m. escudos): From or to Angola Belgium France Germany, Fed. Rep. of Italy Mozambique Netherlands Spain UK USA

1984 5,550 24,151 91,699

Imports (c.i.f.) 1985 1986 13,984 11,196 41,682 28,101 104,589 145,157

117,916 54,632 1,478 40,169 82,807 77,802 156,185

148,497 66,908 1,018 41,375 95,685 97,577 126,563

205,420 114,487 57,053 157,059 108,281 100,592

1984 22,721 25,138 94,587 103,957 32,765 5,919 44,869 33,527 116,857 67,248

Exports (f.o.b.) 1985 1986 26,432 13,785 34,510 37,037 122,715 164,234 133,328 38,439 3,680 66,907 39,598 141,144 89,387

158,627 42,915 3,073 72,232 71,681 154,010 75,557

Total trade between Portugal (excluding the Azores and Madeira) and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 475,902 396,988

1984 644,520 385,799

1985 695,744 439,499

1986 768,470 472,078

1987 847,980 699,915

Tourism. Tourism is of increasing importance for the invisible balance of payments. In 1986 there were 13,056,871 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads(1985). There were 18,815 km ofroad. There were registered in continental Portugal in 1986, 2,365,645 motor vehicles (excluding 106,925 motor cycles, 153,326 tractors and vehicles used by the armed forces). Railways. In 1986 total railway length was 3,588 k m ( l , 6 6 8 m m and metre gauges), of which 458 km of broad-gauge was electrified. In 1986, 5,803m. passenger-km were carried and 1,448m. tonne-km of merchandise transported. Aviation. There are international airports at Portela (Lisbon), Pedras Rubras (Porto), Faro (Algarve), Santa Maria (Azores) and Funchal (Madeira). Services connect Lisbon with most major centres in North and South America, Western Europe and Africa. Airlines in 1985 carried 2m. passengers and (1986) 44,163 tonnes of freight. The national airline changed its name to Air Portugal in 1979.

1012

PORTUGAL

Shipping. In 1985,12,539 vessels of 57 -6m. tons entered the ports (continental and islands), of which 3,791 (14-2m. tons) were Portuguese, 305 (1 -7m. tons) British and 606 (2 1m. tons) Spanish. In 1984 the merchant marine consisted of 91 transport vessels of 1,396,051 gross tons. Post and Broadcasting (1985). The number of telegraph offices was 1,564. The State owned 7,693,529 km of telephone line through the Telefones de Lisboa e Porto (nationalized in 1977). Number of telephones was 1,835,331 (1985). Radio Difusao Portuguesa broadcasts 3 programmes on medium-waves and on FM as well as 3 regional services. Radiotelevisao Portuguesa broadcasts 2 commercial TV programmes. Radio Renascenga is a commercial, nationwide network. In addition there are 6 local, commercial stations, operating on medium-waves. Radio Trans Europe is a high-powered short-wave station, retransmitting programmes of different broadcasting organizations, e.g., IBRA, Radio Canada and Deutsche Welle. Radio Free Europe also has relay facilities on short-waves in Portugal. Number of receivers: Radio (1984), 2,155,000; TV (1986), 1,618,391. Cinemas (1986). There were 373 cinemas with a seating capacity of 178,957. Newspapers (1986). There were 33 daily newspapers with a combined circulation of 173,327m.; 15 of these, with a combined circulation of 104,273 m., appeared in Lisbon. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Portuguese law distinguishes civil (including commercial) and penal, labour, military, administrative and fiscal branches, having low courts and high courts. The republic is divided for civil and penal cases into 217 comarcas; in every comarca there is at least one court or tribunal. In the comarca of Lisbon there are 39 lower sub divisional courts (juizoo) (22 for criminal procedure and 17 for civil or commercial cases); in the comarca of Oporto there are 20 such courts (11 for criminal and 9 for civil or commercial cases); at Braga, Coimbra, Loures, Setubal, Sintra and Vila Nova de Gaia there are 4 functioning courts; at Almada, Cascais, Funchal, Guimaraes, Leiria, Matosinhos, Oeiras, Santarem, Torres Vedras, Viana do Castelo, Vila do Conde, Vila da Feira and Viseu there are 3 courts; 22 comarcas have 2 courts each. There are 4 courts of appeal (Tribunal de Rela(ao) at Lisbon, Coimbra, Evora and Oporto, and a Supreme Court in Lisbon (Supremo Tribunal deJustiQa). Capital punishment was abolished completely in the Constitution of 1976. The prison population as at 31 Dec. 1983 was6,633. Religion. In 1981,94 • 5% of the population were Roman Catholic, but there is freedom of worship, both in public and private, with the exception of creeds incompatible with morals and the life and physical integrity of the people. Education. Compulsory education has been in force since 1911. In 1984-85 there were 10,448 public primary schools with 837,760 pupils and 40,773 teachers. In 1984—85 private elementary schools numbered 668 with 61,611 pupils and 2,882 teachers. Basic preparatory schools numbered 1,918 with 375,516 pupils and 31,248 teachers. In 1984-85 there were 499 secondary schools, with 604,727 pupils and 45,559 teachers. There were also 27 schools which taught art activities (cinema, music and theatre) with 14,749 students. There are 13 universities, of which 8 are in Lisbon: the University of Lisbon (founded 1911), the Technical University (1930), the private Catholic University (1968), the New University (1973), the Free University (1977) and the International University (1984); the other six are Coimbra (founded 1290), Porto (1911), Aveiro (1973), Minho, at Braga (1974), Evora (1979), Azores, at Ponta Delgado (1980) and Algarve, at Faro (1983). Including other colleges, there were 102,837 students in higher education in 1984-85 with 10,745 teaching staff. Health. In 1986 there were 227 hospitals, 363 health centres, 25,696 doctors, 312 dentists, 597 stomatologists, 4,285 pharmacists and 25,199 nursing personnel.

PORTUGAL DIPLOMATIC

1013

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Portugal in G r e a t Britain ( 11 Beigrave Sq., L o n d o n , S W 1 X 8 PP) Ambassador: J o ä o Hall T h e m i d o , G C V O . Of G r e a t Britain in Portugal (35-37 R u a de S. D o m i n g o s à Lapa, Lisbon) Ambassador: M . K. O. Simpson-Orlebar, C M G . Of Portugal in t h e U S A (2125 K a l o r a m a R d „ N W , Washington, D.C., 2 0 0 0 8 ) Ambassador: J o ä o E d u a r d o M. Pereira Bastos. Of the U S A in Portugal (Ave. das Forças A r m a d a s , 1600 Lisbon) A mbassador: (Vacant). O f Portugal t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: Joäo de M a t o s Proença. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Instituto Nacional de Hstatistica (Avenida Dr Antonio José de Almeida, Lisbon) was set up in 1935 in succession to the Direcçâo-Geral de Estatistica. The Centro de Estudos Económicos and the Centro de Estudos Demográficos were affiliated to the Instituto in 1944. The main publications are: Anuário Estatistico. Annuaire statistique. Annual, from 1875 Estatistieas do Comércio Externo. 2 vols. Annual from 1967 (replacing Comercio Externo, 1936-66, and Estatistica Comercial, 1865-1935) Censo da Populaçâo de Portugal. 1864 ff. Decennial (latest ed. 1972) Estatistica da Organizaçâo Corporativa. 1938-49. Estatistieas da Organizaçâo Corporativa ePrevidencia Social. 1950 ff. Estatistieas das Finanças, Publicas and Estatistieas Nometárias. 1969 ff. (replacing Estatistieas Financeiras. 1947-68 and Situaçào Bancária, 1919-46) Estatistieas Agrícolas. Statistique Agricole. 1943-64; replaced by Estatistieas Agrícolas e Alimentares. From 1965. Annual Estatistieas Industrials. 1967 ff. (replacing Estatistica Industrial. Statistique Industrielle. 1943-66) Estatistieas Demográficas. From 1967 (replacing Anuário Demográfico, 1929-66) Boletim Mensal do Instituto Nacional de Estatistica. Monthly since 1929 Centro de Estudos Económicos. Revista. 1945 ff. Centro de Estudos Demográficos. Revista. 1945 ff. Estatistieas das Contribuiçôes e Impostos. Annual from 1967 (replacing Anuário Estatistico das Contribuiçôes e Impostos, 1936-66) Estatistieas da Cultura, Reveio e Resporto, 1979 ff. Estatistieas da Educaçào. 1940 ff. Estatistieas da Justica. 1968 ff. (replacing Estatistieas Judiciária. 1936—66) Estatistieas das Sociedades. 1939 ff. Estatistieas da Saude, 1969 ff. Estatistieas do Turismo. 1969 ff. Estatistieas do Energía. 1969 ff. Azevedo, Gonzaga de, Historia de Portugal. 6 vols. Lisbon, 1935-44 Ferreira, H. G., and Marshall, M. W., Portugal's Revolution: Ten Years On. CUP, 1986 Ferreira, J. A., Dictionario inglês-portugês. 2 vols. Porto, 1948 Gallagher, T., Portugal: A Twentieth Century Interpretation. Manchester Univ. Press, 1983 Graham, L. S., and Wheeler, D. L., (eds.) In Search of Modern Portugal: The Revolution and its Consequences. Univ. ofWisconsin Press, 1983 Harvey R., Portugal: Birth of a Democracy. London, 1978 Robertson, I., Blue Guide: Portugal. London, 1982 Rogers, F. M., Atlantic Islanders of the Azores and Madeiras. North Quincy, 1979 Soares, M., Le Portugal Bâillonné: Une Témoignage. Paris, 1972 Spinola, A. de, Portugale o Futoro. Lisbon, 1974 Taylor, J. L., Portuguese-English Dictionary. London, 1959 Unwin, P. T. H., Portugal. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Campo Grande, Lisbon. Director: A. H. C. Marques.

MACAO H I S T O R Y . M a c a o was visited by Portuguese traders f r o m 1513 a n d b e c a m e a Portuguese colony in 1557; it r e m a i n s a Portuguese-administered territory by

1014

PORTUGAL

virtue of a Sino-Portuguese treaty of 1 Dec. 1887. It was an Overseas Province of Portugal, 1961-74. Discussions on the future of Macao were taking place with the People's Republic of China in 1986-87 and in 1999 Macao will be handed to China. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The territory, which lies at the mouth of the Canton (Pearl) River, comprises a peninsula (6 05 sq. km) connected by a narrow isthmus to the People's Republic of China, on which is built the city of Nome de Deus de Macao, and the islands of Taipa (3 • 78 sq. km), linked to Macao by a 2-km bridge, and Coloane (7 09 sq. km) linked to Taipa by a 2-km causeway (total area, 16-92 sq. km (6 sq. miles). The population (Census, 1981) was 261,680, Estimate (1986) 426,400, of which 51-7% are males and (1984) 91-5% live in the city of Macao. The official language is Portuguese, but Cantonese is used by virtually the entire population. Vital statistics (1986): Births, 7,477; marriages, 2,845; deaths, 1,324. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . By agreement with Beijing in 1974, Macao is a Chinese territory under Portuguese administration. An 'organic statute' was published on 17 Feb. 1976. It defined the territory as a collective entity, pessoa colectiva, with internal legislative authority which, while remaining subject to Portuguese constitutional laws, would otherwise enjoy administrative, economic and financial autonomy. The Governor is appointed by the Portuguese President, who also appoints up to 5 Secretaries-Adjunct on the Governor's nomination. The Legislative Assembly of 17 deputies, chosen for a 3-year term, comprises 6 members directly elected by universal suffrage, 6 indirectly elected by economic, cultural and social bodies and 5 appointed by the Governor. Governor: Carlos Melancia. ECONOMY Budget. In 1986, revenue was 1,567,000,000 patacas and expenditure 1,435,000,000 patacas. Currency. The unit of currency is the pataca, of 100 avos, which is tied to the Hong Kong dollar at a rate of 103 patacas=HK$ 100. Banking. The bank of issue is the Instituto Emissor de Macau. Commercial business is handled (1986) by 23 banks with 95 branches in Macao, 9 of which are local (with 81 • 5% of total resident deposits and 67-4% of total domestic credit at 31 Dec. 1984) and 14 foreign (including 4 offshore banking units). Total banks' deposits, June 1985,8,508-5m. patacas. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Textile and garment manufacturing forms the basis of local industry. In 1983, it represented about 65% of industrial production. Labour. The estimated total labour force in 1984 was 178,000,44% of whom were employed in manufacturing, 33% in commerce and services and 8% in construction. Commerce. The trade, mostly transit, is handled by Chinese merchants. Imports, in 1986, were 7,318 -2m. patacas and exports, 8,630-2m. patacas. In 1986, 46% of imports came from Hong Kong and 20% from China. 33% of exports went to USA, 36% to EEC (mainly Federal Republic of Germany, France and UK); clothing and textiles accounted for 69 • 7% of exports, toys 11 • 8%. Total trade between Macao and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ] m /flgj ] m m ? Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

40,508 1,034

36,509 1,595

45,286 6,522

45,896 5,617

Tourism. There were 4,238,269 visitors in 1986. 81 -7% were from Hong Kong.

PORTUGAL

1015

COMMUNICATIONS. Roads. In 1984 there were 90 km of roads. In 1986 there were 21,710 passenger cars and 2,576 commercial vehicles. Shipping. Macao is served by Portuguese, British and Dutch steamship lines. In 1983, 27,686 vessels of 9-14m. gross tons entered the port. Regular services connect Macao with Hong Kong, 65 km to the north-east. Post and Broadcasting. The territory has 1,577 km of telephone line (47,591 instruments in 1986). One government and 1 private commercial radio station are in operation on medium-waves broadcasting in Portuguese and Chinese. Number of receivers (1977), 70,000. Macao receives television broadcasts from Hong Kong and in 1984 a public bilingual TV station began operating. There were (1979) 50,000 receivers. Newspapers. In 1986, there were 11 newspapers (5 in Portugese and 6 in Chinese) with a circulation of 114,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is a court of First Instance, from which there is appeal to the Court of Appeal and then the Supreme Court, both in Lisbon. In 1986 there were 4,414 cases of crimes known to the police, of which 3,224 were against property. There were 25,577 cases in courts pending on 1 Jan. and presented during 1986, of which 3,344 were in district court, 19,089 in criminal court, 250 in juvenile court and 3,109 in administrative court. At 31 Dec. 1986 there were 416 prisoners, and 22 addicts in the centre for rehabilitation of drugsabusers. Religion. The majority of the Chinese population are Buddhists. About 6% are Roman Catholic. Education. In 1985-86 education was provided at 63 kindergartens (14,488 pupils; 413 teachers), 74 primary schools (31,669; 1,080), 31 secondary schools (13,849; 769), 3 special schools (53; 13), 2 teacher-training schools (52; 13), 5 higher schools (5,840; 75) and 83 adult schools (23,430; 534). The University of East Asia, established in 1981 onTaipa,had 1,165 students in 1983. Health. In 1985 there were 2 hospitals with 1,216 beds; there were 179 doctors and (1982) 26 pharmacists, 10 midwives and 315 nursing personnel. Books of Reference AnuarioEstatisticodeMacau. Macao, Annual Macau in Figures. Macao, Annual. Education Survey, 1984-85, Macao, 1986 Brazao, E., Macau. Lisbon, 1957

Capital: Doha Population: 371,863(1987) GNPper capita: US$22,940 (1984)

QATAR Dawlat Qatar

H I S T O R Y . The State of Qatar declared its independence from Britain on 3 Sept. 1971, ending the Treaty of 3 Nov. 1916 which was replaced by a Treaty of friendship between the 2 countries. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The State of Qatar, which includes the whole of the Qatar peninsula, extends on the landward side from Khor al Odeid to the boundaries of the Saudi Arabian province of Hasa. The territory includes a number of islands in the coastal waters of the peninsula, the most important of which is Halul, the storage and export terminal for the offshore oilfields. Area, 11,437 sq. km; population census (1981) 244,534; estimate in 1987 371,863. In 1987 only 25% were Qatari, with a large majority coming from Pakistan and India. The capital is Doha (population 1982, 190,000), which is the main port. Other towns are Dukhan, the centre of oil production, U m m Said, oil-terminal of Qatar, and Ruwais, Wakra, Al-Khour, U m m Salal Mohammad and Umm-Bab. The official language is Arabic. C L I M A T E . The climate is hot and humid. Doha. Jan. 62°F (16-7°C), July 98°F (36 • 7°C). Annual rainfall 2 - 5 " (62 mm). R U L E R . The Amir: H H Shaikh Khalifa bin Hamad Al-Thani, assumed power on 22 Feb. 1972. On 31 May 1977, H H Shaikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani was appointed Heir Apparent of the State of Qatar, and the portfolio of Minister of Defence was added to his existing responsibility of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. Minister of State for Foreign Affairs: Shaikh Ahmad bin Saif Al-Thani. There is no Parliament, but the Council of Ministers is assisted by a 30-member nominated Advisory Council. Flag: Maroon, with white serrated border on hoist. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 Royal Guard regiment, 1 tank, 5 infantry battalions and 1 artillery battery. Equipment includes 24 A M X - 3 0 tanks. Personnel (1988) 6,000. Navy. The Navy has 3 modern French-built fast gunboats, 6 British-built patrol craft and 45 coastal patrol craft. Personnel in 1988 totalled 700 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force has 1 squadron of Mirage F1 fighters and 1 Islander transport aircraft, 12 Commando, 3 Lynx and 6 Super Puma helicopters, 6 Alpha Jet and 3 Hunter armed trainers and Tigercat surface-to-air missile systems. Personnel (1988)300. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Qatar is a member of U N and the Arab League. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue (1987-88) 6,745m. riyals; expenditure 12,217m. riyals. Currency. On 13 May 1973 the Qatar Riyal (of 100 dirhams) was introduced. In March 198 8, £ 1 = 6 -46 riyals, US$ 1 = 3 • 64 riyals. 1016

QATAR

1017

Banking. The 15 banks operating in Qatar include 5 national banks: Qatar National Bank, The Commercial Bank of Qatar, Doha Bank, the Islamic Bank of Qatar and A1 Ahli Bank. There are 3 Arab banks: Arab Bank Limited, Bank of Oman and A1 Mashrek Bank. The other 7 foreign banks are: Banque Paribas, the British Bank of the Middle East, Chartered Bank, Citibank, Bank Saderat Iran, Grindlays Bank and the United Bank. The Qatar National Bank was established in 1965 with capital of 56m. riyals, 50% of which was contributed by the Government and 50% by the private sector. Deposits in commercial banks were 7,879-8m. riyals by Dec. 1983. Government deposits 455-5m. riyals and private sector's savings deposits 7,419-3m. riyals in 1983. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in general use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 4,302 9m. kwh (generation of Abu Samra not included). Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. On 9 Feb. 1977 Qatar gained national control over its 2 natural resources, oil and gas, with the signing of an agreement with Shell Qatar over the procedure for the transfer to the State of the company's remaining 40% share. A similar agreement had been reached with the Qatar Petroleum Co. on 16Sept. 1976. The Qatar General Petroleum Corporation (QGPC) had been established by decree in July 1974 to assume overall responsibility for the State's domestic and foreign oil interests and operations. On 16 Oct. 1976 the Qatar Petroleum Producing Authority (QPPA) was established to serve as the executive arm of the QGPC—but in 1980 it was merged into the QGPC, which now directly oversees oil production through two operational divisions, Onshore and Offshore. The National Oil Distribution Company (NODCO) had a daily throughput capacity of 62,000 bbls a day in 1984 following the opening of a 50,000 bbls a day refinery at Umm Said to supplement the existing refinery. Production, 1987,15m. tonnes. Proven reserves(1986)3,300m. bbls. Gas. The North West Dome oilfield is being developed which contains 12% of the known world gas reserves. Production (1986) 229,100m. cu. ft. Water Resources. Two main desalination stations, at Ras Abu Aboud and Ras Abu Fontas, together produce 47 08m. gallons of potable water a day. A third station is planned at A1 Wasil, with a capacity of 40m. gallons a day. Total water production 1986 (well field and distillate) 17,902m. gallons. Agriculture. 10% of the working population is engaged in agriculture. The Ministry of Agriculture is implementing a long-term policy aimed at ensuring selfsufficiency in agricultural products. The number of farms rose from 120 in 1960 to 841 in 1985. Production (1986) in tonnes: Barley, 1,847; wheat, 130; tomatoes, 5,799; melons and watermelons, 3,531; other vegetables, 9,692; dates, 4,976; fruits, 2,716; bovine meat, 1,579; poultry meat, 1,162; eggs, 1,278; milk and dairy products, 17,574. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 7,000; camels, 9,000; sheep, 55,000; goats, 21,000; poultry, 2m. Fisheries. The produce of local fisheries in 1984 met 77-2% of Qatar's requirements. The state-owned Qatar National Fishing Company has 3 trawlers and its refrigeration unit processes 10 tonnes of shrimps a day. Catch (1985) 2,484 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. The Qatar Fertiliser Co. plant was opened in 1973 (production, 1986, 658,300 tonnes of ammonia and 746,900 tonnes of urea), the Qatar Steel Co. factory in 1978 (output, 1985, 510,000 tonnes) and the Qatar Petrochemical Co. plant in 1981, all in the Umm Said industrial zone. Production (1986, in tonnes): Cement, 323,600; lime, 15,900; flour, 25,100; bran, 6,200.

1018

QATAR

Commerce. In 1986 exports totalled 6,710m. riyals, and imports, 4,000 riyals. In 1985 Japan provided 15 • 8% of imports, the UK 15-8% and the Federal Republic of Germany 9-2%, while 60-2% of exports went to Japan and 9-5% to France; crude oil was 91 % of exports. Total trade between Qatar and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): j m ] m /flgJ m 6 m j Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK

10,063 216,385

28,212 133,803

32,607 142,065

29,587 112,143

13,765 105,087

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1981 there were about 800 miles of road. Aviation. Gulf Air (owned equally by Qatar, Bahrain, Oman and the UAE), operates daily services from Bahrain; British Airways, Middle East and about 15 other airlines operate regular international flights from Doha airport. In 1984, 418,116 passengers arrived, 417,683 departed and 399,331 were in transit; 9,843 aircraft arrived and 9,482 departed. Shipping. Umm Said 35 km south of Doha is the main port of Qatar. In 1985, 517 vessels, 1,444,692 tonnes of cargo and 2,308 containers were handled. Post and Telecommunications. There were 24 post offices in Doha and other towns in 1986. Qatar Broadcasting Service, using 12 transmission stations, broadcasts for 41 hours a day in Arabic, English, French and Urdu. Telephone and radiotelephone services connect Qatar with Europe and America; there were 111,000 telephones in 1986. In 1987 there were 75,000 radios and 111,000 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1986 there were 5 cinemas with a seating capacity of7,000. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 4 daily and 2 weekly newspapers and 6 magazines. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Judiciary System is administered by the Ministry of Justice which comprises three main departments: Legal affairs, courts ofjustice and land and real estate register. There are 5 Courts of Justice proclaiming sentences in the name of H. H. the Amir: The Court of Appeal, the Labour Court, the Higher Criminal Court, the Civil Court and the Lower Criminal Court. All issues related to personal affairs of Moslems under Islamic Law embodied in the Holy Quran and Sunna are decided by Sharia Courts. Religion. The population is almost entirely Moslem. Education. There were, in 1985-86, 31,844 pupils at primary schools, 12,031 pupils at intermediate schools, 7,475 pupils at secondary schools and 700 male students at specialist schools. There were 48 Arab and foreign private schools with 13,050 pupils in 1984-85. The University of Qatar had 5,057 students in 1985-86. Students abroad (1986-87) numbered 1,352. In 1985-86, 4,299 men and 2,698 women attended evening classes. Health. There were 3 hospitals (including 1 for women and 1 for gynaecology and obstetrics) with a total of 915 beds in 1986. There were 19 health centres in 1986. In 1985 there were 891 doctors, and in 1985, 52 dentists, 115 pharmacists and I,161 qualified nurses. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Qatar in Great Britain (27 Chesham PL, London, SWIX 8HG) Ambassador: Sherida Sa'ad Jubran Al Ka'abi, GCVO (accredited 26 March 1981). Of Great Britain in Qatar (Doha, Qatar) Ambassador: P. M. Nixon, OBE.

QATAR

1019

Of Qatar in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Ahmed Abdulla Zaid Al-Mahmoud. Of the USA in Qatar (Fariq Bin Omran, Doha) Ambassador: Joseph Ghougassian. Of Qatar to the United Nations Ambassador: Hamad Abdel Aziz Al-Kawari. Books of Reference Qatar Year Book 1982-83. Doha, 1984 El Mallakh, R., Qatar: The Development of an Oil Economy. New York, 1979 Unwin, P. T. H., Qatar. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982

Capital: Bucharest Population: 22-lm.{\9M) GNP per capita: US$2,540 (1981)

ROMANIA República Socialistà Romània

H I S T O R Y . 1918 is celebrated as the year of foundation of the 'unitary national Romanian state'. For the history and constitution of Romania from 1859 to 1947, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1947, pp. 1187-89. On 30 Dec. 1947 King Michael abdicated under Communist pressure and parliament proclaimed the 'People's Republic'. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Romania is bounded north and north-east by the USSR, east by the Black Sea, south by Bulgaria, south-west by Yugoslavia and north-west by Hungary. The area of Romania is 237,500 sq. km (91,699 sq. miles). Pre-war Romania had an area of 113,918 sq. miles. Population at censuses: 1930, 18,057,208 (14,280,729 within present-day Romania); 1948, 15,872,624 (48-3% male); 1966, 19,103,163 (49% male, 38-2% urban); 1977, 21,559,910 (49-3% male, 47 -5% urban). In 1986 the population was 22,724,836 (49-1% male; 50% urban), density per sq. km, 95-7. Vital statistics, 1985 (per 1,000 population): Live births, 15-8; deaths, 10-9; marriages, 7 1 ; divorces, 1 -43; stillborn (per 1,000 live births), 7-8; infant mortality (per 1,000 live births), 25-6. Expectation of life in 1984, 66-9 years. Welfare incentives and tax penalties (on the childless) are designed to combat a decline in the birthrate. Abortion and contraception are illegal, and the marriageable age of girls has been lowered from 18 to 15. Population growth rate per 1,000 was 4-9 in 1985and5-2in 1984. Administratively, Romania is divided into 40 counties (jude(), 237 towns {oral/) (of which 55 are municipalities) and 2,705 local authorities (comune). The capital is Bucharest (Bucure§ti), a municipality with county status. It was announced in 1986 that Tirgovi^te might be made a 'second capital'. District

Alba Arad Arges Bacáu Bihor Bistri Ja-Násáud Botosani Bra§ov Bráila Buzáu Cara$-Severin Cálára§i Cluj Constanta Covasna Dimbovi(a Dolj Galaji Giurgiu Gorj Harghita Hunedoara Ialomita laiji Maramure§ Mehedinji Mure$ Neam(

Area in sq. km 6,231 7,652 6,801 6,606 7,535 5,305 4,965 5,351 4,724 6,072 8,503 5,075 6,650 7,055 3,705 4,035 7,413 4,425 3,810 5,641 6,610 7,016 4,449 5,469 6,215 4,900 6,696 5,890

Population 1985 425,428 491,287 667,355 736,416 657,670 321,738 496,993 630,455 396,518 535,004 393,182 349,307 732,057 662,733 227,409 563,838 774,074 625,792 352,613 371,983 355,383 542,915 312,974 792,099 548,054 332,578 623,710 593,497

1020

Capita! Alba Iulia Arad Piteli Bacàu Oradea Bistri ta Boto§ani Bra§ov Bràila Buzàu Re§i{a Càlàra§i Cluj-Napoca Constala Sf. Gheorghe Tìrgovi§te Craiova Galati Giurgiu Tìrgu Jiu Miercurea-Ciuc Deva Slobozia lasi Baia Mare Drobeta-Tumu Severin Tirgu Mure§ Piatra-Neamf

Population 1985 64,369 185,892 154,112 175,299 208,507 73,429 104,836 346,640 234,600 132,311 104,362 68,226 309,843 323,236 65,868 88,663 275,098 292,805 65,792 85,058 45,651 76,934 44,797 314,156 135,536 97,862 157,411 107,581

ROMANIA District

Oit Prahova Satu Mare Sälaj Sibiu Suceava Teleorman Timi§ Tulcea Vaslui Vìlcea Vrancea Bucharest '

Area in sq. km 5,507 4,694 4,405 3,850 5,422 8,555 5,760 8,692 8,430 5,297 5,705 4,863 1,521

Population ¡985 545,361 860,354 415,404 277,042 494,538 695,187 527,502 665,888 272,949 487,222 436,438 400,780 2,133,109

' Total conurbation.

1021 Capital Slatina Ploie^ti Satu Mare Zaliu Sibiu Suceava Alexandria Timi^oara Tulcea Vaslui Rimnicu Vìlcea Foc§ani Bucharest 2 2

Population 1985 73,982 234,021 128,115 54,676 176,928 92,690 51,267 318,955 84,353 62,372 93,271 83,562 1,975,808

Central area.

The last official figures on the size of the ethnic minorities were published in 1977. Estimates for 1988: Hungarians, 2m. (mainly in Transylvania); Germans, 0-25m.; Gypsies, lm.; Jews, 30,000. Hungarians are not allowed to emigrate. Germans are permitted to emigrate under an agreement with Federal Germany of 1980: some 11,000 leave annually. The official language is Romanian. C L I M A T E . A continental climate with a large annual range of temperature and rainfall showing a slight summer maximum. Bucharest. Jan. 27°F (-2-7°C), July 74°F (23-5°C). Annual rainfall 23 1" (579 mm). Constanfa. Jan. 31°F(-0-6°C), July 71°F(21 -7°C). Annual rainfall 15" (371 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution dates from 1965 and supersedes those of 1948 and 1952. The leading role of the Communist Party is affirmed. In 1986 the Constitution was amended to allow for national referendums. For the first to be held see DEFENCE, p. 1022. The Grand National Assembly of 369 is elected for 5 years (before 1972 for 4 years). It holds short sessions twice a year, and between sessions delegates its legislative rights to the State Council. Its Speaker is Nicolae Giosan. The Socialist Democracy and Unity Front (SDUF) functions as a consultative body on home and foreign affairs. It has central and local councils in which workers, peasants, professional bodies, ethnic minorities and the Communist Party are represented. All citizens of 18 and over have the right to vote and electoral law provides for the nomination of 'one or more' candidates in each constituency. To be elected candidates must secure 50% + 1 of the vote, otherwise re-elections are held. The last election was held on 17 March 1985 (for previous elections see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1985-86). From an electorate of 15,733,060 turn-out was 15,732,095 (99-99%) and 15,375,522 votes (97-73%) were cast for SDUF.

Anti-SDUF votes come mainly from ethnic minority areas, and are increasing: 1 9 6 9 , 0 - 2 % ; 1 9 7 5 , 1 - 2 % ; 1 9 8 0 , 1 -5%; 1 9 8 5 , 2 -27%. 594 c a n d i d a t e s stood.

Local government is carried out by People's Councils at the administrative levels mentioned on p 1020. 57,584 councillors were elected from among 117,349 candidates on 15 Nov. 1987. Real political power is in the hands of the Romanian Communist Party. The Party Congress elects the General Secretary, and its Central Committee elects the Executive Political Committee with its Permanent Bureau and the Secretariat (General Secretary and 7 secretaries). The Party had 3,465,069 members (lm. women) in 1985 (of whom 23% were under 30, 10% ethnic minorities, 56% workers). President of the Republic and Chairman of the State Council: Nicolae Ceau^escu, succeeded Chivu Stoica in Dec. 1967. Vice-Chairmen: Manea MSnescu, Gheorghe RSdulescu, Maria Ghijulica, Arpad Pall. In April 1988 the Permanent Bureau of the Party consisted of: Nicolae

1022

ROMANIA

Ceau§escu (General Secretary); Emil Bobu; Elena Ceau$escu'; Constantin DSscSlescu; Manea Minescu; Gheorghe Oprea; Gheorghe RSdulescu. 1

Ceau§escu's wife.

Council of Ministers (April 1988). Chairman (Prime Minister): Constantin DSscSlescu. First Deputy Prime Ministers: Elena Ceau^escu, Gheorghe Oprea, Ion Dinca; Deputy Prime Ministers: Stefan Andrei; Ludovic Fazeka§; Cornel Pacoste; Lina Ciobanu; Ion Constantinescu; Nicolae Ibanescu; Constantin Radu. Other ministers include: §tefan Birlea (Chairman, State Planning Committee) Gheorghe David (Agriculture)-, Gheorghe Para§chiv (Finance); loan Totu (Foreign)-, Maj.-Gen. Vasile Milea (Defence)-, Tudor Postelnicu (Interior)-, Maxim Berghianu (Labour)-, Ilie VSduva (Foreign Trade)-, Maria Bobu (Justice); Petre Fluture (Electric Power); Paula Priotea§a (Food). In July 1970 Romania signed a treaty of friendship, co-operation and mutual assistance with the USSR. A previous such treaty had expired in 1968. Since the mid-1960s Romania has been taking a relatively independent stand in foreign affairs generally, and within Comecon and the Warsaw Pact. Nationalflag: Three vertical strips of blue, yellow, red, with the national arms in the centre. National anthem: Trei culori (Three colours). Introduced, 1977. Music by Ciprian Porumbescu. DEFENCE. Defence is the responsibility of the Defence Council, which is controlled by the Council of State and headed by President Ceau§escu. On 23 Nov. 1986 a referendum was held on reducing defence spending by 5%. Turn-out was 99 -9%, and 100% were in favour. Military service is compulsory for 16 months in the Army and Air Force and 24 months in the Navy. Army. The 4 Army Areas consist of 2 tank and 8 motor rifle divisions; 3 mountain, 2 artillery, 2 anti-aircraft and 2 surface-to-surface missile brigades; and 3 artillery, 1 anti-aircraft, 5 anti-tank and 1 airborne regiments. Equipment includes 200 T-34, 1,000 T-54/-55, 30 T-72 and 200 M-77 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 140,000 (including 95,000 conscripts), and 500,000 reservists. There are a further 3 5,000 men in paramilitary border guard and internal security forces. Navy. The fleet comprises 2 Romanian-built new missile-armed large destroyers each with hangar for 2 helicopters 1 ex-Soviet diesel-electric powered patrol submarine, 3 new frigates, 3 corvettes, 6 fast missile boats, 42 fast torpedo boats, 27 fast gunboats, 1 new monitor, 3 old patrol vessels, 2 minelayer/mine counter measures support ships, 4 old minesweepers, 37 inshore minesweepers, 2 logistic support ships, 1 oceanographic ship, 2 training ships, 40 river patrol craft, 3 landing craft and 2 tugs. Headquarters of the Navy is at Mangalia, and of the Danube flotilla at the main river port of Br&ila. The naval school is in Constanja. Personnel in 1988 totalled 7,500 officers and ratings including 600 in Coastal Defence, 900 under Training and 2,500 shore support. Air Force. The Air Force numbered some 32,000 men, with 368 combat aircraft in 2 air divisions (4 regiments) in 1988. These are organized into 12 interceptor squadrons with MiG-21 and MiG-23 fighters, 6 ground-attack and close-support squadrons with MiG-17 fighters, and 1 reconnaissance squadron of Il-28s. There are also more than 150 training aircraft, 20 An-24/26/30 transports and more than 150 helicopters (Mi-2, Mi-4, Mi-8, Alouette and Puma). Under delivery are 185 IAR-93 close-support/interceptors to replace the MiG-17s. 'Guideline' and 'Gainful' surface-to-air missiles are operational, and short-range surface-to-surface missiles have been displayed. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Romania is a member of UN, IMF, Comecon and the Warsaw Pact. ECONOMY Planning. In Oct. 1982 the Supreme Council of Economic and Social Develop-

1023

ROMANIA

ment, presided over by Nicolae Ceau^escu, was raised to the level of an economic legislative chamber. The seventh 5-year plan covers 1986-90. Annual growth targets: agriculture, 6 • 1%; industry, 7 • 5%. Increase in output (and target) under the 1981-85 plan: Industry, 21 -6% (54 -4%); agriculture, 10% (75 -5%). There has been only limited decentralization of planning. (For previous plans see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1976-77.). Romania is committed to intensive industrialization and agriculture has been neglected. A workers' riot in Bra§ov on 15 Nov. 1987 was followed by promises of increased food supplies. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in 1 m. lei) for calendar years: Revenue Expenditure

1980 298,004 296,787

1981 262,227 262,227

1982 1983 288,511 301,908 288,511 301,908 1 Estimates.

1984 308,917 308,917

1985 363,180 342,545

1986> 340,914 340,914

In 1985 sources of revenue (in lm. lei) included: Profit payments of state enterprises 29,527; turnover tax, 93,666; personal taxes, 4,251; insurance contributions, 40,009; taxes on enterprise wage funds, 47,125. Expenditure: National economy, 172,559; social and cultural, 90,412; defence, 12,113. Revenue and expenditure of local councils (included above) was 63,054m. lei and 60,560m. lei in 1985. Romania has settled UK claims arising out of the peace treaty and on defaulted bonds. Currency. The monetary unit is the leu, pi .lei (of 100 bani). On 1 Feb. 1954 the gold content of the leu was to 0-148112 gramme of fine gold. Exchange rates (March 1988): £1 =6-25 lei; US$1 =4-25 lei; 1 rouble = 6-67 lei. Tourist rates: £1 = 15-31 lei; US$1 =8-42 lei. Bank-notes of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 lei are issued by the National Bank, and there are coins of 5,10,15 and 25 bani and 1,3 and 5 lei. Banking. The National Bank of Romania (founded 1880, nationalized 1946) is the State Bank under the Minister of Finance. Half its profits are allotted to the State budget. There are also a Bank of Investments, a Foreign Trade Bank, an Agriculture and Food Industry Bank and a Savings Bank. The US Export-Import Bank has granted Romania borrowing rights. In 1974 the American bank Manufactures Hanover Trust Co. opened a branch in Bucharest, the first Western bank to do so in a Communist country. Weights and measures. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1919. The metric system is in use. Tubes and pipes are measured in tol (= 1 inch). ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Installed electric power 1984: 18,829,000 kw.; output, 1985,71,819m. kwh (11,896m. kwh hydroelectric). Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. There are two joint Romanian-Yugoslav hydro-electric power plants on the Danube at the 'Iron Gates' with a combined yearly output of 22,250m. kwh. A nuclear power programme has been subject to cut-backs and delays. In Oct. 1985 a state of emergency was declared in the energy sector and its administration handed over to the military. This was still in force in 1988. Oil. The oilfields are in the Prahova, B&cau, Goij, Cri§ana and Arge§ districts. Oil production in 1987 was 10-5m. tonnes. Oil reserves are expected to be exhausted by the mid-1990s. Refining capacity was enlarged from 16m. tonnes per annum in 1970 to 30m. tonnes in 1985. Crude oil has to be imported. Minerals. The principal minerals are oil and natural gas, salt, brown coal, lignite, iron and copper ores, bauxite, chromium, manganese and uranium. Salt is mined in the lower Carpathians and in Transylvania; production in 1985 was 5m. tonnes. Output, 1985 (and 1984) (in 1,000 tonnes): Iron ore, 2,287 (1,916); coal, 46,581 (47,799, including lignite 37,140); methane gas (cu. metres), 27,719m. (27,196m.). The share of coal in the overall production of energy rose from 28% in 1975 to 47% in 1985 and is expected to reach 60% by 1990.

1024

ROMANIA

Agriculture. There were 15 02m. hectares of agricultural land in 1985, including (in 1,000 hectares): Arable, 9,985; meadows and pasture, 4,398; vineyards and fruit trees, 637. Production in 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat and rye, 7,947; barley, 2,200; maize, 20,000; potatoes, 8,513; sunflower seeds, 1,004; sugar-beet, 7,000. Livestock (1986): 6,867,000 cattle, 14,319,000 pigs, 18,609,000 sheep and 131m. poultry. The number of horses had fallen to some 200,000 by Feb. 1986, but it was then decided to increase the herd and allow the tractor park to reduce by 30%. In 1985 there were 4,363 collective farms, with 9-lm. hectares of land (7-2m. arable; l-4m. private plots). State farms numbered 419, with 2m. hectares of land, of which 1 -65m. hectares were arable. A further 2-4m. hectares of land were in the hands of other state agricultural organizations. There were 573 agriculture mechanization stations. Total tractor force, 1985: 184,408. Since 1984 production quotas on private plots must be met on pain of confiscation. The National Union of Agricultural Co-operatives promotes self-management in collective farms, and gives guidance on planning and marketing. A minimum income is guaranteed to peasants. In 1985 there were 2-7m. hectares ofirrigated land. Forestry. Total forest area was 6-34m. hectares in 1985. 52,850 hectares were afforested. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Output of main products in 1985 (and 1984) (in tonnes): Pig-iron, 9,912 (9,557); steel, 13,795 (14,437); steel tubes, 1,513 (1,507); blast furnace coke, 4,743 (4,849); rolled steel, 9,900 (10,329); chemical fertilizers, 3,097 (3,073); washing soda, 836 (912); caustic soda, 814 (805); paper, 741 (795); cement, 12,238 (14,016); sugar, 582 (806); edible oils, 328 (348). Fabrics (in lm. sq. metres): Cotton, 700 (697); woollens, 131 (123); man-made fibres, 257,205 (281,288). In 1,000 units: Radio sets, 571 (458); TV sets, 522 (406); washing machines, 210 (452); motor cars, 134,169 (125,090). Labour. The employed population in 1985 was 10-6m., of whom 3m. worked in agriculture and 4-71m. industry and building. In 1985 39-4% of the total workforce, and 42-6% of the industrial workforce, were women. Wage differentials (at a ratio of 5 -25:1) are in accordance with the 'social evaluation' of the work and a range of incentives for productivity. The average monthly wage was 2,827 lei in 1985. Wages are cut if a firm's output falls below par. The working week is of 46 hours with alternate Saturdays free. Men retire at 62, women at 57. Commerce. In 1985 exports totalled 192,295m. lei and imports 148,362m. lei. Principal exports in 1985 were (in 1,000 tonnes): Petroleum products, 9,691; cement, 2,477; cereals, 842; oilfield equipment, 6,110m. lei; equipment for cement mills, 274m. lei; equipment for chemical factories, 904m. lei; shipbuilding, 966m. lei. Principal imports (in 1,000 tonnes): Iron ore, 15,207; industrial coke, 1,898; rolled ferrous metals, 696; electrical equipment, 4,809m. lei; motor cars, 1,303 units, and industrial and agricultural equipment. In 1985 Romania's main trading partners (trade in 1 m. lei) were: USSR, 74,333; Egypt, 22,304; Federal Republic of Germany, 19,486; Italy, 16,866; Iran, 16,758; German Democratic Republic, 16,737; USA, 15,645. Total trade between Romania and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 58,865 82,160

1984 226,091 71,641

1985 102,946 78,474

1986 86,730 82,011

1987 92,526 55,688

Both the UK and the USA have joint economic commissions with Romania. The US Congress suspended Romania's most-favoured nation status in 1987. In May 1986 Romania and the USSR signed a co-operation agreement for a 15-year programme of economic, scientific and technical development. Romania owed some US$5,500m. to Western banks in 1987.

ROMANIA

1025

Joint companies with Western firms have been set up; at least 51% of the capital must be in Romanian hands. 4 were in operation in 1985. The 'Romconsult' and 'Publicom' agencies will carry out respectively market research and publicity campaigns on behalf of foreign firms. Romania has a trade link with EEC under the generalized preference system. Agreements with the EEC on industrial products and establishing a joint economic commission were reached in March 1980. On 1 Jan. 1975 a 2-tier tariff system was introduced, graded according to the grant of most-favoured nation status to Romania. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were in 1985,14,666 km of national roads of which 12,239 km were modernized. Freight carried, 362m. tonnes; passengers, 837m. Railways. Length of route (1,435 mm gauge) in 1985 was 10,752 km and (narrowgauge), 472 km. A total of 3,427 km is electrified. Freight carried, 283m. tons; passengers, 460m. Aviation. TAROM (Transporturi Aeriene Romane), the state airline, operates all internal services, and also services to Amsterdam, Athens, Beirut, Belgrade, Berlin, Brussels, Budapest, Cairo, Cologne, Copenhagen, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Istanbul, London, Moscow, Paris, Prague, Rome, Sofia, Tel-Aviv, Vienna, Warsaw and Zürich. Bucharest is also served by British Airways, PANAM, SABENA, Aeroflot, Air France, Interflug, CSA, MALEV, Austrian Air Lines, SAS, Lot, TABSO, El Al, Alitalia, Lufthansa and Swissair. An air agreement with China was signed in 1973. Bucharest's airports are at Bäneasa (internal flights) and Otopeni (international flights; 12 miles from Bucharest). Air transport in 1985 carried 2-5m. passengers and 29,000 tonnes of freight. Shipping. The main ports are Constanta on the Black Sea and Gala(i and Bräila on the Danube. A new port has been constructed at Agigea on the Black Sea and the 64 km canal between the Danube and the Black Sea was opened in 1984. The largest shipyard is at Gala^i. In 1985 the mercantile marine (NAVROM) owned some 200 sea-going ships. In 1985 sea-going transport carried 25 -72m. tonnes of freight; river transport, 18 -4m. tonnes and 1 -84m. passengers. Post and Broadcasting. There were 4,979 post offices in 1985. Number of telephone subscribers, 1 -96m. Radio-televiziunea Romäna broadcasts 3 programmes on medium-waves and FM. There are also 6 regional programmes, including transmission in Hungarian, German and Serbo-Croat. Following the energy crisis of 1984 the two TV channels were merged and broadcasting reduced from 100 to 22 hours a week. Programmes in Hungarian and German have been dropped. Radio receiving sets, in 1985 3 -21 m.; TV sets, 3 -88m. Cinemas and Theatres. There were, in 1985, 5,558 cinemas and 154 theatres and concert halls. 27 full-length feature films were made. Newspapers and Books. There were, in 1985, 36 daily and 24 weekly newspapers and 422 periodicals, including 11 dailies, 3 weeklies and 38 other periodicals in minority languages. The Party newspaper is Scinteia ('The Spark'). 3,063 book titles were published in 1985 in 66-3m. copies. (376 titles in minority languages). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court, the 40 district courts, and lower courts. Lay assessors (elected for 4 years) participate in most court trials, collaborating with the judges. The Procurator-General exercises 'supreme supervisory power to ensure the observance of the law' by all authorities, central and local, and all citizens. The Procurator's Office and its organs are independent of any organs of justice or administration, and only responsible to the Grand National Assembly (which appoints the Procurator-General for 4 years) and between its sessions, to the State Council. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for ordinary

1026

ROMANIA

police work. State security is the responsibility of the State Security Council. A new penal code came into force on 1 Jan. 1969. The death penalty is retained for 'specially serious offences' (treason, some classes of murder, theft of property having serious consequences). An amnesty of Jan. 1988 abolished or reduced the sentences of all convicts. Religion. Churches are organized and function in accordance with art. 30 of the Constitution. Churches administer their own affairs and run seminaries for the training of priests. Expenses and salaries are paid by the State. There are 14 Churches, all under the control of the 'Department of Cults'. The largest is the Romanian Orthodox Church, which claimed some 16m. members in 1985. It is autocephalous, but retains dogmatic unity with the Eastern Orthodox Church. It is administered by the consultative Holy Synod and National Ecclesiastical Assembly and the executive National Ecclesiastical Council and Patriarchal Administration. It is organized into 12 dioceses grouped into 5 metropolitan bishoprics (Hungaro-Wallachia; Moldavia-Suceava; Transylvania; Olt; Banat). and headed by Patriarch Teoctist Arapa§u (since 1986). There are some 11,800 churches, 2 theological colleges and 6 'schools of cantors', as well as seminaries. The Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church (which severed its connexion with the Vatican in 1698) was suppressed in 1948. It had 1 -6m. adherents and 1,818 priests. Estimates for 1973:700,000 adherents and 600 priests. Other churches: Serbs have a Serbian Orthodox Vicariate at Timi^oara. In 1986 there were 1 -2m. Roman Catholics, mainly among the Hungarian and German minorities. There are 8 dioceses. In 1985 6 were vacant. There is a bishop of Alba Iulia and an Apostolic Administrator was appointed to Bucharest in Oct. 1984. There were 734 priests in 1982. The Church has not secured approval for a Statute and has no hierarchical ties with the Vatican. Calvinists (600,000; mainly Hungarian) have bishoprics at Cluj and Oradea; Lutherans (150,000, mainly Germans) a bishopric at Sibiu and Unitarians (60,000, Hungarians) a bishopric at Cluj. These sects share a seminary at Cluj. In 1987 there were about 200,000 Baptists and 300,000 other neo-Protestants. In 1988 there were 30,000 Jews under a Chief Rabbi (Moses Rosen). There were 120 synagogues in 1987. There were 40,000 moslems in 1983 and they have a Muftiate at Constança. Education. Education is free and compulsory from 6 to 16, consisting of 8 years of primary school and 2 years of secondary (gymnasium). Further secondary education is available at lycées, professional schools or advanced technical schools. In 1985-86 there were 12,811 kindergartens with 33,522 teachers and 864,332 children; 14,076 primary and secondary schools with 147,147 teachers and 3,030,666 pupils; 981 lycées with 47,693 teachers and 1,226,927 pupils; 753 professional schools with 2,517 teachers and 287,818 pupils; and 296 advanced technical schools with 123 teachers and 22,803 pupils. In 1983-84 there were 3,130 schools for 340,773 pupils of ethnic minorities with 15,922 teachers. . There are universities at Ia$i (founded 1860), Bucharest (1864), Cluj (1919), Timiçoara (1962), Craiova (1965) and Bra$ov (1971). In 1985-86 there were in all 44 institutes of higher education, with 159,798 (71,658 female) students and 12,691 teachers. In 1983-84 there were 11,568 students at institutes of higher education for ethnic minorities with some 1,000 teachers. The Academy, with seat at Bucharest, has 2 branches at Ia$i and Cluj. The National Council for Scientific Research co-ordinates research. Health. In 1985 there were 212,953 hospital beds and 47,390 doctors. Some hospitals began to charge fees in 1983. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Romania in Great Britain (4 Palace Green, London, W8 4QD) Ambassador: Stan Soare (accredited 6 Nov. 1986). Of Great Britain in Romania (24 Strada Jules Michelet, Bucharest) Ambassador: Hugh Arbuthnott, CMG.

ROMANIA

1027

Of Romania in the USA (1607 23rd St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ion Stoichici. Of the USA in Romania (7-9 Strada Tudor Arghezi, Bucharest) Ambassador: Roger Kirk. Of Romania to the United Nations Ambassador: Petre Tanasie. Books of Reference Anuarul Statistic alR.S.R. Bucharest, annual Atlas Geografie República Socialista Romania. Bucharest, 1965 Diclionar Enciclopedie Román. Bucharest, 1962-66 Economic and Commercial Guide to Romania. Bucharest, annual since 1969 Mie Dicfionar Enciclopedie. Bucharest, 1973 Revista de Statisticà. Bucharest, monthly Romania: An Encyclopaedic Survey. Bucharest, 1980 Romania, the Industrialization of an Agrarian Economy under Socialist Planning: Report ofa Mission sent to Romania by the World Bank. Washington, 1979 Academia Republicii Socialiste Romània. Dicfionar Engtez-Romàn. Bucharest, 1974 Ceauijescu, N.,. Romania on the Way of Completing Socialist Construction. 3 vols. Bucharest, 1968-69.—Romania on the Way of Completing the Many-sided Developed Socialist Society. Bucharest, 1 9 7 0 f f . Deletant, A., and D., Romania [Bibliography]. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 Fischer-Galati, S. A., Rumania: A Bibliographical Guide. Library of Congress, 1963.—The New Rumania. Mass. Inst, of Technology, 1968.—The Socialist Republic of Rumania. Baltimore, 1969.—Twentieth Century Rumania. New York, 1970 Giurescu, C. C. (ed.), Chronological History of Romania. 2nd ed. Bucharest, 1974 Graham, L. S., Romania, a Developing Socialist State. Boulder, 1982 Ionescu, A. (ed.), The Grand National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Romania: A Brief Outline. Bucharest, 1974 King, R. R., History of the Romanian Communist Party. Stanford, 1980 Levighi, L D i c f i o n a r Romàn-Englez. 2nd ed. Bucharest, 1965 Morariu.T., and others, The Geography ojRumania. 2nd ed. Bucharest, 1969 Nelson, D. N. (ed.),Romania in the I980's. Boulder, 1981 Pacepa, I., Red Horizons. London, 1988 Shafir, M., Romania: Politics, Economics and Society. London, 1985 Stanciu, I. G. and Cemovodeanu, P., Distant Lands: The Genesis and Evolution of Romanian -AmericanRelations. Boulder, 1985 Turnock, D., An Economic Geography of Romania. London, 1974.—The Romanian Economy in the Twentieth Century. London 1986

Capital: Kigali Population: 6 -32m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$257 (1984)

RWANDA Republika y'u Rwanda

H I S T O R Y . From the 16th century to 1959 the Tutsi kingdom of Rwanda shared the history of Burundi (see p. 257). In 1959 an uprising of the Hutu destroyed the Tutsi feudal hierarchy and led to the departure of the Mwami Kigeri V. Elections and a referendum under the auspices of the United Nations in Sept. 1961 resulted in an overwhelming majority for the republican party, the Parmehutu (Parti du Mouvement de l'Emancipation du Bahutu), and the rejection of the institution of the Mwami. The republic proclaimed by the Parmehutu on 28 Jan. 1961 was recognized by the Belgian administration (but not by the United Nations) in Oct. 1961. Internal self-government was granted on 1 Jan. 1962, and by decision of the General Assembly of the U N the Republic of Rwanda became independent on 1 July 1962. The first President, Gregoire Kayibanda, was deposed in a coup on 5 July 1973. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Rwanda is bounded south by Burundi, west by Zaïre, north by Uganda and east by Tanzania. A mountainous state of 26,338 sq. km (10,169 sq. miles), its western third drains to Lake Kivu on the border with Zaïre and thence to the Congo river, while the rest is drained by the Kagera river into the Nile system. The population was 4,819,317 at the 1978 Census, of whom over 90% were Hutu, 9% Tutsi and 1% Twa (pygmy); latest estimate (1986)6,324,000. The areas and populations (1978 Census) of the 10 prefectures are: Prefecture Cyangugu Kibuye Gisenyi Ruhengeri Byumba

Sq. km 2,226 1,320 2,395 1,762 4,987

Census 1978 331,380 337,729 468,786 528,649 519,968

Prefecture Kigali Kibungo Gita rama Gikongoro Butare

Sq. km 3,251 4,134 2,241 2,192 1,830

Census 1978 698,063 360,934 602,752 369,891 601,165

Kigali, the capital, had 156,650 inhabitants in 1981; other towns (1978) being Butare (21,691), Ruhengeri (16,025) and Gisenyi (12,436). Kinyarwanda, the language of the entire population, and French are official languages, and Kiswahili is spoken in the commercial centres, where most of the 1,200 Europeans and 750 Asians reside. Vital statistics (1975): Live births, 113,154; deaths, 41,385; marriages, 13,899. C L I M A T E . Despite the equatorial situation, there is a highland tropical climate. The wet seasons are from Oct. to Dec. and March to May. Highest rainfall occurs in the west, at around 7 0 " (1,770 mm), decreasing to 40-55" (1,020-1,400 mm) in the central uplands and to 30" (760 mm) in the north and east. Kigali. Jan. 67°F (19-4°C), July 70°F(211 °C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,000 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved by referendum on 17 Dec. 1978; under it, the Mouvement révolutionnaire national pour le développement (MRND) founded 5 July 1975 becomes the sole political organisation. Executive power is vested in a President, elected by universal suffrage for a (renewable) 5-year term. He presides over a Council of Ministers, whom he appoints and dismisses. Legislative power rests with a National Development Council of 70 deputies, elected for a 5-year term; elections were held on 26 Dec. 1983. President: Maj.-Gen. Junéval Habyarimana (took office July 1975; elected Dec. 1978 and re-elected Dec. 1983). Foreign Affairs and. Co-operation: François Ngarukiyintwari. 1028

RWANDA

1029

National flag: Three equal vertical panels of red, yellow and green (left to right), the letter 'R' in black superimposed on the centre panel. Local government: The 10 prefectures, each under an appointed Prefect, are divided into 144 communes, each with an appointed Burgomaster and an elected Council. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 commando battalion, 1 reconnaissance, 8 infantry and 1 engineer companies. Equipment includes 12 AML-60/-90 armoured cars. Strength (1988) about 5,000. Air Force. The Air Force currently operates 2 Guerrier armed light aircraft, 1 twinengined Defender, 2 Noratlas, 1 Islander light transport, 6 Gazelle and 4 Alouette III helicopters. A Caravelle is operated on VIP duties. Personnel ( 1988) 150. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Rwanda is a member of U N , O A U and is an A C P state of EEC. With Burundi and Zaïre it forms part of the Economic Community of Countries of the Great Lakes. ECONOMY Planning. The 1982-86 Development Plan of the total investment of 232,300m. Rwanda francs 56% will be devoted to agriculture. Budget. The budget for 1983 envisaged expenditure of 16,368m. Rwanda francs and revenue of 14,683m. Currency. The currency is the Rwanda franc. The official rate of Rwanda francs 131 • 7 5 = £ 1 ; 75 -46=US$ 1 (March 1988). Banking. The Development Bank of Rwanda (Banque Rwandaise de Développement—BRD) had a capital (1983) of 1,000m. Rwanda francs. Other banks are the Central Bank (Banque Nationale du Rwanda)', 2 commercial banks which are majority foreign owned—the Banque Commerciale du Rwanda and the Banque de Kigali, the People's Bank, the Savings Association and the Caisse Hypothécaire. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. 4 hydro-electric installations and 1 thermal plant produced 110m. kwh in 1986, but over half of the country's needs come from Zaire. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Cassiterite and wolframite are mined east of Lake Kivu. Production (1983): Cassiterite, 1,526 tonnes; wolfram, 429 tonnes. About l m . cu. metres of natural gas are obtained from under the lake each year. Agriculture. Subsistence agriculture accounts for most of the gross national product. Staple food crops (production 1986, in 1,000 tonnes) are sweet potatoes (920), cassava (348), beans (240), sorghum (184), potatoes (270), maize (121), peas and groundnuts. The main cash crops are aravica coffee (30), tea (8) and pyrethrum. There is a pilot rice-growing project. Long-horned Ankole cattle, 639,000 head in 1980, play an important traditional role. Efforts are being made to improve their present negligible economic value. There were (1986) 670,000 cattle, 1,005,000 goats, 343,000 sheep and 104,000 pigs. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There are about 100 small-sized modern manufacturing enterprises in the country. Food manufacturing is the dominant industrial activity (64%) followed by construction (15-3%) and mining (9%). There is a large modem brewery. Commerce. In 1983 imports amounted to 25,267m. Rwanda francs and exports to

1030

RWANDA

7,427m. of which coffee comprised 70%, tea 12% and tin 11%; Belgium provided 17% of imports, Kenya 21 % and Japan 12%. Total trade between Rwanda and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ] m ] m ] m ] m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

2,919 2,326

7,842 2,385

3,998 3,565

7,487 1,681

4,291 2,526

Tourism. In 1984 there were 20,000 visitors to national parks. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 6,760 km of roads. There are road links with Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and Zaire. There were in 1982 6,188 cars and 7,168 commercial vehicles. Aviation. There are international airports at Kanombe, for Kigali, and at Kamembe, with services to Bujumbura, Bukavu, Entebbe, Goma, Lubumbashi, Athens and Brussels. Post and Broadcasting. Telephones (1983) 6,598. In 1983 there were 2 radio stations and 155,000 receivers. Cinemas. In 1975 there were 3 cinemas with a seating capacity of 1,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. A system of Courts of First Instance and provincial courts refer appeals to Courts of Appeal and a Court of Cassation situated in Kigali. Religion. The population was (1983) predominantly Roman Catholic (56%); there is an archbishop (Kigali) and 3 bishops. 23% of the population follow traditional religions, 12% are Protestants and 9% Moslems. Education. In 1981 there were 704,924 pupils attending 1,606 primary schools with 11,912 teachers. There were 118 secondary, technical and teacher-training schools with 10,667 students and 887 teachers. The National University, opened at Butare in 1963, had 1,577 students in 1984. Health. In 1983 there were 170 hospitals and health centres with (1980) 9,015 beds; there were also 164 doctors, 1 dentist, 10 pharmacists, 464 midwives and 525 nursing personnel. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Rwanda in Great Britain Ambassador: Ildephonse Munyeshyaka (resides in Brussels). Of Great Britain in Rwanda Ambassador: R. L. B. Cormack (resides in Kinshasa). Of Rwanda in the USA (1714 New Hampshire Ave, NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Simon Insonere. Of the USA in Rwanda (Blvd. de la Revolution, Kigali) Ambassador: John E. Upston. Of Rwanda to the United Nations Ambassador: Celestin Kabanda.

ST C H R I S T O P H E R

?PiiBT7tenTnMQ87.

(ST KITTS)

Population: 41,'000 (1987) GJVP cap/to: US$820 (1983)

NEVIS

H I S T O R Y . St Christopher (known to its Carib inhabitants as Liamuiga) and Nevis were discovered and named by Columbus in 1493. They were settled by Britain in 1623 and 1628 respectively, but ownership was disputed with France until 1713. Forming part of the Leeward Islands Federation from 1871 to 1956, and part of the Federation of the West Indies from 1958 to 1962. In Feb. 1967 the colonial status was replaced by an 'association' with Britain, giving the islands full internal self-government, while Britain remained responsible for defence and foreign affairs. St Christopher-Nevis became fully independent on 19Sept. 1983. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The islands form part of the Lesser Antilles in Eastern Caribbean. Population, estimate (1983) 43,309. St Christopher Nevis

sq.km 174 93 267

Census 1980 33,881 9,428

Chief town Basseterre Charlestown

Census 1980 14,283 1,243

43,309

In 1980,94% of the population were black and 36% were urban. Estimate (1987) 47,000. English is the official and spoken language. C L I M A T E . A pleasantly healthy climate, with acool breeze throughout the year, low humidity and no recognized rainy season. Average annual rainfall is about 55" (1,375 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1983 Constitution described the country as 'a sovereign democratic federal state'. It allowed for a unicameral Parliament consisting of 11 elected Members (8 from St Kitts and 3 from Nevis) and 3 appointed Senators. Nevis was given its own Island Assembly and the right to secession from St Kitts. At the General Elections held on 21 June 1984, 6 seats from St Kitts were won by the People's Action Movement and 2 by the Labour Party, while the 3 Nevis seats were won by the Nevis Reformation Party. Governor-General: Sir Clement Athelston Arrindell, GCMG, GCVO. Prime Minister: Rt. Hon. Dr Kennedy Alphonse Simmonds. Flag: Diagonally green, black, red, with the black fimbriated in yellow and charged with two white stars. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. St Christopher-Nevis is a member of the UN, the OAS, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The 1988 budget envisaged expenditure at EC$74-6m. and revenue at EC$74-4m. Currency. The East Caribbean dollar (of 100 cents) is in use. In March 1988, £1 = EC$4-79;US$1 =EC$2-70. Banking. The National Bank operates 4 branches in St. Kitts and Nevis. The main office is located in Basseterre. Other banks include Barclay's Bank International, with a sub-branch in Nevis, Royal Bank of Canada, Bank of Commerce, and the Nevis Co-operative Bank and the Bank of Nevis in Charlestown. Branches of the Bank of Nova Scotia are located in Basseterre and Charlestown. Commercial banks' assets (1987) ECS361 • 5m.; deposits (1985) ECS246 -8m. 1031

1032

ST C H R I S T O P H E R (ST K I T T S ) — N E V I S

ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1984) 34m. kwh. Agriculture. The main crops are sugar and cotton. There are 30 sugar estates and 124 acres of cotton. Most of the farms are small-holdings and there are a number of coconut estates amounting to some 1,000 acres under public and private ownership. Sugar production (1987) 28,491 tonnes and 30-5 tonnes of cotton and 260,382 lbs of copra were produced in 1986. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 6,000; pigs, 10,000; sheep, 14,000; goats, 10,000; donkeys, (1984) 1,365; poultry, (1984)67,030. Fisheries. Catch (1983) 1,100 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main employer of labour is the sugar industry. Other industries are: Clothing, footwear and assembly of electronic equipment. Commerce. Imports, (1984) EC$1401m. mainly from the USA (EC$55-5m. and U K EC$16-8m.); exports, EC$52-6m. Chief export (1985) was sugar (24,576 tons in 1983), mainly to the USA (EC$24m.) and U K (ECS 10-2m.). Total trade between St Christopher (St Kitts)-Nevis and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 19S7 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

5,634 5,256

4,429 6,008

4,677 7,041

Tourism. In 1986, there were 83,768 tourists, 26,963 arriving by sea. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) about 305 km of roads, and (1987) 2,641 passenger cars and 1,494 commercial vehicles. Railways. There are 36 miles of railway operated by the sugar industry. Aviation. There is an airport at Golden Rock (St Kitts). 66,590 passengers arrived by air in 1985. There is an airfield on Nevis (Newcastle). Shipping. A deep water port was opened in 1981 at Bird Rock with accommodation for cargo, tourist, roll-on-roll-ofT ships and bulk sugar and molasses loading. 1,428 tourists arrived by sea in 1985. Post and Telecommunications. There is a general post office in Basseterre. Five branches are on the island. Charlestown has a general post office, and there are two branches in Nevis. There were 4,000 telephones at 31 Jan. 1988. In 1985 there were 5,000 television and 21,000 radio receivers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by the Supreme Court and by Magistrates' Courts. They have both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Religion. In 1985,36 -2% were Anglican, 32 -3% Methodist, 7-9% other Protestant, and 10-7% Roman Catholic. Education. Primary education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 and 14, but no pupil is required to leave school before the age of 16 years. There is an Extra-Mural Department of the University of the West Indies, a Technical College and a Teachers' Training College. In 1984 there were 7,655 pupils in primary schools, 4,436 in secondary schools, and 240 students in the Technical and Teacher's Training Colleges. Health. In 1987 there were 22 doctors, 4 hospitals with 258 beds and 17 health clinics. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of St Christopher and Nevis in Great Britain (10 Kensington Ct., London W8) High Commissioner: Richard Gunn.

ST CHRISTOPHER (ST KITTS)—NEVIS Of Great Britain in St Christopher and Nevis High Commissioner: Kevin F. X. Burns, C M G (resides in Bridgetown). Of St Christopher and Nevis to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr William Herbert. Books of Reference National Accounts. Statistics Division, Ministry of Development (annual) St Kitts and Nevis Quarterly. Statistics Division, Ministry of Development G o r d o n , J., Nevis: Queen oftheCaribees. London, 1985

Library: Public Library, Basseterre. Librarian: Miss V. Archibald.

1033

Capital: Jamestown Population: 5,895 (1985)

ST HELENA

H I S T O R Y . The island was administered by the East India Company from 1659 and became a British colony in 1834. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . St Helena, of volcanic origin, is 1,200 miles from the west coast of Africa. Area, 47 sq. miles (121 - 7 sq. km), with a cultivable area of about 600 acres (243 hectares). Population (1985) 5,895. The port of the island is Jamestown, population (1976) 1,516. In 1982 there were: Births, 123; deaths, 52; marriages, 26. C L I M A T E . A mild climate, with little variation. Temperatures range from 75-85°F (24-29°C) in summer to 65-75°F(18-24°C) in winter. Rainfall varies between 13" (325 mm) and 3 7 " (925 mm) according to altitude and situation. G O V E R N M E N T . The Government of St Helena is administered by a Governor, with the aid of a Legislative Council consisting of the Governor, 2 exofficio members (the Government Secretary and the Treasurer) and 12 elected members. Committees of the Legislative Council are responsible for the general oversight of the activities of government departments and have, in addition, statutory and administrative functions. The Governor is also assisted by an Executive Council consisting of the 2 exojficio members and the chairmen of the five Council committees. Governor and C.-in-C.: R. F. Stimson. Government Secretary: E. C. Brooks, OBE. Flag: The British Blue Ensign with the shield of the colony in the fly. F I N A N C E A N D T R A D E , for years from 1 April-31 March, in £ sterling: 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 19821

Revenue' 2,244,550 2,683,681 4,226,899 4,488,257 5,656,518 4,126,548 Expenditure' 2,200,299 2,764,150 4,325,910 4,551,657 5,681,934 3,988,900 2 Imports 1,758,337 1,164,437 1,835,000 2,1 17,126 2,485,819 2,381,632 'Including imperial grants (1977-78, £1,657,231; 1978-79, £1,771,618; 1979-80, £3,347,631; 1980-81,£3,232,093; 1981-82, £3,296,933; 1982,£2,819,256). 2 Including government stores. J April-Dec.

The revenue from customs was, in 1982, £305,635. The colony's liabilities at 31 March 1982 exceeded the assets by £177,060; 31 Dec. 1982, £39,412. Total trade between Ascension and St Helena and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

457 10,343

979 6,294

4,515 7,914

380 8,196

189 8,065

B A N K I N G . Savings-bank deposits on 31 Dec. 1982, £1,467,079, belonging to 3,800 depositors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1987) 87 km of all-weather motor roads. Shipping. The number of merchant vessels that called in 1982 (April-Dec.) was 30; total tonnage entered and cleared was 218,257. Post and Broadcasting. The Cable & Wireless Ltd cable connects St Helena with Cape Town and Ascension Island. There is a telephone service with 85 miles of wire and (1982), 310 telephones. St Helena Government Broadcasting Station broadcasts in English on mediumwaves. Number of radio receivers (1982), 1,500. 1034

ST HELENA

1035

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Police force, 32; cases dealt with by police magistrate, 205 in 1981. Religion. There are 10 Anglican churches, 4 Baptist chapels, 3 Salvation Army halls, 1 Seventh Day Adventist church and 1 Roman Catholic church. Education. Three pre-school playgroups, 8 primary, 3 senior and 1 secondary schools controlled by the Government had 980 pupils in Sept. 1982. Health. There were 3 doctors, 1 dentist and 54 hospital beds in 1982. Ascension is a small island of volcanic origin, of 34 sq. miles (88 sq. km), 700 miles north-west of St Helena. In Nov. 1922 the administration was transferred from the Admiralty to the Colonial Office and annexed to the colony of St Helena. There are 120 hectares providing fresh meat, vegetables and fruit. Population, 31 March 1985, was 1,708; St Helenians 759, others 866. The island is the resort of sea turtles, which come to lay their eggs in the sand annually between Jan. and May. Rabbits are more or less numerous on the island, which is, besides, the breeding ground of the sooty tern or 'wideawake', these birds coming in vast numbers to lay their eggs every eighth month. There is also a small herd of feral donkeys. Cable & Wireless Ltd own and operate a cable station, connecting the island with St Helena, Sierra Leone, St Vincent, Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires. There is an airstrip (Miracle Mile) near the settlement of Georgetown which was being extended in 1985. Administrator: M. T. S. Blick. Tristan da Cunha, is the largest of a small group of islands in the South Atlantic lying 1,320 miles (2,124 sq. km) south-west of St Helena, of which they became dependencies on 12 Jan. 1938. Tristan da Cunha has an area of 98 sq. km and a population (1982) of 325, all living in the settlement of Edinburgh. Inaccessible Island (10 sq. km) lies 20 miles west and the 3 Nightingale Islands (2 sq. km) lie 20 miles south of Tristan da Cunha; they are uninhabited. Gough Island (90 sq. km) is 220 miles south of Tristan and has a meteorological station. Tristan consists of a volcano rising to a height of6,760 ft, with a circumference at its base o f 2 1 miles. The volcano, believed to be extinct, erupted unexpectedly early in Oct. 1961. The whole population was evacuated without loss and settled temporarily in the UK. In 1963 they returned to Tristan where they all dwell in the settlement of Edinburgh. Before the disaster occurred the habitable area was a small plateau on the north west side of about 12 sq. miles, 100 ft above sea-level. Only about 30 acres was under cultivation, three-quarters of it for potatoes. There were apple and peach trees. Potatoes remain the chief crop, cattle, sheep and pigs are now reared, and fish are plentiful. Population in 1880, 109; in 1983, 296. The original inhabitants were shipwrecked sailors and soldiers who remained behind when the garrison from St Helena was withdrawn in 1817. At the end of April 1942 Tristan da Cunha was commissioned as H M S Atlantic Isle, and became an important meteorological and radio station. In Jan. 1949 a South African company commenced crawfishing operations. An Administrator was appointed at the end of 1948 and a body of basic law brought into operation. The Island Council, which was set u p in 1932, in 1982 consisted of a Chief Islander, 3 nominated and 7 elected members under the chairmanship of the Administrator. Administrator: R. Perry. Books of Reference Crawford, A., Tristan da Cunha and the Roaring Forties. Edinburgh, 1982 Cross, A., Saint Helena. Newton Abbot, 1980 Munch, P. A., Sociology of Tristan da Cunha. Oslo, 1945.—Crisis in Utopia. New York, 1971

Capital: Castries Population: 143,600(1987) GNPper capita: US$ 1,105 ( 1984)

ST LUCIA

H I S T O R Y . St Lucia was discovered about 1500 A.D. Attempts to colonize the island by the English took place in 1605 and 1638. The French settled in 1650 and St Lucia was ceded to Britain in 1814. Self-government was achieved in 1967 and independence on 22 Feb. 1979. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . St Lucia is a small island o f t h e Lesser Antilles situated in the Eastern Caribbean between Martinique and St Vincent, with an area of 238 sq. miles (617 sq. km); population (census, 1980) 120,300. Estimate (1987) 143,600. The capital is Castries (population, 1980,45,763). Life expectancy (1985) was 68-6 (men) and 75-5 (women). CLIMATE. The climate is tropical, with a dry season lasting from Jan. to April, a wet season from May to Aug., followed by an Indian summer for two months, but most rain falls in Nov. and Dec. Amounts vary over the year, according to altitude, from 60" (1,500 mm) to 138" (3,450 mm). Temperatures are uniform at about 80°F(26-7°C). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . There is a 17-seat House of Assembly elected for 5 years; an 11 -seat Senate appointed by the GovernorGeneral, 6 on the advice of the Prime Minister, 3 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, and 2 'after consultation with appropriate religious, economic or social bodies or associations'. At the elections in April 1987, the United Workers' Party gained 9 seats, and the St Lucia Labour Party, 8. Governor-General: Sir Vincent Floissac, CMG, QC. Prime Minister: Rt Hon. John George Melvin Compton. Flag: Blue with a design of a black triangle edged in white, bearing a smaller yellow triangle, in the centre. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. St Lucia is a member of UN, OAS, Caricom, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The aim of the Development Plan, 1977-90, is to develop agriculture to diversify production and to contain rural-urban drift. Budget. The budget in 1986-87 amounted to ECS232 • 6m. expenditure. Banking. There are Barclays Bank International with 4 branches and 2 agencies, the Royal Bank of Canada with 1 branch, the Bank of Nova Scotia with 3 branches, the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce and the St Lucia Co-operative bank with 2 branches each, the National Development Bank with 1 branch and the National Commercial Bank with 3 branches. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1986, laundry soap, coconut meal, rum, beverages and clothing were the chief products. Agriculture. Bananas, cocoa, copra and coconut oil are the chief products. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 12,000; pigs, 12,000; sheep, 15,000; goats, 12,000. Commerce. Value of imports (1985), EC$337-5m.; of exports, EC$140-5m., 1036

1037

ST L U C I A

including coconut oil, cocoa beans, copra and bananas. Main items of imports were artificial silk and cotton piece-goods, cement, plastic goods, iron and steel products, hardware, motor vehicles, agricultural machinery, fertilizers, wheat flour, codfish and rice, meat and meat preparations. Total trade between St Lucia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from U K

1985

44,047 11,550

1986

59,855 12,441

1987

40,908 13,196

Tourism. The total number of visitors during 1986 was 171,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The island has 500 miles of main and secondary roads, and 9,133 vehicles in 1984. Aviation. The island is served on a scheduled basis by Leeward Islands Air Transport, British West Indian Airways, Eastern Airline, British Airways, Pan Am, Caribbean Airways and Air Canada. There are 2 airfields—Hewanorra International Airport, with 9,000 ft runway, and Vigie. Shipping. There are 2 ports, Castries and Vieux Fort. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1986) 13,654 telephone instruments coupled to 7,960 exchange lines; 157 telex machines, and telegram service. There were 5,000 T V and 92,000 radio receivers in 1985. Cinemas. There were 8 cinemas in 1986. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The island is divided into 2 judicial districts, and there are 9 magistrates' courts. Appeals lie with the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court of Appeal. Police establishment in 1986 was 14 officers, 16 inspectors, 11 station sergeants, 39 sergeants, 58 corporals and 333 constables. Religion. In 1981 over 86% of the population was Roman Catholic. Education (1985-86). 79 primary schools, with 32,273 pupils on roll. Primary education is free and compulsory by law, but the legislation is not enforced. There are 12 secondary schools (2 Roman Catholic, 1 Seventh-day Adventist, 9 government) with 5,665 pupils. There is 1 technical college with (1985—86) 223 students and 1 teachers'college with (1985-86) 123 students. Health. Victoria Hospital (in Castries) has 213 beds; there is also a 162-bed mental hospital, 3 other hospitals (150 beds) and 29 health centres. In 1984 there were 58 doctors, 5 dentists and 236 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of St Lucia in Great Britain (10 Kensington Ct., London, W8) High Commissioner: Richard Gunn. Of Great Britain in St Lucia (Colombus Sq., Castries) High Commissioner: Kevin F. X. Bums, C M G (resides in Bridgetown). Of St Lucia in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Joseph Edsel Edmunds. Book of Reference Ellis, G S t Lucia: Helen of the West Indies. L o n d o n , 1985

Library: The Central Library, Castries. Acting Librarian: Frances Niles.

ST VINCENT A N D THE GRENADINES

^™!™(]985) GNP per capita:

VSmO(m3)

H I S T O R Y . The date of discovery of St Vincent was 22 January 1498. In 1969 St Vincent became a self-governing Associated State of U K and acquired full independence on 27 Oct. 1979. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . St Vincent is an island of the Lesser Antilles, situated in the Eastern Caribbean between St Lucia and Grenada, from which latter it is separated by a chain of small islands known as the Grenadines. The total area of 388 sq. km (150 sq. miles) comprise the island of St Vincent itself (345 sq. km) and the Northern Grenadines (43 sq. km) of which the largest are Bequia, Mustique, Canouan, Mayreau and Union. The population at the 1970 Census was 86,314; latest estimate (1985) was 138,000 of whom 10,000 lived on the Northern Grenadines. The capital, Kingstown, had 33,694 inhabitants in 1982 (including suburbs). The population is mainly of black (66%) and mixed (24%) origin, with small white, Asian and Amerindian minorities. Vital statistics (1986): Live births, 2,910; still births, 21; deaths, 651; marriages, 349. CLIMATE. The climate is tropical marine, with north-east Trades predominating and rainfall ranging from 150" (3,750 mm) a year in the mountains to 6 0 " (1,500 mm) on the south-east coast. The rainy season is from June to Dec., and temperatures are equable throughout the year. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The House of Assembly consists of 13 elected members, directly elected for a 5-year term from single-member constituencies, the Attorney-General (elected) and 6 Senators appointed by the Governor-General (4 on the advice of the Prime Minister and 2 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition). At the General Elections held in July 1984, the New Democratic Party won 9 and the St Vincent Labour Party won 4 of the 13 elective seats in the House of Assembly. Governor-General: Joseph Lambert Eustace. Prime Minister: Rt. Hon. James Fitz Allen Mitchell. Deputy Prime Minister: Edward Griffith. National Flag: Three vertical stripes of blue, yellow, green, with the yellow of double width and charged with three green diamonds. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. St Vincent and the Grenadines is a member of UN, OAS, Caricom, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Development Plan, 1986-89, aims to encourage exports, reduce imports and to develop agriculture. Budget. Revenue (estimate), 1986-87, $173,804,000; expenditure, $173,804,000. Public debt at the end of the financial year 1985-86 was $57,905,110. Currency. The currency is the Eastern Caribbean dollar. In March 1988, £1 = EC$4-79;US$1 =EC$2-70. Banking. There are branches of Barclays Bank International, the Caribbean Bank1038

ST V I N C E N T A N D T H E

1039

GRENADINES

ing Corporation, the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce, the Bank of Nova Scotia. Locally-owned banks: the National Commercial Bank, St Vincent Cooperative Bank and the St Vincent Agricultural Credit and Loan Bank. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 31m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Agriculture accounted for 18 1% of GDP in 1986. According to the 1985-86 census of agriculture, 29,649 acres of the total acreage of 85,120 were classified as agricultural lands; 5,500 acres were under forest and woodland and all other lands accounted for 1,030 acres. The total arable land was about 8,932 acres, of which 4,016 acres were under temporary crops, 2,256 acres under temporary pasture, 2,289 acres under temporary fallow and other arable land covering 371 acres. 16,062 acres were under permanent crops, of which approximately 5,500 acres were under coconuts and 7,224 acres under bananas; the remainder produce cocoa, citrus, mangoes, avocado pears, guavas and miscellaneous crops. The sugar industry was closed down in 198 5 although some sugar-cane will be grown for rum production. Production (1986, in tonnes): Coconuts, 22,000; bananas, 46,000. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 8,000; pigs, 7,000; sheep, 14,000; goats, 4,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries include assembly of electronic equipment, manufacture of garments, electrical products, animal feeds and flour, corrugated galvanized sheets, exhaust systems, industrial gases, concrete blocks, plastics, soft drinks, beer and rum, wood products and furniture, and processing of milk, fruit juices and food items. Commerce (1986). Imports, EC$235,637,439; exports, EC$174,434,598. Principal exports, 1986 in ECS: Arrowroot starch, 978,163; eddoes and dasheen, 31,636,546; sweet potatoes, 15,430,821; tannias, 14,503,151; bananas, 53,322,040; coconuts, 824,403; mangoes, 951,543; yams, 1,101,959; plantain, 4,673,347. Total trade between St Vincent and the Grenadines and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1985 22,339 6,600

1986 21,161 8,288

1987 20,208 8,529

Labour (1987). The Department of Labour is charged with looking after the interest and welfare of all categories of workers, including providing advice and guidance to employers/employees and their organizations and enforcing the labour laws. Tourism. There were 97,000 visitors in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1987) 620 km of all-weather roads, 453 km of rough motorable roads and 180 km of tracks. Aviation. Scheduled services are operated daily by LI AT, Air Martinique and Winlink. Non-scheduled services are operated by Mustique Airways, Tropical Air Services, Aero-Services and St Lucia Airways. Passengers are able to travel daily through the chain of islands stretching as far north as San Juan, Puerto Rico and south to Trinidad. Connexions to the USA, Canada, South America and Europe are possible via Barbados, Antigua, Trinidad and St Lucia. Shipping (1987): 38 auxiliary sailing vessels of 1,510 N R T entered and cleared. 659 motor vessels of805,261 N R T entered and cleared. 47 tankers of41,798 N R T bringing 18,925 • 13 tons of fuel entered. Post and Broadcasting. There is a General Post Office at Kingstown and 49 district post offices. There is an automatic telephone system with (1987), 6,145 sub-

1040

ST V I N C E N T A N D T H E

GRENADINES

scribers; 7,950 stations and a digital radio link to Bequia, Mustique and Union Island; V H F links Petit St Vincent and Palm Island. In 1987 there were 12,000 TV and 60,000 radio receivers. Cinemas. There were 2 cinemas in 1987 with a seating capacity of 1,825. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D

WELFARE

Justice (1986). There were 3,699 criminal matters disposed of in the 3 magisterial districts which comprise 11 courts. Strength of police force (1982), 525 (including 12 officers). Religion. At the 1970 Census, 47% of the population was Anglican, 28% Methodist and 13% Roman Catholic. Education (1986). Sixty-one primary schools; pupils on roll, 24,561. Expenditure on primary education, $ 13,674,257. There is also a secondary school for girls (684 pupils), a co-educational school (578 pupils), as well as 11 assisted secondary schools (3,246 pupils) and 7 rural secondary schools with 1,729 pupils. Expenditure on secondary education, $3,789,128. There is a private secondary school with 298 pupils. Health. There were (1987) a General Hospital in Kingstown (204 beds), 5 rural hospitals at Chateaubelair, Georgetown, Mesopotamia, Bequia and Union Island; 1 psychiatric hospital (120 beds); 1 geriatric hospital (120 beds); 35 medical clinics and 1 private hospital (10 beds). In 1987 there were 39 doctors, 2 dentists, 80 technical stafT, 236 trained nursing personnel and 85 community health aides. Library: St Vincent Public Library, Kingstown. Librarian: Mrs Lorna Small.

DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of St Vincent and the Grenadines in Great Britain (10 Kensington Ct, London, W8) High Commissioner: Richard Gunn. Of Great Britain in St Vincent and the Grenadines High Commissioner: K. F. X. Burns, C M G (resides in Bridgetown). Of St Vincent and the Grenadines to the U N Ambassador: Jonathan Peters.

SAN

MARINO

Capital: San Marino Population: 22,638 (1986)

Repubblica di San Marino H I S T O R Y . On 22 March 1862 San Marino concluded a treaty of friendship and co-operation, including a de facto customs union with the kingdom of Italy, preserving the independence of the ancient republic, although completely surrounded by Italian territory. The treaty was renewed on 27 March 1872, 28 June 1897 and 31 March 1939, with several amendments 1942-85. The republic has extradition treaties with Belgium, France, the Netherlands, UK and USA. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . San Marino is a land-locked state in central Italy, 20 km from the Adriatic. The frontier line is 38-6 km in length, area is 61 • 19 sq. km (24 1 sq. miles) and the population (31 Dec. 1986), 22,638; some 11,000 citizens live abroad. The capital, San Marino, had 4,363 inhabitants (1986); the largest town is Serravalle (7,109), an industrial centre in the north. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The legislative power is vested in the Great and General Council of 60 members elected every 5 years by popular vote, 2 of whom are appointed every 6 months to act as regents (Capitani reggenti). The elections held on 29 May 1983 gave 26 seats to the Christian Democrats, 15 to the Communists, 17 to Socialist parties, 2 to others. The regents (who are Heads of State) exercise executive power together with the Congress of State (Congresso di Stato), which comprises the regents, 3 secretaries of state and 7 ministers, and through Commissions on social welfare, public works, etc. National flag: Horizontally white over light blue, with the national arms over all in the centre. D E F E N C E . Military service is not obligatory, but all citizens between the ages of 16 and 55 can be called upon to defend the State. They may also serve as volunteers in the Military Corps. E C O N O M Y . The budget (ordinary and extraordinary) for the financial year ending31 Dec. 1986 balancedat259,962,035,017 lire. Wheat, barley, maize and vines are grown. The chief exports are wood machinery, chemicals, wine, textiles, tiles, varnishes and ceramics. Italian currency is in general use, but the republic issues its own postage stamps and coins. In 1985,3m. tourists visited San Marino. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. A bus service connects San Marino with Rimini. There are 237 km of roads and (1986) 16,540 passenger cars and 3,225 commercial vehicles. Post. In 1986 there were 11,707 telephones. Cinemas. In 1987 there were 7 cinemas with a seating capacity of 1,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Law is administered by a Commissioner for civil cases and a Commissioner for criminal cases (acting with a penal judge), from whom appeals can be 1041

1042

SAN

MARINO

made to a civil appeals judge and a criminal appeals judge respectively. The highest legal authority is, in certain cases, the Consiglio dei XII. Civil marriage was instituted in Sept. 1953 and divorce allowed in April 1986. Religion. 95% of the population are Roman Catholic. Education. There are 19 infant schools, 16 elementary schools, a secondary school and a grammar school, the diplomas of which are recognized by Italian universities. There is also a foreign languages school, a technical school and a trade and handicraft school. Health. In 1987 there were 149 hospital beds and 60 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES British Consul- General (resides at Florence): Ivor-Jon Rawlinson. Consul-General in London: Lord Forte. Books of Reference Information: Office of Cultural Affairs and Information of the Department of Foreign Affairs. Garbelotto, A., Evoluzione storica della costituzione di S. Marino. Milan, 1956 Matteini,N., The Republic of San Marino. San Marino, 1981 Packett, C. N., Guide to the Republic of San Marino. Bradford, 1970 Rossi, G., San Marino. San Marino, 1954

r

SAO TOMÉ E PRINCIPE

Capital: Sâo Tomé Population: 113,000(1987) GNP per capita: US$310 (1983)

H I S T O R Y . The islands of Sâo Tomé and Príncipe, were discovered in 1471 by Pedro Escobar and Joâo Gomes, and from 1522 constituted a Portugese colony. On 11 June 1951 it became an overseas province of Portugal. On 26 Nov. 1974 the Government of Portugal and the liberation movement of Sâo Tomé e Principe signed an agreement granting independence to the archipelago on 12 July 1975. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The republic, which lies about 200 km off the west coast of Gabon, in the Gulf of Guinea, comprises the main islands of Sâo Tomé (845 sq. km) and Principe and several smaller islets including Pedras Tinhosas and Rolas. It has a total area of 1,001 sq. km (387 sq. miles). Total population (census, 1981 ) 96,611. Estimate ( 1987) 113,000. The areas and populations of the 2 provinces were as follows: Province Sâo Tomé Principe

Sq.km 859 142

Census 1981 91,356 5,255

Estimate 1987 106,900 6,100

Chief town SâoTomé Sâo Antonio

Estimate 1984 34,997 1,000

The official language is Portuguese, but 90% speak Fang, a Bantu language. Vital statistics (1985): Births, 3,700; deaths, 900. CLIMATE. The tropical climate is modified by altitude and the effect of the cool Benguela current. The wet season is generally from Oct. to May, but rainfall varies very much, from 4 0 " (1,000 mm) in the hot and humid north-east to 150-200" (3,800-5,000 mm) on the plateau. Sâo Tomé. Jan. 79°F (261°C), July 75°F (23 -9°C). Annual rainfall 38" (951 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was approved by the Constitutional Assembly (elected 6 July 1975) on 12 Dec. 1975. Under it, the sole legal party is the Movimento de Libertaçâo de Sâo Tomé e Principe, who nominate candidates for the Presidency and People's Assembly. The President is elected by the People's Assembly for a 4-year term; he is also head of government and appoints a Cabinet of Ministers to assist him. The 40-member People's Assembly is also elected for 4 years. President, Prime Minister, Economy and Planning: Dr Manuel Pinto da Costa (re-elected 30 Sept. 1985). Foreign Affairs: Guilherme Posser da Costa. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, green, with the yellow of double width and bearing 2 black stars; in the hoist a red triangle over all. Local government: Sâo Tomé province comprises 6 districts, while Principe province forms a seventh district. D E F E N C E . About 700 Angolan and 200 Cuban military personnel are stationed on the islands. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Sâo Tomé e Príncipe is a member of UN, OAU and is an ACP state ofEEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 5-year Development Plan (1986-90) gives priority to industry, energy, construction and agriculture. 1043

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SÂO T O M É E P R I N C I P E

Budget. In 1984 the budget envisaged revenue of654 -9m. dobra and expenditure of 921 m. dobra. Currency. The currency is the dobra, introduced in 1977, divided into 100 centavos. In March 1988, £1 = 130-54 dobra; US$1 =73 -47 dobra. Banking. Banco Nacional de Sâo Tomé e Principe (established, 1975) is the central bank. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 3m. kwh. Agriculture. Most land is state-owned and former plantations run as co-operatives. About 38% of the area is under cultivation. Production (1983 in tonnes): Cacao, 4,451; copra, 3,727; bananas, 3,641; palm oil (1982), 1,100. Food crops include cassava, sweet potatoes and yams. In 1986 there were 4,000 goats, 2,000 sheep, 3,000 pigs and 3,000 cattle. Fisheries. The fishing industry is being developed, to exploit the rich tuna shoals. Catch (1984)4,289 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . Imports in 1984 amounted to 485-9m. dobras and exports to 5 39 -6m. dobras the main exports being cocoa (80%), copra (15%), coffee, bananas and palm-oil. Portugal provided 30% of imports while the German Democratic Republic took 35% of exports, the Netherlands 18% and Portugal 15%. Total trade between Sâo Tomé e Principe and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 450 962

1985 197 824

1 986 327 455

1 987 205 329

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were 288 km of roads ( 198 paved) in 1975. Aviation. Sâo Tomé aiiport is linked by regular services to Douala, Lisbon, Luanda, Cabinda, Libreville, Malabo and Brazil, as well as to Principe. Shipping. In 1975,70 vessels entered the port of Sâo Tomé to unload 26,693 tonnes and load 9,880 tonnes. Post. There were (1983) 25,000 radio receivers and 6,074 telephones. Cinemas. In 1972 there was 1 cinema with a seating capacity of 1,000. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 2 weekly newspapers. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE. Justice. Members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the People's Assembly. Religion. About 80% of the population are Roman Catholic. Education. In 1984 there were 19,086 pupils and 517 teachers in 63 primary schools, 6,186 pupils and 300 teachers in 11 secondary schools, and 370 students and 35 teachers in 2 technical schools. Health. In 1981 there were 38 doctors and 118 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Sâo Tomé and Principe Ambassador: M. J. C. Glaze (resides in Luanda). Of Sâo Tomé and Principe in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: Joaquim Rafael Branco.

SAUDI

ARABIA

Capital: Riyadh Population: 11 -52m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$8,000 (1985)

al-Mamlaka al-'Arabiya as-Sa'udiya H I S T O R Y . Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul Aziz ibn Abdur-Rahman alFaisal A1 Sa'ud, GCB, GCIE (born about 1880; died 9 Nov. 1953), who had been proclaimed King of the Hejaz on 8 Jan. 1926 and had in 1927 changed his title of Sultan of Nejd and its dependencies to that of king, thus becoming 'King of the Hejaz and of Nejd and its Dependencies'. On 20 May 1927 a treaty was signed at Jiddah between Great Britain and Ibn Sa'ud, by which the former recognized the complete independence of the dominions of the latter. The name of the State was changed to 'The Saudi Arabian Kingdom' by decree of 23 Sept. 1932. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Saudi Arabia, which occupies over 70% of the Arabian peninsula, is bounded west by the Red Sea, east by the Gulf and the United Arab Emirates, north by Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait, south by the Yemen Arab Republic, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and Oman. The total area is estimated to be 849,400 sq. miles (2 -2m. sq. km). The principal cities of the Western Province (formerly Hejaz) are Jiddah (561,104 inhabitants at the 1974 Census), Mecca (366,801), Taif (204,857) and Medina (198,196); of the Central Province (formerly Nejd) are Riyadh, the national capital (666,840), Buraidah (69,940), Ha'il (40,502), Uneiza and AlKhaij; of the Northern Province are Tabouk (74,825), Al-Jawf and Sakaka; of the Eastern Province (formerly Al-Hasa) are Dammam (127,844), Hofuf (101,271), Haradh (100,000), Al-Mobarraz (54,325), Al-Khobar (48,817) and Qatif; and of the Southern Province (formerly Asir) are Khamis-Mushait (49,581), Najran (47,501), Jisan (32,814) and Abha (30,150). New industrial cities are being built at Jubail and Yanbu on the Gulf. Taif, about 3,800ft above sea-level and some 50 miles from Mecca, is a summer resort. The total population was (1974 census) 7,012,642, of which 5,128,655 were categorized as settled and 1,883,987 as nomadic. Estimate (1986) 11 -52m. C L I M A T E . A desert climate, with very little rain and none at all from June to Dec. The months May to Sept. are very hot and humid, but winter temperatures are quite pleasant. Riyadh. Jan. 58°F (14-4°C), July 92°F (33-3°C). Annual rainfall 4 " (100 mm). Jiddah. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 87"F (30-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 " (81 mm). KING. Fahd ibn Abdul Aziz; succeeded in May 1982, after King Khalid's death. Crown Prince: Prince Abdullah ibn Abdul Aziz, First Deputy Prime Minister, Commander of the National Guard, brother of the King. National flag: Green, with the text 'There is no God but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet' in white Arabic script, and beneath this a white sabre. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Kingdom has been welded together from Hejaz, Nejd, Asir and Al-Hasa. Riyadh is the political capital and Mecca the religious capital. There is no formal Constitution. The King has the post of Prime Minister. First Deputy Prime Minister and Commander of the National Guard: Prince Abdullah ibn Abdul Aziz. Second Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Defence and Civil Aviation: Prince Sultan ibn Abdul Aziz. 1045

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SAUDI ARABIA

Public Works and Housing: Prince Miteb ibn Abdul Aziz. Interior: Prince Naif ibn Abdul Aziz. Foreign Affairs: Prince Saud al Faisal. Labour and Social Affairs: Muhammad al-Ali al-Fayiz. Communications: Hussein Ibrahim al Mansouri. Finance and National Economy: Muhammad Ali Aba'l Khail. Information: Ali ibn Hasan al-Shaer. Industry and Electricity: Dr Abdul Aziz al Zamil. Commerce: Dr Sulaiman Abdul Aziz al Sulaim. Justice: Sheikh Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al Shaikh. Education and Acting Higher Education: Dr Abdul Aziz al Abdullah al Khuwaiter. Petroleum and Mineral Resources and Planning: Hisham Nazer. Haj Affairs, Waqfs: Abdul Wahhab Ahmad Abdul Wasi. Municipal and Rural Affairs: Ibrahim ibn Abdullah al Angari. Agriculture and Water: Dr Abdul Rahman ibn Abdul Aziz ibn Hasan al Shaikh. Health: Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz al Hejailan. Posts and Telecommunications: Dr Alawi Darwish Kayyal. Without Portfolio: Fayez Badr. Pilgrimage and Endowments: Abdul Wahhab Ahmed Abdul Wasi. There are 7 Ministers of State. There are provisions for the setting up of certain advisory councils, comprising a consultative Legislative Assembly in Mecca, municipal councils in each of the towns of Mecca, Medina and Jiddah, and village and tribal councils throughout the provinces. The country is divided for administrative purposes into 14 Regions (Emirates). D E F E N C E . The US maintains a Military Mission (with an Air Force element) as do France and Pakistan. Personnel are trained in Saudi Arabia, France, Pakistan, UK and the USA. Army. The Army comprises 4 armoured brigades, 4 mechanized brigades, 1 airborne brigade, 1 Royal Guard regiment, 23 artillery battalions and 1 infantry brigade. Equipment is mainly US or French (M101, M l 0 9 and M l 9 8 artillery, M113 APCs, M60 tanks, AMX30 tanks. There are 15 surface-to-air batteries with HAWK and 17 with Shahine. Total strength of Army (1988) approximately 45,000. There are para-military forces with the Ministry of Interior; Frontier Force and Coastguard (approximately 8,500) and Special Security Force (1,800). National Guard. The National Guard comprises 1 mechanized brigade (trained by the US), 1 Special Security Unit. An additional mechanized brigade is planned. Additionally there are a number of regular and irregular units, the total strength of the National Guard amounting to approximately 25,000. The National Guard's primary role is the protection of the Royal Family and vital points in the Kingdom. It does not come under command of the Ministry of Defence and Aviation. UK provides small advisory teams to the National Guard. Navy. The Royal Saudi Naval Forces, with recent modernization programme impetus under the aegis of USA and France, comprise 4 new French-built guided missile frigates of 2,600 tons, 4 new US-built missile-armed fast corvettes of 800 tons, 9 fast missile craft of 380 tons (all completed in 1980-82 in USA), 3 exGerman torpedo boats, 4 US-built MSC-type coastal minesweepers, 2 new Frenchbuilt armed replenishment ships of 10,500 tonnes each with 2 helicopters, 1 ex-US coastguard cutter, 8 new French-built patrol craft, 40 coastal patrol boats, 18 hovercraft, 2 air-sea rescue launches, 1 training ship, 4 utility landing craft, 12 minor landing craft, 1 salvage vessel, 2 tugs, and 2 royal yachts (with helicopter). New construction planned includes 2 large guided missile frigates, 6 submarines and a submarine parent ship. There are 24 Dauphin helicopters. An intensive training programme continued in USA and Saudi Arabia. $70m. was spent on three naval bases. The main port facilities are at Jubail and Jedda. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 7,500 officers and other ranks plus instructors and trainees. RSNF rely on considerable US and Pakistan support. The Coast Guard operates over 450 craft including 160 coastal patrol craft, 300 inshore patrol cutters, 1 training ship, 3 small oilers, 4 fire-fighting craft, 2 yachts and 12 service craft. Eight large patrol craft are planned. Air Force. Formed as a small army support unit in 1932, the Air Force has been built up considerably with British and US assistance since 1946. Complete reequipment began in 1966 and delivery of 45 F-15 Eagles to equip 3 air superiority

SAUDI

ARABIA

1047

squadrons was made in 1982-84; they operate in conjunction with 5 E-3A Sentry AWACS aircraft and 8 KC-707 flight refuelling tankers. Current combat units include 3 squadrons of F-5E Tiger II supersonic fighter-bombers and RF-5E Tigereye reconnaissance aircraft, supported by a conversion unit with F-5B/F combat trainers. One squadron has formed with Tomado strike aircraft, of which 48 are on order, plus 24 Tomado interceptors. Two squadrons of Strikemaster light jet attack/trainers are based at the King Faisal Air Academy, Riyadh, together with 12 Reims/Cessna FR172 piston-engined primary trainers, PC-9 basic trainers, Hawk advanced trainers and Jetstream navigation trainers. Other types in current service include 40 C-130E/H KC-130H Hercules transports and tankers, 4 C-130H hospital aircraft, 1 Boeing 747 SP, 1 Boeing 747-200, 1 Boeing 737, 1 Boeing 707,4 CN-235s and 2 JetStar VIP jet transports, more than 60 Agusta-Bell 205,212 and JetRanger helicopters, 2 Agusta AS-61A-4 VIP transport helicopters and communications aircraft. Personnel (1988), about 15,000. Air Defence Command. This separate Command was formerly part of the Army, which retains a point air defence capability. It is heavily reliant on Pakistan assistance, particularly manpower. Equipment comprises approximately 18 Crotale missile systems, 15 batteries of Improved Hawk surface-to-air missiles, 30 mm Oerlikon and 20 mm Vulcan guns. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Saudi Arabia is a member of UN, the Arab League, the Gulf Cooperation Council and OPEC. ECONOMY Planning. The third development plan ran 1980-85, and emphasized industrial development and the training of an indigenous work force. The fourth development plan 1985-90 was launched on 22 March 1985. Expenditure is envisaged at US$277,000m. Budget. In 1986 the financial year was changed to the calendar year. The 1988 budget provided for expenditure of 141,200m. rials. There is no public debt. Currency. The paper rial is divided into 100 halalas. In March 1988, £1 = 6-64 rials-,US$1 =3-75 rials. Banking. The Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, established in 1953, is the central bank and the government's fiscal agent. There are 11 commercial banks. Two are wholly owned by Saudi interests (National Commercial Bank and the Riyadh Bank). The other 9 are majority-owned by Saudi shareholders. In 1985 total deposits in commercial banks were US$111,000m. and total assets were 143,000m. rials. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. 49,925m. kwh. was generated by the main electricity companies in 1985. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 and 60 Hz. Oil. The first general geologic-geographical survey of Saudi Arabia was completed in 1961 under the joint sponsorship of the Saudi Arabian and US governments but surveying continues. Reserves (1986) 167,000m. bbls. Oil production began in 1938 by Aramco, which is now 100% state-owned and accounts for about 97% of total crude oil production, with Getty and the Arabian Oil Co. accounting for the remainder. Crude oil production in 1987 was 209-5m. tonnes. Crude oil exports in 1985 were 1,216m. bbls, of which Aramco provided 97-4%, Arabian Oil 1-94% and Getty Oil 0-6%. 1985 oil exports earned US$30,000m. (95m. for crude) and Aramco earned 98% of this total. Production comes from 14 major oilfields, mostly in the Eastern Region, the

1048

SAUDI

ARABIA

most important of which are Ghawar (believed to be the world's largest oilfield), Abqaiq, Safaniyah (the largest offshore field) and Bern. New fields have been discovered onshore at Farhah and Assahba and deeper pools offshore at Maijan, Safaniya and Zuluf, and during 1984 117 new wells were drilled and 4 seismic explorations conducted. In 1981 a pipeline from the eastern oilfields to the Red Sea oil terminal at Yanbu was completed and a link to the Iraqi oilfields was completed in 1985. In early 1986 there were 5 domestic refineries: Ras Tanura, refining capacity 450,000 bbls per day (Aramco); Riyadh, 120,000 bbls per day, Jiddah, 96,000 bbls per day and Yanbu, 170,000 bbls per day (Petromin); Rasal-Khafji, 13,000 bbls per day (Arabian Oil Co.); as well as 3 joint venture export refineries: Yanbu, 250,000 bbls per day (Petromin/Mobil Oil); Jubail, 250,000 bbls per day (Petromin/Shell Saudi Arabia); Rabigh, 325,000 bbls per day (Petromin/Petrola International). Aramco has added a 300 tonne a day sulphur plant to Ras Tanura and operates a 400 tonnes a day desulphurization plant at Jubail. Gas. In 1984 production of liquefied natural gas from oilfield associated and dissolved gas was 355,059 bbls per day. Water Resources. Intensive efforts are underway to provide adequate supplies of water for urban, industrial, rural and agricultural use. There is an important programme to tap non-renewable (3,450m. cu. metres per annum) and renewable (1,145m. cu. metres) water reserves by wells and small dams, and there are plans to reclaim urban waste water. Most investment however has gone into seawater desalination. By early 1985 22 plants in 21 towns had the capacity to produce 2 1m. metres per day and 5 more, totalling 444,200 cu. metres per day were under construction. Another 10, amounting to 475,682 cu. metres per day, were at various stages of planning. Minerals. Surveys were launched during the second and third development plans to investigate potential mineral wealth other than oil. Deposits of several minerals including viable quantities of coal, iron and gold have been found. There are also reports of uranium deposits. Agriculture. Since 1970 the Government has devoted huge resources to raise the Kingdom's agricultural potential, and spent substantially on desert reclamation, irrigation schemes, drainage and control of surface water and control of moving sands. Undeveloped land has been distributed to farmers and there are research and extension programmes. Large scale private investment has concentrated on meat, poultry and dairy production. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) were: Dates, 458; tomatoes, 367; water melons, 509; wheat, 1,700; grapes, 79; milk, 550; poultry meat, 250; red meat, 133; eggs, 130. Livestock estimates for 1985 include 540,000 cattle, 111,000 asses, 171,000 camels, 3-8m. sheep and 2,454,000 goats. Fisheries. Saudi Fisheries, established in 1981, has introduced a wide variety of fish to the domestic market and opened up a thriving export business in shrimps. Annual catch between 16,000 and 20,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The Government actively encourages the establishment of manufacturing industries in the country. The policy includes the provision of industrial estates and loans covering 50% of capital investment. The Government has also established two industrial poles at Jubail and Yanbu, to be the focus of heavy industrial development. Linked by gas and oil pipelines both are to have petrochemical complexes producing, initially, ethylene and methanol, for which agreements have been signed with American and Japanese companies. Nine plants for petrochemicals were on stream in 1988. In addition an integrated steel complex (German partners) and a urea fertilizer factory (Taiwanese), both in Jubail started production in 1983. A new pharmaceutical plant is scheduled for completion in 1990.

1049

SAUDI ARABIA

Employment. The expatriate labour force grew by an average of 11-7% a year between 1980 and 1985. The proportion of non-Saudis in the total labour force rose from 28-2% in 1975 to 60% by 1985. Commerce. Exports in 1986 (in lm. rials) 74,377 of which crude oil, 73%; refined oil, 12%; petro-chemicals, 3-5%. Total imports (1986) 70,780m. rials. Major export destinations in 1984 (value in US$lm.) included: Japan, 13,367; USA, 3,644; Singapore, 2,423. Major import sources in 1984 (value in lm. rials) included: Japan, 23,569; USA, 20,655; Federal Republic of Germany, 9,861; France, 9,253; Italy, 8,595. Total trade between Saudi Arabia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): /0gJ ] m ] m ] m m J ImportstoUK 897,702 Exports and re-exports from UK 1,478,587

545,149 1,387,163

483,634 1,256,081

435,930 1,507,062

383,143 1,978,440

Tourism. In 1984 there were nearly 2m. pilgrims to Mecca from abroad. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. All the main regions and population centres of the Kingdom are linked by asphalted roads, of which there were 29,655 km in 1985 and 52,226 km of graded, unpaved agricultural roads. An additional 12,492 km of roads were under construction including the Trans-Peninsula Expressway. There are road links with Yemen, Jordan, Kuwait and Qatar, and a causeway link to Bahrain is being built. In 1985 there were 2m. passenger cars, 2m. commercial vehicles and about 41,000 buses. Railways. A railway from Riyadh to Dammam on the Gulf (571 km, 1,435 mm gauge) via Dhahran and the oilfields Abqaiq, Ithmaniya (near Hofuf) and Haradh was completed in Oct. 1951. A 'dry port' at Riyadh station opened in 1981, and a new 465 km Dammam-Riyadh direct line was opened throughout in 1985. There are plans to extend the line via Medina to Jiddah. That section of the Hejaz Railway which is in Saudi Arabian territory is not now in working order, but studies have been initiated to restore the whole line from Damascus to Medina. In 1986 railways carried 76m. passenger-km and 758m. tonne-km. Aviation. Saudi Arabian Air Lines, a government-owned company operates regular internal air services, and international routes to Africa, the Middle East, Europe and the Far East, as well as special flights for pilgrims. There are 3 major international airports at Jiddah, Dhahran and Riyadh and 19 domestic airports. King Fahd International Airport in Eastern Province is due to be completed in 1990. In 1985,28 -6m. passengers and 300,000 tonnes of cargo were carried. Shipping. The ports of Dammam and Jubail on the Gulf and Jiddah, Yanbu and Jizan on the Red Sea had 143 deep-water piers by 1985 and discharged 35-9m. freight tonnes. Aramco operates a deepwater oil terminal at Ras Tanura. Post and Broadcasting. Jiddah, Mecca, Taif, Riyadh and Dammam are linked by telephone, Jiddah and Cairo by radio-telephone. An international radio-telephone station at Riyadh was opened in 1956. Number of telephones (1985), 1,216,000. Number of post offices (1985) 591. In 1984 there were (estimate) 2-8m. radio receivers and 2 • 5m. television receivers. Newspapers. In 1985 there were 8 daily newspapers in Arabic and 3 in English and 15 weekly or monthly magazines. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The religious law of Islam is the common law of the land, and is administered by religious courts, at the head of which is a chiefjudge, who is responsible for the Department of Sharia (legal) Affairs. Sharia courts are concerned primarily with family inheritance and property matters. The Committee for the Settlement of Commercial Disputes is the commercial court. Other specialized courts or com-

1050

SAUDI ARABIA

mittees include one dealing exclusively with labour and employment matters; the Negotiable Instruments Committee, which deals with cases relating to cheques, bills of exchange and promissory notes, and the Board of Grievances, whose preserve is disputes with the government or its agencies and which also has jurisdiction in trademark-infringement cases and is the authority for enforcing foreign court judgements. Religion. About 85% are Sunni Moslems and 15% Shiites. Education. Schooling is in three stages, primary, intermediate and secondary which is to prepare older pupils for university; pre-primary schools are being introduced. Education is free in all these stages; monthly scholarships are paid to students in higher education and certain allowances are paid at general education level. Girls' education is administered separately. In 1985 there were 500 pre-primary schools with 55,000 pupils, 7,612 primary schools with 1,242,000 pupils and 79,000 teachers, and 3,314 intermediate/secondary schools with 530,542 students and 40,326 teachers. TTiere were also adult literacy classes (158,521 students, 46% women), and special schools for 2,564 handicapped children. There were 176 teacher-training schools in 1985. In 1985 there were 24 vocational centres, where 4,515 primary school graduates were instructed in basic trades. There were also 8 technical and 26 commercial secondary schools, taking 11,159 intermediate school graduates, and 2 technical and 3 commercial higher institutes (627 students), 21 more advanced industrial, commercial and agricultural education institutes. University courses concentrating on science, engineering, agriculture and medicine, but also covering education, commerce and arts, are available at the King Abdul Aziz University, Jiddah, King Saud University, Riyadh and King Faisal University, Dammam and Hofuf. There are two branches of King Saud University at Abha and Qaseem. King Abdul Aziz University had a branch campus at Taif. Specialized engineering studies are available at the University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, and Arabic and Sharia law studies at the Islamic University, Medina, Imam Mohammad bin Saud University, Riyadh and the Um-AlQura University, Makkah. There were 93,000 university students (35,000 women) and 4,000 post-graduate students in 1984-85. Welfare. The Ministry of Health is responsible for medical services, serving both Saudi citizens, foreign residents and pilgrims. In 1985 there were 104 hospitals with 20,463 beds, 1,299 clinics and health centres, 8,243 doctors, 16,443 nurses and midwives, 8,858 technical assistants. There were also 73 private hospitals (10,244 beds) employing 6,096 doctors. The Jiddah Quarantine Centre, designed by WHO and primarily for pilgrims, can take 2,400 patients. In 1984 there were 15 schools for female nurses and 14 institutes for male trainees. There is a strict system of health controls for visiting pilgrims and strict supervision of sanitation and water supply. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Saudi Arabia in Great Britain (30 Belgrave Sq., London, SW1X 8QB) Ambassador; Sheikh Nasser H. Almanqour, GCVO. Of Great Britain in Saudi Arabia (PO Box 94351, Riyadh) Ambassador: Stephen Egerton, CMG. Of Saudi Arabia in the USA (601 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: HRH Prince Bandar bin Sultan. Of the USA in Saudi Arabia (PO Box 9041, Riyadh) Ambassador: Hume Horan. Of Saudi Arabia to the United Nations Ambassador: Samir Shihabi.

SAUDI ARABIA

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Books of Reference Anderson, N., The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. (Rev. ed.). London, 1982 Clements, F. A., Saudi Arabia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1979 Hajrah, H. H., Land Distribution in Saudi Arabia. London, 1982 Helms, C. M., The Cohesion of Saudi Arabia. Baltimore, 1981 Holden, D. and Johns, R., The House of Saud. London and New York, 1981 Looney, R. E., Saudi Arabia's Development Potential. Lexington, 1982 McMaster, B., The Definitive Guide to Living in Saudi Arabia. London, 1980 Niblock, T., State, Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia. New York, 1981 Philipp, H.-J., Saudi Arabia: Bibliography on Society, Politics, Economics. Munich, 1984 Presley, J. R., A Guide to the Saudi Arabian Economy. London, 1984 Quandt, W. B., Saudi Arabia in the 1980's: Foreign Policy, Security and Oil. Washington, 1981 Safran, N., Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security. Harvard Univ. Press, 1985

SENEGAL

Capital: Dakar Population: 6-7m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$360 ( 1984)

République du Sénégal

H I S T O R Y . France established a fort at Saint-Louis in 1659 and later acquired other coastal settlements from the Dutch; the interior was occupied in 1854-65. Senegal became a territory of French West Africa in 1902 and an autonomous state within the French Community on 25 Nov. 1958. On 4 April 1959 Senegal joined with French Sudan to form the Federation of Mali, which achieved independence on 20 June 1960, but on 22 Aug. Senegal withdrew from the Federation and became a separate independent republic. Senegal was a one-Party state from 1966 until 1974, when a pluralist system was re-established. Leopold Sedar Senghor, President since independence, resigned on 31 Dec. 1980 and was succeeded by his Prime Minister, Abdou Diouf. From 1 Feb. 1982 Senegal joined with Gambia to form a Confederation of Senegambia. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Senegal is bounded by Mauritania to the north and north-east, Mali to the east, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south and the Atlantic to the west with The Gambia forming an enclave along that shore. The republic has a total area of 196,192 sq. km; the population (census, 1976) 4,907,507 (estimate, 1986) 6,700,000. The areas (in sq. km), Census populations and capitals of the 10 regions are: 1979 Estimate Region sq. km 1976 Census Capital Ziguinchor 79,464 Casamance 1 28,350 736,527 Dakar Dakar 978,553 550 984,660 55,307 Diourbel 4,359 425,113 Diourbel Louga 29,188 417,137 Louga 37,665 2 96,594 Saint-Louis Saint-Louis 44,127 528,473 Kaolack Sine-Saloum 3 23,945 1,007,736 115,679 29,054 57,602 Tambacounda Tambacounda 286,148 698,994 126,886 Thiès 6,601 Thiès 1 2 Before division into Kolda and Ziguinchor regions in July 1984. 1976. 3 Before division into Fatick and Kaolack regions in July 1984.

Ethnic groups are the Wolof (36% of the population), Serer ( 19%), Fulani ( 13%), Tukulor(9%), Diola (8%), Malinké (6%), Bambara (6%) and Sarakole (2%). CLIMATE. A tropical climate with wet and dry seasons. The rains fall almost exclusively in the hot season, from June to Oct., with high humidity. Dakar. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 82°F(27-8°C). Annual rainfall 22" (541 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Under the Constitution promulgated on 7 Mar. 1963 (as subsequently amended) there are simultaneous elections by universal adult suffrage for 5 -year terms for both the Presidency and for the unicameral 120-member National Assembly; for the latter 60 members are elected in single-member constituencies and 60 by a form of proportional representation. In the general election of Feb. 1983 the Parti socialiste gained 111 seats, the Parti démocratique sénégalais 8 seats and the Rassemblement national démocratique 1. On 14 Nov. 1981, President Diouf of Senegal and President Jawara of The Gambia issued a joint communiqué proposing the establishment of a confederation, to be known as Senegambia. Both parliaments ratified the agreement at the end of the year. The instruments of ratification were exchanged in Banjul on 11 Jan. 1982 and the Confederation formally came into existence on 1 Feb. The agreement stated that each confederal state shall maintain its independence and sovereignty and calls for the integration of the armed security forces, economic and monetary union, co-operation in the fields of communications and external 1052

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relations, and the establishment ofjoint institutions (i.e. President, Vice President, Council of Ministers, Confederal Parliament). The President of the Confederation would be President Diouf, and the Vice President President Jawara, The Confederal Parliament would have one third Gambian representation and two thirds Senegalese. President Jawara said in Nov. 1981 that 'the Confederation would not compromise any of the agreements which link The Gambia direct to Britain and the rest of the Commonwealth'. President ofthe Republic: Abdou Diouf (took office in Jan. 1981, re-elected 1983 and 1988). The Council of Ministers was composed as follows in Nov. 1987: Foreign Affairs: Ibrahima Fall. Defence: Medoune Fall. Interior: Jean Collin. Finance and Economic Affairs: Mamadou Touré. Supply: Robert Sagna. Culture: Marhili Gassama. Education: Dr Iba der Thiam. Rural Development: Famara Ibrahima Sagna. Industrial Development and Handicrafts: Serigne Lamine Diop. Housing and Urban Affairs: Aliaune Diagne Coumba Aita. Commerce: Abdourahmane Touré. Planning and Co-operation: Cheikh Amidou Kané. Communications: Djibo Ka. Justice and Keeper of the Seals: Seydou Madani Sy Civil Service, Employment and Labour: André Sonko. Public Health: Marie Sarr Mbodj. Social Affairs: Mantoulaye Guene. Water Resources: Samba Yella Diop. Youth and Sports: Landing Sané. Environment: Cheikh Cissokho. Emigration: Mme. Fambaye Fall Diop. Tourism: Momar Talla Cissé. Relations with Parliament: Thierno Bâ. Secretaries of State: Moussa Ndoye (Decentralisation), Mbaye Diouf (Animal Resources, Fisheries and Livestock). National flag: Three vertical strips of green, yellow, red, with a green star in the centre. The official language is French. Local Government. Senegal is divided into 10 régions, each with an appointed governor and an elected regional assembly. They are divided into 28 départements, each under an appointed Préfet, and thence into 99 arrondissements. D E F E N C E . There is selective conscription. Army. The Army had a strength of8,500 (1988), organized in 5 infantry battalions, 1 engineer, 1 armoured, 1 airborne, 1 commando and 1 artillery battalions, 1 reconnaissance squadron and minor units. Equipment includes about 70 armoured cars. There is also a paramilitary force of some 6,800 men. Navy. The flotilla includes 1 new corvette, 1 patrol vessel, 3 patrol craft, 3 fast gunboats, 20 small patrol craft, 1 fishery protection trawler, 4 coastal patrol launches, 3 landing craft, 2 minor amphibious craft, 12 service craft, 1 tug and 1 training tender. Personnel (1988) totalled 450 officers and men. Air Force. The Senegal Air Force, formed with French assistance, has 4 Rallye Guerrier and 5 Magister armed trainers and 1 Twin Otter for maritime patrol, 1 Boeing 727 and 1 Caravelle VIP transports, 6 F.27 twin-turboprop transports, 2 Broussard and 1 Cessna 337 liaison aircraft, 3 Puma, 1 Gazelle and 2 Alouette II helicopters. Personnel (1988) 500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Senegal is a member of U N , O A U and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Seventh 4-year Development Plan (1985-89) provides 645,000m. francs CFA for investment in the productive sector, improved infrastructure and for reducing foreign debt. Budget. The budget for 1985-86 balanced at 316,869m. francs CFA. Currency. The currency is the franc CFA, with a parity value of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc.

1054

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Banking. The bank of issue is the Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. The principal commercial bank is the Union Sénégalaise de la Banque pour le Commerce et l'Industrie (established 1961 with assistance from Crédit Lyonnais) in which the Senegalese government has the majority share-holding; also state controlled is the Banque Nationale de Développement du Sénégal. There are 3 private banks. At31 Dec. 1981 the savings banks had deposits of85,120m. francs CFA. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) was 737m. kwh. Supply 110 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Extraction of phosphate rock in 1984 amounted to l-9m. tonnes of calcium phosphate and 251,300 of aluminium phosphate. Titanium ores and zirconium are extracted from coastal (sand) deposits. Iron ore deposits amounting to an estimated 980m. tonnes have been located at La Faleme. Agriculture. Of the total area (19-7m. hectares), 5-35m. were under cultivation, 5-84m. were pasture, 5-45m. were forested and 3-03m. were uncultivated land in 1981. The chief cash crops (1986 production in 1,000 tonnes) are groundnuts (720) and seed cotton (50); the main food crops are millet (703), sugar-cane (800), rice (128), maize (128), tomatoes (25), mangoes (34), onions (32). Livestock (1986): 2,202,000 sheep, 1,104,000 goats, 2-2m. cattle, 194,000 pigs, 209,000 asses, 6,000 camels and 208,000 horses. Forestry. Production (1983) amounted to 3 -9m. cu. metres. Fisheries. The 1982 catch totalled 226,481 tonnes; exports, 91,742 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Dakar has numerous industrial works. A major ship-repairing complex has been constructed there for vessels of up to 28,000 tonnes. Cement production (1981) 386,000 tonnes; petroleum products, 726,400; groundnut oil, 125,200. Trade Unions. There are two major unions, the Union Nationale des Travailleurs Sénégalais (government-controlled) and the Confédération Nationale des Travailleurs Sénégalais (independent) which broke away from the former in 1969. Commerce. In 1984 imports totalled 437,100m. francs CFA and exports 233,974m. francs CFA. In 1984 28% of imports came, from France and 31% of exports went to France. In 1982 petroleum products provided 26% of exports, fisheries 17%, phosphates 10% and groundnut oil 17%. Total trade between Senegal and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 22,333 13,212

1984 23,789 15,772

1 985 17,671 13,514

1 986 13,881 12,328

1 987 11,307 11,878

Tourism. In 1986,235,000 tourists visited Senegal. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The length of roads (1983) was 14,700 km of which 3,650 km was bitumenized. In 1980 there were 79,258 passenger cars and 22,767 commercial vehicles. Railways. There are 4 railway lines: Dakar-Kidira (continuing in Mali), ThièsSaint-Louis (193 km), Guinguinéo-Kaolack (22 km), and Diourbel-Touba (46 km). Total length (1986), 905 km (metre gauge). In 1984—85 railways carried 32m. passenger-km and 1 -5m. tonnes offreight. Aviation. In 1979 aircraft disembarked 297,170 and embarked 322,921 passengers and disembarked 7,676 tonnes and embarked 5,605 tonnes of freight at Yoff (Dakar). There are also major airports at Saint-Louis, Tambacounda and Ziguinchor.

SENEGAL

1055

Shipping. In 1978,4,870 vessels entered the port of Dakar. There is a river service on the Senegal from Saint-Louis to Podor (363 km) open throughout the year, and to Kayes (924 km) open from July to Oct. The Senegal River is closed to foreign flags. The Saloum River is navigable as far as Kaolack, the Casamance River as far as Ziguinchor. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1978, 74 post offices. Telephones in 1978 numbered 42,105, of which 33,863 were in Dakar. In 1983 there were 2 radio networks with 320,000 radio receivers and 2 television stations with 50,200 receivers. Cinemas. In 1975 there were 77 with a seating capacity of33,500. Newspapers. The main daily is Le Soleil, circulation ( 1984) 30,000. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are juges de paix in each département and a court of first instance in each region. Assize courts are situated in Dakar, Kaolack, Saint-Louis and Ziguinchor, while the Court of Appeal resides in Dakar. Religion. The population (1980) was 91% Moslem, 6% Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) and 3% animist. Education. Secondary education is provided at 11 lycées, 66 collèges d'enseignement secondaire, 2 lycées techniques, 2 écoles normales and 3 cours normaux. In 1981 there were 452,679 pupils and 10,586 teachers in 1,795 primaiy schools; and 91,081 pupils and 4,834 teachers in secondary schools. The University in Dakar, established on 24 Feb. 1957, had 11,474 students in 1984. A second university was being built ( 1985) at St Louis. Health. In 1978 there were 44 hospitals with 7,092 beds; and in 1981,449 doctors, 70 dentists, 139 pharmacists, 326 midwives and 1,766 state nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Senegal in Great Britain (11 Phillimore Gdns., London, W8 7QG) Ambassador: Gen. Idrissa Fall, MBE (accredited 1 Nov. 1984) Of Great Britain in Senegal (20 Rue du Docteur Guillet, Dakar) Ambassador: John Macrae, CMG. Of Senegal in the USA (2112 Wyoming Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Falilou Kane. Of the USA in Senegal (Ave. Jean XXIII, Dakar) Ambassador: Lannon Walker. Of Senegal to the United Nations Ambassador: Massamba Sarré Books of Reference Crowder, M., Senegal: A Study in French Assimilation. OUP, 1962 Gellar, S., Senegal. Boulder, 1982.—Senegal: An African Nation between Islam and the West. Aldershot, 1983 Samb, M. (ed.), Spotlight on Senegal. Dakar, 1972

Capital: Victoria Population: 61,000(1987) GNP per capita: US$2,320 ( 1984)

SEYCHELLES

H I S T O R Y . The islands were first colonized by the French in 1756, in order to establish plantations of spices to compete with the Dutch monopoly. They were captured by the English in 1794 and incorporated as a dependency of Mauritius in 1814. In Nov. 1903 the Seychelles archipelago became a separate colony. Internal self-government was achieved on 1 Oct. 1975 and independence as a republic within the Commonwealth on 29 June 1976. The first President, James Mancham, was deposed in a coup on 5 June 1977 and replaced by his Prime Minister. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The Seychelles consists of 115 islands and islets in the Indian ocean, north of Madagascar, with a combined area of 175 sq. miles (453 sq. km) within two distinct groups. The Mahé or Granitic group of 41 islands cover 92 sq. miles (239 sq. km); the principal island is Mahé, with 59 sq. miles (153 sq. km) and 59,500 inhabitants at the 1987 census, the other inhabited islands of the group being Praslin, La Digue, Silhouette, Fregate and North, which together have 7,100 inhabitants. The Outer or Coralline group comprises 74 islands spread over a wide area of ocean between the Mahé group and Madagascar, with a total land area of 83 sq. miles (214 sq. km) and a population of about 400. The main islands are the Amirante Isles (including Desroches, Poivre, Daros and Alphonse), Coetivy Island and Platte Island, all lying south of the Mahé group; the Farquhar, St Pierre and Providence Islands, north of Madagascar; and Aldabra, Astove, Assumption and the Cosmoledo Islands, about 1,000 km south-west of the Mahé group. Aldabra (whose lagoon covers 55 sq. miles), Farquhar and Desroches were transferred to the new British Indian Ocean Territory in 1965, but were returned by Britain to the Seychelles on the latter's independence in 1976. Population (1987, estimate) 67,000. Vital statistics (1984): Births, 1,739; deaths, 488. The official languages are Creole, English and French but 95% of the population speak Creole. C L I M A T E . Though close to the equator, the climate is tropical. The hot, wet season is from Dec. to May, when conditions are humid, but south-east trades bring cooler conditions from June to Nov. Temperatures are high throughout the year, but the islands lie outside the cyclone belt. Victoria. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 78°F (25 -6°C). Annual rainfall 95" (2,375 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution came into force on 5 June 1979, under which the Seychelles People's Progressive Front is the sole legal Party and nominates all candidates for election. There is a unicameral People's Assembly comprising 23 members elected for 5 years with 2 further nominated members. There is an Executive President directly elected for a 5-year term, who nominates and leads a Council of Ministers. President: France Albert René. Education, Information and Youth: James Michel. National Development: Jacques Hodoul. Health and Social Services: Joseph Belmont. Political Organization: Esme Jumeau. Internal Affairs: Rita Sinon. Tourism and Transport: Ralph Adam. Manpower: Jeremie Bonnelame. National flag: Divided horizontally red over green by a wavy white stripe, with red of double width. D E F E N C E . The Defence Force comprises all services. Personnel (1988) 1,000 organized in 1 infantry battalion, 2 artillery troops and a marine group and an Air 1056

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Wing with 1 Islander, 1 Defender and 1 Merlin IIB for transport and 2 Alouette III helicopters. There is also a People's Militia (900). INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Seychelles is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The Development Plan, 1985-89 envisages investment of Rs 2,800m. aimed at reducing unemployment and improving the balance of payments. Budget, in lm. rupees, for calendar years: Recurrent revenue Recurrent expenditure

1982 1983' 384-3 386-9 410-0 434-6 1 Provisional.

1984' 395-9 484-5

1985 447-7 632 -9

Currency. The currency is the Seychelles rupee divided into 100 cents. In March 1988, £ 1 = 9 • 24 rupees; US$ 1 = 5 • 31 rupees. Banking. Central Bank of Seychelles, Development Bank of Seychelles and Seychelles Savings Bank have head offices and Barclays Bank, Standard Bank, Bank of Credit and Commerce International, Banque Française Commerçiale, Habib Bank and Bank of Baroda, have branches in Victoria and Màhé. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 59m. kwh. Agriculture. Coconuts are the main cash crop (production, 1985, 19,000 tonnes). Other main crops produced for export are cinnamon bark (1985, 781 tonnes) and copra (1985, 1,632 tonnes). Tea production, 1985, 117 tonnes. Crops grown for local consumption include cassava, sweet potatoes, yams, sugar-cane, bananas and vegetables. The staple food crop, rice, is imported. Livestock ( 1986): Cattle, 2,000; pigs, 15,000; goats, 4,000. Fisheries. The fishing industry is being expanded for home consumption and export. Catch(1985)4,361 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Local industry is expanding, the largest development in recent years being the brewery, (output, 1985, 4,140,000 litres). Other main activities include production ofsoft drinks (3,502,000 litres in 1985),cigarettes(56-2m. in 1985)and paints, dairy, processing of cinnamon and coconuts. Commerce. Total trade, in rupees, for calendar years: Imports (less re-exports) Domestic exports

1982 641,300,000 20,300,000

1983 594,100,000 25,200,000

1984 618,700,000 21,400,000

1985 718,700,000 19,500,000

Principal imports (1985): Manufactured goods, Rs 169 -9m.; food, beverages and tobacco, Rs 118-8m.; petroleum products, Rs 184-5m., machinery and transport equipment, Rs 185-8m. mainly from UK (15%), Italy (10%), France (9%) and the Republic of South Africa (9%). Principal exports (1985): Copra, Rs 7-6m.; fresh and frozen fish, Rs 7-9m.; cinnamon bark, Rs 2-4m. mainly to Pakistan (35%), Japan (31 %) and Réunion ( 12%). Total trade between Seychelles and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): l m m 6 m J Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1,663 9,561

938 9,639

884 10,770

Tourism. Tourism has now established itself as an important sector of the economy. The number of visitors has grown very rapidly since the opening of the inter-

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national airport in 1978 and in 1979 there were 78,852. Tourist numbers declined to 55,867 in 1983 but were 67,000 in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There is a good system of tarmac (157 km) and earth roads (102 km) in Mahe; extensive roadmaking is being undertaken. Aviation. Air Seychelles operates 2 services a week between Europe and Seychelles and regular services from Mahe to Praslin and Fregate Islands. British Airways operates 1 service a week between London, Bahrain and Seychelles. Air France operates 3 services a week. Kenya Airways operates a service twice a week. T P C Air also operate services. In 198 5 aircraft movements were 1,472; passenger movements, 335,000 (including domestic flights); freight loaded, 171 tonnes, unloaded, 1,326 tonnes. Shipping. The main port is Victoria. Shipping (1985), goods unloaded, 236,000 tonnes, goods loaded, 4,500 tonnes. There are regular cargo vessels from Australia and the Far East, South Africa and Europe. The vessel Cinq Juin travels to and from Mauritius and visits the outlying islands. Post and Broadcasting. Services operated by Cable & Wireless Ltd provide telegraphic communications with all parts of the world by satellite, the company's radiotelephone service also extends to all principal countries in the world. In 1978, an automatic dialling telex system was introduced. Telephones in Jan. 1983 numbered 4,512. There are 2 radio stations and (1983) 18,000 receivers. There were 3,500 television sets in 1984 and Radio Television Seychelles run radio and television services in Creole, English and French. Cinemas. In 1983 there were 3 cinemas with seating capacity of 1,038. Newspapers. In 1986 there were 2 daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The police force numbered 492 all ranks and 69 special constabulary. Religion. 90% of the inhabitants are Roman Catholic and 8% Anglican. Education. Equality of educational opportunity exists for all children for a minim u m of 9 years. In 1986 there were 14,663 pupils and 681 teachers in primary schools, 2,433 pupils and 112 teachers in secondary schools and 1,541 students and 160 teachers in the Polytechnic. In 1983, a total of 239 students were undergoing training overseas, mainly in the U K ; 153 were in university, 39 teacher-training and 6 nursing. Health. In 1985 there were 43 doctors, 288 nurses and 331 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Seychelles in Great Britain (50 Conduit St., London, W1A 4PE) High Commissioner: Robert F. Delpech. Of Great Britain in Seychelles (Victoria Hse., Victoria, Mahe) High Commissioner: Peter Smart. Of Seychelles in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Of the USA in Seychelles (Victoria Hse., Victoria, Mahe) A mbassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Information Office, 52 Kingsgate House, Victoria, Mahe. Agricultural Survey 1980. Government Printer Seychelles in Figures. Statistics Division, Mahe, 1986 Benedict, M., and Benedict, B., Men, Women and Money in Seychelles. Univ. of California Press, 1983 Franda, M., The Seychelles: Unquiet Islands. Boulder, 1982 Lionnet,G., The Seychelles. Newton Abbot, 1972 Mancham, J. R., Paradise Raped: Life, Love and Power in the Seychelles. London, 1983

Capital: Freetown Population: 3 • 67m. (1987) GNP per cap/M: US$380 (1983)

SIERRA LEONE

H I S T O R Y . The Colony of Sierra Leone originated in the sale and cession, in 1787, by native chiefs to English settlers, of a piece of land intended as a home for natives of Africa who were waifs in London, and later it was used as a settlement for Africans rescued from slave-ships. The hinterland was declared a British protectorate on 21 Aug. 1896. Sierra Leone became independent as a member state of the Commonwealth on 27 April 1961, and a republic on 19 April 1971. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Sierra Leone is bounded on the north-west, north and north-east by the Republic of Guinea, on the south-east by Liberia and on the south-west by the Atlantic ocean. The coastline extends from the boundary of the Republic of Guinea to the north of the mouth of the Great Scarcies River to the boundary of Liberia at the mouth of the Mano River, a distance of about 212 miles (341 km). The area of Sierra Leone is 27,925 sq. miles (73,326 sq. km). Population (census 1985), 3,517,530, of whom about 2,000 are Europeans, 3,500 Asiatics and 30,000 non-native Africans. Estimate (1987) 3,666,000. The capital is Freetown, with 469,776 inhabitants. Vital statistics (1986); Live births, 75,862; deaths, 6,272. Sierra Leone is divided into 3 provinces and the Western Area: Western Area Southern province Eastern province Northern province

Sq.km 557 19,694 15,553 35,936

Estimate 1976 400,000 744,000 970,000 1,126,000

Capital Freetown Bo Kenema Makeni

Census 1985 554,243 740,510 960,551 1,262,226

The principal peoples are the Mendes (34% of the total) in the south, the Temnes (31%) in the north and centre, the Konos, Fulanis, Bulloms, Korankos, Limbas and Kissis. CLIMATE. A tropical climate, with marked wet and dry seasons and high temperatures throughout the year. The rainy season lasts from about April to Nov., when humidity can be very high. Thunderstorms are common from April to June and in Sept. and Oct. Rainfall is particularly heavy at Freetown because of the effect of neighbouring relief. Freetown. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 135" (3,434 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT.

F o r e a r l i e r C o n s t i t u t i o n a l his-

tory see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1978-79, p. 1046. Following a referendum in June 1978, a new Constitution was instituted under which the ruling All People's Congress (APC) became the sole legal Party. The 124-member Parliament comprises 105 members directly elected for a 5-year term (latest elections, 31 May 1986), together with 12 Paramount Chiefs representing the 12 districts and 7 members appointed by the President. The President is elected for a 7-year term by the National Delegates' Conference of the APC; he appoints and leads a Council of Ministers. President: Maj.-Gen. Dr Joseph Saidu Momoh. First Vice-President, Minister of Lands, Housing and Planning: Kamara. Finance: Dr Sheka Kanu. Foreign Affairs: Abdul Karim Koroma. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of green, white, blue. 1059

Abu B.

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LEONE

Local Government. The provinces are administered through the Ministry of Internal Affairs and divided into 148 Chiefdoms, each under the control of a Paramount Chief and Council of Elders known as the Tribal Authorities, who are responsible for the maintenance of law and order and for the administration of justice (except for serious crimes). All of these Chiefdoms have been organized into local government units, empowered to raise and disburse funds for the development of the Chiefdom concerned. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 2 infantry battalions, 2 artillery batteries and 1 engineer squadron. Strength (1988), 3,000 officers and men. Navy. There are 1 ex-Soviet gunboat, I coastal patrol craft and 3 landing craft. Personnel in 1988 totalled 150 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Wing of the Defence Force appears to be inactive, although the Defence Ministry is listed as the owner of 1 BO 105 and 2 AS.355 Ecureuil helicopters carrying civil registrations. Personnel, about 30. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Sierra Leone is a member of U N , O A U , ECOWAS, the Commonwealth, the Mano River Union and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A development plan (1981-84) was launched to achieve self-sufficiency in food, better infrastructure and to increase mineral production. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 leone) for years ending 30 June: 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 Revenue Expenditure

243,300 480,000

327,900 537,900

317,100 507,100

524,700 771,100

Currency. The Bank of Sierra Leone, which was established on 4 Aug. 1964, is responsible for providing the currency in the country. It introduced on 4 Aug. 1964 a decimal currency, the leone and the cent. The paper currency consists of 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 leone and 50-cent notes; the coinage of 1 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 0 and 50 cents. At 30 June 1982 total Sierra Leone notes and coins in circulation was Le. 91.75m. In March 1988, £1 =54-45 leone-, VSSI =30-65 leone. Banking. The Standard Chartered Bank Sierra Leone, the National Commercial Bank, International Bank of Credit and Commerce, International Bank of Trade and Industry and Barclays Bank Sierra Leone have their headquarters at Freetown; the Standard Chartered Bank has 14, Barclays Bank 12 and the National Commercial Bank, 8 branches and agencies. The Post Office Savings Bank had 94,910 depositors with total credit balance of nearly Le. 3,455,469 in 1983. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 85m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. The chief minerals mined are diamonds (243,500 carats, 1984—85), bauxite ( l m . tonnes), gold (12,253 oz.), and rutile (76,900 tonnes). Molybdenite is being prospected. Rutile production started in 1979; potential production 100,000 tonnes per annum. Iron ore production was resumed in Feb. 1983 at Marampa by a new company, Austro Minerals, who withdrew in March 1985, having produced 151-2 tonnes since July 1984. Agriculture. In the western area farming is largely confined to the production of cassava and garden crops, such as maize, vegetables and mangoes, for local consumption. In the regions the principal products include rice, which is the staple food of the country, cassava, groundnuts and export crops such as palm-kernels, cocoa beans, coffee, ginger and piassava. Cattle production is important in the

SIERRA

1061

LEONE

northern part of the country, and most of the poultry, eggs and pork are produced in the Western Area. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Rice, 525; cassava, 113; palm oil, 44; palm kernels, 30; coffee, 11; cocoa, 9. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 333,000; goats, 175,000; sheep, 332,000; chickens, 5m. Fisheries. The estimated tonnage of catch of all species of fish during 1983 was 126,098 tonnes. The FAO has carried out a 5-year survey of pelagic fish resources along the coastline and continental shelf. Total catch of fish is still below the demand of the country. In 1980,247 tonnes offish value Le. 483,488 were imported. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Four pioneer oil-mills for the expressing of palm-oil are operated by the Sierra Leone Produce Marketing Board. Government also operates 4 rice-mills, and there are a number of privately owned mills. At Kenema the Government Forest Industries Corporation produces sawn timber, joinery products (including prefabricated buildings) and high-class furniture. In addition, there is a smaller privately owned saw-mill at Panguma, Kenema and Hangha, and several small furniture workshops are used internally. Village industries include fishing, fish curing and smoking, weaving and hand methods of expressing palm-oil and cracking palm kernels. Labour. A large proportion of the population is engaged in agriculture and about 125,000 workers are in wage-earning employment. The number of workers in establishments employing 6 or more persons was 64,092 in 1982, distributed as follows: Services, 24,142; mining and quarrying, 6,170; transport, storage and communications, 4,814; construction, 9,721; commerce, 6,870; manufacturing, 9,407; agriculture, forestry and fishing, 5,834; electricity and water services, 24,142. Commerce. Total trade (in 1,000 leone) for calendar years: Imports Exports

1981 360,440 168,576

1982 368,473 133,245

1983 289,828 178,558

1984 418,286 334,420

Of the imports (1980) 22% came from the UK, 9% from Japan and 7% from Federal Republic of Germany. Of the exports (1980), 41% went to the UK, 11% to the USA, 8% to the Netherlands and 7% to Switzerland; diamonds formed 45%, coffee 13% and cocoa 13%. Total trade between Sierra Leone and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): /98i m 4 m 5 m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

17,710 13,735

25,971 19,532

17,435 23,620

11,599 17,403

12,679 16,221

Tourism. Tourism is being developed and is a major growth industry. In 1986 there were 194,000 tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1977) about 4,406 miles of main roads, of which 665 miles are surfaced with bitumen. Motor vehicles licensed in 1984 totalled 36,192; passenger cars, 19,040; buses and trucks, 1,818, and motor cycles, 7,056. Railways. The government railway closed in 1974, though in 1987 there were plans to resume operations, and an 84-km mineral line of 1,067-mm gauge connecting Marampa with the port of Pepel has been rehabilitated. Aviation. Freetown Airport (Lungi), situated north of Freetown in the Port Loko District, is the only international airport in Sierra Leone. The airport is served by Sierra Leone Airlines, Ghana/Nigeria Airways, British Caledonian, Union de Transport Aériens, KLM, Air Afrique and Aeroflot. A once weekly non-stop flight from London (Gatwick) to Freetown and vice versa is also provided.

1062

SIERRA LEONE

Sierra Leone Airlines provide domestic flights daily (except Sundays) from Hastings (14 miles from Freetown) to Gbangbatoke, Bo, Kenema, Yengema; twice weekly to Bonthe, and occasional charter flights to Marampa and Port Loko. Domestic air taxi services also operate. Shipping. During 1984 the total imports handled by the port of Freetown amounted to 351,205 freight-tons and exports 371,158 freight-tons. In 1982 a total of 576 vessels called at Freetown; 564 were cargo vessels and 12 were tourist ships with a total of 718 passengers. Bonthe-Sherbro, 80 miles south of Freetown, is used for the shipment of rutile and bauxite. Pepel lies some 12 miles from Freetown and exports iron ore. Post and Broadcasting. The Posts and Telecommunications Department maintains a trunk network of radio and overhead telephone and telegraph routes of approximately 3,000 miles linking the Western Area with the other regions. Automatic telephone exchanges have been introduced at the regional centres of Bo, Kenema and Makeni; microwave radio relay link now replaces overhead open wire on main trunk routes. An extension programme to link important mining areas at Koidu, Mokanji and Pepel to the national network by microwave links has been established. The wired broadcasting relay service was replaced in Jan. 1964 by a transistor radio service. Approximately 20,000 transistor radios purchased under this scheme are now in service. Number of telephones (1981) 220,000. Telegraphic facilities are provided at 58 offices. There were (1983) 37 post offices and 76 postal agencies. The number of private wireless-licence holders (1983, estimate) was 600,000 and 22,000 television sets were in operation in 1984. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D

WELFARE

Justice. The High Court has jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. Subordinate courts are held by magistrates in the various districts. Native Courts, headed by court Chairmen, apply native law and custom under a criminal and civil jurisdiction. Appeals from the decisions of magistrates' courts are heard by the High Court. Appeals from the decisions of the High Court are heard by the Sierra Leone Court of Appeal. Appeal lies from the Sierra Leone Court of Appeal to the Supreme Court which is the highest court. Police. The police force at 31 Dec. 1982 had an authorized strength of 136 superior police officers, 485 junior police officers and 4,934 other ranks including 415 women. In the provinces each Chiefdom keeps an additional force known as Chiefdom Police. A non-pensionable force, known as the Auxiliary Force and consisting of 3 Junior police officers and 260 other ranks, are helping the regular force in maintaining law and order in the diamond protected area in the Eastern region. Religion. The Moslem community was estimated to comprise 39% of the population in 1980, while 52% followed traditional tribal religions; Protestants were 6% and Roman Catholics 2% of the total. The Temne people are mainly Moslem and the Mende chiefly animists. Spiritualist churches were growing in 1985. Education (1984). There were over 1,267 registered primary schools; total enrolment (1982) 276,911. Primary education is partially free but not compulsory though parents and guardians are urged to send their children and wards to school. School attendance varies considerably in different parts of the country. There were (1984) 184 secondary schools with (1982) 66,464 pupils; 71 of these schools are fully assisted by the Government. Technical education was provided in 4 technical institutes, 2 trade centres and in the technical training establishments of the mining companies. There is also a rural institute. Fourah Bay College (1,400 students) and Njala University College are the 2 constituent colleges of the University of Sierra Leone. The Institute of Education,

SIERRA LEONE

1063

which is part of the University, is now responsible for teacher education, educational research and curriculum development in the country. There is a paramedical school at Bo in the Southern region. Health (1984). In the Western Area there are 13 government hospitals (1,108 beds and 217 cots), including a maternity hospital, a children's hospital and an infectious diseases hospital near Freetown. There are 6 government health centres in the Western Area. Three private hospitals are located in Freetown with 108 beds. A mental hospital at Kissy has accommodation for 224 patients. In the provinces there are 14 government hospitals, 6 hospitals associated with mining companies and 7 mission hospitals. There is a school of nursing in Freetown. There are 156 government dispensaries and health treatment centres and two military hospitals with 124 beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Sierra Leone in Great Britain (33 Portland Pl., London,W1N 3 AG) High Commissioner: Caleb Aubee. Of Great Britain in Sierra Leone (Standard Bank of Sierra Leone Ltd Bldg., Lightfoot Boston St., Freetown) High Commissioner: D. W. Partridge, C M G . Of Sierra Leone in the US A ( 1701 19th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Sahr Matturi. Of the USA in Sierra Leone (Corner Walpole and Siaka Stevens St., Freetown) Ambassador: Cynthia Perry. Of Sierra Leone to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Thomas Kargbo. Books of Reference Atlas of Sierra Leone. Ed. Survey and Lands Dept. Freetown, 1953 Background to Sierra Leone. Freetown, 1980 Cole, B. P., Sierra Leone Directory of Commerce, Industry and Tourism. 1985 Fyfe, C., A History of Sierra Leone. OUP, 1962.—Fyfe, C., and Jones, E. (ed.), Freetown. Sierra Leone Univ. Press and OUP, 1968 Fyfe, C. N. and Jones, E. D., A Krio-English Dictionary. OUP and Sierra Leone Univ. Press, 1980 Kup, A. P., Sierra Leone. Newton Abbot, 1975 Porter, A. T., Creoiedom: A Study in the Development of Freetown Society. OUP, 1963

R E P U B L I C OF SINGAPORE

Population: 2 • 59m. ( 1986) GNPper capita: US$6,630 ( 1986)

H I S T O R Y . For the early history of the settlement (1819) and colony (1867) see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 9 , p p . 2 4 6 f.

By an agreement entered into between the Governments of Malaysia and of the State of Singapore on 7 Aug. 1965, effective on 9 Aug. 1965, Singapore ceased to be one of the 14 states of the Federation of Malaysia and became an independent sovereign state. The separation was ratified by the Constitution and Malaysia (Singapore Amendment) Act of the Malaysian Parliament on 9 Aug. The 2 governments agreed to enter into a treaty on external defence and mutual assistance. The Singapore Government retains its executive authority and legislative powers under its State Constitution and took over the powers of the Malaysian Government under the Malaysian Constitution in Singapore. The sovereignty and jurisdiction of the head of the Malaysian State was transferred to the Singapore Government. Civil servants working in Singapore for the Federal Departments became Singapore civil servants. Singapore citizens ceased to be Malaysian citizens. Singapore accepted responsibility for international agreements entered into by the Malaysian Government on its behalf. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Republic of Singapore consists of Singapore Island itself, and some 57 islets. Singapore Island is situated off the southern extremity of the Malay peninsula, to which it is joined by a causeway carrying a road, railway and water pipeline. The Straits of Johore between the island and the mainland are about three-quarters of a mile wide. The island is some 26 miles (41 -8 km) in length and 14 miles (22-9 km) in breadth, and about 238-7 sq. miles (618-2 sq. km) in area, including some 57 adjacent islets, 20 of which are inhabited. Census of population (1980): 1,856,237 Chinese, 351,508 Malays, 154,632 Indians and 51,568 others; total 2,413,945. Estimate (mid-1986), 2,586,200. Report on the Census of Population 1980. Dept. of Statistics, Singapore, 1980

C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with uniformly high temperatures and no defined wet or dry season, rain being plentiful throughout the year. Jan. 78 - 1°F (25-6°C), July 80-8°F(27 1°C). Annual rainfall 93 -2" (2,367 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . By a constitutional amendment the name of the state was changed to 'Republic of Singapore', the head of state was named 'President of Singapore' and the legislative assembly was renamed 'Parliament'. Parliament consists of 77 members, elected by secret ballot from single-member constituencies, and is presided over by a Speaker, chosen by Parliament from its own members or from outside Parliament. In the latter case, the Speaker has no vote. With the customary exception of those serving criminal sentences, all citizens over 21 are eligible to vote irrespective of sex, race, education or property qualification. There is a common roll without communal electorates. Citizenship is automatic by birth; it can also be acquired by registration or by naturalization. A Presidential Council was established under Part IVA of the Constitution enacted on 9 Jan. 1970. The general function of the Council is to consider and report on matters affecting persons of any racial or religious community in Singapore as referred to it by Parliament or the Government. The Council will draw attention to any bill or subsidiary legislation which in the opinion of the Council is a differentiating measure. 1064

SINGAPORE

1065

Parliament is composed of 77 People's Action Party members and 1 Singapore Social Democratic Party member. President of Singapore: Wee Kim Wee (sworn in 2 Sept. 1985). The People's Action Party Cabinet at Jan. 1988 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Lee Kuan Yew. Senior Minister (Prime Minister's Office): S. Rajaratnam. First Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence: Goh Chok Tong. Second Deputy Prime Minister: Ong Teng Cheong. Law: E. W. Barker. National Development and Foreign Affairs: S. Dhanabalan. Education: Dr Tony Tan Keng Yam. Environment: Dr Ahmad Mattar. Communications and Information, Second Minister for Defence: Dr Yeo Ning Hong. Home Affairs, Second Minister for Law: S. Jayakumar. Finance: Dr Richard Hu Tsu Tau. Labour: Lee Yock Suan. Community Development and Second Minister for Foreign Affairs: Wong Kan Seng. Trade and Industry and Second Minister for Defence: Lee Hsien Loong. Acting Minister for Health. Yeo Cheow Tong. There are 4 Ministers of State. Nationalflag: Horizontally red over white, charged in the canton with a crescent and a circle of 5 stars, all in white. Malay, Chinese, Tamil and English are the official languages; English is the language of administration. D E F E N C E . The Ministi7 of Defence exercises command and control over all armed forces in the republic. It comprises 5 major divisions, i.e., the general staff, manpower, logistic, security and intelligence and finance divisions. Compulsory military service in peace-time was introduced in 1967. Periods of service are ofFicers/n.c.o.s. 30 months, other ranks 24 months. Reserve liability is to 40 for men, 50 for officers. The governments of Australia, Britain, Malaysia, New Zealand and Singapore continue to co-operate closely in defence arrangements and a 5-nation defence set-up in SE Asia designed to protect Malaysia and Singapore against outside attack came into force on 1 Nov. 1971. Army. The Army consists of 3 divisions: The 3rd (Tiger) division, the 6th (Cobra) division and the 9th (Panther) division, the latter 2 being reservist formations. Standard infantry weapons are the SAR-80 assault rifle, AR-15 (M-16) rifle, Ultimax 100 light machine gun, 60 mm and 81 mm mortars, 84 mm Carl Gustav anti-tank guns and the Jeep-mounted 106 mm recoilless guns. Most of these weapons and the ammunition are manufactured locally. Strength (1988) 45,000 (including 30,000 conscripts) and 170,000 reserves. Paramilitary forces number 37,500. Navy. The flotillas comprise 6 fast missile craft, all of German design but 4 built in Singapore, 6 fast patrol craft built by Vosper Thornycroft (2 at Portsmouth, Britain, and 4 in Singapore), 2 ex-US coastal minesweepers, 12 coastal patrol boats, 2 training vessels, 6 landing ships (ex-USN LST) and 8 small landing craft (2 ex-Australian). Six missile corvettes of600 tons are under construction or on order, and the acquisition of 1 or more 1,000 ton ships is being considered. Personnel in 1988 numbered 4,500 officers and men. There are over 60 coastal patrol craft deployed by the marine police and 3 small survey craft operated by the Singapore Port Authority. Air Defence Command. The formation of an Air Defence Command began in 1968. The Republic of Singapore Air Force now has 2 squadrons of F-5E supersonic fighters supported by 2-seat F-5Fs; 3 fighter-bomber squadrons equipped with A-4S Skyhawks, supported by TA-4S two-seat trainers; 1 squadron of Hunter jet fighters and reconnaissance-fighters, supported by Hunter 2-seat trainers; a squadron of Strikemaster armed trainers; a radar unit and Bloodhound, Rapier and Hawk surface-to-air missile squadrons; a transport squadron of C-130s (including 4 equipped as flight refuelling tankers); a squadron of Sky vans equipped for search and rescue; a squadron of Bell UH-1H Iroquois and Bell 212 helicopters; and train-

1066

SINGAPORE

ing units equipped with SF.260MS piston-engined basic trainers, SIAI-Marchetti S.211 jets, AS 350 Ecureuil helicopters and four E-2C Hawkeye AWACS aircraft. Personnel strength (1988) about 6,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Singapore is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the Colombo Plan and ASEAN. ECONOMY Planning. The G N P in 1986, at current cost was $39,185-2m., a decrease of 1-8% over 1985. Budget. Public revenue and expenditure for financial years (in S$ 1 m.): 1983 1984 1985 1986 < 10,632 10,059 13,058 12,396 16,947 17,243 21,533 25,591 1 Estimate. Includes the transfer from the Consolidated Revenue Account to the Development Fund. Revenue Expenditure 1

2

1982 9,128 14,032

Currency. The Singapore dollar (S$) is divided in 100 cents. Gross circulation in Dec. 1986 was S$5,484-2m. In March 1988, £1 = 3-56 dollars; US$1 = 2 01 dollars. Banking. The functions of the Commissioner of Banking have been assumed from 1 Jan. 1971 by the Monetary Authority ofSingapore, which performs all the functions normally associated with a central bank, except the issuing of currency which is the responsibility of the Board of Commissioner of Currency. The Development Bank of Singapore was established as a fully licensed bank in 1968, and is the largest local bank in terms of assets. Primarily it provides longterm financing of manufacturing and other industries. At 31 Dec. 1986 it had a paid up capital of S$293 -3m. and shareholders' funds amounting to S$ 1,832 -3m. There were 134 commercial banks with 395 banking offices operating in Singapore in March 1986. The total assets/liabilities amounted to S$76,833-3m. as at Dec. 1986. Total deposits of non-bank customers amounted to S$30,612-6m. while loans and advances including bills financing, totalled S$35,792-8m. at 31 Dec. 1986. There were 58 merchant banks operating in Singapore at 31 Dec. 1986. Of these, 57 had an Asian Currency Unit each and were engaged actively in Asian dollars transactions. Their main functions included underwritings, portfolio fund management, financial advisory services and loan syndication. In Dec. 1986, the Singapore Post Office Savings Bank had 3,063,496 savings accounts and a total deposit balance of all accounts of S$ 10,166m. Weights and Measures. The metric system or the International System of Units (SI) was introduced in 1971 in Singapore. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Public Utilities Board is responsible for the provision of electricity, gas and water. Electrical power is generated by 3 oil-fired power stations, with a total generating capacity of 2,741 mw at the end of 1986. Production (1986) 10,576-5m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Singapore is the largest oil refining centre in Asia. Agriculture. Agriculture contributed less than 1% of G D P and employed only 1% of the labour force in 1987. Most food is imported but Singapore is self-sufficient in eggs and pork, and vegetables are produced for domestic consumption. Orchids are a valuable export. Fisheries. As the prospect of increasing fish production from inshore waters is poor, in 1967 various projects were introduced with the aim of making Singapore self-sufficient in fish as well as a major fishing base in the region.

SINGAPORE

1067

The Jurong fishing port and fish market began operating 26 Feb. 1969. A Fishery Training Institute was established at Changi with the assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (Special Fund) to train youths and fishermen in modern fishing techniques. At Changi, too, a Marine Fisheries Research Department was set up under the sponsorship of the South-East Asian Fisheries Development Centre. Research on fish culture and ornamental fish was carried out at the Freshwater Fisheries Laboratory at Sembawang. The ornamental fish industry is a valuable foreign exchange earner. Export of aquarium fish in 1986, S$47-3m. The total supply of fresh fish in 1986 was 109,529 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The largest industrial area is the Jurong Industrial Estate with 1,722 factories employing 97,982 workers in March 1986. Production, 1986 (in S$lm.), totalled 36,611, including machinery and appliances, 14,260; petroleum, 6,212; food and beverages, 2,544; chemical products, 2,649; transport equipment, 1,984; fabricated metal products, 1,950; paper products and printing, 1,438; wearing apparel, 1,159; rubber processing, 162. Labour. In June 1986, 1,149,022 persons were employed, of whom 969,343 were employees, 58,890 were employers, 99,278 were self-employed and 21,510 were unpaid family workers. The majority were working in manufacturing, 290,114; trade, 265,645; transport and communications, 114,145. The Employment Act and the Industrial Relations Act provide principal terms and conditions of employment such as hours of work, sick leave and other fringe benefits. A new labour legislation was introduced allowing youths of 14-16 years to work in industrial establishments, and also children from 12-14 years to be employed in approved apprenticeship schemes. A trade dispute may be referred to the Industrial Arbitration Court which was established in 1960. The Ministry of Labour operates an employment service to assist job seekers to obtain employment and employers to recruit workers. In addition it provides the handicapped with specialized on-the-job training. The Central Provident Fund was established in 1955 to make provision for employees in their old age. On 31 Dec. 1986 there were 1 -9m. members with S$29,337-4m. standing to their credit in the fund. The total number of active employers registered with the board in 1986 was 69,309. Trade Unions. There were 89 registered trade unions comprising 83 employee unions, 5 employer unions and 1 federation of trade unions at 31 Dec. 1986. The total membership of employee unions numbered 200,613, of whom 194,595 belonged to 68 employee unions affiliated to the National Trades Union Congress. Members of employer unions numbered 1,146. Commerce. Imports and exports (in S$ 1 m.), by country, 1986: Imports (c. if.) 968-4 Australia China 3,109-6 971-6 France Germany, Federal Republic of 1,829 0 Hong Kong 1,310-1 Japan 11,052-2 Kuwait 2,098-1 7,402-6 Malaysia 1,369-0 Saudi Arabia Taiwan 2,244-1 Thailand 1,606-8 United Arab Emirates 687-5 UK 1886-4 USA 8,317-3

Exports (f.o.b.) 1,515-2 1,243-8 713-6 1,538-8 3,182-9 4,204-4 84-9 7,244-6 483-5 1,097-2 1,787-7 391 0 1,283-9 11,447-4

The major trading countries for 1986 were US ( 18 • 9%), Japan ( 14-6%), Malaysia

1068

SINGAPORE

(14%) and the EEC (11 -4%). In 1986, imports (S$55,545-4m.) decreased by 4%. Exports fell from S$50,178m. in 1985 to S$48,985m. in 1986. Exports (1986, in S$lm.): Machinery and transport equipment, 18,900-5 (of which electric machinery, 10,157-8; transport equipment, 1,322-5); mineral fuels, 10,147-1; crude materials, 2,458-8 (of which rubber, 1,340-8); chemicals, 2,839-9; food, beverages and tobacco, 2,957 -6; clothing, 1,469 -7; animal and vegetable oils, 880-4; textiles, 929-4; scientific and optical instruments, 755-1; metal goods, 561 • 1; iron and steel, 433•1. Imports (1986, in S$lm.): Machinery and transport equipment, 20,780-7; mineral fuels, 10,994-5; food, beverages and tobacco, 4,407-2; chemicals, 3,245-6; crude materials, 1,905 (of which rubber, 903-3); textiles, 2,241-6; iron and steel, 1,463-5; animal and vegetable oils, 720-3; metal goods, 1,133-4; scientific and optical instruments, 1,259-3; non-metal mineral goods, 894; paper and paperboard and related articles, 684 -9. In the following table (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling) the imports include produce from Sabah, Sarawak and other eastern places, transhipped at Singapore, which is thus entered as the place of export: ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 404,122 469,565

1984 488,421 556,443

1985 441,345 612,920

¡986 462,878 547,419

1987 473,814 602,627

Tourism.There were 3,191,058 visitors in 1986, spending S$4,000m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 2,686 km of public roads, of which 2,572 km are asphalt-paved. In Dec. 1986 motor vehicles numbered 473,659, of which 220,566 were private cars, 8,638 buses, 120,387 motor cycles and scooters, 13,991 public cars including taxis, school taxis and private hire cars. Railways. A 16-mile (25 • 8-km) main line runs through Singapore, connecting with the States of Malaysia and as far as Bangkok. Branch lines serve the port of Singapore and the industrial estate at Jurong. A metro opened in 1987. Aviation. The new international airport at Changi was completed and operational from 1 July 1981. Forty-four international airlines operated 558 scheduled services a week, totalling 68,282 aircraft movements at Singapore International Airport in Changi in 1986. Freight handled (1986) 352,125 tonnes and there were 10m. passengers. Shipping. A total of 60,863 vessels of 206m. NRT entered Singapore during 1986. Post and Telecommunications. In March 1986, 87 post offices and 44 postal agencies were in operation. Telephones numbered 1,115,722 in Dec. 1986. Cinemas (1986). There were 42 cinemas with a total seating capacity of49,000. Newspapers (1986). There were 7 daily newspapers, in 4 languages, with a total daily circulation of684,298. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court in Singapore which consists of the High Court, the Court of Appeal and the Court of Criminal Appeal. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and 7 Judges. An appeal from the High Court lies to the Court of Appeal in civil matters and to the Court of Criminal Appeal in criminal matters. Further appeal can in certain cases be made to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The High Court has original civil and criminal jurisdiction as well as appellate civil and criminal jurisdiction in respect of appeals from the Subordinate Courts. There are 12 district courts, 14 magistrates' courts, 1 juvenile and 1 coroner's court and a small claims tribunal. Religion. The major religions are Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Christianity and

SINGAPORE

1069

Hinduism. At the 1980 census 56% of the population aged 10 years and above were Buddhists and Taoists, 16% Moslems, 10% Christians and 4% Hindus. Education. Statistics of schools in 1986: Primary Government schools Government-aided schools Private schools Secondary Government schools Government-aided schools Private schools 1

Schools

Pupils

172

205,281

8,100

63 1

63,387 152

2,407 8

109

149,296 1

6,461

51,840' 1,952 ' Includes pre-university classes.

2,159 75

44 4

Teachers

The National University of Singapore was established on 8 Aug. 1980 following the merger of the University of Singapore and the Nanyang University. The National University of Singapore has 8 faculties: Arts and social sciences, law, science, medicine, dentistry, engineering, architecture and building, accountancy and business administration. Post-graduate studies are offered in all the faculties and there are 3 post-graduate schools for medical, dental and management studies. Total enrolment for 1986-87 was 15,599 students. The Nanyang Technological Institute, situated in the former Nanyang University, was established on 8 Aug. 1981. The institute had an enrolment of 2,202 students in 1986. It will be developed into a University of Technology by 1992. The Singapore Polytechnic had 12,905 students and the Ngee Ann Polytechnic 9,936 students in 1986-87. The Institute of Education, established on 1 April 1973, is now the only institution responsible for teacher education in Singapore and for promoting research in education. There were 1,365 students in 1986-87. The Adult Education Board and the Industrial Training Board were merged to form the Vocational and Industrial Training Board, on 1 April 1979. The VITB has taken over all the functions and responsibilities in vocational training and continuing education. The VITB runs 16 training institutes and centres offering full-time and part-time courses. The total student enrolment for 1986 was23,687. Health. There were 10 government hospitals with a total of 7,898 beds in 1986. There were 2,781 doctors registered. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Singapore in Great Britain (2 Wilton Cres., London, SW1X 8RW) High Commissioner: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Singapore (Tanglin Rd, Singapore, 1024) High Commissioner: Michael E. Pike, CMG. Of Singapore in the USA (1824 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Tommy Koh Thong Bee. Of the USA in Singapore (30 Hill St., Singapore, 0617) Ambassador: Daryl Arnold. Of Singapore to the United Nations Ambassador: Kishore Mahbubani. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Department of Statistics (PO Box 3010, Maxwell Road, Singapore 9050) was established 1 Jan. 1922. Its publications include: Singapore Trade Statistics (monthly), Monthly Digest of Statistics, Yearbook of Statistics, Singapore Demographic Bulletin (monthly), Census of Population 1980. Singapore Yearbook of Labour Statistics. Chief Statistician: Khoo Chian Kim. National Library. Books About Singapore. Singapore. Biennial

1070

SINGAPORE

Singapore. Constitution. The Constitution of Singapore. Singapore, 1966 The Budget for the Financial Year 1986-87. Singapore, 1986 Singapore. Economic Committee, The Singapore Economy: new direction: report of the Economic Committee, Ministry of Trade and Industry, Singapore, 1986 Singapore. Singapore, Information Division, Ministry of Communications and Information Singapore. Government Gazette (published weekly with supplement) Economic Survey ofSingapore. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Singapore (Annual) Singapore. Facts and Pictures. Singapore, Information Division, Ministry of Communications and Information Singapore Government Directory. Singapore, Information Division, Ministry of Communications and Information Singapore: An Illustrated history, 1941-48. Ministry of Culture, Singapore, 1984 The Statutes of the Republic of Singapore. Rev. 12 vols., 1985 (with annual supplements). Singapore, Law Revision Commission, 1986—. Chew, P. S. J. (ed.), Singapore Development: Policies and Trends. OUP, 1983 Clammer, J. R., Singapore: Ideology, Society, Culture. Singapore, 1985 Drysdale, J., Singapore: Struggle for Success. Singapore, 1984 Josey, A., Lee Kuan Yew, The Struggle for Singapore. London, 1980.—Singapore: Its Past, Present and Future. Singapore, 1979 Lim, L., Trade, Employment and Industrialisation in Singapore. Geneva, 1986 Quah, J. S., Government and Politics of Singapore. OUP, 1985 Saw, S.-H., Population Control for Zero Growth in Singapore. Singapore, 1980 Tan, C. H., Financial Institutions in Singapore. 4th ed. Singapore, 1985 Turnbull, C. M., A History of Singapore, 1819-1975. OUP, 1977 Yeo, K. W., Political Development in Singapore, 1945-1955. Singapore Univ. Press, 1973 You, P. S., and Lim, C. Y. (eds.), Singapore: Twenty-five years of Development. Singapore, 1984 National Library: National Library, Stamford Rd, Singapore. Director: Mrs Hedwig Anuar.

SOLOMON ISLANDS

Capital: Honiara Population: 270,000 (1985) GNPper capita: US$640 (1983)

HISTORY. The Solomon Islands were discovered in 1568 by Alvaro de Mendana, on a voyage of discovery from Peru; 200 years passed before European contact was again made with the Solomons. The southern Solomon Islands were placed under British protection in 1893; the eastern and southern outliers were added in 1898 and 1899. Santa Isabel and the other islands to the north were ceded by Germany in 1900. Full internal self-government was achieved on 2 Jan. 1976 and independence on 7 July 1978. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Solomon Islands lie within the area 5° to 12" 30' S. lat. and 155° 30' to 169° 45' E. long. The group includes the main islands of Guadalcanal, Malaita, New Georgia, San Cristobal (now Makira), Santa Isabel and Choiseul; the smaller Florida and Russell groups; the Shortland, Mono (or Treasury), Vella La Vella, Kolombangara, Ranongga, Gizo and Rendova Islands; to the east, Santa Cruz, Tikopia, the Reef and Duff groups; Rennell and Bellona in the south; Ontong Java or Lord Howe to the north; and innumerable smaller islands. The land area of the Solomons is estimated at 10,640 sq. miles (27,556 sq. km). The larger islands are mountainous and forest clad, with floodprone rivers of considerable energy potential. Guadalcanal has the largest land area and the greatest amount of flat coastal plain. Population of the Solomon Islands was (1985, estimate) 270,000. Census (1976) 196,823. The islands are administratively divided into 7 provinces. These provinces are (with 1987 estimated population): Western Province (62,300), Guadalcanal, including Honiara (71,300), Central (20,600), Malaita (80,700), Makira and Ulawa (20,800), Temotu (15,300), Isabel (15,500). The capital, Honiara, on Guadalcanal, is the largest urban area, with estimated population in 1985 of26,000. English is the official language but there are at least 87 vernacular languages. CLIMATE. An equatorial climate with only small seasonal variations. Southeast winds cause cooler conditions from April to Nov., but north-west winds for the rest of the year bring higher temperatures and greater rainfall, with annual totals ranging between 80" (2,000 mm) and 120" (3,000 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Solomon Islands is a constitutional monarchy with the British Sovereign (represented locally by a Governor-General, who must be a Solomon Island citizen) as Head of State, while legislative power is vested in the unicameral National Parliament composed of 38 members, elected by universal adult suffrage for four years (subject to dissolution), and executive authority is effectively held by the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. The Governor-General is appointed for up to five years, on the advice of Parliament, and acts in almost all matters on the advice of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister is elected by and from members of Parliament. Other Ministers are appointed by the Governor-General on the Prime Minister's recommendation, from members of Parliament. The Cabinet is responsible to Parliament. Emphasis is laid on the devolution of power to provincial governments, and traditional chiefs and leaders have a special role within the arrangement. At the General election held on 24 Oct. 1984, 13 seats were gained by the Solomon Islands United Party (SIUP), 12 seats by the People's Alliance Party, 4 seats by Solomons Ano Sagufenua (SAS) and 8 seats by others and independents, with one seat vacant. 1071

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SOLOMON

ISLANDS

Governor General: Sir Baddeley Devisi, GCMG, GCVO. Prime Minister: Ezekiel Alebua. National flag: Divided blue over green by a diagonal yellow band, and in the canton 5 white stars. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Solomon Islands is a member of UN, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1985-89 Development Plan envisages improvement in natural resources, health and education. Budget. The budget for 1988 envisaged expenditure of SI$170-76m. of which SI$76-47m. was for development. Currency. The Solomon Island dollar (SIS) was introduced in 1977. In March 1988, US$1 =2-03 dollars; £\ =3-59 dollars. Banking. In 1985 there were 4 commercial banks: Australia and New Zealand, Hong Kong and Shanghai, National Bank of Solomon Islands and Westpac. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 23,379,000 kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. There are reserves of bauxite and phosphate, and there is a small industry extracting gold (65,807 grams refined, in 1986) and silver (70,158) by panning. Agriculture. Land is held either as customary land (88% of holdings) or registered land. Customary land rights depend on clan membership or kinship. Only Solomon Islanders own customary land; only Islanders or government members may hold perpetual estates of registered land. Coconuts, cocoa, rice and other minor crops are grown. Main food crops coconut, cassava, sweet potato, yam, taro and banana: Solomon Islands Plantations Ltd has a plantation of about 40,000 hectares of oil-palm, near Honiara. Production of copra (1987), 27,447 tonnes; palm oil, 11,998; cocoa, 2,964; palm kernels, 2,432. Rice-cropping in 1983 yielded 4,608 tonnes of milled rice. Rice has been imported since the 1986 cyclone. Livestock(1986): Cattle, 23,000; pigs, 50,000. Forestry. Forests cover about 2-4m. hectares, with (1987) an estimated 10-4m. cu. metres of commercial timber. Production (1986) of logs, 471,300 cu. metres and sawn timber, 11,000 cu. metres; total exports, 439,700 cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch of tuna (1986)44,208 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries include palm oil milling, rice milling, fish canning, fish freezing, saw milling, food, tobacco and soft drinks. Other products include wood and rattan furniture, fibreglass articles, boats, clothing and spices. Commerce. The main imports (1986, in SISlm.) were machinery and transport equipment, 30-8; mineral fuels and lubricants, 19-7; manufactured goods, 16-4; food, 17-5. Total imports SI$104-3m. Main exports included fish products, 52-9; wood products, 35-7; cocoa beans, 6-5; copra, 6; palm oil products, 6. In 1986 imports (in SI$lm.) were mainly from Australia (41-8) and Japan (17-6); exports were mainly to Japan (42 -5). Total trade between Solomon Islands and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 19S5 1986 ]987 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

Tourism. In 1984, there were 10,670 visitors.

7,714 1,862

4,074 1,618

4,461 1,566

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1987 there were 1,300 km of motorable roads of which 100 km of bitumen-topped roads; the rest were coral or gravel. In 1982 there were 1,122 passenger cars and 1,323 commercial vehicles. Aviation. (1988) An international airport 13 km from Honiara is served by Air Nauru, Air Niugini, Air Pacific and Solomon Islands Airline. There are 27 airfields. Solomon Islands Airline also provides inter-island transport and scheduled flights to Kieta in Papua New Guinea. Shipping. International seaports are Honiara, and Yandina in the Russell group. Shipping services are maintained with Australia, New Zealand, U K and the Far East. Honiara port handles about 250 overseas vessels annually. In 1987 the merchant marine comprised 26 vessels of 5,811 GRT. Post and Broadcasting. In addition to the general post office, there are 9 post offices, 4 sub post offices and 95 Postal Agencies. In addition there are 143 licensed stamp dealers. Number of telephones (Jan. 1985), 3,827. A V H F radio telephone service operates internally as well as overseas. Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corp. transmits 118 hours a week from Honiara, Gizo and Lata. In 1987 there were about 35,000 radio receivers. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 4 weekly newspapers and 1 monthly. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. Civil and criminal jurisdiction is exercised by the High Court of Solomon Islands, constituted 1975. A Solomon Islands Court of Appeal was established in 1982. Jurisdiction is based on the principles of English law (as applying on 1 Jan. 1981). Magistrates' courts can try civil cases on claims not exceeding $2,000, and criminal cases with penalties not exceeding 14 years' imprisonment. Certain crimes, such as burglary and arson, where the maximum sentence is for life, may also be tried by magistrates. There are also local courts, which decide matters concerning customary titles to land; decisions may be put to the Customary Land Appeal Court. There is no capital punishment. Religion. At the 1976 census, 34% of the population were Anglican, 19% Roman Catholic, 17% South Sea Evangelical and 25% other Protestant. Education. In 1987 there were 42,374 pupils and 2,124 teachers in 462 primary schools, and 5,604 pupils and 300 teachers in 12 provincial and 8 national secondary schools. Training of teachers and trade and vocational training is carried out at the college of Higher Education. There were 413 students on overseas scholarships in 1987. Health. In 1986 there were 8 hospitals, 128 clinics and 20 doctors. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of the Solomon Islands in Great Britain High Commissioner: Wilson Ifunaoa (accredited 12 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in the Solomon Islands (Soltel House, Mendana Ave., Honiara) High Commissioner: John Noss. Of the Solomon Islands in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: Francis J. Saemala. Books of Reference Solomon Islands Hand Book 1983. Government Information Service, Honiara, 1983 Amherst, Lord, and Thompson, B., The Discovery of the Solomon Islands in 1568. London, 1967 Kent, J., The Solomon Islands. Newton Abbot, 1972

SOMALIA

Population: 6-1 lm. (1987) GNPper capita: US$250 (1983)

Jamhuriyadda Dimugradiga Somaliya H I S T O R Y . The Somali Republic came into being on 1 July 1960 as a result of the merger of the British Somaliland Protectorate, which became independent on 26 June 1960, and the Italian Trusteeship Territory of Somalia. On 21 Oct. 1969 Maj.-Gen. Mohammed Siyad Barre took power in a coup, suspended the Constitution and formed a Supreme Revolutionary Council to administer the country, which was renamed the Somali Democratic Republic. Constitutional government was re-established on 23 Sept. 1979. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Somalia is bounded north by the Gulf of Aden, east and south by the Indian ocean, and west by Kenya, Ethiopia and Djibouti. Total area 637,657 sq. km (246,201 sq. miles). Census population (1975) 3,253,024 of whom 15% urban. Estimate (1987) 6 1 lm. In Aug. 1987 there were 700,000 refugees from Ethiopia. The capital is Mogadishu (lm. including a floating population of about 250,000), other large towns being Hargeisa (400,000), Baidoa (300,000), Burao (300,000), Kismaayo (200,000), Merca (100,000), Kisimayu (70,000) and Berbera (65,000). C L I M A T E . Much of the country is arid, though rainfall is more adequate towards the south. Temperatures are very high on the northern coasts. Mogadishu. Jan. 79°F (26-1°C), July 78°F (25-6'C). Annual rainfall 17" (429 mm). Berbera. Jan. 76°F(24-4°C), July 97°F(36-1°C). Annual rainfall2" (51 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved by referendum on 25 Aug. 1979 and came into force on 23 Sept. The sole legal Party (since 1 July 1976) is the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party, administered by a 51-member Central Committee. There is an Executive President nominated by the Central Committee and elected for a 7-year term by direct popular vote; legislative power resides with a People's Assembly consisting of 171 members directly elected for a 5-year term from a single list of 171 SRSP candidates, together with a further 6 members appointed by the President. The President appoints and leads a Council of Ministers. President: Maj.-Gen. Mohammed Siyad Barre (re-elected for a further 7-year term, Dec. 1986). First Vice-President, Prime Minister: Lieut.-Gen. Mohammed Ali Samater. Second Vice-President, Deputy Prime Minister: Maj.-Gen. Hussein Kulmia Afrah. Foreign Affairs: Mohammad Ali Hamoud. Nationalflag: Light blue with a white star in the centre. The national language is Somali. Arabic is also an official language and English and Italian are extensively spoken. Local Government. There are 18 regions, sub-divided into 84 districts. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 4 tank, 45 mechanized and infantry, 1 commando and 1 surface-to-air missile, 3 field artillery brigades. Equipment includes 140 T-34/-54/-55, 123 M-47 and 30 Centurion main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 61,300. There are additional paramilitary forces: Police (8,000), Border Guards (1,500) and People's Militia (20,000). 1074

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Navy. The flotilla includes 4 fast attack/torpedo/patrol craft, 2 fast missile craft, 4 fast torpedo boats, 5 patrol craft, 1 medium landing ship and 4 minor landing craft. All are former Soviet naval units which are deteriorating with the withdrawal of Soviet spares. Personnel totalled 700 officers and men in 1988. Air Force. Formed with a nucleus of aircraft taken over from the former Italian Air Corps of Somalia, in 1960, the Air Corps was built up with Soviet aid. Current equipment includes 6 MiG-21 and 20 F-6 (Chinese-built MiG-19) supersonic fighters, about 10 MiG-17 jet-fighters and 2 MiG-15UTI two-seat advanced trainers, and small transport, helicopter and training units. Latest equipment includes 2 Aeritalia G222, 6 Aviocar and 2 An-26 twin-turboprop transports, 6 SIAIMarchetti SF.260W armed trainers and 4 Agusta-Bell 212 helicopters from Italy, plus 4 Islander and 2 P-166 light transports. Serviceability of most aircraft is reported to be low, a squadron of Hunter fighters being stored. Personnel (1988) 2,500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Somalia is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League, the Islamic League and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1982-86 Development Plan envisaged expenditure of Som.Sh. 16,299m. and a growth rate of 4 -8%. Budget. The budget for 1987 balanced at Som.Sh. 17,919m.. Currency. The currency is the Somali shilling, divided into 100 cents. The money is issued in notes of 5, 10, 20 and 100 shillings and coins of 1, 5, 10, 50 cents and 1 shilling. In March 1988 £1 = 177-35 Som.Sh.;US$l = 100 00 Som.Sh. Banking. The bank of issue is the Central Bank of Somalia (founded in 1960 as the Somali National Bank). All foreign banks were nationalized in May 1970, and the Commercial and Savings Bank of Somalia and the Somali Development Bank, both state-owned, are the only other banks. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Electricity production (1986) was 137m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Deposits of iron ore in the south and gypsum in the north are known to exist. Beryl and columbite are also found in the north. None are commercially exploited. Several firms hold exploration and drilling licences for oil. Uranium is found in the Juba area. Agriculture. Somalia is essentially a pastoral country, and about 80% of the inhabitants depend on livestock-rearing (cattle, sheep, goats and camels). In Southern Somalia, especially along the Shebeli and Juba rivers, there are banana and sugarcane plantations with a cultivated area of some 90,000 hectares. Estimated production, 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, 550; bananas, 70; maize, 382; sorghum, 251; grapefruit, 9; seed cotton, 3. Fresh fruit and oil seeds are grown in increasing quantities. Livestock (1986): 16-2m. goats; 1 0 1 m . sheep;5-8m. camels; 3-8m. cattle; 1,000 horses, 25,000 asses and 23,000 mules. Forestry. Production(1984) 5-2m. cu. metres. Fisheries. 21 co-operatives, including 4,000 full-time and 10,000 part-time fishermen, caught some 15,300 tonnes in 1984. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. A few small industries existed in 1986 including sugar refining, food processing, textile and petroleum refining. Production (1981): Textiles, 10-lm. yards; sugar, 26,800 tonnes; flour and pasta, 5,900 tonnes.

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SOMALIA

Commerce. In 1983 imports were Som.Sh.2,844m. and exports Som.Sh. 1,423m. The chief exports are fresh fruit, livestock, hides and skins. In 1984, 20% of imports came from Italy, 20% from USA and 13% from Saudi Arabia, while 59% of exports went to Saudi Arabia. Total trade between the Somali Republic and U K (British Department of Trade returns, i n £ l , 0 0 0 sterling): ] m ] m ] m m 6 m ? Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

581 18,987

1,582 14,165

1,448 8,646

740 9,139

825 11,417

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Somalia has no developed transport system. Internal freight and passenger transport is almost entirely by means of road haulage. In 1985 there were 17,215 km of roads (2,500 km were paved), 17,754 passenger cars and 9,533 commercial vehicles. Aviation. There is a commercial national airline, Somali Airlines. Mogadishu airport is used by Alitalia, Alyemda, Air Tanzania, PIA, Saudi Airways and Kenya Airways. Shipping. There are 4 deep-water harbours at Kisimayu, Berbera, Marka and Mogadishu. The merchant fleet (1985) amounted to 26 vessels of28,053 gross tons. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1985), about 6,000. The state radio stations transmit in Somali, Arabic, English and Italian from Mogadishu, and Hargeisa. Receivers (1983) 134,000. A television service was started in 1983. Cinemas. In 1970 there were 26 cinemas with a seating capacity of23,000. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 84 district courts, each with a civil and a criminal section. There are 8 regional courts and 2 Courts of Appeal (at Mogadishu and Hargeisa), each with a general section and an assize section. The Supreme Court is in Mogadishu. Religion. The population is almost entirely Sunni Moslems. Education. The nomadic life of a large percentage of the population inhibits education progress. In 1982 there were 220,680 pupils and 9,460 teachers in primary schools, there were 53,391 pupils and 2,201 teachers in secondary schools, and 1,836 students with 133 teachers at teacher-training establishments. The National University of Somalia in Mogadishu (founded 1959) had 2,332 students in 1980. Health. In 1986 there were 450 doctors, 180 pharmacists, 2 dentists, 556 midwives and 1,834 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Somalia in Great Britain (60 Portland PL, London, W 1 N 3DG) Ambassador: Salah Mohamed Ali (accredited 15 Feb. 1985). Of Great Britain in Somalia (Waddada Xasan Geedd Abtoow 7/8, Mogadishu) Ambassador: Jeremy Varcoe. Of Somalia in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Abdullah Addou. Of USA in Somalia (Corso Primo Luglio, Mogadishu) Ambassador: T. Frank Crigler. Of Somalia to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdillahi Said Osman. Books of Reference Background to the Liberation Struggle of the Western Somalis. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mogadishu, 1978 Darch, C., Somalia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986 Legum, C. and Lee, B., Conflict in the Horn of Africa. London, 1977

Capital: Pretoria Population: 23 • 39m. ( 1985) GNPper capita: US$2,500 (1984)

R E P U B L I C OF SOUTH AFRICA Republiek van Suid-Afrika

H I S T O R Y . The Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 and comprised the former self-governing British colonies of the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The Union remained a member of the British Commonwealth until it became a republic on 31 May 1961. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . South Africa is bounded north by South West Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe, north-east by Mozambique and Swaziland, east by the Indian ocean, south and west by the South Atlantic. Lesotho forms an enclave between the Orange Free State and Natal. The total area of the republic was (1983) 433,678' sq. miles (1,123,226 sq. km), divided between the provinces as follows: Cape Province, 249,331 (645,767); Natal, 33,578 (86,967); Transvaal, 101,351 (262,499); Orange Free State, 49,418 (127,993). On 25 Dec. 1947 the Union formally took possession of Prince Edward Island and, on 30 Dec., of Marion Island, about 1,200 miles south-east of Cape Town. 1 Excludes Walvis Bay (434 sq. miles), which is an integral part of the Cape Province but is administered under Act No. 24 of 1922, and also excludes South West Africa, Transkei, Ciskei, Bophuthatswana and Venda.

The census taken in 1904 in each of the 4 colonies was the first simultaneous census taken in South Africa. In 1911 the first Union census was taken. Total 1904 5,174,827 1911 5,972,757 1921 6,927,403 1936 9,587,863 1946 11,415,925 1951 12,671,452 1960 15,994,181 1970 21,402,470 1980'24,885,960 1985 2 23,391,245 1

All races NonWhites Whites 1,117,234 4,057,593 1,276,319 4,696,438 1,521,343 5,406,060 2,003,334 7,584,529 2,372,044 9,043,881 2,641,689 10,029,763 3,080,159 12,914,022 3,726,540 17,675,930 4,528,100 20,357,860 4,574,339 18,816,906

Whites

Non-whites

Males Females Males 635,317 481,917 2,046,370 685,206 591,113 2,383,879 783,006 738,337 2,753,188 1,017,557 985,777 3,818,211 1,194,201 1,177,843 4,610,862 1,322,754 1,318,935 5,109,331 1,534,923 1,545,236 6,504,317 1,856,180 1,870,360 8,689,920 2,265,400 2,262,700 10,393,780 2,254,801 2,319,538 9,293,081

Females 2,011,223 2,312,559 2,652,872 3,766,318 4,433,019 4,920,432 6,409,705 8,986,010 9,964,080 9,523,825

Excludes Transkei, Bophuthatswana and Venda, but includes Ciskei (677,820). 1 Also excludes Ciskei.

Of the non-White population in 1985, 15-2m. were Black, 2-8m. Coloured and 821,361 Asiatic. The numerically leading Black nations (1980) are the Zulu (5,682,520), Xhosa (2,987,340), Sepedi (North Sotho) (2,347,600), Seshoeshoe (South Sotho) (1,742,060), Tswana (1,357,360). Population, (1985) of the Black national areas: Kwa Zulu, 3,738,334; Gazankulu, 496,200; Lebowa, 1,833,144; Qwaqwa, 180,924; Ka Ngwane, 391,205; Kwa Ndebele, 235,511. These places are included in the land area figures for the provinces where they lie, but their inhabitants are not included in the provincial population figures. Growth rate 1980-85,2-7% (Black, 3-1%; Coloured, 3%; Asian, 2%; White, 1 -7%). Vital statistics for calendar years: Whites 1984 1985 1986

Births 81,550 79,863 72,938

Deaths 38,175 37,348 38,241

ImmiMarriages 44,840 41,313 41,575

grants 28,793 17,284 6,994

1077

Asians and Emigrants 8,550 11,401 13,711

Births 111,946 104,088 101,331

Deaths 30,895 27,594 28,714

Coloureds Marriages 29,282 28,006 28,276

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REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

Of the 6,994 immigrants in 1986,3,818 were from Europe (of whom 2,012, UK); 2,433 from Africa (of whom 1,859, Zimbabwe); 359 from the Americas and 232 from Asia: of the 13,711 emigrants 6,741 went to Europe (of whom 5,407 to UK); 3,978 to Australia; 747 to Africa. The registration of Black essential data was introduced on a compulsory basis many years ago. However, despite serious efforts on the part of the registering authorities, the Blacks are still largely reluctant to have their essential data registered. Consequently no complete vital statistics are available for this population group. Principal cities (excluding suburbs) according to the latest statistics (1980) are: Town Alberton (Trans.) Benoni (Trans.) Bloemfontein (O.F.S.) Boksburg (Trans.) Brakpan (Trans.) Cape Town (C. Prov.) Durban (Natal) East London (C. Prov.) Germiston (Trans.) Johannesburg (Trans.) Kempton Park (Trans.) Kimberley (C. Prov.) Krugersdorp (Trans.) Pietermaritzburg (Natal) Port Elizabeth (C. Prov.) Pretoria (Trans.) Roodepoort Maraisburg (Trans.) Springs (Trans.) Vereeniging (Trans.) Welkom (O.F.S.)

Whites 45,902 56,508 90,625 61,337 31,902 124,876 232,616 62,735 117,492 435,586 71,505 33,440 46,280 53,780 128,605 351,590

Africans 177,123 135,752 124,768 73,385 46,135 5,608 73,701 77,372 33,740 947,290 217,998 66,162 53,752 62,330 241,844 146,766

Coloureds 7,410 997 15,295 15,408 1,674 80,748 44,020 18,150 1,616 101,769 295 44,125 277 11,424 115,383 14,746

83,217 49,752 65,500 38,027

77,511 101,691 72,432 133,679

3,620 1,254 7,930 4,902

Asians 232 13,553 157 21 2,598 155,626 2,325 2,587 51,812 17 1,196 2,631 51,438 6,308 15,305 967 1,277 3,548

Total 230,667 206,810 230,688 150,287 79,732 213,830 505,963 160,582 155,435 1,536,457 289,815 144,923 102,940 178,972 492,140 528,407 165,315 153,974 149,410 176,608

In 1980 (census) Afrikaans was the home language of2,581,080 Whites, English of 1,763,220 Whites. Of the 15,970,019 Black, Nguni languages (mainly Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi and Ndebele) are spoken by about 10m.; Sotho languages (Northern, Western and Southern) by 5-5m.; Tsonga languages by 900,000 and Venda by 169,700. Bushman and Khoe languages are spoken among nomads. Indian languages in use include Tamil, Hindi, Gujarati, Urdu and Telugu. C L I M A T E . The climate is healthy and invigorating, with abundant sunshine and relatively low rainfall. The factors controlling this include the latitudinal position, the oceanic location of much of the country, and the existence of high plateaus. The south-west has a Mediterranean climate, with rain mainly in winter, but most of the country has a summer maximum, though quantities show a clear decrease from east to west. Temperatures are remarkably uniform over the whole country. Pretoria. Jan. 70°F (21 • 1°C), July 52°F (11- 1°C). Annual rainfall 3 1 " (785 mm). Bloemfontein. Jan. 73°F (22-8°C), July 47°F (8-3°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (564 mm). Cape Town. Jan. 69°F(20-6°C), July 54°F(12-2°C). Annual rainfall 2 0 " (508 mm). Durban. Jan. 75°F(23-9°C), July 62°F(16-7°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,008 mm). Johannesburg. Jan. 68°F (20°C), July 51°F (10-6°C). Annual rainfall 2 8 " (709 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . On 2 Nov. 1983 a referendum among white voters approved the South Africa Constitution Bill which had previously been passed in the House of Assembly by 119 votes to 35. Turnout for the referendum was 2,062,469 (76 02%), of whom 1,360,223 voted in favour. The new constitution became effective on 4 Sept. 1984. It provides for a tricameral parliament: the House of Assembly with 178 members of whom 166 are directly elected and 8 indirectly elected by White voters; the House of Representatives with 85 members of whom 80 are directly elected by Coloured voters; the House of Delegates with 45 members of whom 40 are directly elected by Indian voters. The term for all members is 5 years.

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These houses choose (from their majority parties) respectively 50 White, 25 Coloured and 13 Indian members of an electoral college which elects an executive President. The President initiates legislation and resolves disputes between houses. He is helped by a 60-member President's Council: 20 members are elected by the House of Assembly, 10 by the House of Representatives and 5 by the House of Delegates; 15 are MPs nominated by himself and 10 are MPs nominated by Opposition parties. The President appoints a Ministers' Council for each house, choosing 5 members from the majority party; a member chosen from outside the house must become a member of it within one year, and enjoy majority-party support. The Councils handle the affairs of their own population group and administer the departments established for that group. The President also appoints a Cabinet; any member appointed from outside Parliament must become a member of one of the three houses within one year. Any Ministers' Council member may be appointed a Cabinet member for a specific purpose or for an indefinite period. Any Ministers' Council may co-opt a Cabinet member in the same way, providing that member qualifies as a member of the Council in question. Each house legislates on its own community affairs; the three houses have coresponsibility for national affairs. The State President, on the Cabinet's advice, decides whether a certain matter is a community or a national affair. To hold an office of profit under the State (with certain exceptions) is a disqualification for membership of either House, as are also insolvency, crime and insanity. Pretoria is the seat of government, and Cape Town is the seat of legislature. The state of the parties on 4 Sept. 1984: in the House of Assembly, National Party, 114; Progressive Federal Party, 26; Conservative Party, 17; New Republic Party, 8; South African Party, 3. In the House of Representatives, Labour Party, 76; others, 4. In the House of Delegates, National People's Party 18; Solidarity, 17; others, 5. Indians voting in the elections to the new House of Delegates in Aug. 1984, 20 -3% of registered voters; Coloured voters to the new House of Representatives, 30-9%. President and Prime Minister: P. W. Botha (sworn in, 14 Sept. 1984). The Cabinet in Jan. 1988 was composed as follows: Transport Services: H. Schoeman. Constitutional Development and Planning: J. C. Heunis. Foreign Affairs: R. F. Botha. Home Affairs and National Education: F. W. de Klerk. Law and Order: A. Vlok. Communications and Public Works: Dr L. A. P. A. Munnik. Health and Welfare and Chairman ofthe Ministers 'Councilfor White Own Affairs: Dr C. V. van der Merwe. Co-operation and Development and (Black) Education: Dr G. Viljoen. Defence: Gen. M. Malan. Manpower: P. T. du Plessis. Industries and Commerce: Dr D. J. de Villiers: Justice: H. J. Coetsee. Agricultural Economics and Water Affairs: J. J. G. Wentzel. Mineral and Energy Affairs: D. W. Steyn. Finance: B. J. du Plessis. Environment and Tourism: J. Wiley. Chairman of the Ministers' Council for Coloured Own Affairs: A. Hendrickse. Chairman of the Ministers' Councilfor Indian Own Affairs: A . Rajbansi. The Prime Minister receives an annual salary of R43,000 and a reimbursive allowance of R20,000; a member of the Cabinet an annual salary of R23,500 and a reimbursive allowance of R6,500; and a Deputy Minister an annual salary of R19,000 and a reimbursive allowance of R6,500. The English and Afrikaans languages are both official, subject to amendments carried by a two-thirds majority in joint session of both Houses of Parliament. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of orange, white, blue, with the flags of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, and the Union Jack side by side in the centre. National anthem: The Call of South Africa/Die Stem van Suid-Afrika (words by C. J. Langenhoven, 1918;tuneby M. L . d e Villiers, 1921).

1080

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH

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Provincial Administration. In each of the 4 provinces there is an Administrator appointed by the State President-in-Council for 5 years. Until 1986 there were provincial councils, each council electing an executive committee of 4 (either members or not of the council), the Administrator acting as chairman. Provincial councils were abolished in 1986; local governments remain, comprising municipal councils, management boards and other local committees, all of which have authority to deal with local matters, of which provincial finance, education (primary and secondary, other than higher education and technical education), hospitals, roads and bridges, townships, horse and other racing, and game and fish preservation are the most important. All ordinances passed by the local councils are subject to the veto of the State President-in-Council. Black Administration. In 1959 the main ethnic groups received legislative recognition by the passing of the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act, which provided inter alia for the various ethnic groups to develop into self-governing national units. As the Act envisages eventual political autonomy for each of the various national units and as representation in the highest White governing bodies is regarded as a retarding factor, the representation of Blacks by Whites in Parliament and the Cape Provincial Administration was abolished with effect from 30 June 1960. Territorial Authorities were established between 1968 and 1970, and were converted to Legislative Assemblies in 1971. Each national unit also has an Executive Council. These Councils, each headed by a Chief Councillor, consist of 6 members, except in the case of the South Sotho, where there are only 4. Each of these Councillors is responsible for the administration of a Department. A civil service has been established in each instance, staffed by citizens of the respective homelands. White officials will serve the homeland governments on secondment, until trained Black citizens are able to take over all duties. There are (1987) 10 homelands of which 4 are recognised by the South African government as Independent: The Transkei, territory of the Xhosa nation, became independent on 25 Oct. 1976 (see p. 1101), Bophuthatswana on 6 Dec. 1977 (see p. 1098), Venda on 13 Sept. 1979 (see p. 1102) and Ciskei on 4 Dec. 1981 (see p. 1104). There are (1987) 6 territories with a degree of self-government but still forming part of the Republic: K.wa Zulu, Gazankulu (Machangana-Tsonga people), Lebowa (North Sotho), Qwaqwa (South Sotho), Ka Ngwane (Swazi) and Kwa Ndebele (Southern Ndebele). D E F E N C E . The South African Defence Force comprises a Permanent Force, a Citizen Force and a Commando organization. The Permanent Force consists of professional soldiers, airmen and seamen who are responsible for the administration and training of the whole Defence Force in peace-time, but who are gradually absorbed into the Citizen Force in time of war. The Permanent Force and the Citizen Force consist of Army, Air Force and Naval components; the Commando organization is an army and air organization. Every white male citizen between 18 and 65 is liable to undergo training and to render personal service in time of war. Those between the ages of 16 and 25 are liable to undergo a compulsory course of peace training. Peace-time training in Commando organizations extends over a period of 16 years' intermittent training. Training in the Citizen Force takes the form of 2 years of continuous training, followed by 9 years during which training takes place at regular intervals. Aliens have become liable for military service after 5 years' residence by Act of Parliament, 1967. The S.A. Defence Force is administered by the Chief of the Defence Force, his advisers being the Chief of the Army, Chief of the Air Force and Chief of the Navy, Chief of Staff Operations, Chief of Staff Personnel, the Chief of Staff Management Services and the Surgeon-General.

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Army. South Africa is divided into 11 territorial Commands. Within the various Commands are training units, of which members of the Permanent Force form the permanent staff. Courses of various types are held also at the S. A. Military College. The Army includes 1 armoured, 1 mechanized, 3 motorized and 1 parachute brigade; 1 special reconnaissance regiment and supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. Equipment includes some 250 Centurion/Olifant main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 76,400 (including 55,000 conscripts) with an Active Reserve of 146,000. Paramilitary forces are Commandos (130,000), South African Police (55,000) and Police Reserves (37,000). Navy. The South African Navy has its headquarters at Pretoria. The Navy includes 3 French-built diesel-powered patrol submarines, 2 old British-built anti-submarine frigates (if and when modernised), 9 fast missile armed patrol vessels (6 built in Durban and 3 in Israel), 10 coastal minesweepers (2 converted to minehunters and 2 employed for patrol), 1 British-built survey ship, 1 fleet replenishment ship, 1 small training vessel, 1 torpedo recovery vessel, 3 rescue launches, 30 very small harbour patrol boats and 3 tugs. A custom-built submarine complex incorporating an operations centre alongside a synchrolift marine elevator capable of docking all South African warships except the large tanker, was opened at Simonstown in July 1972. A new maritime headquarters was opened at Silvermine in March 1973. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 7,480 officers and ratings, plus 1,500 national service men. Air Force. There is 1 bomber squadron with 5 Canberra B. 12 and 2 Canberra T.4; 1 bomber squadron with 6 Buccaneer Mk.50; 1 coastal patrol squadron with 18 Piaggio P.166S; 1 coastal patrol squadron with C-47s; 1 fighter-bomber squadron with 30 Mirage F l - A Z ground attack aircraft; 1 general-purpose fighter squadron with Mirage IIICZ interceptors and Mirage IIIRZ reconnaissance fighters; and 1 squadron with Mirage F l - C Z interceptors. Transport squadrons have 9 Transall C-160s, 7 C-130B Hercules, more than 40 C-47s, 7 C-54s, 4 Boeing 707s, 1 Viscount, 4 twin-jet HS.125s and 4 twin-turboprop Merlin IVA light transports. Four helicopter squadrons and No. 22 Flight have more than 80 Alouette Ills, 60 Pumas, 8 Wasps, and 14 Super Frelons. T-6Gs are used for primary training, followed by advanced training on Impalas and Mirage IIIEZ/DZ, weapons training on Impalas, and multi-engine/crew training on C-47s. Built under licence in the Republic of South Africa, about 150 two-seat Impala Mk. 1 s have been followed by 75 single-seat Impala Mk. 2s, based on the Aermacchi MB.326M and 326K respectively. Three squadrons operate C4M Kudu and AM.3C Bosbok liaison aircraft. South African industry is currently modernizing the Mirage combat aircraft (under the name 'Cheetah') and developing an armed helicopter derived from the Puma. The Citizen Force has 3 squadrons of Impalas for counter-insurgency duties and C4M Kudu and AM.3C Bosbok liaison aircraft. C F personnel have additional functions in regular SAAF squadrons, notably those equipped with C-47 transports and P. 166 light transport/coastal patrol aircraft. Total strength (1988) was about 13,000 regular officers and men. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Republic of South Africa is a member of UN. ECONOMY Budget. Total revenue and expenditure of the central government's State Revenue Account in R i m . : 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 Revenue Expenditure

20,477-8 22,953-8

24,223-4 27,984-6

29,851-2 33,026-4

The main sources of State Revenue 1985-86 were income tax, R16,158-4m.; general sales tax, R8,085-lm.; excise duties, Rl,839-8m.; departmental receipts, Rl,144-lm. Public debt on 31 March 1987, R47,619m., of which R3,220m. was foreign debt; internal debt, R44,399m.

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Currency. Decimal coinage was introduced in 1959, the units being the rand (abbreviated as R) and the cent (abbreviated as c). The rand/cent coinage system came into operation on 14 Feb. 1961. The decimal coins are: Gold coins. 2 rand; 1 rand. Silver coins. 50 cents; 20 cents; 10 cents; 5 cents. Bronze coins. 2 cents; 1 cent. In March 1988,£1 = R3-69;US$1 = R2-86. Banking. In Dec. 1920, under the South African Currency and Banking Act, 1920, a Central Reserve Bank was established at Pretoria. It commenced operations in June 1921, and began to issue notes in April 1922. The bank has branches in Pretoria (Head Office), Johannesburg, Cape Town, Durban, Port Elizabeth, East London, Bloemfontein, Pietermaritzburgand Windhoek. Total deposits, 31 March 1987, R3,957m.; assets, R12,158m. In March 1987 there were 14 commercial banks and 22 general banks (formerly hire-purchase and savings banks), with total liabilities, 31 March 1987, commercial banks, R53,369m., general, R15,412m.; 10 merchant banks (R5,352m.) and 3 discount houses (R1,612m.) The Land and Agricultural Bank had R8,342m. total liabilities; Post Office Savings Bank deposits, R3,356m. Weights and Measures. The Measuring Units and National Measuring Standards Act, 1973, confirmed the adoption of the international metric system. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total capacity of the power plants controlled by the Electricity Supply Commission was 26,150,000 kw at the end of 1985. There were 20 coalfired stations, 3 hydro-electric stations (1,540 mw) and 2 gas-turbine stations (342 mw). Production (1986) 145,394m. kwh of which ESCOM generated 133,644m. kwh. Net production (sent out from plants for consumption), 133,293, of which ESCOM, 123,643. Supply 220 and240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Small amounts of oil and gas were found off-shore (south west of Mossel Bay) in Oct. 1982. Water. Government activities are governed by the Water Act, 1956 (as amended), which is administered by the Directorate of Water Affairs. A Water Research Commission was established in 1971 to co-ordinate and promote research; it is responsible for hydrological research, major water resource development, water pollution control. The combined average flow of South Africa's rivers is about 52,000m. cu. metres annually, most of it lost by evaporation and spillage. Water demand (now mainly urban-industrial) grows at 7% annually. The Orange River Project was launched in 1966. It is to embrace 3 major dams on the Orange River, 9 smaller dams or weirs, a 51 '/¡-mile tunnel, 20 hydro-electric power stations and a system of canals. In Oct. 1986 South Africa signed a treaty with Lesotho to allow damming the Orange River head waters within Lesotho and diverting the collected water through tunnels into the Vaal River system of the OFS. Lesotho is to receive royalties and hydro-electric power in exchange. Minerals. Value of the main mineral production sales (in R1,000): Asbestos Chrome ore Coal Copper Diamonds Fluorspar Gold Iron ore Lime and limestone Manganese Phosphate Silver

1983 113,279 71,453 2,539,731 351,137 525,217 30,744 10,180,209 309,919 162,493 110,219 74,271 79,342

1984 101,207 121,627 3,348,058 365,761 463,019 49,209 1 1,556,315 372,728 182,831 202,566 97,962 64,332

Total value of all minerals sold (1986), R29,240- lm.

1985 102,453 231,669 4,962,285 535,853 702,648 56,510 15,296,931 472,353 203,975 298,761 118,855 78,248

1986 99,064 212,794 5,245,943 550,178 647,996 62,104 17,287,356 473,510 237,31 1 271,024 150,287 72,087

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AFRICA

1083

Mineral production (tonnes) 1986: Coal, 170m.; iron ore, 24-5m.; phosphates, 2-9m.; manganese ore, 3-7m.; chromite, 3m.; asbestos, 138,000; copper, 196,000; lime and limestone, 14-3m.; fluorspar, 334,000; gold, 635,233 kg; silver, 216,599 kg; diamonds, 10 1m. carats. At 31 Dec. 1986 the number of persons engaged in mining was 752,264. Of these, 553,668 were engaged in goldmining. Minerals. A Quarterly Report of Production and Sales. Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs. Pretoria, from 1936 Mining Statistics. Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs, Pretoria, from 1966

Agriculture. Much of the land suitable for mechanical farming has unreliable rainfall. Of the total area natural pasture occupies 58% (71 -3m. hectares); about 14m. hectares are suitable for dry-land farming, of which 10 • 6m. are actually cultivated. In 1986, agriculture, forestry and fisheries contributed approximately 6% to GDP. Production (1986-7, in 1,000 tonnes): Maize, 7,371; sorghum, 467; wheat, 2,592; groundnuts, 85; sunflower seed, 397; sugar-cane, 20,000; oranges, 522; potatoes, 1,072; vegetables, 2,851. Livestock, in 1,000 (1986): 11,750 cattle, 29,481 sheep, 5,800 goats, 1,445 pigs. The 1983 production of red meat was 957,000 tonnes, poultry meat 457,000 tonnes, wool, 119,000 tonnes. Eggs produced, 272m. dozen; milk, 2,067m. litres. Cotton-growing is now undertaken by many farmers, the plant being found a better drought resistant than either tobacco or maize. Viticulture and fruit-growing are important. Gross value of production (1986-87), R127-7m. In 1986-87 the gross value of agricultural production was R12,677m. (field crops, R4,787m.; livestock products, R5,825m.; horticultural products, R2,365m.). Forestry. The commercial forests occupy about 1 -62m. hectares, of which 148,000 hectares are indigenous trees and the rest exotic trees (pine, gum, wattle). The total value of saw logs delivered from plantation was about 45m. cu. metres in 1986. The Republic is self sufficient in newsprint and exports pulp and paper. Fisheries. About 90% of the catch is taken from the cold waters off the west coast. In 1983 sea fisheries caught 376,467 tonnes of pelagic shoal fish, mainly anchovy, and trawl fisheries (hake and sole) landed 123,000 tonnes. The fishing fleet consists (1983) of about 5,700 vessels, including 139 purse-seiners and 128 trawlers. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Net value of sales of the principal groups of industries (in Rim.) in 1986: Processed food, 13,667; beverages and tobacco, 3,426; vehicles, 5,318; basic metals, 9,463 -3; chemicals and products, 17,756; non-electrical machinery, 4,331; electrical machinery, 3,876; fabricated metal products except machinery, 5,555; printing and publishing, 1,795; wood and cork products except furniture, 1,357; clothing, 1,947; paper and products, 3,785; textiles, 3,497; total net value including other groups, 86,055. Manufacturing industry contributed R28,321 m. to gross domestic product ofR128,524m. in 1986. Industrial employment (except mining) at 28 Feb. 1987: Manufacturing employed 1,322,100 workers; construction, 295,600; trade and accommodation services, 742,917 (31 Dec. 1986). Average monthly earnings of white employee, 1984, R1,402; ofblack, R364. In 1985 in private manufacturing 170,900 workers were employed in the food industry (earning Rl,264,967,000); textiles employed 102,000 (R657,072,000); clothing, 111,800 (R524,126,000); transport equipment, 99,900 (Rl,233,585,000); non-metallic mineral products, 79,100 (R645,653,000); metal products, 123,200 (R 1,302,704,000); chemical, petroleum and coal products, 95,200 (R 1,3 51,143,000). Trade Unions. At 1 Jan. 1984 there were 194 trade unions with an estimated total membership of 1,288,748. There were 56 White unions, 35 Coloured and 23

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Black. Thirty-six unions were mixed and 42 had members from all groups. The Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act (1979) provides for association to all workers irrespective of race; it is now possible for a union (as opposed to a union with some Black members) to register. barred from political activity.

population freedom of Black trade Unions are

Commerce. South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Transkei are members of a customs union and the foreign trade statistics shown below represent the combined imports and exports of these countries. The total value of the imports and exports was as follows (in Rim.): Imports

1984 1985 1986

21,804-4 22,989-1 26,893-7

1984 1985 1986

Exports

25,584-5 36,474-2 41,796-7

The principal commodity groups of imports and exports (in R1 m.) in 1986 were: Imports

Machinery Vehicles and aircraft Chemical products Basemetals Scientific and special equipment Resins and plastics Textiles

Exports

7,317-8 2,963-2 3,050-5 1,267-6

Minerals and products Basemetals Precious stones, metals andcoins Textiles Chemical products Food, beverages and tobacco Vegetable products

1,167-2 1,140-0 913-9

4,967-2 4,756-8 3,036-7 934-4 1,174-0 947-8 1,059-6

The geographical origin of South Africa's imports and the direction of its export trade were mainly as follows in 1985: Africa Europe USA Japan

Imports

2 42 13 10

%

Exports

4 23 9 8

%

Total trade between South Africa and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m j / m m 6 I987 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

764,909 725,631 989,757 1,109,039 1,205,143 1,009,629

829,305 849,557

658,162 948,584

Tourism. In 1986,644,502 tourists visited the Republic of South Africa. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The railway administration operates the long-distance road motor services, together with private operators. There were at 31 March 1982,184,802 km of roads, of which some 1,967 km of national roads and 46,888 km of provincial roads were surfaced. South African Transport Services carried 13 -2m. passengers and 4 -4m. tonnes of goods by road in the year ended 31 March 1986; private operators carried 911,112 passengers and 242-2m. tonnes of goods. Buses have been desegregated in Cape Town and Durban. Motor vehicles in operation on 30 June 1985 included 2,973,000 passenger cars, 1,055,000 commercial vehicles. New motor vehicles licensed, year ending 30 June 1986,285,000. Railways. Railway history in South Africa begins in 1860 with the line DurbanPoint. With the formation of the Union in 1910, the state-owned lines in the 4 provinces (12,194 km) were amalgamated into one state undertaking, which also took over the control of the harbours-the South African Railways and Harbours Administration now known as South African Transport Services. Government-owned lines operated by the administration (1986) totalled 23,821 km (mostly 1,065 mm gauge), of which 7,913 km were electrified. Passenger journeys, 1986,658 -7m.; revenue-earning goods and livestock traffic, 167m. tonnes.

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The railways earned R5,410m. in 1986, to which goods contributed R2,646-6m. Aviation. Civil aviation in South Africa is controlled by the Department of Transport, which administers the following state-owned airports: Jan Smuts Airport, Johannesburg; D. F. Malan Airport, Cape Town; Louis Botha Airport, Durban; J. B. M. Hertzog Airport, Bloemfontein; Ben Schoeman Airport, East London; H. F. Verwoerd Airport, Port Elizabeth; B. J. Vorster Airport, Kimberley; P. W. Botha Airport, George; Pierre van Ryneveld Airport, Upington. At other airports the Department provides air navigation services. South African Airways, as the national air carrier, operate scheduled international air services within Africa and to Europe, South America, the USA, the Far East and Australia. Twenty independent operators provide internal flights which link up with SAA's internal network. During 1985 South African Airways carried 4,031,728 passengers (3,494,918 on internal flights) and 78,508 tonnes of freight and mail (44,948). Shipping. The main ports are Durban, Cape Town, Saldanha, Richards Bay, Port Elizabeth and East London. Smaller ports are Mossel Bay, Port Nolloth, Walvis Bay and Liideritz. During 1985 main ports handled 93m. tons of cargo, of which Richards Bay handled 47 • 7m. tons and Durban handled 23 -2m. tons. Post and Broadcasting. On 31 March 1982 there were in South Africa 1,641 money-order post offices and 555 postal agencies. On 30 Sept. 1982 the international telex switchboard served 26,323 telex subscribers in South Africa. Line capacity of automatic telephone exchanges, 2 1 m . ; there were (1984) 3,471,519 telephones. The South African Broadcasting Corporation had, in Sept. 1980,2 • 3m. listeners' licences and there were 1 -45m. television licences. Cinemas (1980). There were 620 including 140 drive-ins. Newspapers (1981). There are 8 Afrikaans and 14 English daily newspapers. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The common law of the republic is the Roman-Dutch law-that is, the uncodified law of Holland as it was at the date of the cession of the Cape in 1806. The law of England as such is not recognized as authoritative, though by statute the principles of English law relating to evidence and to mercantile matters, e.g., companies, patents, trademarks, insolvency and the like, have been introduced. In shipping and insurance, English law is followed in the Cape Province, and it has also largely influenced civil and criminal procedure throughout the republic. In all other matters, family relations, property, succession, contract, etc., Roman-Dutch law rules, English decisions being valued only so far as they agree therewith. The Supreme Court of South Africa is constituted as follows: (i) The Appellate Division, consisting of the Chief Justice and as many Judges of Appeal as the State President may stipulate, is the highest court and its decisions are binding on all courts. It has no original jurisdiction, but is purely a Court of Appeal, (ii) The Provincial Divisions: In each province there is a provincial division of the Supreme Court, while in the Cape there are three such divisions possessing both original and appellate jurisdiction, (iii) The Local Divisions: There is a local division each in the Transvaal and Natal exercising the same original jurisdiction within limited areas as the provincial divisions. The judges hold office till they attain the age of 70 years. No judge can be removed from office except by the State President upon an address from both Houses of Parliament on the ground of misbehaviour or incapacity. The circuit system is fully developed. The Black appeal courts and 3 Black divorce courts have jurisdiction to some extent concurrent with and in certain respects exclusive of that of the Supreme Court in cases in which the parties are Black. Each province is further divided into districts with a magistrate's court having a prescribed civil and criminal jurisdiction. From this court there is an appeal to the provincial divisions of the Supreme Court, and thence to the appellate division.

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Magistrates' convictions carrying sentences above a prescribed limit are subject to automatic review by a judge. In addition, several regional divisions consisting of a number of districts have been constituted. Convictions of such courts are not subject to automatic review by a judge. Courts of Black affairs commissioners have been constituted in defined areas to hear all civil cases and matters between Black and Black only. An appeal lies to the Black appeal court, whose decision is final, unless the court consents to an appeal to the appellate division of the Supreme Court on a point stated by the court itself. Black affairs commissioners have concurrent criminal jurisdiction with magistrates' courts in respect of certain offences committed by Black, while a limited civil and criminal jurisdiction is conferred upon the Black chief or headman over his own tribe. Police. In 1980 the staffofthe Police department numbered 34,271 (18,370 White). There were 46 police stations manned exclusively by Blacks, 16 by Coloureds and 1 by Indians. In 1983 there were 242 prisons with (Sept. 1983) a monthly average of 106,000 prisoners. Religion. A sample tabulation of the 1980 census results as regards religious denominations shows the following: Whites: Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 1,693,640; Anglicans, 456,020; Methodists, 414,080; Roman Catholics, 393,640; Nederduits Hervormde Kerk, 246,340; Presbyterians, 128,920; Gereformeerde Kerk, 128,360; Apostolics, 125,920; other Christians, 566,640; Jews, 119,220; others, 255,320. Blacks: Methodists, 11,554,280; Black independent churches, 4,954,000; Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 1,103,560; Roman Catholics, 1,676,680; Anglican, 797,040; Lutheran, 698,400; other Christian churches, 1,760,860; non-Christian churches, 101,700; others, 4,277,240. Coloureds and Asians: Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 678,380; Hindus, 512,360; Anglican, 360,380; Roman Catholic, 285,980; Islam 318,000; others, 1,279,020. Membership of the white branch of the Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk was opened to all races in 1986. Education. Primary and secondary public education, other than that specifically provided elsewhere, falls under the Provincial Administration. In terms of the National Education Policy Act, 1967, the Minister of Education, Arts and Science may, after consultation with the Provincial Administrators and the National Advisory Education Council, determine general educational policy within the framework of the Act. Black education is the responsibility of the Department of Black Education and Training, while education for Coloureds and Indians is controlled by the Department of Internal Affairs. Public primary and secondary schools in 1986: For Whites there were 2,452 schools with 955,000 pupils and 67,848 teachers. For Coloureds, 2,044 schools with 807,000 pupils and 30,415 teachers. For Indians there were 450 schools with 232,000 pupils and 10,878 teachers. For Blacks there were 12,484 schools with 4,319,000 pupils and 104,542 teachers. A non-racial school (100 pupils) opened near Durban in 1987. Private Schools. To a certain extent the activities of private schools are controlled by government regulations. Their pupils generally sit for the state schools' examinations. These schools make provision for kindergarten, elementary and preparatory, general primary, secondary and commercial education. In 1984,135 private schools for Whites had 3,130 teachers and 43,111 students; 12 schools for Coloureds had 115 teachers and 2,242 students; 84 for Blacks had 784 teachers and 25,434 students. Higher Education. In March 1986 tertiary-level students included 233,633 whites (5% of white population), 26,397 coloureds (0-8%), 22,005 Indians (3%) and 79,440 blacks (0-56%). Of these, 162,627 whites, 20,407 coloureds, 19,345 Indians and 69,301 blacks were at university and Colleges of Education. There are 17 universities in the republic: (1) The University of Cape Town. (2) The University of Natal in Durban

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1087

and Pietermaritzburg. (3) The University of the Orange Free State at Bloemfontein (teaching in Afrikaans). (4) Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education, Potchefstroom (Afrikaans). (5) The University of Pretoria (Afrikaans). (6) Rhodes University, Grahamstown, C.P. (7) The University of Stellenbosch (Afrikaans). (8) The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. (9) The University of South Africa, with its seat in Pretoria, which conducts a Division of External Studies by means of correspondence and vacation courses (English and Afrikaans); it is also an examining body. (10) The University of Port Elizabeth (English and Afrikaans). (11) Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg (All may enrol, white, black, coloured or Asian students). The University of Fort Hare (12), the University of the North (13) near Pietersburg and the University of Zululand (14) near Empangeni, Natal, are operated by the Department of Education and Training and provide education at university level for Blacks, the University of the Western Cape (15), Bellville (Cape), offers university facilities to the Coloured population and is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs as is the University for Indians (16), the University of Durban-Westville, at Durban. The Medical University of South Africa (17) is for Black students. Technical and Vocational Education. Technical, vocational and special education for persons other than those for whom specific provision is made: The Department of National Education is responsible for the maintenance, management and control of or the payment of subsidies to colleges for advanced technical education, technical colleges, technical institutes, special schools, schools of industries and reform schools. Colleges for advanced technical education provide education on an advanced level for a variety of technical, commercial and general courses of study as well as secondary education on a part-time basis. Technical colleges and technical institutes are mainly responsible for the training of apprentices and the education, on a part-time basis, of persons not subject to compulsory school attendance. Special schools for handicapped children cater for the educational needs of those who are blind, partially sighted, deaf, hard of hearing, epileptic, cerebral palsied and physically handicapped. Children found to be in need of care by a children's court, are admitted to schools of industries and reform schools. The Department of Internal Affairs has taken over all schools of this nature for Coloureds. In 1986, technical and training colleges (except Colleges of Education) had 71,006 white students; 5,990 coloured; 5,047 Indian; 10,139 black. Health. In 1986 (preliminary) there were 22,525 medical practitioners and specialists, 3,704 dental specialists and dentists, 88,795 nurses; in 1984 there were 629 hospitals. In 1983 there were 14,333 beds in psychiatric hospitals; 652,054 mentally ill were treated as out-patients, and others treated in psychiatric wards in general hospitals. All public health services rendered by government bodies are free, or charged according to the patient's means. The Department of Health and Welfare works according to the Health Act, 1977. The Department works with the Departments of Internal AfTairs and of Co-operation and Development; it also co-operates with the health departments of Black national states. In preventive medicine there are important programmes for controlling infectious diseases, genetic disorders and malnutrition. Notifiable diseases reported in recent years have been mainly tuberculosis, measles, typhoid, malaria, viral hepatitis, cholera and meningococcal infection. Social Welfare. Under the Social Pensions Act, 1973, pensions and allowances are made to aged, blind, disabled and war veterans, subject to a means test. Family allowances are paid to families with 3 or more children and inadequate income, and to mothers alone with one or more children and inadequate income. Welfare Services. South Africa is not a welfare state, yet provides many services for the community. Welfare work on behalf of the Government is done by the Depart-

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ments of Health and Welfare, Co-operation and Development, and Internal Affairs. Voluntary organizations are numerous. The work of all these bodies is coordinated by the South African Welfare Council and regional welfare boards set up under the National Welfare Act, 1978. The Children's Act, 1960, provides for the protection of children from neglect, ill-treatment and exploitation; the child is cared for within the family whenever possible, but there are also State subsidies to children's homes, crèches and foster families. Welfare services for the aged are mainly provided by voluntary bodies with government subsidies; the same principle applies to the care of the handicapped, but there are State settlements for the permanently handicapped, and State sheltered-employment programmes for handicapped adults. The National Advisory Board on Rehabilitation Matters advises and brings together the voluntary and government agencies working on drug abuse and alcoholism. In all fields of welfare, State subsidies enable voluntary bodies to employ professional social workers. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of South Africa in Great Britain (South Africa Hse., Trafalgar Sq., London, WC2N 5 DP) Ambassador. P. R. Killen. Of Great Britain in South Africa (6 Hill St., Arcadia, Pretoria, 0002) Ambassador: R. W. Ren wick, CMG. Of South Africa in the USA (3051 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Piet G. Koornhof. Of the USA in South Africa (225 Pretorius St., Pretoria) Ambassador: Edward Perkins. Of South Africa to The United Nations Ambassador: Albert Leslie Manley. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Bureau (formerly Office) of Census and Statistics (Schoeman St., Pretoria) The Customs and Excise Office, Pretoria, publishes Monthly Abstract of Trade Statistics (from 1946) and Trade and Shipping of the Union of South Africa (annually, 1910-55); Foreign Trade Statistics (annually, from 1956) Benson, M. Nelson Mandela: The Man and the Movement. New York, 1986 Bissell, R. E„ and Crocker, C. A., South Africa in the 1980s. Boulder, 1979 Bôhning, W. R., Black Migration to South Africa. Geneva, 1981 Branford, J., A Dictionary of South African English. Rev. ed. OUP, 1980 Davenport, T. R. H„ South Africa: A Modern History. 3rded. CUP, 1986 de Villiers, L., South Africa: A Skunk Among Nations. London, 1975 Gann, L. H. and Duignan, P., Why South Africa will Survive. London, 1981 Goldenhuys, D., The Diplomacy of Isolation: South African Foreign Policy Making. Johannesburg, 1984 Hill, C. R., Change in South Africa: Blind Alleys and New Directions. London, 1983 Musiker, R., South Africa, [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1980 Parker, F. J., South Africa: Lost Opportunities. Lexington, 1983 Price, R., and Rossberg, C., The Apartheid Regime: Political Power and Racial Domination. Univ. ofCalifornia Press, 1980 Thompson, L., The Political Mythology of Apartheid. Yale Univ. Press, 1985 Oxford History of South Africa. OUP, Vol. 1,1969; Vol.2 1971

CAPE OF G O O D HOPE

1089

PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE Kaapprovinsie H I S T O R Y . The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was founded by the Dutch in the year 1652. Britain took possession of it from 1795 to 1803 and again in 1806, and it was formally ceded to Great Britain by the Convention of London, 13 Aug. 1814. Letters patent issued in 1850 declared that in the colony there should be a Parliament which should consist of the Governor, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. On 31 May 1910 the colony was merged in the Union of South Africa, thereafter forming an original province of the Union. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The following table gives the population o f t h e Cape of Good Hope 1 (area (1980) 646,332 sq. km) at the last census: 1936 1946 1951 1960 1970 2 1980 3 1986 1

All races Whites Non- Whites Total Males Females Males Females Males Females 3,527,865 1,663,169 1,864,796 396,058 394,993 1,267,011 1,469,803 4,051,424 1,924,334 2,127,090 433,849 436,300 1,490,485 1,690,790 4,426,726 2,110,674 2,316,052 463,917 471,168 1,646,757 1,844,884 5,360,234 2,553,245 2,806,989 493,370 507,398 2,059,875 2,299,591 4,293,726 2,151,629 2,142,097 546,761 567,448 1,604,868 1,579,649 5,091,360 2,575,460 2,515,900 624,680 639,360 1,950,780 1,876,540 4,901,261 2,371,906 2,529,355 1 2 Including Walvis Bay (699 sq. km). Excluding Transkei. ' Excluding Transkei, Ciskei and Bophuthatswana.

Present area, 641,379 sq. km (247,637 sq. miles), including the enclave ofWalvis Bay 699 sq. km (270 sq. miles) on the coast of South West Africa (Namibia) which forms an administrative part of the Cape Province. O f t h e non-White population in 1980, 32,120 were Asians, 1,569,040 were Blacks and 2,226,160 Coloureds. Vital statistics for calendar years: 1979 1980 1983 1984

Births 80,900 80,546 73,654 74,122

Deaths 32,185 34,162 39,164 41,345

Marriages 34,243 29,334 39,162 40,165

A D M I N I S T R A T I O N . InJune 1986 the provincial councils were abolished. Cape Town is the seat of the provincial administration. Administrator:

Eugene Louw.

The province is divided into 111 magisterial districts and 35 divisions. Each division has a council of at least 6 members (15 in the Cape Division) elected quinquennially by the owners or occupiers of immovable property. The duties devolving upon divisional councils include the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges, local rating, vehicle taxation (except motor vehicle taxation) and preservation of public health. There are 216 municipalities, each governed by a mayor and councillors. Municipal elections are held biennially. F I N A N C E . In 1984-85 revenue amounted to Rl,996,920,000 and expenditure to R 1,987,920,000.

M I N I N G . For mineral production, see p. 1082. A G R I C U L T U R E . Viticulture in the republic is almost exclusively confined to the Cape Province, but practically all other forms of agricultural and pastoral activity are pursued.

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I N D U S T R Y . The province has brick, tile and pottery works, saw-mills, engineering works, foundries, grain-mills, distilleries and wineries, clothing factories, furniture, boot and shoe factories, etc. R E L I G I O N . Sample tabulation, 1980 census. Nederduits Gereformeerde Kerk, 1,110,516; Gereformeerde Kerk, 12,714; Nederduits Hervormde Kerk, 115,012; Anglican, 430,102; Presbyterian, 35,126; Methodist, 112,961; Roman Catholic, 251,000; Apostolic, 73,140; Lutheran, 89,134; Islam, 183,000; Hindu, 7,000; Independent Churches, 94,103; other Christian Churches, 440,000; Jews, 31,621; Agnostics, 55,000. E D U C A T I O N . On 1 April 1986 the Education Department came within the jurisdiction of the Central Government. Education is compulsory for all White children. Primary and secondary education is free to the end of the calendar year in which the age of 19 years is attained. Whites ( 1985). There were 828 government and aided schools with 14,205 teachers and 238,853 pupils; 8 teacher-training colleges with 291 lecturers and 1,841 students; 53 private schools with 13,859 pupils. Coloureds (1985). There were 1,776 government and aided schools with 26,583 teachers and 657,391 pupils; 13 teacher-training colleges with 6,709 students; 18 private schools with 2,652 pupils. Black (1985). There were 1,137 government schools with 7,105 teachers and 318,541 pupils and 17 private schools with 118 teachers and 6,120 pupils. Asians (1985). There were 8 government schools with 201 teachers and 5,400 pupils.

PROVINCE OF NATAL HISTORY. Natal was annexed to Cape Colony in 1844, placed under separate government in 1845, and on 15 July 1856 established as a separate colony. By this charter partially representative institutions were established, and in 1893 the colony attained responsible government. The province of Zululand was annexed to Natal on 30 Dec. 1897. The districts of Vryheid, Utrecht and part of Wakkerstroom, formerly belonging to the Transvaal, were annexed in Jan. 1903. On 31 May 1910 the colony was merged in the Union of South Africa as an original province of the Union. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The province (including Kwa Zulu, 36,073 sq. km) has an area of 91,785 sq. km, with a seaboard of about 576 km. The climate is sub-tropical on the coast and somewhat colder inland. The province is divided into 45 magisterial districts. The census returns of population (excluding Kwa Zulu) for 1985 were: 1960 1970 1980 1985

All races Total Males 2,979,034 1,443,561 4,236,770 2,009,410 2,676,340 1,360,600 2,145,018 1,072,426

Females 1,535,473 2,227,360 1,315,740 1,072,592

Whites Males Females 166,404 222,750 171,005 214,960 276,240 285,620 274,987 285,234

Non-Whiles Males Females 1,227,157 1,362,468 1,794,430 2,004,610 1,084,360 1,030,120 797,629 787,358

Of the non-White population in 1980, 665,340 were Asians, 91,020 Coloureds and 1,358,120 Blacks. Population o f K w a Zulu, seep. 1077. A D M I N I S T R A T I O N . State of parties Oct. 1985: New Republic Party, 14; National Party, 5; Progressive Federal Party, 1. The seat of provincial government in Natal is Pietermaritzburg. In April 1978 the area of East Griqualand was transferred to Natal from Cape Province. Administrator: The Hon. Radclyffe Macbeth Cadman.

TRANSVAAL

1091

F I N A N C E . In 1986-87 revenue amounted to R836,333,000 and expenditure to R831,003,000. M I N I N G . The province is rich in mineral wealth, particularly coal. For figures of mineral production, see p. 1082. A G R I C U L T U R E . Sugar and citrus growing are of major importance. On the coast and in Zululand there are vast plantations of sugar-cane (about 375,000 hectares), producing, in 1985, 20,756,000 tons. Cereals of all kinds (especially maize), fruits, vegetables, the Acacia molissima (the bark of which is much used for tanning purposes) and other crops are produced. Large areas are devoted to timber plantations and forestry. I N D U S T R Y . Natal is highly industrialized. There are metallurgical, chemical, paper, rayon and food-processing plants, iron and steel foundries, petrol refineries, pulp-mills, explosives and fertilizer plants, milk- and meat-canning factories. E D U C A T I O N . The Department of Education and Culture controls primary and secondary education for Whites. Control was transferred from the province to central government on 1 April 1986, and the classification of government-aided schools changed to private although they continue to receive a subsidy. Whites (1987). There were 266 government schools with 102,582 pupils; 3 residential teacher-training colleges with 1,116 students; 54 private schools with 11,171 pupils; 11 special schools and training centres with 1,316 pupils and 9 technical colleges with 4,823 pupils. Coloureds (1987). There were 64 state and state-aided schools with 2,879 teachers and 30,182 pupils; 17 state subsidized pre-primary schools with 43 teachers and 1,093 pupils; 1 teacher-training college with 401 students and 36 lecturers; 1 technical college with 974 full-time students and 319 part-time students. Blacks (1987). There were 1,074 schools with 5,556 teachers and 192,504 pupils. These schools are situated in the white area of Natal and the south-eastern Transvaal. Asians (1987). There were 441 state and state-aided schools with 11,652 teachers and 237,163 pupils; 30 pre-primary schools with 2,182 children; 2 schools of industries with 226 pupils; 16 special schools and training centres with 1,482 pupils; 2 technical colleges with 3,040 full-time students; 2 Colleges of Education with 625 students and 1 college for further training for teachers with 137 fulltime students.

PROVINCE OF THE TRANSVAAL H I S T O R Y . The Transvaal was one of the territories colonized by the Boers who left the Cape Colony during the Great Trek in 1831 and following years. In 1852, by the Sand River Treaty, Great Britain recognized the independence of the Transvaal, which, in 1853, took the name of the South African Republic. In 1877 the republic was annexed by Great Britain, but the Boers took up arms towards the end of 1880. In 1881 peace was made and self-government, subject to British suzerainty and certain stipulated restrictions, was restored to the Boers. The London Convention of 1884 removed the suzerainty and a number of these restrictions but reserved to Great Britain the right of approval of the Transvaal's foreign relations, excepting with regard to the Orange Free State. In 1886 gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand, and this discovery, together with the great influx of foreigners which it occasioned, gave rise to many grave problems. Eventually, in 1899, war broke out between Great Britain and the Transvaal. Peace was concluded on 31 May 1902, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State both losing their indepen-

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dence. The Transvaal was governed as a crown colony until 12 Jan. 1907, when responsible government came into force. On 31 May 1910 the Transvaal became one of the four provinces of the Union. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 262,499 sq. km or 101,351 sq. miles, including Gazankulu, Lebowa, Ka Ngwane and Kwa Ndebele. The province is divided into 53 districts. The following table shows the population, excluding Gazankulu, Lebowa, Ka Ngwane and Kwa Ndebele in 1985, at each of the last censuses: 1936 1946 1951 1960 1970 1980 1985

Total 3,341,470 4,283,038 4,812,838 6,270,711 6,478,904 8,376,042 7,532,179

All races Males 1,846,576 2,374,323 2,619,314 3,310,948 3,507,753 4,581,054 4,008,070

Whites Females Males Females 1,494,894 424,470 396,286 1,908,715 541,053 522,068 2,193,524 737,194 731,111 2,959,763 735,845 729,730 2,971,151 957,291 946,802 3,794,988 1,192,484 1,176,055 3,524,109 1,224,064 1,237,300

NonMales 1,422,108 1,833,270 2,575,1 19 2,575,103 2,550,462 3,388,570 2,784,006

Whites Females 1,098,608 1,386,647 2,230,053 2,230,034 2,024,349 2,618,933 2,286,809

Of the non-White population in 1985, 4,674,290 were Black, 126,201 Asians and 270,324 Coloureds. Population of Gazankulu, Lebowa, Ka Ngwane and Kwa Ndebele, see p. 1077. Important towns of the province are listed on p. 1078. A D M I N I S T R A T I O N . The seat of provincial government is at Pretoria, which is also the administrative capital of the Republic of South Africa. Administrator: Willem A. Cruywagen. F I N A N C E . In 1985-86 revenue amounted to R2,822,726,531 and expenditure to R2,742,739,546. M I N I N G . For mineral production, see p. 1082. Gold output in 1983 was 15,807,760 oz. worth R7,483,932,210. A G R I C U L T U R E . The province is in the main a stock-raising country, though there are considerable areas well adapted for agriculture, including the growing of tropical crops. I N D U S T R Y . The province has iron and brass foundries and engineering works, grain-mills, breweries, brick, tile and pottery works, tobacco, soap, and candle factories, coach and wagon works, clothing factories, etc. R E L I G I O N . 1980 population census. Whites: Christians, 1,927,646; Jews, 76,913; other non-Christians, 4,265. Non-Whites: Christians, 4,692,362; Moslems, 74,504; Hindus, 37,249; other non-Christians, 15,668. E D U C A T I O N . All education for Whites except that of universities is under the provincial authority. The province has been divided for the purposes of local control and management into 21 school districts. Instruction in government schools, both primary and secondary, is free. The medium of instruction is the home language of the pupil. The teaching of the other language begins at the earliest stage at which it is appropriate on educational grounds. Both languages are taught as examination subjects to every pupil. Whites (1982). There were 1,153 public schools with 27,797 teachers and 547,452 pupils; 5 teacher-training colleges with 5,904 students; 84 private schools with 2,009 teachers and 31,597 pupils. Coloureds (1982). There were 92 state and state-aided schools with 1,898 teachers and 59,547 pupils; 1 teacher-training college with 272 students.

O R A N G E FREE STATE

1093

Asians (1982). There were 71 public schools with 1,259 teachers and 28,958 pupils; 1 teacher-training college with 30 teachers and 377 students. Blacks (1977). There were 2,170 public and private school sections with 15,450 teachers and 735,325 pupils (Homelands excluded).

PROVINCE OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE Oranje-Vrystaat H I S T O R Y . The Orange River was first crossed by Europeans in the middle of the 18th century. Between 1810 and 1820, settlements were made in the southern parts of the Orange Free State, and the Great Trek greatly increased the number of settlers during and after 1836. In 1848, Sir Harry Smith proclaimed the whole territory between the Orange and Vaal rivers as a British possession called the 'Orange River Sovereignty'. However, in 1854, by the Convention of Bloemfontein, British sovereignty was withdrawn and the independence of the country was recognized. During the first 5 years of its existence the Orange Free State was much harassed by incessant raids by the Basutos. These were at length conquered, but, owing to the intervention of the British Government, the treaty of Aliwal North incorporated only part of the territory of the Basutos in the Orange Free State. On account of the treaty with the South African Republic, the Orange Free State took a prominent part in the South African War (1899-1902) and was annexed on 28 May 1900 as the Orange River Colony. Crown colony government continued until 1907, when responsible government was introduced. On 31 May 1910 the Orange River Colony was merged in the Union of South Africa as the province of the Orange Free State, and on 31 May 1961 became a province of the Republic of South Africa. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the province is 127,993 sq. km or 49,418 sq. miles, including Qwaqwa. The province is divided into 43 administrative and 49 magisterial districts. The population has varied as follows: 1936 1946 1951 1960 1970 1980 1985 1987

All races Total Males 772,060 381,903 879,071 432,896 1,016,570 519,166 1,386,202 731,486 1,716,350 899,140 1,931,860 1,039,220 1,776,903 940,000 1,863,327 986,220

Females 390,157 446,175 497,404 654,716 817,210 892,640 836,903 877,107

Whites Mates Females 101,872 99,106 101,874 100,203 115,637 112,015 139,304 137,103 148,110 148,030 166,380 159,840 164,135 168,192 166,871 170,995

Non-Whites Males Females 280,031 291,051 331,022 345,972 403,529 385,389 601,182 553,613 751,030 669,180 872,840 732,800 775,865 668,711 819,349 706,112

Of the non-White population in 1987, 1,459,851 were Black, 65,555 Coloureds and 55 Indians. A D M I N I S T R A T I O N . Provincial councils were abolished on 30June 1986. For the Whites there are 69 municipal councils, 2 local management boards and 6 village management boards. For the Non-Whites there are 4 municipal councils, 8 village management boards, 67 village committees and 2 local authority committees. Administrator: L. J. Botha. F I N A N C E . In 1986-87 revenue was R551 -5m. and expenditure R574-1 m. M I N I N G . For mineral statistics, see p. 1082. The output of gold in 1987 was 165,504 kg valued at R4,800m.

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A G R I C U L T U R E . The province consists of undulating plains, affording excellent grazing and wide tracts for agricultural purposes. The rainfall is moderate. The Orange Free State is the largest grain-producing province in the Republic and is also an important sheep- and cattle-farming region. I N D U S T R Y . The more important manufacturing industries in the province are the oil-from-coal factory at Sasolburg (as well as industries based on its byproducts); grain mills and brick, tile and pottery works. Fertilizers, agricultural implements, blankets, woollen products, clothing, hosiery, cement and pharmaceutical products are also manufactured. E D U C A T I O N . Primary, secondary and vocational education and the training of teachers are controlled and financed by the Department of Education and Culture. Administration: House of Assembly for Whites and Administration; House of Representatives for Coloureds; Department of Education and Training for Blacks. Education is free in all public schools u p to the university matriculation standard. Attendance is compulsory for White and Coloured between the ages of 7 and 16, but exemption may be granted in special cases. Attendance is not compulsory for Black children, except in areas/communities/towns where a request for compulsory education had been made. In these cases education is compulsory up to Standard 5 or the age of 16. The home language of the pupil is the medium of instruction up to Standard 2; thereafter he has an option of Afrikaans, English or his home language in Black schools. Further education and training are given at 2 universities, 2 teachers' training colleges, 1 technikon, 1 agricultural college, 2 nursing colleges, 5 technical colleges and 2 training centres. Whites (1987). There were 209 government and aided schools with 4,519 teachers and 76,416 pupils. Coloureds (1987). There were 45 government and aided schools with 675 teachers and 16,534 pupils. Blacks (1987). There were 2,348 government schools with 9,343 teachers and 377,978 pupils.

S O U T H WEST A F R I C A Suidwes-Afrika—Namibia H I S T O R Y . Britain annexed Walvis Bay in 1878, and incorporated it in the Cape of Good Hope in 1884. In 1884 South West Africa was declared a German protectorate. In 1915 the Union of South Africa occupied German South West Africa at the request of the Allied powers. On 17 Dec. 1920 the League of Nations entrusted South West Africa as a Mandate to the Union of South Africa, to be administered under the laws of the mandatory power. In 1921 the Governor-General of South Africa delegated certain of his functions to the Administrator of the territory. After World War II South Africa refused to place the territory under the U N Trusteeship system, and formally applied for its annexation to the Union. On 18 July 1966 the International Court of Justice decided that Ethiopia and Liberia had no legal right in applying for a decision on the international status of South West Africa, but in Oct. 1966 the General Assembly of the U N terminated South Africa's mandate, and established a U N Council for South West Africa in May 1967. However, South Africa continued to administer the territory, in defiance of various U N resolutions. It speeded up the implementation of the Odendaal Plan (1964), which required massive development aid and the formation of enlarged homelands for the various ethnic groups. In June 1968 the U N changed the name of the territory to Namibia.

SOUTH WEST AFRICA

1095

In 1971 the International Court of Justice ruled in an advisory opinion that South Africa's presence in Namibia was illegal. In Dec. 1973 the U N appointed a U N Commissioner for Namibia. After negotiations between South Africa and the U N , a multi-racial Advisory Council was appointed in 1973. Representatives of all the population groups assembled in the Turnhalle in Windhoek for the Constitutional Conference, which on 17 Aug. 1976 decided that a multi-racial interim government was to be formed by early 1977, and that the country should become independent by 31 Dec. 1978. This interim government was rejected by the Western Five, (USA, Britain, Federal Republic of Germany, France and Canada), after which South Africa agreed to universal suffrage elections. An Administrator-General was appointed in Sept. 1977 to govern the territory until independence, and he quickly moved to abolish all laws based on racial discrimination - a precondition for elections. In April 1978 South Africa accepted a plan for UN-supervised elections leading to independence, which was endorsed in U N Security Council Resolution 435 of 27 July 1978. After the final plans for the UN-supervised elections were published, South Africa announced on 20 Sept. 1978 that it was going ahead with internally sponsored elections for a Constitutent Assembly. In the elections held on 4-8 Dec. 1978 the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) gained 41 of the 50 seats in a percentage poll of 82%, in spite of the fact that the South West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) instructed its members not to take part in the elections. A 12-member Ministers' Council was instituted, and in Sept. 1981 it was enlarged to 15 members and given executive authority on all matters except constitutional issues, security and foreign affairs. On 11-13 Nov. 1980 elections were held for the second-tier Representative Authorities, which each controls certain administrative functions for a specific ethnic group, but no specific geographical area. In Jan. 1983 the Ministers' Council and the National Assembly were dissolved and executive and legislative powers reverted to the Administrator-General. On 13 Sept. 1983 the Multi-Party Conference (MPC) was formed. In May 1984 talks were held in Lusaka between the MPC and SWAPO, which were followed in July 1984 by talks between the Administrator-General and SWAPO. SWAPO, which had been waging a terrorist war in the north for almost two decades, was again invited to take part in constitutional talks with the MPC, but again refused. The MPC then petitioned the Republic of South Africa for a form of self-government for Namibia, and on 17 June 1985 the Transitional Government of National Unity was installed, consisting of the six political groups in the MPC. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area of the Territory, including the Caprivi-Zipfel, is 318,261 sq. miles (824,269 sq. km); this figure includes that of the enclave of Walvis Bay, administered by the Republic of South Africa, 434 sq. miles (1,124 sq. km). The country is bounded on the north by Angola and Zambia, on the west by the Atlantic ocean, on the south and southern portion of the eastern boundary by the Republic of South Africa, and on the remainder of the eastern boundary by Botswana and Zambia. There are 3 main regions: the Namib, an extremely arid and desolate region stretching along the entire coastline to a width of between 80 to 130 km. The major portion of the Namib receives an annual rainfall of less than 50 mm. The Central Plateau is the region lying to the east of the Namib. It varies in altitude between 1,000 and 2,000 metres and offers a diversified landscape of rugged mountains, rocky outcrops, sand-filled valleys and plains. It covers approximately 50% of the total area; the Kalahari covers the eastern, north-eastern and northern areas of South West Africa. The rainfall increases steadily from less than 50 mm. in the west and south-west up to 600 mm. in the Caprivi Strip. The Kunene River and the Okavango, which form portions of the northern border of the country, the Zambesi, which forms the eastern boundary of the Caprivi-Zipfel, the Kwando or Mashi, which flows through the Caprivi-Zipfel from the north between the Okavango and the Zambesi, and the Orange River in the south, are the only permanently running streams. But there is a system of great,

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AFRICA

sandy, dry river-beds throughout the country, in which water can generally be obtained by sinking shallow wells. In the Grootfontein area there are large supplies of underground water, but except for a few springs, mostly hot, there is no surface water in the country. The population at the censuses in 1970 and 1981 and estimates 1986, were: Ovambos Whites Damaras Hereros Namas Kavangos Caprivians Coloureds Basters Bushmen Tswanas Other

1970 342,455 90,658 64,973 55,670 32,853 49,577 25,009 28,275 16,474 21,909 4,407

1981 506,114 76,430 76,179 76,296 48,541 95,055 38,594 42,254 25,181 29,443 6,706 12,403

1986 587,000 78,000 89,000 89,000 57,000 110,000 44,000 48,000 29,000 34,000 7,000 12,000

732,260

1,033,196

1,184,000

Capital, Windhoek (population 110,644, census 1981). A D M I N I S T R A T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . For history of the administration f r o m 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 8 5 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK 1 9 8 6 - 8 7 p. 1087.

Legislative authority is the National Assembly in Windhoek consisting of 62 members nominated by the six political groups represented in the Transitional Government of National Unity; 22 members for the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance, which consists of 11 parties, and 8 members for each of the other parties; the Labour Party (LP), the National Party (NP), the Rehoboth Free Democratic Party (RFDP), the South West Africa National Union (SWANU), and the SWAPO-Democrats (SWAPO-D). Included in the National Assembly is a Cabinet of eight Ministers and eight Deputy Ministers (three Ministers from the DTA and one each from the other parties), which have full executive authority except for matters regarding foreign affairs and defence (retained by the Republic of South Africa) and constitutional development (which is handled by the Constitutional Council). Chairmanship of the Cabinet rotates three-monthly on an alphabetical basis. The AdministratorGeneral remains in the country as representative of the South African government, with mainly a ceremonial role. The Constitutional Council consists of a non-voting Chairman and 16 members nominated by the parties in the TGNU (six for the DTA and two each for the other parties). The aim of the Council, which started work in Jan. 1986, is to draft a constitution. Certain administrative functions for nine of the ethnic groups are controlled by second-tier Representative Authorities first elected in 1980. TTiese are the administrations for Ovambos, Namas, Damaras, Kavangos, Hereros, Whites, Basters, Coloureds and Tswanas. In the case of the Bushmen and Caprivians, these functions are handled by a commissioner and advisory council. The country is administered by a Government Service founded on 1 July 1980, which consists of 15 departments, as well as the administrations of the nine secondtier Representative Authorities. By mid-1985 98-6% of the civil servants were Namibian citizens. The third tier of government comprises municipalities which control the civic affairs of larger towns. The Cabinet in July 1987 consisted of: Minister of Transport: David Bezuidenhout. Local Government and Civic Affairs: Hans Diergaardt. Manpower, National Health and Welfare: Moses Katjiuongua. Information, Justice, Posts and Telecommunications: Jariretundu Kozonguizi. National Education, Central Personnel Institution: Andrew Matjila. Finance and Governmental Affairs: Dirk Mudge. Nature Conservation, Mining,

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S O U T H WEST A F R I C A

Commerce and Tourism: Andreas Shipanga. Agriculture, Fisheries: Jan de Wet. Administrator-General: Louis Pienaar.

Water Affairs and Sea

ECONOMY Budget. The revenue and expenditure (in R1,000) were: 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 Revenue Expenditure

673,000 840,111

801,000 1,035,884

1,000,000 1,176,687

1,199,400 1,392,449

1986-87

1,569,600 1,896,660

Banking. Barclays Bank, Standard Bank, Bank Windhoek, Netherlands Bank, Trust Bank, South African Reserve Bank and Boland Bank have branches in the Territory. The only indigenous bank, The Bank of South West Africa, was established in 1973. A post office savings bank was established in 1916. The number of accounts opened in 1985-86 was 3,398. The balance due to holders as at 31 March 1986 amounted to R2,983,790. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Production (1986) 692m. kwh. Minerals. Mineral export/sales amounted to R883 1m. in 1986 (excluding uranium). Diamonds, copper ore and lead represent a major share of exports. An open pit gold mine was scheduled to begin operations in March 1988. Agriculture. Namibia is essentially a stock-raising country, the scarcity of water and poor rainfall rendering agriculture, except in the northern and north-eastern portions, almost impossible. Generally speaking, the southern half is suited for the raising of small stock, while the central and northern portions are better fitted for cattle. Livestock (1987): 2,003,387 cattle, 2,936,713 sheep, 1,603,915 goats. In 1986, 304,000 head of cattle, 113,745 beef carcasses and 685,246 head of small stock were exported, and 556,483 karakul pelts worth R18 -4m. were produced. In 1986,8 -9m. litres of milk, 120 tonnes of butter and 240 tonnes of cheese were produced. Other products are maize (1986 in tonnes), 22,905; millet, 40-50,000; wheat, 5,600; cotton, 1,250; vegetables, 5,000; sunflower seed, 1,156; sorghum, 500. Fisheries. The total catch in 1987 was 479,360 tonnes. C O M M E R C E . Total imports, R 182m. and exports R 169m. in 1985. The bulk of the direct imports into the country is landed at Walvis Bay which handles 750,000 tons of cargo a year. Total trade between South West Africa and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ^ / m ImportstoUK. Exports and re-exports from UK.

62,437 3,425

64,015 5,200

21,920 4,084

6,826 2,915

7,681 3,909

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 4,138 km of trunk roads, 9,049 km of main roads, 28,711 km of district roads and 13,190 km of dirt roads. In 1986 there were 103,715 registered motor vehicles. Railways. The Namibia system connects with the main system of the South African Railways at De Aar. The total length of the line inside Namibia is 2,349 km of 1,065 m m gauge. Aviation. In 1985-86 the Territory's 2 major airports handled 275,612 passengers a n d 2 - 2 m . kgoffreight.

1098

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH

AFRICA

Shipping. In 1985 Walvis Bay harbour handled 764 vessels and Luderitz, 152 vessels. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 71 post offices and 11 postal agencies, and 1,482 private bag services distributed by rail or road transport. There were (1987) 69,273 telephones. There were 1,012 telex users. In 1986,52,255 radio licences and 24,582 television licences were issued. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education (1986). In 1985-86, R65-84m. was spent on education. There were 1,114 schools for all races, 350,080 pupils and 11,121 teachers. This included 1,071 primary and senior secondary schools, 3 centres for handicapped children, 1 technical school and 2 agricultural schools, 2 technical institutes and 3 agricultural colleges. Health (1986). There were 61 hospitals and 156 clinics. The ratio of beds per population was 5-71 per 1,000. There were250 general practitioners, 26 specialists and 41 dentists. Nursing staff numbered 3,916. Books of Reference Namibia Information Services, Namibia: The Economy. Windhoek, 1987 Namibia Information Service, Statistical/Economic Review, 1985. Windhoek, 1985 Human Rights and Namibia. London, 1986 Jaster, R., South Africa in Namibia: The Botha Strategy. Univ. Press of America, 1985 Levinson,0., The Story ofNamibia. Cape Town, 1978 Rotberg, R. I., Namibia: Political and Economic Prospects. Lexington, 1983 Schoeman, E. R., and H. S., Namibia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Soggot, D., Namibia: The Violent Heritage. New York, 1986 Thomas, W. H., Economic Development in Namibia. Munich, 1978 vanderMerwe, J. H., National Atlas ofSouth West Africa. Windhoek, 1983 Vigne, R., A Dwelling Place ofOur Own: The Story of the Namibian Nation. London, 1973

BOPHUTHATSWANA H I S T O R Y . Bophuthatswana was first to obtain self-government under the Bantu Homeland Constitution Act of 1971 and was the second black homeland to ask the Republic of South Africa for full independence, which was granted on 6 Dec. 1977. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is 44,000 sq. km. In 1985 there was a de jure population of 3 -2m., of which 47% lived in the White areas. The remaining 53% (1,740,600) lived in the homeland. Estimate (1985) 1 -66m. The capital is Mmabatho. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Bophuthatswana Government is a compromise between the traditional chief-in-council system and a democratic electoral system. There are 72 elected and 24 nominated members in the Legislative Assembly. Self-government was granted in 1972. Each regional authority (coinciding with the 12 districts of the country) nominates 2 members, and each district elects 6 members to the National Assembly and 12 designated by the President on account of their special knowledge, qualifications or experience. Executive power vests in the President, who is directly elected by general suffrage of persons who are registered as voters, and he elects his Cabinet. The first general election was held in Oct. 1972, 2 political parties taking part. Kgosi Lucas Mangope's Bophuthatswana National Party (BNP) won 20 of the 24 contested seats, but in 1974 he formed the Bophuthatswana Democratic Party which in the 1987 elections won 66 seats; the People's Progressive Party, 6 seats.

BOPHUTHATSWANA

1099

Members of regional authorities are elected from among the tribal and community authorities in their areas. The Cabinet in Jan. 1988 consisted of: President, Minister of Law and Order, Audit and Public Service: Dr Kgosi Lucas Manyane Mangope (took office 6 Dec. 1977; re-elected for another 7 years as from 11 Nov. 1984). Population Development: T. M. Molatlhwa. Internal Affairs: Kgosi B. L. M. I. Motsatsi. Defence: Brig. H. F. P. Riekert. Finance: L. G. Young. Posts and Telecommunications and Broadcasting: K. C. V. A. Sehume. Manpower and Coordination: S. M. Seodi. State Affairs and Civil Aviation: R. Cronje. Foreign Affairs: S. L. L. Rathebe. Health and Social Welfare: L. G. Holele. Water Affairs: T. M. Tlhabane. Economic Planning, Energy Affairs and Mines: E. B. Keikelame. Agriculture and Natural Resources: P. H. Mooketsi. Parliamentary Affairs, Local Government and Housing: H. F. Tlou. Education: G. S. Nkau. Justice and Transport:S. G. Mothibe. Public Works: S. C. Kgobokoe. There were 8 Deputy Ministers. Flag: Blue, crossed by a diagonal orange stripe, and in the canton a white disc charged with a leopard's face in black and white. D E F E N C E . The Air Wing of the Defence Force has 2 Partenavia P-68 patrol aircraft, 2 Aviocar transports, and 2 Alouette III, 1 BK-117 and 1 Ecureuil helicopter. There is an Army Force of 3,100 with 2 infantry battalions. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Aid. The Republic of South Africa granted aid of R72m. in 1986-87. ECONOMY Budget. The 1987-88 budget balanced at R1,517m. Currency. South African Rand. Banking. The financial system is controlled by legislation inherited from South Africa on independence, and commercial banks have strong direct links with South African banks which in certain instances are controlled by overseas banking companies. In 1988 there were 3 commercial banks with branches in all major commercial and agricultural centres offering a full range of banking services. The Agricultural Bank of Bophuthatswana provides finance to farmers. The government-funded Agricultural Development Fund provides loan finance and subsidy support to agricultural co-operative societies. The Bophuthatswana Building Society grants loans for house building. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Water. The Department of Agriculture inherited the following improvements from South Africa: 2,833 reservoirs; 6,845 boreholes, of which more than 4,000 have been equipped; 648 earth dams. Minerals. The territory is particularly rich in minerals. In 1987 there were 20 mines employing 45,000 people. Minerals include platinum, asbestos, gold, calcite, granite, chrome, vanadium, limestone and diamonds. Exploration for more platinum, chrome and coal is currently being carried out both by the private sector and by the Mining and Geological Survey Division of the Department of Economic Planning. The platinum mines around Rustenburg produce about 66% of the free world's total production. The major chrome mines are near Rustenburg and Marico, while vanadium is mined in the Odi district near Brits. The Rustenburg, Western and Impala Platinum mines which are shared with the Republic of South Africa produce about 1 -9m. oz. a year. AGRICULTURE.

Bophuthatswana is a semi-arid area of bushveld and

1100

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH

AFRICA

grass veld suitable for stock farming. The annual rainfall is 300 mm in the west and 700 mm in the east and there are 4 river catchment areas—those of the Molopo, Ngotwane, Sehujwane (Limpopo) and Madikwe (Vaal) rivers. Although the land tenure system militates against establishing large farms, some land which is suitable for farming is leased by the Government to successful farmers. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 463,008; sheep, 250,970; goats, 466,088; pigs, 7,601; poultry, 181,151. Only 6 -6% of the territory is suited to dryland farming, but crop yields have shown a steady improvement in recent years. In Ditsobotla district, 3,500 hectares of fertile land has been developed by 3 primary co-operatives comprising 190 Batswana farmers. Silkworm farming was being tried in 1983. By 1981 the country was self sufficient in maize and exported the surplus. Three rice projects are successfully expanding and vegetable production was flourishing in 1987. The budget for 1987-88 is R62m. I N D U S T R Y . The first industries were started on an agency basis at Babelegi; the fastest growing industrial area in the homeland, in 1977 it covered 183 hectares and by March 1985 more than R234m. had been invested in the project. Other industries are situated at Garankuwa, Selosesha, Montshiwa and Mogwase. South African border industries are also promoted by the government, notably at Rosslyn where 128 industries had been established by Dec. 1975. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total length (1985) 6,300 km, of which 810 km are tarred. In 1976-77,132 km were covered by bus, and 116m. passengers transported. Aviation. Mmabatho International Airport was opened in 1984. Post and Broadcasting. There were 18,640 telephones at 30 April 1987, and 107 post offices. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education. In 1986 there were 1,307 educational institutions which included special schools and technical schools. Primary school attendance in 1986 was 349,952; middle schools, 149,815; high schools, 50,499; teacher training colleges, 2,807; special and vocational schools, 1,634; technical schools, 3,648; university (1987), 2,700. There were (1986) 14,250 teachers excluding lecturers. Education is free apart from nominal contributions to school funds, and hostel fees at post-primary schools. Instruction from Grade I to Standard 2 is in Setswana, while Standard 3 to senior standards are taught in English. The education is controlled by the Department of Education with a budget of R219m. in 1987-88. Health. In 1987 there were 11 hospitals, 152 static clinics, 6,303 hospital and clinic beds, 106 doctors and 2,672 nurses. The health budget in 1987—88 was R103m. Book of Reference Five Years of Independence: Republic of Bophuthatswana.

Mafikeng, 1983

TRANSKEI H I S T O R Y . Transkei is the homeland of the Xhosa nation and was granted selfgovernment by the Republic of South Africa in 1963. Over 1 -5m. Transkeians live permanently in the Republic of South Africa but were deprived of their South African citizenship on independence. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is 16,910 sq. miles (43,798 sq. km). Population (1985 estimate) 3m. The capital is Umtata (population (1976)

VENDA

1101

24,805; 20,196 Blacks, 1,067 Coloured and 3,542 Whites). Other towns include Gcuwa, Kwabhaca, Umzimvubu and Lusikisiki. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Status of Transkei Bill of 1976 gave Transkei a unicameral National Assembly instead of the then existing Legislative Assembly. Independence was achieved 26 Oct. 1976. General elections were held on 29 Sept. 1976 and the Transkei National Independence Party gsined 69 of the 75 elective seats in the National Assembly. Members were elected for a 5-year period. In addition there are 75 traditional (coopted) members (70 chiefs and 5 paramount chiefs). President: Paramount Chief T. N. Ndamase. In Sept. 1987 Chief George Mantanzima the Prime Minister, was deposed in a coup by Stella Sigcau who in turn was ousted in a bloodless military coup, led by Gen. Bantu Holomisa in Jan. 1988. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of ochre, white, green. F I N A N C E . In 1985 government income was R872m. and expenditure R984m. A G R I C U L T U R E . Notable examples of successful commercial enterprises in agriculture are the Magwa and Majola tea estates, with approximately 1,700 hectares planted, and various fibre plantations. 70,000 hectares of land are under indigenous forests and 61,000 hectares have been put under exotic plantations. There are 28 sawmills in the country. Livestock (1976): Cattle, 1 -3m.; sheep, 2-5m.;goats, 1 -25m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are above 8,800 km of roads. Railways. There is a 209 km railway line linking Umtata with the port of East London in the Republic of South Africa. Aviation. An international airport exists at Umtata. Shipping. A start was made in 1978 on a 'free port' at Mnganzana. It will be completed in 5-6 years at a cost of R125m. by a French consortium. Post. There were 11,498 telephones in 1978. EDUCATION AND WELFARE Education. In 1985 there were 690,000 pupils in primary schools and 193,000 pupils in secondary schools. The national university was inaugurated in Umtata in 1977. Health. There are 31 hospitals with a total of 7,561 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES No country, other than the Republic of South Africa, has recognized Transkei as an independent state.

VENDA H I S T O R Y . Traditionally the territory of the Vhavenda, the country was granted self-government in 1973, and became the third Black homeland to be granted independence by the Republic of South Africa on 13 Sept. 1979. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The total area is 6,500 sq. km. Of the 381,000 Vhavenda living in the Republic of South Africa in 1970, nearly 70% lived in Venda. In 1980 the de jure population ofVenda was estimated at 513,890, the de facto population at 343,480. The capital is Thohoyandou. Vital statistics, 1981: Births, 13,568;deaths, 1,069; marriages, 228.

1102

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Executive power is vested in the President, who is elected for the duration of each Parliament, which consists of the President and the National Assembly; legislative power is vested in Parliament. In addition to the National Assembly there is an Executive Council, or Cabinet, and a judiciary independent of the Executive. The National Assembly comprises the 28 chiefs, 15 members designated by 4 regional councils, 42 members elected by popular vote and 3 members nominated by the President. A new Assembly must be elected after every 5 years, but it may be dissolved at any time by the President. All existing tribal, community and regional councils were retained with their status and powers unchanged, like those of the tribal leaders. The first general election was held in Aug. 1973; the sole political party, the Venda Independence People's Party (VIPP) won 10 of the 18 contested seats. Shortly after, the Chief Minister, Chief Mphephu, formed the Venda National Party (VNP); in the second general election of July 1978 the VIPP won 31 of the 42 contested seats, V N P the remaining 11. Chief Mphephu was re-elected Chief Minister. President: Paramount Chief P. R. Mphephu. Foreign Affairs: Chief A. M. Madzivhandila. Economic Affairs: Headman F. N. Ravele. Education: Headman E. R. B. Nesengani. Urban Affairs and Land Tenure: Chief C. A. Nelwamondo. Justice: Chief J. R. Rambuda. Health and Welfare: Chief C. N. Makuya. Agriculture and Forestry: G. M. Ramabulana. Internal Affairs: Chief M. M. Mphaphuli. Transport, Works and Communications: A. A. Tshivhase. Deputy for Posts and Telecommunications: Headman B. R. Nemulodi. Deputy for Information and Broadcasting and of Public Service Commission: W. R. Rabuma. Flag: Three horizontal stripes of green, yellow, and brown, with a brown V on the yellow stripe, and a blue vertical strip in the hoist. D E F E N C E . The Venda Defence Force was formed in 1983. It includes a small aviation component operating 1 Alouette III and 2 BK-117 helicopters. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Aid. The Republic of South Africa granted aid of R45m. in 1981 -82. ECONOMY Budget. The 1983-84 budget envisaged expenditure of R152,074,050. Currency. South African Rand. NATURAL RESOURCES Water. In Oct. 1982 there were 118 hectares of canals, 250 dams and 520 boreholes. Minerals. Venda is relatively poor in mineral resources, although there are large supplies of stone for construction. Coal is the most important mineral; there are large deposits in the west near Makhado and in the north-east, bordering on the Kruger National Park, which it is hoped will soon be exploited. In addition there are deposits of graphite, copper sulphides, phosphates and magnesite; in 1978 the 2 graphite and 2 magnesite mines provided employment for 233 people, and the value of their output was R963,900. Agriculture. About 85% of Venda is suitable only for the raising of livestock because of insufficient rainfall and poor soils, while some 10% is suited to dry-land crop production. Over 10,965 hectares have been given over to forest, mainly pine and eucalyptus. Eighteen irrigation schemes are being developed and there is extensive reclamation and conservation of eroded or overgrazed land; nearly R2m. were spent on these projects in 1980-81. Only maize is grown on a comparatively large scale, but tea, sisal, groundnuts, coffee and sub-tropical fruits are increasing in importance. A fish-breeding project produced 3 tonnes in 1980-81.

CISKEI

1103

Over 80% of the working population are engaged in agriculture. The Venda Agricultural Corporation (Agriven) was established on 1 April 1982 to promote agricultural development. I N D U S T R Y . Industrial development is still in its early stages, and since Venda's location is unfavourable, the Government is concentrating on the promotion of agro-industries utilizing local produce, and small-scale industries. A chutney factory has recently been established, in addition to a tea processing plant, a furniture factory and several saw-mills. A copper-chrome arsenate preservation plant has been established at Phiphidi. At Shayandima a 20-hectare industrial area has been prepared. The construction industry is particularly important owing to the substantial increase in the demand for buildings caused by the recent expansion of government, educational and health services. In Dec. 1982 total investment in industry was estimated at R18-9m. The Venda Development Corporation was established in 1975 to promote and finance economic developments. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1982) 1,226 km of roads, of which 50 km had a permanent surface. Aviation. An airline, inaugurated in 1981, operates between Nwangundu in Thohoyandu and Johannesburg via Pietersburg and Pretoria. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 30 post offices and postal agencies. Telephones (1982) numbered, 1,547. In 1984 the government-owned Radio Thohoyandu broadcast 17 hours daily. EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Education. The Department of Education assumed responsibility for education on independence. Education is free up to Standard 2, and pupils are taught in the native tongue, Luvenda, for the first 4 years (up to Standard 2), after which English is gradually introduced. Secondary education comprises Standards 6 to 10. The number of primary schools increased from 233 (1970) to 502 (1984), the number of pupils from 65,500 (1970) to 157,014 (1982) and the number of teachers from956(1970)to4,586 (1982). In 1970 there were 12 secondary schools, which had increased to 112 by 1982. Pupils numbered 2,465 in 1970, 33,432 in 1982, while the number of teachers increased from 100 (1970) to 1,062 (1982). In addition there is a technical school at Sibasa with about 320 pupils, an agricultural school at Dimani with 476 pupils, and a school for the handicapped at Shayandima. There are 2 teacher-training colleges; enrolment was 704 in 1982. The University of Venda was established in 1981; 1,358 students (1984). Health. In 1984 there were 5 hospitals/homes with 1,556 beds and 47 clinics. White doctors numbered 10 and coloured, 3; there were 712 nurses. Welfare. In 1981-82 the Government spent R7-3m. on grants and pensions to 22,249 recipients. There is one welfare home. Book of Reference Venda 1983. Dept. o f l n f o r m a t i o n and Broadcasting. Sibasa, 1984

CISKEI HISTORY. On 4 Dec. 1981 the Republic of South Africa gave independence to Ciskei the fourth of the tribal homelands. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Ciskei lies between latitudes 32° and 33°35'

1104

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

and longitudes 26°20' and 27°48', and has a coastal boundary between East London and Port Alfred. The total area is about 8,300 sq. km. The population was (1981) 2 • 1 m. but only 660,000 live in Ciskei. The remainder work in the Republic of South Africa and as a result can be deported as aliens. Populations of towns (1984): Mdantsane, 300,000; Zwelitsha, 47,000; Sada, 30,000; Dimbaza, 17,800 and Litha, 5,326. The capital, Bisho, is under construction. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . In 1981 Ciskei became an independent democratic republic with an Executive Council consisting of the President, Vice-President and 11 ministers appointed by the President. The legislature is a National Assembly consisting of (1984) 41 Hereditary Chiefs, 22 elected and 5 nominated Members and the Paramount C h i e f s representatives of 37 are traditional leaders, the others being elected on the basis of adult suffrage every five years. President: Dr Lennox Sebe. Flag: Blue, a broad diagonal band from lower hoist to upper fly, charged with a black crane. National Anthem: Nkosi Sikelel' i Afrika, composed by Enoch Sontonga. D E F E N C E . There is a small Ciskei Defence Force. Its aviation element is equipped with 2 Skyvan and 3 Islander transports, and 3 BK-117 and 1 BO 105 helicopter. ECONOMY Budget. In 1984-85, revenue was R366,013,000 and expenditure R438,197,000. Currency. South African Rand. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Ciskei is totally dependent on power supply lines maintained by the Republic of South Africa. Minerals. Mineral resources are mainly undeveloped and in 1984 only one mine existed in Ciskei. Agriculture. In 1977-78, total agricultural production was valued at R8 -26m. In 1983-84, the dryland products included (in tons): Maize, 1,075; wheat, 1,015; dry beans, 304; pumpkins, 14,500; potatoes, 21,750. The main crops produced under irrigation were (1979-80, in tons): Potatoes, 385; lucerne, 364; maize, 333; beans, 77; wheat, 64. Livestock(1985): 81,177 cattle, 235,550 sheep, 283,877 goats, 15,567 pigs. Forestry. In 1983-84, 5,500 hectares were planted mainly with conifers. The indigenous forest covered some 18,000 hectares. In 1984-85 (estimate), production of timber was valued at R600,000. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1983 total investment was R275-2m. The chief manufactures include textiles, timber products, electronic components, steel products and leather goods. Commerce. International trade is mainly with the Republic of South Africa and no separate figures are available. The main exports are pineapples, timber and manufactured goods. Tourism. Tourism is an important and developing industry. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 324 km of tarred roads and 3,222 km of gravel roads. Railways. There are two main railway lines serving the southern part of Ciskei only.

CISKEI

1105

Aviation. Ciskei uses East London's airport and there is a new international airport at Bulembu, near Bisho. Shipping. Ciskei has no harbour of its own but has full access to the facilities of East London in the Republic of South Africa. Post and Broadcasting. All major centres have post offices and manual and automatic telephone exchanges; telex facilities are available. There were (1986) 13,981 telephones. Radio Ciskei broadcasts from Bisho and Radio Xhosa broadcasts daily. Newspapers (1986). There were two Ciskeian newspapers, one of which, Imvo, was first published in 1884. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court acts as Court of Appeal for the eight Magistrates' Courts, which in turn act as Courts of Appeal for the chiefs' courts. Appeals from the Supreme Court are heard by the Appellate Division of Ciskei in Bisho. Religion. In 1980 (estimate) the population was 24% Methodists, 21% Independent, 8% Presbyterian Congregationalists, 7% Anglicans, 6% Roman Catholics, 2% Dutch Reformed Church, 2% other Christians, 28% ancestor worship and 2% other religions. Education. In 1981 there were 499 primary schools with 184,736 pupils and 4,240 teachers; 126 secondary and teacher-training schools with 48,838 pupils and 1,576 teachers; and 2 vocational schools with 304 pupils and 32 teachers. The University of Fort Hare had a total of2,304 students in 1981. Health. In 1983-84, there were 25 hospitals with 2,458 beds, and a total of 2,763 nursing staff. Social Welfare. Pensions paid in 1984-85: Old age Blind Disability War veterans Leprosy

Beneficiaries 42,573 564 5,421 72 11

Amount (R1,000) 20,435 270 2,602 38 5

Books of Reference Charlton, N., Ciskei: Economics and Politics of Dependence in a South African Homeland. London,1980 Pauw, B. A., Christianity and the Xhosa Tradition. OUP, 1975 Van der Kooy, R, (ed.) The Republic of Ciskei: A Nation in Transition. Pretoria, 1981

SOUTH GEORGIA AND SOUTH S A N D W I C H

ISLANDS

H I S T O R Y . South Georgia was probably first sighted by a London merchant, Antonio de la Roche, and then in 1756 by a Spanish Captain, Gregorie Jerez. The first landing and exploration was undertaken by Captain James Cook, who formally took possession in the name of George III on 17 Jan. 1775. British sealers arrived in 1788 and American sealers in 1791. Sealing reached its peak in 1800. A German team was the first to carry out scientific studies there in 1882-83. Whaling began in 1904 when the Compania Argentina de Pesca formed by C. A. Larsen, a Norwegian, established a station at Grytviken. Six other stations were established up to 1912. Whaling ceased in 1966 and the civil administration was withdrawn. Argentine forces invaded South Georgia on 3 April 1982. A British naval task force recovered the Island on 25 April 1982. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . South Georgia lies 800 miles south-east of the Falkland Islands and has an area of 1,450 sq. miles. The South Sandwich Islands are 470 miles south-east of South Georgia and have an area of 130 sq. miles. There has been no permanent population in South Georgia since the whaling station at Leith was abandoned in 1966. There is a small military garrison. The British Antarctic Survey have a biological station on Bird Island. The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited. C L I M A T E . The climate is wet and cold with strong winds and little seasonal variation. 15°C is occasionally reached on a windless day. Temperatures below -15°C at sea level are unusual. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Under the new Constitution which came into force on 3 Oct. 1985 the Territories ceased to be dependencies of the Falkland Islands. Executive power is vested in a Commissioner who is the officer for the time being administering the Government of the Falkland Islands. The Commissioner is obliged to consult the officer for the time being commanding Her Majesty's British Forces in the South Atlantic on matters relating to defence and internal security (except police). The Commissioner whenever practicable consults the Executive Council of the Falkland Islands on the exercise of functions that in his opinion might affect the Falkland Islands. There is no Legislative Council. Laws are made by the Commissioner. Commissioner: G. W. Jewkes, CMG. Economy. The total revenue of the Territories (estimate, 1987-88) £157,560, mainly from philatelic sales and investment income. Expenditure estimate £243,790. Communications. There is occasional direct sea communication between the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands by means of the Royal Research Ships John Biscoe and Bransfield and the ice patrol vessel HMS Endurance. Royal Fleet Auxiliary ships, which serve the garrison, run regularly to South Georgia. Mail is dropped from military aircraft. Justice. There is a Supreme Court for the Territories and a Court of Appeal in the United Kingdom. Appeals may go from that court to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. There is no magistrate permanently in residence. The Officer Commanding the garrison is usually appointed a magistrate. Book of Reference Headland, R. K.., The Island of South Georgia. CUP, 1985

1106

Capital: Madrid Population: 38 -9m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$5,198 (1986)

SPAIN España

H I S T O R Y . Although Spain has traditionally been a monarchy there have been two Republics, the first in 1873, which lasted for 11 months, and the second 1931-39; both were democratically and peacefully proclaimed. Part of the army rebelled against the republican government on 18 July 1936, thus beginning the S p a n i s h Civil W a r , see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 3 9 , p p . 1 3 2 5 - 2 6 . T h e n e w

regime was led by Gen. Franco, who had been proclaimed Head of State and Government in 1936, and its institutions were based on single party rule, with the Falange as the only legal political organization. In July 1969, Prince Don Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon, grandson of Alfonso XIII, was sworn in as successor to the Head of State and he had the title of HRH Prince of Spain until he became King. Gen. Francisco Franco y Bahamonde died on 20 Nov. 1975 and on 22 Nov. Prince Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon took the oath as Juan Carlos I, King of Spain. On 23 Feb. 1981 there was an attempted military coup. For 18 hours the deputies of the lower house of Parliament and the Cabinet were held hostage. The King, the only high authority who kept his liberty, obtained the surrender of the rebels without bloodshed. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Spain is bounded north by the Bay of Biscay and the Pyrenees (which form the frontier with France and Andorra), east and south by the Mediterranean and the Straits of Gibraltar, south-west by the Atlantic and west by Portugal and the Atlantic. Continental Spain has an area of 492,592 sq. km, and including the Balearic and Canary Islands and the towns of Ceuta and Melilla 504,750 sq. km (194,884 sq. miles). Population (mid-decennial census, 1986),38,891,313.

The growth of the population has been as follows: Census year 1860 1910 1920 1930 1940

Population 15,655,467 19,927,150 21,303,162 23,563,867 25,877,971

Rate of annual increase 034 0-72 069 106 0-98

Census year 1950 1960 1970 1981

Population 27,976,755 30,903,137 33,823,918 37,746,260

Rate of annual increase 081 0-88 0-94 115

Area and population of the autonomous communities and provinces, census of 1 March 1981: A utonomous community Province Andalusia Almería Cádiz Córdoba Granada Huelva Jaén Málaga Sevilla Aragón Huesca Teruel

Per sq. Area (sq. km) Population km 87,268 73 6,441,755 8,774 405,513 47 7,385 1,001,716 135 13,718 52 717,213 761,734 12,531 60 10,085 414,492 41 13,498 627,598 46 7,276 1,036,261 142 14,001 1,477,428 105 47,669 1,213,099 25 14 15,671 219,813 14,804 150,900 10

Autonomous community Area Province (sq. km) Zaragoza 17,194 Asturias 10,565 Baleares 5,014 Basque Country, The 7,261 Álava 3,047 Guipúzcoa 1,997 Vizcaya 2,217 Canary Islands 7,273 Palmas, Las 4,065 Santa Cruz de Tenerife 3,208

1107

Population 842,386 1,127,007 685,088

Per sq. km 48 106 136

2,134,967 260,580 692,986 1,181,401 1,444,626 756,353

296 85 347 532 200 185

688,273

217

1108

SPAIN

Autonomous community Area Province (sq. km) 5,289 Cantabria Castilla-La Mancha 79,226 Albacete 14,858 Ciudad Real 19,749 17,061 Cuenca Guadalajara 12,190 Toledo 15,368 Castilla-León 94,147 Ávila 8,048 Burgos 14,269 León 15,468 Palencia 8,029 Salamanca 12,336 Segovia 6,949 Soria 10,287 Valladolid 8,202 Zamora 10,559 Catalonia 31,930 Barcelona 7,773 Gerona 5,886 Lérida 12,028 1

Per sq. Population km 510,816 96 1,628,005 334,468 468,327 210,280 143,124 471,806 2,577,105 178,997 363,474 517,973 186,512 368,055 149,286 98,803 489,636 224,369 5,958,208 4,618,734 467,945 355,451

20 22 23 12 11 30 27 22 25 33 23 29 21 9 59 21 186 598 80 29

Autonomous community Province Tarragona Extremadura Badajoz Cáceres Galicia Coruña, La Lugo Orense Pontevedra Madrid Murcia Navarra Rioja, La Valencian Community Alicante Castellón Valencia Ceuta 1 Melilla '

Area Per sq. (sq. km) Population km 82 6,283 516,078 41,602 1,050,119 25 21,657 635,375 29 19,945 414,744 20 29,434 2,753,836 93 7,876 1,083,415 137 9,803 399,185 40 7,278 411,339 56 4,477 859,897 192 7,995 4,726,986 591 11,317 84 957,903 10,421 507,367 48 5,034 253,295 50 23,305 5,863 6,679 10,763 18 14

3,646,765 1,148,597 431,755 2,066,413 70,864 58,449

504,750

37,746,260

156 195 64 192 — -

Total

74

Ceuta and Melilla are municipalities located in the northern coast of Morocco.

Population of the autonomous communities, 1 April 1986: Andalusia 6,875,628, Aragón 1,214,729, Asturias 1,114,115, Balearic Islands 754,777, Basque Country, The 2,133,002, Canary Islands 1,614,882, Cantabria 524,670, Castilla-La Mancha 1,665,029, Castilla-León 2,600,330, Catalonia 5,977,008, Extremadura 1,088,543, Galicia 2,785,394, Madrid 4,854,616, Murcia 1,014,285, Navarra 512,676, Rioja, La 262,611, Valencian Community 3,772,002, total (including Ceuta and Melilla), 38,891,313. The capitals of the autonomous communities are as follows: Andalusia, cap. Sevilla (Seville); Aragón, cap. Zaragoza (Saragossa); Asturias, cap. Oviedo; Baleares (Balearic Islands), cap. Palma de Mallorca; The Basque Country, cap. Vitoria; Canary Islands, dual and alternative capital, Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife; Cantabria, cap. Santander; Castilla-León, cap. Valladolid; Catalonia, cap. Barcelona; Extremadura, cap. Mérida; Galicia, cap. Santiago de Compostela; Madrid, cap. Madrid; Murcia, cap. Murcia (but regional parliament in Cartagena); Navarra, cap. Pamplona; La Rioja, cap. Logroño; Valencian Community, cap. Valencia. Castilla-La Mancha had not chosen (1987) a capital town; the actual seat of its legislature and executive is at Toledo. The capitals of the provinces are in the towns from which they take the name, except in Álava (capital Vitoria), Asturias (Oviedo), Baleares (Palma de Mallorca), Cantabria (Santander), Guipúzcoa (San Sebastián), La Rioja (Logroño), Navarra (Pamplona) and Vizcaya (Bilbao). In 1981 (census) there were 19,216,496 females and 18,529,764 males. 1985 estimate: 20,000,776 females and 19,309,872 males. By decree of 21 Sept. 1927 the islands which form the Canary Archipelago were divided into 2 provinces, under the name of their respective capitals: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. The province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is constituted by the islands of Tenerife, La Palma, Gomera and Hierro, and that of Las Palmas by Gran Canaria, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, with the small barren islands of Alegranza, Roque del Este, Roque del Oeste, Graciosa, Montaña Clara and Lobos. TTie area of the islands is 7,273 sq. km; population (mid-decennial census 1986), 1,614,882. Places under Spanish sovereignty in Morocco are: Alhucemas, Ceuta, Chafarinas, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez. The following were the registered populations of principal towns at census 1981:

1109

SPAIN PopuTown lation Albacete 117,126 Alcalá de H e n a r e s 142,862 Alcorcón 140,657 86,042 Algeciras Alicante 251,387 Almería 140,946 Avila 86,584 Badajoz 114,361 227,744 Badalona Baracaldo 117,422 Barcelona 1,754,900 433,030 Bilbao Burgos 156,449 Cáceres 71,852 Cádiz 157,766 Cartagena 172,751 Castellón 126,464 Córdoba 284,737 Comellá 90,956 C o r u ñ a , La 232,356 Elche 162,873 Ferrol, El 91,764 F u e n labrada 77,626 Gerona 87,648

PopuTown lation Getafe 127,060 Gijón 255,969 Granada 262,182 Hospitalet 294,033 Huelva 127,806 Jerez d e la F r o n t e r a 176,238 Jaén 96,424 I^aguna, La 112,635 Leganés 163,426 León 131,134 Lérida 109,573 Logroño 110,980 Lugo 73,986 Madrid 3 ,188,297 Málaga 503,251 Mataró 96,467 Móstoles 149,649 Murcia 288,631 Orense 96,085 Oviedo 190,123 Palencia 74,080 P a l m a de M a l l o r c a 304,422 Palmas, Las 366,454 Pamplona 183,126

Town Reus Sabadell Salamanca San Baudilio del Llobregat San F e r n a n d o San Sebastiàn Santa C o l o m a de Gramanet S a n t a C r u z de Tenerife Santander Santiago d e Compostela Sevilla Tarragona Tarrasa T o r r e j ó n de A r d o z Valencia Valladolid Vigo Vitoria Zaragoza

Population 80,710 184,943 167,131 74,550 71,846 175,576 140,588 190,784 180,328 93,695 653,833 111,689 155,360 75,398 751,734 330,242 258,724 192,773 590,750

Vital statistics for calendar years: 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

Marriages 213,363 199,057 188,597 183,068 192,406

Births 565,401 532,255 509,685 477,291 465,709

Deaths 287,621 286,400 282,266 296,188 295,425

Languages. The Constitution states that 'Castilian is the Spanish official language of the State', but also that 'All other Spanish languages will also be official in the corresponding Autonomous Communities'. Catalan is spoken by a majority of people in Catalonia and Baleares, and by a large minority in Valencian Community (where it is frequently called Valencian); in Aragón, a narrow strip close to Catalonia and Valencian Community boundaries, speaks Catalan. Galician, a language very close to Portuguese, is spoken by a majority of people in Galicia. Basque, by a significant minority in the Basque Country (33-3%, 1981 census); 54-3% in Guipúzcoa province, 25-7% in Vizcaya province and 11 -7% in Alava province. Basque is also spoken by a small minority in north-west Navarra. In bilingual communities, both Spanish and the regional language are taught in the schools and universities. C L I M A T E . Most of Spain has a form of Mediterranean climate with mild, moist winters and hot, dry summers, but the northern coastal region has a moist, equable climate, with rainfall well-distributed throughout the year, mild winters and warm summers, though having less sunshine than the rest of Spain. Madrid. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 16-8" (419 mm). Barcelona. Jan. 46°F (8°C), July 74° F (23-5°C). Annual rainfall 2 1 " (525 mm). Cartagena. Jan. 51°F(10-5°C), July 75°F(24°C). Annual rainfall 14-9" (373 mm). La Coruña. Jan. 51°F (10-5°C), July 66°F (19°C). Annual rainfall 32" (800 mm). Sevilla. Jan. 51°F (10-5°C), July 85°F (29-5"C). Annual rainfall 19-5" (486 mm). Palma de Mallorca (Balearic Islands). Jan. 51°F (1 PC), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 13-6" (347 mm). Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Islands). Jan. 64°F (17-9°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 7• 72" (196 mm). K I N G . Juan Carlos I, born 5 Jan. 1938. The eldest son of Don Juan, Conde de Barcelona. Juan Carlos was given precedence over his father as pretender to the Spanish throne in an agreement in 1954 between Don Juan and Gen. Franco. Don

1110

SPAIN

Juan resigned his claims to the throne in May 1977. King (then Prince) Juan Carlos married, in 1962, Princess Sophia of Greece, daughter of the late King Paul of the Hellenes and Queen Frederika. Offspring: Elena, born 20 Dec. 1963; Cristina, 13 June 1965;Felipe,Prince of Asturias,Heir to the throne,30 Jan. 1968. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Cortes (Parliament) was freely elected on 15 June 1977. The text of the new Constitution was approved by referendum on 6 Dec. 1978, and came into force 29 Dec. 1978. It established a parliamentary monarchy, with King Juan Carlos I as head of state. Legislative power is vested in the Cortes, a bicameral parliament composed of the Congress of Deputies (lower house) and the Senate (upper house). The Congress of Deputies has not less than 300 nor more than 400 members (350 in the general elections of 1977, 1979, 1982 and 1986), all elected in a proportional system regarding the population of every province. The members of the Senate are elected in a majority system: the 47 peninsular provinces elect 4 senators each, regardless of population; tne insular provinces electing 5 (Baleares, Las Palmas) or 6 (Santa Cruz de Tenerife); and Ceuta and Melilla, 2 senators each. There are 208 senators, to whom are added some other members of the upper house elected by the parliaments of the autonomous communities. Deputies and senators are elected in universal (but not compulsory), direct, free, equal and secret suffrage, for a term of 4 years, liable to dissolution. Executive power is vested in the President of the Government (prime minister), with his Cabinet; he is elected by the Congress of Deputies. A general election took place on 22 June 1986. Congress of Deputies (350 members): Spanish Workers Socialist Party (PSOE), 184; Popular Alliance (AP, conservative), 84 (including its ally Liberal Party); Popular Democratic Party (PDP, Christian democrat), 21 ; Social and Democratic Centre (CDS, centrist), 19; Convergence and Union (CiU, Catalan nationalists), 18; Basque Nationalist Party (PNV), 6; United Left (communist dominated coalition, IU), 7; Herri Batasuna (HB, Basque independentists), 5; Euskadido Eskerra (non-radical Basque independentists), 2; four conservative regional parties from Galicia, the Canaries, Aragón and Valencia, 1 each. Presidente (speaker) of the Congress of Deputies, Félix Pons Irazazábal (PSOE). Senate: 208 members, excluding those elected by regional parliaments (250 including them): PSOE, 124 (145); AP and PDP, 63 (73); CiU, 8 (10); PNV, 7 (9); HB, 1(1); Independents from the Canaries, 2 (2); CDS, 3 (3). Presidente (speaker) of the Senate, José F. de Carvajal (PSOE). The Council of Ministers appointed 26 July 1986 was composed as follows in Oct. 1987: President of the Government (Prime Minister): Felipe González Márquez (Secretary-General of PSOE). Vice-President of the Government (Deputy Premier): Alfonso Guerra González. Foreign Affairs: Francisco Fernández Ordóñez. Economy, Finance and Commerce: Carlos Solchaga Catalán. Industry and Energy: Luis Carlos Croissier. Interior: José Barrionuevo. Defence: Narcis Serra i Serra. Public Administration: Joaquín Almunia Amann. Education and Science: José Maria Maravall. Public Works: Javier Sáez de Cosculluela. Justice: Fernando Ledesma Bartret. Culture: Javier Solana Madariaga. Agriculture, Fisheries and Food: Carlos Romero Herrero. Health and Consumers Affairs: Julián García Vargas. Labour and Social Security: Manuel Chaves. Transport, Tourism and Communications: Abel Caballero Alvarez. Relations with the Cortes and Secretary of the Cabinet: Virgilio Zapatero. All ministers are members of PSOE. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, yellow, red, with the yellow of double width, and charged near the hoist with the national arms. National anthem: Marcha real. Regional and local government. The Constitution of 1978 establishes a semifederal system of regional administration, with the autonomous community (Comunidad Autónoma) as its basic element. There are 17 autonomous communities, each of them having a Parliament, elected by universal vote, and a regional government; all possess exclusive legislative and executive power in many matters,

SPAIN

1111

as listed in the national Constitution and in their own fundamental law (estatuto de autonomía). The Basque Country and Catalonia elected their first parliaments in March 1980, Galicia in Oct. 1981 and Andalusia in May 1982. All others in May 1983 (renewed in June 1987). Basque, Catalan, Galician and Andalusian parliaments were renewed in their regional elections of Feb. 1984, April 1984, Nov. 1985andJune 1986 respectively. Basque parliament, again in Nov. 1986. There are 7 autonomous communities composed of one only province, i.e., Asturias (ex-Oviedo province), Cantabria (ex-Santander province), La Rioja (exLogroño province), Navarra, Baleares, Murcia and Madrid. The other 10 are formed by 2 or more provinces. In all, there are in Spain 50 provinces, since the administrative division established in 1833; Ceuta and Melilla, municipalities in the northern coast of Morocco, are not part of any province. The provincial council (Diputación Provincial) is the administrative organ of the province, except in the 7 autonomous communities composed of one only province, where there are only the regional legislative and executive powers. The provincial council is indirectly elected. Each of the 7 main islands of the Canaries (provinces of Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) has a directly elected corporation, the Cabildo Insular, to rule its special interests; in the main islands of the Balearics there are also elected Cornell Insular. The provinces are constituted by the association of municipalities (8,022 in 1981 census). Municipalities are autonomous in their own sphere. At their head stands the municipal council (Ayuntamiento), members of which are elected in a universal ballot every 4 years, and they, in turn, elect one of them as Mayor (Alcalde). D E F E N C E . On 26 Sept. 1953 the US and Spain signed three agreements covering the construction and use of militan/ facilities in Spain by the US, economic assistance, and military end-item assistance. These agreements were renewed several times, the last in July 1982. The American naval and air base at Rota (near Cádiz) is connected by pipelines with the American bomber bases at Morón de la Frontera (near Seville), Torrejón (near Madrid) and Zaragoza. The US will withdraw from Torrejon in 1991. Length of service is 12 months and 16 months for volunteers. In March 1986 a referendum was conducted to establish whether Spain should remain in NATO. 52-5% of the voters were for the resolution. Army. The Army is divided into 2 principal parts: the Immediate Intervention Forces and Territorial Defence Forces. The former consist of 1 armoured, 1 mechanized and 1 motorized divisions; 1 armoured cavalry, 1 parachute and 1 airportable brigades; and supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. The Territorial Defence Forces (to be disbanded 1985—88) are divided between 8 Military Regions, and include 2 mountain divisions and 8 infantry brigades. There are also other reserve and independent units, and the Army Aviation forces. Equipment includes 299 AMX-30, 380 M-47E and 164 M-48 tanks. The aviation element of the Army consists of about 180 helicopters, including 70 BO 105s, 69 UH-1 Iroquois, 120H-58 Kiowas, 18 Chinooks and 8 AB.212s. Strength (1988)230,000 (including 165,000 conscripts). Of these 5,800 are stationed on the Balearic Islands, 10,000 on the Canary Islands and 21,000 in Ceuta/Melilla. The paramilitary Civil Guard number 63,500 men. Navy. Particulars of the principal ships:

Completed

Name

1988

Principe de Asturias Dédalo 1

1943

Standard displacement Tons 12,000 13,000

Guns

Aircraft

Shaft horsepower

Aircraft Carriers 4 Meroka 20 m m 7 VSTOL aircraft 46,400 (12 barrels) CIWS and 13 helicopters (gas) 22 4 0 - m m . A . A . 7 VSTOL aircraft 100,000 and 20 helicopters (steam)

Speed Knots 26

32 (original) now 24

' The former US fixed-wing aircraft carrier Cabot, converted in 1966 and transferred to Spain on loan in 1967 and purchased in 1973. Classed as a helicopter carrier until Harrier 'jump-jet' fixed wing aircraft were embarked.

1112

SPAIN

There are also 8 diesel-powered patrol submarines (4 new French-design, 4 modern French-design), 9 destroyers, 12 frigates, 4 old corvettes, 12 new fast attack craft, 4 patrol ships, 10 new patrol vessels, 4 ocean minesweepers, 8 coastal minesweepers, 38 coastal patrol craft, 33 inshore patrol launches, 1 dock landing ship, 6 survey ships, 3 landing ships, 5 landing craft, 140 minor landing craft, 1 replenishment ship, 12 oilers, 2 attack transports, 2 tenders, 2 training ships, 1 boom defence vessel, 1 fishery protection trawler, 30 tugs, 1 royal yacht, 10 water carriers, 40 auxiliary craft and 36 service barges. The Spanish Navy is being renewed and modernized. Ships under construction include 4 missile-armed frigates. Ships projected include 3 submarines, 4 destroyers, 1 more missile armed frigate and 6 corvettes, while a modified new construction programme is being considered including 3 submarines, 5 frigates, 8 minesweepers and 4 minehunters. Shipbuilding is mainly carried on at the dockyards at El Ferrol and Cartagena, Cádiz having a smaller share in it. Barcelona, Bilbao, Seville and Cádiz are the chief naval yards. There are naval radio telegraphic stations at Cádiz, Barcelona, Mahón, Pontevedra, Cartagena and El Ferrol. In 1988 naval personnel totalled 64,700, comprising 5,200 naval officers, 37,900 ratings, 9,400 civil branch and 700 marine officers and 11,500 marine other ranks. The Naval Air Service operates 25 fixed-wing aircraft and 5 5 helicopters. Air Force. The Air Force is organized as an independent service, dating from 1939. It is administered through 4 operational commands. These comprise Air Combat Command which controls interceptor squadrons (including U S Á F elements) and the control and warning radar network, Tactical and Transport Commands, and Air Command of the Canaries. Strength (1988) 32,500 and 215 combat aircraft. The Tactical Air Command has 2 fighter-bomber squadrons of Spanish-built Northrop SF-5s, 1 aero-naval co-operation squadron with 6 P-3A Orion antisubmarine aircraft, and a liaison flight at Tablada with CASA 127s. Air Combat Command has 2 squadrons of Mirage III-Es, 2 squadrons of F-4C/RF-4C Phantom lis and 2 squadrons of Mirage Fl-Cs, plus a flight of CASA/Dornier Do27 127 liaison aircraft. Five KC-130H tankers support the F-4C squadrons. Three wings of Air Transport Command operate C-130 Hercules, Caribou and Spanish-built CASA Aviocars. Air Command of the Canaries has 3 squadrons, equipped with Aviocar transports; Mirage F1 fighter-bombers; F27 Maritime aircraft and Super Puma helicopters for search and rescue. Other equipment includes 2 DC-8s, 5 Falcons and helicopters for VIP transport; and aircraft for photographic, firefighting, target towing and research duties. Air-sea rescue units have Aviocars and Super P u m a helicopters. Delivery of 72 F-18 Hornets began in 1986. American-built F33 Bonanza and T-34A piston-engined aircraft are used for basic training, after which pupil pilots progress to CASA C-101 jet aircraft. Twoseat versions of operational types are used as advanced trainers. Other training types include Beechcraft King Air C90s for instrument flying and liaison duties. The T-34As are being replaced by Chilean-built Pillan basic trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Spain is a member of U N , the Council of Europe, NATO, the European Communities and OECD. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure in 1 m. pesetas: 1983 1984 ¡985 Revenue Expenditure

4,513,305 4,513,305

5,399,997 5,399,997

6,113,086 6,113,086

1986

7,164,232 7,164,232

1987

8,113,442 8,113,442

The budget is made up as follows (in 1 m. pesetas): Revenue (1987) Reven ue (1987) continued

Direct taxes Indirect taxes Levies and various revenues Current transactions

2,487,000 2,993,300 278,465 365,813

Real estate income Miscellaneous income Deficit (financed with public debt, treasury loans, etc)

94,836 199,974 1,754,054

1113

SPAIN Expenditure (1987) H . M . House Cortes (Parliament) Court of Accounts Constitutional Court Council of State Public Debt Civil Service Pensions General Council o f t h e Judicial Power Relations with the Cortes and Secretariat of the Cabinet Ministry of Foreign Affairs „ Justice Defence ,, Finance „ Interior

550 9,787 2,304 781 461 1,038,588 423,756 1,713 18,431 43,746 111,640 704,077 142,720 296,124

Expenditure (1987) continued Ministry of Public Works and Housing 272,368 „ Education and Science 603,537 ,, Labour and Social Security 1,724,261 ,, Industry and Energy 198,009 „ Agriculture and Food 222,611 Transport, Tourism and Communications 425,772 ,, Culture 35,978 ,, Public Administration 24,570 ,, Health and Consumer Affairs 29,420 Regional governments 1,232,550 Regional Compensation Fund 124,452 Expenses in several ministries 425,236

Currency. The peseta is divided into 100 céntimos; but céntimos are no longer in legal use since 1 July 1984. Bank-notes of 10,000,5,000,2,000,1,000,500,200 and 100 pesetas and coins of 1 peseta (copper and aluminium), 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200 pesetas (nickel and copper) are in circulation. In Dec. 1985 the circulation of bank-notes was 2,260,600m. pesetas and of coins, 131,300m. pesetas. In March 1988, £ 1 = 202 pesetas; US$ 1 = 113 -49. Banking. On 1 Jan. 1922 the Bank of Spain came under the Bank Ordinance Law, according to which the Government participate in its net profits. The 10 largest banks are: Banco Central; Banco Español de Crédito; Banco Hispano Americano; Banco de Bilbao; Banco de Vizcaya; Banco de Santander; Banco Popular Español; Banco Exterior de España; Banco Pastor; Banco de Sabadeli. All are privately owned except the Banco Exterior de España. Private banks deposits and savings bank deposits (Popular Savings Banks) in Spain, 30 Sept. 1986, amounted to 26,746,800m. pesetas. The Post Office Savings Bank opened on 12 March 1916. Deposits, 30 June 1986, amounted to 499,747m. pesetas. Weights and Measures. On 1 Jan. 1859 the metric system of weights and measures was introduced. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power-stations in 1986 had a total installed capacity of 41 -5m. kw. The total output 1986, amounted to 128,560m. kwh of which 27,260m. hydroelectric and 37,460m. nuclear. Supply 110 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Crude oil production (1987) 1 -6m. tonnes. Gas. Production of natural gas in 1986 was 225,000 tonnes. Minerals. Spain is relatively rich in minerals. The production of the more important minerals in 1986 was as follows (in 1,000 tonnes; net metal content): Anthracite Coal Lignite Uranium

5,477 10,714 22,886 428

Iron Lead Copper Pyrites

2,704 81 51 1,211

Tin Zinc Wolfram

318 236 576

Agriculture. Spain is mainly an agricultural country. In 1986 the total value of agricultural produce was 1,6811m. pesetas; of livestock, 1,076-2m.; of forestry, 82-6m. Land under cultivation in 1985 (in 1,000 hectares) included: Cereals, 7,591-3; vegetables, 480; potatoes, 331. In 1985, 605,468 tractors and (1982) 47,174 harvesters were in use.

1114 Principal crops Wheat Barley Oats Rye Rice Maize Potatoes Sugar-beet Sunflower

SPAIN

1983 2,603 3,735 454 217 41 354 340 249

Area (in 1,000 hectares) 1984 1985 2,306 2,025 4,025 4,155 479 465 231 222 73 74 440 516 348 327 221 178 1,007 1,125

1986 2,096 4,334 384 223 79 519 289 195 936

1983 4,268 6,662 464 253 224 1,803 5,163 9,619 682

Yield (in 1,000 tonnes) 1984 1985 6,044 5,326 10,695 10,680 790 719 325 295 437 459 2,495 3,331 5,949 5,770 8,814 7,349 968 915

1986 4,292 7,331 422 220 494 3,451 4,857 7,776 844

In 1986, 1,574,000 hectares were under vines; production of wine was (1986) 36-7m. hectolitres. The area of onions was (1986) 34,000 hectares, yielding (1986) 1,149,000 tonnes. Production of oranges and mandarines was 3,119,000 tonnes, lemons, 596,000. Other products are esparto, flax, hemp and pulse. Spain has important industries connected with the preparation of wine and fruits. Industrial crops (1986 in 1,000 tonnes): Cotton, 254; olives, 246; olive oil, 489; tobacco, 42 (1985). Livestock products (1986 in 1,000 tonnes): Pigmeat, 1,165; poultry meat, 763; cattle meat, 438; cows' milk, 6,140. Livestock (1986): Horses, 253,000; asses, 155,000; mules, 139,000; cattle, 5-8m.;sheep, 17 09m.; goats,2-53m.;pigs, 15-78m.; poultry, 53m. Forestry. Total forests (1985) 11 -7m. hectares; production, 1985, 10,368,000 cu. metres of wood. Fisheries. The most important catches are those of sardines, whiting, anchovy and hake. The total catch amounted in 1986 to 1 05m. tons. The Spanish fishing fleet in 1985 consisted of 17,665 vessels of671,804 tonnes, with a total crew of99,975. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods is important, principally in Catalonia. In 1983, the principal textile productions were (in 1,000 tonnes): Wool yam, 33; cotton yarn, 106; fabrics yarn, 128; wool cloth, 9; cotton cloth, 88; fabrics cloth, 69. In 1983, 2-4m. tonnes of writing, printing, packing and other paper were produced. The production of cement reached 21,880,000 tonnes in 1986. Steel production (1986) 14-19m. tonnes; the three great blast-fumaces concentrations are in Bilbao area, Avilés (Asturias) and Sagunto (Valencia). The chemical industry is located in the areas of Madrid, Barcelona and Bilbao; sulphuric acid production (1982), 2m. tonnes; nitrogenous fertilizers, 822,000 tonnes; plastics (1986), 1,488,000 tonnes. The 9 oil refineries refined (1984) 39,854,000 tonnes of crude oil. In 1982 900,000 TV sets (550,000 colour sets) were manufactured. 816,000 refrigerators, 1,030,000 washing machines and 910,000 bicycles were manufactured in 1986. Spain has important toys and shoe industries, toys especially in Alicante and Barcelona provinces and shoe in Alicante province and the Balearic islands Spanish shipyards launched 253,105 BRT in 1986. In 1986,1,439,000 vehicles were built, including 1,280,000 passenger cars. Labour. The monthly minimum wage for workers was 44,040 pesetas (Jan. 1988). The economically active population numbered 13,894,000 in Dec. 1986. Of these, 10,922,000 were employed: 1,741,000 in agriculture and fishing, 2,637,000 in manufactures, 830,000 in construction industry and 5,714,000 in trade and other public and personal services. 21-4% of the active population was unemployed at the end of 1986 (2,972,000 persons). Trade Unions. The Constitution guarantees the establishment and activities of trade unions provided they have a democratic structure. The two most important trade unions are Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT), founded in 1888 by Pablo Iglesias (who had founded in 1879 the Spanish Workers Socialist Party,

1115

SPAIN

PSOE), and Comisiones Obreras, which was gradually established 1958-63, then as a clandestine labour organization. Commerce. Foreign trade of Spain (Peninsula, Baleares, Canaries, Ceuta, Melilla) (in lm. pesetas): Imports Exports

1982 3,473,208 2,260,198

1983 4,176,470 2,838,601

1984 4,628,991 3,778,071

1985 5,073,239 4,104,143

1986 4,890,768 3,800,225

In 1986 the most important items of import were (in lm. pesetas): Crude petroleum, 692,481 (14-16% of total); vehicle parts, 161,368 (3 -3%); vehicles 126,433 (2-59%); computers, 117,851 (2-41%), and related machinery, 68,780 (1 -41%); petroleum products, 107,336 (2-19%); inner combustion motors, 84,330 (1 -72%); coffee, 79,770 (1 -63%); oleaginous seeds, 72,851 (1 -49%); measuring and precision tools, 66,378 (1-36%). The most important exports in 1986 (in lm. pesetas) were: Vehicles, 399,970 (10-52% of total); petroleum products, 220,120 (5-79%); fresh fruit and nuts, 199,897 (5-26%); vehicle parts, 135,013 (3-56%); footwear, 131,867 (3-47%); iron and steel bars, 112,918 (2-97%); iron and steel sheets, 83,774 (2-2%); vegetables, 75,938 (2%); alcoholic beverages, 65,644 (1 -73%); computers, 61,749 (1 -63%). Distribution of Spanish foreign trade (in 1 m. pesetas) according to origin and destination, for calendar years: Imports 1986 1985 2,232,067 2,829,773 1,828,360 2,458,106 471,091 571,427 537,432 736,091 329,620 377,653 232,726 356,867 266,077 253,600 120,174 86,992 552,982 482,718 582,776 347,776 127,774 292,647 145,272 59,728 70,498 130,220 217,105 172',778 132,654 186,248 34,079 43,065

Europe EEC France Germany, Federal Republic UK Italy EFTA Comecon USA LA IA (ex LAFTA) Mexico Netherlands Saudi Arabia Belgium Japan Libya Oceania

Exports

1985 2,512,695 2,055,225 636,417 393,137 351,254 289,488 256,258 120,977 408,562 245,159 41,552 77,999 53,821 29,128 23,092

1986 2,589,125 2,292,173 682,748 444,686 335,283 302,261 179,837 68,601 349,330 214,578 28,713 216,067 50,270 107,264 39,211 17,487 14,758

Total trade between Spain and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1984 1985 1986 1987 1,604,405 1,770,862 1,777,341 2,099,139 1,234,584 1,553,424 1,905,479 2,164,221

Total trade of the Spanish territories and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Canary Islands NorthAfrica

1985 64,625 ...

Imports to UK 1986 1987 63,529 77,191 44 ...

Exports from UK 1985 1986 1987 48,946 66,949 86,185 2,893 2,762 3,831

Tourism. In 1986,47,388,000 tourists visited Spain (from France, 11 -28m.; Portugal, 9-52m.; Federal Republic of Germany, 5-93m.; UK, 6,043,000). Receipts of foreign currency ( 1986) US$ 12 -06m. Hotel and similar beds, 1,561,300 (1986). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 the total length ofhighways and roads in Spain was 149,471 km, of which about 124,000 km were macadamized or had other good surface. Motorways, 2,074 km. Number of cars (1986) was 9,761,968, lorries, 1,642,371, buses,

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SPAIN

42,378 and motorcycles (1985) 739,056. There were 12,284,080 vehicles in Dec. 1986 and 12,345,589 driving licences (3,370,450 for women). Railways. The total length of the state railways in 1986 was 12,691 km, mostly 1,676-mm gauge (6,226 km electrified). On 1 Feb. 1941 the Spanish railways, of broad gauge only, passed into state ownership; they are under a board known as the Red Nacional de Ferrocarriles Españoles (RENFE). The gauge of the principal Spanish railways has, for strategic reasons, been kept different from that of France; passengers therefore must change trains at the French frontier stations except by certain trains having variable gauge axles. In 1986 freight carried was 31-6m. tonnes and 193m. passengers. There are several regional railways including Basque, Catalan and FEVE (narrow gauge) railways. Aviation. The most important Spanish airline is 'Iberia': it maintains a regular service with Europe, America, Africa and the Middle and Far East. Its fleet included 6 B-747s (for 430 passengers each), 8 DC-10s (for 266), 6 Airbus-300Bs(for253), 35 B-727s(for 161) and 30 DC-9s(for 110) in 1985. 'Aviaco'operates mainly internal flights. 'Spantax', based on Palma de Mallorca, operates charter flights only. There are 43 airports open to civil traffic; those of Madrid, Palma de Mallorca and Barcelona are the most active. A small airport in Seo de Urgel, in the Pyrenees, used especially for the air service of Andorra was opened in 1982. Aircraft movements in 1985,248,245 internal and 282,817 international, carrying 20,967,132 passengers on internal and 22,083,855 on international flights, and 363,100 tonnes of merchandise. Shipping. The merchant navy in 1984 contained 1,105 vessels of a gross tonnage of 6,377,000. In 1984, 83,981 ships entered Spanish ports, carrying 12m. passengers and discharging 215m. tonnes of cargo (1985). Post and Broadcasting. The receipts of the post office in 1984 were 75,075m. pesetas; expenses, 84,345m. pesetas. There were in 1984, 13,299 post offices and 13,825,000 telephones, these all privately operated. Radio Nacional de España broadcasts 4 programmes on medium-waves and FM, as well as many regional programmes; it does not broadcast advertising. There is another state broadcasting network, Radio-Cadena Española, this self-financing with advertising. The greatest radio audience is that of a private network, Sociedad Española de Radiodifusión (SER); Cadena de Ondas Populares Españolas (COPE) belongs to the Roman Catholic church. Two private broadcasting networks were established in 1982 covering the whole of Spain, Antena 3 and Radio 80. Television Española broadcasts 2 programmes. Since 1983 TV3 broadcasts entirely in Catalan and Eusko Telebista about 90% in Basque. Colour transmissions are carried by PAL system. Number of receivers (1979): radio, 9-6m.; television, 9-4m. (about 50% colour sets). In 1985 broadcasting on TV in Galician commenced. Cinemas (1981). There were 3,970 cinemas with an estimated seating capacity of 4m. Newspapers (1985). There were about 100 daily newspapers with a total daily circulation of about 5m. copies. In 1985 the following dailies had a daily circulation of more than 100,000 copies: El Pais (Madrid, 347,512), La Vanguardia (Barcelona, 194,189), ABC (Madrid, 157,205), As (Madrid, [sports], 143,341), El Periódico (Barcelona, 127,777), Diario 16 (Madrid, 127,514), Marca (Madrid, [sports], 113,155) and El Correo Español-ElPueblo Vasco (Bilbao, 108,834). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Justice is administered by Tribunales and Juzgados (Tribunals and Courts), which conjointly form the Poder Judicial (Judicial Power). Judges and magistrates cannot be removed, suspended or transferred except as set forth by law. The Constitution of 1978 has established a new organ, the Consejo General del Poder Judicial (CGPJ, General Council of the Judicial Power), formed by 1 Presi-

SPAIN

1117

dent and 20 magistrates, judges, attorneys and lawyers, governing the Judicial Power in full independence from the other two powers of the State, the Legislative (Cortes) and the Executive (President of the Government and his Cabinet); all members of the CGPJ, magistrates, etc., have been appointed by the Cortes since 1985. Its President is that of the Tribunal Supremo. The territorial organization of justice is being gradually changed, adapting it to the new map of the country in Autonomous Communities and when completed, in each of these it will be a Tribunal Superior de Justicia as the highest judicial organ, responsible only to the national Tribunal Supremo. The Judicature is composed of the Tribunal Supremo (Supreme High Court); 16 Audiencias Territoriales (Division High Courts); 50 Audiencias Provinciales (Provincial High Courts); 518 Juzgados de Primera Instancia (Courts of First Instance), 755 Juzgados de Distrito (District Courts) and 7,532 Juzgados Municipales y de paz (Municipal and Peace Courts, court of lowest jurisdiction held by Justices of the Peace). The Tribunal Supremo consists of a President (appointed by the King, on proposal from the Consejo General del Poder Judicial) and various judges distributed among 6 chambers: 1 for trying civil matters, 3 for administrative purposes, 1 for criminal trials and 1 for social matters. The Tribunal Supremo has disciplinary faculties; is court of cassation in all criminal trials; for administrative puijioses decides in first and second instance disputes arising between private individuals and the State, and in social matters resolves in the last instance all cases involving over 100,000 pesetas. The Audiencias Territoriales have power to try in second instance sentences passed by judges in civil matters. The Audiencias Provinciales try and pass sentence in first instance on all cases filed for delinquency. The jury system, re-established by the art. 125 of the Constitution, had not been applied by Jan. 1987, pending its parliamentary regulation. The Juzgados Municipales try small civil cases and petty offences. The Juzgados Comarcales deal with the same charges, but their jurisdiction embraces larger districts. Military cases are tried by the Consejo Supremo de Justicia Militar but its sentences can now pass to the (civil) Tribunal Supremo, as final cassation instance. The Tribunal Constitucional (Constitutional Court) has power to solve conflicts between the State and the Autonomous Communities, to determine if legislation passed by the Cortes is contrary to the Constitution and to protect constitutional rights of the individuals violated by any authority. Its 12 members are appointed by the King in the following way: 4, on proposal of the Congress of Deputies; 4, on proposal of the Senate; 2 on proposal of the Consejo General del Poder Judicial; and 2 on proposal of the Cabinet. It has a 9 year term, a third of the membership renewed every 3 years. The death penalty was abolished in 1978 by the Constitution (art. 15). Divorce is again legal since July 1981 and abortion since Aug. 1985. The prison population was, on 11 Nov. 1986,26,046. Religion. Roman Catholicism is the religion of the majority. There are 11 metropolitan sees and 52 suffragan sees, the chief being Toledo, where the Primate resides. The archdioceses of Madrid-Alcalá and Barcelona depend directly from the Vatican. The Constitution guarantees full religious freedom and states that no religion has an established legal condition (art. 16); so, since 29 Dec. 1978 there has been no official religion in Spain. A report issued in 1982 by the Episcopal Conference of the Roman Catholic Church claims that 82 • 76% of all children born in 1981 were baptized in that church. There are about 250,000 other Christians, including several Protestant denominations, Jehovah Witnesses (about 60,000) and Mormons. The British and Foreign Bible Society was, on 10 March 1963, allowed to resume its activities. The first synagogue since the expulsion of the Jews in 1492 was opened in Madrid on 2 Oct. 1959. The number of Jews is estimated at about 13,000.

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Education. Primary education is compulsory and free between 6 and 14 years of age. In 1985-86 pre-primary education (under 6 years) was conducted by 39,668 schools, with 39,573 teachers and 1,127,348 pupils. Primary or basic education (6 to 14 years): 186,389 schools, 193,445 teachers and 5,594,285 pupils. Secondary education (14-17 years) is conducted on two branches: Middle schools (Institutos), and vocational and technical centres (Formación Profesional), with 2,635 and 2,248 school units, 75,546 and 49,408 teachers and 1,238,874 and 738,340 pupils. For adult education there were (in 1985-86) 3,048 school units, with 3,341 teachers and 145,062 students. For the physically or mentally disabled there were 5,854 school units, with 5,862 teachers and 98,371 pupils. In 1986 there were in all 33 universities: 22 State Universities, in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Granada, Sevilla, Santiago de Compostela, Zaragoza, Bilbao (University of the Basque Country), Oviedo, Valladolid, Salamanca (founded in 1215), La Laguna (Canaries), Murcia, Málaga, Córdoba, Badajoz-Cáceres (University of Extremadura), Cádiz, León, Santander, Alicante, Palma de Mallorca and Alcalá de Henares; 4 Polytechnic Universities, in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Las Palmas (Canaries); 2 Autonomous Universities, in Madrid and Barcelona; 4 private (catholic) universities, in Deusto (Bilbao), Pamplona, Salamanca and Madrid (University of Comillas); and the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (National University for Education at Home), which teaches by mail, radio and TV, with its central seat at Madrid (48,491 students, 1985-86). The new (state) University of Castilla-La Mancha started in 1985-86, with 6,625 students and campuses in Albacete, Ciudad Real and other places. There were 826,306 university students ( 1985-86) including 24,095 students at private universities. Social Security. The social services budget was 4,367,807 pesetas in 1987, and covered retirement pensions (60 -8% of that budget), health and hospital services (25-6%) and other allowances and aids. There is a minimum pension for every retired citizen with yearly earnings under 500,000 pesetas. In 1987 the system of contributions to the social security and employment scheme was: For pensions, sickness, invalidity, maternity and children, a contribution of 28 • 8% of the basic wage (24% paid by the employer, 4 • 8% by the employee); for unemployment benefit, a contribution of 6-3% (5-2% paid by the employer, 1 1 % by the employee). There are also minor contributions for a Fund of Guaranteed Salaries, working accidents and professional sicknesses, and vocational training. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Spain in Great Britain (24 Belgrave Sq., London SW1X8QA) Ambassador: José Joaquín Puig de la Bellacasa, GCVO. Of Great Britain in Spain (Calle de Fernando el Santo, 16, Madrid, 4) Ambassador: Lord Nicholas Gordon Lennox, KCMG, LVO. Of Spain in the USA (2700 15th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Julián Santamaría. Of the USA in Spain (Serrano 75, Madrid) Ambassador: Reginald Bartholomew. Of Spain to the United Nations Ambassador: Francisco Villar. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Paseo de la Castellana, 183, Madrid) combines the administrative work of a government department attached to the Presidency of the G o v e r n m e n t with a centre of statistical studies. Altamira y Crevea, R., A History of Spain. New York and London, 1950 Bell, D.,(ed.), Democratic Politics in Spain: Spanish Politics after Franco. London, 1983 Carr, R., Modem Spain, 1875-1980. OUP, 1980 Collins, R., The Basques. Oxford, 1986

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1119

Enciclopedia UniversalIlustrada. 70 vols., 10 appendices, 10 supplements. Madrid Graham, R., Spain: Change of a Nation. London, 1984 Gunther, R., (et al) Spain after Franco: The Making of a Competitive Party System. Univ. of California Press, 1986 Harrison, J., The Spanish Economy in the Twentieth Century. London, 1985 Hooper, J., The Spaniards: A Portrait of The New Spain. London, 1986 Lieberman, S., The Contemporary Spanish Economy: A Historical Perspective. London, 1982 McNair, J. M., Education for a Changing Spain. Manchester, 1984 Maravall, J., The Transition to Democracy in Spain. London, 1982 Morris, J., Spain. London, 1979 Preston, P., The Triumph of Democracy in Spain. London and New York, 1986 Preston, P., and Smyth, D., Spain, the EEC and NATO. London, 1984 Reay-Smith, J., Living in Spaininthe Ws. London, 1983 Shields, G. J., Spain. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid.

FORMER PROVINCE IN AFRICA (WESTERN SAHARA) The colony of Spanish Sahara became a Spanish province in July 1958. On 14 Nov. 1975 Spain, Morocco and Mauritania had reached agreement on the transfer of power over Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania on 28 Feb. 1976. Morocco occupied al-Aaiun in late Nov. and on 12 Jan. 1976 the Spanish army withdrew from Western Sahara which had ceased to be a Spanish province on 31 Dec. 1975. The country was partitioned by Morocco and Mauritania on 28 Feb. 1976; Morocco reorganized its sector into 3 provinces. In Aug. 1979 Mauritania withdrew from the territory it took over in 1976. The area was taken over by Morocco and reorganized into a fourth province. A liberation movement, Frente Polisario, launched an armed struggle against Spanish rule on 20 May 1973 and, in spite of occupation of all western centres by Moroccan troops, Saharawi guerrillas based in Algeria continue to attempt to liberate their country. They have renamed it the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic and hold most of the desert beyond a defensive line built by Moroccan troops encompassing Smara, Bu Craa and Laayoune. In 1982 the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic became a member of the Organization of African Unity (O AU). President: Mohammed Abdelaziz. Area 266,769 sq. km (102,680 sq. miles). The population at the census held by Morocco in Sept. 1982 was 163,868; estimate (1986) 180,000. Another estimated 165,000 Saharawis live in refugee camps around Tindouf in south-west Algeria. The main towns (1982 census) are Laayoune (al-Aaiun), the capital (96,784), Dakhla (17,822) and as-Smara (17,753). The population is Arabic-speaking, and virtually entirely Sunni Moslem. Rich phosphate deposits were discovered in 1963 at Bu Craa. Morocco holds 65% of the shares of the former Spanish state-controlled company. While production reached 5-6m. tonnes in 1975, exploitation has been severely reduced by guerrilla activity but in 1984 produced lm. tonnes. After a nearly complete collapse, production and transportation of phosphate resumed in 1978, ceased again, and then resumed in 1982. There are about 6,100 km of motorable tracks, but only about 500 km of paved roads. There are airports at Laayoune and Dakhla. As most of the land is desert, less than 19% is in agricultural use, with about 2,000 tonnes of grain produced annually. There are (1983) about 22,000 sheep, as well as goats and camels raised. Electricity produced (1983) 78m. kwh. Books of Reference Damis, J., Conflict in Northwest Africa: The Western Sahara Dispute. Stanford, 1983 Hodges, T., Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara. London, 1982.— Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War. London and Westport, 1984 Sipe, L. F., Western Sahara: A Comprehensive Bibliography. New York, 1984 Thompson, V. and Adloff, R., The Western Saharans: Background to Conflict. London, 1980

SRI

Capital: Colombo Population: 15-8m. (1985) GNP per capita: (1984)

LANKA

Ceylon

H I S T O R Y . According to the Mahawansa chronicle, an Indian prince from the valley of the Ganges, named Vijaya, arrived in the 6th century B.C. and became the first king of the Sinhalese. The monarchical form of government continued until the beginning of the 19th century when the British subjugated the Kandyan Kingdom in the central highlands. In 1505 the Portuguese formed settlements on the west and south, which were taken from them about the middle of the next century by the Dutch. In 1796 the British Government annexed the foreign settlements to the presidency of Madras. In 1802 Ceylon was constituted a separate colony. Ceylon became an independent Commonwealth state when the Ceylon Independence Act, 1947, came into force on 4 Feb. 1948. Sri Lanka became a republic in 1972. War between northern Tamil separatists and government forces began in 1983. E V E N T S . InJuly 1987 the governments of Sri Lanka and India signed an agreement on the future of the Tamil community and the resolution of Tamil-Sinhalese differences. Provisions included alterations to the status of the Tamil language, and of the Northern Province. Tamil rebels laid down their arms on 5 Aug., but violence broke out again during operations by an Indian peace-keeping force. By 31 Dec. 1987 there was still no agreed basis for cease-fire between Tamil rebels and Indian forces, and the inter-government agreement remained without effect. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean, south of the Indian peninsula from which it is separated by the Palk Strait. On 28 June 1974 the frontier between India and Sri Lanka in the Palk Strait was redefined, giving to Sri Lanka the island of Kachchativu. Area (in sq. km.) and census population on 17 March 1981. Provinces Western Central Southern Northern Eastern North-Western

Area 3,708-61 5,583-50 5,559 15 8,882-11 9,951-26 7,812-18

Population 3,919,807 2,009,248 1,882,661 1,109,404 975,251 1,704,334

Provinces North-Central Uva Sabaragamuwa Total

Area 10,723-59 8,487-91 4,901-55

Population 849,492 914,522 1,482,031

65,609-86

14,846,750

Population (1981 census), 14,846,750, an increase of 17% since 1971. Population (in 1,000) according to race and nationality at the 1981 census: 10,980 Sinhalese, 1,887 Ceylon Tamils, 1,047 Ceylon Moors, 39 Burghers, 47 Malays, 819 Indian Tamils, 28 others. Non- nationals of Sri Lanka totalled 635,150. By agreement with the Government of India in 1964 and 1974, Indian nationals who have not been granted Sri Lanka citizenship were to be repatriated. The 1964 agreement covered 525,000 people; the 1974 agreement, 75,000. Vital statistics, 1986 (provisional): birth-rate (per 1,000 population), 22-3; death-rate, 6-0; infant death-rate (per 1,000 live births), 22 -6. The urban population was 21 • 5% of the total in 1981. The principal towns and their population according to the census of 1981 are: Colombo (the capital), 587,647; Dehiwela-Mt. Lavinia, 173,529; Moratuwa, 134,826; Jaffna, 118,224; Kotte, 101,039; Kandy, 97,872; Galle, 76,863; Negombo, 60,762; Trincomalee, 44,313; Batticaloa, 42,963; Matara, 38,843; Ratnapura, 37,497; Anuradhapura, 35,981; Badulla, 33,068; Kalutara, 31,503. Population of the Greater Colombo area, 1980, about lm. 1120

SRI L A N K A

1121

The national languages are Sinhala, English and Tamil; Sinhala is the official language and Tamil is used in the northern and eastern provinces. C L I M A T E . Sri Lanka has an equatorial climate with low annual temperature variations, but it is affected by the north-east Monsoon (Dec. to Feb.) and the south-west Monsoon (May to Sept.). Rainfall is generally heavy but never lasts long; it is heaviest in the south-west and central highlands while the north and east are relatively dry. Thirty-year averages, 1951-80: Colombo. Jan. 79-7°F (26-5°C), July 8 1 - P F (27-3°C). Annual rainfall 99-5" (2,527 mm). Trincomalee. Jan. 78-6°F (25-9°C), July 86-2°F (301°C). Annual rainfall 63-60" (1,615 mm). Kandy. Jan. 73-9°F(23-3°C), July 75-9°F (24 4°C). Annual rainfall 76-6" (1,947 mm). Nuwara Eliya. Jan. 58-5°F (14-7°C), July 60-3°F (15-7°C). Annual rainfall 80 0 4 " (2,044 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution for the Democratic Socialist Republic ofSri Lanka was promulgated in Sept. 1978. The Executive President is directly elected by the people and has to receive more than one-half of the valid votes cast. His term of office is six years and he shall not hold the office for more than two consecutive terms. He is the Head of the State, the Head of the Executive and of the Government and the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. He does not have any veto power over legislation; even in a time of public emergency, he must act with Parliamentary control and approval. Parliament consists of one chamber, composed of 168 members elected by universal suffrage. The Senate was abolished by constitutional amendment in Oct. 1971. The term of Parliament is six years. In Nov. 1982 Parliament voted to extend its present term (expiring Aug. 1983) for a further six years. The vote was subject to national referendum on 20 Dec. 1982; 71% of the electorate voted and 55% approved the extension. The Prime Minister and other Ministers, who must be members of Parliament, are appointed by the President. The President is head of the Cabinet. The electorate consists of all who are 18 years of age and over. National flag: A yellow field bearing 2 panels: in the hoist 2 vertical strips of green and orange; in the fly, dark red with a gold lion holding a sword and in each corner a gold 'bo' leaf. The Cabinet was as follows in March 1988: President, Defence, Higher Education, Janata Estates Development, State Plantations, and Plan Implementation, Manpower Mobilization and Civil Security: J. R. Jayawardene. Prime Minister, Leader of the House, Local Government, Highways, Housing and Construction, Emergency Civil Administration: Ranasinghe Premadasa. Land, Land Development and Mahaweli Development: Gamini Dissanayake. Foreign Affairs: A. C. S. Hameed. Home Affairs: K. W. Devanayagam. National Security: Lalith W. Athulathmudali. Rural Development: Wimala Kannangara. Justice: N. P. Wijeyeratne. Finance and Planning: N. Marikkar. Labour: P. C. Imbulana. Industries and Scientific Affairs: R. Denzil Fernando. Cultural Affairs: E. L. B. Hurulle. Fisheries: M. F. W. Perera. Health: R. Atapattu. Post and Telecommunications: S. Abeysundera. Parliamentary Affairs and Sports, Chief Government Whip: M. Vincent Perera. Transport, Transport Boards, Private Omnibus Transport: M. H. Mohamed. Agricultural Development and Research and Food: D. B. Wijetunge. Co-operatives: W. Dahanayake. Public Administration and Plantation Industries: M. Jayawickreme. Textile Industry: W. Mendis. Social Services: Asoka Karunaratne. Rural Industrial Development: S. Thondaman. Youth Affairs, Education and Employment: R. Wickremasinghe. State: A. de Alwis. Regional Development: C. Rajadurai. Women's Affairs and Teaching Hospitals: S. Ranasinghe. Trade and Shipping: M. S. Amarasiri. Power and Energy: P. Dayaratne. Without Portfolio: M. A. Bakeer Markar.

1122

SRI

LANKA

For purposes of general administration, the island is divided into 25 districts, administered by government agents. There are 12 Municipal Councils and 24 District Councils. DEFENCE Array. The Army was constituted on 10 Oct. 1949. It consists of 5 infantry brigades, 2 reconnaissance, 2 field artillery and 1 engineer regiment, and 1 signals battalion. Equipment includes 18 Saladin armoured cars and 15 Ferret scout cars. Strength (1988) 40,000 including active reservists. There are also paramilitary forces: Police Force (28,000), Volunteer Force (eventually 10,000, when fully mobilized) and Home Guard. Navy. The Navy was constituted on 9 Dec. 1950. It comprises 6 Surveillance Command Ship (ex-mercantile), 2 new Colombo-built patrol vessels, 6 (exChinese) fast gunboats, 28 small patrol boats, 2 landing craft and 1 service craft. Emphasis is now on indigenous building. Gemunu and Rangalla are commissioned as shore establishments. The naval base is at Trincomalee. Personnel in 1988 numbered 330 officers and 4,480 ratings. Naval personnel are sent to the U K for training. There is also a Volunteer Naval Reserve of 20 officers and 520 ratings, and a Naval Reserve of 7 officers and 43 men. Air Force. The Air Force was formed on 10 Oct. 1950. Its flying bases are at Katunayake and China Bay, Trincomalee. Equipment of 4 squadrons comprises 6 SF.260 and 4 Cessna 150/152 trainers, 3 Herons, 2 HS748,6 Chinese-built Y-12s, 2 DC-3s, 2 Super King Airs, 3 Cessna Skymasters, 1 Cessna 421 and a Cessna Cardinal for general transport and utility purposes; 3 Doves for navigation training; and 2 Dauphin, 12 Bell 212,4 Bell 412 and up to 20 JetRanger helicopters for internal security operations. Total strength (1988) about 3,700 officers and airmen. There is also an Air Force Reserve. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Sri Lanka is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the Non-Aligned Movement, the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation and the Colombo Plan. External debt. External debt in Dec. 1986 was Rs 86,208 -2m. (provisional). ECONOMY Planning. The 1987-91 plan aims at 4-6% annual growth rate. Investment allocated is mainly for power and water, including the Mahaweli energy and irrigation scheme, road repairs and telecommunication. Total public investment, about Rsl54,156m. Budget. Revenue and expenditure of central government in Rs lm. for financial years ending 31 Dec.: Expenditure Year 1985 1986 1987 1

Revenue 39,010 41,644 44,115

1

Recurrent 33,842 34,772 37,050 Estimate.

Capital 30,529 35,112 33,000

Total 64,371 69,884 70,050

The principal sources of revenue in 1986 were (in Rs lm.): Income tax, 4,787; import duties, 4,476; export duties, 1,574; other indirect taxes, 21,035. The principal items of recurrent expenditure in 1986 (in Rs lm.): Administration including defence, 9,279; food subsidies and food stamps, 1,799; education, social services and health, 5,512; interest on public debt, 9,413. Capital expenditure on agriculture, 1,465; communications, 2,476. Currency. The Monetary Law Act provides that the standard monetary unit is the Sri Lankan rupee. The Central Bank is the sole authority for the issue of currency and all currency

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notes and coins issued by the Central Bank are legal tender for the payment of any amount, except notes of Rs 50 and Rs 100 dated before 25 Oct. 1970. Currency notes are issued in the denominations of Rs 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000. Coins are issued in the denominations of 1,2, 5,10,25 and 50 cents; Rs 1,2 and 5. The total circulation was Rs 12,246-9m. on 30 June 1986. In May 1988, £1 = Rs 54-10; US$1 = R s 30-85. Banking. The narrow money supply (Ml) at 30 June 1986 stood at Rs 19,948-8m. The main commercial banks in Sri Lanka are: The Bank of Ceylon and the People's Bank (state-managed), the State Bank of India, Grindlays Bank, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Standard Chartered Bank, the Commercial Bank of Ceylon, the Hatton National Bank, the Habib Bank (Overseas) Ltd., Indo-Suez Bank, Bank of Credit and Commerce International, American Express and the Indian Overseas Bank Ltd. Total assets of 25 commercial banks at 30 June 1986,Rs63,632-3m. The state-owned Ceylon Insurance Corporation and the National Insurance Corporation have a monopoly of all insurance business. Sri Lanka National Savings Bank at 30 June 1986 had a balance to depositors' credit of Rs 13,615-2m. Sri Lanka State Mortgage and Investment Bank, National Development Bank, Development Finance Corporation, the National Housing Authority and the Housing Development Finance Corporation of Sri Lanka Ltd. are the main long-term credit institutions. Weights and Measures. The metric system has been established by the Weights and Measures (Amendment) Law No. 24 of 1974, and subsequent legislation. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Installed capacity of electric energy (1986), 1,065,250 kw. Energy produced, 2,653m. kwh; the main source is hydro-electricity (producing 2,645m. kwh). The Mahaweli power scheme had 2 large hydro-power plants commissioned in 1985: Victoria and Kothmale. The Randenigala hydro-power plant was commissioned in 1986 (two 61 mw units). Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Water. The Mahaweli Ganga irrigation scheme is (1987) irrigating 41,000 hectares of new land and 77,000 hectares of land already cultivated. There is a Water Resources Board (set up in 1966) and a National Water Supply and Drainage Board (1974). Water supply to the city and area of Colombo comes from the Labugama and Kalatuwawa reservoirs. Consumption within Colombo city limits is estimated at 10,000m. gallons a year. All domestic consumers receive a free water allowance; commercial consumers do not. Minerals. Gems are among the chief minerals mined and exported. Precious and semi-precious stones are found among the layers of older alluvium and river gravels of quaternary age in the valleys of the Ratnapura district in the southwest. The most important are sapphire, ruby, crysoberyl, beryl, topaz, spinel, garnet, ziran and tourmaline. Value ofgemstones exported in 1986, Rs 755m. Graphite is also important. The State Graphite Corporation was set up in 1971. There were 3 large mines (Bogala, Kahatagaha and Kalangaha), and several smaller mines. Graphite produced (tonnes), 1985,7,413; 1986,7,708. The Ceylon Mineral Sands Corporation was established in 1957, mainly to extract ilmenite. Production of ilmenite, 1986, 129,907 tonnes. Some rutile is also produced (8,443 tonnes in 1986). Salt extraction is the oldest industry in Sri Lanka and is now controlled by the National Salt Corporation. The method is solar evaporation of sea-water. Production, 1986,104,279 tonnes. Agriculture. The area of the island is 6,561,000 hectares, of which about 2m. hectares are under cultivation. Agriculture engages about 45% of the labour force. The main crops in 1986 were as follows: Paddy (2-6m. tonnes from 836,000 hectares), rubber (137,000 tonnes), tea (211,000 tonnes) and coconuts (3,039m. nuts).

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Livestock in 1986 (estimate): l-78m. cattle, 964,200 buffaloes, 85,800 swine, 562,700 goats and sheep, 7 • 6m. poultry. Fisheries. Production for 1986 was 183,056m. tons including 144,266m. tons of coastal water fish, 35,390m. tons of fresh water fish and 3,400m. tons from deepsea fisheries. In 1986 (provisional) there were 27,792 fishing craft, of which 14,387 were not motorized. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The private sector has been encouraged since 1977, with Investment Promotion Zones and freedom for imports; the public sector still accounts for about 60% of total production. The main industries are food, beverages and tobacco; textiles, clothing and leather goods; chemicals, petroleum, rubber and plastics. The Greater Colombo Economic Commission has charge of the two Investment Promotion Zones: Katunayake and Biyagama. Trade Unions. The registration and control of trade unions are regulated by the Trade Unions Ordinance (Ch. 138 of the Legislative Enactments). In 1985 there were 957 registered trade unions with a membership of 1,565,394. Commerce. The values of total imports and exports (imports excluding bullion, specie and postal articles; exports, including re-exports and ship's stores) for calendar years (in Rs 1,000): Imports Exports

1982 36,875,519 20,728,491

1983 42,020,529 24,843,439

1984 46,913,266 36,540,767

1985 49,068,542 35,034,947

1986 51,281,508 34,092,261

Principal exports (domestic) in 1986 (in Rs lm.): Tea, 9,253; rubber, 2,622 copra, coconut oil and desiccated coconut, 1,609; other crops, 780; textiles and garments, 9,629; precious and semi-precious stones, 1,182. Principal imports (Rs lm.) in 1986 were petroleum, 6,203m.; machinery and equipment, 5,828m.; vehicles and transport equipment, 1,457; food and beverages, 6,746. In 1986 the principal sources of imports were (in Rs lm.): Saudi Arabia, 325; Japan, 8,934; UK, 2,882; USA, 3,291; India, 2,222; Iran, 1,069; Singapore, 2,011; FRG. 2,405; South Korea, 1,963. Principal export destinations 1986 were (in Rs lm.): UK, 1,893; USA, 8,480; Japan, 1,813; Pakistan, 949; FRG, 2,305; Saudi Arabia, 907. Total trade between Sri Lanka and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 39,784 70,136

1984 77,163 61,179

1985 73,956 79,234

1986 51,860 83,315

1987 53,817 84,680

Tourism. About 230,000 tourists visited the country in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are about 25,650 km. of motorable roads, of which 82% are blacktopped. Number of motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1985, 523,723, including 148,587 private cars and cabs, 98,859 lorries, 75,474 tractors, 161,373 motor cycles, 38,309 buses. Railways. In 1986 there were about 1,453 km of railway open, of which 1,394 km were broad gauge and 59 narrow gauge. In 1986 railways ran 1,972m. passengerkm and 204m. tonne-km. Aviation. Air Lanka operates international services. Foreign airlines which operate scheduled services to Sri Lanka are British Airways, India Airlines Corporation, Aeroflot, KLM, Singapore Airlines, Thai Airways International, Pakistan International Airlines, Gulf Air, Royal Nepal Airlines, Kuwait Airways, Saudi Air, Emirates and UTA French Airlines; various others operate charter services. Internal services are operated by Upali, Air Taxis and Consolidated Engineering.

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Shipping. In 1986, merchant vessels totalling 25-7m. G R T entered the ports of Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Shipping Corporation began functioning as ship-owners, charterers, brokers and shipping agents in 1971. The Sri Lanka Port Authority was established in 1979. Post and Broadcasting. In 1986 there were 487 post offices and 3,221 sub-post offices. In 1982 there were 1,900 telegraph offices and 109,900 telephones. Throughout the Greater Colombo Area inter-dialling facilities are now available between 52 stations. The Overseas Telecommunication Service operates telegraph and telephone services to most parts of the world. Broadcasting is provided by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, which assumed the functions of Radio Ceylon on 5 Jan. 1967. Cinemas. In 1985 there were 229 cinemas. The National Film Corporation established in 1971 has exclusive rights to import films and arrange distribution of foreign and local films. Films released, 1985,154. Newspapers. There are 6 main newspaper groups: Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd (5 daily and 3 weekly papers and other periodicals); Express Newspapers (Ceylon) Ltd (2 daily and 2 weekly papers); Independent Newspapers Ltd. (3 daily and 3 weekly papers and other periodicals); Upali Newspapers Ltd. (2 daily, 2 weekly papers and other periodicals); Wijeya Publications (2 weekly papers and other periodicals); Eelanadu Ltd (1 daily). There are 6 daily and 4 weekly papers in Sinhala; 6 daily and 4 weekly in Tamil; 4 daily and 4 weekly in English. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The systems of law which obtain in Sri Lanka are the Roman-Dutch law, the English law, the Tesawalamai, the Moslem law and the Kandyan law. The Kandyan law applies to the Kandyan Sinhalese in respect of all matters relating to inheritance, matrimonial rights and donations. The law of England is observed in most commercial matters. The law of Tesawalamai is applied to all Tamil inhabitants of Jaffna, in all matters relating to inheritance, marriages, gifts, donations, purchases and sales of land. The Moslem law is applied to all Moslems in respect of succession, donations, marriage, divorce and maintenance. These customary and religious laws have been modified in many respects by local enactments. The courts of original jurisdiction are the High Court, District Courts, Magistrates' Courts and Primai7 Courts. The High Court tries major crimes and also exercises admiralty jurisdiction. The District Court has unlimited civil jurisdiction in civil, revenue, trust, insolvency and testamentary matters, over persons and estates of persons of unsound mind, and wards. Family Courts were estabished in 1978; District Courts act as Family Courts. The Magistrates' Courts exercise criminal jurisdiction carrying the power to impose terms of imprisonment not exceeding 2 years and fines not exceeding Rs 1,500. The Primary Courts which were established in 1978 exercise civil jurisdiction where the value of the subject matter does not exceed Rs 1,500 and also have jurisdiction in respect of by-laws of local authorities and matters relating to the recovery of revenue of such local authorities. Primary Courts exercise exclusive criminal jurisdiction in respect of offences which may be prescribed by regulation by the Minister. The Primary Courts have the power to impose sentences of imprisonment not exceeding three months and fines not exceeding Rs 250. The Constitution of 1978 provided for the establishment of two superior courts, the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and exercises jurisdiction in respect of constitutional matters, jurisdiction for the protection of fundamental rights, final appellate jurisdiction, consultative jurisdiction, jurisdiction in election petitions and jurisdiction in respect of any breach of the privileges of Parliament. Parliament may provide by law that the Supreme Court exercises the power to grant and issue any of the orders in the nature of Writs of Certiorari, Prohibition, Procedendo, Mandamus or Quo Warranto. The Court of Appeal has

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SRI L A N K A

appellate jurisdiction to correct all errors in fact or law committed by any court, tribunal or institution; it can grant and issue orders in the nature of the above Writs, and of Writs of Habeas Corpus and injunctions; it can also try election petitions in respect of election of members of Parliament. Police. The strength of the police service in 1986 was 23,739. Religion. Buddhism was introduced from India in the 3rd century B.C. and is the religion of 69-3% of the inhabitants. There were (1981) 10,288,325 Buddhists, 2,297,806 Hindus, 1,130,568 Christians, 1,121,717 Moslems and 8,334 others. Education. Education is free from the kindergarten to the university and is imparted in the medium of the mother tongue. In 1981 about 87% of the population (10 years old and older) was literate. In 1986 there were 10,099 schools including 9,656 government schools; the rest were private and estate schools, and Pirivenas. The government schools had 142,630 teachers and 3 -7m. students from grades kindergarten to XII. Ministry of Education expenditure (1986), Rs 4,117 • 8m. Education is now administered under 31 regional directors. The overall control of the education regions is vested in the Ministry of Education. There are 8 Universities: Peradeniya, Colombo, Jaffna, Sri Jayawardenepura, Moratuwa, Kelaniya, Eastern, and Ruhuna, an Open University. Dumbara Campus comes under Peradeniya University. There are 8 Institutes (4 for postgraduate and 4 for undergraduate studies). In 1985 there were 18,913 students and 2,051 teachers in the 7 Universities and 1 University College. The Open University had 9,287 students. Postgraduate Institutes had 519 students, the others, 1,214. There were 23 institutions for technical education, 9 of which had grade I status; total enrolment (198 5), 20,796. Health. In 1986 there were 497 hospitals, including 88 maternity homes, and 341 central dispensaries. Hospitals had 46,005 beds and there were 2,222 Department of Health doctors. Total state budget expenditure on health, 1986, Rs 2,095m. Social Security. The activities of the Department of Social Services include: (1) Payment of Public Assistance, monthly allowance, tuberculosis assistance and leprosy allowance to all needy persons. (2) Relief for those affected by widespread distress, such as floods, drought, cyclone. (3) Custodial care and welfare services to the elderly and infirm. (4) Vocational training, rehabilitation, aids and appliances for the physically handicapped. (5) Custodial care, vocational training and rehabilitation for socially handicapped persons. (6) Distribution of Food Stamps and Kerosene Oil Stamps. (7) Study of social problems affecting the community with a view to finding appropriate solutions. (8) Financial assistance to voluntary institutions that provide welfare services. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Sri Lanka in Great Britain (13 Hyde Park Gdns., London, W2 2 LU) High Commissioner: Chandra Monerawela (accredited 15 May 1984). Of Great Britain in Sri Lanka (190 Galle Rd., Kollupitiya, Colombo 3) High Commissioner: D. A. S. Gladstone. Of Sri Lanka in the USA (2148 Wyoming Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: W. S. L. De Alwis. Of the USA in Sri Lanka (210 Galle Rd., Kollupitiya, Colombo 3) Ambassador: James Spain. Of Sri Lanka to the United Nations Ambassador: Nissanka Wijewardane.

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Books of Reference The Sri Lanka Year Book. Department of Census and Statistics. Colombo, Annual Census Publications from 1871 Economic Atlas. Department of Census and Statistics. Colombo, 1980 Performance 1985. Ministry of Plan Implementation, Colombo. 1985 Review ofthe Economy. Central Bank of Ceylon. Annual Statistical Pocket-Book. Department ofCensus and Statistics. Colombo, 1984 Statistical Abstract. Department of Census and Statistics, Colombo, 1982 Coomaraswamy, R., Sri Lanka: The Crisis of the Anglo-American Constitutional Traditions in a Developing Society. Colombo, 1984 de Silva, K. M. (ed.), Sri Lanka: A Survey. London, 1977.—A History of Sri Lanka. London, repr. 1982.—Managing Ethnic Tensions in Multi-Ethnic Societies: Sri Lanka 1880-1985. New York, 1986 Ferguson's Ceylon Directory. Annual (from 1858) Fernando, T., Sri Lanka: An Island Republic. Epping, 1985 International Commission of Jurists, ed., Sri Lanka: A Mounting Tragedy of Errors. London, 1984 Johnson, B. L. C , and Scrivenor, M. le M., Sri Lanka: Land, People and Economy. London, 1981 Manor, J., Sri Lanka: In Change and Crisis. London, 1984 Moore, M., The Stale and Peasant Politics in Sri Lanka. CUP, 1985 Piyadasa, L., Sri Lanka: The Holocaust and After. London, 1984 Poonambalam, S., Dependent Capitalism in Crisis: The Sri Lankan Economy ¡948-80. London, 1981 Ratnasuriya, M. D., and Wijeratne, P. B. F., Shorter Sinhalese-English Dictionary. Colombo, 1949 Richards, P., and Gooneratne, W., Basic Needs, Poverty and Government Policies in Sri Lanka. Geneva, 1981 Robinson, M. S., Political Structure in a Changing Sinhalese Village. CUP, 1975 Samaraweera, V., Sri Lanka. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Schwarz, W., The Tamils of Sri Lanka. London, 1983 Tambiah, S. J., Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. London, 1986 Wilson, A. J., Politics in Sri Lanka 1947-73. London, 1974.—The Gaullist System in Asia: the Constitution of Sri Lanka. London, 1980

Capital: Khartoum Population: 25 • 55m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$400 (1983)

SUDAN Jamhuryat es-Sudan

H I S T O R Y . Sudan was proclaimed a sovereign independent republic on 1 Jan. 1956. On 19 Dec. 1955 the Sudanese parliament passed unanimously a declaration that a fully independent state should be set up forthwith, and that a Council of State of 5 should temporarily assume the duties of Head of State. The Codomini, the U K and Egypt, gave their assent on 31 Dec. 1955. For the history of the Condominium and the steps leading to independence, see T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 5 , p p . 3 4 0 - 3 4 1 .

On 8 July 1965 the Constituent Assembly elected Ismail El-Azhari as President of the Supreme Council. Following a crisis in the coalition Cabinet the Prime Minister, Mohammed Ahmed Mahgoub resigned on 23 April 1969. For political history see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1973-74, p. 1333. The Government was taken over by a 10-man Revolutionary Council on 25 May 1969 under the Chairmanship of Col. Jaafar M. al Nemery. This Council was dissolved in 1972. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Sudan is bounded north by Egypt, north-east by the Red Sea, east by Eritrea and Ethiopia, south by Kenya, Uganda and Zaire, west by the Central African Republic and Chad, north-west by Libya. Sudan covers an area of967,500 sq. miles (2,505,813 sq. km) and the population at the census of 14 Feb. 1983 was 20,564,364; latest estimate (1987) 25-55m. The chief cities (census, 1983) are the capital, Khartoum (476,218), its suburbs Omdurman (526,287) and Khartoum North (341,146), Port Sudan (206,727), Wadi Medani (141,065), al-Obeid (140,024), Kassala (98,751 in 1973), Atbara (73,009), alQadarif(66,465 in 1973), Kosti (65,257 in 1973) and Juba (56,737 in 1973). The northern and central thirds of the country are populated by Arab and Nubian peoples, while the southern third is inhabited by Nilotic and Negro peoples; Arabic, the official language, is spoken by 51%, Darfurian by 6% and other northern languages by 12%, while Nilotic languages (chiefly Dinka and Nuer) are spoken by 18%, Nilo-Hamitic by 5%, Sudanic by 5% and others by 3%. In 1987 there were 975,000 refugees in Sudan (337,544 from Ethiopia). The area and population (census, 1983) of the regions are as follows: Region

Northern Eastern Central Kurdufan Khartoum (province)

Sq.km

183,941 129,086 53,716 146,932 10,883 1

1983

1,083,024 2,208,209 4,012,543 3,093,294 1,802,299

Region

Dafur Equatoria 1 Bahral-Ghazal 1 Upper N i l e '

Sq. km

196,555 76,495 77,625 92,269

1983

3,093,699 1,406,181 2,265,510 1,599,605

Re-united in 1985 as Southern Region.

Local government: Sudan is divided into Khartoum Province (centrally administered) and 6 Regions, each with an elected Regional Assembly and government, and sub-divided into 18 more Provinces. C L I M A T E . Lying wholly within the tropics, the country has a continental climate and only the Red Sea coast experiences maritime influences. Temperatures are generally high throughout the year, with May and June the hottest months. Winters are virtually cloudless and night temperatures are consequently cool. Summer is the rainy season inland, with amounts increasing from north to south, but the northern areas are virtually a desert region. On the Red Sea coast, most rain 1128

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SUDAN 0

falls in winter. Khartoum. Jan. 74°F (23 -3°C), July 89°F(31 -7 C). Annual rainfall 6 " (157 mm). Juba. Jan. 83°F (28-3'Q, July 7 8 T (25-6'C). Annual rainfall 39" (968 mm). Port Sudan. Jan. 74°F (23-3'C), July 9 4 T (34-4"C). Annual rainfall 4 " (94 mm). Wadi Haifa. Jan. 60"F(15-6°C), July 90°F (32.2'C). Annual rainfall 0 1" (2 -5 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. President Nemery was deposed in a military coup on 6 April 1985 and the Constitution of 1973 was suspended. A transitional Constitution was approved in Oct. 1985. A Military Council was established to which the Cabinet was responsible prior to elections held in April 1986 for the 301 -seat National Assembly. Voting was postponed in some southern constituencies. The Supreme Council: Ahmad Ali al-Mirghani (President), Idris Albanna, Ali Hasan Taj ad-Din, Muhammad al-Hasan Abdullah Yasin, Pacifico Lado Lolik. All Sworn in 6 May 1986. Prime Minister and Defence: Sadiq al-Mahdi. Foreign Affairs: Mohammed Tawfiq Ahmed. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with a green triangle based on the hoist. DEFENCE. Army. The Army is organized in 1 Republican Guard brigade, 2 armoured, 1 parachute and 10 infantry brigades, with 3 artillery and 1 engineer regiments, and 3 Air Defence brigades (including 1 surface-to-air missile). Equipment includes 155 T-54 and T-55, 60 Chinese Type-62 and 20 M-60A3 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 54,000 (including 3,000 in Air Defence brigades). Paramilitary forces are National Guard (500) and Border Guard (2,500). Navy. The Navy was established in 1962 to operate in the Red Sea and the River Nile, with 4 patrol boats built in Yugoslavia and a training mission from the Yugoslav Navy until 1972. There are also 1 larger ex-Yugoslav patrol craft, 3 ex-Iranian coastal patrol craft, 4 ex-Iranian very small coastguard cutters, 2 ex-Yugoslav landing craft, 1 small oiler, 1 small survey vessel and 1 water carrier. The flotilla reportedly has suffered from lack of maintenance and spares. Personnel in 1988 totalled 600 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force was built up with Soviet and Chinese assistance, and is now receiving equipment from the USA. Two combat squadrons are equipped with about 10 MiG-21 fighters, 6 Northrop F-5E and 12 F-5 (Chinese-built MiG-17) fighter-bombers. There is 1 transport squadron, with 5 C-130H Hercules, 6 Aviocars and 3 DHC-5D Buffalo turboprop transports; 2 Turbo-Porter light transports; 2 helicopter squadrons have 12 AB.212s and 10 BO 105s, 12 Romanian-built Pumas, 10 Mi-4s and Mi-8s; there are 3 Jet Provost, 3 Strikemaster and 1 F-5F jet armed trainers, and some Chinese-built FT-5 (MiG-17) advanced trainers. Personnel totalled (1988) about 3,000. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Sudan is a member of UN, OAU, the Arab League and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 1984-88, development plan envisaged a total investment of £S2,700m. Budget. The 1986-87 budget envisages revenue of £S2,683m. and expenditure of £S5,542m.

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SUDAN

Currency. The monetary unit is the Sudanese pound (£S) divided into 100 piastres and 1,000 milliemes. Sudanese bank-notes of £S10, £S5, £S1, 50 and 25 piastres and Sudanese coins of P. 10, 5, 2; m/ms 10, 5, 2, 1 are in circulation. In March 1988,£1 =£S7-98;US$1 =£S4-50. Banking. The Bank of Sudan opened in Feb. 1960 with an authorized capital of £S1 -5m. as the central bank of the country; it has the sole right to issue currency. All foreign banks were nationalized in 1970. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 1,210m. kwh. Supply 240 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Two oil wells in the south-west produce 15,000 bbls per day of high quality oil. Production of petrol (1982) 150,000 tonnes. Minerals. Minerals known to exist include: gold, graphite, sulphur, chromium-ore (estimate, 9,900m. tonnes in 1982), iron-ore, manganese-ore, copper-ore, zinc-ore, fluorspar, natron, gypsum and anhydrite, magnesite, asbestos, talc, halite, kaolin, white mica, coal, diatomite (kieselguhr), limestone and dolomite, pumice, leadore, wollastonite, black sands, vermiculite pyrites. Gold is being exploited on a small scale at Gabeit and at Abirkateib (in Kassala Province); alluvial gold is occasionally exploited in Southern Fung and Equatoria. Iron-ore was discovered in Red Sea area in 1976. Manganese mining activities started in the 1950s but this industry did not develop well and in 1982 only 200 tonnes was produced. Processed and scrap white mica have been mined since the late fifties; it went out of production for almost a decade, but started again in 1970 when 170 tonnes were produced; 1982, 200 tonnes. A big deposit of vermiculite and a medium-sized deposit of pyrophyllite are known to occur in the Sinkat District. Reserves of metallurgical grade chromite occur in the Ingessana Hills, Blue Nile Province. Huge reserves of chrysotile asbestos are proved in this vicinity and also in Qala El Nahal area, Kassala Province. Deposits of magnesite, with or without talc, are known to occur in the Ingessana Hills and Qala El Nahal areas in addition to other occurrences in the Halaib area, Red Sea Province. Agriculture. The Sudan is a predominantly agricultural country. Cotton is by far the most important cash crop on which the Sudan depends for earning foreign currency. The two types of cotton grown in the Sudan are: (a) long staple sakellaridis and sakel types (derivatives of sakellaridis), grown in Gezira, White Nile, Abdel Magid and private pump schemes; (b) short staple, mainly American types, in Equatoria and Nuba Mountains, generally by rain cultivation. Production (1986) in 1,000 tonnes: Sorghum, 3,605; sugar-cane, 5,200; groundnuts, 454; seed cotton, 440; millet, 544; wheat, 199; sesame, 301; cotton seed, 275. One of the largest sugar complexes in the world was opened at Kenana in March 1981. It is capable of processing 330,000 tonnes a year. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 22,389,000; sheep, 15,581,000; goats, 13 -5m.; poultry, 30m. Forestry. Gum arabic, mainly hashab gum from Acacia Senegal, is the sole forest produce exported on a major scale. Production (1983) 38 • 16m. cu. metres. C O M M E R C E . Total trade for calendar years, in US$ 1,000: Imports Exports

1984 556,000 519,000

1985 1,237,000 544,000

1986 1,055,000 497,000

In 1983, Saudi Arabia provided 14-3% of imports and the UK 10%, while 17 1% of exports went to Saudi Arabia and 10% to Italy; cotton formed 49% by value of exports and groundnuts 2%, sesame 9% and gum arabic 9%.

1131

SUDAN

Total trade between Sudan and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 18,693 133,432

1984 16,858 95,627

1985 21,323 103,635

1986 12,826 83,335

1987 18,850 75,322

Tourism. There were 42,000 visitors in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were about 3,000 km of tarmac roads, including the new 1,190 km road from Khartoum to Port Sudan, and 45,000 km of tracks. There were 34,600 passenger cars and 38,000 commercial vehicles in 1980. Railways. The main railway lines run from Khartoum to El Obeid via Wadi Medani, Sennar Junction, Kosti and El Rahad (701 km); El Rahad to Nyala via Abu Zabad, Babanousa and Ed-Daein (698 km); Sennar Junction to Kassala via Gedaref (455 km) and to Roseires via Singa (220 km); Kassala to Port Sudan via Haiya Junction and Sinkat (550 km); Khartoum to Wadi Haifa via Shendi, El Dammer, Atbara, Berber and Abu Hamad Junction (924 km); Abu Hamad to Karima (248 km); Atbara to Haiya Junction (271 km); Babanousa to Wau (444 km). The main flow of exports and imports is to and from Port Sudan via Atbara and Kassala. The total length of line open for traffic (1982) was 4,786 km. The gauge is 1,067 mm. In 1985—86, the railways carried 2-3m. passengers and 837,675 tonnes of freight. Aviation. Sudan Airways is a government-owned airline, with its headquarters in Khartoum, operating domestic and international services. In 1980 Sudan Airways carried 519,000 passengers and 6-8m. ton-kg of mail and freight. Shipping. Supplementing the railways are regular river steamer services of the Sudan Railways, between Karima and Dongola, 319 km; from Khartoum to Kosti, 319 km; from Kosti to Juba, 1,436 km, and from Kosti to Gambeila, 1,069 km. Port Sudan is the country's only seaport; it is equipped with 13 berths. A modernization programme began in Feb. 1980. Post and Broadcasting Number of telephones in 1983 was 68,838 (44,756 in Greater Khartoum). Radio receivers (1982) 5m. The television service broadcasts for 3 5 hours per week. There were (1982) 1 m. TV receivers. Cinemas. In 1975 there were 58, seating capacity 112,000 and also 43 mobile units. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The judiciary is a separate and independent department of state directly and solely responsible to the President of the Republic. The general administrative supervision and control of the judiciary is vested in the High Judicial Council. Civil Justice is administered by the courts constituted under the Civil Justice Ordinance, namely the High Court of Justice—consisting of the Court of Appeal and Judges of the High Court, sitting as courts of original jurisdiction—and Province Courts—consisting of the Courts of Province and District Judges. The law administered is 'justice, equity and good conscience' in all cases where there is no special enactment. Procedure is governed by the Civil Justice Ordinance. Justice in personal matters for the Moslem population is administered by the Mohammedan law courts, which form the Sharia Divisions of the Court of Appeal, High Courts and Kadis Courts; President of the Sharia Division is the Grand Kadi. The religious law of Islam is administered by these courts in the matters of inheritance, marriage, divorce, family relationship and charitable trusts. Criminal Justice is administered by the courts constituted under the Code of Criminal Procedure, namely major courts, minor courts and magistrates' courts. Serious crimes are tried by major courts, which are composed of a President and 2 members and have the power to pass the death sentence. Major Courts are, as a rule, presided over by a Judge of the High Court appointed to a Provincial Circuit

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or a Province Judge. There is a right of appeal to the Chief Justice against any decision or order of a Major Court, and all its findings and sentences are subject to confirmation by him. Lesser crimes are tried by Minor Courts consisting of 3 Magistrates and presided over by a Second Class Magistrate, and by Magistrates' Courts. Religion. In 1980 about 73% of the population was Moslem. The population of the 12 northern provinces is almost entirely Moslem (Sunni), while the majority of the 6 southern provinces are animist (18%) or Christian (9%). Education (1980). 5,729 primary schools had l-4m. pupils; there were 428,703 pupils in secondary schools and 28,985 in tertiary education. In 1979 Khartoum University with 10 faculties had 8,777 students. The Khartoum branch of Cairo University with 4 faculties had about 5,000 students and the Islamic University of Omdurman with 3 faculties had 1,472 students. Juba University, founded in 1975 with 5 faculties had 425 students. Health. In 1981 the Ministry of Health maintained 158 hospitals (with 17,205 beds), 887 dispensaries, 1,619 dressing stations and 220 health centres. There were 2,122 doctors and 12,871 nurses. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Sudan in Great Britain (3 Cleveland Row, London, SW1A 1DD) Ambassador: Sayed Ibrahim Mohamed Ali (accredited 23 July 1985). Of Great Britain in Sudan (PO Box No. 801, Khartoum) Ambassador: John Beaven, CMG, CVO. Of Sudan in the USA (2210 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Salah Ahmed. Of the USA in Sudan (Sharia Ali Abdul Latif, Khartoum) Ambassador: G. Norman Anderson. Of Sudan to the United Nations Ambassador: Amin M. Abdoun. Books of Reference Sudan Almanac. Khartoum (annual) Daly, M. W., Sudan. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983 Gurdon.C., Sudan in Transition: A Political Risk Analysis. London, 1986 Holt, P. M., A Modern History of the Sudan. New York, 3rd ed. 1979 Iten, O., Le Soudan. Zurich, 1983

SURINAME

Capital: Paramaribo Population: 310,000 (1984) GNP per capita: US$2,980 (1984)

H I S T O R Y . At the peace of Breda (1667) between Great Britain and the United Netherlands, Suriname was assigned to the Netherlands in exchange for the colony of New Netherland in North America, and this was confirmed by the treaty of Westminster of Feb. 1674. Since then Suriname has been twice in British possession, 1799-1802 (when it was restored to the Batavian Republic at the peace of Amiens) and 1804-16, when it was returned to the Kingdom of the Netherlands according to the convention of London of 13 Aug. 1814, confirmed at the peace of Paris of 20 Nov. 1815. On 25 Nov. 1975, Suriname gained full independence and was admitted to the UN on 4 Dec. 1975. On 25 Feb. 1980 the Government was ousted in a coup, and a National Military Council (NMC) established. A further coup on 13 Aug. replaced several members of the NMC, and the State President. Other attempted coups took place in 1981 and 1982. with the NMC retaining control. Suriname returned to democracy in Jan. 1988 following elections held in Nov. 1987. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Suriname is situated on the north coast of South America and bounded on the north by the Atlantic ocean, on the east by the Marowijne River, which separates it from French Guiana, on the west by the Corantijn River, which separates it from Guyana, and on the south by forests and savannas, which separate it from Brazil. Area, 163,820 sq. km. Census population (1980), 354,860. Estimate (1984) 370,000. The capital, Paramaribo, had (1971 census) 103,738 inhabitants. Suriname is divided into 9 districts (populations census 1980): Paramaribo (urban district), 67,905; Commewijne, 14,351; Coronie, 2,777; Marowijne, 23,402; Nickerie, 34,480; Saramacca, 10,335; Suriname, 166,494; Brokopondo, 20,249 and Para, 14,867. The official languages are Dutch and English. English is widely spoken next to Hindi, Javanese and Chinese as inter-group communication. A vernacular, called 'Sranan Tongo' or 'Surinamese', is used as a lingua franca. In 1976 it was announced that Spanish would become the nation's principal working language. C L I M A T E . The climate is equatorial, with uniformly high temperatures and rainfall. There is no recognized dry season. Paramaribo. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 8 9 " (2,225 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was approved by referendum in Sept. 1980. Elections took place 25 Nov. 1987. The Front for Democracy and Development won (provisional) 40 of the 51 seats in the National Assembly. President: Ramsewak Shankar (elected for a 5-year term in Jan. 1988). Flag: Horizontally green, red, green with the red of double width with yellow 5pointed star in centre of red bar. DEFENCE Army. Armed forces of the Republic of Suriname consist of regular local officers 1133

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and conscripted personnel with a strength of about 2,450 in 1988. Equipment includes 2 PC-7 armed trainers, 4 Defender twin-engined light transports operated alongside and 1 Cessna 206 liaison aircraft. Officers' ranks were abolished in Feb. 1986. Navy. The flotilla comprises 3 patrol vessels, 3 coastal patrol craft, 3 river patrol launches and 1 coastal cutter all built in the Netherlands. In 1988 personnel totalled 160 officers and men. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Suriname is a member of UN, OAS and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. For 15 years from independence approximately 3,500m. guilders is available from the Netherlands to carry out an extensive social and economic development programme. Budget. The expenditures and local revenues (derived from import, export and excise duties, taxes on houses and estates, personal imports and some indirect taxes) are as follows (in 1,000 Suriname guilders): Revenues Expenditures

1978 623,100 650,500

1979 429,800 412,500

1980 480,400 454,900

1981 527,000 569,700

1982 556,600 657,900

1983 509,300 711,900

Outstanding loans in 1983: Local, 491 lm.; foreign, 37-3m. Suriname guilders. Public debt in 1980,100 -7m. Suriname guilders. Currency. Notes ranging from 5 to 1,000 Suriname guilders are legal tender. Currency notes of 1 00 and 2 -50 guilders are issued by the Government. In March 1988, US$1 = 1-79 Suriname guilders', £1 sterling=3-17 Suriname guilders. Banking. The Central Bank of Suriname is a bankers' bank and also a bank of issue; the Surinaamsche Bank, the Algemene Bank Nederland and the Handels-, Kredieten Industriebank, are commercial banks; the Suriname People's Credit Bank operates under the auspices of the Government; Surinaamse Postspaarbank (postal savings bank); Surinaamse Hypotheekbank NY (mortgage bank); Surinaamse Investerings Mij. NV (investment bank); Agentschap van de Maatschappij tot financiering van het Nationaal Herstel NV (long-term investments); National Development Bank; The Agrarian Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 1,610m. kwh. Minerals. Bauxite is the most important mineral; it is being mined in the Suriname and Marowijne districts but in 1987 several mines have been closed by attacks by anti-government rebels. Fresh deposits have been found in the western areas. The ore is exported mainly to USA and the Dominican Republic, but partly processed locally into alumina and aluminium. Production (1985 in 1,000 tonnes): Bauxite, 3,738; alumina, (1983) 1,084; aluminium, (1983)34 5. Agriculture. Agriculture is restricted to the alluvial coastal zone; cultivated area in 1982, 87,442 hectares. The staple food crop is rice; 72,571 hectares of paddy were planted in 1982, chiefly in the Nickerie, Commewijne, Saramacca and Coronie districts. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, 120; rice, 300; oranges, 10; grapefruit, 1; coconuts, 7; palm oil, 7 -2; cassava, 3. Livestock (1986): 63,000 head of cattle, 3,000 sheep, 5,000 goats, 22,000 pigs, 1 m. poultry. Forestry. Suriname has great timber resources. Production in 1983 included

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SURINAME

204,251 cu. metres of logs, 18,420 cu. metres of sleepers (1982), 18,134 cu. metres of plywood and 3,15 5 cu. metres of particle board. Fisheries. The fish catch in 1980 amounted to 2,100 tonnes and the shrimp catch, 3,100 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1981, there were 3 large bauxite plants, 1 alumina and 1 aluminium smelting plants, sugar- and rice-mills, 3 paint factories, 2 fruit-juice plants, 3 shrimp freezing plants, a plywood factory, timber-mills, a milk pasteurization plant, a butter and margarine factory and a number of various medium and small industries. Shortage of skilled personnel inhibits expansion. Commerce. Imports and exports in calendar years (in 1 m. Suriname guilders): Imports Exports

1979 733 5 792-7

1980 1 981 900-3 1,013 7 918-2 845-7 1 Estimate.

1982 921-2 765-1

1983' 762-5 605-4

Principal exports in 1982 (in 1,000 Suriname guilders): Alumina, 411,500; bauxite, 52,400; aluminium, 124,000; rice, 72,100; shrimp, 53,300; wood and wood products, 20,600; bananas, 13,200. Principal imports in 1982 (in 1,000 Suriname guilders): Raw and auxiliary materials, 356,700; fuels and lubricants, 209,900; investment goods, 117,800; foodstuffs, cars and motorcycles, 73,100; textile yarn and fabrics, 9,600. Total trade between Suriname and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): 6

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 11,584 8,914

1984 18,316 9,593

1985 15,405 9,398

1986 15,554 9,743

1987 12,488 7,974

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 1,335 km of main roads. Two of them lead from Paramaribo to the bauxite centres of Smalkalden (29 km) and Paranam (30 km) and to the airport of Zanderij (49 km). Another main road runs across the districts of Saramacca (71 km) and Coronie (68 km), a fourth across the Commewijne district (41 km) and a fifth in the Marowijne district, from the bauxite centre Moengo to Albina (45 km). The 'East-West connexion' is almost completed, linking the Corantijn and the Marowijne rivers (375 km). In 1985 there were 31,536 passenger cars, 10,629 trucks, 1,923 buses and 1,034 motor cycles. Railways. There is a single-track railway, running from Onverwacht to Bronsweg (86 km); part of the track, from Paramaribo to Onverwacht (34 km) has been removed. Another single-track railway runs from Apoera to the Bakhuis Mountains. Aviation. Regular air services are maintained by KLM, SLM, Aero Cubano and Cruzeiro do Sul. The international airfield at Zanderij is capable of handling all types of planes. Suriname Airways Ltd provides daily services between all major districts and maintains also a charter service. In 1975, 1,205 aircraft landed at Zanderij airport with 40,416 passengers and 1,225 tons of incoming mail and freight. Shipping. The Royal Netherlands Steamship Co. plies between Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg and Paramaribo, and New York, Baltimore, New Orleans and Paramaribo. Regular sailings are made to Georgetown, Ciudad Bolivar and most Caribbean ports. The Suriname Navigation Co. maintains services from Paramaribo to Georgetown and Cayenne, and once a month to the Caribbean area. A French and an Italian company maintain passenger services to Europe. The Alcoa Steamship Co. has a fortnightly service to New York, Baltimore, Mobile and New Orleans; a Japanese line sails once a month from Hong

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Kong and Yokohama to Paramaribo; the Boomerang Line maintains a monthly freight and passenger service between Suriname and Australia. In 1981, 1,021 vessels totalling 4-93m. GRT entered Paramaribo. Post and Broadcasting. Automatic telephone service links most of the districts in the interior. In 1982 there were 27,495 telephones. Wireless telephone connects Suriname with the Netherlands, USA, Curaçao, Guyana, French Guiana and Trinidad. There are 6 broadcasting and 1 television stations. In 1974 there were 170,000 radios and 36,000 TV sets. Automatic telex was established in 1972. Cinemas. In 1981 there were 18 cinemas and 1 drive-in cinema. Newspapers (1983). There is one daily newspaper, De Ware Tijd. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a court ofjustice, whose members are nominated by the President. There are 3 cantonal courts. Religion. There is entire religious liberty. At the end of 1983 the main religious bodies were: Hindus, 97,170; Roman Catholics, 80,922; Moslems, 69,638; Moravian Brethren, 55,625; Reformed, 6,265; Lutheran, 2,695; Jehovah's Witnesses, 1,626; Seventh Day Adventists, 1,061 ; others, 24,627. Education. In 1980-81 there were 285 primary schools with 2,803 teachers and 75,139 pupils, and there were 1,854 teachers and 29,790 pupils at secondary schools. There were 5 technical schools with (1978-79) 249 teachers and 4,394 students, and 5 teacher-training colleges with 148 teachers and 1,275 students. There was also a University with 2,353 students and 155 teaching staff. Social Security. There were (1980) 13 modern hospitals in the country, 4 of which are operated by missions, 2 by a private company, 1 by the military forces and 6 by the Government. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Great Britain in Suriname Ambassador: D. P. Small, MBE (resides in Georgetown). Of Suriname in the USA (2600 Virginia Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Arnold T. Halfhide. Of the USA in Suriname (Dr Sophie Redmondstraat 129, Paramaribo) Ambassador: Robert E. Barbour. Of Suriname to the United Nations A mbassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Statistical Information: The General Bureau of Statistics in Paramaribo was established on 1 Jan. 1947. Its publications comprise trade statistics, Suriname in Figures (including, from 1953, the former Handelsstatistiek)and StatistischeBerichten. Economische Voorlichting Suriname. Ministry of Economic Affairs, Paramaribo Annual Report ofthe Central Bank of Suriname

Capital: Mbabane Population: 676,049 (1986) GNP per capita: US$730 (1984)

SWAZILAND

H I S T O R Y . The Swazi migrated into the country to which they have given their name, in the last half of the 18 th century. They settled first in what is now southern Swaziland, but moved northwards under their chief, Sobhuza-known also to the Swazi as Somhlolo. Sobhuza died in 1838 and was succeeded by Mswati. The further order of succession has been Mbandzeni and Bhunu, whose son, Sobhuza II, was installed as King of the Swazi nation in 1921 after a long minority. The independence of the Swazis was guaranteed in the conventions of 1881 and 1884 between the British Government and the Government of the South African Republic. In 1890, soon after the death of Mbandzeni, a provisional government was established representative of the Swazis, the British and the South African Republic Governments. In 1894 the South African Republic was given powers of protection and administration. In 1902, after the conclusion of the Boer War, a special commissioner took charge, and under an order-in-council in 1903 the Governor of the Transvaal administered the territory, through the Special Commissioner. Swaziland became independent on 6 Sept. 1968. On 25 April 1967 the British Government gave the country internal self-government. It changed the country's status to that of a protected state with the Ngwenyama, Sobhuza II, recognized as King of Swaziland and head of state. King Sobhuza died on 21 Aug. 1982. On 25 April 1986, King Mswati III was installed as King of Swaziland. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Swaziland is bounded on the north, west and south by the Transvaal Province, and on the east by Mozambique and Zululand. The area is 6,705 sq. miles (17,400 sq. km). The country is divided geographically into 4 longitudinal regions running from north to south; 3 of roughly equal width-Highveld (westernmost), Middleveld, Lowveld-and the Lubombo plateau in the east. The mountainous region on the west rises to an altitude of over 6,000 ft (1,800 metres). The Middleveld is mostly between 1,700 and 3,000 ft, while the Lowveld has an average height of not more than 1,000 ft (300 metres). Population (census 1986), 676,049. Mbabane, the administrative capital (census 1976,23,109). The main urban areas with 1983 populations are: Manzini (18,818); Havelock Mine (4,838); Siteki (1,362); Big Bend (2,083); Mhlume (3,921); Nhlangano (2,097) and Pigg's Peak (2,192). C L I M A T E . A temperate climate with two seasons. Nov. to March is the wet season, when temperatures range from mild to hot, with frequent thunderstorms. The cool, dry season from May to Sept. is characterised by clear, bright sunny days. Mbabane. Jan. 68°F (20°C), July 54°F(12-2°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,402 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Britain's protection ended at independence, when a Constitution similar to the 1967 Constitution was brought into force. The general elections (by universal adult franchise) in April 1967 gave the royalist and traditional Imbokodvo National Movement all 24 seats. The Parliament consists of a House of Assembly, with 24 elected and 6 nominated members and the Attorney-General, who has no vote, and a Senate comprising 12 members, 6 of whom are elected by the House of Assembly and 6 appointed by the King. The executive authority is vested in the King and exercised through a Cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister, and consisting of the Prime Minister, the Deputy Prime Minister and up to 8 other ministers. In April 1973 the King assumed supreme power and the Constitution was suspended and in 1976 it was 1137

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SWAZILAND

abolished. On 28 Oct. 1983 a general election took place to elect an electoral college of 80 members. His Majesty the King: Mswati III (crowned 25 April 1986). In Dec. 1987, the Cabinet was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Sotja E. Dlamini. Foreign Affairs: S. J. S. Sibanyoni. Labour and Public Service: Prince Phiwokwakhe Dlamini. Agriculture and Co-operatives: H. S. Mamba. Commerce, Industry and Tourism: D. Von Wissel. Works and Communications: K. Mtetwa. Education: Prince Khuzulwandle Dlamini. Finance: B.S. Dlamini. Health: Chief Sipho Shongwe. Justice: D. J. Matse. Interior and Immigration: P. Mamba. Defence and Youth: Brig. F. Dube. Natural Resources, Land Utilization and Energy: M. M. Mnisi. National flag. Horizontally 5 unequal stripes of blue, yellow, crimson, yellow, blue; in the centre of the crimson strip an African shield of black and white, behind which are 2 assegais and a staff, all laid horizontally. Local Government. The country is divided into the 4 regions of Shiselweni, Lubombo, Manzini and Hhohho. They are administered by Regional Administrators. DEFENCE Army Air Wing. First military aircraft acquired by Swaziland, in mid-1979, were 2 Israeli-built Arava light twin-turboprop transports with underwing weapon attachments for light attack duties. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Swaziland is a member of UN, OAU, the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in 1,000 emalangeni) for financial years ending 31 March: 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 Revenue Expenditure

218,317 225,575

252,416 263,294

284,783 295,857

Currency. The currency in circulation in Swaziland is the emalangeni, but remains in the rand monetary area. In March 1988, £1=3-69 emalangeni; US$1=211 emalangeni. Banking. Barclays Bank International and the Standard Bank Ltd maintain branches at Mbabane and Manzini; sub-branches and agencies are operated in 17 other places. Bank rates are those in force throughout South Africa and are prescribed by the main South African offices of the 2 banks. The Swaziland Credit and Savings Bank, now known as The Swazi Bank, a statutory body, was opened in 1965. It specializes in credit for agriculture and low-cost housing. Its head office is in Mbabane and it has branches or agencies at 3 other places. A fourth bank, The Bank of Credit and Commerce International opened in Sept. 1978; its head office is in Manzini and it has a branch in Mbabane. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 120m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Swaziland produces asbestos from the Havelock Mine (25,130 tonnes in 1985). Coal is mined at Mpaka (166,079 tonnes in 1985). Quarry stone is also mined (83,903 cu. metres in 1985). A railway has been built from the Ngwenya haematite deposits to Goba, in Mozambique, chiefly for the transportation of iron ore. The extensive deposits of low-volatile bituminous coal in the Lowveld are being worked to provide coal for the railway, sugar-mills and export.

SWAZILAND

1139

Agriculture. In 1983 the cultivated area was 125,350 hectares, the grazing area 1,147,255 hectares and the commercial forest area 100,916 hectares. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Sugar-cane, 3,526; citrus, 67; rice, 3; seed cotton, 32; maize, 90; sorghum, 2; pineapples, 45; tomatoes, 4; potatoes, 7. Tobacco is also grown. It is usually necessary to import maize from South Africa. Sugar, first produced in 1958, and woodpulp and other forest products are the two main agricultural exports. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 620,000; goats, 315,000; sheep, 38,000; poultry, lm. COMMERCE. By agreement with the Republic of South Africa, Swaziland is united in a customs union with the republic and receives a pro rata share of the customs dues collected. Total exports (1984) amounted to E331,615,400, of which E104,937,300 to the Republic of South Africa. The chief items were (in El,000): Sugar, 140,565; unbleached woodpulp, 66,771; wood and wood products, 22,706; citrus fruit, 20,987; chrysolite asbestos, 17,937; canned fruit and juices, 17,890; manufactures (including engineering products, clothing and textiles), 14,644. Total imports (April 1984-March 1985) amounted to E661,546,000, of which E604,752,000 from the Republic of South Africa, and included (in El,000): Machinery and transport equipment, 177,562; minerals, fuels and lubricants, 107,120; manufactured items, 65,159; food and live animals, 52,765; chemicals and chemical products, 34,593. Total trade between Swaziland and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): /9,2 m 3 m 4 i m l m ]987 Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

40,049 23,965 41,786 41,281 48,194 36,901 7,654 3,536 2,430 3,122 3,922 2,257

Tourism. There were 256,000 visitors in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There is daily (except Sundays) communication by railway motor-buses between Manzini, Mbabane and Breyten; Manzini, Mankayana and Piet Retief. Thereare631 km of tarred trunk roads. Total length of roads (1983) 2,723 km. Railways. In 1985 the system comprised 370 km of route, and carried 863,000 tonnes of freight. Aviation. The country's chief airport is at Matsapa, near Manzini. It is served by Royal Swazi National Airways connecting with Johannesburg, Durban, Lusaka, Nairobi, Harare and Gaborone. Lesotho National Airways flies to Harare and Maputo through Matsapa. In 1986 Zambian Airways inaugurated their weekly flight to Matsapa via Gaborone. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1986) 57 post offices, 2 telephone-telegraph agencies and 10 telephone agencies. There were, 31 Dec. 1985,18,484 telephones, 8,349 exchange connexions and 309 telex exchange connexions. In 1986 there were over 96,000 radio sets and over 12,000 television receivers. Cinemas. There were 5 cinemas in 1980 with a total seating capacity of 1,625. Newspapers. There were in 1986 two dailies, one weekly and one monthly newspaper. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice. A High Court having full jurisdiction and subordinate courts presided over by Magistrates and District Officers are in existence. There is a Court of Appeal with a President and 3 Judges. It deals with appeals from the High Court. There are 16 Swazi courts of first instance, 2 Swazi courts of appeal and a Higher Swazi Court of Appeal. The channel of appeal lies from Swazi

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SWAZILAND

Court of first instance to Swazi Court of Appeal, to Higher Swazi Court of Appeal, to the Judicial Commissioner and thence to the High Court of Swaziland. Religion. In 1984 there were about 120,000 Christians and about 30,000 adults holding traditional beliefs. A large number of churches and missionary societies are established throughout the country and, in addition to evangelism, are doing important work in the fields of education and medicine. In the larger centres there are churches of several denominations—Protestant, Roman Catholics and others. Education. In 1986 there were 571 schools with 142,206 pupils in primary classes and 30,489 in secondary classes. The Swaziland Agricultural College and University Centre at Luyengo was opened in Oct. 1966. The College is now named the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Swaziland, which is situated in Matsapa. Technical and vocational training classes are run at the Government's Swaziland College of Technology and the Swaziland Institute of Management and Public Administration. The Government also operates a police college and the Institute of Health Sciences which trains para-medical staff for the hospitals and clinics. There are 3 teacher training colleges with 935 students in 1985—86. There were 540 students enrolled at the Swaziland College of Technology and 1,282 at the University of Swaziland in 1985-86. Health. In 1984 there were 80 doctors, 13 dentists and 1,608 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Swaziland in Great Britain (58 Pont St., London SW1X0AE) High Commissioner: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Swaziland (Allister Miller St., Mbabane) High Commissioner:}. G. Flynn. Of Swaziland in the USA (4301 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Peter H. Mtetwa. Of the USA in Swaziland (PO Box 199, Mbabane) Ambassador: Harvey F. Nelson, Jr. Of Swaziland to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Timothy L. L. Dlamini. Books of Reference Booth, A., Swaziland: Tradition and Change in a Southern African Kingdom. Aldershot and Boulder, 1984 Grotpeter, J. J., Historical Dictionary of Swaziland. Metuchen, 1975 Jones, D., Aid and Development in Southern Africa. London, 1977 Matsebula, J. S. M., A History of Swaziland. London, 1972 Nyeko, B., Swaziland. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982

Capital: Stockholm Population: 8-4m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 11,977(1985)

SWEDEN Konungariket Sverige

HISTORY. Organized as an independent unified state in the 10th century, Sweden became a constitutional monarchy in 1809. In 1809 she also ceded Finland to Russia. In 1815 German possessions were ceded to Prussia and Sweden was united with Norway, which union lasted until 1905. AREA AND POPULATION. Sweden is bounded west and north-west by Norway, east by Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, south-east by the Baltic Sea and south-west by the Kattegat. The first census took place in 1749, and it was repeated at first every third year, and, after 1775, every fifth year. Since 1860 a general census has been taken every 10 years and, in addition, in 1935, 1945, 1965 and 1975. Latest census figures: 1940, 6,371,432 (annual increase since 1935: 0-38%); 1950, 7,041,829 (1-1% since 1945); 1960, 7,495,316 (0-64% since 1950); 1965, 7,766,424 (1 04% since 1960); 1970, 8,076,903 (1 04% since 1965); 1975, 8,208,544 (1-02% since 1970); 1980, 8,320,438 (1 01% since 1975); 1985, Counties (Län) Stockholm Uppsala Södermanland Östergötland Jönköping Kronoberg Kalmar Gotland Blekinge Kristianstad Malmöhus Haltend Göteborg and Bohus Älvsborg Skaraborg Värmland Örebro Västmanland Kopparberg Gävleborg Västernorrland Jämtland Västerbotten Norrbotten Total 1

Land area: sq. km 6,488 6,989 6,061 10,563 9,944 8,451 11,166 3,140 2,941 6,089 4,939 5,454 5,141 11,395 7,937 17,582 8,520 6,302 28,264 18,191 21,711 49,915 55,401 98,916

Census population i Nov. 1985 1,577,596 251,754 249,885 393,668 300,892 174,025 238,406 56,180 151,055 280,516 750,294 240,090 715,831 426,769 270,530 279,503 270,384 254,858 284,029 289,452 262,555 134,161 245,302 262,443

411,503'

8,360,178

Estimated population 31 Dec. 1986 1,593,333 254,938 249,479 394,753 301,413 173,853 237,417 56,174 150,258 280,609 753,075 242,250 721,553 427,638 270,111 278,861 269,620 254,423 283,191 287,691 261,089 133,543 245,204 261,039

Pop. per sq. km 31 Dec. 1986 246 36 41 37 30 21 21 18 51 46 152 44 140 38 34 16 32 40 10 16 12 3 4 3

8,381,515

20

Total area of Sweden, 449,964 sq. km.

On 31 Dec. 1986 there were 4,137,513 males and 4,244,002 females. On 31 Dec. 1986 aliens in Sweden numbered 390,840. Of these, 134,234 were Finns, 38,406 Yugoslavs, 26,707 Norwegians, 24,790 Danes, 21,879 Turks, 15,608 Poles, 13,270 Iranians, 11,867 West Germans, 10,280 Chileans, 8,816 Britons, 8,045 Greeks, 6,476 Americans, 3,911 Iraqis and 3,895 Italians. 1141

1142

SWEDEN

Vital statistics for calendar years:

1983 1984 1985 1986

Total living births 91,780 93,889 98,463 101,950

To mothers single, divorced or widowed 40,059 41,887 45,640 49,324

Stillborn 340 381 388 423

Marriages 36,210 36,849 38,297 38,906

Divorces 20,618 20,377 19,763 19,107

Deaths exclusive of still-born 90,791 90,483 94,032 93,295

Immigration: 1982, 30,381; 1983, 27,495; 1984, 31,486; 1985, 33,134; 1986, 39,487. Emigration: 1982, 28,381; 1983, 25,269; 1984, 22,825; 1985, 22,041; 1986,24,495. In 1860 the urban population numbered 435,000 (11% of the total population) and on 31 Dec. 1965, 4,177,212 (54%); including other densely populated areas, the urbanized population in 1965 was 77-4%. On 15 Sept. 1980, population in densely populated areas was 6,910,431 (83-l%). Population of largest communities, 31 Dec. 1986: Stockholm Gôteborg Malmô Uppsala Norrkôping Ôrebro Linkôping Vâsterâs Jônkôping Helsingborg Borâs Sundsvall Eskilstuna Gâvle Umeâ Lund Sôdertàlje

663,217 429,339 230,056 157,675 118,801 118,443 117,835 117,732 108,235 106,275 100,054 92,795 88,448 87,431 85,698 83,391 80,003

Halmstad Karlstad Skellefteâ Huddinge Kristianstad Botkyrka Vàxjô Luleâ Nykôping Haninge Nacka Ômskôldsvik Karlskrona Ôstersund Jârfàlla Gotland Tàby

77,601 74,669 74,267 71,568 69,941 66,957 66,925 66,526 64,199 61,172 60,315 59,631 59,007 56,662 56,405 56,174 55,093

Kalmar Falun Môlndal Solna Kungsbacka Trollhâttan Sollentuna Hàssleholm Varberg Skôvde Uddevalla Borlànge Norrtâlje Motala Sandviken Vàstervik

54,554 51,900 50,164 50,108 49,840 49,499 49,424 48,390 46,639 46,311 45,983 45,966 42,503 41,352 40,096 39,752

Befolkningsjordndringar (Population Changes). Annual. 3 vols. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm Folkmangd31 Dec. (Population). Annual. 2 vols. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm

C L I M A T E . North Sweden suffers from severe winters, with snow lying for 4-7 months. Summers are fine but cool, with long daylight hours. Further south, winters are less cold, summers are warm and rainfall generally well-distributed over the year, though with a slight summer maximum. Stockholm. Jan. 24-4° F (-4- 1°C), July 59-9°F(17-3°C). Annual rainfall 2 5 " (622 mm). R E I G N I N G KING. Carl XVI Gustaf, bom 30 April 1946, succeeded on the death of his grandfather Gustaf VI Adolf, 15 Sept. 1973, married 19 June 1976 to Silvia Renate Sommerlath, born 23 Dec. 1943 (Queen of Sweden). Daughter and Heir Apparent: Crown Princess Victoria Ingrid Alice Désirée, Duchess of Vâstergôtland, born 14 July 1977; son: Prince Carl Philip Edmund Bertil, Duke of Vàrmland, born 13 May 1979; daughter: Princess Madeleine Thérèse Amelie Josephine, Duchess of Hâlsingland and Gàstrikland, born lOJune 1982. Sisters of the King. Princess Margaretha, born 31 Oct. 1934, married 30 June 1964 to Mr John Ambler; Princess Birgitta (Princess of Sweden), born 19 Jan. 1937, married 25 May 1961 (civil marriage) and 30 May 1961 (religious ceremony) to Johann Georg, Prince of Hohenzollern; Princess Désirée, born 2 June 1938, married 5 June 1964 to Baron Niclas Silfverschiôld; Princess Christina, bom 3 Aug. 1943, married 15 June 1974 to Tord Magnuson. Uncles of the King. Sigvard, Count of Wisborg, bom on 7 June 1907; Prince Bertil, Duke of Halland, born on 28 Feb. 1912, married 7 Dec. 1976 to Lilian May Davies, bom 30 Aug. 1915 (Princess ofSweden, Duchess ofHalland); Carl Johan, Count of Wisborg, bom on 31 Oct. 1916. Aunt of the King. Princess Ingrid (Princess of Sweden), bom 28 March 1910, mar-

SWEDEN

1143

ned 24 May 1935 to Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark (King Frederik IX), died 14 Jan. 1972. The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, with the dates of their accession from the accession of the House of Vasa: House of Vasa GustafI 1521 1560 Eric XIV Johan III 1568 Sigismund 1592 Carl IX 1599 GustafH Adolf 1611 Christina 1632 House of Pfalz-Zweibrücken 1654 Carl X Gustaf Carl XI 1660

House of Pfalz-Zweibrücken (contd.) Carl XII 1697 Ulrica Eleonora 1719 House of Hesse Fredrikl 1720 House ofHolsteinGottorp Adolf Fredrik 1751 Gustaf III 1771 Gustaf IV Adolf 1792 Carl XIII 1809

House of Bernadotte Carl XIV Johan 1818 Oscar I 1844 Carl XV 1859 1872 Oscar II GustafV 1907 Gustaf VI Adolf 1950 Carl XVI Gustaf 1973

The royal family of Sweden have a civil list of 12-85m. kronor; this does not include the maintenance of the royal palaces. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . Sweden's present Constitution came into force in 1975 and replaced the 1809 Constitution. Under the present Constitution Sweden is a representative and parliamentary democracy. Parliament (Riksdag) is declared to be the central organ of government. The executive power of the country is vested in the Government, which is responsible to Parliament. The King is Head of State, but he does not participate in the government of the country. Since 1971 Parliament has consisted of one chamber. It has 349 members, who are elected for a period of 3 years in direct, general elections. Every man and woman who has reached the age of 18 years on election-day itself, and who is not under wardship has the right to vote and to stand for election. The manner of election to the Riksdag is proportional. The country is divided into 28 constituencies. In these constituencies 310 members are elected. The remaining 39 seats constitute a nation-wide pool intended to give absolute proportionality to parties that receive at least 4% of the votes. A party receiving less than 4% of the votes in the country is, however, entitled to participate in the distribution of seats in a constituency, if it has obtained at least 12% of the votes cast there. The Riksdag, elected 1985, has 159 Social Democrats, 76 Conservatives, 44 Centre Party, 51 Liberals and 19 Communists. The Social Democratic Cabinet was composed as follows in Jan. 1987: Prime Minister and Minister with special responsibility for Research: Ingvar Carlsson. Agriculture: Mats Hellstrom. Finance: Kjell-Olof Feldt. Health and Social Affairs: Gertrud Sigurdsen. Housing: Hans Gustafsson. Labour: Anna-Greta Leijon. Special responsibility for international development co-operation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Lena Hjelm-Wallen. Industry: Thage Peterson. Foreign Affairs: Sten Andersson. Justice: (Vacant). Transport and Communications: Sven Hulterstrom. Education and Cultural Affairs: Lennart Bodstrom. Education, with special responsibility for cultural affairs, the mass media and comprehensive schools: Bengt Goransson. Labour, with special responsibility for immigrant affairs: Georg Andersson. Environment and Energy: Birgitta Dahl. Defence: Roine Carlsson. Public Administration: Bo Holmberg. Foreign Trade: Anita Gradin. Special responsibility for wages in public administration, Ministry of Finance: Bengt Johansson. Special responsibility for family policy, the disabled and elderly. Ministry of Health and Social Affairs: Bengt Lindquist. Special responsibility for tourism, recreation and sports, youth, Ministry of Agriculture: Ulf Lonnquist. Ministerial decisions are formally made by the Cabinet collectively and not (with some exceptions) by individual ministers.

1144

SWEDEN

Public administration in Sweden is characterized by a unique degree of functional decentralization. The Ministries are not really administrative agencies. Their main function is to prepare the decisions of the Cabinet; such decisions may concern bills for the Riksdag, general government directives and higher appointments. Only to a small extent does the Cabinet make individual administrative decisions. The routine administrative work is attended to by the central boards (centrala ambetsverk). Each board is in principle subordinate to the government; its sphere of activity depends on the appropriations granted by the Riksdag. The Government often asks the boards' opinion on proposed measures. Nationalflag: Blue with a yellow Scandinavian cross. National anthem: Du gamla, du fria, du fjallhoga nord (words by R. Dybeck, 1844; folk-tune). The official language is Swedish. The capital is Stockholm. Regional and Local Government. For national administrative purposes Sweden is divided into 24 counties (Ian), in each of which the central government is represented by a state county administrative board (lansstyrelse). The governor (ilandshovding), appointed by the government, is chairman of the board, which in addition to the governor has 14 members elected by the county council. Local government and the levying of local taxes are based on the Instrument of Government (the Swedish Constitution) and are regulated by the local government act and special acts. According to the local government act Sweden is divided into municipalities in which all men and women who have reached the age of 18 on election-day itself, and not under wardship, are entitled to elect the municipal council. These councils are named kommunfullmaktige. The number of municipalities has, since 1951, been reduced from about 2,500 to 284. The municipalities deal with a great variety of different tasks such as social welfare, education and culture, public health, town planning, housing etc. Each county, except Gotland, which consists of only one municipality, has a county council (landsting) elected by men and women who enjoy local suffrage. The county councils chiefly administer the health services and medical care. The municipalities of Gothenburg and Malmo do not belong to county councils. Ecclesiastical affairs in all parishes with more than 500 inhabitants entitled to vote are dealt with by church councils (kyrkofullmaktige); smaller parishes may make the same arrangement. All elections are conducted on a proportional basis. Boalt,G„ The Political Process. Stockholm, 1984 Gustafsson, A., Local Government in Sweden. Stockholm, 1983 Hadenius, S., Swedish Politics Duringthe20th Century. Stockholm, 1985 Lewin, L., Jansson, B., and Sorbom, D., The Swedish Electorate 1887-1968. Stockholm, 1972 Stromberg, L., and Westerstahl, J., The New Swedish Communes. Gothenburg, 1984 Vinde, P., Swedish Government Administration. 2nd rev. ed. Stockholm, 1978 Wahlback, K., The Roots of Swedish Neutrality. Stockholm, 1986

D E F E N C E . A Supreme Commander is, under the Government, in command of the three services. He is assisted by the Defence Staff under a chief of staff. The military forces are recruited on the principle of national service, supplemented by voluntarily enlisted personnel who form the permanent cadres for training purposes, staff duties, etc. Liability to service commences at the age of 18, and lasts till the end of the 47 th year. The period of training for the Army and Navy is llh-\2 months and for the Airforce 8-12 months. The territorial organization consists of 6 military commands each one under a general officer commanding. Army. The C.-in-C. of the Swedish Army has at his disposal the Army Staff under a chief of staff. The peace-time Army consists for training purposes of 16 infantry, 2 cavalry, 7 armour, 6 artillery, 5 AA, 3 engineer, 2 signal and 3 Army Service Corps units, most of which are called 'regiments' (regementen). The Army Aviation Corps comprises 2 Battalions operating 20 Bulldog aircraft and 20 JetRanger helicopters for observation, 15 AB.204B transport helicopters, and 10 Hughes 300C helicopters and 2 DO 27 aircraft for transport.

SWEDEN

1145

The Army is organized and equipped with regard to the varying geographical and climatic conditions of the country. The voluntary Home Guard (Hemvarnet) with a total strength of more than 100,000 men ready for action within 2 hours, raised during the War continues to be in force. Sweden's ground forces, total 850,000 men (including the voluntary Home Guard), can be said to consist of an Army which for the most part is on indefinite leave, but which on short notice can be ready for action. One of the basic principles of the Swedish system of mobilization is the local recruitment of as many units as possible. The storage of equipment and supplies is decentralized on more than 3,000 places. The active personnel of the Army comprises (1988) about 47,000, including 3 7,700 conscripts doing basic training. Navy. The C.-in-C. of the Swedish Navy is assisted by the Chief of Naval Staff, the Chief of Naval Material and the Commander-in-Chief of Coastal Fleet. The Navy is divided into two branches, the Navy and the Royal Coast Artillery. There are 4 Naval Command Areas: those of the southern, eastern, western and northern coasts. The coast artillery defence areas are those of the Stockholm archipelago, Blekinge, Gothenburg, Gotland and Norrland. There are 5 coastal artillery regiments. There are 12 diesel-powered patrol submarines, 2 missile-armed small corvettes (leaders for fast attack craft), 28 fast missile craft, 4 fast torpedo boats, 5 patrol craft, 3 minelayers, 1 mine countermeasures support ship, 13 coastal minelayers, 6 new minehunters, 9 coastal minesweepers, 18 inshore minesweepers, 32 coastal patrol craft, 2 mine transports, 1 electronic surveillance ship, 3 torpedo recovery vessels, 10 tenders, 5 surveying vessels, 7 icebreakers, 3 oilers, 1 salvage vessel, 10 artillery landing craft, 83 utility landing craft, 30 minor landing craft, 2 sail training ships, 1 supply ship, 2 water carriers and 17 tugs. Four submarines, 4 missile armed fast attack craft leaders (officially classed as corvettes), 6 coastal minelayers and 2 more minehunters are under construction. Five submarines are projected. The Naval Air Arm comprises 10 Boeing Vertol 107 helicopters and 10 JetRanger helicopters. Three Aviocars and 4 Boeing Vertol 107 helicopters acquired for anti-submarine warfare and electronic surveillance. The personnel of the navy and coast artillery in 1988 totalled 9,350 officers and men, comprising 3,250 regulars and 6,100 national servicemen. The Coast Guard operates 150 cutters, patrol boats and service craft and lists 5 aircraft. Personnel in 1988 numbered 570. Air Force. The C-in-C. of the Swedish Air Force has at his disposal the Air Staff under a chief of staff. The combat force consists of 3 fighter-interceptor, 3 ground-attack and 3 mixed interceptor/reconnaissance wings (flottiljer), each with 2-3 squadrons of 12-15 aircraft, including 6 reconnaissance squadrons (divisioner). Total peace-time strength of the combat units is 16 squadrons with nearly 400 first-line aircraft. Night and all-weather fighters are the Swedish-built Saab J35 Draken, equipping 3 squadrons, and JA37 Viggen, equipping 8 squadrons. The ground-attack wings have 5 squadrons of Saab AJ37 Viggens, and there is provision for 4 light groundattack squadrons of twin-jet Saab-105s (Sk60s), which could be withdrawn in wartime from training units. The 6 reconnaissance squadrons have SF37 (photo) and SH37 (maritime, radar) Viggen reconnaissance aircraft; and there are transport, helicopter and other support units. The Sk60A is the Air Force's standard advanced trainer, to which pupils progress after initial training on piston-engined Bulldogs. Other trainers in service include the Sk61 Bulldog, Sk35C Draken and Sk37 Viggen. Active strength (1988) 8,000 personnel, including 5,000 conscripts. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Sweden is a member of U N and

EFTA.

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SWEDEN

ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure of the total budget (Current and Capital) for financial years ending 30 June (in 1 m. kr.): 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84

Revenue 167,131 191,280 221,165

Expenditure 235,164 277,031 297,881 1

1984-85 1985-86 1986-87' Preliminary.

Revenue 260,596 275,099 318,561

Expenditure 330,281 322,241 335,667

The preliminary revenue and expenditure for the financial year 1 July 1986 to 30 June 1987 was as follows (in 1 m. kr.): Revenue Taxes'. Taxes on income, capital gains and profits Statutory social security fees Taxes on property Value-added tax Other taxes on goods and services Total revenue from taxes Non-tax revenue Capital revenue Loan repayment Computed revenue Total revenue

75,802 58,581 13,360 72,292 52,526 272,561 31,547 1,244 8,795 4,413 318,561

Expenditure Royal Household and residences 36 Justice 10,919 Foreign Affairs 9,536 Defence 26,746 86,702 Health and Social Affairs Transport and Communications 12,661 Ministry of Finance 18,436 Education and Cultural Affairs 42,560 Agriculture 7,806 Labour 23,194 17,754 Housing and Physical Planning Industry 10,822 Civil Service Affairs 4,024 454 Parliament and agencies 63,812 Interest on National Debt, etc. Unforeseen expenditure 5 Changed appropriation of short-term credits 200 335,667 Total expenditure

On 31 Dec. 1986 the national debt amounted to 630,784m. kr. Riksgaldskontoret (National Debt Office), arsbok. Annual. Stockholm, from 1920 Riksskatteverket (National Tax Board), arsbok. Annual. Stockholm, from 1971 The Swedish Budget. Ministry of Economic Affairs and Ministry of the Budget, from 1962/63

Currency. The monetary unit is the Swedish krona, of 100 ore. In March 1988, £1 = 10-62 krona\ US$1 =5 -99 krona. Gold coins do not exist as a currency. Central banknotes for 5,10, 50,100, 500, 1,000 and 10,000 kr. are legal means of payment. Banking. The Riksbank, or Central Bank of Sweden, belongs entirely to the State and is managed by directors elected for 3 years by the Parliament, except the chairman, who is designated by the Government. The bank is under the guarantee of the Parliament, its capital and reserve capital are fixed by its constitution. Since 1904, only the Riksbank has the right to issue notes. On 31 Dec. 1986 its note circulation amounted to 55,869m. kr.; its gold and foreign-exchange reserves totalled 45,648m. kr. There are 26 commercial banks. On 31 Dec. 1986 their total deposits amounted to 292,246m. kr.; advances to the public amounted to 298,462m. kr. On 31 Dec. 1986 there were 119 savings banks; their total deposits amounted to 128,047m. kr.; advances to the public were 94,614m. kr. Co-operative banks had total deposits of33,879m. kr.; advances to the public were 20,850m. kr. SverigesRiksbank, arsbok. Annual. Stockholm, from 1908 Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken, Kvartalskrift. Quarterly Review (in English). Stockholm, from 1920

Weights and Measures. The metric system is obligatory. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Sweden is rich in hydro-power resources. The total electric energy net production in 1986 was 133,700m. kwh. About 45% of this energy was produced in hydro-electric plants and 50% in nuclear power plants. The remaining 5% was produced in conventional thermal power plants. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz.

SWEDEN

1147

Minerals. Sweden is one of the leading exporters of iron ore. The largest deposits are found north of the polar circle in the area of Kiruna and Gallivare-Malmberget. The ore is exported via the Norwegian port of Narvik and the Swedish port of Lulei. There are also important resources of iron ore in southern Sweden (Bergslagen). The most important fields are Grangesberg and Str&ssa and the ores are shipped via the port of Oxelosund. Some of the southern deposits have, in contrast to the fields in North Sweden, a low phosphorus content. There are also some deposits of copper, lead and zinc ores especially in the Boliden area in the north of Sweden. These ores are often found together with pyrites. Non-ferrous ores, except zinc ores, are used in the Swedish metal industry and barely satisfy domestic needs. The total production of iron ores amounted to 20-5m. tons in 1985 and exports to 18-3m. tons. The production of copper ore was 375,217 tons, of lead ore 112,572 tons, of zinc ore 387,546 tons. There are also deposits of raw materials for aluminium not worked at present. In southern Sweden there are big resources of alum shale, containing oil and uranium. Agriculture. According to the farm register which is revised annually the following data was provided for 1986. The number of farms in cultivation of more than 2 hectares of arable land, was 106,279; of these there were 62,305 of 2-20 hectares; 40,353 of 20-100 hectares; 3,621 of above 100 hectares. Of the total land area of Sweden (41,161,500 hectares), 2,907,706' hectares were arable land, 339,776' hectares cultivated pastures and (1981) 22,742,235 hectares forests. Chief crops Wheat Rye Barley Oats Mixed grain Peas and vetches Potatoes Sugarbeet Tame hay Oil seed

Area (1 .000 hectares) 1 1984 1985 1986 325-8 286-7 321-4 40-4 64-9 48-3 686-6 710-7 680-9 458-1 474-7 486-8 68-6 56-1 50-0 49-8 45-5 41-0 39-3 37-7 37-5 52-6 51-9 51 -3 691-9 676-1 671-0 169-9 172-5 175-8

Production (1,000 tonnes) 1984 1986 1985 1,776 1,731 1,338 246 157 159 2,732 2,327 2,309 1,904 1,668 1,486 1,307 2,508 3,185 382

1,266 2,156 4,121 371

1,209 2,187 3,981 379

Area of rotation meadows for pasture was (in 1,000 hectares'): 1981, 192; 1982, 193;1983,184;1984,182;1985,181;1986,180. Total production of milk (in 1,000 tonnes): 1981, 3,514; 1982, 3,652; 1983, 3,715; 1984,3,821; 1985,3,724; 1986,3,566. Butter production in the same years was (in 1,000 tonnes): 64,69,72,78,75,68; and cheese 108,114,115,116,115,113. Livestock(1986):Cattle, l-7m.;sheep,407,000;pigs,2-4m.;poultry, 11.4m. Number offarm tractors in 1986,183,828; combines in 1986,47,089. The number of pelts produced in 1984—85 was as follows: Fox, 34,044; mink, 1 -52m.; others, 17,525. 1

Figures refer to holdings of more than 2 hectares of arable land.

Forestry. In 1980-84 the forests covered an area of 23-6m. hectares, i.e. roughly 57% of the country's land area. Municipal and State ownership accounts for onefourth of the forests, companies own another fourth, and the remaining half is in private hands. In the felling seasons, 1983-84 and 1984-85 respectively, 51 -8m. and 50-3m. cu. metres (solid volume excluding bark) of wood were removed from the forests in Sweden. The sawmill, wood pulp and paper industries are all of great importance. The number of sawmills in 1984 was about 2,500, 370 of which were commercial sawmills, with more than 90% of the total production of sawn hardand soft-wood. In 1985 the total production was about 11 -5m. cu. metres. The wood pulp factories total output amounted to 9 - l m . tons (including dissolving pulp) (dry weight). Fisheries. In 1986 the total catch of the sea fisheries was 201,025 tons, landed weight, value 722m. kr. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Manufacturing. The most important sector of Swedish manufacturing is the

1148

SWEDEN

production of metals, metal products, machinery and transport equipment, covering almost half of the total value added by manufacturing. Production of highquality steel is an old Swedish speciality. A large part of this production is exported. The production of ordinary steel is slightly decreasing and is still short of domestic demand. The total production of steel amounted to 4 1 m . tons in 1983. There is also a large production of other metals (aluminium, lead, copper) and rolled semi-manufactured goods of these metals. These basic metal industries are an important basis for the production of more developed metal products, machinery and equipment, which are to a large extent sold on the world market, i.e., hand tools, mining drills, ball-bearings, turbines, pneumatic machinery, refrigerating equipment, machinery for pulp and paper industries, etc., sewing machines, machine tools, office machinery, high-voltage electric machinery, telephone equipment, cars and trucks, ships and aeroplanes. Another important manufacturing sector is based on Sweden's forest resources. This sector includes saw-mills, plywood factories, joinery industries, pulp- and paper-mills, wallboard and particle board factories, accounting for about 20% of the total value of manufacturing. A fast increasing sector is the chemical industry, especially the petro-chemical branch. Minerals industries include production of building materials, decorative arts products of glass and china. No. of establishments 1984 1985 111 110 34 35 76 76 9,223 9,095

Industry groups Mining and quarrying Metal-ore mining Other mining Manufacturing Manufacture of food, beverages and tobacco 849 Textile, wearing apparel and leather industries 650 Manufacture of wood products 1,462 including furniture Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing 1,076 Manufacture of chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products 696 Manufacture ofnon-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coal 399 161 Basic metal industries Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment 3,826 Other manufacturing industries 104 817 Electricity, gas and water 691 Electricity, gas and steam 126 Water works and supply

A verage no. of wage-earners 1984 1985 8,506 8,471 7,412 7,397 1,094 1,074 533,028 535,140

Sales value of production (gross) in lm. kr. 1984 1985 5,667 6,425 5,694 4,966 901 731 475,963 510,994

837

50,225

50,579

65,568

70,801

626

25,297

24,417

10,052

10,780

1,413

47,270

45,577

39,980

32,876

1,079

66,063

65,925

68,913

71,163

703

40,983

41,324

75,336

79,105

391 160

16,309 36,961

16,123 36,359

10,076 38,297

10,793 40,191

247,170 252,022 2,750 2,814 11,386 10,968 10,791 10,368 595 600

173,371 1,369 62,928 61,418 1,510

193,828 1,456 77,325 75,715 1,610

3,786 100 825 699 126

Arbetsmarknadsstatistik (Labour Market Statistics). Monthly. National Labour Market Board, Stockholm, from 1963 Arbetsmarknadsstatistisk Ârsbok (Year Book of Labour Statistics). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, from 1973 Historisk statistik for Sverige, II (Climate, land surveying, agriculture, forestry, fisheries). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, 1959 Johansson, Ô., The Gross Domestic Product of Sweden and its Composition 1861-1955. Stockholm, 1967 Jôrberg, L., A History ofPrices in Sweden ¡732-1914.2 vols. Stockholm, 1972 Thalberg, B., and Marno, N., eds., Economic Growth, Welfare and Industrial Relations: A Comparative Study of Japan and Sweden. Tokyo, 1984 Jordbruksekonomiska meddelanden (Journal of Agricultural Economics, published monthly by the National Agricultural Market Board). Stockholm, from 1939

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Jordbruksstalistisk ärsbok (Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, from 1965 The Swedish Economy. Ministry of Economic Affairs and National Institute of Economic Research. Stockholm, from 1960

Trade Unions. The Swedish Federation of Trade Unions (LO) had 24 member unions with a total membership of2,277,062 in 1986; the Swedish Central Organization of Salaried Employees (TCO) had 21, with 1,233,234; the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations (SACO-SR) had 25, with 292,118. Commerce. The imports and exports of Sweden, unwrought gold and coin not included, have been as follows (in 1 m. kr.): Imports Exports

1980 141,641 131,002

1981 146,040 144,876

1982 173,932 168,134

1983 200,368 210,516

1984 218,569 242,811

Imports and exports by products (in 1 m. kr.): Food and live animals chiefly for food Cereals and cereal preparations Vegetables and fruit Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices and manufactures thereof Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals) Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, inedible, except fuels Hides, skins and furskins, raw Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed) Cork and wood Pulp and waste paper Textile fibres (other than wool tops) and their wastes (not manufactured into yarn or fabric) Crude fertilizers and crude minerals (excluding coal, petroleum and precious stones) Metalliferous ores and metal scrap Mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials Coal, coke and briquettes Petroleum, petroleum products and related materials Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. Artificial resins and plastic materials, and cellulose esters and ethers Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material Paper, paperboard, and articles o f p a p e r pulp, of paper or of paperboard Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s. Iron and steel Non-ferrous metals Machinery and transport equipment Power generating machinery and equipment Machinery specialized for particular industries Metal working machinery General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s. and machine parts, n.e.s. Office machines and automatic data processing equipment

Imports 1985 1986 13,124 14,389 812 810 4,147 4,305

1985 244,654 260,481

1986 231,445 265,040

Exports 1985 1986 6,148 4,966 2,171 1,321 346 404

3,517

4,220

533

602

1,114 1,851

985 1,948

96 331

148 355

10,759 505

10,191 550

26,142 840

24,287 927

537 1,886 587

498 2,614 570

147 9,569 9,628

156 9,516 8,795

404

366

363

258

1,454 3,760

1,315 2,644

437 4,684

443 3,837

46,285 2,527

24,955 1,875

12,738 164

7,610 192

42,201 23,156

22,366 22,553

11,601 16,280

6,590 17,780

6,223

6,606

4,446

4,975

36,812

38,348

67,764

69,794

2,711

3,056

25,326

27,453

6,339 3,360 8,169 5,317 80,429

6,476 3,725 8,400 4,859 83,628

3,294 2,802 17,138 4,921 108,977

3,480 2,858 16,356 4,601 116,110

5,558

5,825

6,643

7,393

8,152 2,189

7,286 2,543

12,234 2,522

13,113 2,637

11,954

12,409

17,366

18,355

10,433

10,049

7,974

7,897

1150

SWEDEN 1985

Telecommunications and sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment Electrical machinery apparatus and appliances, n.e.s., and electrical parts thereof (including non-electrical counterparts, n.e.s., of electrical household type equipment) Road vehicles (including air cushion vehicles) Other transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles

Imports 1986

1985

Exports 1986

5,782

6,175

11,437

10,149

14,913 17,631 3,817 30,309

14,101 20,444 4,795 33,574

9,471 35,845 5,485 19,133

10,669 39,401 6,496 20,506

P r i n c i p a l i m p o r t a n d e x p o r t c o u n t r i e s (in 1 m . kr.): Imports from 1985 1986 Belgium-Luxembourg 6,665 7,243 Denmark 16,572 15,828 Federal Republic of Germany 43,861 47,420 15,804 Finland 15,991 France 11,353 12,071 Italy 7,990 8,943 Netherlands 9,532 9,862 Norway 13,034 15,968 Switzerland 4,670 5,089 USSR 5,616 3,518 UK 33,161 24,117 USA 20,506 18,110

Exports to 1985 1986 10,285 10,736 21,142 21,489 29,901 30,666 14,674 16,219 12,553 13,586 8,686 9,117 11,460 12,276 27,255 29,665 4,642 5,359 2,688 2,134 25,768 27,666 30,228 29,903

T o t a l t r a d e b e t w e e n S w e d e n a n d U K (British D e p a r t m e n t of T r a d e r e t u r n s , in £ 1 , 0 0 0 sterling): ]g83 1Qg4 l m ] m m j ImportstoUK 2,051,931 2,416,383 2,465,582 2,756,536 2,952,453 Exports and re-exports from UK 2,937,464 2,888,625 3,006,890 2,307,900 2,322,235 Historisk Statistik for Sverige, 3: Utrikeshandel [Foreign Trade], 1732-1970. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, 1972 Utrikeshandel, arsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Annual Bulletin], Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. 5 vols. Statistical Reports, Series H Utrikeshandel, manadsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Monthly Bulletin]. Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. Utrikeshandel, kvartalsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Quarterly Bulletin], Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. January - December. Exports respectively imports. Statistical Reports, Series H Utrikeshandel, ars statistik [Foreign Trade, Annual]. Official Statistics of Sweden, Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. Imports and exports. Distribution by country and commodity according to the SITC Utrikeshandel, arsstatistik [Foreign Trade, Annual]. Official Statistics of Sweden, Statistics Sweden, Stockholm. Imports and exports. Commodities according to the CCCN. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. O n 1 J a n . 1987 t h e r e w e r e 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 k m of p u b l i c r o a d s c o m p r i s i n g Statea d m i n i s t e r e d roads, 9 8 , 3 3 7 k m , m u n i c i p a l , 3 2 , 0 0 0 k m , p r i v a t e r o a d s with subsidies, 7 6 , 8 7 6 k m , of w h i c h 6 8 , 7 6 2 k m were s u r f a c e d . M o t o r vehicles o n 31 D e c . 1986 i n c l u d e d 3 , 2 5 3 , 6 0 1 passenger cars, 2 4 3 , 6 9 6 b u s e s a n d lorries a n d 2 9 , 0 0 7 m o t o r cycles (all in use). Railways. A t t h e e n d of 1986 t h e total length of railways w a s 11,715 k m ; 7 , 4 6 4 k m were electrified w h i c h c a r r i e d 8 6 m . passengers a n d 5 6 m . t o n n e s of freight. Aviation. C o m m e r c i a l a i r traffic is m a i n t a i n e d in (1) S w e d e n a n d o t h e r p a r t s of t h e w o r l d b y S c a n d i n a v i a n A i r l i n e s System (SAS), of w h i c h A B A e r o t r a n s p o r t ( A B A = Swedish A i r Lines) is t h e Swedish p a r t n e r ( D D L = D a n i s h A i r L i n e s a n d D N L = N o r w e g i a n A i r L i n e s b e i n g t h e o t h e r two); (2) o n l y w i t h i n S w e d e n b y Linjeflyg A B . S c a n d i n a v i a n A i r l i n e s S y s t e m h a v e a j o i n t p a i d - u p c a p i t a l of a b o u t Sw. k r o n o r 3 , 7 7 1 m . C a p i t a l i z a t i o n of A B A , Sw. k r o n o r 9 7 6 m . , of w h i c h 5 0 % is o w n e d by t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d 5 0 % b y p r i v a t e enterprises. C a p i t a l i z a t i o n of Linjeflyg, Sw. k r o n o r 5 5 7 m . , of w h i c h 5 0 % is o w n e d b y S A S a n d 5 0 % b y A B A .

SWEDEN

1151

In scheduled air traffic during 1986 the total number of km flown was 90-7m.; passenger-km, 6,810-2m.; goods, 173 -7m. ton-km; mail, 22m. ton-km. These figures represent the Swedish share of the SAS traffic ¡Swedish domestic and threesevenths of international traffic) and the Linjeflyg traffic. Shipping. The Swedish mercantile marine consisted on 30 June 1987 of424 vessels of 2-2m. gross tons (only vessels of at least 100 gross tons, and excluding fishing vessels and tugs). Stockholm and Goteborg, with together 182 vessels of l-6m. gross tons in Dec. 1986, are the two major home ports for the Swedish mercantile marine. Vessels entered from and cleared for foreign countries, exclusive of passenger liners and ferries, with cargoes and in ballast, in 1985, are as follows (only vessels of at least a gross tonnage of 75): With cargoes, 26,551 with a gross tonnage of 96 -5m.; in ballast, 13,576 with a gross tonnage of 51 -2m. Post and Broadcasting. On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 5,372,000 main telephone lines. Number of combined radio and television reception fees paid at the end of 1986 was 3,278,000, of which 3m. included extra fees for colour television. As from 1 April 1978, special sound broadcasting licences were discontinued. Sveriges Radio AB is a non-commercial semi-governmental corporation, transmitting 3 programmes on long-, medium-, and short-waves and on FM. There are also regional programmes. It also broadcasts 2 TV programmes. Colour programmes are broadcast by PAL system. The overseas radio-telegraph and radio-telephone services are conducted by the Swedish Telecommunications Administration. The number of post offices at the end of 1985 was 1,836. For receipts of the post and telecommunication services see the section on Economy. Cinemas (1986). There were 1,129 cinemas. Newspapers (1986). There were 186 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 4-9m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The administration of justice is entirely independent of the Government. The Justitiekansler, or Attorney General (a royal appointment) and the Justitieombudsman (Parliamentary Commissioners appointed by the Diet), exercise a check on the administration. In 1968 a reform was carried through which meant that the offices of the former Justitieombudsman (Ombudsman for civil affairs) and the Militieombudsman (Ombudsman for military affairs) were turned into one sole institution with 3 Ombudsmen, each styled Justitieombudsman. They exert a general supervision over all courts of law, the civil service, military laws and the military services. In 1986-87 they received altogether 3,021 cases; of these, 84 were instituted on their own initiative and 2,889 on complaints. The Riksaklagaren (a royal appointment) is the chief public prosecutor. The kingdom has a Supreme Court of Judicature and is divided into 6 Courts of Appeal districts (howatter) and 97 district-court divisions (tingsratter). There is also a Housing Appeal Court and 12 rent and tenancy tribunals. Of the district courts 27 also serve as real estate courts and 6 as water rights courts. These district courts (or courts of first instance) deal with both civil and criminal cases. Each member of the court has an individual vote and is legally responsible for the decision. In the voting, the majority rules. When the votes are evenly divided in a criminal case, the opinion implying the least severe sentence applies, and in cases where there is no opinion that could be considered the mildest, the Chair has the casting vote, as is also the case in family civil cases and matters; petty cases are tried by the judge alone. Civil cases are tried as a rule by 3 to 4 judges or in minor cases by 1 judge. Disputes of greater consequence relating to the Marriage Code or the Code relating to Parenthood and Guardianship are tried by a judge and a namnd of 3-4 lay assessors. When cases concerning real estate are being tried the court consists of 2 qualified lawyers, 1 specialist on technical matters and 2 lay assessors.

1152

SWEDEN

Criminal cases are tried by a judge and a jury of 5 members (lay assessors) in felony cases, and of 3 members in misdemeanour cases. The cases in Courts of Appeal are generally tried by 4 or 5 judges, but the same cases, which are tried with a judge and a namnd in the first instance, are tried by 3 or 4 judges and a namnd of 2-3 members. In cases concerning real estate the court consists of a specialist on technical matters in place of one of the judges and in water-right cases of 3 or 4 judges and 1 or 2 specialists on technical water matters. Those with low incomes can receive free legal aid out of public funds. In criminal cases a suspected person has the right to a defence counsel, paid out of public funds. The Attorney-General (Juslitiekanslern) and the Parliamentary Commissioner (Justitieombudsmannen) for the Judiciary and Civil Administration supervise the application in the public sector of acts of parliament and regulations. The Attorney-General is the Government's legal adviser and also the Public Prosecutor. The holders of the office of Parliamentary Commissioner are 4 in number. There were 76 penal and correctional institutions for offenders in 1986 with an average population of 4,161 male and 122 female inmates (including offenders in remand prison). Besides, there were 560 children or young people registered for care in treatment and/or residential homes on 31 Dec. 1986, admitted under the 'Care of Young Persons' Act. Anderman, S.,ed., Law and the Weaker Party: An Anglo-Swedish Comparative Study. Abingdon, 1981-83 Bruzelius, A., and Ginsburg, R. B., The Swedish Code of Judicial Procedure. South Hackensack, Rev. ed., 1979 Stromholm, S., An Introduction to Swedish Law. Stockholm, 1981 al-Wahab, I., The Swedish Institution of Ombudsmen. Stockholm, 1979 Justitieombudsmannens ambetsberattelse avgiven tillRiksdagen. Annual. Stockholm The Penal Code of Sweden: As Amended 1 Jan. 1972. South Hackensack, 1972 Rattsstalistisk arsbok (Year Book of Legal Statistics). Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, from 1975

Religion. The overwhelming majority of the population belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church, which is the established national church. In 1987 there were 13 bishoprics (Uppsala being the metropolitan see) and 2,565 parishes. The clergy are chiefly supported from the parishes and the proceeds of the church lands. The nonconformists mostly still adhere to the national church. The largest denominations, on 1 Jan. 1986, were: Pentecost Movement, 100,679; The Mission Covenant Church of Sweden, 79,178; Salvation Army, 29,910; Swedish Evangelical Mission, 23,404; Swedish Baptist Church, 20,996; Orebro Missionary Society, 22,252; Swedish Alliance Missionary Society, 13,471; Holiness Mission, 6,125. There were also 120,185 Roman Catholics (under a Bishop resident at Stockholm). Parliament and Convocation (Kyrkomotet) decided in 1958 to admit women to ordination as priests. Education. By the Swedish Higher Educational Act of 1977 a unified educational system was created by integrating institutions which had previously been administered separately. This new hogskola includes not only traditional university studies but also those of various former professional colleges as well as a number of study programmes earlier offered by the secondary school system. One of the goals of the 1977 university reform was to introduce an increased element of vocational training into part of Swedish higher education and to widen admission. A Certificate of Education (B.Sc., M.Sc., U.C. etc.) is awarded on completion of a general study programme. This certificate states the number of courses taken as well as the points and grades obtained on each course in the study programme. In autumn 1986 there were, in these new integrated institutions for higher education, hogskola, about 161,400 enrolled for undergraduate studies of whom 110,500 were distributed by sector as follows: Education for technical professions, 30,300; education for social work, economic and administrative professions, 33,100; education for medical and paramedical professions, 21,300; education for the teaching professions, 19,700; and education for information, communication and cultural professions, 6,100. The number of students enrolled for post-graduate studies was 12,000.

SWEDEN

1153

In autumn term in the school year 1986-87 there were 600,000 pupils in primary education (grades 1-6 in compulsory comprehensive schools). Secondary education at the lower stage (grades 7-9 in compulsory comprehensive schools) comprised 334,200 pupils. In secondary education at the higher stage (the integrated upper secondary school), there were 248,900 pupils (excluding about 10,000 pupils in the fourth year of the technical line regarded as third-level education). The folk high schools, 'people's colleges', had 15,100 pupils in courses of more than 15 weeks. In municipal adult education there were 143,000 pupils (corresponding to a gross number of 335,000 participants). Basic education for adults had 20,100 pupils. There are also special schools for pupils with visual and hearing handicaps (about 650 in 1986-87) and for those who are mentally retarded (about 12,200 pupils). Education Policy for Planning: Goats for Educational Policy in Sweden. O E C D , Paris, 1980 Educational Reforms in Sweden. O E C D , Paris, 1981 Science and Technology Policies in Sweden. Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs, Stockholm, 1986 The Swedish Folk High School. Swedish National Board of Education, Stockholm, 1986 Yearbook of Educational Statistics 1986, Statistics Sweden, Stockholm, 1986 Boucher, L., Tradition and Change in Swedish education. O U P , 1982 Düring, A., Swedish Research. Stockholm, 1985 Götberg, B., and Svärd, S., The Swedish 'Folk High School': Its Background and its Present Situation. Kim, L., Widened Admission to Higher Education in Sweden. Stockholm, 1982 Marklund, S., Educational Administration and Educational Development. Univ. of Stockholm, 1979.—The Democratization of Education in Sweden. Univ. of Stockholm, 1980 Paulston, C. B., Swedish Research and Debate about Bilingualism. Stockholm, 1983 Stenholm, B., The Swedish School System. Stockholm, 1984 Sundgvist, A., New Rules for Swedish Study Circles. Stockholm, 1983 Ueberschlag, G., La Folkhögskola. Paris, 1981

Social Welfare. The social security schemes are greatly expanding. Supported by a referendum, the Diet in 1958 and 1959 decided that the national pensions should be increased successively until 1968 and supplementary pensions paid from 1963. These pensions are of invariable value. In 1969 the Diet decided that as from 1 July 1969 an increment to the basic pension was to be paid to persons without supplementary pensions, and this amount is to be successively increased in a 10-year period. The basic and supplementary pensions consist o fold -age and family pensions, as well as pensions paid to the disabled. The financing of the supplementary system is based on the current-cost method. The most important social welfare schemes are described in the conspectus below.

Intro-

Type of scheme Sickness insurance (compulsory-current law, 1962)

duced 1955

Scope All residents

Principal benefits Hospital fees, most private doctors charge the insured person normally 55 kr., district physicians and doctors in hospitals charge the insured person only 50 kr. for full medical treatment, some reimbursement of cost of transportation as well as costs of physiotherapy, convalescent care, etc., medicines at reduced prices or free of charge. During sickness daily allowance 90% of the yearly income in between 6,000 a n d 180,750 kr. There is generally no m a x i m u m benefit period. Dental care is available to all residents from 20 years of age, the maxim u m payable by the patient being 60% u p to 2,500 kr. and 25% thereafter. Before 20 years of age dental care is given free through the national dental service.

1154 Type of scheme Employment injury insurance (compulsory-current law, 1976)

SWEDEN Introduced 1901

Scope All employed persons

Principal benefits Medical treatment, medicine and medical appliances, hospital care, sickness benefit 100% of the yearly income in between 6,000 and 180,750 kr. (first 90 days covered by sickness insurance), disability annuities, funeral benefit and survivor's pensions.

1935

Members of recognized unemployment insurance societies (about 70% of all employees)

130-360 kr. per day subject to tax.

Basic pensions (current law, 1962) Old-age

1914

All citizens

Payable from the age of 65 or, at a reduced rate, from the age of 60. 61,986 kr. per annum for married couples, 35,280 kr. for others (including the special increment of 23,520 kr. and 11,760 kr. respectively for those without supplementary pension); about half of them receive municipal housing supplement.

Disability

1914

All citizens

Payable before the age of 65. Full pension 47,040 kr. per annum (including the special increment of 23,520 kr.).

Survivors

1948

All citizens

Widow's pension is payable before the age of 65. The pension is 35,280 kr. (including the special increment of 11,760 kr.) but less for those who have become widows before the age of 50 and have no child below 16. Many of them receive municipal housing supplements. Child pension is payable before the age of 18. The pension amounts to 10,045 kr. (fatherless or motherless) and 15,190 kr. (orphans).

Supplementary pensions (current law, 1962) Old-age

1960

All gainfully occupied persons

Payable from the same age as the basic pension (see above). The pension is in principle 60% of the insured person's average annual earnings during the best 15 years except an amount corresponding to the basic pension and subject to a ceiling.

Disability

1960

All gainfully occupied persons

Payable before the age of 65. Full pension corresponds in principle to supplementary old-age pen-

Unemployment insurance (current law, 1973)

SWEDEN Type of scheme Survivors

Introduced 1960

Scope All gainfully occupied persons

1155 Principal benefits Payable to widow and children, before the age of 19, of a deceased person as a certain percentage of the deceased's supplementary pension.

Partial pensions (current law, 1979)

1976

All employees The pension is payable between 60between 60-65 65 years of age. The insured must years of age have reduced his working time by 5 hours on ah average a week and the part-time work must thereafter comprise at least 17 hours per week. Furthermore the insured must have worked during at least 5 of the last 12 months and achieved a right to supplementary pension for 10 years after the age of 45. The partial pension is paid out by 65% of the loss of income in connection with the change-over to part-time work.

Parents benefit

1974

All resident par- Parents cash benefit of 60 kr. a day ents in connecduring 360 days until the child tion with conreaches 4 years of age. Employed finement parents entitled to daily parents cash benefit of 90% of the daily income (in between 6,000180,750 kr. yearly) for 270 days. M a x i m u m daily parents cash benefit 486 kr. and for the last 90 days 60 kr. a day will be paid.

Temporary parents benefit

1974

All resident parents

T e m p o r a r y parents cash benefit with the same a m o u n t as for parents cash benefit for care of each child which is ill during 60 days for the parents together until the child reaches 12 years of age.

Children's allowances

1948

All children below 16

From 1 Jan. 1987 5,820 kr. per a n n u m . An additional allowance is paid out for the third child with one-half of an allowance and a full allowance for each additional child.

Children at school 16- 18

485 kr. per m o n t h during schoolcourses.

Total social expenditure, including also hygiene, care of the sick and social assistance, amounted to 269,107m. kr. in 1985, representing 31% of the GDP. The Cost and Financing of the Social Services in Sweden, 1981. Stockholm, 1983 Ministry of Health and Social Affairs, The Evolution of the Swedish Health Insurance. Stockholm, 1978 Socialnytt (Official Journal of the National Board of Health and Welfare). Stockholm, from 1968 Social Insurance Statistics. Facts 1986. National Social Insurance Board, Stockholm, 1986 The Swedish Health Services in the 1990s. The National Board of Health and Welfare, Stockholm, 1985 Forsberg, M., The Evolution ofSocial Welfare Policy in Sweden. Stockholm, 1984 Heclo, H., Modern Social Politics in Britain and Sweden: From Relief to Income Maintenance. New Haven, 1974 Lagerstrom, L., Pension Systems in Sweden. Stockholm, 1976.—Social Security in Sweden. Stockholm, 1976

1156 DIPLOMATIC

SWEDEN REPRESENTATIVES

O f S w e d e n in G r e a t Britain (11 M o n t a g u PL, L o n d o n , W 1 H 2 A L ) Ambassador: Leif Leifland, G C V O (accredited o n 10 N o v . 1982). O f G r e a t Britain in S w e d e n ( S k a r p ö g a t a n 6 - 8 , 1 1 5 2 7 S t o c k h o l m ) A mbassador: Sir J o h n U r e , K C M G , L V O . O f S w e d e n in t h e U S A (600 N e w H a m p s h i r e A v e . , N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 3 7 ) A mbassador: C o u n t W i l h e l m H . F. W a c h t m e i s t e r . O f t h e U S A i n Sweden (Strandvägen 101,115 27 Stockholm) Ambassador: G r e g o r y J. N e w e l l . Of Sweden to the United Nations Ambassador: Anders Ferm. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information: Statistics Sweden, (Statistiska, Centralbyrän, S-11581 Stockholm) was founded in 1858, in succession to the Kungl. Tabellkommissionen, which had been set up in 1756. Director-General: Sten Johansson. Its Publications include: Levnadsforhällanden, ärsbok (Living Conditions). Annual. From 1975.—Rapport. From 1976 Statistisk ärsbok for Sverige (Statistical Abstract of Sweden). From 1914 Siffrorom Svenge (Sweden). From 1971. Also in English as Sweden Historisk statistik for Sverige (Historical Statistics of Sweden). 1955 ff. (4 vols, to date) Allmän mänadsstatistik (Monthly Digest ofSwedish Statistics). From 1963 Statistiska meddelanden (Statistical Reports). From 1963 Andersson, L., A History of Sweden. Stockholm, 1962 Atlas over Sverige. Stockholm, 1953-71. [Publ. in separate parts dealing with population, economics, etc.] Publications on Sweden. Stockholm, 1985 Documents on Swedish Foreign Policy, 1981. Stockholm, 1983 Grosskopf, G., The Swedish TaxSyslem. Stockholm, 1986 Gullberg, I. E., Swedish-English Dictionary of Technical Terms.—Svensk-Engelsk Fackordbok. Stockholm, 2nd ed. 1977 Hadenius, S., Swedish Politics during the Twentieth Century. Stockholm, 1985 Hansson, I., Jonung, L., Myhrman, J. and Söderström, H. T., Sweden - the Road to Stability. Stockholm, 1985 Hellberg, T. and Jansson, L. M„ Alfred Nobel. Stockholm, 1984 Linton, M., The Swedish Road to Socialism. London, 1985 Meyerson, P-M.,£urosclerosis, The Case of Sweden. Stockholm, 1985 Nordic Council, Yearbook of Nordic Statistics. From 1962 (in English and one Nordic Language) Sather, L. B., and Swanson, A., Sweden. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Scott, F. D., Sweden: The Nation's History. Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1983 Söderström, H. T., Getting Sweden Back to Work. Stockholm, 1986 Turner, B., Sweden. London, 1976 Sveriges statskalender. Published by Vetenskapsakademien. Annual, from 1813 National Library: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. Director: Lars Tynell.

Capital: Bern Population: 6-5m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 14,030 (1985)

SWITZERLAND Schweiz—Suisse—Svizzera

H I S T O R Y . On 1 Aug. 1291 the men of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden entered into a defensive league. In 1353 the league included 8 members and in 1513, 13. Various territories were acquired either by single cantons or by several in common, and in 1648 the league became formally independent of the Holy Roman Empire, but no addition was made to the number of cantons till 1798. In that year, under the influence of France, the unified Helvetic Republic was formed. This failed to satisfy the Swiss, and in 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte, in the Act of Mediation, gave a new Constitution, and out of the lands formerly allied or subject increased the number of cantons to 19. In 1815 the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland and the inviolability of her territory were guaranteed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Spain and Sweden, and the Federal Pact, which included 3 new cantons, was accepted by the Congress of Vienna. In 1848 a new Constitution was passed. The 22 cantons set up a Federal Government (consisting of a Federal Parliament and a Federal Council) and a Federal Tribunal. This Constitution, in turn, was on 29 May 1874 superseded by the present Constitution. In a national referendum held in Sept. 1978, 69 -9% voted in favour of the establishment of a new canton, Jura, which was established on 1 Jan. 1979. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Switzerland is bounded west and north-west by France, north by the Federal Republic of Germany, east by Austria and south by Italy. Area and population, according to the census held on 1 Dec. 1980 and estimate 31 Dec. 1986. Pop. per Canton Zürich (Zurich) (1351) Bern (Berne) (1553) Luzern (Lucerne) (1332) Uri (1291) Schwyz (1291) Obwalden (Obwald) (1291) Nidwalden (Nidwald) (1291) Glarus (Glaris) ( 13 52) Zug(Zoug)(1352) Fribourg (Freiburg) (1481) Solothurn (Soleure) ( 1481 ) Basel-Stadt (Bàle-V.) (1501) Basel-Land (Bàle-C.) (1501) Schaffhausen (Schaffhouse) (1501) Appenzell A.-Rh. (Rh.-Ext.) (1513) Appenzell I.-Rh. (Rh.-Int.) (1513) St Gallen (St Gall) (1803) Graubünden (Grisons) (1803) Aargau (Argovie) (1803) Thurgau (Thurgovie)(1803) Ticino (Tessin)(1803) Vaud (Waadt) (1803) Valais (Wallis) (1815) Neuchätel (Neuenburg) (1815) Genève (Genf) (1815) Jura (1979) Total 1

Area (sq. km) 1,729 6,049 1,492 1,076 908 491 276 685 239 1,670 791 37 428 298 243 172 2,014 7,106 1,405 1,013 2,811 3,218 5,226 797 282 837

Census 1 Dec. 1980 1,122,839 912,022 296,159 33,883 97,354 25,865 28,617 36,718 75,930 185,246 218,102 203,915 219,822 69,413 47,611 12,844 391,995 164,641 453,442 183,795 265,899 528,747 218,707 158,368 349,040 64,986

Estimate 31 Dec. 1986 1,131,600 925,600 306,100 33,500 103,400 27,600 31,000 36,600 81,600 194,600 219,500 194,300 225,800 69,800 49,300 13,100 403,900 166,500 472,700 192,400 277,200 550,300 232,600 156,200 363,500 64,700

41,293'

6,365,960

6,523,400

15,943 sq. miles.

1157

sq. km, 1980 650 151 198 31 107 53 104 54 318 111 276 5,485 513 233 196 75 195 23 323 181 95 164 42 199 1,237 78 154

SWITZERLAND

1158

The German language is spoken by the majority of inhabitants in 19 of the 26 cantons above (French names given in brackets), the French in 6 (Fribourg, Vaud, Valais, Neuchâtel, Jura and Genève, for which the German names are given in brackets), the Italian in 1 (Ticino). In 1980, 65% spoke German, 18-4% French, 9-8% Italian, 0-8% Romansch and 6% other languages; counting only Swiss nationals, the percentages were 73-5, 20 1, 4-5, 0-9 and 1. On 8 July 1937 Romansch was made the fourth national language; it is spoken mostly in Graubünden. At the end of 1985 the 5 largest cities were Zürich (351,500); Basel (174,600); Geneva (159,900); Berne (138,600); Lausanne (125,000). At the end of 1985 the population figures of the 'agglomérations' or conurbations were as follows: Zürich, 840,000; Basel, 363,600; Geneva, 382,000; Bern, 301,100; Lausanne, 260,200; other towns (and their conurbations) were Winterthur, 84,400 (107,400); St Gallen, 73,200 (125,400); Luzem, 60,600 (160,000); Biel, 52,000 (83,000). The number of foreigners resident in Switzerland in Jan. 1985 was 960,700. Of these, 186,600 were in Zürich canton, 109,100 in Vaud and 122,900 in Geneva. Vital statistics for calendar years: Live

1984 1985 1986

TolaI

74,700 74,700 76,300

births Illegitimate

4,300 4,200 4,300

Marriages

38,600 38,800 40,200

Divorces

11,200 11,400 11,400

Stillbirths

350 340 330

Deaths

58,600 59,600 60,100

In 1983 there were 91,300 emigrants and 88,000 immigrants; in 1984, 85,000 and 97,000; in 1985,85,000 and 99,000. C L I M A T E . The climate is largely dictated by relief and altitude and includes continental and mountain types. Summers are generally warm, with quite considerable rainfall; winters are fine, with clear, cold air. Bern. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July, 65°F(18-5°C). Annual rainfall 39-4" (986 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Switzerland is a republic. The highest authority is vested in the electorate, i.e., all Swiss citizens of over 20. This electorate—besides electing its representatives to the Parliament—has the voting power on amendments to, or on the revision of, the Constitution. It also takes decisions on laws and international treaties if requested by 50,000 voters or 8 cantons (facultative referendum), and it has the right of initiating constitutional amendments, the support required for such demands being 100,000 voters (popular initiative). The Federal Government is supreme in matters of peace, war and treaties; it regulates the army, the railway, telecommunication systems, the coining of money, the issue and repayment of bank-notes and the weights and measures of the republic. It also legislates on matters of copyright, bankruptcy, patents, sanitary policy in dangerous epidemics, and it may create and subsidize, besides the Polytechnic School at Zürich and at Lausanne, 2 federal universities and other educational institutions. There has also been entrusted to it the authority to decide concerning public works for the whole or great part of Switzerland, such as those relating to rivers, forests and the construction of national highways and railways. By referendum of 13 Nov. 1898 it is also the authority in the entire spheres of common law. In 1957 the Federation was empowered to legislate on atomic energy matters and in 1961 on the construction of pipelines of petroleum and gas. Nationalflag: Red with a white couped cross. National anthem: Trittst im Morgenrot daher (words by Leonard Widmer, 1808-68; tune by Alberik Zwyssig, 1808-54); adopted by the Federal Council in 1962. The legislative authority is vested in a parliament of 2 chambers, a Ständerat, or Council of States, and a Nationalrat, or National Council. The Ständerat is composed of 46 members, chosen and paid by the 23 cantons of

SWITZERLAND

1159

the Confederation, 2 for each canton. The mode of their election and the term of membership depend entirely on the canton. Three of the cantons are politically divided—Basel into Stadt and Land, Appenzell into Ausser-Rhoden and InnerRhoden, and Unterwalden into Obwalden and Nidwalden. Each of these 'halfcantons' sends 1 member to the State Council. The Nationalrat—after the referendum taken on 4 Nov. 1962—consists of 200 National Councillors, directly elected for 4 years, in proportion to the population of the cantons, with the proviso that each canton or half-canton is represented by at least 1 member. The members are paid from federal funds at the rate of 150 francs for each day during the session and a nominal sum of 10,000 francs per annum. In 1983 the 200 members were distributed among the cantons 1 as follows: Zurich (Zurich) Bern (Berne) Luzem (Lucerne) Uri Schwyz Unterwalden-Upper and Lower Glarus (Glaris) Zug(Zoug) Fribourg (Freiburg) Solothurn (Soleure) Basel (Bale)—town and country Schafihausen (Schaffhouse)

35 29 9 1 3 2 1 2 6 7 13 2

Appenzell—Outer- and Inner-Rhoden 3 St Gallen (St Gall) 12 Graubünden (Grisons) 5 Aargau (Argovie) 14 Thurgau (Thurgovie) 6 Ticino (Tessin) 8 Vaud(Waadt) 17 Valais (Wallis) 7 Neuchätel (Neuenburg) 5 Geneve (Genf) 11 Jura 2

1 The name of the canton is given in German, French or Italian, according to the language most spoken in it, and alternative names are given in brackets.

Composition of the National Council in 1983: Social Democrats, 47; Radicals, 54; Christian-Democratic People's Party, 42; Swiss People's Party, 23; Liberals, 8; Independents, 8; National Campaign/Vigilance, 5; Evangelical Party, 3; Progressive Organizations, 3; Environmentalists, 3; Others, 4. Council of States (1983): Christian Democrats, 18; Radicals, 14; Social Democrats, 6; Swiss People's Party, 5. A general election takes place by ballot every 4 years. Every citizen of the republic who has entered on his 20th year is entitled to a vote, and any voter, not a clergyman, may be elected a deputy. Laws passed by both chambers may be submitted to direct popular vote, when 50,000 citizens or 8 cantons demand it; the vote can be only 'Yes' or 'No'. This principle, called the referendum, is frequently acted on. Women's suffrage, although advocated by the Federal Council and the Federal Assembly, was on 1 Feb. 1959 rejected, but in a subsequent referendum, held on 7 Feb. 1971, women's suffrage was carried. The chief executive authority is deputed to the Bundesrat, or Federal Council, consisting of 7 members, elected from 7 different cantons for 4 years by the Vereinigte Bundesversammlung, i.e., joint sessions of both chambers. The members of this council must not hold any other office in the Confederation or cantons, nor engage in any calling or business. In the Federal Parliament legislation may be introduced either by a member, or by either House, or by the Federal Council (but not by the people). Every citizen who has a vote for the National Council is eligible for becoming a member of the executive. The President of the Federal Council (called President of the Confederation) and the Vice-President are the first magistrates of the Confederation. Both are elected by the Federal Assembly for 1 calendar year and are not immediately re-eligible to the same offices. The Vice-President, however, may be, and usually is, elected to succeed the outgoing President. President of the Confederation. (1988): OttoStich. The 7 members of the Federal Council—each of whom has a salary of 203,000 francs per annum, while the President has 215,000 francs—act as ministers, or chiefs of the 7 administrative departments of the republic. The city of Berne is the seat ofthe Federal Council and the central administrative authorities. The Federal Council was composed as follows in 1988. Foreign Affairs: René Felber.

1160

SWITZERLAND

Interior: Flavio Cotti. Justice and Police: Elisabeth Kopp. Military: Arnold Koller. Finance: Otto Stich. Public Economy: Jean-Pascal Delamuraz. Transport, Communications and Energy: Adolf Ogi. Local Government. Each of the cantons and demi-cantons is sovereign, so far as its independence and legislative powers are not restricted by the federal constitution; all cantonal governments, though different in organization (membership varies from 5 to 11, and terms of office from 1 to 5 years), are based on the principle of sovereignty of the people. In all cantons a body chosen by universal suffrage, usually called der Grosse Rat, or Kantonsrat, exercises the functions of a parliament. In all the cantonal constitutions, however, except those of the cantons which have a Landsgemeinde, the referendum has a place. By this principle, where it is most fully developed, as in Zurich, all laws and concordats, or agreements with other cantons, and the chief matters of finance, as well as all revisions of the Constitution, must be submitted to the popular vote. In Appenzell, Glarus and Unterwalden the people exercise their powers direct in the Landsgemeinde, i.e., the assembly in the open air of all male citizens of full age. In all the cantons the popular initiative for constitutional affairs, as well as for legislation, has been introduced, except in Lucerne, where the initiative exists only for constitutional affairs. In most cantons there are districts (Amtsbezirke) consisting of a number of communes grouped together, each district having a Prefect (Regierungsstatthalter) representing the cantonal government. In the larger communes, for local affairs, there is an Assembly (legislative) and a Council (executive) with a president, maire or syndic, and not less than 4 other members. In the smaller communes there is a council only, with its proper officials. D E F E N C E . There are fortifications in all entrances to the Alps and on the important passes crossing the Alps and the Jura. Large-scale destructions of bridges, tunnels and defiles are prepared for an emergency. Army. Switzerland depends for defence upon a national militia. Service in this force is compulsory and universal, with few exemptions except for physical disability. Those excused or rejected pay certain taxes in lieu. Liability extends from the 20th to the end of the 50th year for soldiers and of the 55th year for officers. The first 12 years are spent in the first line, called the Auszug, or Élite, the next 10 in the Landwehr and 8 in the Landsturm. The unarmed Hilfsdienst comprises all other males between 20 and 50 whose services can be made available for non-combatant duties of any description. The initial training of the Swiss militia soldier is carried out in recruits' schools, and the periods are 118 days for infantry, engineers, artillery, etc. The subsequent trainings, called 'repetition courses', are 20 days annually; but after going through 8 courses further attendance is excused for all under the rank of sergeant. The Landwehr men are called up for training courses of 13 days every 2 years, and the Landsturm men have to undergo a refresher course of 13 days. The Army is divided into 3 field corps each of 1 armoured and 2 infantry divisions, 11 independent frontier brigades, 3 mountain divisions, and independent redoubt-, fortress- and territorial-brigades, organized in 4 army corps. Strength on mobilization (1988): 580,000, and 400,000 reserves. The administration of the Swiss Army is partly in the hands of the Cantonal authorities, who can promote officers up to the rank of captain. But the Federal Government is concerned with all general questions and makes all the higher appointments. In peace-time the Swiss Army has no general; only in time of war the Federal Assembly in joint session of both Houses appoints a general. The Swiss infantry are armed with the Swiss automatic rifle and with machineguns, bazookas and mortars. The field artillery is armed with a Q.F. shielded 10-5 Bofors and field howitzers of 10-5 cm calibre. The heavy artillery is armed with

1161

SWITZERLAND

guns of 10-5 cm and howitzers of 15 cm calibre. Equipment includes Leopard, Centurian and P3-61/-68 tanks and 600 M-63/-73/-64 armoured personnel carriers. Air Force. The Air Force has 3 flying regiments, with about 270 combat aircraft. The fighter squadrons are equipped with Swiss-built F-5E Tiger lis (7 squadrons), Mirage HIS supersonic interceptor/ground-attack (2 squadrons), Mirage IIIRS fighter/reconnaissance (1 squadron), and Hunter interceptor/ground-attack (9 squadrons) aircraft. Bloodhound surface-to-air missile batteries are operational. Training aircraft are Pilatus P-3 and PC-7 Turbo-Trainer and Vampire; there are also communications and transport aircraft and helicopters. The Vampires will be replaced by Hawk trainers in 1989-90. Personnel (1988), 45,000 on mobilization. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Switzerland is a member of OECD, EFTA and the Council of Europe. In a referendum in 1986 the electorate voted against joining the UN. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure of the Confederation, in 1 m. francs, for calendar years: i m m J j m i m ] m ] m ] m Revenue Expenditure

16,460 17,532

17,400 17,570

18,900 19,300

19,400 20,300

20,770 21,400

22,200 22,900

23,700 23,600

The public debt, including internal debt, of the Confederation in 1980 amounted to 24,409m. francs; 1981, 24,677m.; 1982, 24,968m.; 1983, 25,249m.; 1984, 27,700m.; 1985,29,200m. SchweizerischesFinanz-Jahrbuch.

Bern. Annual. From 1899

Currency. The franc of 100 Rappen or centimes is the monetary unit. On 10 May 1971 there was a revaluation to 0 • 21759 gramme of fine gold. The legal gold coins are 20- and 10-franc pieces; cupro-nickel coins are 5, 2, 1 and '/2 franc, 20, 10 and 5 centimes; bronze, 2 and 1 centime. Notes are of 1,000, 500,100,50,20,10 and 5 francs. On 10 July 1981 the notes in circulation (of francs of nominal value) was as follows: In 1,000 franc notes, 8,685 lm. francs; in 500, 4,201-9m. francs; in 100, 6,687-3m. francs; in 50, l,058-3m. francs, and in lower denominations l,195-8m. In March 1988, £1 = 2 - 4 7 / r a « a ; U S $ l = 1 -39 francs. Banking. The National Bank, with headquarters divided between Bern and Zurich, opened on 20 June 1907. It has the exclusive right to issue bank-notes. In 1984 the condition of the bank was as follows (in lm. francs): Gold, 11,904, foreign exchange (currency), 38,800; currency in circulation, 26,500. In 1986 there were 1,689 banking institutions with total assets of 805,000m. Swiss francs. They included 29 cantonal banks (154,600m. francs), 5 big banks (436,800m.), 215 regional banks (69,600m.), 1,243 loan and Raiffeisen banks (23,000m.), 197 other banks (121,000m.). On 31 Dec. 1986 the total amount of savings deposits, deposit and investment accounts in Swiss banks was 167,100m. francs. National Bank: Bulletin mensuel.—Das schweizerische Bankwesen. Yearly. From 1920

Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures was made compulsory by the federal law on 3 July 1875 and since 1 Jan. 1887 only metric units have been legal. By the federal law of 24 June 1909 the international electric units were also adopted. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total production of energy amounted to 57,330m. kwh. in 1986 of which 33,589m. kwh. were generated by hydro-electric plants. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz.

1162

SWITZERLAND

Gas. The production of gas in 1986 was 54 • 52m. cu. metres. Minerals. There are 2 salt-mining districts; that in Bex (Vaud) belongs to the canton, but is worked by a private company, and those at Schweizerhalle, Rheinfelden and Ryburg are worked by a joint-stock company formed by the cantons interested. The output of salt of all kinds in 1982 was 361,964 tonnes. Agriculture. Of the total area of the country of 4,129,315 hectares, about 1,057,794 hectares (25-6%) are unproductive. Of the productive area of 3,071,521 hectares, 1,051,991 hectares are wooded. The agricultural area, in 1985, totalled 1,076,339 hectares, of which 287,049 hectares arable land, 13,450 hectares vineyards, 7,229 hectares intensive fruit growing and 642,194 hectares permanent meadow and pasture land. In 1985 there were 119,731 farms. The gross value of agricultural products was estimated at 7,243 • 1 m. francs in 1980 and 8,325m. francs in 1983. In 1985, 100,806 hectares were planted with bread grains; 83,113 hectares fodder cereals; 20,063 hectares potatoes; 14,247 hectares sugar-beet; 42,218 hectares silo and green maize. Production, 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Potatoes, 789; sugar-beet, 790; wheat, 530; barley, 270; maize, 157; tobacco, 1-5. Milk production (in 1,000 tonnes): 1960,3,112; 1970,3,204; 1980,3,679; 1986,3,867. The fruit production (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1986 was: Apples, 280; pears, 130; plums, 38; cherries, 37; nuts, 5. Wine is produced in 18 of the cantons. In 1986 Swiss vineyards yielded 1,344,492 hectolitres of wine. Livestock (1986): 48,000 horses, 365,000 sheep, 1,902,000 cattle (including about 815,000 milch cows), 1,973,000 pigs, (1985) 6m. poultry. Forestry. Of the forest area of999,795 hectares, 56,876 were owned by the Federation or the cantons, 636,069 by communes and 306,850 by private persons or companies in 1982. Production (1985) 3,488 cu. metres of softwood and 1,073 cu. metres of hardwood. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The chief food producing industries, based on Swiss agriculture, are the manufacture of cheese, butter, sugar and meat. The production in 1985 was (in tonnes): Cheese, 126,400; butter, 37,800; sugar, 147,000; meat, 3,239,000. There are 46 breweries, producing in 1978,4 05m. hectolitres of beer. Tobacco products in 1982: Cigars, 373 08m.; cigarettes, 26,497m. Among the other industries, the manufacture of textiles, wearing apparel and footwear, chemicals and pharmaceutical products, bricks, glass and cement, the manufacture of basic iron and steel and of other metal products, the production of machinery (including electrical machinery and scientific and optical instruments) and watch and clock making are the most important. In 1981 there were 8,738 factories with 693,243 workers. In 1982,41,200 were working in textile industries, 45,000 in the manufacture of clothing and footwear, 70,200 in chemical works, 194,700 in the construction industry, 168,600 in manufacture of metal products, 252,000 in the manufacture of machinery and 55,300 in watch and clock making and in the manufacture ofjewellery. Production in 1982 was: Woollen and blended yam, 15,467 tonnes; woollen and blended cloth, 7,534 metres; footwear (1981), 5-87m. pairs; cement, 4,099,874 tonnes; raw aluminium, 75,256 tonnes; chocolate, 76,605 tonnes, 25-38m. watches and clocks were exported (1981). Labour. In 1986, the total working population was 3,218,700, of which 209,200 were active in agriculture and forestry, 1,222,000 in manufacture and construction and 1,787,500 in services. The foreign labour force with permit of temporary residence was 756,000 in Aug. 1985. Of the number recorded 281,800 were Italians, 89,400 Spaniards, 79,700 Frenchmen, 67,600 Germans and 28,700 Austrians. The Swiss Federal Union of Administrative and Public Service Workers had, in 1985, a membership of 123,300. The Federation of Trade Unions had about 443,000 members.

1163

SWITZERLAND

Commerce. The special commerce, excluding gold (bullion and coins) and silver (coins), was (in 1 m. Swiss francs) as follows: Imports Exports

1978 42,299 41,779

1979 48,730 44,024

1980 60,859 49,608

1981 60,094 52,822

1982 58,060 52,659

1983 61,064 53,724

1984 69,024 60,654

1985 74,750 66,624

1986 73,513 67,004

The following table, in lm. francs, shows the distribution of the special trade of Switzerland among the principal countries: Imports from Exports to Countries 1983 1984 1985 1986 1983 1984 1985 1986 Federal Rep. of Germany 17,413-2 20,128-0 :22,912-7 :24,267-1 10,697-6 11,853-3 13,103-2 14,146-2 France 7,131-1 7,565-2 8,344-2 8,423-6 4,640-8 5,022-7 5,552-5 6,065-0 6,140-7 6,808-2 7,243-0 7.487-4 3,803-7 4,461-0 4,956-4 5,161-3 Italy Netherlands 2,691-3 3,031-9 3,412-6 3,069-9 1,420-4 1,602-3 1,767-4 1,829-8 Belgium-Luxembourg 2,490-9 2,910-4 3,009-4 2,593-1 1,252-3 1,461-7 1,344-5 1,450-8 UK 3,303-2 4,974-7 5,425-2 5,375-0 3,481-5 4,834-6 5,298-9 5,182-1 Denmark 556-1 730-2 612-6 677-6 713-0 662-9 889-8 904-3 413-2 Portugal 271-6 309-2 150-2 Ireland 240-9 354-2 402-9 162-6 175-1 153-1 Spain 944-5 1,098-7 302-2 348-4 Greece 79-1 107-8 135-1 127-4 380-1 406-0 EEC Total

40,046-5 46,448 -0 51,514-0 53,675-5 26,424-2 30,521-0 33,471-7 36,750-0

Austria Norway Sweden Portugal Finland Iceland

2,166-8 222-2 1,030-1 183-3 350-0 90-2

2,430-9 238-9 1,199-1 228-2 419-4 74-4

2,666-1 302-5 1,377-2 244-1 418-5 66-9

2,896-9 285-0 1,330-6

EFTA

4,042-7

4,509-9

5,075-4

Spain 883-1 Gibraltar, Malta 1-6 G e r m a n Dem. Republic 916 Poland 75-1 Czechoslovakia 199-0 Hungary 229-0 Yugoslavia 199-6 Bulgaria 25-0 Romania 32-5 1,412-6 USSR Turkey 118-3 Other European countries 18 3

978-7 2-3

1,089-8 4-1

111-3 143-1 189-8 378-3 181-4 49-8 38-4 1,217-1 140-3

133-3 134-2 194-6 351-2 197-7 33-4 48-9 1,196-4 200 1

12-6

23-2

Europe Total Egypt Sudan Libya Tunisia Algeria Morocco Cote d'lvoire Guinea Ghana Nigeria Zaire Angola S Africa, Rep. of

2,359-5 491-7 1,204-5 372-2 477-1 18-4

2,582-6 560-0 1,317-3 377-8 530-0 20-3

2,605-2 586-0 1,300-2

454-0 64-5

2,211-1 419-1 1,067-2 390-8 453-9 17-1

5,031-0

4,559-2

4,923-4

5,388-0

5,073-8

1,264-7 23-8

1,176-4 23-3

1,186-4 25-0

129-4 101-3 163-4 271-1 167-9 23-2 38-9 722-0 228-6

145-6 191-2 244-9 305-9 421-7 225-2 48-5 463-0 408-0

148-7 257-6 261-7 307-0 465-3 287-8 59-4 466-1 427-9

189-8 300-2 310-2 335-1 462-3 233-3 84-8 636-5 590-1

243-0 264-3 324-4 321-7 512-4 279-2 52-3 535-2 667-9

19 8

33-1

38-6

45-1

63-1

-

_

-

562-9 19 6

_

47,374-9 54,482-0 60,196-3 60,572-1 34,759-0 39,364-2 43,258-5 45,087-3 61-6 4-2 868-2 159-6 523-3 18-4 33-6 3-1 32-6 155-8 5-9 13-3 193-5

82-8 10-1 1,038-1 150-0 447-3 24-9 510 1-4 23-9 160-1 5-1 16-6 203-7

58-2 2-9 949-1 21-6 417-6 23-6 67-3 1-8 30-3 439-0 6-2 6-4 171-4

27-0 1-7 410-7 33-5 166-3 25-2 56-5 0-2 30-1 147-8 10 0 5-6 154-3

414-5 67-2 209-1 52 1 162-6 82-6 39-8 9-7 20-6 340-3 28-7 15-1 489-3

437-9 50-4 242-7 50-4 203-3 75-3 42-9 10 9 20-6 242-4 34-4 17 4 549-5

395-9 44-9 170-4 52-0 242-3 90-2 46-2 11-4 21 5 344-6 38-0 37-3 482-9

291-3 36-5 117-4 50-2 200-7 81-1 55-3 8-2 32-8 279-7 41-2 23-0 430-9

1164 Countries Zambia Zimbabwe Tanzania Kenya Other African countries

SWITZERLAND 1983 13-9 43-5 5-0 26-9 94-6

Imports from 1984 1985 9-7 5-7 49-4 34-3 69 3-9 37-1 35-0 89-3

117-5

1986 10 6 19-4 1-7 40-7

1983 12-3 24-8 26-5 31-1

Exports to 1984 1985 17-8 19-2 30-6 32-8 26-5 26-6 30-7 35-6

101-2

399-9

199-5

1986 8-0 37-1 22-9 43-7

216-4

223-4

1,242-5 2,426-2 2,283-2 2,308-2

1,983-4

Africa Total

2,257-0 2,407-4 2,391-8

Syria Lebanon Israel Iraq Kuwait Iran Saudi Arabia UAE Pakistan India Thailand Malaysia Singapore China Hong Kong Taiwan Korea, Rep. of Japan Philippines Indonesia Other Asian countries

5-4 6-5 129-1 79-2 1-8 3-1 55-4 93-2 78-3 76-9 138-1 144-5 215-8 255-5 260-3 233-6 549-6 597-7 5-2 3-7 12 1-1 241-6 419-9 2-4 1-2 6-3 5-3 202-9 195-6 89-2 124-2 66-7 87-4 642-8 662-1 349-2 387-1 188-7 1,717-1 1,571-7 307-7 52-2 408-4 7-0 96-3 7-1 275-3 51-7 47-7 46-9 54-0 136-6 158-8 140-6 149-9 173-8 173-3 301-6 368-7 118-8 163-1 155-7 200-7 175-2 224-9 47-2 54-6 72-2 54-9 186-1 128-3 85-3 242-4 93-8 87-1 422-7 586-5 157-4 194-5 185-3 218-0 262-6 291-0 722-1 875-2 688-6 776-3 802-7 932-0 181-9 231-6 233-7 277-1 240-9 260-9 165-4 210-1 227-9 244-7 174-7 205-7 2,342-4 2,631-3 2,960-2 3,418-6 1,508-2 1,998-0 33-4 44-8 41-0 31-7 93-4 87-9 43-4 52-7 70-2 64-4 152-4 186-4

Asia Total

4,915-0 5,743-5 5,962-8 6,230-1 9,013-7 9,778-1 10,237-8 9,880-1

Canada USA Mexico Guatemala Honduras Costa Rica Panama Cuba Colombia Venezuela Brazil Uruguay Argentina Chile Bolivia Peru Ecuador

262-2 240-9 575-2 270-9 274-7 4,993-3 4,562-6 4,390-9 3,970-1 4,594-1 52-4 40-4 36-3 43-6 180-8 48-4 41-3 47-3 55-3 21-5 34-1 50-5 43-6 38-6 26-7 49-4 68-4 10-4 46-3 63-3 270-9 428-8 217-8 161-6 268-9 11-7 14-4 13-9 14-5 56-0 145-2 84-7 119-3 140-6 120-0 160 10-3 173 9-2 166-8 271-7 352-2 421-9 304-6 383-1 28-2 24-0 29-3 27-5 26 1 109-2 228-2 113-0 132-0 83-5 17-4 21-2 180 18-1 72-7 3-1 5-1 2-5 0-7 6-3 28-8 19-9 35-7 34-8 69-9 9-2 15-4 23-5 20-0 48-0

Other American countries usti*£il 13 and Oceania

57-3

83-0

73-6

97-4

409-3

448-2

59-1 95-3 75-5 81 -4 843-0 749-3 169-0 256-5 189-1 111-3 475-6 420-0 1,410-7 981-6 224-3 342-0 259-2 197-8 381-4 549-9 248-5 201-8 142-2 144-0 415-6 457-7 589-1 738-3 1,086-4 1,305-7 265-6 260-7 252-8 280-5 1,122-2 2,171-5 101-2 104-6 155-9 193-6 543-4

464-6

554-4 719-5 759-8 5,943-2 6,870-8 6,343-0 258-5 358-5 341-3 28-1 17-2 30-7 29-4 20-2 15-5 15-2 15-7 176 307-8 233-6 176-9 56-1 65-8 40-7 107-1 160-9 127-1 205-2 190-0 215-2 358-3 473-5 557-1 29-6 29-3 27-3 228-4 293-1 223-7 80-6 83-0 95-0 12-2 9-4 11-9 126-4 74-2 86-0 68-4 67-4 52-3

104-8

132-0

126-7

89 1

185-3

238-3

338-5

230-9

128-5

134-8

149-5

140-6

483-1

646-6

735-1

699-5

Custom receipts (in 1,000 francs): 1980, 3,170,700; 1981, 3,243,631; 1982, 3,243,000; 1983,3,382,000; 1984,3,393,000; 1985,3,449,000. Total trade between Switzerland (including Liechtenstein) and U K for calendar years (British Department of Trade, in £1,000 sterling): 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 ImportstoUK 2,154,085 2,490,593 2,371,090 2,989,112 3,298,009 Exports and re-exports from UK 1,385,694 1,549,469 1,306,757 1,575,247 1,835,851

SWITZERLAND

1165

Federal Customs Office, Statistique mensuelle du commerce extérieur de la Suisse. From 1925.—Statistique annuelle du commerce extérieur de la Suisse. 2 vols. From 1840. —Rapport annuel de la statistique du commerce Suisse. From 1889

Tourism. Tourism is an important industry. In 1986, overnight stays in hotels and sanatoria were 35,461,000 and in other accommodation 39,427,000 (34,929,000 by foreign visitors). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1983) 70,848 km of main roads, including 1,300 km of 'national roads' for motor cars only. There is a postal autobus service, which, in 1976, carried 53-7m. passengers. Motor vehicles, as at 30 Sept. 1986, numbered 3,306,000, including 2,679,000 private cars, 207,000 trucks, 226,000 motor cycles, 11,000 buses and 184,000 commercial and agricultural vehicles. Railways. Railway history in Switzerland begins in 1847. In 1986 the length of the general traffic railways was 5,034 km, and of special lines (funiculars etc.), 814 km. The operating receipts of general traffic lines amounted to (1984) 2,763,400,000 francs; operating expenses, 5,073,000,000 francs. Traffic (1986) was 45 • 1 m. tonnes and 228 -5m. passengers. There are many privately-owned lines, the most important of which are the Bem-Lotschberg-Simplon (115 km) and Rhaetian (363 km) networks. Aviation. In 1985 Swiss aviation on domestic and international routes carried 7,498,000 passengers. The air transport organization Swissair (founded in 1931) in 1982 carried 189,139 tonnes of freight and 7,168,567 passengers. Swissair had a capital of422m. francs on 15 May 1977. Its fleet consisted of 53 aircraft in Jan. 1983. Shipping. A merchant marine was created by a decree of the Swiss Government dated 9 April 1941, the place of registry of its vessels being Basel. In 1985 it consisted of 39 vessels with a total of 225,434 GRT. In 1981, 8,277,359 tonnes of goods were handled in the port of Basel. Post and Broadcasting. In 1985 there were 3,880 post offices. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 5,435,800 telephones, all integrated in one dial system. Wireless communication is furnished by 3 main medium-wave stations and 1 short-wave station. There are 3 television studios and more than 100 transmitters. TV programmes are financed by licence fees and advertisements. Advertisements are limited to 15 minutes each day. All stations are operated by the Federal Post, Telephone and Telegraph (PTT) services. Radio-telegraph circuits are operated by Radio Suisse SA, radio-telephone circuits by the PTT. Radio licences, 1985, 2,467,200; television licences, 2,186,500. The total expenditure of the PTT in 1985 was 7,812-4m. francs, the total gross receipts 8,098 -3m. francs. Cinemas (1985). There were 437 cinemas with a seating capacity of 128,000. Newspapers (1985). The number of daily newspapers was estimated to be 399. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The Federal Tribunal (Bundes-Gericht), which sits at Lausanne, consists of 26-28 members, with 11-13 supplementary judges, appointed by the Federal Assembly for 6 years and eligible for re-election; the President and Vice-President serve for 2 years and cannot be re-elected. The President has a salary of 170,000 francs a year, and the other members 158,000 francs. The Tribunal has original and final jurisdiction in suits between the Confederation and cantons; between cantons and cantons; between the Confederation or cantons and corporations or individuals, the value in dispute being not less than 8,000 francs; between parties who refer their case to it, the value in dispute being at least 20,000 francs; in such suits as the constitution or legislation of cantons places within its authority; and in many classes of railway suits. It is a court of appeal against decisions of other

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federal authorities, and of cantonal authorities applying federal laws. The Tribunal also tries persons accused of treason or other offences against the Confederation. For this purpose it is divided into 4 chambers: Chamber of Accusation, Criminal Chamber (Cour d'Assises), Federal Penal Court and Court of Cassation. The jurors who serve in the Assize Courts are elected by the people, and are paid 100 francs a day when serving. On 3 July 1938 the Swiss electorate accepted a new federal penal code, to take the place of the separate cantonal penal codes. The new code, which abolished capital punishment, came into force on 1 Jan. 1942. Religion. There is complete and absolute liberty of conscience and of creed. N o one is bound to pay taxes specially appropriated to defraying the expenses of a creed to which he does not belong. N o bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the approbation of the Confederation. According to the census of 1 Dec. 1980 Roman Catholics numbered 3,030,069 (47-6%) of the population; Protestants, 2,822,266 (44-3%) and others, 513,625 (8 • 1 %). In 1960 Protestants were in a majority in 10 of the cantons and Catholics in 12. Of the more populous cantons, Zurich, Bern, Vaud, Neuchatel and Basel (town and land) were mainly Protestant, while Luzern, Fribourg, Ticino, Valais and the Forest Cantons are mainly Catholic. The Roman Catholics are under 6 Bishops, viz., of Basel (resident at Solothurn), Chur, St Gallen, Lugano, Lausanne-GenevaFribourg (resident at Fribourg) and Sitten (Sion), all of them immediately subject to the Holy See. The Old Catholics have a theological faculty at the university of Bern. Education. Education is administered by the cantons and is compulsory. Before the year 1848 most of the cantons had organized a system of primary schools, and since that year elementary education has steadily advanced. In 1874 it was made obligatory for the whole country (the school age varying in the different cantons) and placed under the civil authority. In some cantons the cost falls almost entirely on the communes, in others it is divided between the canton and communes. In all the cantons primary instruction is free. In 1986-87 there were 127,428 pupils in nursery schools and 373,245 in primary schools. In most cantons there are also secondary schools for youths of from 12 to 15, gymnasia, higher schools for girls, teachers' seminaries, commercial and administrative schools, trade schools, art schools, technical schools, schools for the instruction of girls in domestic economy and other subjects, agricultural schools, schools for horticulture, for viticulture, for arboriculture and for dairy management. There are also institutions for the blind, the deaf and d u m b and feeble-minded. In 1986-87 there were 316,370 pupils in secondary schools. There are 7 universities in Switzerland. These universities are organized on the model of those of Germany, governed by a rector and a senate, and divided into faculties (theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, etc.). In 1986-87 the Federal Institute of Technology at Zurich (founded in 1855) had 632 teachers and 10,263 matriculated students; the Federal Institute of Technology at Lausanne, independent of the university since 1946, had 149 teachers and 3,170 students; the St Gall School of Economics and Social Sciences, founded in 1899, had 215 teachers and 3,198 matriculated students. University statistics in the winter of 1986-87: TeachThe- Humanities ology etc Basel (1460) 223 1,687 Zurich (1523 & 1833) 358 7,463 Bern (1528 & 1834) 374 2,696 Genève(1559 ' & 1873 ') 130 4,578 85 Lausanne (1537 1 & 18902) 1,678 Fribourg (1889) 504 1,999 Neuchatel (1866 & 1909) 52 870 1 Founded as an academy.

Law 881 3,138 1,657 995 889 995 310 2

EcoMedinomics cine Science 848 1,761 1,275 2,239 3,354 2,101 848 1,798 1,628 2,411 1,506 1,645 1,405 1,503 875 1,129 225 506 444 57 524 Reorganized as a university.

ing staff (1985-86) 625 1,661 723 913 476 548 240

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1167

These numbers are exclusive of 'visitors', but inclusive of women students. In 1985-86 there were 74,806 students attending universities. Health. In 1985 there were 17,667 doctors, 37,360 (1980) nurses, 4,700 dentists and 9,900 physiotherapists. There were (1985) 456 hospitals and 1,366 pharmacies. Social Security. The Federal Insurance Law against illness and accident, of 13 June 1911, entitles all Swiss citizens to insurance against illness; foreigners may be admitted to the benefits. Compulsory insurance against illness does not exist as yet, but cantons and communities are entitled to declare insurance obligatory for certain classes or to establish public benefit (sick fund) associations, and to make employers responsible for the payment of the premiums of their employees. Unemployment insurance is based since 13 June 1976 upon a Constitution amendment which stipulates unemployment insurance as compulsory for all wage-earners. Insurance against accident is compulsory for all officials, employees and workmen of all the factories, trades, etc., which are under the federal liability law. On 6 July 1947 a federal law was accepted by a referendum, providing compulsory old age and widows and widowers insurance for the whole population, as from 1 Jan. 1948. In March 1985 the number of normal pensioners was 1,033,000. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Switzerland in Great Britain (16-18 Montagu Pl., London, W 1 H 2 B Q ) Ambassador: François-Charles Pictet (accredited 9 Feb. 1984). Of Great Britain in Switzerland (Thunstrasse 50,3005 Bern) Ambassador: Christopher Long. Of Switzerland in the USA (2900 Cathedral Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Klaus Jacobi. Of the USA in Switzerland (Jubilaeumstrasse 93,3005, Bern) Ambassador: Faith R. Whittlesey. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Bureau fédéral de statistique (Hallwylstr. 15, 3003 Bern) was established in 1860. Director: Carlo Malaguerra. Its principal publications are: Annuaire statistique de la Suisse. Bâle. From 1891 Bibliographie Suisse de statistique et d'économiepolitique. Annual, from 1937 Reflets de l'économie (monthly) Swiss Confederation Annuaire; Budget: Message du Budget: Compte d'Etat (annual) Feuille Fédérale; Recueil des Lois fédérales (weekly) Recueil systématique des lois et ordonnances, 1848-1947 (in German, French and Italian). Bern, 1951 Sammlung der Bundes- und Kantonsverfassungen (in German, French and Italian). Bern, 1937 Federal Department of Economics La vie économique (and supplements). Monthly. From 1928 Législation sociale de la Suisse. Annual, from 1928 McPhee, J., The Swiss Army. London, 1985 Riklin, A., etal, Handbuch der schweizerischen Aussenpolitik. Bern, 1975 Schwarz,U., The Eye of the Hurricane: Switzerland in World War Two. Boulder, 1980 National Library: Bibliothèque Nationale Suisse, Hallwylstr. 15, 3003, Bern. Director: F. G. Maier.

Capital: Damascus Population: 10-96m.(1986) GNP per capita: US$2,000 (1984)

SYRIA al-Jumhuriya al-Arabya as-Suriya

H I S T O R Y . F o r t h e h i s t o r y of Syria f r o m 1920 t o 1946 see THE STATESMAN'S

YEAR-BOOK, 1957, pp. 1408 f. Complete independence was achieved on 12 Apr. 1946. Syria merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic from 2 Feb. 1958 until 29 Sept. 1961, when independence was resumed following a coup the previous day. Lieut.-Gen. Hafez al-Assad became Prime Minister following the fifth coup of that decade on 13 Nov. 1970, and assumed the Presidency on 22 Feb. 1971.

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . S y r i a is b o u n d e d b y t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d t h e

Lebanese Republic on the west, by Israel and Jordan on the south, by Iraq on the east and by Turkey on the north. The frontier between Syria and Turkey (NisibimJeziret ibn Omar) was settled by the Franco-Turkish agreement of 22 June 1929. The area of Syria is 185,180 sq. km (71,498 sq. miles), of which 35,000 sq. km have been surveyed. The census of 1981 gave a total population of 9,050,204. Estimate (1986) 10-96m. of whom 49% were urban. The areas and populations (1981 Census) of the 14 mohafaza (districts) are: City of Damascus Dimashq (Damascus) Aleppo Homs Hama Lattakia Dayr az-Zawr

Sq. km 105 18,032 18,500 42,223 8,883 2,297 33,060

1981 Census 1,112,214 917,364 1,878,701 812,517 736,412 554,384 409,130

Sq. km 6,097 23,334 19,616 5,550 3,730 1,892 1,861

Idlib Hasakah Raqqah Suwayda Dara Tartous Qunaytirah

1981 Census 579,581 669,887 348,383 199,114 362,969 443,290 26,258

Principal towns (census 1981), Damascus, 1,251,028; Aleppo, 976,727; Homs, 354,508; Lattakia, 196,791;Hama, 176,640. Arabic is the official language, spoken by 89% of the population, while 6% speak Kurdish (chiefly Hasakah governorate), 3% Armenian and 2% other languages. CLIMATE. The climate is Mediterranean in type, with mild wet winters and dry, hot summers, though there are variations in temperatures and rainfall between the coastal regions and the interior, which even includes desert conditions. The more mountainous parts are subject to snowfall. Damascus. Jan. 45°F (7°C), July 8 P F (27°C). Annual rainfall 9 " (225 mm). Aleppo. Jan. 43°F (6-l°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 16" (401 mm). Homs. Jan. 45°F (7-2°C), July 83°F (28 • 3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (300 mm). CONSTITUTION

AND

GOVERNMENT.

A

new

Constitution

was

approved by plebiscite on 12 March 1973 and promulgated on 14 March. It confirmed the Arab Socialist Renaissance (Ba'ath) Party, in power since 1963, as the 'leading party in the State and society'. Legislative power is held by a 195-member People's Council, elected for a 4-year term. At the latest elections on 10 Nov. 1981, all seats were won by the National Progressive Front, a coalition of the Ba'ath Party and 4 smaller ones. President: Lieut.-Gen. Hafez al-Assad (re-elected for further 7-year terms in 1978 and 1985). First Vice-President: Abdul Halim Khaddam (Political and Foreign Affairs). Second Vice-President: Rifaat al-Assad (Defence and Security). Third VicePresident: Mohammed Zuhair Mashrqa (Party Affairs). 1168

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Prime Minister: Mahmoud Zubi. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with 2 green stars on the white stripe. D E F E N C E . Military service is compulsory for a period of 30 months. Army. The Army is organized into 5 armoured and 4 mechanized divisions, 1 special forces division, 7 independent special forces regiments, 3 artillery, 3 surface-to-surface missile brigades and 9 surface-to-air missile battalions. Strength (1988) about 300,000 (including 130,000 conscripts) and reserves 50,000. There are a further 25,000 men in paramilitary forces. Equipment includes 1,800 T-54/-5 5,1,100 T-62 and 1,100 T-72/-72M main battle tanks. Navy. The Navy includes 3 old ex-Soviet diesel-powered patrol submarines (and another used as a battery changing platform), 2 small frigates, 12 fast missile boats, 3 minesweepers, 2 coastal minesweepers, 4 inshore minesweepers, 6 coastal patrol craft and 1 diving ship (all ex-Soviet). Personnel in 1988 totalled 2,500 officers and men. Air Force. The Air Force, including Air Defence Command, was believed (1988) to have about 70,000 personnel and over 500 first-line jet combat aircraft, made up of about 200 MiG-21, 60 MiG-23 and 24 MiG-25 supersonic interceptors, 60 MiG-23, 40 Su-7, 60 Su-22 and 50 MiG-17 fighter-bombers, plus some MiG-25 reconnaissance aircraft. Additional aircraft are being purchased from the USSR. Training units have Spanish-built Flamingo piston-engined primary trainers and Czechoslovakian L-29 Delfín and L-39 jet basic trainers. There are also transport units with 11-76, An-12, An-24/26,11-14 and other types, and helicopter units with Soviet-built Ka-25s, Mi-6s, Mi-8s and Mi-24 gunships, and French-built Gazelles. 'Guideline', 'Goa', 'Gainful' and 'Gaskin' surface-to-air missiles are widely deployed in Syria by Air Defence Command, and 'Gammon' long-range surfaceto-air missiles in Lebanon. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Syria is a member of UN and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The total investment envisaged in the fifth 5-year plan (1981-85) £Syr. 101,493m. Budget. The ordinary budget for the calendar year 1986 provides for expenditure of £Syr.43,841m. Currency. The monetary unit is the Syrian pound, divided into 100 piastres. In March 1988,£1 =£Syr.53-21;US$l =£Syr.30 00. Banking. The Central Bank has the sole right of issuing currency. Other banks were nationalized in March 1963, namely, the Omaya Bank and its subsidiary, the Popular Mortgage Bank; the Orient Arab Bank; the Bank of Syria and Overseas; the Agricultural Bank; the Arab World Bank. Number of branches, 1973: Central Bank of Syria, 9; Commercial Bank of Syria, 22; Industrial Bank, 3; Agricultural Co-operative Bank, 50; Real Estate Bank, 3; Bank of Popular Discount, 27. Weights and Measures. A decree dated 22 Aug. 1935 makes the use of the metric system legal and obligatory throughout the whole of the country. In outlying districts the former weights and measures may still be in use. They are: 1 okiya = 0-47 lb.; 6 okiyas = 1 oke = 2-82 lb.; 2 okes = 1 rottol = 5 - 6 4 lb.; 200 okes = 1 kantar. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (1986) 8,050m. kwh. Oil. A branch of the Iraq Petroleum Co.'s oil pipeline from Kirkuk crosses Syria

1170

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between Makaleb in the east and Nahr el Kebir valley in the west. The Iraq Petroleum Co. has constructed a new pipeline from Kirkuk to the small fishing port of Banias (south of Lattakia), which came into use in April 1952; the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Co.'s line to Sidon crosses southern Syria. Crude oil production (1987) 12m. tonnes. Reserves (1983) 1,521 m. bbls. Gas. Gas reserves (1982) 700,000m. cubic ft. Production (1983) 75-86m. cu. metres. Minerals. Phosphate deposits have been discovered at two places near al-Shargiya and at Khneifis. Production, 1983, l-23m. tonnes; other minerals were salt, 87,000 tonnes and gypsum 350,000 tonnes. There are indications of lead, copper, antimony, nickel, chrome and other minerals widely distributed. Sodium chloride and bitumen deposits are being worked. Agriculture. In 1986, 162,000 hectares were under cotton, 1,098,000 hectares under wheat and 1,548,000 hectares under barley. The total cultivable area in 1983 was 14,592,000 hectares, including 500,000 hectares of forest and 8,444,000 hectares of steppe and pasture. Production of principal crops, 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Wheat, 1,969; barley, 1,116; seed cotton, 419; olives, 399; lentils, 63; millet, 10; sugar-beet, 508. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 750,000; asses, 198,000; sheep, 12-5m.; goats, 1,075,000; poultry, 15m. Fisheries. The total catch in 1983 was 3,777 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The most important industries are flour, oils, soap, cement, tanning, tobacco, textiles, knitwear, glassware, spinning, sugar, margarine, hosiery, footwear and brassware. Industrial production in 1980 included (in 1,000 tonnes): Woollen fabrics, 1,200; cement, 2,310; sugar, 141; salt, 111; cotton yam, 25-2; manufactured tobacco, 9-9. Commerce. Trade in calendar years in £Syr. 1 m. was as follows: Imports Exports

1981 19,781 8,254

1982 15,727 7,954

1983 17,829 7,548

1984 16,155 7,275

In 1984 imports came from Iran (22-7%), Libya (7-7%), Federal Germany (5 -9%), France (5 1%), Italy (4-6%) and included crude oil and power generating machinery. Exports went to Romania (28-2%), Italy (19-8%), USSR (11-5%) and France (12-2%) and included petroleum products ( 6 3 1 %). Total trade between Syria and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ^ ^ ] m ] m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

18,859 72,320

59,245 91,909

78,575 80,901

31,298 55,511

24,937 34,053

Tourism. In 1986, there were 1 • 16m. visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1980 there were 13,000 km of asphalted roads, 1,300 km of macadam non-asphalted road and 6,000 km of earth roads. The first-class roads are capable of carrying all types of modern motor transport and are usable all the year round, while the second-class roads are usable during the dry season only, i.e., for about 9 months. The motor vehicles registered in 1981 were 93,000 motor cycles, 9,935 buses, 75,200 cars and 93,300 goods vehicles. Railways. Network totals 1,686 km of 1,435 mm gauge (Syrian Railways) and 246 km of 1,050 mm gauge (Hedjaz-Syrian Railway). In 1985 the Syrian Railways network carried 3-4m. passengers and 4-6m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. In 1980, 12,557 aircraft arrived at Damascus and Aleppo airports, disembarking 559,430 passengers.

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Shipping. The amount of cargo discharged in 1980 was 2-6m. tons and the amount loaded 430,000 tons. Post and Broadcasting. Number of telephones (1983), 468,922; of these, 152,203 were in Damascus and 71,135 in Aleppo. There were 2m. radio sets in 1985 and 400,000 television receivers. Newspapers. There were (1984) 3 national daily newspapers in Damascus; other dailies and periodicals appear in Hama, Homs, Aleppo and Lattakia. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. Syrian law is based on both Islamic and French jurisprudence. There are 2 courts of first instance in each district, one for civil and 1 for criminal cases. There is also a Summary Court in each sub-district, under Justices of the Peace. There is a Court of Appeal in the capital of each govemorate, with a Court of Cassation in Damascus. Religion. The population is composed 90% of Sunni Moslems and there are also Shiites and Ismailis. There are also Druzes and Alawites. Christians include Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Protestants, Maronites, Syrian Catholics, Latins, Nestorians and Assyrians. There are also Jews and Yezides. Education. The Syrian University was founded in 1924, although the faculties of law and of medicine had existed previously. In 1975 there were 3 universities with 94,794 students. In 1983-84 there were 8,489 primary schools with 67,086 teachers and 1,823,684 pupils; secondary and intermediate schools, with 26,366 teachers and 701,330 pupils; vocational and teacher-training schools had 5,447 teachers and 64,596 pupils; 41 higher education establishments had 123,735 students. Health. In 1984 there were 11,595 hospital beds (1 per 875 persons) in 182 hospitals; there were also 5,543 doctors, 2,045 dentists, 2,367 pharmacists, 2,071 midwives and 7,923 nursing personnel. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Syria in the USA (2215 Wyoming Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Chargé d'Affaires: Bushra Kanafani. Of the USA in Syria (Abu Rumaneh, A1 Mansur St., Damascus) Ambassador: William L. Eagleton, Jr. Of Syria to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Diplomatic relations with Syria were broken offby the U K on 31 Oct. 1986. Books of Reference Statistical Information: There is a Central Statistics Bureau affiliated to the Council of Ministers, Damascus. It publishes a monthly s u m m a r y and an annual Statistical Abstract (in Arabic and English). A b d - A l l a h , U . F., The Islamic Struggle in Syria. Berkeley, 1983 Barthélémy, A., Dictionnaire arabe-français. Dialectes de Syrie. 4 vols. Paris, 1935-50 Devlin, J. F., Syria: Modem State in an Ancient Land. Boulder, 1983 Maoz, M., and Yaniv, A., Syria under Assad. New York, 1986 Seale,P., The Struggle for Syria. London, 1986 Seccombe, I. J., Syria. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987

Capital: Dodoma Population: 23 -2m. (1987) GNPper capita: US$210 (1984)

TANZANIA Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania

H I S T O R Y . German East Africa was occupied by German colonialists from 1884 and placed under the protection of the German Empire in 1891. It was conquered in the First World War and subsequently divided between the British and Belgians. The latter received the territories of Ruanda and Urundi and the British the remainder, except for the Kionga triangle, which went to Portugal. The country was administered as a League of Nations mandate until 1946 and then as a U N trusteeship territory until 9 Dec. 1961. Tanganyika achieved responsible government in Sept. 1960 and full self-government on 1 May 1961,On9Dec. 1961 Tanganyika became a sovereign independent member state of the Commonwealth of Nations. It adopted a republican form of government on 9 Dec. 1962. For history from the end of the 17th century until 1884 see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K 1982-83, p. 1170. On 24 June 1963 Zanzibar became an internal self-governing state and on 9 Dec. 1963 she became independent. On 24 June 1963 the Legislative Council was replaced by a National Assembly. On 12 Jan. 1964 the sultanate was overthrown and the sultan sent into exile by a revolt of the Afro-Shirazi Party leaders who established the People's Republic of Zanzibar. On 26 April 1964 Tanganyika, Zanzibar and Pemba combined to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar (named Tanzania on 29 Oct.). A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tanzania is bounded north-east by Kenya, north by Lake Victoria and Uganda, north-west by Rwanda and Burundi, west by Lake Tanganyika, south-west by Zambia and Malawi and south by Mozambique. Total area 945,050 sq. km (364,886 sq. miles). The census of Aug. 1978 gave 17,551,925 for the United Republic, of which 17,076,270 were counted in mainland Tanzania and 475,655 in Zanzibar and Pemba. Estimate (1987) 23-2m. There were also (1986) about 209,000 refugees living in Tanzania. The chief towns (1978 census populations) are Dar es Salaam, the chief port and former capital (757,346), Zanzibar Town (110,669), Mwanza (110,611), Dodoma, the capital (45,703), Tanga (103,409), Arusha (55,281), Mbeya (76,606), Morogoro (61,890), Mtwara (48,510), Tabora (67,392), Iringa (57,182), and Kigoma (50,044). The United Republic is divided into 25 administrative regions of which 20 are in mainland Tanzania, 3 in Zanzibar and 2 in Pemba. The 1985 estimated population of the islands was 571,000, of which 45% (256,950) were in Pemba and 55% (314,050) in Zanzibar. The estimated populations of the 20 mainland regions were as follows in 1985: Arusha Dar es Salaam Dodoma Iringa Kagera Kigoma Kilimanjaro

1,183,000 1,394,000 1,171,000 1,100,000 1,298,000 782,000 1,093,000

604,000 862,000 1,335,000 1,134,000 878,000 1,736,000 578,000

Lindi Mara Mbeya Morogoro Mtwara Mwanza Pwani

Rukwa Ruvuma Shinyanga Singida Tabora Tanga

603,000 691,000 1,662,000 730,000 1,089,000 1,236,000

Kiswahili is the national language and English is the official language. C L I M A T E . The climate is very varied and is controlled very largely by altitude and distance from the sea. There are three climatic zones: the hot and humid coast, the drier central plateau with seasonal variations of temperature, and the semitemperate mountains. Dodoma. Jan. 75°F (23-9°C), July 67°F (19-4°C). Annual 1172

TANZANIA

1173

rainfall 23" (572 mm). Dar es Salaam. Jan. 82°F (27-8°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,064 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. A permanent Constitution was approved in April 1977. The country is a one-party state. The Tanganyika African National Union and the Afro-Shirazi Party in Zanzibar merged into one revolutionary party, ChamachaMapinduzi, in Feb. 1977. The President of the United Republic is head of state, chairman of the party and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The second vice-president is head of the executive in Zanzibar.The Prime Minister and first vice-president is also the leader of government business in the National Assembly. According to the Constitution of 1977, as amended in Oct. 1984, the National Assembly is composed of a total of 244 members: 169 Members of Parliament elected from the Constituencies (119 from the mainland and 50 from Zanzibar); 15 National Members elected by the National Assembly; 15 women members elected by the National Assembly, 5 from Zanzibar; 5 members elected by the House of Representatives in Zanzibar; 25 ex-oflicio Members (20 Regional Commissioners from the mainland and 5 from Zanzibar) and 15 Nominated Members (by the President), 5 from Zanzibar. In Dec. 1979 a separate Constitution for Zanzibar was approved. Although at present (1981) under the same Constitution as Tanzania, Zanzibar has, in fact, been ruled by decree since 1964. The Government was in Jan. 1988 composed as follows: President of the United Republic: Ndugu Ali Hassan Mwinyi (sworn in 5 Nov. 1985 for 5-year term). Prime Minister and First Vice President: Joseph S. Warioba. President of Zanzibar and Second Vice President: Idris A. Wakil. Without Portfolio: Rashidi Kawawa. Deputy Prime Minister, Defence and National Service: Salim Ahmed Salim. Finance, Economic Affairs and Planning: Cleopa D. Msuya Foreign Affairs: Benjamin Mkapa. Agriculture and Livestock Development: Jackson Makwetta. Local Government and Co-operatives: K. Ngombale Mwiru. Communications and Works: Mustafa Nyang'anyi. Labour and Manpower Development: Paul Bomani. Home Affairs: Muhiddin Kimario. Education: Kighoma Malima. Mineral Resources and Energy: A1 Noor Kassum. Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism: Getrude Mongella. Industries and Trade: Daudi Mwallawago. Health and Social Welfare: Dr Aaron Chiduo. Attorney General and Justice: Damian Lubuva. Water: Dr Pius Ng'wandu. Community Development, Culture, Youth and Sports: Fatma Saidi Ali. There are 6 Ministers of State and 10 Deputy Ministers. National flag: Divided diagonally green, black, blue, with the black strip edged in yellow. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 8 infantry, 1 tank brigade; 2 artillery, 2 anti-aircraft, 2 mortar, 1 surface-to-air missile, 2 anti-tank and 2 signals battalions. Equipment includes 30 Chinese Type-59 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 38,350. There is also a Citizen's Militia of 100,000 men. Navy. There are 6 ex-Chinese fast gunboats, 4 ex-GDR gunboats, 4 ex-Chinese fast torpedo hydrofoil boats, 4 ex-North Korean patrol craft, 4 ex-Chinese coastal patrol boats, 1 survey launch, 1 research vessel and 2 ex-Chinese minor landing craft. Personnel in 1988 totalled some 700. Air Force. The Tanzanian People's Defence Force Air Wing was built up initially with the help of Canada, but combat equipment is now being acquired from China. Personnel totalled about 1,000 in 1988, with about 10 F-7 (MiG-21), 10 F-6 (MiG-19) and 3 F-5 (MiG-17) jet fighters; 1 F28 Fellowship VIP transport; 5 Buffalo twin-engined STOL transports; 3 HS 748 turboprop transports; 2 Cessna 404 liaison aircraft; 2 Agusta-built Chinook helicopters; 4 Agusta-Bell AB.205 trans-

1174

TANZANIA

port helicopters, and 4 JetRanger and 2 Bell 47G light helicopters; and Piper Cherokee, Cessna 310 and FT-2 (Chinese-built MiG-15 UTI) trainers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Tanzania is a member of U N , O A U , the Commonwealth, NonAligned Movement and is an A C P state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth 5-year development (1981-86) plan envisaged investment of Sh. 40,200m. and a growth rate of 6%. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Tanzanian Sh. lm.) for financial years ending 30 June: 1980-81 1981-82 1982-831 1983-84' 1984-851 Revenue Expenditure

12,296-1 14,802-4

10,460 10,700 13,687 14,144 'Estimate.

12,500 15,620

18,000 20,674

Currency. The monetary unit is the Tanzanian shilling divided into 100 cents. The Tanzanian coinage has denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50 cents, 1 Sh., 5 Sh., 20 Sh. and 1,500 Sh.; notes, 1 0 S h . , 2 0 S h . , 5 0 Sh., 100 Sh. and 200 Sh. In March 1988, £1 =Sh. 163-10; US$=Sh. 92-82. Banking. On 14 June 1966 the central bank called the Bank of Tanzania, with a government-owned capital of Sh. 20m., began operations. On 6 Feb. 1967 all commercial banks with the exception of National Cooperative Banks were nationalized and their interests vested in the National Bank of Commerce on the mainland and the Peoples' Bank in Zanzibar. Weights. The metric system is in force. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. A 21 mw hydro-electric power-station on the Pangani River was commissioned in 1964. The first phase of the Kidatu power-station in Morogoro region with an installed capacity of 100 mw was commissioned in 1975. The second phase with an additional 100 mw was commissioned in 1981. The third phase (Mtera power-station) with a capacity of 80 mw is scheduled for completion in 1988. Production (1986) 830m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. Production (1984): Diamonds, 53,195 grammes; gold, 96,530 grammes; salt, 29,907 tonnes; gemstones, 38,884 kg. Large deposits of coal and tin exist but mining is on a small scale. Exploration is going on to establish economic deposits of copper, cobalt and nickel, and feasibility studies to exploit iron ore deposits in south-western Tanzania. Work is under way to utilize natural gas deposits at Songo Songo off the coast south of Dar es Salaam. Agriculture. Production of main agricultural crops in 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) was: Sisal, 40; seed cotton, 136; sugar-cane, 1,310; coffee, 56; tobacco, 17; maize, 2,093; wheat, 83; cashew nuts, 45; citrus, 30. Production of sisal has been declining since 1967. The Tanganyika Sisal Corporation has embarked on a diversification programme by introducing various new crops. Crops already planned are cardamom, beans, cashew nuts, citrus, cocoa, coconuts, cotton, maize and timber. Cattle ranching, dairying and twine spinning have also been introduced. Zanzibar provides the greater part of the world's supply of cloves, which account for over 90% of foreign earnings. There are about 40,000 hectares under cloves with about 1 -5m. trees; five-sixths of the clove output is produced on Pemba. The clove industry is undergoing a rehabilitation programme to increase production, which in 1980-81 was 7,497 tons; 1984-85,over8,700 tons. A 10-year programme to rehabilitate the coconut industry started in 1980. By 1985 over 23m. trees were under plantation on the mainland and Zanzibar. Chillies, cocoa, limes, other tropical fruits and coil tobacco are also cultivated. The chief food crops are rice, bananas, cassava, pulses, maize and sorghum.

1175

TANZANIA

Livestock (1986, including Zanzibar): 14-3m. cattle, 4-3m. sheep, 6-5m. goats, 31 m. poultry. Forestry. Total forested land 43m. hectares. Total production (1983) 114,900 cu. metres. Fisheries. A Fisheries Development Co. is catching sardines and tuna for export. Catch (1983)237,148 tonnes of which, inland waters, 202,662 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industry is limited and is mainly textiles, petroleum and chemical products, food processing, tobacco, brewing and paper manufacturing. Commerce. Total trade (in Sh. 1 m.): Imports Exports

1979 8,941 4,296

1980 10,047 4,165

¡981 10,065 5,248

1982 7,781 4,117

1983 8,877 4,138

1984 11,953 5,661

I m p o r t s a n d e x p o r t s (in T a n z a n i a n Sh. 1 m.), b y c o u n t r y , 1984: Country Bahrain Belgium China Denmark Federal Republic of Germany India

Imports 207-3 5101 250 8 273-4

Exports

1,294-2 180-0

1,206-8 361-5

—

79-2 40-0 29-7

Country Iran Italy Japan Netherlands Sweden Switzerland Thailand

Imports 795-3 990-8 1,167-5 560-0 476-6 207-7 338-0

Exports -

320-7 306-1 399-1 12-5 217-1 5-6

Major export items 1984 (in Sh. lm.): Coffee, 2,216; cotton, 713; sisal, 146; cloves, 136; tea, 330; tobacco, 110; cashew nuts, 439; diamonds, 327. Total trade between Tanzania and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 61

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 43,179 60,440

1985 46,640 88,622

1986 40,268 62,869

1987 26,400 91,874

Tourism. In 1985 about 59,000 visitors. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 45,202 km of roads and (1983) 43,248 cars and 12,579 licensed commercial vehicles of which 11,290 were trucks and 1,289 buses. Railways. On 23 Sept. 1977 the independent Tanzanian Railway Corporation was formed following the break-up of the East African Railways administration. The network totals 2,600 km (metre-gauge), excluding the Tan-Zam Railway 969 km in Tanzania (1,067 mm gauge) operated by a separate administration. In 1986, the state railway carried 3m. passengers and 989,000 tonnes of freight while in 1983-84 the Tan-Zam Railway carried 950,000 tonnes of freight and lm. passengers. Aviation. There are 53 aerodromes and landing strips maintained or licensed by Government; of these, 2 are of international standards category (Dar es Salaam and Kilimanjaro) and 18 are suitable for Dakotas. Air Tanzania Corporation provide regular and frequent services to all the more important towns within the territory and to Mozambique, Zambia, Seychelles, Comoro, Rwanda, Burundi and Madagascar. There is an all-weather landing-ground in Zanzibar and a smaller all-weather landing-ground in Pemba. Shipping. In 1980 there were 1,296 ships of3,176,000 NRT. Post and Broadcasting. In 1983 there were 99,885 telephones. There are 2 broadcasting stations (1 for mainland Tanzania and 1 for Zanzibar) and colour television operates in Zanzibar. In 1984 there were 9,000 television receivers (on Zanzibar only) and 2m. radio receivers.

1176

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Newspapers (1985). There were 3 dailies, 2 weeklies and several monthly magazines. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Judiciary is independent in both judicial and administrative matters and is composed of a 4-tier system of Courts: Primary Courts; District and Resident Magistrates' Courts; the High Court and the Court of Appeal. The Chief Justice is head of the Court of Appeal and the Judiciary Department. The Court's main registry is at Dar es Salaam; its jurisdiction includes Zanzibar. The Principal Judge is head of the High Court, also headquartered at Dar es Salaam, which has resident judges at 7 regional centres. Religion. In 1984 some 40% were Christian, including Roman Catholics under the Archbishops of Dar es Salaam and Tabora, Anglicans under the Archbishop of Tanzania, and Lutherans. Moslems amount to 33%, but reach 66% in the coastal towns; Zanzibar is 96% Moslem and 4% Hindu. Some 23% follow traditional religions. Education. In 1984 there were 10,110 primary schools with 3,493,469 pupils, and 170 secondary schools (85 private) with 74,208 students. Technical and vocational education is provided at several secondary and technical schools and at the Dar es Salaam Technical College. There were, in 1984, 63 teachers' colleges, including the college at Chang'ombe for secondary-school teachers, with 14,270 students. The University of Dar es Salaam, independent since 1970, has faculties of law, arts, social sciences, medicine, engineering, commerce and management. Sokoine University of Agriculture, established in 1984, has faculties of agriculture, forestry and veterinary medicine. The total number of students in both universities was 3,320 in 1984. Health. In 1984 there were 1,065 doctors and 152 hospitals with 22,800 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Tanzania in Great Britain (43 Hertford St., London, W1) High Commissioner: Anthony Balthazar Nyakyi. Of Great Britain in Tanzania (Hifadhi Hse., Samora Ave., Dar es Salaam) High Commissioner: Colin H. Imray, CMG. Of Tanzania in the USA (2139 R. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Asterius M. Hyera. Of the USA in Tanzania (36 Laibon Rd., Dar es Salaam) Ambassador: Donald Petterson. Of Tanzania to the United Nations AmbassadorDrWilbert K. Chagula. Books of Reference Atlas of Tanganyika. 3rded. Dares Salaam, 1956 Tanganyika Notes and Records. Tanganyika Society, Dar es Salaam. (Twice yearly, from 1936) The Economic Development of Tanganyika. Report... by the International Bank. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press and OU P, 1961 Ayany, S. G., A History of Zanzibar. Nairobi, 1970 Coulson,A., Tanzania: A Political Economy. OUP, 1982 Nyerere, J., Freedom and Development. New York, 1976 Resnick, I. N., The Long Transition: Building Socialism in Tanzania. New York and London, 1981 Samoff, J., Tanzania: Local Politics and the Structure of Power. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1975 Yeager,R., Tanzania: An African Experiment. Aldershot, 1982

c apit f--.Ban52g°•k5m.nQ8M p Population: ( 1986)

THAILAND

GNPper capita: US$720 ( 198 5)

Prathes Thai, or Muang-Thai

H I S T O R Y . Until 24 June 1932 Siam was an absolute monarchy. On that date a coup d'état was effected and a Provisional Constitution Act was promulgated on 27 June. This was replaced by the constitution of 10 Dec. 1932, which in turn was superseded by new constitutions. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Thailand is bounded west by Burma, north and east by Laos and south-east by Cambodia. In the south it becomes a peninsula bounded west by the Indian Ocean, south by Malaysia and east by the Gulf of Thailand. Area is 513,115 sq. km (198,456 sq. miles). At the census taken in 1980 the registration gave a population of46,961,338, of whom 30 • 4% lived in the Central region, 3 5 • 2% in the North-East region, 12 • 5% in the South region, 21-9% in the North region. Estimate (1986) 52,545,529 (26,114,610 females). Vital statistics, 1983: Births, 1,055,802 (520,728 females); deaths, 252,592 (107,776 females). Thailand is divided into 73 provinces. Provinces with over 1 m. population 1986 were Nakhon Ratchasima (2,243,845), Ubon Ratchathani (1,758,868), Udon Thani (1,690,356), Khon Kaen (1,600,732), Nakhon Si Thamarat (1,359,740), Buri Ram (1,316,393), Chiang Mai (1,285,662), Si Saket (1,222,743), Surin (1,203,943), Roi Ed (1,157,174), Nakhon Sawan (1,047,163) and Songkhla (1,008,198). Bangkok Metropolis is the capital (population 1986, 5,446,708). Other towns (1980 census) are Chiang Mai (101,595), Hat Yai (93,519), Khon Kaen, (85,863), Phitsanulok (79,942), Nakhon Ratchasima (78,246), Udon Thani (71,142), Songkhla (67,945), Nakhon Sawan (63,935), Nakhon Si Thammarat (63,162), Ubon Ratchathani (50,788), Ayutthaya (47,189), Nakhon Pathom (45,242), Lampang (42,301 ) and Ratchaburi (40,404). Thai is the national language. Several Chinese dialects are also spoken in Bangkok and the north and some Malay in the south. English is increasingly used in tourist areas. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, with high temperatures and humidity. Over most of the country, 3 seasons may be recognized. The rainy season is June to Oct., the cool season from Nov. to Feb. and the hot season is March to May. Rainfall is generally heaviest in the south and lightest in the north east. Bangkok. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 56" (1,400 mm). R E I G N I N G KING. Bhumibol Adulyadej, born 5 Dec. 1927, younger brother of King Ananda Mahidol, who died on 9 June 1946. King Bhumibol married on 28 April 1950 Princess Sirikit, and was crowned 5 May 1950. Children: Princess Ubol Ratana (born 5 April 1951, married Aug. 1972 Peter Ladd Jensen), Crown-Prince Vajiralongkorn (born 28 July 1952, married 3 Jan. 1977 Soamsawali Kitiyakra), Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn (born 2 April 1955), Princess Chulabhorn (born 4July 1957, married 7 Jan. 1982 Virayudth Didyasarin). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The military government resigned on 14 Oct. 1973 and a new government was formed. A new Constitution 1177

1178

THAILAND

designed to restore democracy was promulgated in Dec. 1978. A general election was held on 27 July 1986. Of the 347 seats in Parliament, the Democrat Party won 100, the Chart Thai Party 63. The cabinet in Dec. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Gen. Prem Tinasulanonda. Deputy Prime Ministers: Bhichai Rattakul, Maj.-Gen. Chatichai Choonhavan, Pong Sarasin, Adm. Sonthi Boonyachai, Gen. Tienchai Sirisumpun. Ministers of the Prime Minister's Office: Meechai Ruchupan, Arun Bhanupong, Flight-Lieut. Sulee Mahasanthana, Chaisiri Ruangkanchanases, Amnuay Suwankiri, Vichit Saengthong. Interior: Gen. Prachuab Soontarangkun. Industry: Pramuan Sapavasu. Communications: Banharn Silpa-acha. Commerce: Montree Pongpanit. Education: Marut Bunnag. Agriculture and Cooperatives: Gen. Han Leenanond. Finance: Suthee Singsaneh. Public Health: Therdpong Chaiyanand. Defence: Air Chief Marshal Panieng Kantarat. Science, Technology and Energy: Banyat Banthadthan. University Affairs: Subin Pinkhayan. Foreign Affairs: Air Chief Marshal Siddhi Savetsila. Justice: Sa-ad Piyawan. Nationalflag: Five horizontal stripes of red, white, blue, white, red, with the blue of double width. Local Government. For purposes of administration Thailand is divided into 73 provinces (changwads), each under the control of a changwad governor. The changwads are subdivided into 640 districts (amphurs) and 83 sub-districts (king amphurs), 6,331 communes (tambons) and 56,608 villages (moobans). Local legislative and executive bodies with limited powers are being established with functions, procedure and method of election modelled on those of central Assembly. D E F E N C E . Under the Ministry of Defence Organization Act of 1960 the Ministry of Defence has assumed the Supreme Command and the control of the Army, Navy and Air Force with the advice of the Defence Council headed by the Ministry of Defence. The National Defence College, the Armed Forces Staff College and the Military Preparatory School serve the education of officers. Each service has its own C.-in-C., service council, schools of arms and C o m m a n d and General StafTCollege. Under the Military Service Act of 1954 every able-bodied man between the ages of 21 and 30 is liable to serve 2 years with the colours; 7 years in the first reserve; 10 years in the second reserve; 6 years in the third reserve. Army. The Army is organized in 4 Regions and consists of 1 cavalry, 1 armoured, 7 infantry, 2 special forces, 1 artillery and 1 anti-aircraft divisions; 11 engineer and 8 independent infantry battalions; and 4 reconnaissance companies. Equipment includes 190 M-48A5 and 200 M-41 main battle tanks. There is also an Army Aviation force including over 100 transport helicopters (mostly UH-1 Iroquois), 12 U-17 Skywagon and 75 O - l Bird Dog observation aircraft and 4 C-47 and 2 Shorts 330 twin-turboprop transports. Strength (1988) 166,000, with 500,000 reserves. Navy. The Fleet includes 4 frigates (1 built 1973 in Britain, 2 ejc-US, and 1 ex-US destroyer escort all 3 built in 1943), 4 corvettes (small frigates) - 2 new missilearmed and 2 modernised - all US-built, 3 fast large attack gunboats, 6 fast missile craft, 4 coastal minesweepers, 10 patrol vessels, 1 mine counter-measures support ship, 20 gunboats, 26 coastal patrol boats, 9 landing ships, 13 landing craft, 42 minor landing craft, 5 minesweeping boats, 3 surveying ships, 3 surveying boats, 40 river patrol craft, 2 transports, 5 oilers, 3 training ships (old frigate, old corvette, old escort minesweeper), 2 transports, 2 water carriers and 4 tugs. The air element includes 10 S-2 Trackers, 6 F27 Maritimes, 8 N24A Nomads and 2 CL-215s for maritime patrol, 5 C-47s and 2 F27s for transport duties, 9 Cessna 337 armed light transports, and 11 U H - 1 H Iroquois helicopters. A third missile-armed corvette similar to the two built by Tacoma is planned to be built in Thailand. Naval personnel in 1988 totalled 18,300 officers and ratings, 900 in the Naval

THAILAND

1179

Air Arm and 20,000 in the Marine Corps. The Royal Naval Academy is at Paknam. At the mouth of the Chao Praya River are the Paknam forts. The naval dockyard was reconstructed. The coast guard force operates 4 patrol vessels, 3 coastal patrol craft, 8 river patrol boats and a considerable number of service craft. Air Force. The Royal Thai Air Force was reorganized with the assistance of a US Military Air Advisory Group. It had a strength (1988) 48,000 personnel, and is made up of a headquarters and Combat, Logistics Support, Training and Special Services Groups. Combat units comprise 2 squadrons of F-5E/F interceptors, 1 squadron of F-5A/B fighter-bombers and RF-5A reconnaissance aircraft, 1 squadron with A-37B light jet attack aircraft, 2 with OV-IO Bronco light reconnaissance/attack aircraft, 1 squadron with T-33A/AT-33 armed jet trainers, 1 with AT-28A armed piston-engined trainers, and 2 with AU-23A Peacemakers and 1 squadron with C-47s for security duties. Three Aravas are used for electronic intelligence gathering. There are transport units equipped with a total of about 70 C-130H/H-30 Hercules, DC-8-62F, HS 748, C-123B Provider, C-47 and smaller aircraft, including 20 Australian-built Missionmasters; there are 25 UH-1H and 18 S-58T helicopters; 20 O-l Bird Dog observation aircraft; training units with Air trainer CT/4 primary trainers built in New Zealand, Italian-built SF.260MTs, T-37 intermediate and T-33A advanced trainers. In 1984, delivery began of 31 Model 400 and 16 Model 600 Fantrainers, of which the first 6 were built in the Federal Republic of Germany, the remainder are being partially manufactured and assembled in Thailand. Twenty T-33 As were received from Singapore in 1986 and 18 F-16 Fighting Falcons and 3 Leaijets are on order for delivery from 1988. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Thailand is a member of UN, ASEAN and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Planning. The Sixth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1987-91) envisages emphasis on the less capital-intensive industries and on export growth. Budget. Expenditure (1986,1 m. baht) 218,000: Economy, 34,088 (of which 17,202 for agriculture); education, 39,978; defence, 41,257; internal security, 10,829; public health, 23,792; administration, 5,823; debt, 50,719. Revenue, 185,000(lm. baht). Currency. The unit of currency is the baht, formerly called in English the tical, which is divided into 100 satang.Only nickel, copper, tin and bronze coins are now minted, in denominations of 1,2, 5 baht, 25,50 satang. Currency notes, first issued in 1902, now comprise, 5,10,20,50,100,500 baht notes. On 31 March 1976 the total amount of notes and coins in circulation was 30,280m. baht. In March 1988, £1 =44-30 baht; US$1 =25-26 baht. Banking. In 1942 the Bank of Thailand was established under the Bank of Thailand Act, B.E. 2485 (1942) and began operations on 10 Dec. 1942, with the functions of a central bank. The Bank has its banking activities entirely separate from the management of the note issue. The Bank also took over the note issue previously performed by the Treasury Department of the Ministry of Finance. Although the entire capital is owned by the Government, the Bank is an independent body. Banks incorporated under Thai law include the Bangkok Bank Ltd, the Bangkok Bank of Commerce Ltd, the Bank of Asia for Industry & Commerce Ltd, the Bank of Ayudhya Ltd, Bangkok Metropolitan Bank Ltd, the Laem Thong Bank Ltd, the Siam City Bank Ltd, the Siam Commercial Bank Ltd, First Bangkok City Bank Ltd, Union Bank of Bangkok Ltd, the Bank of Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives, the Government Housing Bank, the Sayam Bank and the Wang Lee Chan Bank Ltd. Foreign banks include the Chartered Bank, the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the Citibank, Banque de l'lndochine, Bank of

1180

THAILAND

Canton Ltd, Bank of China Ltd, Bank of America, N.T. & S.A., the Mitsui Bank Ltd, The Asia Trust Bank Ltd, Bharat Overseas Bank Ltd, The Chase Manhattan Bank, United Malayan Banking Corporation and the Bank of Tokyo Ltd. The commercial Thai banks had, in 1983, 1,709 branches in Thailand and 19 abroad. The deposits held by commercial banks in Oct. 1985 amounted to 539,325m. baht and had reserves of21,700m. baht. Government-owned banks include Government Savings Bank, which was established as an independent organization in 1947, and the Government Housing Bank. Weights and Measures. The metric system was made compulsory by a law promulgated on 17 Dec. 1923. The actual weights and measures prescribed by law are: Units of weight: 1 standard picul = 60 kg; 1 standard catty (Vioo picul) = 600 grammes; 1 standard carat = 20 centigrammes. Units of length: 1 sen = 40 metres; 1 wah(Vio sen)=2 metres; 1 saukQh wah)=0-50 metre; 1 fa?H/>('/2sauk)=0-25 metre. Units of square measure: 1 rai (1 sq. sen) = 1,600 sq. metres: 1 ngan ('A rai) = 400 sq. metres; 1 sq. wah ('/ioo ngan) = 4 sq. metres. Units of capacity: 1 standard kwien = 2,000 litres; 1 standard ban ([h kwien) = 1,000 litres; 1 standard sat ('/so ban) = 20 litres; 1 standard tannan O/20 sat) = 1 litre. Legislation passed in 1940 provided that the calendar year shall coincide with the Christian Year, and that the year of the Buddhist era 2484 shall begin on 1 Jan. 1941. (The New Year's Day was previously 1 April.) The years B.E. 2517-2518 therefore correspond to A.D. 1974and 1975. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. In 1981, steam power accounted for 52% of production (81 % of the fuel being imported) and hydro-electric power for 34%. A lignite-fuelled plant at Mae-Moh had 7 generators producing 825,000 km in 1985. A natural gas-fuelled plant (1 -82m. kw) opened at Bang Pakong in 1985. Production (1986) 24,060m. kwh. Supply 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Thailand is heavily dependent on oil. There is extensive oil and gas exploration in the Gulf of Thailand. In 1987 the Sirikit oil field, which came on stream in 1983, remained Thailand's only significant find. Proven oil reserves in 1987 were less than 160m. bbls. Production of crude oil (1987) 1 • 8m. tonnes providing 15% of needs. Gas. Production of natural gas (1985) 132,272m. cu. ft. Minerals. The mineral resources are extensive and varied, including cassiterite (tin ore), wolfram, scheelite, antimony, coal, copper, gold, iron, lead, manganese, molybdenum, rubies, sapphires, silver, zinc and zircons. Ore output in 1986 (in tonnes): Iron, 37,330; manganese, 4,888; tin, 23,299; lead, 61,885; antimony, 2,397; zinc, 373,833; lignite, 5,542,247; gypsum, 1,665,557; tungsten, 963; fluorite, 189,712. Agriculture. The chief produce of the country is rice, which forms the national food and the staple article of export. The area under paddy is about 18m. acres. In 1987 40% of the total land area was cultivated. Output of the major crops in 1986 was (in 1,000 tonnes): Paddy, 19,100; coffee, 26; maize, 4,197; sugar-cane, 24,093; jute and kenaf, 254; tobacco, 85; tapiocaroot (1985), 19,263; soybeans, 331; coconut, 1,278; mung beans (1985), 323; cotton, 93; groundnuts, 178. Livestock, 1986 (in 1,000): horses, 21; buffaloes, 6,302; cattle, 4,835; pigs, 4,215; poultry, 99,000. Forestry. About 25% of the land area of Thailand was under forest in 1984. In the north, mixed deciduous forests with teak (Tectona grandis, Linn.), growing in mixture with several other species, predominate. In the north-eastern section hardwood of the Dipterocarpus species, especially Shorea obtusa and Pentacme Siamensis, Kurz exist in most parts. In all other regions of the country tropical evergreen forests are found, with the well-known timber of commerce, Yang

1181

THAILAND

(Dipterocarpus alatus, Roxb and Dipterocarpus spp.) as the outstanding crops. Most of the teak timber exploited in northern Thailand is floated down to Bangkok. About one-third of the teak-forest area is being exploited by the Forest Industry Organization, and the remaining two-thirds is to be worked by timber company lessees and other private enterprises. Output of main forestry products in 1985: Teak, 39,200 cu. metres; yang and other woods, 1,843,500 cu. metres. By-products in 1985: firewood, 690,600 cu. metres; charcoal, 363,900 cu. metres; 16m. bamboo and 139,711 decalitres of yang oil (1984). Rubber production (in 1,000 tonnes), 1955, 133-3; 1960, 170-8; 1969, 281-8; 1973, 384; 1978, 467; 1979, 531; 1980, 501; 1981, 510; 1982, 540; 1983, 587; 1984,629; 1985,722. Fisheries. In 1984 the catch of sea fish was 1,973,000 tonnes including marine prawns, shrimps and crabs, 117,400 tonnes; of freshwater fish, 161,800 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Production of manufactured goods in 1984 included 8,239,970 tonnes of cement, 60,927 tonnes of white cement, 2,431,054 tonnes of sugar, 82,073 tonnes of sweetened condensed milk, 15,495 tonnes of evaporated milk, 163-9m. litres of beer, and in 1983 included 975m. sq. yd of cotton textiles, l,226-9m. sq. yd of man-made textiles, 3,990,000 sheets of plywood, 65,500 tonnes of paper, 36,127 passenger cars and 74,910 commercial vehicles. Labour. In 1986, 26,013,000 persons out of a labour force of 27,910,000 were employed: 17,065,000 in agriculture and 2,321,000 in manufacturing. Trade Unions. The Thai National Trade Union Congress is a member of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. Commerce. The foreign trade (in 1 m. baht) was as follows: Imports (c.i.f.) Exports (f.o.b.)

1981 216,746 153,001

1982 196,616 159,728

1983 236,609 146,472

1984 245,155 175,237

1985 251,169 193,366

1986 241,358 233,383

In 1986 the main items of export were (in lm. baht, provisional): Textiles, 29,986; rice, 20,317; tapioca products, 19,111; canned and frozen seafood, 19,080; rubber, 15,115; precious stones, 13,186; integrated circuits, 11,617; maize, 9,326; sugar, 7,293; tin, 3,084. In 1985 imports from Japan (26%), USA (11 -2%), Singapore (7-3%), Malaysia (5-8%), Federal Republic of Germany (5-2%), France (4-5%), Oman (3-6%) and Saudi Arabia (2-8%). Exports to USA (19-6%), Japan (13-3%), Singapore (8%), Netherlands (7 • 1 %), Malaysia (4 • 9%), Hong Kong (4%), China (3 • 8%) and Federal Republic of Germany (3 • 7%). Total trade between Thailand and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK. Exportsand re-exports from UK

1983 87,823 131,833

1984 112,353 149,742

1985 131,806 157,723

1986 182,756 158,195

1987 239,430 206,571

Tourism. In 1986 2,818,092 foreigners visited Thailand. Earnings (1985) 31 • 768m. baht. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 the total length of roads was 156,776 km, of which 44,534 km (29%) were national highways and 112,242 km (71%) provincial roads. Motor vehicles registered in 1982 included 492,742 passenger cars, 32,114 buses (1979), 419,143 lorries (1979) and 1,401,918 motor cycles. Railways. In 1986 the State Railway totalled 3,735 km (metre gauge) and carried 76m. passengers and 5 -2m. tonnes of freight. Aviation. There are international airports at Bangkok, Chiang Mai in the north and

1182

THAILAND

Phuket and Hat Yai in the south. Thai Airways Co. Ltd (TAC), established in 1947, is the sole Thai air transport enterprise, with authorized capital of 300m. baht. The Company operates 11 domestic routes and 3 international routes and carried more than 1 m. passengers in 1 9 8 4 . O n 2 4 Aug. 1959 Thai Airways and the Scandinavian Airlines System set up a new company, Thai Airways International, to operate the international air services from Thailand. In 1984, more than 2-7m. passengers were carried. Shipping. In 1983, 3,137 vessels of 14,174,828 N R T entered and 2,648 of 11,663,452 N R T cleared the port of Bangkok. The port of Bangkok, about 30 km from the mouth of the Chao Phya River, is capable of berthing ocean-going vessels of 10,000 gross tons and 28 ft draught. Bangkok is now a port of entry for Laos, and goods arriving in transit are sent u p by rail to Nong Khai and ferried across the river Mekhong to Vientiane. Post and Broadcasting. In 1974 there were 555 post offices proper, 341 licensed and A m p h u r post offices and 545 railway-station post offices. In 1985 there were 576,082 telephones, of which 389,096 were in Bangkok. In 1985, there were 275 radio stations and 9 television stations,7,629,998 radios and 4,122,000 televisions. Cinemas (1983). There were 651 cinemas with a seating capacity of438,787. Newspapers (1986). There are 23 daily newspapers in Bangkok, including 3 in English and 7 in Chinese, with a combined circulation of about 2m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The judicial power is exercised in the name of the King, by (a) courts of first instance, (b) the court of appeal (Uthorn) and (c) the Supreme Court (Dika). The King appoints, transfers and dismisses judges, who are independent in conducting trials and giving judgment in accordance with the law. Courts of first instance are subdivided into 20 magistrates' courts (Kwaeng) with limited civil and minor criminal jurisdiction; 85 provincial courts (Changwad) with unlimited civil and criminal jurisdiction; the criminal and civil courts with exclusive jurisdiction in Bangkok; the central juvenile courts for persons under 18 years of age in Bangkok. The court of appeal exercises appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases from all courts of first instance. From it appeals lie to Dika Court on any point of law and, in certain cases, on questions of fact. The Supreme Court is the supreme tribunal of the land. Besides its normal appellate jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters, it has semi-original jurisdiction over general election petitions. The decisions of Dika Court are final. Every person has the right to present a petition to the Government who will deal with all matters of grievance. Religion. In 1983 there were 47,049,223 Buddhists, 1,869,427 Moslems, 267,381 Christians and 64,369 Hindus, Sikhs and others. Education. Primary education is compulsory for children between the ages of 7 - 1 4 and free in local municipal schools. In 1984 there were 532,097 students enrolled at pre-primary level, 7,229,064 at primary level, 1,304,520 at lower secondary level, 945,260 at upper secondary level and 361,819 in higher education. In 1980 there were 36 teachers' training colleges with 5,317 teachers and 63,983 students and about 180 government vocational schools and colleges with 11,240 teachers and 208,088 students. There are 8 schools for deaf children, 2 for the blind, 1 for multiple-handicapped and 2 for the mentally retarded. In 1984 the 36 teacher training colleges were regionally consolidated into 8 United Colleges also offering 4-year programmes in science and technology, management, social development, agriculture, arts and journalism. In 1986 there were 14 universities 3 of which were private: Chulalongkorn University (1916), Thammasat University (1934), Universities of Medical Science, Agriculture and Fine Arts; Ramkamhaeng University (1971)—all in Bangkok; Chiengmai University (1964), the Khon Kaen University (1966) in the north-east and Prince of Songkhla University (1968) in the south.

THAILAND

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Health. The Primary Health Care Programme had provided health services in 95% of villages in 1986. In 1982 there were 434 hospitals and 6,496 health centres. In 1982 there were 6,550 physicians, 1,122 dentists and (1981)2,680 pharmacists. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Thailand in Great Britain (30 Queen's Gate, London, SW7 5JB) Ambassador: Sudhee Prasasvinitchai (accredited 4 Nov. 1986). Of Great Britain in Thailand (Wireless Rd., Bangkok) Ambassador: Derek Tonkin, CMG. Of Thailand in the USA (2300 Kalorama Rd., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Asa Sarasin. Of the USA in Thailand (95 Wireless Rd., Bangkok) Ambassador: William A. Brown. Of Thailand to the United Nations Ambassador: M. L. Birabhongse Kasemsri. Books of Reference Thailand into the 80's. Office ofthe Prime Minister, Bangkok, Rev. ed., 1984 Thailand Statistical Yearbook. National Statistical Office, Bangkok Thailand in Brief. 7th ed. Bangkok, 1985 Bibliography ofMaterials About Thailand in Western Languages. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,1960 Douner, W., The Five Faces of Thailand. Hamburg and London, 1978 Girling, J. I. S., Thailand: Society and Politics. Cornell Univ. Press, 1981 Haas, M. R., Thai-English Student's Dictionary. OUP, 1966 Morrell, D. and Samudavanija, C., Political Conflict in Thailand. Cambridge, Mass., 1981 Watts, M., Thailand. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1986

Capital: Lomé Population: 3 • 16m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$280 (1983)

TOGO République Togolaise

H I S T O R Y . A German protectorate from July 1884, Togo was occupied by British and French forces in Aug. 1914 and subsequently partitioned between the two countries on 20 July 1922 under a League of Nations mandate. British Togo subsequently joined Ghana. The French mandate was renewed by the U N as a trusteeship on 14 Dec. 1946. On 28 Oct. 1956 a plebiscite was held to determine the status of the territory. Out of438,175 registered voters, 313,458 voted for an autonomous republic within the French Union and the end of the trusteeship system. The trusteeship was abolished on the achievement of independence on 27 April 1960. On 13 Jan. 1963 the first President Sylvanus Olympio was murdered by n.c.o.s. of the army. Nicolas Grunitzky, a former prime minister and Olympio's brotherin-law, was appointed President. On 13 Jan. 1967 in a bloodless coup the army under Lieut.-Col. Etienne Eyadéma made President Grunitzky 'voluntarily withdraw'. On 14 April 1967 Col. Eyadéma assumed the Presidency. There was a return to constitutional government on 13 Jan. 1980. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Togo is bounded west by Ghana, north by Burkina Faso, east by Benin and south by the Gulf of Guinea. The area is 56,785 sq. km. The population of Togo in 1981 (census) was 2,700,982; 1987 (estimate) 3,158,000. The capital is Lomé (population, 1983, 366,476), other towns (1981, population) being Sokodé (48,098), Kpalimé (31,800), Atakpamé (27,100), Bassar (21,800), Tsévié ( 17,000) and Aného ( 14,000). The areas, populations and chief towns of the 5 regions are: Region Des Savanes De La Kara Centrale Des Plateaux Maritime

Sq. km 8,602 11,630 13,182 16,975 6,396

Census 1981 326,826 432,626 269,174 561,656 1,039,700

Chieftown Dapaong Kara Sokodé Atakpamé Lomé

The south is largely populated by Ewe-speaking peoples (forming 47% of the population) and related groups, while the north is mainly inhabited by Hamitic groups speaking Voltaic (Gur) languages such as Kabyè (22%), Gurma (14%) and Tem (4%). The official language is French but Ewe and Kabre are also taught in schools. In 1984,27% lived in urban areas and (1981 ) 48% were male. Vital statistics, 1979: Births, 102,398; deaths, 7,691. C L I M A T E . The tropical climate produces wet seasons from March to July and from Oct. to Nov. in the south. The north has one wet season, from April to July. The heaviest rainfall occurs in the mountains of the west, south-west and centre. Lomé. Jan. 81°F(27-2°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 3 5 " (875 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Following approval in a referendum on 30 Dec. 1979, a new Constitution came into force on 13 Jan. 1980, when the Third Togolese Republic was proclaimed. It provides for an Executive President, directly elected for a 7-year term, and for a National Assembly of 77 deputies, elected on a regional list system for a 5 -year term. Elections to the Assembly were held on 24 March 1985. All candidates are approved by the Rassemblement du peuple togolais, the sole legal Party since 1969; it is administered by a 46-member Central Committee and a 13-member Political Bureau elected at its fourth Party Congress in Dec. 1986. 1184

TOGO

1185

The government in Oct. 1987 was composed as follows: President, Minister of Defence: Gen. Gnassingbé Eyadéma (re-elected for a further 7-year term in Dec. 1986). Foreign Affairs and Co-operation: Yaovi Adada. Rural Development: Koffi Walla. Justice, Keeper of the Seals: Kpotivi Têvi-Djidjogbé Laclé. Economy and Finance: Komlan Alipui. Planning and Mines: Barry Moussa Barque. Posts and Telecommunications: Ayeva Nassirou. Public Works, Labour and Civil Service: Bitokotipou Yagninim. Minister-Delegate to Presidency in charge of Information: Gbegnon Amegboh. Youth, Sports and Culture: Komlavi Gnemegna. National Education and Scientific Research: Tchalim Tcha Koza. Interior: Komlan Agbétiafa. Commerce and Transport: W'souwodji Kawo Ehe. Public Health, Social and Women's Affairs: Dr Ayissah Agbetra. Industry and State Enterprises: Kofïi Djondo. Technical and Professional Training: Koffi Edoh. Environment and Tourism: Yao Komlavi. National flag: Five horizontal stripes of green and yellow, a red quarter with a white star. Local Government: There are 5 regions, each under an inspector appointed by the President; they are divided into 21 prefectures, each administered by a district chief assisted by an elected district council. D E F E N C E . Armed forces numbered (1988) about 5,910, all forming part of the Army. Army. The Army consists of 2 infantry, 1 Presidential Guard commando and 1 para-commando regiments, with artillery and logistic support units. Equipment includes 9 Scorpion and 2 T-54/-55 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 4,000, with a further 1,550 men in a paramilitary force. Navy. In 1988 there were 2 coastal patrol craft, 2 defence launches and a naval base at Lomé. Naval personnel, 105 officers and men. Air Force. An Air Force, established with French assistance, has 6 Brazilian-built EMB-326 Xavante (Aermacchi MB.326) armed jet trainers; 4 Alpha Jet advanced trainers, with strike capability, 1 DC-8 and 1 twin-turbofan F28 Fellowship for VIP use, 2 turboprop Buffalo transports; 2 Beech Barons and 2 Cessna 337s for liaison; 3 Epsilon basic trainers; 1 Puma and 2 Lama helicopters. Personnel (1988) 260. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Togo is a member of UN, OAU and ECOWAS, and is an ACP state ofEEC. ECONOMY Planning. The fourth 5-year development plan (1981-85) provided for investment of 368,490m. francs CFA, of which 116,397m. were for rural development, 98,625m. for industrial development and 100,690m. for infrastructure. Budget. The ordinary budget for 1987 balanced at 89,690m. francs CFA. Currency. The unit of currency is the franc CFA with a parity rate of 50 francs CFA to 1 French franc. The rate of exchange (March 1988) was 507 francs CFA to £1; US$1 =285-56. Banking. The bank of issue is the Banque Centrale des Etats de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Seven commercial and 3 development banks are based in Lomé. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 203m. kwh. There is a hydro-electric plant at Kpalimé. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Minerals. A Mines Department was set up in 1953 after the discovery of very rich deposits of phosphate and bauxite; mining began in 1961. Output of phosphate

1186

TOGO

rock (1984) 2-8m. tonnes. Other mineral deposits are limestone, estimated at 200m. tons; iron ore, estimated at 550m. tons with iron content varying between 40% and 55%, and marble estimated at 20m. tonnes. Salt production (1982) 600,000 tonnes. Agriculture. Inland the country is hilly, rising to 3,600 ft, with streams and waterfalls. There are long stretches of forest and brushwood, while dry plains alternate with arable land. Maize, yams, cassava, plantains, groundnuts, etc., are cultivated; oil palms and dye-woods grow in the forests; but the main commerce is based on coffee, cocoa, palm-oil, palm-kernels, copra, groundnuts, cotton, manioc. There are considerable plantations of oil and cocoa palms, coffee, cacao, kola, cassava and cotton. Production, 1986 (in 1,000 tonnes): Cassava, 442; tomatoes, 6; yams 336; maize, 133; sorghum, 90; millet, 70; seed cotton, 70; rice, 15; groundnuts, 22; coffee 10. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 276,000; sheep, 850,000; swine, 288,000; horses, 1,000; asses, 1,000; goats, 744,000. Forestry. Forests cover 28% of the land surface. Roundwood production (1983) 735,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. Catch (1984) 14,547 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is a cement works (production, 1982; 279,000 tonnes); a second is being built in co-operation with Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire with a capacity of 1 -2m. tonnes per annum. An oil refinery of 1 m. tonne capacity opened in Lomé in 1978 and a steel mill (20,000 tonne capacity) in 1979. Industry, though small, is developing and there are about 40 medium sized enterprises in the public and private sectors, including textile and food processing plants. Commerce (in 1 m. francs CFA): Imports Exports

1980 116,357 71,285

1981 117,769 56,241

1982 128,354 58,173

1983 108,141 61,921

1984 118,460 83,588

In 1985, of the exports, phosphates amounted to 38%, cotton 11%, coffee 11% and cocoa beans 6% by value; 22% of exports went to France and 18% to the Netherlands. Of the imports, France supplied 27%, the Netherlands, 11% and UK, 10%. Total trade between Togo and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): /wjJ m 4 m 5 m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

2,161 12,212

3,224 12,166

4,597 17,034

5,008 17,488

2,579 15,431

Tourism. There were about 99,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, in 1986, 7,850 km of roads, of which 1,500 km were paved. In Dec. 1984 there were 36,372 passenger cars and 17,963 commercial vehicles. Railways. There are 4 metre-gauge railways connecting Lomé, with Aného (continuing to Cotonou in Benin), Kpalimé, Tabligbo and (via Atakpamé) Blitta; total length 525 km. In 1982 the railways carried 16m. tonne-km and 105m. passenger-km. Aviation: Air services connect Tokoin airport, near Lomé, with Paris, Dakar, Abidjan, Douala, Accra, Lagos, Cotonou and Niamey and by internal services with Sokodé, Mango, Dapaong, Atakpamé and Niamtougou. Shipping. In 1983, vessels landed 654,000 tonnes and cleared 683,000 tonnes at Lomé; 31,058 containers passed through the port in 1981. The merchant marine comprised (1985) 11 vessels of 77,989 DWT. In 1981 some 2 -2m. tonnes of phosphate were loaded at the port of Kpémé.

TOGO

1187

Post and Broadcasting. There were (1983) 388 post offices and 11,105 telephones. Togo is connected by telegraph and telephone with Ghana, Benin, Côte d'Ivoire and Senegal, and by wireless telegraphy with Europe and America. There were 14,000 television receivers and 250,000 radio receivers in 1985. Newspapers. There was (1984) 1 daily newspaper (circulation 10,000). J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The Supreme Court and two Appeal Courts are in Lomé, one for criminal cases and one for civil and commercial cases. Each receives appeal from a series of local tribunals. Religion. In 1980, 28% of the population were Catholics, 17% Moslem (chiefly in the north) and 9% Protestant; while 46% follow animist religions. Education. In 1984 there were 454,209 pupils and 10,225 teachers in 2,329 primary schools in 1982, 122,925 pupils and 3,982 teachers in 248 secondary schools, 6,932 (1981) students and (1978) 326 teachers in technical schools and 374 students and 22 teachers at the teacher-training college. The University of Benin at Lomé (founded in 1970) had 4,190 students and 283 teaching staff in 1984. Health. In 1979 there were 69 hospitals with (1982) 3,655 beds; and in 1985, 168 doctors, 7 dentists, 51 pharmacists, 586 midwives (1979) and 1,763 nursing staff (1979). DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Togo in Great Britain (30 Sloane St., London, SW1) ^wèaMa^or: Assiongbon Agbenou (accredited 10 Oct. 1986). Of Great Britain in Togo Ambassador: A. H. Wyatt, CMG (resides in Accra). Of Togo in the USA (2208 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Ellom-Kodjo Schuppius. Of the USA in Togo (Rue Pelletier Caventou, Lomé) Ambassador: David A. Korn. Of Togo to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Kwam Kouassi. Books of Reference Cornevin, 9.., Histoire du Togo. 3rd ed., Pans, 1969 Feuillet, C., Le Togo en general. Paris, 1976 Piraux, M., Le Togo aujourd'hui. Paris, 1977

TONGA

Capital: Nuku'alofa Population: 94,535 (1986) GNP per capita: US$580 ( 1986)

Friendly Islands

HISTORY. The Kingdom of Tonga attained unity under Taufa'ahau Tupou (George I) who became ruler of his native Ha'apai in 1820, of Vava'u in 1833 and of Tongatapu in 1845. By 1860 the kingdom had become converted to Christianity (George himself having been baptized in 1831). In 1862 the king granted freedom to the people from arbitrary rule of minor chiefs and gave them the right to the allocation of land for their own needs. These institutional changes, together with the establishment of a parliament of chiefs, paved the way towards the democratic constitution under which the kingdom is now governed, and provided a background of stability against which Tonga was able to develop her agricultural economy. The kingdom continued up to 1899 to be a neutral region in accordance with the Declaration of Berlin, 6 April 1886. By the Anglo-German Agreement of 14 Nov. 1899 subsequently accepted by the USA, the Tonga Islands were left under the Protectorate of Great Britain. A protectorate was proclaimed on 18 May 1900, and a British Agent and Consul appointed. On 4 June 1970 the UK Government ceased to have any responsibility for the external relations of Tonga. The Tongatapu group was discovered by Tasman in 1643. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The kingdom consists of some 169 islands and islets with a total area of 289 sq. miles (748 sq. km; including inland waters), and lies between 15° and 23° 30' S. lat and 173° and 177° W. long., its western boundary being the eastern boundary of Fiji. The islands are split up into the following groups reading from north to south: The Niuas, Vava'u, Ha'apai, Kotu, Nomuka, Otu Tolu and Tongatapu. The 3 main groups, both from historical and administrative significance, are Tongatapu in the south, Ha'apai in the centre and Vava'u in the north. The capital is Nuku'alofa on Tongatapu, population (1986) 28,899. The islands to the east, being mostly of limestone formation, are low lying and with but a few exceptions seldom exceed 100 ft above sea-level. The islands to the west are of a volcanic nature, approximately 11, average between 350 and 3,433 ft in height. After a violent volcanic eruption in Sept. 1946 on the island of Niuafo'ou (Tin Can Island to philatelists, so named because of the method that was used of collecting and delivering mail) the 1,300 inhabitants were evacuated, most of them to Tongatapu and 'Eua, but more than 600 have returned since 1958. Census population (provisional, 1986)94,535 (males, 47,589). C L I M A T E . Generally a healthy climate, though Jan. to March is hot and humid, with temperatures of 90°F (32-2°C). Rainfall amounts are comparatively high, being greatest from Dec. to March. Nuku'alofa. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 70°F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 63" (1,576 mm). Vava'u. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 73°F (22 8°C). Annual rainfall 110" (2,750 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The present Constitution is almost identical with that granted in 1875 by King George Tupou I. There is a Privy Council, Cabinet, Legislative Assembly and Judiciary. The legislative assembly, which meets annually, is composed of 9 nobles elected by their peers, 9 elected representatives of the people and the Privy Councillors (numbering 11); the King appoints one of the 9 nobles to be the Speaker. The elections are held triennially. In 1960, women voted for the first time. King: HM King Taufa'ahau Tupou IV, GCVO, GCMG, KBE, born 4 July 1918, 1188

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1189

succeeded on 16 Dec. 1965 on the death of his mother, Queen Salote Tupou III; his coronation took place on 4 July 1967. Prime Minister: H R H Prince Fatafehi Tu'pelehake, K C M G , KBE, younger brother of the King. Deputy Prime Minister: Hon. Baron Tuita, CBE. Foreign Affairs and Defence: H R H Crown Prince Tupouto'a. Nationalflag: Red with a white quarter bearing a red couped cross. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Tonga is a member of the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Recurrent revenue and expenditure in T$ 1,000: 1985-86 1986-87 < Revenue Expenditure

26,940 26,113 26,940 26,113 1 Estimate.

1987-88' 29,846 29,846

The principal sources of revenue are import dues, income tax, sales tax, port and service tax, wharfage and philatelic revenue. Public debt at 30 June 1986,T$42-7m. Currency. There is a government note issue o f p a ' a n g a (T$) 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 and coin issue of T$2, T$1 and seniti 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1. In March 1988, £1 = 2-46 pa'anga; US$1 = 1- 39 pa'anga. Banking. The Bank of Tonga and the Tonga Development Bank are both situated in Nuku'alofa (Tongatapu) with branches in the main islands 'Eua, Ha'apai, Vava'u and the Niuas. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 8m. kwh. Supply 230 volts; 50 Hz. Agriculture. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes) consisted of coconuts (52), fruit and vegetables (19), copra (6) and cassava (17). Livestock (1986): Cattle, 8,000; horses, 9,000; pigs, 65,000; goats, 11,000; poultry (1982), 175,000. Fisheries. Catch (1982) 2,500 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Commerce. In 1986, imports were valued at T$56,575,200 while exports and reexports were T$8,186,600 and T$677,500. Main imports (1986, in T$): Food 13,904,500, beverages and tobacco 3,375,300, crude materials 2,181,300, fuel and lubricants 7,019,100, oils and fats 131,300, chemicals 4,598,300, manufactured goods 10,839,700, machinery and transport equipment 9,487,200, miscellaneous manufactured articles 4,906,200. Main exports (1986, in T$): Coconut oil 1,762,200, vanilla 1,201,700, bananas 1,270,700, dessicated coconut 691,600, water melons 4,900, knitted clothes 420,500, tarotaruas 8,500, manufactured machinery, 358,000. Principal destinations for Tongan exports/re-exports in 1986 were: New Zealand (T$3,623,100), Australia (T$2,286,100), USA (T$l,517,500), U K (T$4,500). Of 1986 imports (in T$), New Zealand furnished 22,248,000; Australia, 16,938,300; Japan, 5,186,200; Singapore, 1,211,800; Fiji, 3,305,700; China (Mainland), 850,000; U K , 1,751,100. Total trade between Tonga and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 4 ! m j m m ? ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

328 842

70 699

86 936

100 2,013

1190

TONGA

Tourism. There were 44,677 visitors in 1986-87. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986-87 there were over 4,000 registered motor vehicles and (1987) 1,242 km of roads (263 km paved). Aviation. International air service connexions to Tongatapu are now provided by Air New Zealand, Polynesian Airlines, Air Pacific and Hawaiian Air with 4 flights per week to Auckland, 3 to Apia, 4 to Suva and 2 to Nadi. Hawaiian Air provides a twice weekly service to Hawaii via Pagopago. Internal air service flights are operated during the week to 'Eua, Ha'apai, Vava'u and Niuatoputapu by Friendly Island Airways. Shipping. Pacific Forum Line maintains a four weekly service New Zealand-FijiSamoas-Tonga from Sydney, Australia-Noumea-Fiji-Samoas-Tonga. Warner Pacific Line maintains a monthly service New Zealand-Tonga-Samoas-TongaNew Zealand and a monthly service Tonga-New Zealand-Australia-FunufutiTarawa-Samoas-Tonga. Post and Broadcasting. The kingdom has its own issue of postage stamps. Telephones numbered 3,500 in 1986 and there were 65,000 radio receivers. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Since the lapse of British extra-territorial jurisdiction British and foreign nationals charged with an offence against the laws of Tonga (the enforcement of which is a responsibility of the Minister of Police) are fully subject to the jurisdiction of the Tongan courts to which they are already subject in all civil matters. Religion. The Tongans are Christian, over 30,000 being adherents of the Wesleyan Church. Education. In 1986 there were 101 government and 10 denominational primary schools, with a total of 16,912 pupils. There were 5 government and 45 mission schools and 1 private school offering secondary education, with a total roll of 14,321. There was one government teacher-training college with 113 students; 3 government technical and vocational schools with 117 trainees and 8 non-government technical and vocational schools with 323 trainees. 201 students were undertaking tertiary training overseas under an official scholarship in 1985. Health. In 1986-87 there were 47 doctors, 11 dentists, 2 pharmacists, 27 midwives, 216 nursing personnel and 4 hospitals with 307 beds. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Tonga in Great Britain (New Zealand Hse., Haymarket, London, SW1Y 4TE) High Commissioner: S. T. 'Aho (accredited 17 Feb. 1986). Also Ambassador to the USA. Of Great Britain in Tonga (Nuku'alofa) High Commissioner: A. P. Fabian. Books of Reference Churchward, C. M., Tongan Dictionary. London, 1959 Luke, Sir Harry, Queen Salote and Her Kingdom. London, 1954 Packett.C. N., Travel and Holiday Guide to Tongatapu Island. Bradford, 1984

TRINIDAD TOBAGO

Capital: Port-of-Spain Population: 1 -22m. (1987) GNP per capita:VS$6,360 (1985)

AND

H I S T O R Y . Trinidad was discovered by Columbus in 1498 and colonized by the Spaniards in the 16th century. During the French Revolution a large number of French families settled in the island. In 1797, Great Britain being at war with Spain, Trinidad was occupied by the British and ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Trinidad and Tobago were joined in 1889. Under the Bases Agreement concluded between the governments of the UK and the USA on 27 March 1941, and the concomitant Trinidad-US Bases Lease of 22 April 1941, defence bases were leased to the US Government for 99 years. On 8 Dec. 1960 the US agreed to abandon 21,000 acres of leased land and the US has since given up the remaining territory, except for a small tracking station. On 31 Aug. 1962 Trinidad and Tobago became an independent member state of the British Commonwealth. A Republican Constitution was adopted on 1 Aug. 1976. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The island of Trinidad is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about 12 km off the north-east coast of Venezuela; several islets, the largest being Chacachacare, Huevos, Monos and Gaspar Grande, lie in the Gulf of Paria which separates Trinidad from Venezuela. The smaller island of Tobago lies about 31 km further to the north-east. Altogether, the islands cover 5,124 sq. km (1,978 sq. miles) of which Trinidad (including the islets) has 4,821 sq. km (1,861 sq. miles) and Tobago 303 sq. km (117 sq. miles). Population (census 1980): 1,079,800. (Trinidad, 1,039,100; Tobago, 40,700). Capital, Port-of-Spain, 58,400; other important towns, San Fernando (34,200) and Arima (24,600). Those of African descent are 40 • 8% of the population, Indians, 40 • 7%, mixed races, 16 • 3%, European, Chinese and others, 2-2%. English is spoken generally. Estimated population in 1987,1 -22m. Vital statistics (rate per 1,000), 1983: Births, 29-2; deaths, 6-6; infant deaths, 12-6. Proportion of population under 15 years (1984) 39 • 2%. Tobago is situated about 30-7 km north-east of Trinidad. Main town is Scarborough. Principal goods shipped from Tobago to Trinidad are copra, cocoa, livestock and poultry, fresh vegetables, coconut oil and coconut fibre. C L I M A T E . A tropical climate whose dry season runs from Jan. to June, with a wet season for the rest of the year. Temperatures are uniformly high the year round. Port-of-Spain. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 6 5 " (1,631 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND GOVERNMENT. The 1976 Constitution provides for a bicameral legislature of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate consists of 31 members, 16 being appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister, 6 on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and 9 at the discretion of the President. Tobago has a 15-man House of Assembly (with limited powers). The House of Representatives consists of 36 (34 for Trinidad and 2 for Tobago) elected members and a Speaker elected from within or outside the House. The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, appointed by the President, and other Ministers, including the Attorney-General. At the general elections in Dec. 1986 the National Alliance for Reconstruction won 33 seats; the People's National Movement won 3 seats. 1191

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President: Noor Hassanali. Prime Minister and Minister of Finance and Economy: A. N. R. Robinson. Local Government: Trinidad is divided into a city (the capital), 3 boroughs and 6 counties; Tobago has since 1980 had a 15-member elected House of Assembly with limited powers of self-government. Nationalflag: Red with a diagonal black strip edged in white. DEFENCE. The Defence Force has a regular and a reserve infantry battalion and a support battalion equipped with 81 mm mortars, and there is also a small air element, equipped with 2 Cessna 402 light transports. Personnel in 1988 totalled 2,075. In 1988 there were 2 Swedish (Karlskrona)-built patrol vessels, 2 British (Vosper, Portsmouth)-built patrol craft, 7 minor patrol boats, 1 survey vessel, 2 research craft and 1 sail training ship. A Commodore is Chief of Defence Staff while a Commander directs the Coast Guard. Of total defence personnel (1988) 640 were coastguard. The Police operate 6 coastal patrol cutters. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Trinidad and Tobago is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAS, Caricom and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. The 1987 budget envisaged revenue (in TT$) as 5,845-5m. and expenditure as 5,545-6m. Total external debt at 31 Dec. 1986, TT$5,600m. Currency. The currency is the Trinidad and Tobago dollar of 100 cents. £1 = TT$6-38;US$1 =TT$3-60 (March 1988). Banking. Banks operating: Republic Bank of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; Royal Bank of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; Bank of Commerce, Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; Bank of Nova Scotia; United Bank of Trinidad and Tobago Ltd; National Commercial Bank of Trinidad and Tobago; Workers' Bank of Trinidad and Tobago; Trinidad Co-operative Bank Ltd. A Central Bank began operations in Dec. 1964. Government savings banks are established in 69 offices, with a head office in Port-of-Spain. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. In 1986, 3,182m. kwh was generated. Supply 115 and 230 volts; 60 Hz. Oil. Oil production is one of Trinidad's leading industries and an important source of revenue. Commercial production began in 1909; production of crude oil in 1987 was 8-3m. tonnes. Trinidad also possesses 2 refineries, with rated distillation capacity of 305,000 bbls annually; crude oil is imported from Venezuela, Indonesia, Ecuador, Nigeria, Brazil, and Saudi Arabia and refined in Trinidad. The 'Pitch Lake' is an important source of asphalt; production, 1986, 5,360,700 cu. metres. Gas. In 1985 production was 7,413m. cu. ft., of which 1,601m. cu. ft. was flared and lost. Agriculture. Hectares under cultivation and care include (1984): Cocoa, 21,000; sugar, 18,000. Sugar production in 1986 was 92,300 (1985: 80,900) tonnes. The territory is still largely dependent on imported food supplies, especially flour, dairy products, meat and rice. Areas have been irrigated for rice, and soil and forest conservation is practised. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 77,000; sheep, 11,000; goats, 50,000; pigs, 83,000; poultry, 8m.

TRINIDAD AND

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TOBAGO

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1985, 474,300 tonnes of iron and steel were produced at the first integrated steelworks to be constructed in the Caribbean which was opened in 1981. Other manufacturing includes ammonia (production, 1985, 1,323,500 tonnes), fertilizers (1986 production, 1,888,000 tonnes), cement (338,000 tonnes, 1986), rum (2,307,000 proof gallons, 1986), beer (20,716 litres, 1986), cigarettes (920,000 kg, 1986). Labour. The working population in 1986 was 471,300 and unemployment was about 17%; about 30% of the labour force belong to unions. Commerce. Exports in 1986 were TT$4,962-2m. of which TT$3,504-4m. was mineral fuels and products and chemicals, TT$766-8m. USA took 61-5% of exports. Imports totalled TT$4,902 -8m. of which TT$ 1,792-9m. was for machinery and transport of which the USA supplied 41 • 8%. Total trade of Trinidad and Tobago with UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from U K

1983 52,748 148,811

1984 164,715 113,312

1985 81,719 93,897

1986 41,662 79,029

1987 38,600 57,016

Tourism. In 1986, 182,640 foreigners visited Trinidad and Tobago spending (estimate) TTS293-9m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1985) about 6,435 km of main and local roads. Motor vehicles registered in 1985 totalled 336,769, including 127,716 private cars, 26,392 hired and rented cars, and 33,846 goods vehicles. Aviation. The following airlines operate scheduled passenger, mail and freight services. British West Indian Airways, Ltd, Air Canada, PANAM, KLM, Linea Aeropostal Venezolana, Leeward Islands Air Transport, Caribair, British Airways, American Airlines, Guyana Airways, ALM Antillean Airline, Cruzeiro (Brazil), Eastern Airlines, Caribbean Airways and Viasa. Shipping. In 1983 19-2m. tons of cargo were handled. Post and Broadcasting. International communications to all parts of the world are provided by Trinidad and Tobago External Telecommunications Co. Ltd (TEXTEL) by means of a satellite earth station and various high quality radio circuits. The marine radio service is also maintained by TEXTEL. Number of post offices (1984), 69; postal agencies, 166; number of telephones (1986), 182,325. Four wireless stations are maintained by the Trinidad Government and 3 by airline companies. There were 500,000 radio and 300,000 television receivers in 1985. A meteorological station is maintained at Piarco airport. Cinemas (1986). There are 57 cinemas and 3 drive-in cinemas. Newspapers (1986). There are 4 daily newspapers with a total daily circulation (1984) of 166,380,2 Sunday newspapers with a total circulation (1984) of 161,832, and 3 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The High Court consists of the Chief Justice and 11 puisne judges. In criminal cases a judge of the High Court sits with a jury of 12 in cases of treason and murder, and with 9 jurors in other cases. The Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice and 3 Justices of Appeal; there is a limited right of appeal from it to the Privy Council. There are 3 High Courts and 12 magistrates' courts. Religion. In 1980, 15% of the population were Anglicans (under the Bishop of Trinidad and Tobago), 33-6% Roman Catholics (under the Archbishop of Port-ofSpain), 25% Hindus and 5-9% Moslems. Education. In 1985-86 there were 172,424 pupils enrolled in primary schools,

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TOBAGO

12,622 in government secondary schools, 17,576 in assisted secondary schools, 39,188 in junior secondary schools, 21,614 in senior comprehensive schools, 3,564 in composite schools and 4,419 in technical and vocational schools. The University of the West Indies campus in St Augustine had 2,684 full- and part-time students in 1984-85. Health. In 1985 there were 1,103 physicians, 129 dentists, 496 pharmacists and 31 hospitals and nursing homes with 4,087 beds. There were 3,344 nurses and midwives and 980 nursing assistants in government institutions. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Trinidad and Tobago in Great Britain (42 Belgrave Sq., London, SW1X 8NT) High Commissioner: Mervyn Assam. Of Great Britain in Trinidad and Tobago (Furness Hse., 90 Independence Sq., Port-of-Spain) High Commissioner: Sir Martin Berthoud, KCVO, CMG. Of Trinidad and Tobago in the USA (1708 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20036) Ambassador: J. P. Dumas. Of the USA in Trinidad and Tobago (15 Queen's Park West, Port-of-Spain) Ambassador: Sheldon J. Krys. Of Trinidad and Tobago to the United Nations Ambassador: D. H. N. Alleyne. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office, Government of Trinidad and Tobago, 2 Edward St., Port-of-Spain. Director: J. Harewood. Publications include Annual Statistical Digest, Quarterly Economic Report, Annual Overseas Trade Report, Population and Vital Statistics Annual Report, Report on Education Statistics. Facts on Trinidad and Tobago. Ministry of Information, Port-of-Spain, 1983 Immigration Guidelines. Government Printer, Port-of-Spain, 1980 Oil and Energy, Trinidad and Tobago. Government Printer, Port-of-Spain, 1980 Trinidad and Tobago Year Book. Port-of-Spain. Annual (from 1865) Chambers, F., Trinidad and Tobago. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1987 Cooper, St G. C. and Bacon, P. R. (eds.), The Natural Resources of Trinidad and Tobago. London,1981 Central Library: The Central Library of Trinidad and Tobago, Queen's Park East, Port-ofSpain. Acting Librarian: Mrs L. Hutchinson.

TUNISIA

Population:! -32m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$ 1,2 50 (198 5)

al-Jumhuriya at-Tunisiya

H I S T O R Y . Tunisia was a French protectorate from 1883 and achieved independence on 20 March 1956. The Constituent Assembly, elected on 25 March 1956, abolished the monarchy (of the Bey of Tunis) on 25 July 1957 and proclaimed a republic. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The boundaries are on the north and east the Mediterranean Sea, on the west Algeria and on the south Libya. The area is about 154,530 sq. km (59,664 sq. miles), including that portion of the Sahara which is to the east of the Djerid (salt marsh), extending towards Ghadames. At the census of 30 March 1984 there were 6,966,173 inhabitants (3,547,487 males and 3,419,026 females) of whom 52-8% were urban. Estimate (1986) 7,317,000. The census populations of the 23 gouvemorats were as follows as at 30 March 1984: Aryanah Bajah (Beja) Banzart (Bizerta) Bin Arus J u n d u b a h (Jendouba) Kaf (Le Kef) Madaniyin (Medenine) Mahdiyah (Mahdia) Munastir (Monastir) Nabul (Nabeul) Qabis (Gabes) Qafsah (Gafsa)

Sq. km 1,558 3,558 3,685 761 3,102 4,965 8,588 2,966 1,019 2,788 7,175 8,990

1984 374,192 274,706 394,670 246,193 359,429 247,672 295,889 270,435 278,478 461,405 240,016 235,723

Qasrayn (Kasserine) Qayrawan (Kairouan) Qibili(Kebili) Safaqis (Sfax) Sidi B u Z a y d (Sidi Bouzid) Silyanah (Siliana) Susah (Sousse) Tatawin (Tataouine) Tawzar (Tozeur) Tunis Zaghwan(Zaghouan)

Sq. km 8,066 6,712 22,084 7,545

1984 297,959 421,607 95,371 577,992

6,994 4,631 2,621 38,889 4,719 346 2,768

288,528 222,038 322,491 100,329 67,943 774,364 118,743

Tunis, the capital, had (census, 1984) 596,654 inhabitants: Sfax, 231,911; Aryanah, 98,655; Bizerta, 94,509; Djerba, 92,269; Gabes, 92,259; Sousse, 83,509; Kairouan, a holy city of the Moslems, 72,254; Bardo, 65,669; La Goulette, 61,609; Gafsa, 60,870; Beja, 46,708. Vital statistics (1982). Births, 221,027; deaths, 49,200; marriages, 50,177. The official language is Arabic but the use of French is widespread. C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from warm temperate in the north, where winters are mild and wet and the summers hot and dry, to desert in the south. Tunis. Jan. 48°F(8-9°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 16" (400 mm). Bizerta. Jan. 52°F (11 • PC), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 2 5 " (622 mm). Sfax. Jan. 52°F (11 • 1°C), July 78°F(25 -6°C). Annual rainfall 8 " (196 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution of the republic was promulgated on 1 June 1959. The President and the National Assembly are elected simultaneously by direct universal suffrage for a period of 5 years. The President cannot be re-elected more than 3 times consecutively, however on 18 March 1975 the National Assembly proclaimed Bourguiba 'President for Life'. An amendment to the Constitution in 1969 gives the Prime Minister power to act as President in case of a sudden vacancy of the Presidency. Elections were held on 2 Nov. 1986, when all 125 seats in the National Assembly were won by the Front National, an alliance of the ruling Parti Socialiste Destour1195

1196

TUNISIA

ien, renamed Rassemblement Démocratique Constitutionelle, and the Union générale des travailleurs tunisiens. The elections were boycotted by opposition parties. President ofthe Republic: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (appointed 7 Nov. 1987). The Cabinet in Jan. 1988 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Hedi Baccouche. Justice: Mohamed Salah Ayari. National Defence: Salaheddine Bali. Foreign Affairs: Mahmoud Mestiri. Interior: Habib Ammar. Information: Abdelwahab Abdallah. National Economy: Salaheddine Ben M'Barek. Finance: Nouri Zorgati. Education, Higher Education and Scientific Research: Tijani Chelly. Supplies and Housing: Sadok Ben Jemma. Transport and Tourism: Abderrazak Kefi. Social Affairs: Taoufik Cheikhrouhou. Public Health: Souad Lyacoubi. Agriculture: Lassaad Ben Osman. Agricultural Production and Agri-Business Industries: Mohamed Ghedira. Cultural Affairs: Zakaria Ben Mustapha. Youth and Sports: Fouad Mebazza. Communications: Brahim Khouaja. Governor of the Central Bank: Ismail Khelil. Ministers-Delegate to the Prime Minister: Hamed Karoui (Director of the Socialist Destourien Party), Mohamed Ghannouchi (Planning), Houssine Cherif (Public Service and Administrative Reform). There were 9 Secretaries of State. Local Government. The country is divided into 23 gouvernorats, sub-divided into 199 districts and then into communes and imadas. Flag: Red with a white circle in the middle, on which is a 5-pointed red star encircled by a red crescent. D E F E N C E . Selective military service is 1 year. Officer-cadets are being trained in France. Army. The Army consists of 2 combined arms, 1 Sahara and 1 para-commando brigades; 1 armoured reconnaissance, 1 field, 2 anti-aircraft, 1 anti-tank and 1 engineer regiments. Equipment includes 14 M-48 and 54 M-60A3 main battle, and 45 AMX-13 and 10 M-4I light tanks. Strength (1988) 31,000. There are also the paramilitary gendarmerie (2,000 men) and National Guard (7,000 men). Navy. The flotilla consists of 1 frigate (ex-US 45-year-old destroyer-escort), 3 fast missile craft, 2 fast gunboats (ex-Chinese), 2 fast attack craft (British-built in 1977), 2 ex-US-coastal minesweepers used as patrol ships, 4 patrol vessels (French built), 10 coastal patrol boats, 4 protection launches and 1 large tug. In 1988 naval personnel totalled 4,500 officers and ratings. Air Force. Equipment of the Air Force, acquired from various Western sources, includes 1 squadron of Aermacchi M.B.326K/Ljet light attack aircraft; 1 squadron of F-5E/F Tiger II fighters; 12 SF.260W piston-engined light trainer/attack aircraft; 2 C-130H Hercules transports, 2 S.208 liaison aircraft, 6 SF.260M trainers, 7 M.B.326B jet trainers, 6 UH-1H, 18 AB.205, 6 Ecureuil and about 12 Alouette II and III helicopters. Personnel (1988)about4,100. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Tunisia is a member of UN, OAU, the Islamic Conference and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. A seventh development plan (1987-91) envisaged investment of 8,000m. dinars. Budget (in dinars). Budget estimates, 1984, revenue, 2,613m.; expenditure, 2,575m. Currency. On 1 Nov. 1958 a new currency, the dinar, divided into 1,000 millimes, was established. Note circulation, Aug. 1980, was 910m. dinars. Currency consists of coins of 1,2,5,10,20, 50,100 and 500 millimes, and notes of 500 millimes, 1 dinar, 5 and 10 dinars. £1 = 1-45 dinar, US$1 =0-82 dinar (March 1988).

TUNISIA

1197

Banking. The Central Bank of Tunisia is the bank of issue. In 1983 there were 39 banks operating in Tunisia, including 7 off-shore banks. In 1984 there were 8 development banks. Bank deposits amounted to 2,115m. dinars at 31 Dec. 1982. Weights and Measures. The metric system of weights and measures has almost entirely taken the place of those of Tunisia, but corn is still sold in kaffis and wibas. The kfiz (of 16 wiba, each of 12 sa ") = 16 bushels. The ounce = 31 -487 grammes. The principal measure of length is the metre. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Electrical energy generated was 3,820m. kwh, in 1986. Supply 127 and 220 volts; 50 Hz. Oil. Crude oil production (1987) 5m. tonnes. Gas. Natural gas production ( 1984) 430m. cu. metres. Minerals. Mineral production (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1984 (and 1981): Phosphate, 5,385 (4,978); iron ore, 309 (400); lead ore, 6-5 (14); zinc ore, 12 1(15). Processed minerals (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1982: Pig iron, 97; crude steel, 105. Agriculture. Tunisia may be divided into 5 districts—the north, characterized by its mountainous formation, having large and fertile valleys (e.g., the valley of the Medjerdah and the plains of Mornag, Mateur and Béja); the north-east, with the peninsula of Cap Bon, the soil being specially suited for the cultivation of oranges, lemons and tangerines; the Sahel, where olive trees abound; the centre, the region of high table lands and pastures, and the desert of the south, famous for its oases and gardens, where dates grow in profusion. Agriculture is the chief industry, and large estates predominate. Of the total area of 15,583,000 hectares, about 9m. hectares are productive, including 2m. under cereals, 3 -6m. used as pasturage, 900,000 forests and 1 -3m. uncultivated. Production, 1985 (in 1,000 tonnes) wheat, 1,400; barley, 686; olive oil, 115; citrus fruits, 225; dates, 60. Wine (1985) 67,000 tonnes. Other products are apricots, pears, apples, peaches, plums, figs, pomegranates, almonds, shaddocks, pistachios, esparto grass, henna and cork. Livestock(1986): Horses, 55,000; asses, 217,000; mules, 75,000; cattle, 643,000; sheep,5-3m.;goats, l lm.;camels, 181,000;pigs,4,000. Fisheries. In 1980, 6,209 boats with 22,555 men were engaged in fishing. In 1984 the catch amounted to 73,500 tonnes; 1981,57,500. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Major modern plants include a sugar refinery in Béja (57,700 tonnes in 1975), a cellulose plant in Kassérine (22,000 tonnes in 1976), a petroleum refinery in Bizerta and a steel plant at Menzel Bourguiba. There is a marble work plant and a tyre factory at Mégrine. Production, 1984 (in 1,000 tonnes): Crude steel, 166; cement, 2,742; lime, 484; phosphoric acid, 550; petrol, 215. Trade Unions. The Union Générale des Travailleurs Tunisiens won 27 seats in the parliamentary elections (1 Nov. 1981). There are also the Union Tunisienne de l'Industrie, du Commerce et de l'Artisanat (UTICA, the employers' union) and the Union National des Agriculteurs (UNA, farmers' union). Commerce. The imports and exports for calendar years (in 1,000 dinars) were as follows: Imports Exports

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1,428,400 1,866,000 2,008,000 2,116,100 2,472,500 2,287,000 904,100 1,234,000 1,188,000 1,263,900 1,396,800 1,443,000

Exports to France in 1985 totalled 384m. dinars, and imports from France, 632m. dinars and exports to USA were valued at 107m. dinars and imports from USA were valued at 133m. dinars.

1198

TUNISIA

Total trade between Tunisia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 3 l984 m 5 m 6 m 7 ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

18,125 44,559

21,086 47,077

39,826 43,209

17,292 39,824

14,714 24,943

Tourism. In 1986, there were 1 • 5m. tourists and 40,000 cruise passengers. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 26,200 km of roads, of which 11,000 km were main roads. Number of motor vehicles, 1982, included 141,185 private cars, 141,426 commercial vehicles and 11,669 motorcycles. Railways. In 1986 there were 2,175 km of railways (465 km of 1,435 mm gauge and 1,689 km of 1,000 mm gauge), of which 21 km electrified and ran 1,877m. tonnekm and 750m. passenger-km. A suburban railway links Tunis and La Marsa, and a light rail network opened in Tunis in 1985. Aviation. The national airline is Tunis-Air. There are 5 international airports, the main one is at Tunis-Carthage. In 1983,3,420,600 passengers were carried. Shipping. The main port is Tunis, and its outer port is Tunis-Goulette. These two ports and Sfax, Sousse and Bizerta are directly accessible to ocean going vessels. The port of La Skhirra, in the south, is used for the shipping of Algerian and Tunisian oil. In 1983,5,370 ships of 19,224,000 tons entered Tunisian ports. Post and Broadcasting. There were, in 1983, 218,808 telephones. There were, in 1978, 403 post offices, and 6 wireless transmitting stations. Wireless sets in use in 1985 were l-15m. Television began in 1966 and in 1985 there were 400,000 sets. Cinemas (1976). There were 17 5 cinemas with a seating capacity of44,000. Newspapers. There were (1985) 2 Arabic and 4 French daily newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 51 magistrates' courts, 13 courts of first instance, 3 courts of appeal (in Tunis, Sfax and Sousse) and the High Court in Tunis. A Personal Status Code was promulgated on 13 Aug. 1956 and applied to Tunisians from 1 Jan. 1957. This raised the status of women, made divorce subject to a court decision, abolished polygamy and decreed a minimum marriage age. Religion. The constitution recognizes Islam as the state religion. There are about 20,000 Roman Catholics, under the Prelate of Tunis. The Greek Church, the French Protestants and the English Church are also represented. Education. All education was in 1956 made dependent on the Ministry of National Education. The 208 independent koranic schools have been nationalized and the distinction between religious and public schools has been abolished. All education is free from primary schools to university. A teachers' training college (école normale supérieure) was established in 1955. There are also a high school of law, 2 centres of economic studies, 2 schools of engineering, 2 medical schools, a faculty of agriculture, 2 institutes of business administration and one school of dentistry. In 1983—84 there were 3,074 primary schools with 33,546 teachers and 1,201,645 pupils; 326 secondary schools with 17,500 teachers and 378,349 pupils. In 1980—81 there were 60,137 students at technical and vocational schools and 4,101 students in teacher-training. The University of Tunis had 38,829 students and 5,019 teaching staffin 1984-85. Health. In 1980 there were 98 hospitals (13,571 beds). The registered medical personnel in Tunisia comprised 1,800 doctors, 313 pharmacists, 176 dentists and 60 veterinaries.

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Social Security. A system of social security was set up in 1950 (amended 1963, 1964 and 1970). D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Tunisia in Great Britain (29 Prince's Gate, London, SW7 1QG) Ambassador: Hamadi Khouini,CBE (accredited 12 March 1987). Of Great Britain in Tunisia (5 Place de la Victoire, Tunis) Ambassador and Consul-General: S. P. Day. Of Tunisia in the USA (1515 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20005) Ambassador: Habib Ben Yahia. Of the USA in Tunisia ( 144 Ave. de la Liberté, Tunis) Ambassador:Robert H. Pelletreau, Jr. Of Tunisia to the United Nations Ambassador: Ahmed Ghezal. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Institut National de la Statistique (27 Rue de Liban, Tunis) was set u p in 1947. Its main publications are: Annuaire statistique de la Tunisie (latest issue, 1975). Findlay, Allan M., Findlay, A n n e M., and Lawless, R. I., Tunisia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Ling, D. L., Tunisia: From Protectorate to Republic. Indiana Univ. Press, 1967 Rudebeck, L.., The Tunisian Experience: Party and People. London, 1970 Salem, N., Habib Bourguiba, Islam and the Creation of Tunisia. London, 1984 Tomkinson, M., Tunisia: A Holiday Guide. London and H a m m a m e t , 1984

Capital: Ankara Population: 50-67m. (1985) GNPper capita: USS1,020 ( 1986)

TURKEY Tùrkiye Cumhuriyeti

H I S T O R Y . The Turkish War of Independence (1919-22), following the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, was led and won by Mustafa Kemal (Atatiirk) on behalf of the Grand National Assembly which first met in Ankara on 23 April 1920. On 20 Jan. 1921 the Grand National Assembly voted a constitution which declared that all sovereignty belonged to the people and vested all power, both executive and legislative, in the Grand National Assembly. The name 'Ottoman Empire' was later replaced by 'Turkey'. On 1 Nov. 1922 the Grand National Assembly abolished the office of Sultan and Turkey became a republic on 29 Oct. 1923. Religious courts were abolished in 1924, Islam ceased to be the official state religion in 1928, women were given the franchise and western-style surnames were adopted in 1934. On 27 May 1960 the Turkish Army, directed by a National Unity Committee under the leadership of Gen. Cemal Giirsel, overthrew the government of the Democratic Party. The Grand National Assembly was dissolved and party activities were suspended. Party activities were legally resumed on 12 Jan. 1961. A new constitution was approved in a referendum held on 9 July 1961 and general elections were held the same year. On 12 Sept. 1980, the Turkish armed forces overthrew the Demirel Government (Justice Party). Parliament was dissolved and all activities of political parties were suspended. The Constituent Assembly was convened in Oct. 1981, and prepared a new Constitution which was enforced after a national referendum on 7 Nov. 1982. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Turkey is bounded west by the Aegean Sea and by Greece, north by Bulgaria and the Black Sea, east by the USSR and Iran, and south by Iraq, Syria and the Mediterranean. The area (including lakes) is 779,452 sq. km (300,947 sq. miles). Area in Europe (Trakya), 23,764 sq. km. Area in Asia (Anadolu), 755,688 sq. km; population (census 1985), 50,664,458. The census population is given as follows: 1927 1935 1940 1945

Total 13,648,270 16,158,018 17,820,950 18,790,174

Total 20,947,188 24,064,763 27,754,820 31,391,421

1950 1955 1960 1965

1970 1975 1980 1985

Total 35,605,176 40,347,719 44,736,957 50,664,458

The population of the provinces, at the census in 1985, was as follows: Adana 1,725,940 Adiyaman 430,728 Afyonkarahisar 666,978 Agri 421,131 Amasya 358,289 Ankara 3,306,327 Antalya 891,149 Artvin 226,338 Aydin 743,419 Balikesir 910,282 Bilecik 160,909 Bingòl 241,548 Bitlis 300,843 Bolu 504,778 Burdur 248,002 Bursa 1,324,015 417,121 Çanakkale

Çankin Çorum Denizli Diyarbakir Edirne Elâzig Erzincan Erzurum Eski§ehir Gaziantep Gireçun Gumuçhane Hakkari Hatay Isparta Içel Istanbul

1200

263,964 599,204 667,478 934,505 389,638 483,715 299,985 856,175 597,397 966,490 502,151 283,753 182,645 1,002,252 382,844 1,034,085 5,842,985

Izmir 2,317,829 K a h r a m a n m a r a ; ; 840,472 Kars 722,431 Kastamonu 450,353 Kayseri 864,060 Kirklareli 297,098 Kirçehir 260,156 Kocaeli 742,245 Konya 1,769,050 Kiitahya 543,384 Malatya 665,809 Manisa 1,050,130 Mardin 652,069 Mugla 486,290 Mu§ 339,492 Nev§ehir 278,129 Nigde 560,386

TURKEY Ordu Rize Sakarya Samsun §anliurfa Siirt

763,857 374,206 610,500 1,108,710 795,034 524,741

Sinop Sivas Tekirdag Tokat Trabzon

1201 280,140 772,209 402,721 679,071 786,194

Tunceli U$ak Van Yozgat Zonguldak

151,906 271,261 547,216 545,301 1,044,945

T h e p o p u l a t i o n of t o w n s of over 100,000 inhabitants, at t h e census o f O c t . 1985, was as follows: Istanbul Ankara Izmir Adana Bursa Gaziantep Konya Kayseri Eski;ehir l 51 2 25 25 2 3' 33 129 135' 6 6 4 4 32 « 33 < 86' 88' 82' 102'

1984 14 5' 25 2 33 139' 5 4 32 4 84 5 105'

1985 14 51 25 2 33 140' 5 4 34« 83 5 112'

1986 15 51 25 2 3 ' 140' 5 4 38 4 82 5 115'

1987 15 32 25 2 33 141 ' 5 4 404 82 ! 116'

Comprises 1 training carrier and 2 other Essex class aircraft carriers laid up in reserve. Comprises 5 flat-top hangar/dock heavy amphibious assault ships and 7 lighter flat-top hangar ships and 13 lighter semi-flat-top amphibious transports dock. ' Includes 1 Middle East Flagship (converted amphibious transport dock). 4 Includes 24 frigates (destroyer leaders, DLG) reclassified as cruisers in 1975 and 1980. ! Includes 10 frigates (destroyer leaders, DLG) reclassified as destroyers in 1975. Of the 82 destroyers 40 are classified as DDG. 6 Includes 65 escort ships reclassified as frigates on 1 July 1975. ' Includes 9 Trident (Ohio class) ballistic missile armed very large (see Table) vessels, 29 other ballistic missile submarines and 103 attack submarines. 2

UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA

1391

T h e table b e l o w s h o w s principal surface ships, guns under 3 - i n . calibre not given: Standard displaceShaft Comment horseSpeed pleted Name Tons Aircraft Principal armament power Knots

Multi-Purpose (Former Attack) Aircraft Carriers 1987 1982 1977 1975

Theodore Roosevelt Carl Vinson Eisenhower Nimitz

1968 1965

John F. Kennedy 61,000 Ì America 60,300 J

85

1962

Enterprise

75,700

84

1962

Constellation

61,000

85

1961

Kitty Hawk

61,000

85

1959 1957

Independence Ranger

60,000 ) ' 80 to 75 60,000 J

1956 1955

Saratoga Forrestal

59,100 59,100

80 to 75 70

33,250

70

52,500

75

51,000

75

1950 *Oriskany 1947 1945

1

Coral Sea 2 Midway

2

81,600 81,600 81,600 81,600 J

3 BPDMS 3 launchers with Sea Sparrow missiles

90

3 BPDMS launchers with NATO Sea Sparrow missiles 3 NATO Sea Sparrow missile launchers 3 Sea Sparrow missile launchers 3 BPDMS launchers with NATO Sea Sparrow missiles 3 BPDMS launchers with Sea Sparrow missiles 3 BPDMS launchers with Sea Sparrow missiles 2 5-in. guns 2 Sea Sparrow missile launchers 2 Sea Sparrow missile launchers

260,000 (nuclear power)

33

280,000

34

300,000 (nuclear power)

35

280,000

34

280,000

34

280,000

34

260,000

33

150,000

33

212,000

33

212,000

33

i*Bon Homme 4 5-in. guns 1944 • 150,000 33,100 70 I Richard' ' In reserve, Bon Homme Richard still as CVA, and Oriskany still as CV. 2 Sister ship Franklin D. Roosevelt was stricken from the Navy List in 1977. 3 Basic Point Defence Missile System.

33

*Of sister ships Intrepid was stricken in 1982 to become a memorial ship at New York City, Shangri La was scrapped in 1983 and the anti-submarine support aircraft carriers Bennington and Hornet were deleted from the list in 1987.

Training Carrier 1943

Lexington

32,800

—

Removed

150,000

33

The 'Essex' class originally comprised 24 ships, the Essex, Yorktown, Intrepid, Hornet, Franklin, Lexington, Bunker Hill, Wasp, Ticonderoga, Hancock, Randolph, Bennington, Bon Homme Richard, Shangri-La, Tarawa, Antietam, Boxer, Kearsarge, Lake Champlain, Leyte, Philippine Sea, Princeton, Valley Forge, Oriskany. Only the above 2* now remain in reserve. For dates and other details of the 18 stricken during 1964-81, and of the 'Bogue' class, 'Commencement Bay' class, and other former aircraft carriers, see 1981-82 and earlier editions.

Helicopter Carriers

1

(Amphibious Assault Ships)

1981 Pelileu 26 to 42 ( 2 Sea Sparrow 1980 Nassau 39,300 helicopters J missile launchers 1978 Belleau Wood 70,000 24 (full load) (orV/STOL I (BPDMS); 1977 Saipan aircraft) 13 5-in. guns 1976 Tarawa 2 ' According to official statistics eleven of the 12 amphibious transports dock (the other is a command ship) of the Austin class; of 12,000 tons,and the two of the Raleigh class, each with a capacity of six helicopters, are now listed under the generic heading of helicopter carriers. 2 In many ways these five heavy through deck hangar ships are equivalent to orthodox large aircraft carriers in other principal navies.

1392

U N I T E D STATES OF Standard displacement

Completed 1970 1968 1966 1965 1963 1962 1961

AMERICA

Name

Tons

Helicopter

Inchon New Orleans Tripoli Guam' Guadalcanal Okinawa Iwojima

Aircraft

Carriers

1

Principal

(Amphibious

20 to 26 helicopters 18,800 (or4V/STOL (full load) aircraft instead of helos)

armament

Assault

Shaft horsepower

Speed Knots

Ships)

[ 2 Sea Sparrow I missile launchers | (BPDMS); l 4 3-in. guns

23,000

23

1 Guam was modified in 1971-72 as 'interim' sea control ship and operated Harrier fixed wing aircraft but reverted to the amphibious role in 1974.

Command

Ships

1

2 Sea Sparrow 1 1971 Mount Whitney 19,100 1 missile launchers; f 22,000 23 1970 Blue Ridge (full load) helicopter . 4 3-in. guns (twin) J 1 Northampton, originally heavy cruiser; and: Wright, originally light fleet aircraft carrier, converted into Command Ships were stricken from the Navy List in 1977-78. The amphibious transport dock Coronado was converted to a command ship to relieve La Salle as flagship of the Middle East Force.

Battleships

1Q44 /Missouri 1 (Wisconsin

9 16-in.;20 5-in. (Missouri has been and Wisconsin is being refitted with guided missiles like sister ships below

1

212,000 33 9 16-in.; 12 5m.; 8 quadruple Tomahawk flowa 1 cruise missile 1943 LNew Jersey 1 launchers; 4 quadruple Harpoon launch cannisters 1 All laid u p in reserve since 1955-58 but reactivation scheduled for recommissioning and modernisation and conversion to cruise missile carrier in 1984 (Iowa) followed by Missouri deployed at sea in 1986 and Wisconsin to be completed by Dec. 1988 (scheduled). 2 Reactivated in 1967 and commissioned 1968-69, reserve 1969 to July 1981. Reactivated Oct. 1981 and recommissioned Dec. 1982 on modernisation and conversion to cruise missile carrier. Began first operational deployment in March 1983. 45,000

Cruisers 1988 1988 1988 1987 1987 1987 1987 1986 1986 1986 1985 1984 1983

Princeton Philippine Sea Lake Champlain San Jacinto LeyteGulf Antietam Mobile Bay Bunker Hill Thomas S. Gates Valley Forge Vincennes Yorktown Ticonderoga 1

1961

Long Beach

9,000

15,540

helicopters

deck for helicopter

2 vertical missile launchers and 8 quadruple Tomahawk launchers in earliest 5 ships, later 8 ships 8 quadruple 'Harpoon' 80,000 (gas) and 2 twin Standard/ ASROC launchers (but will be equipped as earlier ships); 2 5-in. 2 quadruple Harpoon, 2 quadruple 'Tomahawk' 80,000 and 2 twin Terrier/ (nuclear Standard; guided mis- power) sile launchers; 2 5-in.

30

30

' Originally rated as guided missile destroyer. Ticonderoga, D D G 47, was redesignated CG47 in 1980 when the new type were reclassified as guided missile cruisers.

UNITED STATES OF

1393

AMERICA

Of the heavy cruisers of the 'Des Moines' class Salem and Des Moines (17,000 tons, 8-inch guns) were deleted from the list in 1987. Sister ship Newport News was stricken from the Navy List on 31 July 1978. Albany and Chicago were to have been disposed of in 1980 but in 1981 it was planned to retain these ships in reserve for a minimum of three years and Oklahoma City retained for logistic support but she was again listed for disposal in 1983. Chicago was again listed for disposal in 1984 (possible naval memorial) and Albany was deleted from the list in 1986. For conversions and disposals of other cruisers of the 'Oregon City', 'Baltimore', 'Cleveland' and 'Juneau' classes see 1981 - 8 2 and earlier editions. Standard displacement

Completed

Name

Tons

Aircraft

Principal

Cruisers, Former Frigates (Destroyer

1980 1978 1977 1976

Arkansas 1 Mississippi I Texas | Virginia J

9,600

1974 1973

South Carolina California

9,560

1967

Truxtun

8,400

1962

Bainbridge

7,800

1964-67 9 Belknap Class

1

1962-64 9 Leahy Class 2

helicopters

1 helicopter

armament

Shaft horsepower

Leaders)

i 2 quadruple Harpoon; i 100,000 2 quadruple Tomahawk; i (nuclear I 2 twin Standard/ {power) { A S R O C ' ; 2 5-in.

33

i 2 quadruple Harpoon; I 2 single Standard; 12 5-in.

f 60,000 ì (nuclear {power)

30

f 2 quadruple Harpoon; 1 twin 'Standard'; 1 5-in.; f 2 quadruple Harpoon; 12 twin 'Standard'

60,000 ? (nuclear power)

30

34

1 6,570 helicopter

i 2 quadruple Harpoon; 'Tomahawk' being fitted; [ 1 twin Standard; 1 5-in.

85,000

5,670

f 2 quadruple Harpoon; 12 twin Standard

85,000

—

Speed Knots

1

The 'Belknap' class comprises Belknap, Biddle, Fox, Home, Josephus Daniels, Sterett, Wainwright and William H. Standley. 2 The 'Leahy' class comprises Dale, England, Gridley, Halsey, Harry E. Yarnell, Reeves, Richmond K. Turner and Worden.

34 Jouett, Leahy,

The 10 'Coontz' class comprises Coontz, Dahlgren, Dewey, Farragut, King, Luce, Macdonough, Mahan, Preble and William V. Pratt. They were reclassified from frigates (DLG) to destroyers (DDG) on 1 July 1975 when the later frigates above were reclassified as cruisers. See 1981-82 edition for earlier destroyer leader/frigates.

Capital (Strategic) Submarines Displacement (submerged) Tons

Class

No.

'726'

9

18,700

'640'

12 2

8,500

'616'

17 2

8,250

Ballistic Missile Tubes (Vertical) 24 Trident f 16 Poseidon! I (or Trident)/ i 16 Poseidon! 1 (or Trident) J

Nuclear Reactors

1

Shaft Horsepower 60,000 15,000

1

15,000

Speed Knots 30 dived 20 surface 30 dived 20 surface 30 dived 21 surface

Completion:- '726' or 'Ohio' class in 1981-86 (five more to follow in 1988-91); '640' or 'Benjamin Franklin' class 1965-67; '616' or 'Lafayette' class in 1963-64; '608' or 'Ethan Allen' class (formerly Polaris armed) in 1961-63; '598' or 'George Washington' class (formerly Polaris armed) in 1959-61. All ballistic missile armed submarines also have four 21-inch torpedo tubes. 1 Of the '608' or Ethan Allen class reclassified as fleet submarines. Ethan Allen (608) stricken in 1983 (target), Thomas A. Edison and Thomas Jefferson deleted in 1985. Three o f ' 5 9 8 ' or George Washington class converted to fleet submarines (of which George Washington and Patrick Henry have been stricken) and two scrapped, Theodore Roosevelt (600) and Abraham Lincoln (602) both targets. 2 Six converted to Trident missile system.

1394

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

In addition to the above named principal surface ships there are 141 nuclearpowered submarines (including the ballistic missile armed vessels in the table), 5 conventionally propelled submarines, 82 destroyers, 116 frigates, 4 mine countermeasures vessels, 21 ocean minesweepers (reserve training), 4 patrol vessels, 6 hydrofoil missile patrol craft, 70 amphibious warfare ships, 150 landing craft, 40 replenishment ships, 100 sealift ships, 130 fleet support ships and auxiliaries, 60 oilers, 100 minor landing craft and 1,000 service craft. Ships under construction include 5 submarines of 18,700 tons submerged with nuclear propulsion and ballistic missiles, 17 nuclear propelled attack (fleet) submarines of 6,900 tons submerged; the giant nuclear propelled aircraft carriers Abraham Lincoln and George Washington each of 93,500 tons full load; 9 guided missile cruisers, 3 guided missile destroyers and 4 mine countermeasures vessels. Projected new construction includes 10 more 'Ohio' class nuclear propelled deterrent or 'strategic' submarines; 5 more nuclear propelled fleet or 'attack' submarines; 5 guided missile cruisers, 26 guided missile destroyers, 6 mine countermeasures vessels and 17 coastal minehunters. Naval Aviation. The official figures for the total aircraft inventory are (1988) 6,000 in the Navy and Marine Corps, of which 5,100 are active and 4,500 are operating. The main fighters are the F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet; the A-6 Intruder, A-7 Corsair, F/A-18 Hornet, A-4 Skyhawk and AV-8 Harrier are assigned to strike missions; the E-2C Hawkeye is used for airborne early warning; the EA-6B Prowler is used for electronic countermeasures support; the P-3 Orion and S-3 Viking for anti-submarine warfare and maritime patrol; the SH-2 Seasprite, SH-3 Sea King and SH-60 Sea Hawk helicopters for ASW and antishipping; transports include the C-130 Hercules, C-2 Greyhound and C-9 Skytrain II aircraft plus UH-1 Iroquois, CH-46 Sea Knight and CH-53 Sea Stallion helicopters; the T-34C Turbo-Mentor, T-2 Buckeye, T-44 King Air, F-5E/F Tiger II, F-2 Kfir and TH-57 Sea Ranger helicopters are used for primary and advanced training. The US Coast Guard operates under the Department of Transportation in time of peace and as a part of the Navy in time of war or when directed by the President. The act of establishment stated the Coast Guard 'shall be a military service and branch of the armed forces of the United States at all times'. The Coast Guard did operate as part of the Navy during the First and Second World Wars. It also had some units serving in Vietnam. It comprises 250 ships including cutters of destroyer, frigate, corvette and patrol vessel types, powerful icebreakers, and paramilitary auxiliaries and tenders, plus over 2,000 rescue and utility craft. It also maintains 70 fixed-wing aircraft and 130 helicopters. The Coast Guard missions include maintenance of aids to navigation, enforcement of maritime laws, enforcement of international treaties, environmental protection (especially waterway pollution), commercial vessel safety programmes, recreational boating safety, and search and rescue efforts. In the new construction programme are 2 cutters of frigate size and utility each capable of carrying a helicopter. The strength of personnel in 1988 was 5,000 officers, 1,240 warrant officers and 30,500 enlisted personnel and 700 cadets. Air Force. Secretary of the Air Force: Edward C. Aldridge, Jr. The Department of the Air Force was activated within the Department of Defense on 18 Sept. 1947, under the terms of the National Security Act of 1947. It is administered by a Secretary of the Air Force, assisted by an Under Secretary and 3 Assistant Secretaries (Research, Development and Logistics; Financial Management; and Manpower, Reserve Affairs and Installations). The USAF, under the administration of the Department of the Air Force, is supervised by a Chief of Staff, who is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He is assisted by a Vice Chief of Staff, Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, and 5 Deputy Chiefs of Staff (Manpower and Personnel; Programs and Resources; Research, Development and Acquisition; Plans and Operations; and Logistics and Engineering). The USAF consists of active duty Air Force officers and enlisted personnel, civilian employees, the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve. For operation-

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1395

al purposes the service is organized into 13 major commands, 16 separate operating agencies and 6 direct reporting units. The Strategic Air Command, equipped with long-range bombers based both in the USA and overseas, and with intercontinental ballistic missiles, is maintained primarily for strategic air operations anywhere on the globe. Tactical Air Command is the Air Force's mobile strike force, able to deploy US general-purpose air forces anywhere in the world for tactical air combat operations. The Military Airlift Command provides air transportation of personnel and cargo for all military services on a worldwide basis; and is also responsible for Air Force audio-visual products, weather service, and aerospace rescue and recovery operations. The other major commands are the Air Force Systems Command, Air Force Logistics Command, Air Force Communications Command, Electronic Security Command, Air Training Command, Alaskan Air Command, Pacific Air Forces, Air Force Space Command, United States Air Forces in Europe, and Air University. The Alaskan, Pacific and European commands conduct, control and coordinate offensive and defensive air operations according to tasks assigned by their respective theatre commanders. The separate operating agencies are the Air Force Accounting and Finance Center, Air Force Audit Agency, Air Force Commissary Service, Air Force Engineering and Services Center, Air Force Inspection and Safety Center, Air Force Intelligence Service, Air Force Office of Security Police, Air Force Military and Personnel Center, Air Force Office of Medical Support, Air Force Management Engineering Agency, Air Force Service Information and News Center, Air Force Legal Services Center, Air Force Office of Special Investigations, Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center, Air Force Reserve, and Air Reserve Personnel Center. Air Force direct reporting units are the Air Force Academy, Air National Guard, Air Force Technical Applications Center, Air Force District of Washington, D.C., Air Force Civilian Personnel Management Center and USAF Historical Research Center. Of the fighter and interceptor aircraft in service, the F-15 Eagle, F-5 Tiger II, F-16 Fighting Falcon, F-106 Delta Dart, F - l l l and F-4 Phantom II fly faster than the speed of sound in level flight and can carry a variety of armament. The E-3 Sentry (AWACS) is a large long-range airborne warning and control aircraft; the EF-111A Raven is a tactical electronics jamming aircraft produced by conversion of the F-l 11A fighter. The subsonic A-7 Corsair II, the A-10 Thunderbolt and the AC-130H are close air support aircraft. The OA-37 and the OV-IO are observation aircraft. Strategic bombers are the B-52 Stratofortress and the B-1B heavy bombers and the 'swing-wing' FB-111A. The Strategic Air Command also operates the KC-1 OA Extender and the KC-13 5 Stratotanker for aerial refuelling and the SR-71 Blackbird and the U-2 and TR-1 for reconnaissance. Primary transports include the C-141 Starlifter the C-5 Galaxy, KC-1 OA Extender and the turboprop-powered C-130 Hercules. Intercontinental ballistic missiles in USAF service are the Minuteman II and III and Peace Keeper (M-x) now being deployed. United States Air Forces in Europe operates the Ground Launched Cruise Missiles. In 1988, the Air Force had about 606,800 military personnel. The service operates approximately 9,500 aircraft in the active Air Force, the Air National Guard and the Air Force Reserve. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. USA is a member of UN, OAS, NATO, OECD and the Colombo Plan. ECONOMY Budget. The budget covers virtually all the programmes of federal government, including those financed through trust funds, such as for social security, Medicare and highway construction. Receipts of the Government include all income from its sovereign or compulsory powers; income from business-type or market-orientated activities of the Government is offset against outlays. Budget receipts and outlays (in$lm.):

1396

U N I T E D STATES O F A M E R I C A

Year ending Surplus (+) Outlays2 or deficit (-) 30 June Receipts2 1945 92,712 45,159 -47,553 42,562 1950 39,443 - 3,119 1955 65,451 68,444 - 2,993 92,492 1960 92,191 + 301 1970 192,807 195,649 - 2,842 1982 ' 617,766 745,706 -127,940 1983 600,562 -207,764 808,327 1984 666,457 -185,324 851,781 1985 734,057 946,316 -212,260 1986 769,091 989,815 -220,725 1987 ' 858,494 1,016,893 -158,399 1,032,294 1988 ' 909,029 -123,266 1 From 1977 the fiscal year changed from a 1 July-30 June basis to a 1 0ct.-30 Sept. basis. 2 From 1970, revised to include Medicare premiums and collections. ' Aug. 1987 estimates. Budget receipts, by source, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Source 1986 Individual income taxes 348,959 Corporation income taxes 63,143 Social insurance taxes and contributions 283,901 Excise taxes 32,919 Estate and gift taxes 6,958 Customs 13,327 Miscellaneous 19,884 Total 1

769,091

1987 > 392,804 89,620 301,872 31,947 8,144 14,753 19,354

1988> 396,121 105,413 331,846 32,733 7,917 15,814 19,185

858,494

909,029

Aug. 1987 estimates and includes off-budget receipts.

Budget outlays, by function, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Source National defence 1 International affairs General science, space, and technology Energy Natural resources and environment Agriculture Commerce and housing credit Transportation Community and regional development Education, training, employment and social services Health Medicare Income security Social Security Veterans' benefits and services Administration ofjustice General government General purpose fiscal assistance Central federal credit activities Net interest Allowances 2 Undistributed offsetting receipts

1986 273,375 14,152 8,976 4,735 13,639 31,449 4,448 28,117 7,233 30,585 35,936 70,164 119,796 198,757 26,356 6,603 6,102 6,431

1987 282,176 13,560 9,551 3,678 14,342 28,969 8,471 27,602 6,039 30,741 40,344 73,652 123,985 207,558 26,992 8,172 7,043 1,629

135,969

139,634 -18 -37,226

-33,007

1988 297,536 14,821 11,556 3,406 14,816 21,179 7,477 26,264 5,424 33,307 40,876 73,161 124,833 220,102 28,600 9,265 7,005 1,484 -7,557 144,737 -686 -45,311

Total budget outlays 989,815 1,032,294 1,016,893 1 Includes allowances for civilian and military pay raises for the Department of Defense. 2 Includes allowances for civilian agency pay raises and contingencies. Budget outlays, by agency, for fiscal years (in $ 1 m.): Agency 1986 Legislative branch 1,665 The Judiciary 1,069 Executive Office of the President 107 Funds appropriated to the President 11,377 Agriculture 58,679 Commerce 2,083 Defence—Military ' 265,636

1987 2,112 1,234 117 12,197 53,291 2,460 274,200

1988 2,215 1,431 122 10,656 46,215 2,427 289,277

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Agency Defence—Civil Education 2 Energy 1 Health and Human Services, except Social Security Health and Human Services, Social Security Housing and Urban Development Interior Justice Labor State Transportation Treasury Environmental Protection Agency General Services Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration Office of Personnel Management Small Business Administration Veterans Administration Other Independent Agencies Allowances J Undistributed offsetting receipts Total budget outlays

1397

-64,978

1987 20,818 17,506 10,548 148,227 202,634 15,573 5,397 4,578 23,952 2,969 26,805 182,875 4,874 101 7,888 27,443 247 27,147 14,880 -18 73,160

1988 22,270 19,223 10,864 148,952 215,299 19,783 4,598 5,827 24,508 3,664 25,371 186,414 4,752 -385 9,639 27,115 -393 28,486 10,552 -686 -85,903

989,815

1,016,893

1,032,294

1986 20,254 17,673 11,026 143,253 190,684 14,139 4,789 3,768 24,141 2,865 27,378 179,242 4,867 223 7,403 23,955 557 26,536 11,423

1

Includes allowances for civilian and military pay raises for the Department of Defense. The Administration proposed in the 1983 Budget that the Departments of Education and Energy be eliminated and that their programmes be transferred to other agencies. Many of the Education programmes went to the proposed Foundation for Education Assistance. ' Includes allowances for civilian agency pay raises and contingencies. 2

National Debt: Gross federal debt outstanding (in $ 1 m.), and per capita debt (in $ 1) o n 3 0 June to 1970 and then on 30 Sept.: Per capita Public debt Per capita 2 Public debt 1919' 25,485 243 1970 382,603 1,866 1920 24,299 228 1980 914,317 4,014 1930' 16,185 132 1984 6,652 1,576,748 382 1940 50,696 1985 1,827,470 7,637 8,821 1950 256,853 1,687 1986 2,130,060 J 1960 290,862 1,610 1987 2,377,116 9,759 ' O n 31 Aug. 1919 gross debt reached its First World War (1914-18) peak of $26,596,702,000, which was the highest ever reached up to 1934; on 31 Dec. 1930 it had declined to $ 16,026m., the lowest it has been since the First World War. On the 30 Nov. 1941, just preceding Pearl Harbor, debt stood at $61,363,867,932. The highest Second World War debt was $279,764,369,348 on 28 Feb. 1946. 2 Per capita figures, beginning with 1960, have been revised; they are based on the Census Bureau's estimates of the total population of the US, including Alaska and Hawaii. ! Estimate. State and Local Finance: R e v e n u e of the 50 states and all local governments ( 8 2 , 3 4 0 in 1985) from their o w n sources amounted to $ 6 1 3 , 9 0 4 m . in fiscal year 1 9 8 4 - 8 5 ; in addition they received $ 1 0 6 , 1 5 8 m . in revenue from fiscal aid, shared revenues and reimbursements from the federal government, bringing total revenue from all sources to $ 7 2 0 , 0 6 2 m . O f the revenue from state and local sources, taxes provided $ 3 5 0 , 3 6 7 m . , o f which property taxes (mainly imposed by local governments) yielded $ 1 0 3 , 7 5 7 m . or 30% of all tax revenue; and sales taxes, both general sales taxes and selective excises, provided $ 126,376m. (36%). State tax revenue totalled $ 2 1 5 , 8 9 3 m . in fiscal year 1985. Largest sources o f state tax revenue are general sales taxes (imposed during 1985 by 4 5 states), motor fuel sales taxes (all states), individual i n c o m e (44 states), motor vehicle and operators' licences (all states), corporation i n c o m e (46 states), tobacco products (all states) and alcoholic beverage sales taxes (all states). General revenue of local units from o w n sources in fiscal year 1 9 8 4 - 8 5 totalled $ 2 1 6 , 0 1 4 m . In addition they received $ 1 3 8 , 1 0 4 m . from state and federal aids. Property taxes provided 28% of total general revenue. Total expenditures of state and local governments were $ 6 5 7 , 9 8 6 m . in 1 9 8 4 - 8 5 ,

1398

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

of which approximately 72% was for current operation. Education took $192,686m. in current and capital expenditure; highways, $44,989m.; welfare (chiefly public assistance), $69,523m., and health and hospitals, $49,678m. Capital outlays (construction, equipment and land purchases) totalled $79,901 m. Gross debt of state and local governments totalled $568,633m. or $2,382 per capita at the close of their 1984—85 fiscal year. Total cash and investment assets of state and local governments were $786,913m., about 21% being in cash and deposits, and the remainder in investments, mainly non-governmental securities. U S Bureau o f t h e Census, Governmental Finances in 1984-85. Washington, 1986 American Economic Association, Readings in Fiscal Policy. H o m e w o o d , 111., 1985 Brookings Institute and National Bureau of Economic Research, Role of Direct and Taxes in the Federal Revenue System. Washington, D.C., 1964

Indirect

National Income. The Bureau of Economic Analysis of the Department of Commerce prepares detailed estimates on the national income and product of the United States. The principal tables are published monthly in Survey of Current Business; the complete set of national income and product tables are published in the Survey regularly each July, showing data for recent years. 7Tie National Income and Product Accounts of the United States, 1929-1982: Statistical Tables (1986) andtheJuly 1987 Survey contain complete sets of tables from 1929 through 1986. The conceptual framework and statistical methods underlying the US accounts were described in National Income, 1954. Subsequent limited changes were described in US Income and Output (1958), and in Survey of Current Business (Aug. 1965, Jan. 1976, Dec. 1980, Oct. 1985 and Dec. 1985). These latest figures 1 in $ 1,000m. for various years are as follows: I. Gross National Product

19292 1933' 1950 103 9 56 0 288-3

1960 1970 1980 1986 515-3 1,015-5 2,732 0 4,235 0

(a) Personal consumption expenditures 77-3 45-8 192-1 330-7 (b) Gross private domestic investment 16 -7 1-6 55-1 78 -2 (c) Net exports of goods and services 1-1 0-4 2-2 5-9 (d) G o v e r n m e n t purchases of goods and services 8-9 8-3 38-8 100-6 1. G N P less capital consumption allowances with capital consumption adjustment, indirect business tax and non-tax liability, business transfer payments, statistical discrepancy, plus subsidies less current surplus of government enterprises, equals:

640-0 1,732-6 2,799-8 148-8 437-0 671-0 8-5 32-1 -105-5 218-2

530-3

869-7

2. National Income 84-7 which, less corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments, contributions for social insurance, wage accruals less disbursements, plus government transfer payments to persons, interest paid by government to persons and business less interest received by government, interest paid by consumers, personal dividend income, business transfer payments, equals:

39-4 239-8 424-9

832-6 2,203-5 3,422-0

3. Personal income whereof 4. Personal tax and non-tax payments take leaving 5. Disposal personal income divided into (e) Personal outlays 4 (J) Personal saving

46-3 228-1

831-8 2,258-5 3,534-3

84-3

2-6 81-7 79-2 2-6

1-4

20-6

409-4

50-5

44-9 207-5 358-9 46-5 194-8 338-1 -1-6 12-6 20-8

116-2

340-5

512-2

715-6 1,918-0 3,022-1 657-9 1,781 • I 2,891 -5 57-7 136-9 130-6

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1399

2

IA. G N P in Constant (1982) $s

1929 1933' 1950 1960 1970 1980 1986 709-6 498-5 1,203-7 1,665-3 2,416-2 3,187-1 3,713-3

(a) Personal consumption expenditures 471-4 378-7 733-2 1,005-1 1,492-0 2,000-4 2,450-5 (b) Gross private domestic investment 139-2 22-7 234-9 260-5 381-5 509-3 654-0 (e) Net exports of goods and services 4-7 -1-4 4-7 - 4 - 0 -30-0 57-0 -145-8 (d) Government purchases of goods and services 94-2 98-5 230-8 403-7 572-6 620-5 754-5 II. National Income composed of

84-7

Compensation of employees 51 1 (g) Salaries and wages 50-5 (h) Supplements to wages and salaries 0-7 Proprietors'income5 14-4 5 (i) Farm 6-1 (j) Business and professional 5 8-3 Personal income from rents6 4-9 Netinterest 4-7 Corporate profits with inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustments 9-6 (k) Tax liabilities 1-4 (!) Inventory valuation adjustment 0-5 (m) Capital consumption adjustment -0-9 (n) Dividends 5-8 (o) Undistributed profits 2-8

39-4 239-8 424-9 29-6 29-0 0-6 5-4 2-5 2-9 2-0 4-1 -1-5 0-5 -2-1 -0-3 2-0 -1-6

832-6 2,203-5 3,422-0

155-4 296-7 618-3 1,638-2 2,504-9 147-2 272-8 551-5 1,372-0 2,089-1 8-2 23-8 66-8 266-3 415-8 38-8 52-2 80-2 180-7 289-8 13-6 1 1-6 14-7 20-5 37-2 25-2 40-5 65-4 160-1 252-6 7-7 15-3 18-2 6-6 16-7 3-0 11-3 41-2 200-9 326-1 34-9 17-9 -5-0 -3-0 8-8 16-2

49-5 22-7 -0-2 -0-3 12-9 14-3

74-7 34-4 -6-6 5-2 22-5 19-2

177-2 84-8 -43-1 -16-8 54-7 97-6

284-4 105-0 6-5 46-0 86-8 40-0

1 The inclusion of statistics for Alaska and Hawaii beginning in 1960 does not significantly affect the comparability o f t h e data. 2 ! Peak year between First and Second World Wars. Low point o f t h e depression. 4 Includes personal consumption expenditures, interest paid by consumers and personal transfer payments to foreigners (net). 5 With inventory valuation and capital consumption adjustment. 6 With capital consumption adjustment.

Currency. Prior to the banking crisis that occurred early in 1933, the monetary system had been on the gold standard for more than 50 years. An Act of 14 March 1900 required the Secretary of the Treasury to maintain at a parity with gold all forms of money issued by the USA. For a description of these, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 3 4 , p . 4 9 1 .

The old gold dollar had a par value of 49-32^., or $4-8666 to the £ sterling; it contained 25-8 grains (or 1 •6718 grammes) of gold 0-900 fine. By the act of 12 May 193 3 the President of the USA was given authority to reduce the gold content of the dollar by not more than 50% and by the Gold Reserve Act of 30 Jan. 1934 the minimum reduction which he could make was fixed at 40%; on 31 Jan. 1934 he fixed its value at 59-06%, or \5Vn grains of gold 0-900 fine. This was equal to a price for gold of $35 a fine oz. (old price, $20-67183). The President's power to alter the gold content of the dollar to 50% of its value, which was extended by Congress in 1937,1939 and 1941, was not yet again extended in 1943. The Par Value Modification Act (Public Law 92-268), enacted on 31 March 1972, authorized and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to take the steps necessary to establish a new par value of the dollar of $1 = 0-818513 gramme of fine gold or $38 per fine troy oz. of gold. The Secretary of the Treasury, pursuant to the statutory directive, proposed the new par value for the U S dollar to the International Monetary Fund, which par value became effective on 8 May 1972. In Public Law 93-110, enacted on 21 Sept. 1973, Congress amended the Par Value Modification Act of 1972, and authorized and directed the Secretary of the Treasury to take the steps necessary to establish a new par value of $ 1 equals 0-828948 Special Drawing Right or 1/42% of a fine troy ounce of gold. Pursuant to the statutory directive, the Secretary of the Treasury notified the International Monetary Fund that, effective 18 Oct. 1973, the par value of the dollar would be changed from 1/38 to 1/42% a fine troy ounce of gold. Expressed in terms of gold, the new par value of the dollar was 0 -736662 gramme of gold per dollar, or $42.2222 per fine troy ounce of gold. Expressed in percentage, the change in the

1400

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

par value of the dollar amounted to a reduction of 10% in the former gold content of the dollar. This is the equivalent to an 11 1% increase in the former dollar price of gold. The USA, on 1 April 1978, accepted the second amendment to the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund. The par value of the dollar is no longer defined in terms of the Special Drawing Right and gold, and the USA is not obliged to establish and maintain a par value for the dollar. At the time of the banking crisis in March 1933 gold payments by banks and the Treasury were suspended by the Government, and an embargo was placed on gold exports. Steps were taken to withdraw from circulation all gold coin and gold certificates and to prohibit the private ownership of all gold certificates, gold bullion and gold coin except for numismatic purposes. Public Law 93-373, 14 Aug. 1974, amended the Par Value Modification Act so as to provide for the termination of all governmental restrictions on private ownership of gold, including gold coins, no later than 31 Dec. 1974. Currency in the USA for many years has comprised several varieties. Prior to May 1933 the legal tender qualities of the classes varied, but in that month all types of currency were made equally legal tender. Under the Coinage Act of 1965, all coins and currencies of the USA, regardless of when coined or issued, are legal tender for all debts, public and private. Only one of the eight kinds of notes outstanding is now significant: Federal Reserve notes in denominations o f $ l , $2, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. The issue of (a) $500, $1,000, $5,000 and $10,000 Federal Reserve notes; of (b) silver certificates, and of (c) $100, $5 and $2 US notes have been discontinued, although they are still outstanding. The following issues were stopped many years ago and have been in process of retirement: (1) Federal Reserve Bank notes; (2) National Bank notes; (3) Treasury notes of 1890; (4) fractional currency. Federal Reserve notes are obligations of the USA and a first lien on the assets of the Federal Reserve Banks, through which they are issued. Each of the 12 banks issues them against the security of an equal volume of collateral. Banking. On 30 June 1985 there were 14,579 insured commercial banks and insured mutual savings banks with deposits of $1,777,076m. filing report of condition and income statements with the Federal Reserve Board. The Federal Reserve System, established under an Act of 1913, comprises the Board of 7 Governors, the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks with their 25 branches, the Federal Open Market Committee and the Federal Advisory Council. The 7 members of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Each Governor is appointed to a full term of 14 years or an unexpired portion of a term, one term expiring every 2 years. No two may come from the same Federal Reserve District. The Board supervises the Reserve Banks which bear the likeness of the late President Eisenhower, are sold at premium price and the issue and retirement of Federal Reserve notes; it designates 3 of the 9 directors of each Reserve Bank and designates the Chairman and Deputy Chairman; it passes on the admission of state banks to the System and has power to correct unsound conditions in State member banks or violations of banking law by them, including, if necessary, disciplinary action to remove officers and directors for unsafe or unsound banking practices or for continuous violations of banking laws; it also authorizes State member bank branches and approves mergers and consolidations if the acquiring, assuming or resulting bank is to be a State member; and it has power to control the expansion of bank holding companies and to require divestment of certain non-banking interests. The 12 members of the Federal Open Market Committee include the 7 members of the Board of Governors and 5 of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The latter serve 1 -year terms on the Committee in rotation except for the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, who is a permanent member. The Federal Open Market Committee influences credit market conditions, money and bank credit, by buying or selling US Government securities; and it also supervises System operations in foreign currencies for the purpose of helping to safeguard the value of the dollar in international exchange markets and facilitating co-operation and efficiency in the international

U N I T E D STATES O F AMERICA

1401

monetary system. The Board also influences credit conditions through powers to set reserve requirements, to approve discount rates at Federal Reserve Banks, and to fix margin requirements on stock-market credit. The Reserve Banks advance funds to depository institutions, issue Federal Reserve notes, which are the principal form of currency in the US, act as fiscal agent for the Government, and afford nation-wide cheque-clearing and fund transfer arrangements. They may discount paper for depository institutions and increase or reduce the country's supply of reserve funds by buying or selling Government securities and other obligations at the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee. The purchase and sale of securities in the open market is conducted by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Their capital stock is held by the member banks, but it carries no voting rights except in the election of directors. Every member bank is required to subscribe to stock in the Reserve Bank of its district in an amount equal to 6% of its paid-up capital and surplus. Only one-half of the par value of the stock is paid in, the other half remaining subject to call by the Board of Governors. However, no call has been made for the second half of the subscription. All depository institutions with certain transaction accounts and time deposits are required to hold reserves with the Federal Reserve. From 1968, the Congress passed a number of consumer financial protection acts, the first of which was the Truth in Lending Act, for which it has directed the Board to write implementing regulations and assume partial enforcement responsibility. Others include the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, Home Mortgage Disclosure Act, Consumer Leasing Act, Fair Credit Billing Act, and Electronic Fund Transfer Act. To manage these responsibilities the Board has established a Division of Consumer and Community Affairs. To assist it, the Board consults with a Consumer Advisory Council, established by the Congress as a statutory part of the Federal Reserve System. The Consumer Advisory Council was established by Congress in 1976 at the suggestion of the Board of Governors. Representing both consumer/community and financial industry interests, the Council meets several times a year to advise the Board on its implementation of consumer regulations and other consumer related matters. Another statutory body, the Federal Advisory Council, consists of 12 members (one from each district); it meets in Washington at least four times a year to advise the Board of Governors on general business and financial conditions. Following the passage of the Monetary Control Act of 1980, the Board of Governors established the Thrift Institutions Advisory Council to provide information and views on the special needs and problems of thrift institutions. The group is comprised of representatives of mutual savings banks, savings and loan associations, and credit unions. Banks which participate in the federal deposit insurance fund have their deposits insured against loss up to $ 100,000 for each depositor. The fund is administered by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation established in 1933; it obtains resources through annual assessments on participating banks. All members of the Federal Reserve System are required to insure their deposits through the Corporation, and non-member banks may apply and qualify for insurance. On 31 Dec. 1984, 14,506 commercial banks and 267 mutual savings banks with insured deposits of $1,400,000m. were members of the insurance fund. There are also 37 co-operative Farm Credit Banks, supervised by the Farm Credit Administration, that make agricultural and rural housing loans as well as loans to farmer co-operatives and to businesses providing on-farm services. In this system, farm mortgage loans are originated by local federal land bank associations, while farm production loans are made by local production credit associations. Moreover, the Federal Home Loan Bank System, which includes 12 district banks, is one of several government-sponsored agencies established for the public purpose of assisting home ownership. The Federal Home Loan Banks borrow in the financial markets and lend these funds to savings and loan associations and savings banks, which hold most of their assets in home mortgages. The Federal Home Loan Bank System is privately owned and does not receive any direct federal funding, although

1402

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

it seems to carry an implicit promise of financial support from the federal government because of its public purpose. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions. 7th ed., 1984.—Federal Reserve Bulletin. Monthly.—Annual Report.— Annual Statistical Digest.—The Federal Reserve Act, As Amended Through 1984 Chandler, L. V., Economics of Money and Banking. 7th ed. New York, 1977 Horovitz, P. M., Monetary Policy and the Financial System. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1979 Meek,P., U.S. Monetary Policy and Financial Markets. New York, 1982 Timberlake, R. H., The Origins of Central Banking in the United States. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1978

Weights and Measures. British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Winchester bushel and wine gallon are used instead of the new or Imperial standards: Wine gallon = 0-83268 Imperial gallon; Bushel = 0-9690 Imperial bushel. Instead of the British cwt of 112 lb., one of 100 lb. is used; the short or net ton contains 2,000 lb.; the long or gross ton, 2,240 lb. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production (public utilities only, 1985) 2,679,857,000m. kwh. Minerals. Total value of non-fuel minerals produced in US (including Alaska and Hawaii) in 1984 was estimated at $23,150m. ($21,100m. in 1983). Details are given in the following tables. Production of metallic minerals (long tons, 2,240 lb.; short tons, 2,000 lb.): 1984 Metallic minerals Bauxite (dried equiv.) tonnes Copper (recoverable content), tonnes Gold (recoverable content), troy oz. Lead (recoverable content), tonnes Molybdenum (content of concentrate), 1,0001b. Silver (recoverable content), 1,000 troy oz. Zinc (recoverable content), tonnes Other metals Total metals

1985

Quantity 856 1,102,613 2,084,615 322,677

Value ($1,000) 15,643 1,625,116 751,833 181,745

Quantity 674 1,105,758 2,475,436 413,955

Value ($1,000) 12,855 1,632,483 786,345 174,008

102,405

326,780

111,936

347,812

44,592 252,768

363,006 270,833 2,469,044

39,357 226,545

-

—

241,740 201,607 2,224,150

—

6,004,000

—

5,621,000

The US is wholly or almost wholly dependent upon imports for industrial diamonds, bauxite, tin, chromite, nickel, strategic-grade mica and long-fibre asbestos; it imports the bulk of its tantalum, platinum, manganese, mercury, tungsten, cobalt and flake graphite, and substantial quantities of antimony, cadmium, arsenic, fluorspar, zinc and bismuth. In 1984 precious metals were mined mainly in Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Utah and Arizona (in order of combined output of gold and silver). Statistics of important non-metallic minerals and mineral fuels are: 1984 Non-metallic minerals Boron minerals, short tons Cement: Portland, 1,000 short tons Masonry, 1,000 short tons Clays, 1,000 short tons Gypsum, 1,000 short tons Lime, 1,000 short tons Phosphate rock, 1,000 tonnes Potassium salts, 1,000 tonnes (KJO equivalent) Salt (common), 1,000 short tons Sand and gravel, 1,000 short tons

1985

Value ($1,000)

Quantity

1,367,000

456,687

1,269,000

404,775

74,376 3,281 43,702 14,319 15,922 49,197

3,810,446 219,877 1,032,127 113,671 811,183 1,182,244

74,250 3,187 44,974 14,726 15,690 50,835

3,817,335 213,096 1,011,377 114,229 809,000 1,203,265

1,639 39,225 803,280

241,800 675,099 2,621,200

1,266 39,484 829,530

178,400 741,799 2,812,070

Quantity

Value ($1,000)

UNITED STATES OF

1403

AMERICA 1985

1984 Non-metallic minerals Stone, 1,000 short tons Sulphur (Frasch-process), 1,000 tonnes Other non-metallic minerals Total non-metallic minerals Mineralfuels Coal: Bitum. and lignite, 1,000 short tons Pennsylv. a n t h r a c i t e , ' 1 , 0 0 0 short tons Gas: Natural gas, 2 1 m. cu. ft Petroleum (crude), 1,000 bbls of 42 gallons

Quantity 957,157 5,001 — —

Value ($1,000) 3,910,549 546,106 1,536,011 17,157,000

1985 879,000 22,062,900 4,700 215,260 16,380,000 41,113,800 3,274,400 78,880,657

Quantity 1,001,921 4,678 — —

Value ($1,000) 4,224,667 573,570 1,508,417 17,612,000

1986 884,400 21,667,800 3,800 171,000 15,970,000 29,863,900 3,163,800

40,053,961

1

Includes a small quantity of anthracite mined in states other than Pennsylvania. 2 Value at wells. Minerals Yearbook. Bureau of Mines. Washington, D.C. A n n u a l from 1932-33; continuing the Mineral Resources of the United States series (1866-1931); f r o m 1977 in 3 vols. (Metals and Minerals; Area Reports, Domestic; and Area Reports, International)

Agriculture. Agriculture in the USA is characterized by its ability to adapt to widely varying conditions, and still produce an abundance and variety of agricultural products. From colonial times to about 1920 the major increases in farm production were brought about by adding to the number of farms and the amount of land under cultivation. During this period nearly 320m. acres of virgin forest were converted to crop land or pasture, and extensive areas of grass lands were ploughed. Improvident use of soil and water resources was evident in many areas. During the next 20 years the number of farms reached a plateau of about 6 • 5m., and the acreage planted to crops held relatively stable around 330m. acres. The major source of increase in farm output arose from the substitution of powerdriven machines for horses and mules. Greater emphasis was placed on development and improvement of land, and the need for conservation of basic agricultural resources was recognized. A successful conservation programme, highly coordinated and on a national scale—to prevent further erosion, to restore the native fertility of damaged land and to adjust land uses to production capabilities and needs—has been in operation since early in the 1930s. Following the Second World War the uptrend in farm output has been greatly accelerated by increased production per acre and per farm animal. These increases are associated with a higher degree of mechanization; greater use of lime and fertilizer; improved varieties, including hybrid maize and grain sorghums; more effective control of insects and disease; improved strains of livestock and poultry; and wider use of good husbandry practices, such as nutritionally balanced feeds, use of superior sites and better housing. During this period land included in farms decreased slowly, crop land harvested declined somewhat more rapidly, but the number of farms declined sharply. Some significant changes during these transitions are: All land in farms totalled less than 500m. acres in 1870, rose to a peak of over 1,200m. acres in the 1950s and declined to 1,232m. acres in 1982, even with the addition of the new States of Alaska and Hawaii in 1960. The number of farms declined from 6-35m. in 1940 to 2-37m. in 1983, as the average size of farms doubled. The average size of farms in 1983 was 437 acres, but ranged from a few acres to many thousand acres. In 1978,215,088 farms (128,254 in 1974) were less than 10 acres; 475,241 (379,543), 10-49 acres; 814,689 (827,884), 50-179 acres; 596,356 (616,098), 180-499 acres; 215,112 (207,297), 500-999 acres; 98,521 (92,712), 1,000-1,999 acres; 63,635 (62,225) 2,000 acres or more. Farms operated by owners or part-owners, 1978, were 2,165,000 (87% of all farms), by all tenants, 314,000 (13%). The average size of farms in 1978 was 235 acres for full-owners, 792 acres for part-owners and 396 acres for tenants. Farms with white operators numbered 2,398,726, and those with operators who were black or of other races were 79,916. A higher proportion of blacks and operators of

1404

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

other races were tenants and operated a significantly smaller acreage than white operators. In 1983 (with 1960 figures in parentheses) large-scale, highly mechanized farms with sales of agricultural products totalling $20,000 and over per farm made up 39-5% (8-6%) of all farms and accounted for 93-2% (48-3%) of the value of farm products sold. Farms selling between $19,999 and $2,500 worth of products per farm were 39-1% (44-8%) of all farms and sold 6 -2% (43 -3%) of all sales. The remaining 21 -4% (46-6%) of all farms sold less than $2,500 worth of products per farm, 0-6% (8 -4%) of total sales. Operators in every sales category received ofT-farm income, but operators selling less than $20,000 per year received more of their average income from non-farm sources than from farming in 1983. Total income per operator: farms with sales of$500,000 and over, $444,808 (of which $416,205 is from farm sources); sales $200,000-$499,999, income $50,007 ($35,397); sales $20,000-539,999, income $13,850 ($303); sales under $5,000, income $20,407 (farm losing $687). A century ago three-quarters of the total US population was rural, and practically all rural people lived on farms. In April 1980 26% of the population was rural. Farm residents accounted for 3% of the total population. During the week of July 12-18, 1987, there were 3-47m. people working on farms and ranches. The workforce comprised l-35m. self-employed farm operators, 587,000 unpaid workers, 1 -27m. workers hired directly by farm operators and 258,000 Agricultural Service employees. Cash receipts from farm marketings and government payments (in $ 1 m.): 1932 1945 1950 1960 1970 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Crops 1,996 9,655 12,356 15,259 20,976 63,394 69,026 74,920 74,353 69,516

Livestock and livestock products 2,752 12,008 16,105 18,989 29,563 68,522 67,405 68,478 70,199 69,203

Government payments —

742 283 702 3,717 1,375 1,286 1,930 3,492 9,294

Total 4,748 22,405 28,744 34,950 54,256 133,291 137,717 145,328 148,043 148,014

Realized gross farm income (including government payments), in $lm., was 160,000 in 1981,164,400 in 1982 and 163,200 in 1983; net income offarm operators (only from farm sources), 30,966 in 1981,22,339 in 1982 and 16,100 in 1983. Farm real estate debt including farm households, in 1982, was $105,539m.; 1983, $ 109,507m.; in 1984 $111,600m. US agricultural exports, fiscal year, totalled: 1978-79, $31,979m.; 1979-80, $40,481m.; 1980-81, $43,780m.; 1981-82, $39,095m.; 1982-83, $34,769m.; 1983-84, $38,027m.; 1984-85,$31,201m.; 1985-86, $26,325m. Total area offarm land under irrigation in 1982 was 49,002,000 acres. Federal income taxes paid by farm people: $15m. in 1941, $l,365m. in 1948, $l,182m. in 1967, $3,434m. in 1971, $5,309m. in 1972, $8,364m. in 1973 and $8,277m. in 1974. Total taxes levied on farm real estate were $3,039m. in 1977, $3,021m. in 1978, $3,215m. in 1979, $3,450-9m. in 1980, $3,695-5m. in 1981; $3,907-lm. in 1982. According to census returns and estimates of the Economic Research Service, the acreage and specified values of farms has been as follows (area in 1,000 acres; v a l u e in $ 1,000). Crop land available Value, land, bldgs, Value ofproducts sold Farm area' for crops machinery, livestock in preceding year 1910 878,798 432,000 41,089,000 1930 986,771 480,000 57,815,000 9,609,924 1940 1,060,852 467,000 41,829,000 6,681,581 1950 1,158,566 478,000 99,366,000 22,051,129 1959 1,125,508 448,100 164,200,000 30,492,721 1969 1,063,346 459,048 206,751,000 44,519,658 1978 1,029,695 461,341 5,653,400,000 108,113,519 1 Acreages are for the preceding year except for 1959.

1405

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The areas and production of the principal crops for 3 years were: Harvested 1.000 acres

1984 Produc- Yield tion per 1,000 acre

Harvested 1,000 acres

Corn for grain (bu.) 71,915 7,674,020 106-7 75,224 Oats(bu.) 8,163 473,661 58-0 8,177 599,204 53-4 11,603 11,231 Barley (bu.) All wheat (bu.)66,928 2,594,777 38-8 64,734 2,802 Rice (cwt.)1 138,810 4,954 2,492 Soybeans for beans (bu.) 66,113 1,860,863 28-2 61,584 7,022 13-1 584 Flaxseed (bu.) 538 All Cotton 1 10,379 12,981-8 600 10,229 (bales) 362,612 279 Potatoes (cwt.) 1,301 1,361 Tobacco (lb.) 792 1,727,962 2,183 688 • Yield in

1985 Production 1,000 8,876,706 520,800 591,383 2,425,105 134,913 2,098,531 8,293 13,432-2 407,109 1,511,638 lb.

HarYield vested per 1,000 acre acres

1986 Production 1,000

Yield per acre

118-0 69,189 !3,252,834 119-3 63-7 6,870 384,546 56-0 51-0 12,007 610,497 50-8 37-5 60,688 2,086,780 34-4 5,414 2,380 134,416 5,648 34-1 59,427 2,007,033 14-2 683 11,538 630 299 2,197

33-8 169

8,492 9,784-6 553 1,215 354,468 292 597 1,198,264 2,006

Corn (Maize). The chief corn-growing states (1986) were (estimated production, corn for grain in 1,000 bu.): Iowa, 1,626,750; Illinois, 1,404,000; Nebraska, 896,000; Minnesota, 707,600; Indiana, 695,400; Ohio, 476,160; Wisconsin, 365,800; Missouri, 280,720; South Dakota, 233,700. Wheat. The chief wheat-growing states (1986) were (estimated production in 1,000 bu.): Kansas, 336,600; N. Dakota, 289,820; Oklahoma, 150,800; Montana, 138,520; Texas, 120,000; Washington, 116,850; S. Dakota, 108,660; Minnesota, 103,666; Colorado, 96,430; Idaho, 81,750; Nebraska, 76,000. Cotton. Leading production, 1986, by state (in 1,000 bales, 480 lb. net weight) was: Texas, 2,576; California, 2,245; Mississippi, 1,190; Arizona, 823; Louisiana, 673; Arkansas, 602; Tennessee, 396; Alabama, 330; Oklahoma, 210; Missouri, 196; Georgia, 185; N.Carolina, 109. Tobacco. Production (1,000 lb.) of the chief tobacco-growing states was, in 1986: N. Carolina, 444,790; Kentucky, 314,940; Tennessee, 82,707; S. Carolina, 75,480; Virginia, 73,524; Georgia, 67,890. Fruit. Production, in tonnes: Apples Citrus Fruit Grapes

1984 3,779,770 9,790,320 4,711,830

1985 3,593,110 9,514,550 5,127,140

1986 3,589,940 10,012,610 5,076,520

Dairy produce. In 1984, production of milk was 135,400m. lb.; cheese solid, 4,673-78m. lb.; butter, l,103-3m. lb.; ice-cream, 883-5m. gallons; non-fat dry milk for human consumption, l,158-9m. lb.; cottage cheese, 961 -6m. lb. Livestock (1 Jan. 1987): Cattle and calves, 102,031,000; sheep and lambs, 10,328,000; hogs and pigs (1 Dec. 1986), 50,960,000. On 1 Dec. 1984 there were 373-95m. chickens, excluding broilers. In 1984 171-3m. turkeys were raised; 4,282m. broilers were produced, 1 Dec. 1983-30 Nov. 1984. Eggs produced, same period, 68,193m. (value $4,108-9m.). Value of production (in $ 1 m.) was: Cattle and calves Sheep and lambs Hogs and pigs

1985 21,196,786 427,805 8,871,310

1986 20,924,859 443,565 9,531,589

Total value of livestock, excluding poultry and goats and, from 1961, horses and mules (in $ 1 m.) on farms in the USA on 1 Jan. was: 1930,6,061 ; 1933 (low point of the agricultural depression), 2,733; 1970, 22,886; 1978, 31,952; 1979, 50,612; 1980,60,598; 1981,60,016; 1982,53,601 ; 1983 (preliminary), 52,148. In 1982 the production of shorn wool was 105m. lb. from 1 3 1 m . sheep (average

1406

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

1970-74, 320m. lb. from 18-2m. sheep); of pulled wool, M 5 m . lb. (1970-74, 10-lm.lb.). Forestry. In 1977 the US forest lands, including Alaska and Hawaii, capable of producing timber for commercial use, covered 482,485,900 acres (more than onefifth of the land area), classified as follows: Saw-timber stands, 215,435,700 acres; pole timber stands, 135,609,900 acres, seedling and sapling stands, 115,032,100 acres; non-stocked and other areas, 16,408,200 acres. Ownership of commercial forest land is distributed as follows: Federal government, 99,410,400 acres; state, county, municipal and Indian, 36,311,200 acres; privately owned, 346,764,300 acres, including 115,777,100 acres on farms. Of the saw-timber stand (2,578,940m. bd ft) Douglas fir constitutes 514,317; Southern pine, 321,563; Western yellow (ponderosa and jeffrey) pine, 192,070; other softwoods, 957,458; hardwoods, 255,189. In 1976 growing stock timber removals amounted to 14,229,023,000 cu. ft compared to net annual growth of about 21,664,316,000 cu. ft. Saw-timber removals amounted to 65,176,618,000 bd ft against an annual growth of 74,620,832,000 bd ft. The net area of the 156 national forests and other areas in USA and Puerto Rico administered by the US Department of Agriculture's Forest Service, including commercial and non-commercial forest land, was in Oct. 1986, 191m. acres. Fire takes a heavy annual toll in the forest; total area burned over in 1986 was 3,191,125 acres; 1,500m. acres of land are now under organized fire-protection service. Federal land that was planted or seeded in forest and wind barrier nursery stock in the year ending 30 Sept. 1986 was 300,640 acres. Land Areas of National Forest System. Forest Service, U S Dept. of Agriculture, 1985 Report of the Forest Service, 1985

Fisheries. Total US catch (edible and industrial), 1985, 2-8m. tonnes valued at $2,300m.; harvest outside the US (mostly tuna) and joint venture operations (mostly Alaskan pollock), 1 1 m . tonnes valued at $277m.; foreign catch in the 200 mile wide US fishery zone (mostly Alaskan pollock, 73%; Pacific flounders, 13% and Pacific cod, 6%), 1 -2m. tonnes. Major species caught, 1985: Menhaden, 2,700m. lb, value $101m. (44% of total US catch); salmon, 727m. lb, $440m.; crabs, 338m. lb, $390m.; shrimp, 473m. lb, $306m.; cod, 303m. lb, $54m.; sea herring, 199m. lb, $50m.; tuna, 516m. lb, $212m. Major landing areas, 1985: By value (in $lm.): Alaska, 591; Massachusetts, 232; Louisiana, 229; Texas, 177; Florida, 171. By volume (in lm. lb): Louisiana, 1,700; Alaska, 1,200; Virginia, 723; Mississippi, 471; California, 363. Exports, 1985, totalled $l,100m.; imports, $6,700m. Per capita consumption, 1985,14-5 lb edible meat; estimated live weight equivalent about 43 lb percapita. Tennessee Valley Authority. Established by Act of Congress, 1933, the TVA is a multiple-purpose federal agency which carries out its duties in an area embracing some 41,000 sq. miles, in 125 counties (aggregate population, about 4 • 7m.) in the 7 Tennessee River Valley states: Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, Georgia and Virginia. In addition, 76 counties outside the Valley are served by TVA power distributors. Its 3 directors are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate; headquarters are in Knoxville, Tenn. There were 32,000 employees in Aug. 1987. In the 1930s and 1940s, the Tennessee Valley offered the world a model of the first effort to develop all resources of a major river valley under one comprehensive programme, the Tennessee Valley Authority. The multipurpose development of the Tennessee River for flood control, navigation, and electric power production was the first big task for TVA. But there were other needs; controlling erosion on the land, introducing better fertilizers and new farming practices, eradicating malaria, demonstrating ways electricity could lighten the burdens in the home and increase production on the farm, and a multitude of potential job-producing enterprises. In the depression year, 1933, the per capita income in the Valley was $168, compared with the national average of $375. Through the years, TVA has placed a

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1407

strong emphasis on the economic development of the Valley. In recent years average income levels in the region have been nearly 80% of the national level. Taming the Tennessee River has had two positive effects on the Valley: flood damages averted by river control now total more than $3,000m., and a navigable channel system 650 miles long, connecting with the American system of inland waterways, provides a readily accessible transportation system for industry. In 1984,33 -2m. (estimate) tons of barge-traffic travelled the T V A river system. Another activity is experimentation in the development and manufacture of chemical fertilizers, accompanied by programmes designed to encourage proper fertilizer use in all parts of the United States and the world. TVA's National Fertilizer Development Center is recognized world-wide for its expertise in fertilizer technology. TVA also works closely with other federal agencies, and with state and local authorities in combating soil erosion, improving forest resources, improving agriculture, and in the development of local industries based on natural resources. In recent years, attention has focused mainly on TVA's power programme. TVA supplies electric power to 160 local distribution systems serving 2-9m. customers. The power system originated with the water-power development of the Tennessee River, but has become predominantly a coal-fired system as power requirements have outgrown the region's hydro-electric potential. In fiscal year 1986, the TVA system generated 94,600m. kwh. Installed capacity in 1986 was 32 - l m . kw, with another 5 -2m. kw under construction at TVA's nuclear plants. Power operations are financially self-supporting from revenues. In fiscal year 1986 power revenues were $4,639m. Power facilities are financed from revenues and the sale of revenue bonds and notes, and TVA is repaying appropriations previously invested in power facilities. Other TVA resource development programmes continue to be financed from congressional appropriations. Annual Report of the TVA. Knoxville, 1934 to date Clapp, G.R., The TVA; An Approach to the Development of a Region. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1955 Lilienthal, D. E., TVA; Democracy on the March. 20th Anniversary ed. New York and London,1953 O w e n , M . , The Tennessee Valley Authority. New York, 1973 Tennessee Valley Authority. A History of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Knoxville, Tennessee, 1 9 8 2 . — T V A : The First Twenty Years (ed. R. C. Martin), Univ. o f T e n n e s s e e Press, 1956

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The following table presents industry statistics of manufactures as reported at various censuses from 1909 to 1982 and from the Annual Survey of Manufactures for years in which no census was taken. The figures for 1958 to 1982 include data for some establishments previously classified as non-manufacturing. The figures for 1939, but not for earlier years, have been revised to exclude data for establishments classified as non-manufacturing in 1954. The figures for 1909-33 were previously revised by the deduction of data for industries excluded from manufacturing during that period. The statistics for 1958, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1977 and 1982 relate to all establishments employing 1 or more persons anytime during the year; for 1950, 1956-57, 1959-62, 1966 and 1968-74 on a representative sample of manufacturing establishments o f l or more employees; for 1929 through 1939, those reporting products valued at $5,000 or more; and for 1909 and 1919, those reporting products valued at $500 or more. These differences in the minimum size of establishments included in the census affect only very slightly the year-to-year comparability of the figures. The annual Surveys of Manufactures carry forward the key measures of manufacturing activity which are covered in detail by the Census of Manufactures. The estimate for 1950 is based on reports for approximately 45,000 plants out of a total of more than 260,000 operating manufacturing establishments; those for 1956-57 on about 50,000, and those for 1959-62,1966 and 1968-74 on about 60,000 out of about 300,000. Included are all large plants and representative samples of the much more numerous small plants. The large plants in the surveys account for approximately two-thirds of the total employment in operating manufacturing establishments in the US.

1408

1909 1919 1929 1933 1939 1950 1960 1963 1967 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1982 1983 1984 1985

UNITED STATES OF Number of establishments 264,810 270,231 206,663 139,325 173,802 260,000 306317 305,680

312^662

350,157

348385

Production workers (average for year) 6,261,736 8,464,916 8,369,705 5,787,611 7,808,205 11,778,803 12,209,514 12,232,041 13,955,300 14,357,800 13,528,000 12,874,900 13,526,500 14,233,100 13,970,900 12,567,900 13,051,200 13,691,000 14,228,700 14,537,800 13,900,100 12,400,600 12,203,000 12,572,800 12,171,100

AMERICA Production workers' wages total ($1,000) 3,205,213 9,664,009 10,884,919 4,940,146 8,997,515 34,600,025 55,555,452 62,093,601 81,393,600 93,459,600 91,609,000 93,231,700 105,494,700 118,332,300 124,983,200 121,427,200 137,564,000 157,163,700 176,416,800 192,881,500 198,164,000 204,787,200 212,416,400 231,783,900 235,731,700

Value added by manufacture ($1,000) 8,160,075 23,841,624 30,591,435 14,007,540 24,487,304 89,749,765 163,998,531 192,082,900 261,983,800 304,440,700 300,227,600 314,138,400 353,974,200 405,623,500 452,468,400 442,485,800 511,470,900 585,165,600 657,412,000 747,480,500 773,831,300 824,117,700 882,014,500 983,227,700 999,065,800

' For the period 1954-67 value added represents adjusted value added and for earlier years unadjusted value added. Unadjusted is obtained by subtracting cost of materials, supplies and containers, fuel, electricity and contract work from the value of shipments for products manufactured plus receipts for services rendered. Adjusted value added also takes into account value added by merchandizing operations plus net change in finished goods and work-inprocess inventories between the beginning and end of the year.

For comparison of broad types of manufacturing, the industries covered by the Census of Manufactures have been divided into 20 general groups according to the Standard Industrial Classification. Value Code No.

Industry group

20. Food and kindred products 21. Tobacco products 22. Textile mill products 23. Apparel and other textile products 24. Lumber and wood products 25. Furniture and fixtures 26. Paper and allied products 27. Printing and publishing 1

Year 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985

Production workers (average for year) 1,012,700 1,009,500 993,600 41,900 38,600 36,900 624,000 610,500 565,300 995,900 977,100 904,000 531,400 541,500 514,200 359,300 383,700 380,000 460,800 468,100 462,100 722,600 733,400 742,100

Production workers' wages, total

($1,000)

16,637,000 17,061,400 17,427,700 958,100 933,200 440,900 7,803,100 7,852,300 7,609,200 9,193,400 9,280,300 9,003,000 7,507,800 7,860,000 7,835,800 4,564,000 5,148,700 5,345,500 9,736,700 10,515,800 10,783,400 12,052,500 12,916,200 13,554,400

added by manufacture 1 ($1.000) 93,437,800 98,037,400 104,140,000 9,692,100 10,786,600 11,893,700 21,333,400 22,110,400 20,193,300 27,339,400 28,858,800 27,728,400 19,530,500 21,035,100 21,065,500 14,282,200 15,905,600 16,478,800 35,611,600 40,884,700 40,387,200 60,062,000 67,021,600 73,054,300

Figures represent adjusted value added. For definitions see footnote to previous table.

U N I T E D STATES OF

Code No.

Industry group

28. Chemical and allied products 29. Petroleum and coal products 30. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products 31. Leather and leather products 32. Stone, clay and glass products 33. Primary metal industries 34. Fabricated metal products 2 35. Machinery (except electrical) 36. Electric and electronic equipment 37. Transportation e q u i p m e n t 2 38. Instruments and related products

2

39. Miscellaneous manufacturing

Year 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985 1983 1984 1985

1409

AMERICA

Production workers (average for year) 496,000 490,700 476,000 95,100 89,800 83,500 527,200 573,800 578,400 161,900 145,200 124,800 408,300 416,400 403,800 585,100

616,000

571,000 1,050,400 1,112,200 1,103,500 1,234,200 1,297,600 1,236,600 1,187,700 1,287,400 1,233,100 1,072,100 1,159,800 1,179,600 348,300 358,100 348,000 280,000 263,400 234,600

Production workers' wages, total

($1,000)

10,867,600 11,444,400 11,602,000 2,723,300 2,648,600 2,533,900 8,229,100 9,439,400 9,799,200 1,613,000 1,482,600 1,342,200 7,508,800 8,039,000 8,196,200 13,642,400 14,915,700 14,277,900 18,979,300 21,158,500 21,976,800 23,588,400 26,749,100 26,510,500 20,370,100 23,493,100 23,658,800 26,917,400 30,768,000 33,171,400

6,001,100 6,533,600 6,192,600 3,415,800 3,544,000 3,415,300

Value added by manufacture 1

($1,000)

86,472,400 94,728,200 95,257,500 21,043,500 16,163,400 17,111,600 29,804,700 34,183,400 35,708,300 4,852,600 4,510,700 4,107,500 25,326,200 27,706,600 28,841,800 35,996,600 42,290,900 38,081,900 61,326,800 67,644,800 69,161,500 94,752,800 112,346,300 110,234,100 92,519,800 109,904,200 109,861,500 99,642,900 114,498,700 120,953,100 35,258,100 39,869,900 40,278,300 13,702,400 14,740,400 14,031,600

1 Figures represent adjusted value added. For definitions see footnote to previous table, p. 1408. 2 Figures for 1967 are not comparable to 1972 due to revisions in the Standard Industrial Classification System.

Iron and Steel: Output of the iron and steel industries (in net tons of 2,000 lb.), according to figures supplied by the American Iron and Steel Institute, was:

1932 J 1939 1944 4 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 1986 1

Furnaces in blast 31 Dec. 44 195 218 234 114 152

Pig-iron (including ferroalloys) 9,835,227 35,677,097 62,866,198 66,400,311 68,566,384 87,933,000 70,329,000 50,446,000 43,952,000

Raw steel 15,322,901 52,798,714 89.641.600 96,336,075 99.281.601 131,514,000 111,835,000 88,259,000

81,606,000

Steel by method of production 1 Open Basic hearth Bessemer Electric2 Oxygen 13,336,210 1,715,925 270,044 48,409,800 3,358,916 1,029,067 80,363,953 5,039,923 4,237,699 86,262,509 4,534,558 6,039,008 86,367,506 1,189,196 8,378,743 3,346,156 48,022,000 20,162,000 63,330,000 13,054,000 31,166,000 67,617,000 6,428,000 29,946,000 51,885,000 3,330,000 30,390,000 47,885,000

The sum of these 4 items should equal the total in the preceding column; any difference appearing is due to the very small production of crucible steel, omitted prior to 1950. 2 ! Includes crucible production beginning 1950. Low point of the depression. 4 Peak year of war production.

1410

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Wholesale price index of iron and steel mill products (1967 = 100) was: 1950, 59-4; 1960, 96-4; 1970, 114-3; 1980, 302-7; 1982, 349-7; 1983, 352-5; 1984,366-1; 1985,366-2. The iron and steel industry in 1986 employed 128,418 wage-earners (compared with 449,888 in 1960), who worked an average of 38 hours per week and earned an average of $16.22 per hour: total wages were $4,203m. and total salaries for 46,365 employees were $1,736m. A nnual Statistics Report. American Iron and Steel Institute

Labour. The American labour movement comprises about 190 national and international labour organizations plus a large number of small independent local or single-firm labour organizations. In 1985 total membership was approximately 20- lm. The American Federation of Labor (founded 1881 and taking its name in 1886) and the Congress of Industrial Organizations merged into one organization, named the AFL-CIO, in Dec. 1955, representing 16-8m. workers in 1980. Unaffiliated or independent labour organizations, inter-state in scope, including those organizing coalminers, teamsters and government employees and railroad workers, had an estimated total membership excluding all foreign members (1980) ofabout6-8m. Labour organizations represented 19-9% (19-3m.) of the labour force in 1986; 17 • 5% (17m.) were actual members of unions. The Labor-Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act, 1947, applicable to industries affecting inter-state commerce, prohibits the closed shop, but permits union shop arrangements except where forbidden by state laws. Statutes regulating, restricting or prohibiting union shop or other types of union security agreements are in effect in 21 states (Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia and Wyoming). Colorado and Wisconsin ban all-union agreements unless a certain percentage of employees have voted for them; in Hawaii an all-union agreement may be entered into unless a majority of employees votes against it. Thirteen states have acts to prevent industrial disputes between public utilities and their employees by means of compulsory arbitration or seizure; however, a number of these laws have been declared unconstitutional in so far as industries in inter-state commerce are concerned. Laws to restrict or regulate picketing or other strike activities have been enacted in over half the states. About one-half of the states also prohibit certain types of strikes, as 'sit down', jurisdictional or sympathy strikes. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 protects the interests of workers and their beneficiaries who are entitled to benefits from employee pension and welfare plans. The law requires disclosure of plan provisions and financial information and establishes standards of conduct for trustees and administrators of welfare and pension plans. It provides funding, participation and vesting requirements for pension plans and makes termination insurance available for most pension plans. The law does not require a company to establish a welfare or pension plan. Minimum wage laws governing private employers are in operation in 45 jurisdictions: 41 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands have minimum wage laws and minimum wage rates. As of 1 Aug. 1978, all but one of the laws cover men, women and, usually, minors. The exception covers only women and minors. The minimum wage rate under federal law is $3.35 per hour for employees who are engaged in commerce, in the production of goods for commerce or in certain enterprises which are engaged in commerce as well as federal employees. A total of 69 strikes and lockouts of 1,000 workers or more occurred in 1986, involving 533,000 workers and 11-9m. idle days; the number of idle days was 0-05% ofthe year's total working time of all workers. There are 3 federal agencies which provide formal machinery for the adjustment of labour disputes: (1) The Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, now an independent agency, whose mediation services are available 'in any labor dispute

UNITED STATES OF

1411

AMERICA

in any industry affecting commerce'; under Executive Order 11491, as amended, to federal agencies and organizations of federal employees involved in negotiation disputes; and in state and local government collective bargaining disputes when adequate dispute resolution machinery is not available to the parties. Its aim is to prevent and minimize work stoppages. (2) The National Mediation Board (1934) provides much the same facilities for the railroad and air-transport industries pursuant to the Railway Labor Act. (3) The National Railroad Adjustment Board (1934) acts as a board of final appeal for grievances arising over the interpretation of existing collective agreements under the Railway Labor Act; its decisions are binding upon both sides and enforceable by the courts. The National Labor Relations Act, as amended by the Labor-Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act, 1 9 4 7 (see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK., 1 9 5 5 , p. 617), was amended by the Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act, 1959, and again amended in 1974. The 1959 Act requires extensive reporting and disclosure of certain financial and administrative practices of labour organizations, employers and labour relations consultants. In addition, certain powers are vested in the Secretary of Labor to prevent abuses in the administration of trusteeships by labour organizations, to provide minimum standards and procedures for the election of union officers and to establish rules prescribing minimum standards for determining the adequacy of union procedures for the removal of officers. Other provisions impose a fiduciary responsibility upon union officers and provide for the exclusion of those convicted of certain named felonies from office for specified periods; more stringently regulate secondary boycotts and banning of 'hot' cargo agreements; put limitations upon organizational and recognition picketing and permit States to assert jurisdiction over labour disputes where the National Labor Relations Board declines to act. The Act also contains a 'Bill of Rights' for union members (enforceable directly by them) dealing with such things as equal rights in the nomination and election of union officers, freedom of speech and assembly subject to reasonable union rules, and safeguards against improper disciplinary action. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated that in 1986 the labour force was 119,540,000 (65 -6% of those 16 years and over); the resident armed forces accounted for 1,706,000 and the civilian labour force for 117,834,000, of whom 109,597,000 were employed and 8,237,000—or 7%—were unemployed. The following table shows civilian employment by industry and sex and percentage distribution of the total: Industry Group Employed ( 1,000 persons): Agriculture, forestry and fisheries Mining Construction Manufacturing: Durable goods Non-durable (including not specified) Transportation, communication and other public utilities Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insurance and real estate Services Private households Other services Professional services Public administration

Percentage distribution 1000 2-9 08 6-6

Male 60,892 2,511 736 6,663

Female 48,706 652 143 625

Total 109,597 3,163 880 7,288

9,289 4,936

3,315 3,421

12,605 8,357

11-5 7-6

5,553 11,990 3,021 13,199 184 13,015 7,229 2,992

2,097 10,823 4,380 21,137 1,057 20,080 14,945 2,112

7,650 22,813 7,401 34,337 1,241 33,096 22,174 5,104

7-0 20-8 6-8 31-3 11 30-2 20-2 4-7

A Guide to Basic Law and Procedures under the National Labor Relations Act, National Labor Relations Board, Washington, D.C., 1976 Brody, D., Workers in Industrial America: Essays on the Twentieth-century Struggle. New York, 1980

1412

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Commerce. The subjoined table gives the total value of the imports and exports of merchandise by yearly average or by year (in $ 1 m.): Exports USmdse.* Total 1946-50 11,829 11,673 1951-55 15,333 15,196 19,204 1956-60 19,029 1961-65 24,006 24,707 43,224 1970 42,590 1 Excludes re-exports.

!

General Exports2 General Total USmdse imports2 imports 1982 212,275 243,952 6,659 207,158 10,832 1983 200,538 195,969 258,048 325,726 13,650 1984 217,888 212,057 17,659 1985 213,146 206,925 345,276 217,304 39,952 1986 206,376 369,961 Includes US Virgin Islands trade with foreign countries.

For a description of how imports and exports are valued, see Explanation of Statistics of Report FT990, Highlights of US Export and Import Trade, Bureau of the Census, US Department ofCommerce, Washington, D.C., 1946. The 'most favoured nation' treatment in commerce between Great Britain and US was agreed to for 4 years by the treaty of 1815, was extended for 10 years by the treaty of 1818, and indefinitely (subject to 12 months' notice) by that of 1827.

Imports and exports of gold and silver bullion and specie in calendar years (in $1,000): 1932 1940 1944 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1986

Exports 809,528 4,995 959,228 7,257 1,647 1,285,097 36,887 429,278 2,787,431 919,400 1,207,783

Gold

Imports 363,315 4,749,467 113,836 104,592 335,032 101,669 227,472 406,583 2,508,520 2,109,500 5,016,558

Exports 13,850 3,674 126,915 8,331 25,789 54,061 53,003 104,086 1,326,878 81,746 56,785

Silver

Imports 19,650 58,434 23,373 72,932 57,438 64,769 58,838 274,106 1,336,009 855,528 688,296

The domestic exports of US produce, including military, and the imports for consumption by economic classes for 3 calendar years were (in $m.):

Food and live animals Crude materials Machinery and transport equipment Chemicals Total of the above main groups

Exports (US merchandise) 1984 ¡985 ¡986 19,268 24,463 17,303 17,324 20,249 16,939

1984 17,973 11,082

for

Imports consumption 1985 ¡986 18,668 20,644 10,295 10,347

89,973 22,336

94,278 21,759

95,290 22,766

119,192 13,697

136,613 14,420

161,999 14,851

157,021

152,244

152,683

163,928

179,996

207,841

Leading exports of US merchandise are listed below for the calendar year 1986: Special category merchandise is included. Data for major subdivisions of certain classes are also given: Commodity Machinery, total Power generating machinery Metalworking machinery Agricultural machines and tractors Office machinery and computers Telecommunications apparatus Electrical machinery and apparatus Electrical power apparatus and switchgear Road motor vehicles (and parts) Aircraft and spacecraft (and parts) Grains and preparations Wheat (and flour)

$lm. 60,809 9,165 1,467 1,688 15,456 4,407 13,630 3,496 17,709 15,106 7,368 3,217

Commodity $lm. Chemicals 22,766 Chemical elements and compounds 1,771 Plastic materials and resins 4,301 Soybeans 4,334 Cotton 773 Textiles and apparel 3,469 Tobacco and cigarettes 2,732 Iron and steel-mill products 1,020 Non-ferrous base metals and alloys 1,195 Pulp, paper and products 4,265 Coal 3,928 Fruits and vegetables 2,657 Petroleum and products 3,639 Firearms of war and ammunition 2,282

1413

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Chief imports for 27 commodity classes for consumption for the calendar year 1986: Commodity Petroleum products, crude and refined Petroleum Petroleum products Non-ferrous metals Copper Aluminium Nickel Lead Tin Paper, paperboard and products Newsprint Wood pulp Fertilizers Sugar Iron and steel-mill products Cattle, meat and preparations Automobiles and parts Fish (and shellfish) Fruit and vegetables Alcoholic beverages

$lm. 33,746 22,608 10,819 5,745 1,365 2,747 515 62 242 6,357 3,682 1,581 865 624 8,054 2,779 68,614 4,689 4,101 2,973

Commodity Wool and other hair Metal manufactures n.e.s. Diamonds (excl. industrial) Rubber Textile yarn, fabrics and products Clothing Cotton fabrics, woven Machinery, total Agricultural machinery and tractors Office machinery Coffee Chemicals and related products Chemicals Oils and fats Cocoa beans Glass, pottery and china Footwear Toys and sports goods Furs, undressed Telecommunications apparatus Artworks and antiques Natural and manufactured gas

Sim. 188 7,031 3,459 920 1,597 17,207 989 86,078 1,826 14,691 4,288 14,851 7,955 502 418 2,465 6,461 4,516 145 20,142 2,092 2,994

Total trade beween the USA and the UK for 5 years (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 1984 1987 1983 1985 1986 Imports to UK 7,442,671 9,356,029 9,919,689 8,468,160 9,136,015 Exports and re-exports from UK 8,336,979 10,149,479 11,498,802 10,379,585 11,014,242

Imports and exports by continents, areas and selected countries for calendar years (in $lm.): Area and country Western Hemisphere Canada 20 Latin American Republics Central American Common Market Costa Rica EI Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panama Latin American FTA Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Mexico Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela Dominican Republic Haiti Bahamas Netherlands Antilles Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago

General imports 1985 1986 115,916 110,701 69,006 68,253 39,541 43,448 1,722 2,061 501 641 396 385 409 601 375 433 41 8 366 410 39,943 35,655 856 1,069 99 124 7,526 6,813 745 820 1,331 1,874 1,837 1,465 19,132 17,302 24 30 803 1,087 557 473 6,537 5,097 982 1,085 375 390 442 626 808 471 273 299 1,258 793

Exports incl. re-exports 1985 1986 78,271 76,410 47,251 45,333 27,968 27,850 1,622 1,767 422 483 445 518 405 400 308 363 42 3 711 675 24,414 24,180 944 721 112 120 3,140 3,885 682 823 1,468 1,318 601 591 12,392 13,635 99 171 496 693 64 100 3,141 3,399 742 921 396 387 786 761 427 398 404 457 504 532

1

1414

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Area and country Europe Western Europe OECD Countries European Economic Community Belgium and Luxembourg Denmark France Germany (Fed. Rep.) Greece Ireland Italy Netherlands UK Turkey EFTA countries Austria Norway Portugal Sweden Switzerland Finland Iceland Spain Yugoslavia Soviet bloc. Poland USSR

General imports 1985 1986

Exports incl. re-exports 1985 1986

79,756 79,165 64,761 3,387 1,665 9,482 20,239 395 901 9,674 4,081 14,937 602

89,825 89,130 75,736 4,006 1,757 10,129 25,124 394 1,003 10,607 4,066 15,396 633

56,763 56,084 45,776 4,918 706 6,096 9,050 498 1,342 4,625 7,269 11,273 1,295

61,642 61,003 53,154 5,399 758 2,615 10,561 430 1,434 4,838

834 1,164 546 4,124 3,476 895 248 2,515 542 1,936 220 409

864 1,079 552 4,420 5,253 908 238 2,702 646 532 233 558

441 666 695 1,925 2,288 438 38 2,524 595 3,215 238 2,423

464 937 638 1,871 2,977 381 60 2,615 528 590 151 1,248

131,884 6,267 84 725 474 2,123 184 19 1,907

153,869 7,890 77 569 440 2,418 267 30 3,612

60,745 9,709 107 74 427 2,580 551 141 4,474

64,532 8,415 195 34 528 2,239 7 106 657

68,783 59,236 196 8,396 2,295 4,569 10,013 2,300 4,260 274 2,145 282 1,428 16,396

81,911 67,186 230 8,891 2,283 3,312 12,729 2,421 4,725 325 1,972 337 1,748 19,791 2 4,771

22,631 34,239 219 2,786 1,642 795 5,956 1,539 3,476 1,042 1,379 73 849 4,700 3,856

26,882 34,514 165 3,030 1,536 946 6,355 1,730 3,380 830 1,363 66 936 5,524 30 3,106

Oceania 3,819 3,717 Australia 2,837 2,632 New Zealand and W. Samoa 984 883 1 'Special category' exports are included in these totals. 2 Excludes Yemen (Aden) (formerly Southern Yemen). J Included in China from 1984.

6,399 5,441 729

6,659 5,551 883

Asia 2 Near East Bahrain Iran Iraq Israel Kuwait Lebanon Saudi Arabia Japan Other Asia Bangladesh Hong Kong India Indonesia Korea, Republic of Malaysia Singapore Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Taiwan (Formosa) Vietnam 3 China

3,862

11,4 i 8 1,160

1

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA Area and country

Africa Algeria Egypt Ethiopia Libya Morocco Ghana Liberia Nigeria Kenya Zaire South Africa, Republic of 4 1 4

General imports 1985 1986 11,964 10,348 2,333 1,831 79 112 43 75 44 2 39 43 90 191 82 83 3,002 2,530 141 92 401 221 2,071 2,365

1415 Exports incl. re-exports ' 1985 ¡986 7,388 5,978 430 453 1,982 2,323 203 104 46 311 279 487 54 84 73 65 676 409 97 70 105 105 1,205 1,158

See note on previous page. Includes also South-West Africa (Namibia).

US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census. Report FT 990, Highlights of US Export and Import Trade

Tourism. In 1986, 25-4m. visitors travelled to the USA and spent over US$12,913m. (excluding transportation paid to US international carriers). They came mainly from Canada (10-9m.), Europe (8-9m.) and Mexico (5 6m.).1 Approximately 37-6m. US visitors travelled abroad, mainly to Canada (141m.), Mexico (11 -4m.), Europe (5 -2m.), and the Caribbean (3 -5m.). 1

Changed method of counting for Mexico.

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 31 Dec. 1986 the total US public road' mileage, including rural and urban roads, amounted to 3,879,538 miles, of which 3,504,394 miles were surfaced roads. The total mileage cited includes 703,900 miles of rural roads under control of the states, 2,188,664 miles of local rural roads, 232,120 miles of federal park and forest roads, and 701,414 miles of urban roads and streets. Expenditures for construction and maintenance amounted to $43,163m. in 1985. By the end of 1986, toll roads administered by state and local toll authorities, totalled 4,692 miles (including some under construction) compared with 344 miles in 1940. Motor vehicles registered in the calendar year 1986 were (Federal Highways Administration) 176,191.339, including 135,431,112 automobiles, 593,728 buses and 40,166,499 trucks. Inter-city trucks (private and for hire) averaged 605,000m. revenue net ton-miles in 1984. Of the 593,728 buses in service in 1986,479,076 were school buses. Intercity service operated a total of 1,137m. bus-miles and carried a total of 362m. revenue passengers in 1984. There were 46,056 deaths in road accidents in 1986. 1 Public road mileage excludes that mileage not open to public travel, not maintained by public authority, or not passable by standard four-wheel vehicles. This excluded mileage was reported to the US Federal Highway Administration prior to 1981.

Railways. Railway history in the USA commences in 1828, but the first railway to convey both freight and passengers in regular service (between Baltimore and Ellicott's Mills, Md., 13 miles) dates from 24 May 1830. Mileage rose to 52,922 miles in 1870; to 167,191 miles in 1890, and to a peak of 266,381 miles in 1916, falling thereafter to 261,871 in 1925; 246,739 in 1940 and 222,164 in 1969 (these include some duplication under trackage rights and some mileage operated in Canada by US companies). The ordinary gauge is 4 ft 8V2 in. (about 99-6% of total mileage). The USA has about 29% of the world's railway mileage. In addition to the independent railroad companies, railway service is provided by two federally-assisted organizations, the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak), and the Consolidated Rail Corporation (Conrail). Amtrak was set up on 1 May 1971 to maintain a basic network of inter-city

1416

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passenger trains with government assistance, and is responsible for almost all noncommuter services with 40,000 miles of route including 1,256 km owned (555 electrified) and carried 21m. passengers in 1985. From 1 Jan. 1983, an Amtrak commuter division took over from Conrail all commuter services not acquired by State or regional agencies. Conrail was established on 1 April 1976 to run freight services in the industrial north-east formerly operated by the bankrupt Penn Central, Reading, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey, Erie Lackawanna, Lehigh & Hudson railroads, and Pennyslvania-Reading Seashore Lines which was returned to the private sector in 1985. The following table, based on the figures of the Interstate Commerce Commission, shows some railway statistics for 4 calendar years: Classes I and II Railroads Mileage owned (first main tracks) Revenue freight originated (1 m. short tons) Freight ton-mileage ( 1 m. ton-miles) Passengers carried (1,000) Passenger-miles (1 m.) Operating revenues ($ 1 m.) Operating expenses ($ 1 m.) Net railway operating income ($ 1 m.) Net income after fixed charges ($ 1 m.) Class I Railroads: Locomotives in service Steam locomotives Freight-train cars (excluding caboose cars) Passenger-train cars Average number of employees Average wage per week ($ 1 )

I960

1970

19802

19861

!

223,779 1,421 591,550 488,019 31,790 9,587 7,135 1,055 855

204,621 1,572 771,012 289,469 10,786 12,209 9,806 506 126

157,078 1,537 932,748 281,503 6,557 28,708 26,761 1,364 2,029

135,782 1,306 867,722 i 3 26,204 24,896 507 1,579

40,949 27,086 28,240 — — 25,640 1,721,269 1,423,921 1,101,343 57,146 11,177 2,219 1,220,784 566,282 458,996 474.21 72.59 188.71

21,045 —

713,954 672 275,817 690.27

1 Class I railroads only. From 1981, Class II railroads were no longer required to file annual reports. 2 Data for National Railroad Passenger Corporation excluded. 1 This data has been discontinued.

Aviation. In civil aviation there were, on 31 Dec. 1985, 709,540 certified pilots (including 146,652 student pilots) and 273,979 registered civil aircraft. Airports on 31 Dec. 1985: Air carrier, 700; general aviation, 15,379. Of these airports, 12,648 were conventional land-based, while 384 were seaplane bases, 2,982 were heliports and 65 stolports (STOL—Short Take-Off and Landing). Statistics from the Department of Transportation indicate that for 12 months ended June 1986 on US flag carriers in scheduled international service there were 24-8m. enplanements with 365-4m. aircraft miles (excluding all-cargo) for a total of 64,933m. revenue passenger-miles. The non-scheduled airlines had a total of 13,788m. revenue passenger-miles internationally and domestically. Domestically US scheduled airlines in 1986 had 370-9m. enplanements with a total of 3,084-7m. aircraft miles for 282,744m. revenue passenger-miles. (A revenue passenger-mile is one paying passenger carried per mile.). Shipping. On 1 Sept. 1986 the US merchant marine included 735 sea-going vessels of 1,000 gross tons or over, with aggregate dead-weight tonnage of 24m. This included 255 tankers of 15 -4m. DWT. On 1 Sept. 1986 US merchant ocean-going vessels were employed as follows: Active, 385 of 16-3m. DWT, of which 149 of 5-2m. tons were foreign trade, 169 of 9 • 5m. tons in domestic trade and 67 of 1 -6m. tons in other US agency operations. Inactive vessels totalled 8m. D W T ; 89 of 4-4m. D W T privately owned were laid up and 261 of 3 -6m. tons were Government-owned National Defense reserve fleet. Of the total vessels in the US fleet, 464 of 21 m. D W T were privately owned. US exports and imports carried on dry cargo and tanker vessels in the year 1985 totalled 643 - lm. long tons, of which 27-4m. long tons or 4 -3% were carried in US flag vessels.

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AMERICA

Post and Broadcasting. Until the beginning of 1984 the telephone business was largely in the hands of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT & T) and its telephone operating subsidiaries, which together were known as the Bell System. Pursuant to a government anti-trust suit, the Bell System was broken up, with the telephone operating companies being divested from AT & T to create seven regional companies for providing local service. There are also many hundreds of smaller telephone companies having no common ownership affiliation with the Bell companies, but which connect with them for universal service, countrywide and worldwide. In addition, several new entrants have begun to compete with AT & T in the long-distance telephone market. The message telegraph and telex services are in the hands of The Western Union Telegraph Company, and the international record carriers, which compete with the telephone industry in providing leased private lines. Western Union also provides an inter-city telephone service. The number of telephones in service in the USA has increased in the period since 1945 at a much faster rate than has the population. Among principal reasons are the significant increase in the percentage of households with telephone service and the enormous growth in the number of extension telephones. In marked contrast, the number of public telegrams has decreased by a substantial amount. Telegrams have lost favour due to shifts in user preference to the airmail and to the telephone. The telex services of the telegraph company have also found broad acceptance in place of telegrams for business purposes. The following table contains key data items on a comparative basis for the domestic telephone and message telegraph services: 1960 All telephone systems: Total telephones 74,342,000 Bell System: Total telephones 60,735,100 Average daily telephone calls 219,093,000 Local 209,373,000 Long distance 9,720,000 Total plant in service ($ 1,000) 24,072,499 Total operating revenues ($ 1,000) 7,958,125 Employees, n u m b e r 580,405 Western Union Telegraph Co.: Public telegrams for year 102,931,000 Total plant ($1,000) 398,023 Revenue from public telegrams ($1,000) 160,746 Total operating revenues ($1,000) 262,365 Employees, n u m b e r 32,655

1980

1986

120,218,000

1970

180,425,000

122,203,000

96,561,000 368,363,000 346,505,000 21,858,000 54,813,202 17,094,846 772,980

141,674,000 580,230,000 527,543,000 52,687,000 132,831,794 51,203,404 847,768

97,007,000 1,083,567,802 995,544,339 88,023,463 168,008,759 63,896,509 506,643

46,084,000 1,029,149

40,801,398 2,101,007

20,040,189 1,991,343

126,739 402,456 24,293

115,612 696,972 12,649

85,724 573,109

International communication services, providing overseas connexions with all parts of the world, are furnished principally by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and three telegraph companies. The old submarine cable telegraph systems have all been abandoned in favour of using telegraph circuits derived from voice channels in the newer telephone ocean cables, which have also made inroads on the use of high-frequency radio. More recently, satellite communications facilities have been utilized not only for telephone and telegraph services but for television and data transmission as well. International overseas telegrams, inbound to and outbound from the continental US, numbered 9-2m. in 1982 (11 -7m. in 1980). This service has tended to decline in volume in recent years. It first lost ground to the air-mail and then to the telex and telephone services. For the US and its possessions the volume of international overseas telephone calls has grown enormously with the availability of the excellent voice-transmission qualities provided in the telephone ocean cables and in the satellite radio relays. Whereas international telephone calls were 990,000 in 1955, the last year in which there was no cable service available, there were 149 -6m. such calls in 1980.

1418

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Postal business for the years ended 30 Sept. included the following items: 1984 1985 1986 1983 Numberofpostoffices, on 30 June ' 39,445 39,386 39,327 39,270 Postal operating revenue ($1,000) 23,581,667 25,313,554 27,736,071 30,716,595 Postal expenses ($1,000) 24,083,073 26,357,353 29,207,201 29,411,987 1 The US Postal Service was established 1 July 1971. Financial statements prior to that date are those of the Post Office Department. Such statements for 1968-71 have been restated to be in a format and on an accounting principle basis generally consistent with 1972.

On 1 Jan. 1975 there were in the USA and Territories, 7,068 authorized commercial radio stations, 711 commercial television stations: of non-commercial stations 717 were for radio, 241 for television. Cinemas. Cinemas increased from 17,003 in 1940 to 20,239 in 1950 and decreased to 20,200 in 1984, of which 2,832 were drive-ins. Newspapers. Of the daily newspapers being published in the USA in 1971, 339 were morning papers with a circulation of 26,116,000, and 1,425 were evening papers with a circulation of 36,115,000. The 590 Sunday papers had a total circulation of 49-7m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Legal controversies may be decided in two systems of courts: the federal courts, with jurisdiction confined to certain matters enumerated in Article III of the Constitution, and the state courts, with jurisdiction in all other proceedings. The federal courts have jurisdiction exclusive of the state courts in criminal prosecutions for the violation of federal statutes, in civil cases involving the government, in bankruptcy cases and in admiralty proceedings, and have jurisdiction concurrent with the state courts over suits between parties from different states, and certain suits involving questions of federal law. The highest court is the Supreme Court of the US, which reviews cases from the lower federal courts and certain cases originating in state courts involving questions of federal law. It is the final arbiter of all questions involving federal statutes and the Constitution; and it has the power to invalidate any federal or state law or executive action which it finds repugnant to the Constitution. This court, consisting of 9 justices who receive salaries of $104,100 a year (the Chief Justice, $ 108,400), meets from Oct. until June every year and disposes of about 4,450 cases, deciding about 380 on their merits. In the remainder of cases it either summarily affirms lower court decisions or declines to review. A few suits, usually brought by state governments, originate in the Supreme Court, but issues of fact are mostly referred to a master. The US courts of appeals number 13 (in 11 circuits composed of 3 or more states and 1 circuit for the District of Columbia and 1 Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit); the 168 circuit judges receive salaries of $83,200 a year. Any party to a suit in a lower federal court usually has a right of appeal to one of these courts. In addition, there are direct appeals to these courts from many federal administrative agencies. In the year ending 30 June 1986, 35,455 appeals were filed in the courts of appeals. The trial courts in the federal system are the US district courts, of which there are 89 in the 50 states, 1 in the District of Columbia and 1 each in the territories of Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guam and the Northern Marianas. Each state has at least 1 US district court, and 3 states have 4 apiece. Each district court has from 1 to 27 judgeships. There are 575 US district judges ($78,700 a year), who handle about 254,800 civil cases and 57,000 criminal defendants every year. In addition to these courts of general jurisdiction, there are special federal courts of limited jurisdiction. US Claims Court (16 judges at $70,200 a year) decides claims for money damages against the federal government in a wide variety of matters; the Court of International Trade (9 judges at $78,700) determines controversies concerning the classification and valuation of imported merchandise. The judges of all these courts are appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate; to assure their independence, they hold office during good behaviour

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1419

and cannot have their salaries reduced. This does not apply to the territorial judges, who hold their offices for a term of years or to judges of the US Claims Court. The judges may retire with full pay at the age of 70 years if they have served a period of 10 years, or at 65 if they have 15 years of service, but they are subject to call for such judicial duties as they are willing to undertake. Only 9 US judges up to 1986 have been involved in impeachment proceedings, of whom 4 district judges and 1 commerce judge were convicted and removed from office. Of the 254,828 civil cases filed in the district courts in the year ending 30 June 1986, about 113,392 arose under various federal statutes (such as labour, social security, tax, patent, securities, antitrust and civil rights laws); 42,326 involved personal injury or property damage claims; 88,352 dealt with contracts; and 10,674 were actions concerning real property. Of the 41,490 criminal cases filed in the district courts in the year ending 30 June 1986, about 2,010 were charged with alleged infractions of the immigration laws; 340, the transport of stolen motor vehicles; about 3,540 larceny and theft; 8,570, embezzlement and fraud; and 7,890 narcotics laws. Persons convicted of federal crimes are either fined, released on probation under the supervision of the probation officers of the federal courts, confined in prison for a period of up to 6 months and then put on probation (known as split sentencing) or confined in one of the following institutions: 3 for juvenile and youths; 7 for young adults; 7 for intermediate term adults; 7 for short-term adults; 2 for females; 1 hospital and 15 community service centres. In addition, prisoners are confined in centres operated by the National Institutes of Mental Health. In addition, prisoner drug addicts may be committed to US Public Health Service hospitals for treatment. Prisoners confined in institutions operated by the US Bureau of Prisons for the year ending 30 Sept. 1982, numbered 28,133. The state courts have jurisdiction over all civil and criminal cases arising under state laws, but decisions of the state courts of last resort as to the validity of treaties or of laws of the US, or on other questions arising under the Constitution, are subject to review by the Supreme Court of the US. The state court systems are generally similar to the federal system, to the extent that they generally have a number of trial courts and intermediate appellate courts, and a single court of last resort. The highest court in each state is usually called the Supreme Court or Court of Appeals with a Chief Justice and Associate Justices, usually elected but sometimes appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the State Senate or other advisory body; they usually hold office for a term of years, but in some instances for life or during good behaviour. Their salaries range from $24,000 to $84,584 a year. The lowest tribunals are usually those of Justices of the Peace; many towns and cities have municipal and police courts, with power to commit for trial in criminal matters and to determine misdemeanours for violation of the municipal ordinances; they frequently try civil cases involving limited amounts. The death penalty is illegal in Alaska, Hawaii, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Oregon, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Michigan; in North Dakota it is legal only for treason and first-degree murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence for first-degree murder, in Rhode Island only for murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence and in Vermont and New York for the murder of a peace officer in the line of duty and for first-degree murder by those who kill while serving a life sentence for murder. The death penalty is legal in 37 states. Until 1982 it had fallen into disuse and had been abolished de facto in many states. The US Supreme Court had held the death penalty, as applied in general criminal statutes, to contravene the eighth and fourteenth amendments of the US constitution, as a cruel and unusual punishment when used so irregularly and rarely as to destroy its deterrent value. In 1967 only 2 persons were executed under civil authority; both for murder. There were no executions 1968-76. In 1977 a convicted murderer requested that he should be executed and after a lengthy legal dispute the sentence was carried out at Utah state prison. Six persons were executed between 1977 and 1982. In Jan. 1983,1,050 prisoners in 31 states were reported under sentence of death. The total number of civilian executions carried out in the US from 1930 to 1982 was 3,866.

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Federal 'Political' Crimes. P r o s e c u t i o n s for w h a t m a y b e l o o s e l y d e s c r i b e d a s 'political' o f f e n c e s , o r c r i m e s directed t o w a r d s t h e o v e r t h r o w b y v i o l e n c e o f t h e federal g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h w e r e s o m e w h a t n u m e r o u s in t h e early 1 9 5 0 s , h a v e d e c l i n e d s h a r p l y o v e r t h e last 2 0 years a n d are n o w e x c e e d i n g l y rare. A Guide to Court Systems. Institute of Judicial Administration. New York, 1960 The United States Courts. Administrative Office o f t h e U S Courts, Washington, D.C., 20544 Blumberg, A. S., Criminal Justice: Issues and Ironies. 2nd ed. New York, 1973 H u s t o n , L . A., The Department of Justice. N e w Y o r k , 1967 Huston, L. A., and others, Roles ofthe Attorney General ofthe United States. N e w Y o r k , 1968 McCloskey,R. G., The Modem Supreme Court. Harvard Univ. Press, 1972 McLauchlan, W. P., American Legal Processes. N e w Y o r k , 1977 Walker, S. E., Popular Justice. New York, 1980 R e l i g i o n . The Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches for 1987, p u b l i s h e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f t h e C h u r c h e s o f Christ in t h e U S A , N e w Y o r k , p r e s e n t s t h e latest figures a v a i l a b l e f r o m o f f i c i a l statisticians o f c h u r c h b o d i e s . T h e large m a j o r i t y o f reports are for t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r 1 9 8 5 , o r a fiscal y e a r e n d i n g 1 9 8 5 . T h e 1 9 8 5 reports i n d i c a t e d that t h e r e w e r e 1 4 2 , 9 2 6 , 3 6 3 ( 1 4 2 , 1 7 2 , 0 0 0 in 1 9 8 4 ) m e m b e r s w i t h 3 4 5 , 9 6 1 l o c a l c h u r c h e s . T h e r e w e r e 3 2 5 , 4 1 1 c l e r g y m e n s e r v i n g in l o c a l c o n g r e g a t i o n s in 1 9 8 5 . T h e p r i n c i p a l r e l i g i o u s b o d i e s ( n u m e r i c a l l y o r historic a l l y ) o r g r o u p s o f r e l i g i o u s b o d i e s are s h o w n b e l o w : Local Total Denominations churches membership Summary: Protestant bodies 79,095,746 314,713 R o m a n Catholic Church 24,251 52,654,908 1 Jews 3,416 5,834,635 Eastern Churches 1,659 4,025,698 Old Catholic, Polish National Catholic and Armenian Buddhists 428 1,024,330 Miscellaneous 2 100 100,000 1,124 191,046 1985 totals 345,961 142,926,363 1 Includes Orthodox, Conservative and Reformed bodies. 2 Includes non-Christian bodies such as Spiritualists, Ethical Culture, Unitarian-Universalists. 3 Care should be taken in interpreting membership statistics for the U S Churches. Some statistics are accurately compiled and others are estimates. Also statistics are not always comparable. Protestant Church Membership Total membership Baptist bodies Southern Baptist Convention 14,477,364 National Baptist Convention, USA 5,500,000 1 National Baptist Convention of America, Inc. 2,668,799 1 National Primitive Baptist Convention 250,000 1 American Baptist Churches in the U S A 1,559,683 American Baptist Association 225,000 Conservative Baptist Association of America 225,000 Regular Baptist Churches 300,839 Free Will Baptists 217,838 Baptist Missionary Association of America 227,720 Christian Church (Disciples ofChrist) 1,116,326 Christian Churches and Churches o f C h r i s t 1,051,469 C h u r c h o f t h e Nazarene 552,082 Churches ofChrist 1,604,000 The Episcopal C h u r c h 2,739,422 Latter-Day Saints: C h u r c h of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 3,860,000 Reorganized C h u r c h of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 192,082 Lutheran Bodies: Lutheran Church in America 2,898,202 The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod 2,638,164 The American Lutheran C h u r c h 2,332,316 Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod 415,389

UNITED STATES OF

Protestant Church Membership Methodist Bodies: United Methodist C h u r c h African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Methodist Episcopal C h u r c h Pentecostal Bodies: Assemblies of G o d C h u r c h o f G o d (Cleveland, Tenn.) United Pentecostal Church, International, Inc. Presbyterian Bodies: 1 Presbyterian C h u r c h (USA) Others Reformed Churches: Reformed Church in America Christian Reformed Church The Salvation A r m y Seventh-day Adventists United C h u r c h of Christ 1

Yearbook of American

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AMERICA Total

membership 9,192,172 2,210,000 1,202,229 718,922 2,082,878 500,000 475,000 3,048,235 351,446 342,275 219,988 427,825 651,954 1,683,777

Figures date from 1976 or earlier.

and Canadian

Churches. A n n u a l , from 1951. New York

Education. Under the system of government in the USA, elementary and secondary education is committed in the main to the several states. Each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia has a system of free public schools, established by law, with courses covering 12 years plus kindergarten. There are 3 structural patterns in common use; the K8-4 plan, meaning kindergarten plus 8 elementary grades followed by 4 high school grades; the K6-3-3 plan, or kindergarten plus 6 elementary grades followed by a 3-year junior high school and a 3-year senior high school; and the K6-6 plan, kindergarten plus 6 elementary grades followed by a 6-year high school. All plans lead to high-school graduation, usually at age 17 or 18. Vocational education is an integral part of secondary education. In addition, some states have, as part of the free public school system, 2-year colleges in which education is provided at a nominal cost. Each state has delegated a large degree of control of the educational programme to local school districts (numbering 15,734 in autumn 1986), each with a board of education (usually 3 to 9 members) selected locally and serving mostly without pay. The school policies of the local school districts must be in accord with the laws and the regulations of their state Departments of Education. While regulations differ from one jurisdiction to another, in general it may be said that school attendance is compulsory from age 7 to 16. The Census Bureau estimates that in Nov. 1979 only lm. or 0-6% of the 170m. persons who were 14 years of age or older were unable to read and write; in 1930 the percentage was 4-8. In 1940 a new category was established—the 'functionally illiterate', meaning those who had completed fewer than 5 years of elementary schooling; for persons 25 years of age or over this percentage was 2-7 in March 1985 (for the non-white population alone it was 6%); it was 0-8% for white and 0-5% for non-whites in the 25-29-year-old group. The Bureau reported that in March 1985 the median years of school completed by all persons 25 years old and over was 12-6, and that 19-4% had completed 4 or more years of college. For the 25-29-year-old group, the median school years completed was 12-9 and 22 • 2% had completed 4 or more years of college. In the autumn of 1985, 12,247,000 students (5,818,000 men and 6,429,000 women) were enrolled in 3,340 colleges and universities; 2,292,000 were first-time students. About 27-8% of the population between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in colleges and universities. Public elementary and secondary school revenue is supplied from the county and other local sources (43-8% in 1985-86), state sources (49-8%) and federal sources (6 • 5%). In 1985-86 expenditure for public elementary and secondary education totalled about $150,900m., including $137,600m. for regular day school programmes, $2,200m. for other programmes, $8,600m. for capital outlay and $2,600m. for interest on school debt. The current expenditure per pupil in average

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daily attendance was about $3,755. The total cost per pupil, also including capital outlay and interest, amounted to about $4,060. Estimated total expenditures, for private elementary and secondary schools in 1985-86 were about $13,200m. In 1985-86 the 3,340 universities and colleges expended $100,101m. from current funds, of which $65,067m. was spent by institutions under public control. The federal government contributed 12 • 7% of total current-fund revenue; state governments, 29%; student tuition and fees, 22 • 4%; and all other sources, 35 -9%. Vocational education below college grade, including the training of teachers to conduct such education, has been federally aided since 1918. Federal support for vocational education in 1985-86 amounted to about $813m. Many public high schools offer vocational courses in addition to their usual academic programmes. In 1981-82 enrolments in the vocational classes were: Agriculture, 420,000; business, 5,874,000; home economics, 3,024,000; industrial arts, 2,980,000; trade and industry, 1,874,000. Summary of statistics of regular schools (public and private), teachers and pupils in autumn 1985 (compiled by the US National Center for Education statistics): Number of Schools by level Elementary schools: Public Private Secondary schools: Public Private Higher education: Public Private Total

schools 1985-86

Teachers autumn 1985

Enrolment autumn 1985

58,827 1 22,000

1,230,000 246,000 2

23,916 1 8,200

981,000 97,000 2

15,238,000 1,300,000 2

1,498 1,842

499,000 2 211,000 2

9,479,000 2,768,000

116,283 i Data for 1984-85.

3,264,000 2

24,275,000 4,300,000

2

57,360,000

Estimated.

Most of the private elementary and secondary schools are affiliated with religious denominations. Of the children attending private elementary and secondary schools in 1985, nearly 3 1 m . or 55-4% were enrolled in Roman Catholic schools. During the school year 1985-86 high-school graduates numbered about 2,644,000 (about 49-5% boys and 50-5% girls). Institutions of higher education conferred 987,823 bachelor's degrees during the year 1985-86, 485,923 to men and 501,900 to women; 288,567 master's degrees, 143,508 to men and 145,059 to women; 33,653 doctorates, 21,819 to men and 11,834 to women; and 73,910 first professional degrees, 49,621 to men and 24,649 to women. During the academic year, 1985-86, 343,780 foreign students were enrolled in American colleges and universities. The percentages of students coming from various areas in 1985—86 were: South and East Asia, 45-6; Middle East, 15-3; Latin America, 13 -2; Africa, 9-9; Europe, 10; North America, 4-7; Oceania, 1-2. School enrolment, Oct. 1985, embraced 96% of the children who were 5 and 6 years old; 99% of the children aged 7-13 years; 95% of those aged 14-17, 52% of those aged 18 and 19, 35% of those aged 20 and 21, and 17% of those aged 22-24 years. The US Center for Education Statistics estimates the total enrolment in the autumn of 1987 at all of the country's elementary, secondary and higher educational institutions (public and private) at 58m. (57 • 8m. in the autumn of 1986); this was 23-8% of the total population ofthe USA as of 1 Sept. 1987. Enrolment at the elementary and secondary school level was expected to rise by 0-7% in autumn 1987 and total enrolment in the colleges and universities to decline by about 0 -8%. The number of teachers in regular public and private elementary and secondary schools in the autumn of 1987 was expected to increase slightly to 2,645,000. The average annual salary ofthe public school teachers was about $26,700 in 1986-87.

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Digest of Education Statistics. Annual. Dept. of Education, Washington 20202, D.C. (from 1962) American Community, Technical and Junior Colleges. 9th ed. American Council on Education. Washington, 1984 American Universities and Colleges. 12th ed. American Council on Education. Washington, 1983 Ayer's Directory of Newspapers and Periodicals. Annual, from 1880. Philadelphia

Health and Welfare. Admission to the practice of medicine (for both doctors of medicine and doctors of osteopathic medicine) is controlled in each state by examining boards directly representing the profession and acting with authority conferred by state law. Although there are a number of variations, the usual time now required to complete training is 8 years beyond the secondary school with up to 3 or more years of additional graduate training. Certification as a specialist may require between 3 and 5 more years of graduate training plus experience in practice. In academic year 1984-85 the 142 US schools (15 osteopathic and 127 allopathic) graduated 17,697 physicians. About 32% of first-year students were women. In Dec. 1985 the estimated number of active physicians (MD and DO—in all forms of practice) in the US, Puerto Rico and outlying US areas was 520,700 (1 active physician to 459 population). The distribution of physicians throughout the country is uneven, both by state and by urban-rural areas. In 1984-85 the 60 dental schools graduated 5,410 dentists. Active dentists in Dec. 1985 numbered 140,800(1 active dentist to 1,704 population). In academic year 1983-84, there were 1,477 registered nursing programmes in the US and 80,312 graduates. In Dec. 1985 registered nurses employed full- or part-time were 1 to 159 population. Number of hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association in 1984 was 6,872, with 1,339,000 beds and 37,938,000 admissions during the year; average daily census was 970,000. Of the total, 341 hospitals with 112,000 beds were operated by the federal government; 1,662 with 203,000 beds by state and local government; 3,366 with 717,000 beds by non-profit organizations (including church groups); 786 with 100,000 beds are proprietary. The categories of nonfederal hospitals are 5,814 short-term general and special hospitals with 1,020,000 beds; 131 non-federal long-term general and special hospitals with 30,000 beds; 579 psychiatric hospitals with 175,000 beds; 7 tuberculosis hospitals with 1,000 beds. Social welfare legislation was chiefly the province of the various states until the adoption of the Social Security Act of 14 Aug. 1935. This as amended provides for a federal system of old-age, survivors and disability insurance; health insurance for the aged and disabled; supplemental security income for the aged, blind and disabled; federal state unemployment insurance; and federal grants to states for public assistance (medical assistance for the aged and aid to families with dependent children generally) and for maternal and child-health and child-welfare services. The Social Security Administration of the Department of Health and Human Services has responsibility for the programmes—old-age, survivors and disability insurance and supplemental security income. The Family Support Administration has federal responsibility for the programmes—aid to families with dependent children, low income energy assistance, child support enforcement, refugee and entry assistance and community services block grant. The Health Care Financing Administration, an agency of the same Department, has federal responsibility for health insurance for the aged and disabled (Medicare) and medical assistance (Medicaid). The Department's Office of Human Development administers human service programmes for such groups as the elderly, children, youth, native Americans and persons with developmental disabilities, and its Public Health Service supports maternal and child-health services. Unemployment insurance is the responsibility of the Department of Labor. The Social Security Act provides for protection against the cost of medical care through the two-part programme of health insurance for people 65 and over and for certain disabled people under 65, who receive disability insurance payments or who have permanent kidney failure (Medicare). During fiscal year 1985, payments totalling $47,710m. were made under the hospital part of Medicare on behalf of

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

30 • 1 m. people. During the same period, $21,808m. was paid under the voluntary medical insurance part of Medicare on behalf of29-5m. people. In 1986 about 123m. persons worked in employment covered by old-age, survivors and disability insurance. In June 1986 over 37 • 3m. beneficiaries were on the rolls, and the average benefit paid to a retired worker (not counting any paid to his dependants) was about $480 per month. Benefits paid during calendar year 1985 totalled $185,988m., including $ 18,836m. paid to disabled workers and their dependants. In Dec. 1985, 10-9m. persons (adults and children) were receiving payments under aid to families with dependent children (average monthly payment, $339 per family). Total payments under aid to families with dependent children were $15,200m. for the calendar year 1985. In June 1986, about 4-2m. persons were receiving supplementary security income payments, including 1 -5m. persons aged 65 or over; 82,000 blind persons, and over 2 -6m. disabled persons. Payments, including supplemental amounts from various states, totalled $10,750m. in 1985. In 1986, federal appropriations for the social services block grant amounted to $2,584m. In addition, 1986 federal appropriations for human development and family social services to selected target groups totalled $2,790m. Included in this amount were $l,955m. for children and youth; $67lm. for the elderly; $77m. for persons with developmental disabilities; and $28m. for native Americans. During 1986, the Public Health Services awarded a total of $457-4m. for maternal and child health services, $388-8m. as block grants to the states and the remaining $68-6m. for special projects of regional and national significance. In addition, approximately $195 -5m. was spent for research and $11 -5m. for training in the fields of maternal and child health. Other block grants awarded by the Public Health Service in 1986 included $88m. for preventive health; $469m. for alcohol, drug abuse and mental health; and $580 -6m. for the primary care block grant. The latter amount included $396m. for community health centres; $3-3m. for black lung clinics; $44 -9m. for migrant health; and $ 136 -4m. for family planning. Bums, E. M., Social Security and Public Policy. New York, 1956 (Repr. 1976).—Health Services for Tomorrow. New York, 1973

D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of the United States in Great Britain (Grosvenor Sq., London, W1A 1AE) Ambassador: Charles H. Price II (accredited 20 Dec. 1983). Of Great Britain in the USA (3100 Massachusetts Ave., Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Sir Antony Acland, KCMG, KCVO. Of the United States to the United Nations Ambassador: Gen. Vernon A. Walters. Books of Reference I.

STATISTICAL

INFORMATION

The Office of Management and Budget, Washington, D.C. 20503 is part of the Executive Office of the President; it is responsible for co-ordinating all the statistical work of the different Federal G o v e r n m e n t agencies. The Office does not collect or publish data itself. The main statistical agencies are as follows: (1) Data User Services Division, Bureau of the Census, D e p a r t m e n t of C o m m e r c e , Washington, D.C. 20233. Responsible for decennial censuses of population and housing, quinquennial census of agriculture, manufactures and business; current statistics on population and the labour force, manufacturing activity and commodity production, trade and services, foreign trade, state and local government finances and operations. (Statistical Abstract of the United States, annual, and others). (2) Bureau of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor, 441 G Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20212. ( M o n t h l y Labor Review and others). (3) Information Division, Economic Research Service, D e p a r t m e n t of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. (AgriculturalStatistics, annual, and others).

U N I T E D STATES OF

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(4) National Center for Health Statistics, Department of Health and H u m a n Services, 3700 East-West Highway, Hyattsville Md. 20782. (Vital Statistics of the United States, monthly and annual, and others). (5) Bureau of Mines Office of Technical Information, Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. 20241. (Minerals Yearbook, annual, and others). (6) Office of Energy Information Services, Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. 20461. (7) Statistical Publications, Department of Commerce, R o o m 5062 Main C o m m e r c e , 14 th St and Constitution Avenue N W , Washington, D.C. 20230; the D e p a r t m e n t ' s Bureau of Economic Analysis and its Office of Industry and Trade Information are the main collectors of data. (8) Center for Education Statistics, Department of Education, 555 New Jersey Avenue NW, Washington, D.C. 20208. (9) Public Correspondence Division, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Public Affairs P.C.), The Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 20301-1400. (10) Bureau of Justice Statistics, Department of Justice, 633 Indiana Avenue NW, Washington, D.C. 20531. (11) Public Inquiry, A P A 200, Federal Aviation Administration, D e p a r t m e n t of Transportation, 800 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, D.C. 20591. (12) Office of Public Affairs, Federal Highway Administration, D e p a r t m e n t of Transportation, 400 7th St. SW, Washington, D.C. 20590. (13) Statistics Division, Internal Revenue Service, D e p a r t m e n t of the Treasury, 1201 E St. NW, Washington, D.C. 20224. Statistics on the economy are also published by the Division of Research and Statistics, Federal Reserve Board, Washington, D.C. 20551; the Congressional Joint Committee on the Economy, Capitol; the Office of the Secretary, Department of the Treasury, 1500 Pennsylvania Avenue N W , Washington, D.C. 20220. The Office of Management and Budget (see above) issues a pamphlet: Statistical Services of the United States Government describes the organization of the system and the principal types of economic statistics; it also includes an annotated bibliography of about 100 publications. II.

OTHER

OFFICIAL

PUBLICATIONS

Guide to the Study of the United States of America. General Reference a n d Bibliography Division, Library of Congress. 1960. Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957: A Statistical Abstract Supplement. Washington, 1960.—Continuation to ¡962 and Revisions, 1965. United States Government Manual. Washington. Annual. The official publications of the USA are issued by the US G o v e r n m e n t Printing Office and are distributed by the Superintendent of Documents, who issued in 1940 a cumulative Catalog of the Public Documents of the... Congress and of All the Departments of the Government of the United States. This Catalog is kept u p to date by United States Government Publications, Monthly Catalog with annual index and supplemented by Price Lists. Each Price List is devoted to a special subject or type of material, e.g., American History or Census. Useful guides are Schmeckebier, L. F., and Eastin, R. B. (eds.), Government Publications and Their Use. 2nd ed., Washington, D.C., 1961; Boyd, A. M., United Stales Government Publications. 3rd ed. New York, 1949, and Leidy, W. P., Popular Guide to Government Publications. 2 n d ed. New York and London, 1963. Treaties and other International Acts of the United States of A merica (Edited by Hunter Miller), 8 vols. Washington, 1929-48. This edition stops in 1863. It m a y b e supplemented by Treaties, Conventions ... Between the US and Other Powers, 1776-1937 (Edited by William M. Malloy and others). 4 vols. 1909-38. A new Treaty Series, US Treaties and Other International Agreements was started in 1950. Writings on American History. Washington, annual from 1902 (except 1904-5 and 194147). III.

NON-OFFICIAL

PUBLICATIONS

A. Handbooks National Historical Publications Commission. Guide to Archives and Manuscripts in the United States, ed. P. M. H a m e r . Yale Univ. Press, 1961 Adams, J. T. (ed.), Dictionary of American History. 2 n d e d . 7 vols. New York, 1942 Dictionary of American Biography, ed. A. Johnson a n d D . Malone. 23 vols. New York, 192964.—Concise Dictionary of American Biography. New York, 1964 Current Biography. New York, annual from 1940; monthly supplements Handlin, O., and others. Harvard Guide to American History. Cambridge, Mass., 1954

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Herstein, S. R. and Robbins, N., United Slates of America. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Lord, C. L. and E. H., Historical Atlas of the US. Rev. ed. New York, 1969 Who's Who in America. Chicago, 1899-1900 to date; monthly Supplement. 1940todate B. General History Barck, Jr, O. T„ and Blake, N. M., Since 1900: A History of the United States. 5th ed. New York, 1974 Bellot, H. H., American History and American Historians. London, 1952, repr. 1974 Brogan, H., The Longman History of the United States of America. London, 1985 Carman, H. J., and others, A History of the American People. 3rd ed. 2 vols. New York, 1967 Commager, H. S. (ed.), Documents of A merican History. 8th ed. New York, 1966 Divine, R. A., Since 1945: Politics and Diplomacy in Recent American History. New York, 1975 Hicks, J. D., The American Nation, A History of the United States from 1865. 5th ed. Boston, 1971 Link, A. S., and Catton, W. B., American Epoch: A History of the United States Since the 1890s. 4th ed. New York, 1967 Morison, S. E., The Oxford History of the American People. OUP, 1968 Morison, S. E., with Commager, H. S., The Growth of the American Republic. 2 vols. 5th ed. OUP, 1962-63 Nicholas, H. G„ The Nature of American Politics. OUP, 1980 Parkes, H. B., The United States of America, A History. 3rd ed. New York, 1968 Scammon, R. N. (ed.), American Votes: A Handbook of Contemporary American Election Statistics. Washington, D.C., 1956 to date (biennial) Schlesinger, A. M., The Rise of Modern America, 1865-1951. 4th ed. New York, 1951.—The Age of Roosevelt. 4 vols. New York and London, 1957-62.—A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House. New York and London, 1965 Snowman, D., America Since 1920. London, 1978 Watson, R. A., The Promise and Performance of American Democracy. 2nd ed. New York, 1975 C. Minorities Bennett, M. T., American Immigration Policies: A History. Washington, D.C., 1963 Burma, J. J., Spanish-speaking Groups in the US. Duke University Press, 1954, repr. 1974 Frazier, E. F., The Negro Family in the United States. Chicago Univ. Press, 1966 McNickle, D., The Indian Tribes of the United States. OUP, 1962.—Native American Tribalism. OUP, 1973 Sklare, M., The Jew in American Society. New York, 1974 Wissler, Clark, Indians of the United States. Rev. ed. New York, 1966 D. Economic History The Economic History of the United States. 9 vols. New York, 1946 ff. Bining, A. C., and Cochran, T. C., The Rise of American Economic Life. 4th ed. New York, 1963 Dorfman, J., The Economic Mind in American Civilization. 5 vols. New York, 1946-59 Faulkner, H.U., American Economic History. 8th ed. New York, 1960 Friedman, M., and Schwartz, A. J., A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960. New York, 1963 Mund, V. A., Government and Business. 4th ed. New York, 1965 E. Foreign Relations Documents on American Foreign Relations. Princeton, from 1948. Annual The United States in World Affairs. 1931 ff. Council on Foreign Relations. New York, from 1932. Annual Allison, G., and Szanton, P., Remaking Foreign Policy: ITie Organizations Connection. New York, 1976 Bartlett, R. (ed.), The Record of American Diplomacy: Documents and Readings in the History of American Foreign Relations. 4th ed. New York, 1964 Beloff, M., The United States and the Unity of Europe. London, 1963, repr. 1976 Connell-Smith, G., The United States and Latin America. London, 1975 DeConde, A., The American Secretary of State. London, 1963, repr. 1976 Morgan, R„ The United States and West Germany, 1945-73. OUP, 1975 Schwab, G., (ed.), United States Foreign Policy at the Crossroads. Westport, 1982 Smith, R. F., The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960. New York, 1962 Stebbins, R. P., and Adam, E. A., Documents of American Foreign Relations, 1968-69. New York, 1972 Vance, C., Hard Choices: Critical Years in America's Foreign Policy. New York, 1983

U N I T E D STATES OF Wilcox, F. O., and Frank, R. A., The Constitution York, 1976

AMERICA

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and the Conduct of Foreign Policy. New

F. National Character Coan, O. W., America in Fiction, An Annotated List of Novels. 5th ed. Stanford Univ. Press, 1967 C u r t i . M . B . , The Growth of American Thought. 3rd ed. N e w Y o r k , 1964 Degler, C. N., Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America. Rev. ed. New York, 1970 Duigan, P., and Rabushka, A., (eds.), The United States in the 1980s. Stanford, 1980 Fawcett, E., and Thomas, T., America and the Americans. London, 1983 National Library: The Library of Congress. Washington 25, D.C. Librarian: Lawrence Quincy M u m f o r d , AB, M A , BS.

STATES AND TERRITORIES For information as to State and Local Government, see under U N I T E D STATES, pp. 1384-86. Against the names of the Governors and the Secretaries of State, (D.) stands for Democrat and (R.) for Republican. Figures for the revenues and expenditures of the various states are those of the Federal Bureau of the Census unless otherwise stated, which takes the original state figures and arranges them on a common pattern so that those of one state can be compared with those of any other. Official publications of the various states and insular possessions are listed in the Monthly Check-List of Stale Publications, issued by the Library of Congress since 1910. Their character and contents are discussed in J. K. Wilcox's Manual on the Use of State Publications (1940). Of great importance bibliographically are the publications of the Historical Records Survey and the American Imprints Inventory, which record local archives, official publications and state imprints. These publications supplement those of state historical societies which usually publish journals and monographs on state and local history. An outstanding source of statistical data is the material issued by the various state planning boards and commissions, to which should be added the annual Governmental Finances issued by the U S Bureau of the Census. The Book of the Slates. Biennial. Council of State Governments, Lexington, 1953 ff. Slate Government Finances. Annual. Dept. of Commerce, 1966 ff. Regionalism O d u m , H. W., American Regionalism, A Cultural-Historical Approach to National Integration. N e w Y o r k , 1938 Visher, S. X., Climatic Atlas of the USA. Harvard Univ. Press, 1954 A. North-East G o t t m a n , J., Megalopolis, the Urbanized North-eastern Seaboard of the US. New York, 1964 B. The South Clement, E.,A History ofthe Old South. New York, 1949 Ezell, J. S., The South Since 1865. New York and London, 1963 Heseltine, W. B., and Smiley, D. L., The South in American History. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1960 Stephenson, W. H., and Coulter, E. M. (ed.), A History of the South. 10 vols. Louisiana State Univ. Press, 1947-67 C. The Middle West Lynd, R. S. and H. M., Middletown: A Study in Contemporary American Culture. New York and London, 1929.—Middletown in Transition: A Study in Cultural Conflicts. New York and London, 1937 Nye, R. B., Midwestern Progressive Politics, 1870-1938. Michigan State Univ. Press, 1959 D. The West Fogelson, R. U., The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930. Harvard Univ. Press, 1967 Fuller, G . W., History of the Pacific Northwest. 2 n d e d . New York, 1938 Johansen, D. O., and Gates, C. M., Empire of the Columbia: A History of the Pacific Northwest, N e w Y o r k , 1957 Parrish, P. H., Before the Covered Wagon. Portland, Oreg., 1931 Quiett, G. C., They Built the West: An Epic of Rails and Cities. New York and London, 1934 Scott, H. W., History of the Oregon Country. 6 vols. Cambridge, Mass., 1924 Winther, O. O., The Great Northwest: A History. 2 n d e d . , rev. N e w Y o r k , 1950

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ALABAMA H I S T O R Y . Alabama, settled in 1702 as part of the French Province of Louisiana, and ceded to the British in 1763, was organized as a Territory, 1817, and admitted into the Union on 14 Dec. 1819. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Alabama is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Georgia, south by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico and west by Mississippi. Area, 51,998 sq. miles, including 1,562 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,893,888, an increase of 13 06% over that of 1970. Estimate (1985) 4,021,500. Births, 1986,59,441 (14 5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 37,690 (9-2); infant deaths (under 1 year), 788 (13-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 45,778 (11 -2); divorces, 25,356 (6 2). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,228,832 1,700,844 2,283,609

Negro 908,282 944,834 980,271

1970 1980

2,533,831 2,872,621

903,467 996,335

Indian 909 465 1,726

Asiatic 70 105 915

AH others 6,867 24,932

Total 2,138,093 2,646,248 3,266,521

Per sq. mile 41-4 51-3 640

3,444,165 3,893,888

66-7 749

Of the total population in 1980,49% were male, 61 % were urban and 65% were 21 years or older. The large cities (1980 census) were: Birmingham, 284,413 (metropolitan area, 847,487); Mobile, 200,452 (443,536); Huntsville, 142,513 (308,593); Montgomery (capital), 177,857 (272,687); Tuscaloosa, 75,211 (137,541). C L I M A T E . Birmingham. Jan. 46°F(7-8°C), July 80°F(26-7°C). Annual rainfall 5 4 " (1,346 mm). Mobile. Jan. 52°F (11 • PC), July 82°F (27-8'C). Annual rainfall 6 3 " (1,577 mm). Montgomery. Jan. 49°F(9-4°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 5 3 " (1,321 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1379. The growing season ranges from 190 days (north) to 270 days (south). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1 9 0 1 ; i t h a s h a d 4 7 1 amendments (at 20 Oct. 1987). The legislature consists of a Senate of 35 members and a House of Representatives of 105 members, all elected for 4 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 7 representatives. Applicants for registration must take an oath of allegiance to the United States and fill out a questionnaire to the satisfaction of the registrars. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 872,849 votes, Mondale, 551,899. Montgomery is the capital. Governor: Guy Hunt (R.), 1987-91 ($70,223). Lieut.-Governor: Jim Folsom, Jr. (D.) ($2,100 a month plus allowances). Secretary of State: Glen Browder (D.) ($36,234 plus $ 14,400 allowances). B U D G E T . The total net revenue for the fiscal year ending 30 Sept. 1986 was $ 14,974m. ($3,073m. from tax, $l,330m. from federal payments); total net expenditure was $15,143m. ($2,290m. on education, $529m. on highways, $503m. on public welfare, $555m. on health). The outstanding debt on 30 Sept. 1986 amounted to $2,952m. Per capita income (1986) was $ 11,601. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Principal minerals (1986): Coal, limestone, sand and gravel, petroleum ( 2 1 1 m . bbl.) and natural gas (146,606m. cu. ft.). Total mineral output (1986) was valued at $2,001 m. of which fuels, $ 1,440m.

ALABAMA

1429

Agriculture. The number of farms in 1987 was 49,000, covering 11 -0m. acres; average farm had 224 acres and was valued at about $ 164,000. Cash receipts from farm marketings, 1986: Crops, $645m.; livestock and poultry products, $ 1,431m.; and total, $2,076m. Principal crops: peanuts, soybeans, cotton, corn, wheat and potatoes; hay, sorghum, pecans, peaches and vegetables are also important. In 1986, poultry accounted for the largest percentage of cash receipts from farm marketings; cattle and calves were second, peanuts third, horticulture fourth. Forestry. Area of national forest lands, Oct. 1983, 644,432 acres; state-owned forest, 147,400; industrial forest, 4,458,000; private non-industrial forest, 16m.; other government-owned forest, 324,200. I N D U S T R Y . Alabama is predominantly industrial. In 1986 manufacturing establishments employed 357,500 workers; government, 297,000; trade, 320,400; services, 258,200; transport and public utilities, 71,500 (total non-agricultural workforce 1 -5m.). T O U R I S M . In 1986 about 28-6m. travelled to or through Alabama from other states. Total income from tourism (including receipts from Alabama holidaymakers) was about $4,000m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Paved roads of all classes at 5 Jan. 1987 totalled 60,254 miles; total highways, 87,798 miles. Railways. At 5 Jan. 1987 the railways had a length of 6,377 miles including side and yard tracks. Aviation. In 1987 the state had 103 public-use airports; 91 were publicly owned and 12 privately owned. Shipping. There are 1,200 miles of navigable inland water and 50 miles of Gulf Coast. The only deep-water port is Mobile, with a large ocean-going trade; total tonnage (1983), 34-9m. tons. The docks can handle 33 ocean-going vessels at once. The 9-ft channel of the Tennessee River traverses North Alabama for 200 miles; the Tennessee-Tombigbee waterway (232 miles), open Feb. 1985, connects the Tennessee River with the Tombigbee River for access to the Gulf of Mexico. The Warrier-Tombigbee system (476 miles) connects the Birmingham industrial area to the Gulf. The Coosa-Alabama River system reaches central Alabama as far north as Montgomery from Mobile and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. The Alabama State Docks also operates a system of 11 inland docks; there are several privately-run inland docks. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The prison population on 30 Sept. 1986 was 11,471. From 1 Jan. 1927 to 28 Aug. 1987 there were 156 executions (electrocution): 124 for murder, 25 for rape, 5 for armed robbery, 1 for burglary and 1 for carnal knowledge. Before 1 Jan. 1927, persons executed in Alabama were hanged locally by the sheriffs in the counties of their conviction. In 41 counties the sale of alcoholic beverage is permitted, and in 26 counties it is prohibited; but it is permitted in 7 cities within those 26 counties. Religion. Chief religious bodies (in 1980) are: Southern Baptist Convention (about 1,182,018), Churches of Christ (113,919), United Methodist (about 344,790), Roman Catholic (106,123), African Methodist Episcopal Zion (139,714), Christian Methodist Episcopal (about 53,493) and Assemblies of God (48,610). Education. In the school year 1986-87 the 1,326 public elementary and high schools required 36,695 teachers to teach 719,715 pupils enrolled in grades K-12. In 1987 there were 16 senior public institutions with 106,343 students and 5,625 faculty members. In 1986 the 14 junior colleges had 38,169 students and 838 teachers, 20 technical schools had 22,191 students and 1,118 teachers.

1430

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Health. In 1986 there were 112 hospitals (20,144 beds) licensed by the State Board of Health. In 1986 hospitals for mental diseases had 2,236 beds. Facilities for the mentally retarded (1 Oct. 1987) had 1,320 certified beds. Pensions and Security. In March 1987 Alabama paid supplements (to federal welfare payments) to 11,681 recipients of old-age assistance, receiving an average of $53.34 each; 5,952 permanently and totally disabled, $57.49; 129 blind, $54.73. Combined state-federal aid to dependent children was paid to 47,874 families, average $114.36 per family. Books of Reference Alabama Official and Statistical Register. Montgomery. Quadrennial Alabama Encyclopaedia. Vol. I. Northport, 1965 Economic Abstract of Alabama. Center for Business and Economic Research, Univ. of Alabama, 1987 McCurley, R. L., Jr., ed., The Legislative Process. Alabama Law Institute, 3rd ed., 1984 Thigpen, R. A., and Coleman, B. R., Jr., Alabama Government Manual. Alabama Law Institute, 6 th ed., 1982 Wiggins, S. W „ (ed.) From Civil War to Civil Rights, 1860-1960. Univ. of A l a b a m a Press, 1987

ALASKA H I S T O R Y . Discovered in 1741 by Vitus Bering, its first settlement, on Kodiak Island, was in 1784. The area known as Russian America with its capital (1806) at Sitka was ruled by a Russo-American fur company and vaguely claimed as a Russian colony. Alaska was purchased by the United States from Russia under the treaty of 30 March 1867 for $7-2m. It was not organized until 1884, when it became a 'district' governed by the code of the state of Oregon. By Act of Congress approved 24 Aug. 1912 Alaska became an incorporated Territory; its first legislature in 1913 granted votes to women, 7 years in advance of the Constitutional Amendment. Alaska officially became the 49th state of the Union on 3 Jan. 1959. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Alaska is bounded north by the Beaufort Sea, west and south by the Pacific and east by Canada. It has the largest area of any state, being more than twice the size of Texas. The gross area (land and water) is 591,004 sq. miles; the land area is 586,412 sq. miles of which 85% was in federal ownership in 1984. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 401,851, including military personnel, an increase of 33-5% over 1970. Estimate (1985), 521,000. Births, 1984, were 12,247 (24-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 1,993 (4); infant deaths, 147 (12 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 6,519 (13); divorces, 3,904 (7 -8). Population in 5 census years was: 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 39,170 92,808 174,649 236,767 309,728

Negro ... ... ... 8,911 13,643

All Others 33,354 35,835 51,518 54,704 78,480

Total 72,524 128,643 226,167 300,382 401,851

Per sq. mile 0 13 0-23 0-40 0-53 0-70

Of the total population in 1980, 53 01% were male, 64 -34% were urban and 68 -5 7% were aged 21 years or over. The largest city is Anchorage, which had a 1980 census area population of 174,430 (1983 estimate, 227,100). Other census area populations, 1980 (and 1983 estimate), Fairbanks North Star, 53,983 (64,800); Juneau, 19,528 (26,000); Kenai Peninsula, 25,282 (34,900); Ketchikan Gateway, 11,316 (12,700); Kodiak Island, 9,939 (12,900); Matanuska-Susitna 17,816 (29,800). There are 11 boroughs and 142 incorporated cities. CLIMATE. Anchorage. Jan. 12°F(-11-1°C), July 57°F(13-9°C). Annual rainfall 15" (371 mm). Fairbanks. Jan. -11°F (-23-9°C), July 60°F(15-6°C). Annual rain-

ALASKA

1431

fall 12" (300 mm). Sitka. Jan. 33°F (0-6"C), July 55°F (12-8°C). Annual rainfall 8 7 " (2,175 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . An important provision of the Enabling Act is that the state has the right to select 103-55m. acres of vacant and unappropriated public lands in order to establish 'a tax basis'; it can open these lands to prospectors for minerals, and the state is to derive the principal advantage in all gains resulting from the discovery of minerals. In addition, certain federally administered lands reserved for conservation of fisheries and wild life have been transferred to the state. Special provision is made for federal control of land for defence in areas of high strategic importance. The constitution of Alaska was adopted by public vote, 24 April 1956. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 20 members (elected for 4 years) and a House of Representatives of 40 members (elected for 2 years). The state sends 2 senators and 1 representative to Congress. The franchise may be exercised by all citizens over 18. The capital is Juneau. A new capital site near Anchorage was chosen in 1976. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 138,392 votes, Mondale, 62,018. Governor: Stephen Cowper (D.), 1986-90 ($81,648). Lieut.-Governor: Steve McAlpine (D.) 1986-90 ($76,188). ECONOMY Budget. Total state government revenue for the year ended 30 June 1984 (Annual Financial Report figures) was $3,935-8m. ($2,914m. from petroleum revenue, $ 109 -4m. from taxation). Total expenditure was $3,931 • 3m. In 1976 a Permanent Fund was set up for the deposit of at least 25% of all mineral-related revenue; total assets at 30 June, 1984, $5,530-8m. General obligation bonds at 30 June 1984, $ 169 • 5m. Per capita income (1985) was $ 18,187. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Oil and Gas. Commercial production of crude petroleum began in 1959 and by 1961 had become the most important mineral by value. Production: 1961, 6-3m. bbls (of 42 gallons); 1976, 67m. bbls; 1977, 169m. bbls; 1981, 587m. bbls; 1985, 666m. bbls. Oil comes mainly from Prudhoe Bay, the Kuparuk River field and several Cook Inlet fields. Natural gas marketed production, 1985, 324,000m. cu. ft. Alaska receives 84% of its total revenue from petroleum. Revenue to the state from oil production in 1984 was $2,861 -6m. from corporate petroleum tax $265 l m . and from royalties $1,047 -5m., severance tax, $l,393 1m., property tax, $131m., bonus sale, $ 1 0 1 m . , rents, $3-8m., intergovernmental receipts, $ 11 • 1 m. Oil from the Prudhoe Bay arctic field is now carried by the Trans-Alaska pipeline to Prince William Sound on the south coast, where a tanker terminal has been built at Valdez. Minerals. Value of production, 1983: gold (169,000 troy oz.) $67-6m.; antimony (22,400 lb.) $25,000; platinum $100,000; silver (33,200 troy oz.) $332,000; tin (215,000 lb.) $1 • lm.; jade and soapstone (2 -3 tons) $42,000; sand and gravel (50m. short tons) $120m.; building stone (5-27m. short tons) $25m.; coal (803,000m. short tons) $18m. Total value, $232,399,000. Agriculture. In some parts of the state the climate during the brief spring and summer (about 100 days in major areas and 152 days in the south-eastern coastal area) is suitable for agricultural operations, thanks to the long hours of sunlight, but Alaska is a food-importing area. In 1985 about 2m. acres was farmland; 90% of this was unimproved pasture primarily government leases for grazing of sheep and beef cattle in south-west Alaska. In 1980 (preliminary) there were 8,400 cattle, 1,100 milch cows, 1,800 hogs and 4,300 sheep stock.

1432

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Farm income in 1985: $26m. of which $18m. was from crops (mainly hay and potatoes) and $8m. from livestock and dairy products. There were about 25,000 reindeer in western Alaska in 1980, owned by individual Eskimo herders except for 750 at Nome owned by the Government. Forestry. In south-eastern Alaska timber fringes the shore of the mainland and all the islands extending inland to a depth of 5 miles. The state's enormous forests could produce an estimated annual sustained yield of 1,500m. bd ft of lumber, nearly twice Alaska's record 1973 cut. Alaska has 2 national forests: the Tongass of 16-9m. acres and the Chugach of 5-9m. acres. An estimated total of 446m. bd ft was cut in 1981, of which 387-5m. came from national forests and 53,687,000 from state forests, 4,275,000 from land held by the Bureau of Indian Affairs and 362,000 from the Bureau of Land Management. Alaska has 2 large pulp-mills at Ketchikan and Sitka. Fisheries. The catch for 1985 was 1,185m. lb. offish and shellfish having a value to fishermen of $59 lm. The most important fish are salmon, crab, herring and shrimp. I N D U S T R Y . Main industries with employment, 1985: Government, 68,000; trade, 46,000; services, 45,000; contract construction, 19,000; manufacturing, 12,000; mining including oil and gas, (1984) 7,900; transport, communication and utilities, 19,000; finance, insurance and property, 13,000. The major manufacturing industry was food processing, followed by timber industries. Total non-agricultural employment, 1984, 224,100. Total wages and salaries, 1983,$6,075-7m. T O U R I S M . About 691,200 tourists visited the state in 1984. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Alaska's highway and road system, 1984, totalled 15,315 miles, including marine highway systems, local service roads, borough and city streets, national park, forest and reservation roads and military roads. Registered motor vehicles, 1985,382,000. The Alaska Highway extends 1,523 miles from Dawson Creek, British Columbia, to Fairbanks, Alaska. It was built by the US Army in 1942, at a cost of $ 138m. The greater portion of it, because it lies in Canada, is maintained by Canada. Railways. There is a railway of 111 miles from Skagway to the town of Whitehorse, the White Pass and Yukon route, in the Canadian Yukon region (this service was suspended in 1982 but may reopen). The government-owned Alaska Railroad runs from Seward to Fairbanks, a distance of 471 miles. This is a freight service with only occasional passenger use. A passenger service operates from Anchorage to Fairbanks via Denali National Park in the tourist season. Aviation. In 1982 the state had about 1,070 airports, of which about half were publicly owned. Commercial passengers by air from Alaska's largest international airports Anchorage and Fairbanks numbered 1 • 1 m. at Anchorage and 273,512 at Fairbanks. General aviation aircraft in the state per 1,000 population was about ten times the US average. Shipping. Regular shipping services to and from the US are furnished by 2 steamship and several barge lines operating out of Seattle and other Pacific coast ports. A Canadian company also furnishes a regular service from Vancouver, B.C. Anchorage is the main port. A 1,435 nautical-mile ferry system for motor cars and passengers (the 'Alaska Marine Highway') operates from Seattle, Washington and Prince Rupert (British Columbia) to Juneau, Haines (for access to the Alaska Highway) and Skagway. A second system extends throughout the south-central region of Alaska linking the Cook Inlet area with Kodiak Island and Prince William Sound.

ARIZONA

1433

J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There is no death penalty in Alaska. At 31 Dec. 1985 there were 2,311 prisoners in state and federal institutions. Religion. Many religions are represented, including the Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Methodist and other denominations. Education. Total expenditure on public schools in 1986 was $806m. or $1,548 per capita. There were 19,100 elementary and 17,900 secondary school teachers, salary, $17,900. During 1984 there were 100,000 pupils at public schools, 3,868 at private schools. The Bureau of Indian Affairs schools had 1,005 pupils. The University of Alaska (founded in 1922) had (Spring 1984) 11,808 students in Fairbanks, Anchorage and Juneau and 19,296 in community colleges. Other colleges had 1,775 students in 1984. Health. In 1983 there were 26 acute care hospitals with 1,800 beds, of which 7 were federal public health hospitals; 1 mental hospital; 24 mental health clinics. Welfare. Old-age assistance was established under the Federal Social Security Act; in 1985 aid to dependent children covered a monthly average of6,400 households; payments, an average of $501 per month; aid to the disabled was given to a monthly average of 2,300 persons receiving on average $251 per month. An average of 1,100 aged per month received $ 166. Books of Reference Statistical Information: Department of Commerce and Economic Development, Economic Analysis Section, Juneau. Alaska Blue Book, Department of Education, Juneau. Biennial Alaska Economic Outlook, Department of Labor, Juneau. Alaska Economy, The. Division of Economic Enterprise, Juneau. Annual Alaska Statistical Review. Office of the Governor, Juneau. Biennial Annual Financial Report, Department of Administration, Juneau. Gardey, J., Alaska: The Sophisticated Wilderness. London, 1976 Hulley, Clarence C.,AlaskaPast and Present. Portland, Oregon, 1970 Hunt, W. R., Alaska, a Bicentennial History. New York, 1976 Pearson, R. W., and Lynch, D. F., Alaska, a Geography. Boulder, 1984 Thomas, L., Jr., Alaska and the Yukon. New York, 1983 Tourville, M., Alaska, a Bibliography, 1570-1970.1971 State Library: Pouch G, Juneau. Librarian: Richard Engen.—Alaska Historical Library, Pouch G, Juneau. Librarian: Phyllis de Muth.

ARIZONA H I S T O R Y . Arizona was settled in 1752, organized as a Territory in 1863 and became a state on 14 Feb. 1912. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Arizona is bounded north by Utah, east by New Mexico, south by Mexico, west by California and Nevada. Area, 113,417 sq. miles, including 347 sq. miles of inland water. Of the total area in 1985, 28% was Indian Reservation, 18% was in individual or corporate ownership, 16% was held by the US Bureau of Land Management, 15% by the US Forest Service, 13% by the State and 10% by others. Census population on 1 April 1980 was 2,718,425, an increase of 53-4% over 1970. Estimate (1986) 3,296,000. Births, 1985, 59,344; deaths, 24,577; infant deaths (1983), 509; marriages, 35,723; divorces, 21,157.

1434

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Population in 5 census years: 1910 1930 1960

White 171,468 378,551 1,169,517

Negro 2,009 10,749 43,403

1970 1980

1,604,498 2,260,288

53,344 74,159

Indian 29,201 43,726 83,387

Chinese 1,305 1,110 2,937 All others 117,557 383,768

1

Japanese 371 879 1,501

Total 204,354 435,573 1,302,161 1,775,399 2,718,215

Preliminary.

Of the population in 1980, 1,375,214 were male, 2,278,728 were urban and 1,872,447 were aged 20 and over. The 1980 census population of Phoenix was 789,704 (1986 estimate, 881,640); Tucson, 330,537 (384,385); Scottsdale, 88,412 (108,447); Tempe, 106,743 (132,942); Mesa, 152,453 (239,587); Glendale, 97,172 (122,392). C L I M A T E . Phoenix. Jan. 52°F(11 • 1°C), July 90°F(32-2°C). Annual rainfall 8 " (191 mm). Yuma. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 9 T F (32-8°C). Annual rainfall 3 " (75 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The state constitution (1910, with 103 amendments) placed the government under direct control of the people through the Initiative, Referendum and the Recall. The state Senate consists of 30 members, and the House of Representatives of 60, all elected for 2 years. Arizona sends to Congress 2 senators and 5 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 669,353 votes, Mondale, 325,924. The state capital is Phoenix. The state is divided into 15 counties. Governor: Evan Mecham (R.), 1987-91 ($75,000). Secretary of State: Rose MofTord (D.) ($50,000). B U D G E T . General revenues, year ending 30 June 1985 (US Census Bureau figures), were $2,197m. (taxation, $2,049-4m.); general expenditures, $3,133m. (education, $l,329-7m.; transport $438m., and public health and welfare, $769-4m.). Per capita income (1985) was $ 12,454. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mining industries of the state are important, but less so than agriculture and manufacturing. By value the most important mineral produced is copper. Production (1985) 887,052 short tons; gold and silver are both largely recovered from copper ore. Other minerals include sand and gravel and lead. Total value of minerals mined in 1985 was$l,532-6m. Agriculture. Arizona, despite its dry climate, is well suited for agriculture along the water-courses and where irrigation is practised on a large scale from great reservoirs constructed by the US as well as by the state government and private interests. Irrigated area, 1984, 1 -07m. acres. The wide pasture lands are favourable for the rearing of cattle and sheep, but numbers are either stationary or declining compared with 1920. In 1986 Arizona contained 9,000 farms and ranches with 1 05m. acres of crop land, out of a total farm and pastoral area of 38m. acres. The average farm was estimated at 4,222 acres. Farming is highly commercialized and mechanized and concentrated largely on cotton picked by machines and by Indian, Mexican and migratory workers. Area under cotton (1985), 415,300 acres; 1,037,000m. bales (of480 lb.) of cotton were harvested. Cash income, 1985, from crops, $896-3m.; from livestock, $686-3m. Most important cereals are wheat, corn and barley; other crops include oranges, grapefruit and lettuce. On 1 Jan. 1985 there were 1,050,000 all cattle, 82,000 milch cows, 306,000 sheep.

ARKANSAS

1435

Forestry. The national forests in the state had an area (1983) of 11 -22m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 there were 3,482 manufacturing establishments with 163,445 production workers, earning $3,792m. T O U R I S M . In 1982 15-7m. tourists visited Arizona; direct employment, 71,700; indirect, 114,600; state tax revenue, $204m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 76,290 miles of public roads and streets; in 1985 2,119,000 motor vehicles were registered in the state. Aviation. Airports, 1984, numbered 251, of which 82 were for public use; 6,079 aircraft were registered. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. A 'right-to-work' amendment to the constitution, adopted 5 Nov. 1946, makes illegal any concessions to trade-union demands for a 'closed shop'. The Arizona state and federal prisons 31 Dec. 1985 held 8,518. There have been no executions since 1963; from 1930 to 1963 there were 38 executions (lethal gas) all for murder, and all men (28 whites, 10 Negro). Religion. The leading religious bodies are Roman Catholics and Mormons (Latter Day Saints); others include Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and Episcopalians. Education. School attendance is compulsory to grade 9 (from 1985-86) and to grade 10 (from 1986-87). In autumn 1985 there were 513,498 pupils enrolled in grades K-12. In 1986 spending on public schools was $1,589m. or $499 per capita. The state maintains 3 universities: the University of Arizona (Tucson) with an enrollment of 32,318 in autumn 1985; Arizona State University (Tempe) with 38,029; Northern Arizona University (Flagstaff) with 11,935. Health. In 1985 there were 88 hospitals reported by the State Department of Health; capacity 13,890 beds; the hospitals had 1,522 physicians and dentists, 8,437 registered nurses and 1,503 licensed practical nurses. Social Security. Old-age assistance (maximum depending on the programme) is given, with federal aid, to needy citizens 65 years of age or older. In June 1985, federal Social Security Insurance payments went to 10,500 aged ($158 each), and 22,000 disabled ($251); 71,900 people in 25,200 families received aid for families with dependent children. Books of Reference Arizona Statistical Review. 42nd ed. Valley National Bank, Phoenix, 1986 Federal Writers' Project. Arizona: The Grand Canyon State. 4th ed. New York, 1966 Comeaux, M. L., Arizona: a Geography. Boulder, 1981 Faulk, O. B., Arizona: A Short History. Univ. Oklahoma Press, 1970 GofT, J. S., Arizona Civilization. 2nd ed. Cave Creek, 1970 Mason, B. B.,andHink, H., Constitutional Government ojArizona. 7thed.Tempe, 1982 State Library: Department of Library, Archives and Public Records, Capitol, Phoenix 85007. Director: Sharon G. Turgeon.

ARKANSAS H I S T O R Y . Arkansas was settled in 1686, made a territory in 1819 and admitted into the Union on 15 June 1836. The name originated with the Quapaw Indian tribe. The constitution, which dates from 1874, has been amended 59 times. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Arkansas is bounded north by Missouri, east by Tennessee and Mississippi, south by Louisiana, south-west by Texas and west

1436

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

by Oklahoma. Area, 53,187 sq. miles (1,109 sq. miles being inland water). Census population on 1 April 1980 was 2,286,435, an increase of 18-9% from that of 1970. Estimate (1984) 2,349,000. Births, 1983, were 34,904 (15 3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 23,086 (10-1); infant deaths, 373 (10-6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 30,066(13-1); divorces 15,681 (6-9). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,131,026 1,375,315 1,395,703

Negro 442,891 478,463 388,787

1970 1980

1,565,915 1,890,332

352,445 373,768

Indian 460 408 580

Asiatic 72 296 1,202

All others 4,935 22,335

Total 1,574,449 1,854,482 1,786,272

Per sq. mile 300 35-2 34-0

1,923,295 2,286,435

37-0 43-9

Of the total population in 1980, 48 -3% were male, 51-6% were urban, 60-2% were 21 years of age or older. Little Rock (capital) had a population of 158,461 in 1980; Fort Smith, 71,626; North Little Rock, 64,288; Pine Bluff, 56,636; Fayetteville, 36,608; Hot Springs, 35,781; Jonesboro, 31,530; West Memphis, 28,138. The population of the largest standard metropolitan statistical areas: Little Rock-North Little Rock, 393,774; Fayetteville-Springdale, 178,609; Fort Smith (Arkansas portion), 132,064; Pine Bluff, 90,718; Memphis (Arkansas portion), 49,499; Texarkana (Arkansas portion), 37,766. C L I M A T E . Little Rock. Jan. 42°F (5-6°C), July 81°F (27-2"C). Annual rainfall 4 9 " (1,222 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1379. G O V E R N M E N T . The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members elected for 4 years, partially renewed every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. The sessions are biennial and usually limited to 60 days. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 2 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 4 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 533,624 votes, Mondale, 338,829. The state is divided into 75 counties; the capital is Little Rock. Governor: Bill Clinton (D.), 1987-91 ($35,000). Lieut.-Governor: Winston Bryant (D.) ($14,000). Secretary of State: W. J. McCuen (D.) ($22,500). FINANCE Budget. The state's general revenue for the fiscal year 1985 was $l,745m., of which taxation furnished $690-6m. and federal aid, $ 8 1 8 - l m . General expenditure was $2,797-2m., of which education took $l,232-7m.; highways, $363-4m., and public welfare, $461 • 5m. Net long-term debt for the financial year 1985 was $ 13 5 • 2m. Per capita income (1986) was $11,073. Banking. In 1986 total bank deposits were $ 14,844 -7m. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. In 1987 crude petroleum amounted to 38 • 1 m. bbls; natural gas, 418 -4m. cu. ft; the state is an important source of bauxite, bromine, special abrasive silica stone and barite; it is one of four states producing tripoli and vanadium and one of two shipping gallium. Agriculture. In 1986 50,525 farms had a total area of 14m.acres; average farm was of 291 acres; 7,484,316 acres were harvested cropland; 2,022,695 acres were irrigated. The largest sources of income in 1985 were chickens including broilers

ARKANSAS

1437

($l,993-2m.); soybeans ($558-7m.); cattle and calves ($250- lm.); rice ($421 -9m.); wheat ($58-4m.). Cash farm income (1985) was $3,280m.; from crops, $1,454.9m., and from livestock, $l,825-3m. Livestock on 1 Jan. 1987 included l -8m. all cattle, 62,000 milch cows and 460,000 swine. I N D U S T R Y . In July 1987 total employment averaged 1,003,200 (53,200 agricultural, 219,900 manufacturing, 193,500 wholesale and retail trade, 131,800 government). The Arkansas Department of Labor estimated that 179,900 factory production workers earned an average $325.56 per week (40 09 hours). The most important manufacturing group was food and kindred products employing 46,300, followed by electric and electronic equipment (23,000) and lumber and wood products (19,200). Construction employed 37,400. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage, 82,648 miles. State-maintained highways (1 Jan. 1987) total 16,126 miles; local county highways, 49,664 miles; city streets, 9,627 miles; federal roads, 1,639 miles; roads not publicly maintained, 5,598 miles. In 1986 there were 1,870,767 registered motor vehicles. Railways. In 1987 there were in the state 3,282 miles of commercial railway. Aviation. Six air carrier and 1 commuter airlines serve the state; there were, in 1986,167 airports (92 public-use and 75 private). Waterways. There are about 1,000 miles of navigable streams, including the Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, White and Ouachita Rivers. The Arkansas River/ Kerr-McClellan Channel flows diagonally eastward across the state and gives access to the sea via the Mississippi River. R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Religion. Main protestant churches in 1980: Baptist (603,844), Methodist (214,925), Church of Christ (90,671), Assembly of God (53,555). Roman Catholics (1980), 56,911. Education. In the school year 1985-86 public elementary and secondary schools had 433,410 enrolled pupils and 21,242 classroom teachers. Average salaries of teachers in elementary schools was $19,021, secondary $20,075. Expenditure on elementary and secondary education was $ 1,201 m. An educational TV network provides a full 12-hour-day telecasting; it had 5 stations in 1984. Higher education is provided at 32 institutions: 12 state universities, 1 medical college, 12 private or church colleges, 10 community or junior colleges. Total enrolment in institutions of higher education, 1986-87, was 81,810. There were (1986-87) 24 vocational-technical schools with 34,876 students, including extension class students. Total expenditure, $28 • 5m. Health. There were 106 licensed hospitals (12,858 beds) in 1987, and 230 licensed nursing homes (21,443 beds). Social Welfare. In 1985 440,000 persons drew social security payments; retired workers, $246,000; disabled workers, $40,000; widows and widowers, $64,000. State prisons in Oct. 1985 had 4,620 inmates (197 per 100,000 population). Books of Reference Current Employment Developments. Arkansas Employment Security Division, Little Rock Arkansas Stale and County Economic Data. Regional Economic Analysis, Univ. Arkansas, Little Rock Stale Government Finances. U.S. Dept. o f C o m m e r c e , Bureau o f t h e Census. Agricultural Statistics for Arkansas. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Crop Reporting Service, Little Rock, 1985 Ferguson and Atkinson, Historic Arkansas. Little Rock, 1966 Fletcher, J. G., Arkansas. Univ. N. Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1947

1438

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

CALIFORNIA H I S T O R Y . California, first settled in July 1769, was from its discovery until 1846 politically associated with Mexico. On 7 July 1846 the American flag was hoisted at Monterey, and a proclamation was issued declaring California to be a portion of the US. On 2 Feb. 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, the territory was formally ceded by Mexico to the US, and was admitted to the Union 9 Sept. 1850 as the thirty-first state, with boundaries as at present. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area, 158,693 sq. miles (2,120 sq. miles being inland water). In 1985 the federal government owned 48m. acres (48% of the land area); in 1984, 570,000 acres were under jurisdiction of the Bureau of Indian AfTairs, of which 501,000 acres were tribal. Public lands, vacant in 1975, totalled 15,607,125 acres, practically all either mountains or deserts. Census population, 1 April 1980, 23,667,902, an increase of 18-5% over 1970, making California the most populous state of the USA (New York: 17,557,288). Estimate (1987) 27,662,900. Births in 1984,455,075 (17-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 195,430 (7-6); infant deaths, 4,245 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 226,560 (8 -8); divorces, dissolutions and nullities, 129,131 in 1983 (5 1). Population in 5 census years was: Total (inch 1910 1930 1960 1970

While 2,259,672 5,408,260 14,455,230 17,761,032

Negro 21,645 81,048 883,861 10,143

1980

18,030,893

1,819,281

Japanese 41,356 97,456 157,317 213,280

Chinese 36,248 37,361 95,600 170,131

AH other 3,817,728

all others) 2,377,549 5,677,251 15,717,204 19,953,134

Per sq. mile 150 35-8 990 125-7

23,667,902

1491

Of the 1980 population 49 • 3% were male, 91-3% were urban and 67 • 2% were 21 years old or older. The largest cities with 1980 census population are: Los Angeles San Diego San Francisco San José Long Beach Oakland Sacramento

2,966,850 875,538 678,974 629,546 361,334 339,337 275,741

Anaheim 219,494 Fresno 217,289 Santa Ana 204,023 Riverside 170,591 Huntington Beach 170,505 Stockton 149,779 Glendale 139,060

Fremont Torrance Garden Grove San Bernardino Pasadena Oxnard

131,945 129,881 123,307 118,794 118,550 108,195

Urbanized areas (1980 census): Los Angeles-Long Beach, 9,477,926; San Francisco-Oakland, 3,191,913; San Diego, 1,704,352; San José, 1,243,900; Sacramento, 796,266; San Bernardino-Riverside, 703,316; Oxnard-VenturaThousand Oaks, 378,420; Fresno, 331,551. C L I M A T E . Los Angeles. Jan. 55°F(12-8°C), July 70°F(21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 15" (381 mm). Sacramento. Jan. 45°F (7-2°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 19" (472 mm). San Diego. Jan. 55°F (12-8°C), July 69°F(20-6°C). Annual rainfall 10" (259 mm). San Francisco. Jan. 50°F (10°C), July 59°F (15°C). Annual rainfall 2 2 " (561 mm). Death Valley. Jan. 52°F (1 PC), July 100°F (38°C). Annual rainfall 1 -6" (40 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1378. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution became effective from 4 July 1879; it has had numerous amendments since 1962. The Senate is composed of 40 members elected for 4 years—half being elected each 2 years—and the Assembly, of 80 members, elected for 2 years. Two-year regular sessions convene in Dec. of each even-numbered year. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. California is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 45 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 5,291,747 votes, Mondale, 3,803,913.

CALIFORNIA

1439

The capital is Sacramento. The state is divided into 58 counties. Governor: George Deukmejian (R.), 1987-91 ($49,100). Lieut.-Governor: Leo McCarthy (D.), 1987-91 ($42,500). Secretary of State: March Fong Eu (D.) ($42,500). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1987 total General Fund revenues were $31,469m.; total General Fund expenditures were $36,840m. ($ 17,030m. for education, $9,556m. for health and welfare). The long-term state debt (general obligation bonds outstanding) was $8,029m. on 30 June 1987. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 16,904. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. California is one of the three most important petroleum-producing states of the US (Texas and Louisiana being the other two); crude oil output was estimated at 378,537m. bbls in 1986. Output of natural gas was 416,413m. cu. ft; of natural gas liquids, (1985) 340m. bbls. Gold output was 223,097 troy oz. (1985); asbestos, boron minerals, diatomite, tungsten, sand and gravel, salt, magnesium compounds, lead, zinc, copper and iron ore are also produced. The estimated value of all the minerals produced was $2,218m. in 1985. Agriculture. Extending 700 miles from north to south, and intersected by several ranges of mountains, California has almost every variety of climate, from the very wet to the very dry, and from the temperate to the semi-tropical. In 1985 there were 82,468 farms, comprising 32m. acres; average farm, 390 acres. Cotton, fruit, poultry and vegetables are important. Cash receipts, 1985, from crops, $13,976m.; from livestock and poultry, $4,165m. Dairy produce, cattle, grapes, nursery products, cotton, hay, flowers and foliage, and lettuce (in that order) are the main sources of farm income. Production of cotton lint, 1986, was 538,800 short tons; other field crops included sugar-beet (4 -8m. short tons). Principal crops include wine, table and raisin grapes (4-8m. short tons); peaches (714,000 short tons); pears (294,000 short tons); apricots (55,200 short tons); prunes (99,000 short tons); plums, nectarines, avocados, olives and cherries. Citrus fruit crops were: oranges, 2 1 m . short tons; lemons, 573,800 short tons; grapefruit, 276,000 short tons. On 1 Jan. 1986 the farm animals were: lm. milch cows, 5m. all cattle, 860,000 sheep and 145,000 swine. Forestry. Total forest area in 1985 was 20,578,000 acres, of which 8,286,000 acres were commercial forest. California ranks third to Oregon and Washington in volume of standing timber; total annual cut is about 4,099m. bd ft (1986). National forest service land in 1986 was 20-6m. acres. Fishery. California ranks sixth as a fishing state (by value of fishery products). The catch in 1986 was 422 • 5m. lb.; leading species were mackerel, tuna and squid. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986, manufacturing employed about 2 1 m . The fastestgrowing industries were transport equipment, printing and publishing and textile mill products. The aerospace industry is important, as is food-processing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 California had 56,534 miles of roads inside cities and 118,558 miles outside. In 1986 there were about 15-2m. registered cars and over 4-5m. commercial vehicles, leading all states in all items by a wide margin. Railways. Total mileage of railways in 1986, was 8,044 miles. There are 2 systems: Amtrak and Southern Pacific Railroad commuter trains. Amtrak carries about 1 -7m. passengers per year on the intra-state routes. Southern Pacific carries about 5-4m. on a commuter route. Amtrak services run from San Francisco and Los Angeles. Southern Pacific runs the Caltrains commuter route from San Francisco

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

to San Jose. There is a metro (BART) and light rail (Muni) system in San Francisco. There is a light rail line in San Diego and Sacramento and another under construction in San Jose. Aviation. In 1986 there were 283 public airports and 739 private airstrips. Shipping. The chief ports are San Francisco and Los Angeles. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 1 Jan. 1987, had 55,920 male and 3,564 female inmates. From 1893 to 1942, 307 inmates were executed by hanging. From 1938 to 1976, 194 inmates were executed by lethal gas. No further death sentences were passed until 1980. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is much stronger than any other single church; next are the Jewish congregations, then Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists and Episcopalians. Education. Full-time attendance at school is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years of age for a minimum of 175 days per annum, and part-time attendance is required from 16 to 18 years. In autumn 1986 there were 4-4m. pupils enrolled in elementary and secondary schools. Estimated expenditure on public schools, 1986-87,was$17,297m. Community Colleges had 1,046,099 students in autumn 1986. California has two publicly supported higher education systems: the University of California (1868) and the California State University and Colleges. In autumn 1985, the University of California with campuses for resident instruction and research at Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Francisco and 6 other centres, had 152,065 full-time students. California State University and Colleges with campuses at Sacramento, Long Beach, Los Angeles, San Francisco and 15 other cities had 333,424 full-time students. In addition to the 28 publicly supported institutions for higher education there are 117 private colleges and universities which had a total estimated enrolment of 178,286 in the autumn of 1986. Health. In 1987 there were 512 general hospitals; capacity, 105,353 beds. On 30 June 1987 state hospitals for the mentally disabled had 4,812 patients. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the federal government (Social Security Administration) assumed responsibility for the Supplemental Security Income/State Supplemental Program which replaced the State Old-Age Security. The SSI/SSP provides financial assistance for needy aged (65 years or older), blind or disabled persons. An individual recipient may own assets up to $1,900; a couple up to $2,850, subject to specific exclusions. There are federal, state and county programmes assisting the aged, the blind, the disabled and needy children. In 1986 4,935 families per month were receiving an average of $345 per family. Books of Reference California Almanac, 1984-85. Fay, J. S., (ed.) Oxford, 1984 California Government and Politics. Hoeber, T. R., et al, (eds.) Sacramento, Annual California Handbook. California Institute, 1981 California Statistical Abstract. 27th ed. Dept. of Finance, Sacramento, 1987 Economic Report of the Governor. Dept. of Finance, Sacramento, Annual Lavender, D. S., California. New York, 1976 State Library: The California State Library, Library-Courts Bldg, Sacramento 95814.

COLORADO H I S T O R Y . Colorado was first settled in 1858, made a Territory in 1861 and admitted into the Union on 1 Aug. 1876. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Colorado is bounded north by Wyoming,

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COLORADO

north-east by Nebraska, east by Kansas, south-east by Oklahoma, south by New Mexico and west by Utah. Area, 104,090 sq. miles (496 sq. miles being inland water). Federal lands, 1974,23,974,000 acres (36% of the land area). Census population, 1 April 1980, was 2,889,964, an increase of 680,368 or 30-8% since 1970. Estimated (1986), 3,267,118. Births, 1985, were 55,115 ( 1 7 1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 20,234 (6-4); infant deaths, 519 (9 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 33,616(12-5); dissolutions, 19,193 (6-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1970

While 783,415 1,018,793 1,296,653 2,112,352

Negro 11,453 11,828 20,177 66,411

1980

2,571,498

101,703

Indian 1,482 1,395 1,567 8,836

Asiatic 2,674 3,775 5,870 10,388

All others 216,763

Total 799,024 1,035,791 1,325,089 2,207,259

Per sq. mile 7-7 100 12-7 21-3

2,889,964

27-7

Of the total population in 1980,49-6% were male, 80-6% were urban; 68% were aged 20 years or older. Large cities with 1980 census population (and 1986 estimate): Denver, 492,365 (514,950); Colorado Springs, 215,150 (270,724); Aurora, 158,588 (220,066); Lakewood, 112,860 (121,729); Pueblo, 101,686 (102,852); Arvada, 84,576 (90,698); Boulder, 76,685 (80,002); Fort Collins, 65,092 (78,038); Wheat Ridge, 30,293 (29,864); Greeley, 53,006 (59,036); Westminster, 50,211 (69,335). Main metropolitan areas (1986): Denver-Boulder, 1,843,757; Fort Collins, 174,636; Colorado Springs, 380,025; Greeley, 137,271; Pueblo, 128,671; Front Range Urban Area, 2,692,304. C L I M A T E . Denver. Jan. 31°F(-0-6°C), July 73°F(22-8°C). Annual rainfall 14" (358 mm). Pueblo. Jan. 30°F (-11°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (312 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution adopted in 1876 is still in effect with (1983) 78 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 35 members elected for 4 years, one-half retiring every 2 years, and of a House of Representatives of 65 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual, beginning 1951. The Governor, Lieut.-Governor, Attorney-General, Secretary of State and Treasurer are elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are all citizens, male and female (except convicted, incarcerated criminals), 18 years of age, who have resided in the state and the precinct for 32 days immediately preceding the election. The state is divided into 63 counties. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 768,711 votes, Mondale, 434,560. The capital is Denver. Governor: Roy Romer (D.), 1987-91 ($60,000). Lieut. - Governor: Nancy Dick (D.), 1987-91 ($32,500). Secretary of State: Natalie Meyer (R.), 1987-91 ($32,500). B U D G E T . The state's total budget, 1985-86, is $3,497m., of which taxation and other revenue furnish $2,859m. and federal grants $637m. Education takes $ 1,708m.; health, welfare and rehabilitation, $1,037m., and highways, $440m. Total state and local taxes per capita (1985) were $2,167. The state has no general obligation debt. The net long-term debt (in revenue bond) on 30 June 1985 was $ 139m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $15,113. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Colorado has a variety of mineral resources. Among the most important are crude oil, metals and coal. Mineral production in 1986 (estimate) $ 1,000m. in

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

value. An estimated 23,700 people were employed in extracting petroleum and natural gas in 1986; 5,000 in metals and 4,300 in coal and non-metals. Agriculture. In May 1985 farms numbered 26,700, with a total area of 34-4m. acres. (66-7% of the land area); 7,375,000 acres were harvested crop land; average farm (1984), 1,282 acres. Cash income, 1985, from crops $ 1,085m.; from livestock, $ 1,950m. In 1984 there were 3,200,000 acres under irrigation. Production of principal crops in 1984: Maize for grain, 134m. bu. (from 680,000 acres); wheat, 115-3m. bu. (3 0m.); hay, 3-3m. tons (l-4m.); dry beans, 2-26m. cwt (170,000); potatoes, 19-2m. cwt (51,400); sugar-beet, 920,600 tons (46,000); oats, barley and sorghums are grown, as well as fruit. On 1 Jan. 1984 the number of farm animals was: 75,000 milch cows, 3 1 m . all cattle, 690,000 sheep, 210,000 swine. The wool clip in 1984 yielded 7m. lb. of wool. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 1,448,300 were employed in non-agricultural sectors, of which 367,800 were in trade; 328,800 in services; 247,800 in government; 196,500 in manufacturing; 87,900 in construction; 88,500 in transport and public utilities; 33,000 in mining; 98,000 in finance, insurance and property. In manufacturing the biggest employers were non-electrical machinery, foods and kindred products, and printing. T O U R I S M . In 1985 about 20m. people spent holidays in Colorado, of whom about 3% were Colorado residents. Overall expenditure, $4,500m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway system (1983) included 9,232 miles of highway. County roads totalled 56,898, and city streets, 9,352 miles. Total road mileage, 80,483, of which 5,001 miles are unmaintained county and city roads. Railways. In 1982 there were in the state 4,500 miles of main-track and branch railway. Aviation. There were (1984) 233 airports in the state. Of these, 68 are publicly owned and open to the public; 16 are privately owned and open to the public; 149 are private and not open to the public. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. At 30 Sept. 1984 there were 3,050 people committed to the State Department of Corrections, inmates of the State Penitentiary, the State Reformatory and other institutions. In 1967 there was 1 execution; since 1930 executions (by lethal gas) numbered 47, including 41 whites, 5 Negroes and 1 other; all were for murder. Colorado has a Civil Rights Act (1935) forbidding places of public accommodation to discriminate against any persons on the grounds of race, religion, sex, colour or nationality. No religious test may be applied to teachers or students in the public schools, 'nor shall any distinction or classification of pupils be made on account of race or colour'. In 1957 the General Assembly prohibited discrimination in employment of persons in private industry and in 1959 adopted the Fair Housing Act to discourage discrimination in housing. A 1957 Act permits marriages between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes. Religion. In 1984 the Roman Catholic Church had 550,300 members; the ten main Protestant denominations had 350,900 members; the Jewish community had 45,000 members. Buddhism is among other religions represented. Education. In autumn 1984 the public elementary and secondary schools had 526,336 pupils and 34,500 teachers and administrators; total instructional salaries averaged $25,000. Enrolments in universities and larger colleges, autumn 1983, were: US Air Force Academy (Colorado Springs), 6,000 students; University of Colorado (Boulder), 25,500; University of Colorado (Denver), 10,560; University of Colorado (Colorado Springs), 5,500; University of Colorado (Medical Center), 1,585; Colorado State University (Fort Collins), 17,500; University of Denver

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(Denver), 9,300; Colorado School o f Mines (Golden), 3,200; University of Northern Colorado (Greeley), 10,700; University o f Southern Colorado (Pueblo), 5,000; Western State College (Gunnison), 1,700; Adams State College (Alamosa), 2,000; Metropolitan State College (Denver), 17,690; Colorado College (Colorado Springs), 1,950; Fort Lewis College (Durango), 3,650; Mesa College (Grand Junction), 3,400. Health. Approved hospitals, 1983, numbered 98. In 1983, there were 25 public mental health centres and clinics. Social Security. A constitutional amendment, adopted 1956, provides for minimum old age pensions of $100 per month, which may be raised on a cost-ofliving basis; for a $5m. stabilization fund and for a $ 10m. medical and health fund for pensioners. In 1984 the maximum monthly retirement pension (for citizens o f 65 and older) was $703; maximum monthly benefit for a disabled worker, $854. Books of Reference Directory of Colorado Manufacturers, 1986. Business Research Division, School of Business, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder, 1987 State of Colorado Business Development Manual. Office of Business Development, Denver, 1986 Economic Outlook Forum, 1986. Colorado Division of Commerce and Development, and the College of Business, Univ. ofColorado, Denver, 1987 Griffiths, M., and Rubright, L., Colorado: a Geography. Boulder, 1983 Sprague, M., Colorado: A History. New York, 1976 State Library: Colorado State Library, State Capitol, Denver, 80203.

CONNECTICUT H I S T O R Y . Connecticut was first settled in 1634 and has been an organized commonwealth since 1637. In 1629 a written constitution was adopted which, it is claimed, was the first in the history o f the world formed under the concept o f a social compact. This constitution was confirmed by a charter from Charles II in 1662, and replaced in 1818 by a state constitution, framed that year by a constitutional convention. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Connecticut is bounded north by Massachusetts, east by Rhode Island, south by the Atlantic and west by New York. Area, 5,018 sq. miles (147 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,107,576, an increase of 2-5% since 1970. Estimate (1983) 3,138,000. Births (1984) were 39,237 (12-4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 27,633 (8-8); infant deaths, 320 (8-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 25,080 (8); divorces, 11,226(3-6). Population in 5 census years was: White Negro Indian Asiatic Total Persq. mile 1,114,756 231-3 1910 1,098,897 15,174 152 533 1,606,903 328 0 1930 1,576,700 29,354 162 687 2,535,234 517-5 1960 2,423,816 107,449 923 3,046 1970 1980

2,835,458 2,799,420

181,177 217,433

All others 15,074 18,970

4,533

3,031,709 3,107,576

629 0 634-3

O f the total population in 1980, 1,498,005 persons were male, 2,449,774 persons were urban. Those 19 years old or older numbered 2,228,805. The chief cities and towns, with census population 1 April 1980, are: 142,546 New Britain 73,840 Bridgeport 136,392 West Hartford 61,301 Hartford Danbury New Haven 126,109 60,470 Greenwich Waterbury 103,266 59,578 57,370 Stamford 102,453 Bristol Norwalk Menden 77,767 57,118

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Hartford, 726,114; Bridgeport, 395,455; New Haven, 417,592; Waterbury, 228,178; Stamford, 198,854. CLIMATE. New Haven: Jan. 28°F (-2-2X), July 72°F (22-2'Q. Annual rainfall 4 6 " (1,151 mm). See New England, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1818 Constitution was revised in June 1953 effective 1 Jan. 1955. On 30 Dec. 1965 a new constitution went into effect, having been framed by a constitutional convention in the summer of 1965 and approved by the voters in Dec. 1965. The 1965 Constitution provides for 30 to 50 members of the Senate (instead of 24 to 36) and for 125 to 225 members of the House of Representatives, to be elected from assembly districts, rather than 2 or 1 from each town, as in the former constitution. The convention has added a new provision for a 3-day session following each regular or special session, solely to reconsider bills vetoed by the Governor. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 36 members and a House of Representatives of 151 members. Members of each House are elected for the term of 2 years (annual salary $9,500 first year, $7,500 second year; expenses $2,000 and mileage allowance). Legislative sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens (with necessary exceptions and the usual residential requirements) have the right of suffrage. Connecticut is one of the original 13 states of the Union. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 883,486 votes, Mondale, 560,712. The state capital is Hartford. Governor: William A. O'Neill (D.), 1987-91 ($65,000). Lieut. - Governor: Joseph J. Fauliso (D.), ($40,000). Secretary of State: Julia Tashjian (D.) ($35,000). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1982 (state government figures) general revenues were $5,588m. (taxation, $3,723m., and federal aid, $998m.); general expenditures were $5,330m. (education, $ 1,843m., highways, $376m., and public welfare, $737m.). The total long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was $4,452m. Per capita income, 198 5, was $ 18,089. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The state has some mineral resources: sheet mica, sand, gravel, clays and stone; total production in 1982 was valued at $56m. Agriculture. In 1985 the state had 4,000 farms with a total area of about 500,000 acres; average farm was of 118 acres, valued at $3,208 per acre. Total cash income, 1985, was $316m., including $110m. from crops and $206m. from livestock and products (mainly from dairy products and poultry). Principal crops are hay, silage, forest, greenhouse and nursery products, tobacco, potatoes, sweet corn, tomatoes, apples, peaches, pears, vegetables and small fruit. Livestock (1 Jan. 1980): 108,000 all cattle (value $70-7m.), 5,200 sheep ($387,000), 11,000 swine ($699,000) and 5 -8m. poultry ($12m.). Forestry. The state had (1980) 137,782 acres of state forest land, which is about 4 • 2% of the total land area. I N D U S T R Y . Total non-agricultural labour force in 1985 was 1,569,000. The main employers are manufacturers (411,000 workers mainly in transport equipment, non-electrical machinery and fabricated metals); trade (350,000 workers); services (353,000) and government (189,000).

CONNECTICUT

1445

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1 Jan. 1981) maintains 4,035 miles of highways, all surfaced. Motor vehicles registered in 1985 numbered 2,422,000. Railways. In 1981 there were 950 miles of railway track. Aviation. In 1981 there were 61 airports (27 commercial including 5 state-owned, and 34 heliports). J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1981 there were no executions; since 1930 there have been 22 executions (19 by electrocution, 3 by hanging), including 19 whites and 3 Negroes, all for murder. In 1984 there were 5,718 inmates of the state and federal prisons. The Civil Rights Act makes it a punishable offence to discriminate against any person or persons 'on account of alienage, colour or race' and to hold up to ridicule any persons 'on account of creed, religion, colour, denomination, nationality or race'. Places of public resort are forbidden to discriminate. Insurance companies are forbidden to charge higher premiums to persons 'wholly or partially of African descent'. Schools must be open to all 'without discrimination on account of race or colour'. Religion. The leading religious denominations (1980) in the state are the Roman Catholic (l -4m. members), United Churches of Christ, Protestant Episcopal, Jewish, Greek Orthodox, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian. Education. Elementary instruction is free for all children between the ages of 4 and 16 years, and compulsory for all children between the ages of 7 and 16 years. In 1983 there were 719 public elementary schools, 237 secondary schools and 25 combined. In 1983 there were 478,000 pupils and 32,500 elementary and secondary teachers. Expenditure of the state on public schools, 1986, $2,321m. or $731 per capita. Average salary of teachers in public schools, 1986, $26,750. Connecticut has 47 colleges, of which one state university, 4 state colleges, 5 state technical colleges and 12 regional community colleges are state funded. TTie University of Connecticut at Storrs, founded 1881, had 1,253 faculty and 22,407 students in 1980-81. Yale University, New Haven, founded in 1701, had 2,088 faculty and 9,626 students. Wesleyan University, Middletown, founded 1831, had 297 faculty and 2,775 students. Trinity College, Hartford, founded 1823, had 145 faculty and 2,007 students. Connecticut College, New London, founded 1915, had 203 faculty and 1,974 students. The University of Hartford, founded 1877, had 305 faculty and 9,836 students. The regional community colleges (2-year course) had 514 faculty and 34,082 students. Health. Hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association, 1983, numbered 65, with 18,200 beds. The state operated one general hospital, one veterans' hospital, 8 hospitals for the mentally ill (2,450 patients in Jan. 1981), 2 training schools for the mentally retarded (and 12 regional centres), one chronic disease hospital (56 in-patients in Jan. 1981) and a state-aided institution for the blind. Social Security. Disbursements during the year ending 30 June 1986 amounted to $66 • 1 m. in aid to the aged (6,500 persons per month receiving an average of $ 153) and disabled (19,400, receiving $239). In other areas of welfare, there was an average of 40,700 cases for aid to families with dependent children comprising 118,800 recipients. Books of Reference The Register and Manual of Connecticut. Secretary of State. Hartford. Annual The Structure of Connecticut's State Government. Connecticut Public Expenditure Council. Hartford, 1973 Adams, V. Q., Connecticut: The Story of Your State Government. Chester, 1973 Halliburton, W. J., The People of Connecticut. Norwalk, 1985 Roth, David M., ed., Series in Connecticut History. 5 vols., Chester, 1975 Smith, Allen R., Connecticut, a Thematic Atlas. Newington, 1974

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U N I T E D STATES OF

Van Dusen, Albert E., Connecticut.

AMERICA

New York, 1961

State Library: Connecticut State Library, Capitol Avenue, Hartford, 06015. State Clarence R. Walters.

Librarian:

DELAWARE H I S T O R Y . Delaware, permanently settled in 1638, is one of the original 13 states of the Union, and the first one to ratify the Federal Constitution. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Delaware is bounded north by Pennsylvania, north-east by New Jersey, east by Delaware Bay, south and west by Maryland. Area 2,044 sq. miles (112 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980 was 594,338, an increase of 46,234 or 8-4% since 1970. Estimate (1986), 633,000. Births in 1985,8,980; deaths, 5,001; infant deaths, 138; marriages, 5,613; divorces, 2,991. Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 171,102 205,718 384,327

Negro 31,181 32,602 60,688

1970 1980

466,459 488,002

78,276 96,157

Indian 5 5 597

Asiatic 34 55 410

AH others 3,369 10,179

Total 202,322 238,380 446,292

Per sq. mite 1030 120-5 224-0

548,104 594,338

276-5 290-8

Of the total population in 1980,48 -4% were male, 70 • 7% were urban and 65 • 7% were 21 years old or older. The 1980 census figures show Wilmington with population of 70,195; Newark, 25,241; Dover, 23,512; Elsmere Town, 6,493; Milford City, 5,356; Seaford City, 5,256. C L I M A T E . Wilmington. Jan. 32°F (0"C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 4 3 " (1,076 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution (the fourth) dates from 1897, and has had 51 amendments; it was not ratified by the electorate but promulgated by the Constitutional Convention. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 21 members elected for 4 years and a House of Representatives of 41 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.Govemor are elected for 4 years. With necessary exceptions, all adult citizens, registered as voters, who are bona fide residents, and have complied with local residential requirements, have the right to vote. Delaware is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the whole state. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 151,494 votes, Mondale, 100,632. The state capital is Dover. Delaware is divided into 3 counties. Governor: Michael N. Castle (R.), 1984-88 ($70,000). Lieut.-Govemor:S. B. Woo (D.), ($ 19,200). Secretary of State: Michael Harkins (R.) ($49,300) (appointed by the Governor). F I N A N C E . For the year ending 30 June 1986 total revenue was $l,987m., of which federal grants were $297-7m. Total expenditure was $799m. On 30 June 1986 the total debt was $603 • 1 m. Per capita income (1985) was $ 14,272. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The mineral resources of Delaware are not extensive, consisting chiefly

DELAWARE

1447

of clay products, stone, sand and gravel and magnesium compounds. Value of mineral production in 1980 was $2m. Agriculture. Delaware is mainly an industrial state, but 650,000 acres is in farms, which in 1985 numbered 3,500; average farm was of 186 acres. The average farm was valued (land and buildings) at $323,500 in 1984. Cash income, 1985, from crops and livestock, $491 -2m., of which $383-5m. was from livestock and products. The chief crops are corn and soybeans. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing establishments employed 72,100 people; value added by manufacture (1982), $2,466m., mainly from chemicals, transport equipment and food. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in 1986 maintained 4,702 miles of roads and streets and 1,387 miles of federally-aided highways. There were also 601 miles of municipal maintained streets. Vehicles registered in year ended 30 June 1986,503,828. Railways. In 1986 the state had 285 miles of railway. Aviation. Delaware had 12 airports, all of which were for general use in 1986. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. State prisons, 1 July 1985-30 June 1986, had daily average of 2,621 inmates. The death penalty was illegal from 2 April 19 5 8 to 18 Dec. 1961. Executions since 1930 (by hanging) have totalled 12 (none since 1946). Religion. Membership, 1979-80: Methodists, 60,489; Roman Catholics, 103,060; Episcopalians, 18,696; Lutherans, 10,000. Education. The state has free public schools and compulsory school attendance. In Sept. 1986 the elementary and secondary public schools had 94,410 enrolled pupils and 5,883 full-time equivalent classroom teachers. Another 21,800 children were enrolled in private and parochial schools. Appropriation for public schools (financial year 1985-86) was about $359-5m. Average salary of classroom teachers (financial year 1985-86), $24,624. The state supports the University of Delaware at Newark (1834) which had 783 full-time faculty members and 18,631 students in Sept. 1986, Delaware State College, Dover (1892), with 157 full-time faculty members and 2,327 students, and the 4 campuses of Delaware Technical and Community College (Wilmington, Stanton, Dover and Georgetown) with 124 fulltime faculty members and 6,000 students. Health. In 1986 there were 7 short-term general hospitals. During financial year 1982 patients in mental hospitals numbered 1,963. Social Security. In 1974 the federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programme lessened state responsibility for the aged, blind and disabled. SSI payments in Delaware (1984), $13 - lm. Provisions are also made for the care of dependent children; in 1983 there were 26,000 recipients in 9,500 families (average monthly payment per family, $246). The total state programme for the year ending 30 June 1984 was $27m. for the care of dependent children. Books of Reference Information: Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Hall of Records, Dover. Delaware Data Book. Delaware Development Office. Dover, 1985 State Manual, Containing Official List of Officers, Commissions and County Officers. Secretary of State, Dover. A n n u a l Hoffecker, C. E., Delaware: a Bicentennial History. New York, 1977 Smeal, L., Delaware Historical and Biographical Index. New York, 1984 Weslager, C. A., Delaware Indians, a History. Rutgers Univ. Press, 1972 Topical History of Delaware. Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs. Dover, 1977

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UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA H I S T O R Y . The District of Columbia, organized in 1790, is the seat of the Government of the US, for which the land was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia to the US as a site for the national capital. It was established under Acts of Congress in 1790 and 1791. Congress first met in it in 1800 and federal authority over it became vested in 1801. In 1846 the land ceded by Virginia (about 33 sq. miles) was given back. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The District forms an enclave on the Potomac River, where the river forms the south-west boundary of Maryland. The area of the District of Columbia is 68-68 sq. miles, 6 sq. miles being inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 638,333, a decrease of 16% from that of 1970. Estimate (1983) 623,000. Metropolitan statistical area of Washington, D.C.-Md-Va. (1980), 3m. Density of population in the District, 1980, 10,453 per sq. mile. Births, 1984, in the District were 19,123 (30-7 per 1,000 population); resident deaths, 8,302 (13 -3); infant deaths, 393 (20-6 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,488 (8-8); divorces, 2,874 (4-6). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 236,128 353,981 345,263

Negro 94,446 132,068 411,737

1970 1980

209,272 171,768

537,712 448,906

Indian 68 40 587

Chinese and Japanese 427 780 3,532

All others 9,526 17,659

Total 331,069 486,869 763,956

Per sq. mile 5,517-8 7,981-5 12,523-9

756,510 638,333

12,321-0 10,184-0

C L I M A T E . Washington. Jan. 34°F ( I P C ) , July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 4 3 " (1,064 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. G O V E R N M E N T . Local government, from 1 July 1878 until Aug. 1967, was that of a municipal corporation administered by a board of 3 commissioners, of whom 2 were appointed from civil life by the President, and confirmed by the Senate, for a term of 3 years each. The other commissioner was detailed by the President from the Engineer Corps of the Army. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1967 submitted by the President to Congress on 1 June 1967 abolished the Commission form of government and instituted a new Mayor Council form of government with officers appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. On 24 Dec. 1973 the appointed officers were replaced by an elected Mayor and councillors, with full legislative powers in local matters as from 1974. Congress retains the right to legislate, to veto or supersede the Council's acts. The 23rd amendment to the federal constitution (1961) conferred the right to vote in national elections; in the 1984 presidential election Mondale polled 172,459 votes, Reagan, 26,805. Since 1971 the District has had a delegate (two, by 1987) in Congress who may vote in Committees but not on the House floor. B U D G E T . The District's revenues are derived from a tax on real and personal property, sales taxes, taxes on corporations and companies, licences for conducting various businesses and from federal payments. The District of Columbia has n o bonded debt not covered by its accumulated sinking fund. Per capita personal income, 1985,518,186. I N D U S T R Y . The District's main industries (1985) are government service (263,000 workers); services (214,000); wholesale and retail trade (64,000); finance, real estate, insurance (35,000), communications, transport and utilities (26,000); total workforce, 1985,629,000. T O U R I S M . About 17m. visitors stay in the District every year and spend about $ 1,000m.

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COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Within the District are 340 miles of bus routes. There are 1,101 miles of streets maintained by the District; of these, 673 miles are local streets, 262 miles are major arterial roads. In 1985 233,000 vehicles were registered. Railways. There is a rapid rail transit system including a town subway system. This coordinates with the bus system and connects with Union railway station and the National Airport. Nine rail lines serve the District. Aviation. The District is served by 3 general airports; across the Potomac River in Arlington, Va., is National Airport, in Chantilly, Va., is Dulles International Airport and in Maryland is Baltimore—Washington International Airport. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Since 1958 there have been no executions; from 1930 to 1957 there were 40 executions (electrocution) including 3 whites for murder and 35 Negroes for murder and 2 for rape. The death penalty was declared unconstitutional in the District of Columbia on November 16, 1973. At 31 Dec. 1985 there were 6,404 prisoners in state and federal institutions. The District's Court system is the Judicial Branch of the District of Columbia. It is the only completely unified court system in the United States, possibly because of the District's unique city-state jurisdiction. Until the District of Columbia Court Reform and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970, the judicial system was almost entirely in the hands of Federal Government. Since that time, the system has been similar in most respects to the autonomous systems of the states. Religion. The largest churches are the Protestant and Roman Catholic Christian churches; there are also Jewish, Eastern Orthodox and Islamic congregations. Education. In 1983-84 there were about 89,000 pupils in secondary and elementary schools. Expenditure on public schools, 1986, $404m. or $645 per capita; public school teachers' average salary was $34,000. Higher education is given through the Consortium of Universities of the Metropolitan Washington Area, which consists of six universities and three colleges: Georgetown University, founded in 1795 by the Jesuit Order (11,688 students in 1985-86); George Washington University, non-sectarian founded in 1821 (17,948); Howard University, founded in 1867 (11,184); Catholic University of America, founded in 1887 (6,805); American University (Methodist) founded in 1893 (8,032); University of D.C., founded 1976 (12,080); Gallaudet College, founded 1864 (2,128); Trinity College, founded 1897 (926). There are altogether 18 institutes of higher education. All benefit from such facilities as the 12 museums of the Smithsonian Institution, the Library of Congress, National Archives, and the Legal Libraries of the US Supreme Court and Department of Justice. Social Security The District government provides primary health care for residents, mainly through its Department of Human Services. In 1983 there were 17 hospitals with 8,700 beds. The welfare programme of aid to families with dependent children gave money to 55,900 recipients in 21,600 families in 1985; 4,100 aged and 11,600 disabled also received aid, total payments $43 • 8m. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Metropolitan Washington Board of Trade publications. Reports of the Commissioners of the District oj Columbia. Annual. Washington Federal Writers' Project. Washington, DC.: A Guide to the Nation's Capital. New York

FLORIDA HISTORY. White men, probably Spaniards but possibly English, saw Florida for the first time in the period 1497-1512. Juan Ponce de Leon sighted Florida on 27 March 1513. Going ashore between 2 and 8 April in the vicinity of what

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U N I T E D STATES OF

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is now St Augustine, he named the land 'Pasqua de Flores' because his landing was 'in the time of the Feast of Flowers'. The first permanent settlement in the entire US was made at St Augustine, 8 Sept. 1565. It was claimed by Spain until 1763, then ceded to England; back to Spain in 1783, and to the US in 1821. Florida became a Territory in 1821 and was admitted into the Union on 3 March 1845.

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Florida is a peninsula bounded west by the Gulf of Mexico, south by the Straits of Florida, east by the Atlantic, north by Georgia and north-west by Alabama. Area, 58,664 sq. miles, including 4,510 sq. miles ofinland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 9,746,324, an increase of 43 -4% since 1970. Estimate (1 July 1987) 12,036,806. Births in 1986 were 167,628; deaths, 123,540; infant deaths, 1,837; marriages, 129,363; divorces and other dissolutions, 78,114. Population in 5 federal census years was: White

Negro

1940

1,381,986

514,198

All Others 1,230

1,897,414

Total

Per Sq. Mile 35

0

1950

2,166,051

603,101

2,153

2,771,305

51

1

I960

4,063,881

91

5

880,168

7,493

4,952,788

1970

5,719,343

1,041,651

28,449

6,789,443

125-6

1980

8,319,448

1,342,478

84,398

9,746,324-

180-1

Of the population in 1980, 48% of the total were male; 84 -3% were urban and 72 • 4% were 20 years of age or over. The largest cities in the state, 1980 census (and 1986 estimates) are: Jacksonville, 540,898 (609,614); Miami, 346,931 (371,975); Tampa, 271,523 (278,755); St Petersburg, 236,893 (243,090); Fort Lauderdale, 153,256 (151,048); Hialeah, 145,254 (161,119); Orlando, 128,394 (148,104); Hollywood, 117,188 (124,448); Miami Beach, 96,298 (96,962); Clearwater, 85,450 (97,882); Tallahassee, 81,548 (120,023); Gainesville, 81,371 (83,060); West Palm Beach, 62,530 (67,991); Largo, 58,977 (62,624); Pensacola, 57,619 (61,422); Pompano Beach, 52,618 (68,759). C L I M A T E . Jacksonville. Jan. 55°F(12-8°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 54" (1,353 mm). Key West. Jan. 70°F(21 • 1°C), July 83°F(28-3°C). Annual rainfall 39" (968 mm). Miami. Jan. 67°F (19 -4°C), July 82°F (27 • 8°C). Annual rainfall 60" (1,516 mm). Tampa. Jan. 61°F(16-1°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 51" (1,285 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The 1968 Legislature revised the constitution of 1885. The state legislature consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and House of Representatives with 120 members elected for 2 years. Sessions are held annually, and are limited to 60 days. The Governor is elected for 4 years, and can hold two terms in office. Two senators and 19 representatives are elected to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,512,318 votes and Mondale, 1,373,137. The state capital is Tallahassee. The state is divided into 67 counties. Governor: Bob Martinez (R.), 1987-91 ($69,550). Lieut.-Governor: Bobby Brantley (R.), 1987-91 ($60,455). Secretary of State.Jim Smith (R.), 1987-91 ($59,385). F I N A N C E . There is no state income tax on individuals. For the year ending 30 June 1987 the state had a total revenue of $29,246m. and total expenditure of $28,723m. General revenue fund expenditure was $7,793m. Net long-term debt, 30 June 1987, amounted to $3,450m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $14,646. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Chief mineral is phosphate rock, of which marketable production in 1986 was 29 • 7m. tonnes.

FLORIDA

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Agriculture. In 1985, there were 40,000 farms; net income per farm was $45,000. Total value of all farm land and buildings, $20,500m. There were 624,492 acres in citrus groves in 1986 and 12-4m. acres of other farms and ranches. Total cash receipts from crops and livestock (1986), $4,680m., of which crops provided $3,680m. Oranges, grapefruit, melons and vegetables are important. Other crops are soybeans, sugar-cane, tobacco and peanuts. On 1 Jan. 1986 the state had 1 -89m. cattle, including 185,152 milch cows, and 158,000 swine. The national forests area in Sept. 1986 was 1,146,675 acres. There were 15-66m. acres of commercial forest. Fisheries. Florida has extensive fisheries for oysters, shrimp, red snapper, crabs, mackerel and mullet. Catch (1986), 169m. lb. valued at $ 171 m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 there were 15,262 manufacturers. They employed 516,580 persons. The metal-working, lumber, chemical, woodpulp, food-processing and instruments industries are important. T O U R I S M . During 1986 35-7m. tourists visited Florida. They spent $22,800m. making tourism one of the biggest industries in the state. There were (1985) 136 state parks, 4 state forests, 2 national parks and 2 national forests. The state parks were visited by 13-6m. people in 1985-86,1 -2m. of them campers. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1987) had 122,810-7 miles of road and streets of which 102,966-5 miles were in the state and local system (63,917-1 miles being county roads), and 19,844-2 miles were federally-aided roads. In 1982-83,11 -4m. vehicle licence plates were issued. Railways. In 1987 there were 3,379 miles of railway. Aviation. In 1986 Florida had 135 public use airports of which 22 have scheduled commercial service. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. Since 1968 there have been 13 executions, by electrocution, for murder; from 1930 to 1968 there were 168 executions (electrocution), including 130 for murder, 37 for rape and 1 for kidnapping. State prisons, 30 June 1985, had 28,281 in-mates. Religion. The main Christian churches are Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian and Episcopalian. Education. Attendance at school is compulsory between 7 and 16. In 1985-86 the public elementary and secondary schools had 1,558,918 enrolled pupils. Total expenditure on public schools was $7,611 -9m. The state maintains 28 community colleges with 698,718 enrolments in 1983-84. There are 9 universities in the state system, namely the University of Florida at Gainesville (founded 1853) with 35,692 students in 1986; the Florida State University (founded at Tallahassee in 1857) with 22,912; the University of South Florida at Tampa (founded 1960) with 28,806; Florida A. & M. University at Tallahassee (founded 1887) with 5,240; Florida Atlantic University (founded 1964) at Boca Raton with 10,705; the University of West Florida at Pensacola with 6,107; the University of Central Florida at Orlando with 16,530; the University of North Florida at Jacksonville with 6,546; Florida International University at Miami with 16,403. Health. Hospitals, 1987, numbered 306 with 70,132 beds; there were 228 general, 77 special and 1 tuberculosis hospitals. Social Security. From 1974 aid to the aged, blind and disabled became a federal responsibility. The state continued to give aid to families with dependent children and general assistance. Monthly payments 1986-87: aid to 3,064 blind averaged

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U N I T E D STATES OF

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$ 2 3 4 . 9 1 ; aid t o 2 0 1 , 8 6 7 d e p e n d e n t c h i l d r e n averaged $ 7 9 . 1 1 ; aid t o 107,186 dis-

abled averaged $234.78; aid to 77,201 aged averaged $ 186.76. Books of Reference

Florida Population: Summary ofthe ¡980 Census. Univ. of Florida Press, 1981 Report. Florida Secretary of State. Tallahassee. Biennial Report of the Comptroller. Tallahassee. Biennial Morris, Allen. The Florida Handbook. Tallahassee. Biennial F e m a l d , E. A., (ei.) Atlas of Florida. Florida State Univ., 1981 T e b e a u . C . W . , ^ History of Florida. Univ. Miami Press, rev. ed., 1980 Slate Library: G r a y Building, Tallahassee. Librarian: Barratt Wilkins.

GEORGIA H I S T O R Y . Georgia (so named from George II) was founded in 1733 as the 13th original colony; she became the 4th original state. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Georgia is bounded north by Tennessee and North Carolina, north-east by South Carolina, east by the Atlantic, south by Florida and west by Alabama. Area, 58,910 sq. miles, of which 854 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 5,464,265. Estimate (1983), 5,732,000. Births, 1984, were 91,761 (15-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 47,303 (81); infant deaths, 1,221 (13-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 75,817 (13); divorces and annulments, 34,084 (5 -8). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,431,802 1,837,021 2,817,223

Negro 1,176,987 1,071,125 1,122,596

1970 1980

3,391,242 3,948,007

1,187,149 1,465,457

Indian 95 43 749

Asiatic 237 317 2,004

All others 11,184 50,801

Total 2,609,121 2,908,506 3,943,116

Persq. mile 44-4 49-7 67-7

4,589,575 5,464,265

79 0 92-7

Of the 1980 population, 2,641,030 were male, 3,406,171 were urban and those 20 years of age and over numbered 3,601,895. The largest cities are: Atlanta (capital), with population, 1980 census, of422,293 (urbanized area, 2,010,368); Columbus, 168,598 (238,593); Savannah, 133,672 (225,581 ); Macon, 116,044 (251,736); Albany, 74,471 (112,257). C L I M A T E . Atlanta. Jan. 43°F(6-1°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 4 9 " (1,234 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was ratified in the general election of 2 Nov. 1976, proclaimed on 22 Dec. 1976 and became effective 1 Jan. 1977. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 56 members and a House of Representatives of 180 members, both elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Legislative sessions are annual, beginning the 2nd Monday in Jan. and lasting for 40 days. Georgia was the first state to extend the franchise to all citizens 18 years old and above. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives. Registered voters, 1976, numbered 2,178,623. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,050,852 votes, Mondale, 696,181. The state capital is Atlanta. Georgia is divided into 159 counties. Governor: Joe F. Harris (D.), 1987-91 ($79,358). Lieut.-Governor: Zeli Miller (D.), ($41,496). Secretary of State: Max Cleland (D.), ($51,896). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 general revenue was

GEORGIA

1453

$9,009m. (taxes, $4,666m.; federal aid, $2,158m.); general expenditure was $8,401m. (education, $2,900m.; public welfare, $895m.; hospitals, $1,384m.). On 30 June 1982 total liability was $6,877m. Estimated per capita personal income (1985), was $ 12,543. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Georgia is the leading producer of kaolin. The state ranks first in production of crushed and dimensional granite, second in production of fuller's earth and marble (crushed and dimensional). Mineral products, 1982, had a value of $718m. Agriculture. In 1986, 49,000 farms covered 13m. acres; average farm was of 265 acres; total value, land and buildings, $ 11,094m. For 1985 cotton output was 370,000 bales (of 480 lb.). Other crops include tobacco, com, wheat, soybeans, peanuts and pecans. Cash income, 1985, $3,327m: from crops, $l,600m.; from livestock, $ 1,727m. On 1 Jan. 1986 farm animals included 1 -7m. all cattle, including 119,000 milch cows, and 1 -2m. swine. Forestry. The forested area in 1980 was 25m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 the state's manufacturing establishments had 554,000 workers; the main groups were textiles, transport equipment, food, wood products and paper, chemicals. Trade employed 648,000, services 463,000, government, 447,000. T O U R I S M . In 1982 tourists spent $6,380m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total road mileage (Dec. 1980) was 134,500 including 88,900 rural and 11,850 primary federal-aided. Motor vehicles registered, 1985, numbered 4,606,000. Railways. In 1976 there were 5,417 miles of railways. A metro opened in Atlanta in 1979. Aviation. In 1981 there were 125 public and 168 private airports. Shipping. The principal port is Savannah. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State and federal prisons, 31 Dec. 1985, had 16,118 inmates. Since 1964 there have been two executions (for murder). From 1924 to 1964 there were 415 executions (electrocution), including 75 whites and 268 Negroes for murder, 3 whites and 63 Negroes for rape and 6 Negroes for armed robbery. Under a Local Option Act, the sale of alcoholic beverages (not including malt beverages and light wines) is prohibited in more than half the counties. Religion. An estimated 78% of the population are church members. Of the total population, 74-3% are Protestant, 3 -2% are Roman Catholic and 1 -5% Jewish. Education. Since 1945 education has been compulsory; tuition is free for pupils between the ages of 6 and 18 years. In 1983 there were 1,303 public elementary schools and 438 public secondary schools; in autumn 1983 they had lm. pupils and (1985) 56,310 teachers. Teachers' salaries averaged $21,700 for elementary and $22,500 for secondary schools in 1986. Expenditure on public schools (1986), $3,295m. or $551 per capita. Integration in public schools is now an accepted practice. The University of Georgia (Athens) was founded in 1785 and was the first chartered State University in the US (25,408 students in 1985-86). Other institutions of higher learning include Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta (11,078), Emory University, Atlanta (8,421), Georgia College, Milledgeville (3,940), Georgia State

1454

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

University, Atlanta (21,612) and Mercer University, Macon (2,332). The Atlanta University Center, devoted primarily to Negro education, includes Clark College (1,860) and Morris Brown College (1,257, co-educational, Morehouse (2,160), a liberal arts college for men, Interdenominational Theological Center, a coeducational theological school, and Spelman College, the first liberal arts college for Negro women in the US. Atlanta University serves as the graduate school centre for the complex. Wesleyan College near Macon is the oldest chartered women's college in the US. Health. Hospitals licensed by the Department of Human Resources, 1983, numbered 191 with 33,500 beds. State facilities for the mentally retarded had 1,363 resident patients in 1980; there were 4,527 in mental care hospitals. Social Security. In Dec. 1985,60,300 persons were receiving SSI old-age assistance of an average $128 per month; 82,500 families were receiving as aid to dependent children an average of $186 per family; aid to 89,500 disabled persons was $217 monthly. Books of Reference Georgia History in Outline. Univ. ofGeorgia Press, Athens, 1978 Bonner, J. C., and Roberts, L. E., eds., Studies in Georgia History and Government. Reprint Company, Spartanburg, 1940Repr. Pound, M. B., and Saye, A. B., Handbook on the Constitution of the U.S. and Georgia. Univ. of Georgia Press, Athens, 1978 Rowland, A. R., A Bibliography of the Writings on Georgia History. Hamden, Conn., 1978 Saye, A. B., A Constitutional History ofGeorgia, 1732-1968. Univ. of Georgia, Athens, Rev. ed., 1970 State Library: Judicial Building, Capital Sq., Atlanta. State Librarian: John D. M. Folger.

HAWAII H I S T O R Y . The Hawaiian Islands, formerly known as the Sandwich Islands, were discovered by Capt. James Cook in Jan. 1778. During the greater part of the 19th century the islands formed an independent kingdom, but in 1893 the reigning Queen, Liliuokalani (died 11 Nov. 1917), was deposed and a provisional government formed; in 1894 a Republic was proclaimed, and in accordance with the request of the Legislature of the Republic, and a resolution of the US Congress of 6 July 1898 (signed 7 July by President McKinley), the islands were on 12 Aug. 1898 formally annexed to the US. On 14 June 1900 the islands were constituted as a Territory of Hawaii. Statehood was granted to Hawaii on 18 March 1959. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Hawaiian Islands lie in the North Pacific Ocean, between 18° 50' and 28° 15' N. lat. and 154° 40' and 178° 15' W. long., about 2,090 nautical miles south-west of San Francisco. There are more than 136 islands and islets in the group, of which 7 are inhabited. The land and inland water area of the state is 6,471 sq. miles, with census population, 1 April 1980, of 964,691, an increase of 194,778 or 25-4% since 1970; density was 163-8 per sq. mile. The principal islands are Hawaii, 4,035 sq. miles and population, 1980, 92,053 (estimate, 1986,111,800); Maui, 735 and 62,823 (78,700); Oahu, 618 and 762,534 (816,700); Kauai, 558 and 38,856 (46,100); Molokai, 264 and 6,049 (6,700); Lanai, 141 and 2,119 (2,200); Niihau, 71 and 226 (200); Kahoolawe, 46 (uninhabited). The capital Honolulu, on the island of Oahu, had a population in 1980 of365,048 and Hilo on the island of Hawaii, 35,269. Figures for racial groups, 1980, are: 331,925 White, 239,734 Japanese, 132,075 Filipinos, 118,251 Hawaiian, 55,916 Chinese, 17,453 Korean, 17,687 Negroes, 51,650 all others. Of the total, approximately 93% were citizens of the US.

HAWAII

1455

Inter-marriage between the races is popular. Of the 16,219 persons married in the calendar year 1986,31 -4% married a wife or husband of a different race. Births, 1984, were 18,756; deaths, 5,942; infant deaths, 205; marriages, 14,982; divorces and annulments, 4,769. C L I M A T E . All the islands have a tropical climate, with an abrupt change in conditions between windward and leeward sides, most marked in rainfall. Temperatures vary little. Honolulu. Jan. 71°F(21 -7°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 1 " (775 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution took effect on 21 Aug. 1959. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 25 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 51 members elected for 2 years. The constitution provides for annual meetings of the legislature with 60-day regular sessions. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The registered voters, 1986, numbered 419,794. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 185,050 votes, Mondale, 147,154. Governor: John Waihee (D.), 1986-90 ($80,000). B U D G E T . Revenue is derived mainly from taxation of sales and gross receipts, real property, corporate and personal income, and inheritance taxes, licences, public land sales and leases. For the year ending 30 June 1986 state general fund receipts amounted to $l,406-6m.; special fund receipts, $140-9m., and federal grants, $394m. (included as $10-3m. of general funds and $383-7m. of special funds). State expenditures were $2,456-12m. (education, $773-2m.; highways, $104-5m.; public welfare, $322-5m.; figures include both special and general funds). Net long-term debt, 31 Dec. 1986, amounted to $2,720-4m. Estimated per capita personal income (1986) was $ 14,886. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Total value of mineral production, 1986, amounted to $68,422,000. Cement shipped from plants amounted to 310,000 short tons; stone, 7,100,000 short tons. Agriculture. Farming is highly commercialized, aiming at export to the American market, and highly mechanized. In 1985 there were 4,600 farms with an acreage of 1 -95m. Sugar and pineapples are the staple crops. Income from crop sales, 1986, was $481 -2m., and from livestock, $83-4m. The sugar crop was valued at $233-8m.; pineapples, $99 -7m.; other crops, $ 147 • 7m. Forestry. Forest and wildlife lands held by the federal government totalled 255,620 acres in 1985. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1985 manufacturing establishments employed 15,800 production workers who earned an estimated $228 -5m. Commerce. In 1986 imports were $ 1,556 -9m.; exports, $ 2 3 1 1 m . Tourism. Tourism is an outstanding factor in Hawaii's economy. Tourist arrivals numbered 109,798 in 1955, and reached 7 06m. in 1986. Tourist expenditures, $55m. in 1955, contributed $5,500m. to the state's economy in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were 790,855 motor vehicles, and a total of 4,040 miles of highways (including 94 miles of freeways).

1456

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Aviation. There were 8 commercial airports in 1986; passengers arriving from overseas numbered 6 04m., and there were 8 -3m. passengers between the islands. Shipping. Several lines of steamers connect the islands with the mainland USA, Canada, Australia, the Philippines, China and Japan. In 1986, 1,825 overseas and 2,697 inter-island vessels entered the port of Honolulu. Post. There were 493,079 telephones access lines at 31 Dec. 1986. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There is no capital punishment in Hawaii. Religion. The residents of Hawaii are mainly Christians, though there are many Buddhists. A sample survey in 1979 showed that 31% were Roman Catholic, 34% Protestant, 12% Buddhist, 2 • 5% Latter Day Saints. Education. Education is free, and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 18. The language in the schools is English. In 1986-87 there were 232 public schools (164,640 pupils with 8,244 teachers) and 145 private schools (36,548 pupils and 2,544 teachers) ranging from kindergarten through the 12th grade. The University of Hawaii-Manoa, founded in 1907, had 18,965 day students in 1986; total attendance at all campuses of the University of Hawaii system, 42,825; 9,082 at private colleges. Social Security. During 1986 4,820 people were receiving SSI old-age assistance of an average $204 per month; 74,915 families, $404 in aid to dependent children; 20,583 disabled people, $273. Books of Reference Government in Hawaii. Tax Foundation of Hawaii. Honolulu, 1987 Guide to Government in Hawaii. 8th ed. Legislative Reference Bureau. State of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1984 All About Hawaii: Thrum's Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Honolulu, 1875 to 1974 Slate of Hawaii Data Book. Hawaii Dept. of Business and Economic Development, 1987 Allen, G. E., Hawaii's War Years. 2 vols. Hawaii Univ. Press, 1950-52 Bell, R. J., Last Among Equals: Hawaiian Statehood and American Politics. Honolulu, 1984 Kuykendall, R. S.,and Day, A. G., Hawaii. A History. Rev. ed. New Jersey, 1961 Morgan, J. R.,Hawaii. Boulder, 1982 Pukui, M. K., and Elbert, S. H., Hawaiian-English Dictionary. Rev. ed. Honolulu, 1986

IDAHO H I S T O R Y . Idaho was first permanently settled in 1860, although there was a mission for Indians in 1836 and a Mormon settlement in 1855. It was organized as a Territory in 1863 and admitted into the Union as a state on 3 July 1890. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Idaho is bounded north by Canada, east by the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, south by Nevada and Utah, west by Oregon and Washington. Area, 83,564 sq. miles, of which 1,153 sq. miles are inland water. In 1983 the federal government owned 34,282,000 acres (65% of the state area). Census population, 1 April 1980, 943,935, an increase of 32-4% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 1,001,000. Births, 1984, 17,996 (18 per 1,000 population); deaths, 7,229 (7-2); infant deaths, 174 (9-7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 13,264 (13-3); divorces, 6,210 (6-2).

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 319,221 438,840 657,383 693,375

Negro 651 668 1,502 3,655

1980

901,641

2,716

Indian 3,488 3,638 5,231 5,413

Asiatic 2,234 1,886 2,958 2,526

All others 39,578

Total 325,594 445,032 667,191 713,008

Per sq. mile 3-9 5-4 81 8-5

943,935

11-3

IDAHO

1457

Of the total 1980 population, 471,155 were male, 509,702 were urban and those 20 years of age or older 600,242. The largest cities are Boise (capital) with 1980 census population of 102,160 (1984 estimate, 107,188); Pocatello, 46,340 (45,334); Idaho Falls, 39,734 (41,774); Lewiston, 27,986 (28,050); Twin Falls, 26,209 (28,168); Nampa, 25,112 (27,347). C L I M A T E . Boise. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7°C), July 74"F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 12" (303 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution adopted in 1890 is still in force; it has had 104 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 42 members and a House of Representatives of 84 members, all the legislators being elected for 2 years. The Governor, Lieut.-Governor and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Voters are citizens, over the age of 18 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 279,523 votes, Mondale, 108,510. The state is divided into 44 counties. The capital is Boise. Governor: Cecil Andrus(D.), 1987-91 ($50,000). Lieut.-Governor: C. L. Otter(R.), 1987-91 ($14,000). Secretary of State: Pete Cenarrusa (R.), 1987-91 ($37,500). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1985 (State Auditor's Office) general revenues were $ 5 5 1 1 m . and general expenditures, $555-5m. (which includes $3 -4m. outstanding obligations). Per capita personal income(1985)was$l 1,120. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Production of the most important minerals (1984): Silver, 18-87m. troy oz.; copper, 3,701 tonnes; antimony, 557 short tons. There is some gold, lead, zinc and vanadium. Non-metallic minerals include phosphate rock (4-7m. tonnes), lime (87,000 short tons), garnet, gypsum, perlite, pumice, tungsten, molybdenum, crushed stone (1 -8m. short tons), sand and gravel and dimension stone. Value of total mineral output was $412m. in 1984. Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading industry, although a great part of the state is naturally arid. Extensive irrigation works have been carried out, bringing an estimated 4m. acres under irrigation; 83 reservoirs have a total capacity of 10-4m. acre-ft, 7 -3m. acre-ft of which is primarily used for irrigation. In 1985 there were 24,600 farms with a total area of 14-7m. acres (27% of the land area); average farm had 598 acres with land and buildings valued at approximately $749 per acre. In 1984 there were 51 soil conservation districts, managed by local farmers and ranchers, covering most of the state. Cash receipts from marketings, 1985, was $2,063m. ($l,200m. from crops and $862m. from livestock). The most important crops are potatoes and wheat— potatoes leading all states; in 1985 the production amounted to 103 m. cwt, cash receipts $323m.; wheat, 72m. bu., $235m. Other crops are sugar-beet, alfalfa, barley, field peas and beans, onions and apples. On 1 Jan. 1985 the number of sheep was 313,000; milch cows, 165,000; all cattle, 1-78m.; swine, 112,000. Forestry. In 1983 a total of 20,635,700 acres (37 -6% of the state's area) was in forests; 13,540,600 acres of this was commercial (non-reserved) forest. The volume of sawtimber in commercial forests was 139,600m. bd ft. The stumpage value of forest products was about $124m., and about $531m. was added by processing. Ownership of commercial forests is 70% federal, 6-5% state and local government, 0-5% Indian, 22 • 3% private. Some 16,100 workers are involved in forestry. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 85,000 were employed in trade, 70,000 in government, 66,000 in services, 55,000 in manufacturing.

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T O U R I S M . Money spent by travellers in 1984 was about $l,200m. Estimated state and local tax receipts from tourism, $48m. Jobs generated, 25,000 (pay-roll over $300m.). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintained in 1985, 4,954 miles of the total of 68,808 miles of public roads; 745,462 passenger vehicles were registered in 1985. Railways. The state had (1985) 1,910 miles of railways (including 2 A M T R A K routes). Aviation. There were 68 municipally owned airports in 1985. Shipping. Water transport is provided from the Pacific to the Port of Lewiston, by way of the Columbia and Snake rivers, a distance of464 miles. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The death penalty may be imposed for first degree murder, but the judge must consider mitigating circumstances before imposing a sentence of death. Since 1926 only 4 men (white) have been executed, by hanging (1 in 1926,2 in 1951 and 1 in 1957). At 1 Oct. 1985 14 prison inmates (13 men and 1 woman) were under sentence of death. Execution is now by lethal injection. The state prison system, 1 Oct. 1985, had 1,260 inmates. Religion. The leading religious denominations are the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon Church), Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians and Lutherans. Education. In 1984-85 public elementary schools (grades K to 6) had 118,647 pupils and 5,481 classroom teachers; secondary schools had 92,053 pupils and 4,980 classroom teachers. Average salary, 1984—85, of elementary and secondary classroom teachers, $20,032. The University of Idaho, founded at Moscow in 1889, had 459 professors and 8,970 students in 1984-85. There are 9 other institutions of higher education; 5 of them are public institutions with a total enrolment (1984-85) of 21,914 (excluding vocational-technical colleges). Social Welfare. Old-age assistance is granted to persons 65 years of age and older. In Aug. 1985,1,014 persons were drawing an average of $105.86 per month; 6,023 families with 10,858 children were drawing an average of $243.85 per case (or $90.10 per eligible person); 28 blind persons, $73.21; 569 children were receiving $248.88 per child for foster care; 1,827 permanently and totally disabled persons, $133.69. Health. In Sept. 1985 skilled nursing covered 4,761 beds; intermediate care, 107; intermediate care for the mentally retarded 528. Hospitals had 3,547 beds and home health agencies totalled 36. Books of Reference Idaho Blue Book. Secretary of State. Boise, 1983-84 Idaho. Idaho First National Bank Idaho Almanac. Division o f E c o n o m i c and C o m m u n i t y Affairs, 1977 Idaho's Yesterdays. State Historical Society. Quarterly

ILLINOIS H I S T O R Y . Illinois was first discovered by Joliet and Marquette, two French explorers, in 1673. In 1763 the country was ceded by the French to the British. In 1783 Great Britain recognized the United States' title to the land that became Illinois; it was organized as a Territory in 1809 and admitted into the Union on 3 Dec. 1818.

ILLINOIS

1459

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Illinois is bounded north by Wisconsin, northeast by Lake Michigan, east by Indiana, south-east by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Kentucky), west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Missouri and Iowa). Area, 5 6 , 4 0 0 sq. miles, of which 6 5 2 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 9 8 0 , 1 1 , 4 2 6 , 5 1 8 , an increase of 2 - 7 1 % since 1 9 7 0 . Estimate ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 1 , 5 3 5 , 0 0 0 . Births in 1 9 8 4 were 1 7 5 , 9 0 7 ( 1 5 - 3 per 1 , 0 0 0 population); deaths, 9 8 , 1 5 1 ( 8 - 5 ) ; infant deaths, 2 , 0 7 3 ( 1 1 -8 per 1 , 0 0 0 live births); marriages 1 0 2 , 5 0 4 ( 8 - 9 ) ; divorces, 4 8 , 9 1 4 ( 4 - 2 ) . Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 5,526,962 7,295,267 9,010,252

Negro 109,049 328,972 1,037,470

1970 1980

9,600,381 9,233,327

1,425,674 1,675,398

Indian 188 469 4,704

All others 2,392 5,946 28,732

All others 87,921 517,793

Total 5,638,591 7,630,654 10,081,158

Per sq. mile 100 6 136-4 180-3

11,113,976 11,426,518

199-4 203-0

Of the total population in 1980, 5,537,737 were male, 9,518,039 persons were urban and 5,597,360 were 18 years of age or older. The most populous cities with population (1980 census), are: Chicago Rockford Peoria Springfield (cap.) Decatur Joliet Aurora Evanston Waukegan Arlington Heights

3,005,072 139,712 124,160 99,637 94,081 77,956 81,293 73,706 67,653 66,116

Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area population, 1980 census (and 1985 estimate): Chicago, 7,102,378 (7,580,800); East St Louis, 565,874 (570,400); Peoria, 365,864 (347,700); Rockford, 279,514 (279,800); Springfield, 176,089 (189,600); Decatur, 131,375(128,200). C L I M A T E . Chicago. Jan. 25°F(-3-9°C), July 73°F(22-8°C). Annual rainfall 33" (836 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1379. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution became effective 1 July 1971. The General Assembly consists of a House of Representatives of 118 members, elected for 2 years and a Senate of 59 members who are divided into three groups; in one, they are elected for terms of four years, four years, and two years; in the next, for terms of four years, two years, and four years; and in the last, for terms of two years, four years, and four years. Sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected as a team for 4 years; the Comptroller and Secretary of State are elected for 4 years. Electors are citizens 18 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications. The state is divided into legislative districts, in each of which 1 senator is chosen; each district is divided into 2 representative districts, in each of which 1 representative is chosen. Illinois is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 22 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,667,721 votes, Mondale, 2,036,337. The capital is Springfield. The state has 102 counties. Governor: James R. Thompson (R.), 1987-91 ($88,825). Lieut.-Governor: George Ryan (R.), 1987-91 ($62,700). Secretary of State: Jim Edgar, 1987-91 ($78,375). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1985 general revenues were $18,312m. and general expenditures were $ 17,991 m.

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Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1985, was $9,861 m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $14,738. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Chief mineral product is coal; 52 operative mines had an output (1985) of 60 -5m. tons. Mineral production also included: Crude petroleum, fluorspar tripoli and lime. Total value of mineral products, 1984, was $3,616 • 9m. Agriculture. In 1986, 87,000 farms had an area of 28-7m. acres; the average farm was 330 acres. Cash receipts, 1985, from crops, $5,379m.; from livestock and livestock products, $2,176m. Illinois is a large producer of maize and soybeans, the state's leading cash commodities. Output, 1985: soybeans, 382-5m. bu; wheat, 36-7m. bu; maize, 1,534 9m. bu. In Jan. 1986 there were 230,000 milch cows, 2-47m. all cattle; 109,000 sheep and (Dec. 1985) 5-4m. swine. The wool clip in 1985 was lm. lb. Forestry. National forest area under the US Forest Service administration, Sept. 1985, was 262,291 acres. Total forest land, 5 -2m. acres. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1983, manufacturing establishments employed 1,024,300 workers; annual payroll, $22,908-9m. Largest industry was food and kindred products. Gross state product, 1985, $ 192,749,000. Labour. In 1985 there were 4 • 76m. employees, of whom 981,000 were in manufacturing, 1 -2m. in trade, 1 • 1 m. in services, 693,000 in government. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 6-5m. passenger cars, 1 -26m. trucks and buses, 16,384 taxis, liveries and ambulances, 502,316 trailers and semi-trailers, 222,448 motor cycles and 26,258 other vehicles registered in the state. At 31 Dec. 1985 there were 13,168-78 miles of state primary roads of which 1,621-9 miles were interstate; 3,864 02 miles of state supplementary roads and 269 • 18 miles of toll roads and toll bridges. Railways. There were, 1984, 8,841 miles of Class I railway. Chicago is served by Amtrak long-distance trains on several routes, and by a metro (CTA) system, and by 7 groups of commuter railways controlled by the Northeast Illinois Railroad Corporation (now called Metra). Shipping. In 1983 the seaport of Chicago handled 24,454,287 short tons of cargo. Aviation. There were (1986) 127 public airports and 722 restricted landing areas. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1985 there were no executions; since 1930 there have been 90 executions (electrocution), including 58 white men, 1 white woman and 31 Negro men, all for murder. In June 1986 the total average daily prison population was 18,513. A Civil Rights Act (1941), as amended, bans all forms of discrimination by places of public accommodation, including inns, restaurants, retail stores, railroads, aeroplanes, buses, etc., against persons on account of'race, religion, colour, national ancestry or physical or mental handicap'; another section similarly mentions 'race or colour.' The Fair Employment Practices Act of 1961, as amended, prohibits discrimination in employment based on race, colour, sex, religion, national origin or ancestry, by employers, employment agencies, labour organizations and others. These principles are embodied in the 1971 constitution. The Illinois Human Rights Act (1979), prevents unlawful discrimination in employment, real property transactions, access to financial credit, and public accommodations, by authorizing the creation of a Department of Human Rights to

INDIANA

1461

enforce, and a Human Rights Commission to adjudicate, allegations of unlawful discrimination. Religion. Among the larger religious denominations are: Roman Catholic (3 -6m.), Jewish (50,000), Presbyterian Church, USA (200,000), Lutheran Church in America (200,000), Lutheran Church Missouri Synod (325,000), American Baptist (105,000), Disciples of Christ (75,000), and United Methodist (505,000), Southern Baptist (265,000), United Church of Christ (192,000), Church of Nazarene (50,000), Assembly of God (63,000). Education. Education is free and compulsory for children between 7 and 16 years of age. In autumn 1985 public school elementary enrolments were 1,246,496 pupils and 57,279 teachers; secondary enrolments, 597,982 pupils and 29,848 teachers. Enrolment ( 1985-86) in non-public schools was 261,950 elementary and 84,233 secondary. Teachers' salaries, 1985-86, averaged $25,812. Total enrolment in 179 institutions ofhigher education (autumn 1985) was 698,521. Colleges and universities with over 3,000 students: Autumn Founded 1851 1857 1867 1867 1869 1870 1890 1895 1895 1897 1898 1899 1940 1945 1961 1 2 3

Name Northwestern University Illinois State University University of Illinois Chicago State University 1 Southern Illinois University Loyola University University of Chicago Eastern Illinois University Northern Illinois University Bradley University DePaul University Western Illinois University Illinois Institute of Technology 2 Roosevelt University Northeastern Illinois University 3

Place Evanston Normal Urbana Chicago Carbondale Chicago Chicago Charleston DeKalb Peoria Chicago Macomb Chicago Chicago Chicago

1985 Control Enrolment Methodist 15,861 Public 21,178 Public 65,169 Public 7,327 Public 33,614 Roman Catholic 14,406 Non-Sect. 9,636 Public 10,491 Public 24,311 Non-Sect. 4,950 Roman Catholic 12,836 11,845 Public Non-Sect. 6,227 Non-Sect. 6,385 Public 10,081

Formerly Illinois Teachers College (South). Illinois Institute of Technology formed in 1940 by merger of two older technical schools. Formerly Illinois Teachers' College (North).

Health. In 1984 hospitals listed by the American Hospital Association numbered 277, with 69,403 beds. At June 1985 state institutions had 4,637 developmentally disabled and 3,488 mentally ill residents. Social Security. State-administered Supplemental Security Income (SSI) was paid to 45,830 recipients in financial year 1986; gross payments (no adjustments) totalled $53 -2m.; medical payments, $130m. Aid to families with dependent children was paid to 243,868 families, average monthly payment per family, $308-23; total payments, $902m.; medical payments, $484-8m. Books of Reference Blue Book of the Stale of Illinois. Edited by Secretary of State. Springfield. Biennial Angle, P. M., and Beyer, R. L., A Handbook of Illinois History. Illinois State Historical Society, Springfield, 1943 Clayton, J., The Illinois Fact Book and Historical Almanac 1673-1968. Southern Illinois Univ., 1970 Howard, R. P., Illinois: A History of the Prairie State. Grand Rapids, 1972 Pease, T. C., The Story of Illinois. 3rded. Chicago, 1965 The Illinois State Library: Springfield, 11.62756. State Librarian: Jim Edgar.

INDIANA H I S T O R Y . Indiana, first settled in 1732-33, was made a Territory in 1800 and admitted into the Union on 11 Dec. 1816.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

1462

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Indiana is bounded west by Illinois, north by Michigan and Lake Michigan, east by Ohio and south by Kentucky across the Ohio River. Area, 36,185 sq. miles, of which 253 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, was 5,490,224, an increase of 294,832 or 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 5,503,000. In 1985 births were 80,928 (14-7 per 1,000 population); deaths 48,173 (8-8); infant deaths, 886 (10-9 per 1,000 live births); marriages 51,063 (9-3). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,639,961 3,125,778 4,388,554

Negro 60,320 111,982 269,275

1970 1980

4,820,324 5,004,394

357,464 414,785

Indian 279 285 948

Asiatic 316 458 2,447

All others 15,881 71,045

Total 2,700,876 3,238,503 4,662,498

Persq. mile 74-9 89-4 128-9

5,193,669 5,490,224

143-9 152-8

Of the total in 1980,2,665,805 were male, 3,525,298 were urban and 3,545,431 were 21 years of age or older. The largest cities with census population, 1980 (and 1986 estimates), are: Indianapolis (capital), 711,539 (719,820); Fort Wayne, 172,196 (172,900); Gary, 151,953 (136,790); Evansville, 130,496 (129,480); South Bend, 109,727 (107,190); Hammond, 93,714 (86,380); Muncie, 77,216 (72,600); Anderson, 64,695 (61,020); Terre Haute, 61,125 (57,920). C L I M A T E . Indianapolis. Jan. 29°F (-1-7°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,034 mm). See The Mid-West, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution (the second) dates from 1851; it has had (as of Nov. 1983) 34 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. A constitutional amendment of 1970 allows the legislators to set the length and frequency of sessions, which are currently held annually. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,332,679 votes, Mondale, 814,659. The state capital is Indianapolis. The state is divided into 92 counties and 1,008 townships. Governor: Robert D. Orr (R.), 1984-88 ($66,000 plus expenses). Lieut. - Governor: John Mutz (R.), 1984-88 ($51,000 plus expenses). Secretary of State: Evan Bayh (D.), 1986-90 ($46,000). B U D G E T . In the fiscal year 1984-85 (US Census Bureau figures) total revenues were $7,916-9m. ($l,616-8m. from federal government, $4,336-lm. from taxes), total expenditures were $7,084-lm. ($2,908m. for education, $1,009-4m. for public welfare and $769m. for highways). Total long-term debt, on 30 June 1985, was $1,624-0m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $13,136. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The state produced 26-7m. short tons of crushed stone and 159,000 short tons of dimension stone in 1984; the output of coal was 30-9m. short tons; petroleum, 5m. bbls (of 42 gallons). Agriculture. Indiana is largely agricultural, about 75% of its total area being in farms. In 1986, 78,000 farms had 16-2m. acres (average, 208 acres). Cash income, 1985, from crops, $2,869-3m.; from livestock and products, $1,727-6m. The chief crops (1982) were maize (815m. bu.), winter wheat (46-4m. bu.), oats (6-lm. bu.), soybeans (183-2m. bu.), popcorn, rye, barley, hay (alfalfa, clover,

1463

INDIANA

timothy), lespedeza seed, mint, clover seed, apples, strawberries, tomatoes, watermelons and tobacco. The livestock on 1 Jan. 1982 included l-75m. all cattle, 207,000 milch cows, 138,000 sheep and lambs, 4 1 m . swine, 21-9m. chickens. In 1982 the wool clip yielded 852,000 lb. of wool from 124,000 sheep. Forestry. The national forests area, 9 Sept. 1983, was 188,252 acres; 13 state forests and 2 state nurseries totalled 142,336 acres in July 1983. I N D U S T R Y . Manufacturing establishments employed, in 1984, 587,400 workers, earning $ 14,580 • 5m. The steel industry is the largest in the country. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1982 there were 91,654 miles of highways, roads and streets, of which 66,412 miles were county highways and 11,148 miles state highways. Motor vehicles registered, 1986,4,533,362. Railways. In 1980 there were 5,252 miles of mainline railway, 921 miles of secondary track and 3,295 miles of side and yard track. Aviation. Of airports, 1984, 127 were for public use, 401 were private and 3 were military. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In 1963-80 there were no executions; there have since been 4, for murder. State correctional institutions, 31 Aug. 1986, had 10,873 inmates. The Civil Rights Act of 1885 forbids places of public accommodation to bar any persons on grounds not applicable to all citizens alike; no citizen may be disqualified for jury service 'on account of race or colour'. An Act of 1947 makes it an offence to spread religious or racial hatred. A 1961 Act provided ' a l l . . . citizens equal opportunity for education, employment and access to public conveniences and accommodations' and created a Civil Rights Commission. Religion. Religious denominations include Methodists, Roman Catholic, Disciples of Christ, Baptists, Lutheran, Presbyterian churches, Society of Friends. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 16 years. In 1986-87 public and parochial schools, had 929,654 pupils and 51,972 teachers. Teachers' salaries, grades 1-12, averaged $24,397 (1986-87). Total expenditure for public schools, $2,566-6m. The principal institutions for higher education are (1985-86): Founded 1801 1824 1837 1842 1850 1859 1870 1874 1898 1963

Institution Vincennes University Indiana University, Bloomington De Pauw University, Greencastle University o f N o t r e D a m e Butler University, Indianapolis Valparaiso University, Valparaiso Indiana State University, Terre Haute Purdue University, Lafayette Ball State University, Muncie Indiana Vocational Technical College, Indianapolis

Control State State Methodist R.C. Independent Evangelical Lutheran Church State State State State

Students (full-time) 6,863 32,417 2,372 9,628 3,645 3,749 11,208 32,984 18,766 4,410

Health. Hospitals listed by the Indiana State Board of Health (1981) numbered 120 (23,929 beds). On 30 June 1983, 11 state mental hospitals had 6,273 patients enrolled (4,472 present). Social Security. Old-age assistance, assistance to the blind and to the disabled were transferred from state to federal programmes in June 1974. In Jan.-July 1987,

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state supplemental assistance and/or Federal Supplemental Security assistance was paid to an average of 11,609 elderly persons per month (total $8 -5m.), 1,217 blind ($1-7m.)and 37,452 disabled ($49-3m.). Books of Reference Indiana State Chamber of Commerce. Here is Your Indiana Government. 22nd ed. Indianapolis, 1985 Slate Library: Indiana State Library, 140 North Senate, Indianapolis 46204. Director: C. Ray Ewick.

IOWA H I S T O R Y . Iowa, first settled in 1788, was made a Territory in 1838 and admitted into the Union on 28 Dec. 1846. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Iowa is bounded east by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Wisconsin and Illinois), south by Missouri, west by the Missouri River (forming the boundary with Nebraska), north-west by the Big Sioux River (forming the boundary with South Dakota) and north by Minnesota. Area, 56,275 sq. miles, including 310 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,913,387, an increase of 3-17% since 1970. Estimate, 1984, 2,836,890. Births, 1984, were 42,340; deaths, 26,972; infant deaths, 376; marriages, 26,366; dissolutions of marriages, 10,509. Population in 5 census years was: 1870 1930 1960

White 1,188,207 2,452,677 2,729,286

Negro 5,762 17,380 25,354

1970 1980

2,782,762 2,838,805

32,596 41,700

Indian 48 660 1,708

Asiatic 3 222 1,022

All others 10,010 32,882

Total 1,194,020 2,470,939 2,757,537 2,825,368 2,913,387

Per sq. mile 21-5 44-1 49-2 50-5 51-7

At the census of 1980, 1,416,195 were male, 1,624,547 were urban and 1,971,502 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities in the state, with their census population in 1980 are: Des Moines (capital), 191,003; Cedar Rapids, 110,243; Davenport, 103,243; Sioux City, 82,003; Waterloo, 75,985; Dubuque, 62,321; Council BlufTs, 56,449; Iowa City, 50,508; Ames, 45,775; Cedar Falls, 36,322; Clinton, 32,828; Mason City, 30,144; Burlington, 29,529; Fort Dodge,29,423; Ottumwa, 27,381. C L I M A T E . Cedar Rapids. Jan. 18-5°F (-7-5°C), July 74-3°F (23-5°C). Annual rainfall 3 6 " (903 mm). Des Moines. Jan. 18-6"F (-7-5°C), July 76-3°F (29-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 1 " (773 mm). See The Mid-West, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1857 still exists; it has had 37 amendments. The General Assembly comprises a Senate of 50 and a House of Representatives of 100 members, meeting annually for an unlimited session. Senators are elected for 4 years, half retiring every second year: representatives for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. Iowa is divided into 99 counties; the capital is Des Moines. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 698,239 votes, Mondale, 601,946. Governor: Terry Branstad (R.), 1987-91 ($64,000). Lieut.-Governor: Joann Zimmerman (D.), 1987-91 ($21,900). Secretary of State: Elaine Baxter (D.) ($41,000). B U D G E T . For fiscal year 1984 state tax revenue was $l,977-8m. General

IOWA

1465

expenditures were $1,120m. for education, $448-5m. for public welfare, and $41 • 3m. for transport. On 30 June 1982 the net long-term debt was $857 • 3 m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $12,594. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The leading products by value are crushed stone (28-4m. tons in 1983) and cement (1 -68m. short tons in 1983). Coalfields produced 526,929 tons in 1982. The value of mineral products, 1983, was $247 -4m. Agriculture. Iowa is the wealthiest of the agriculture states, partly because nearly the whole area (95 -5%) is arable and included in farms. It has escaped large-scale commercial farming. The average farm (in 1985) was 306 acres. Cash farm income (1985 estimate) was $9,201m.; from livestock, $4,81 lm., and from crops, $4,390m. Production of corn was 1,707m. bu., value $3,927m. and soybeans, 310m. bu., value $l,595m. On 1 Dec. 1986 livestock included swine, 13-5m. (leading all states); milch cows, 360,000; all cattle, 4-9m., and sheep and lambs, 350,000. The wool clip(1984) yielded 3 -3m. lb. of wool. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing establishments employed 205,000 people: Trade, 277,000; services, 231,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1984 number of miles of streets and highways was 112,484; there were 2 -6m. licensed drivers and 2 -96m. registered vehicles. Railways. The state, 1984, had 4,695 miles of track, and 6 Class I railways. Aviation. Airports (1983), numbered 350, including 138 lighted airports and 93 all-weather runways. There were almost 3,100 private aircraft. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There is now no capital punishment in Iowa. State prisons, 31 Dec. 1985, had 2,607 inmates. Religion. Chief religious bodies in 1980 were: Roman Catholic (542,698 members); United Methodists, 258,252; American Lutheran, 200,712 baptised members; United Presbyterians, 85,000; United Church of Christ, 50,679. Education. School attendance is compulsory for 24 consecutive weeks annually during school age (7-16). In 1983-84 545,387 were attending primary and secondary schools; 50,422 pupils attending non-public schools. Classroom teachers numbered 30,900 in 1986 with average salary of $21,650; total expenditure on public schools was $ 1,748m. or $606 per capita. Leading institutions for higher e d u c a t i o n ( 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 ) were: Founded 1843 1847 1847 1852 1853 1858 1876 1881 1881 1894

Institution Clarke College, Dubuque University of Iowa, Iowa City Grinnell College, Grinnell Wartburg College, Waverly Cornell College, Mount Vemon Iowa State University, Ames Univ. of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls Drake University, Des Moines Coe College, Cedar Rapids Morningside College, Sioux City

Full-time Control Professors Independent 65 State 1,800 Independent 118 American Lutheran 94 Independent 96 State 2,137 735 State Independent 306 Independent 121 99 Methodist

Students 857 29,651 1,250 1,323 1,101 26,529 11,514 5,502 1,184 1,217

Health. In 1985, t h e state h a d 136 hospitals (18,615 beds). In Oct. 1984 hospitals for mental diseases had 1,372 resident patients. Social Security. Iowa has a Civil Rights Act (1939) which makes it a misdemeanour for any place of public accommodation to deprive any person of'full and equal enjoyment' of the facilities it offers the public.

1466

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Supplemental security income (SSI) assistance is available for the aged (65 or older), the blind and the disabled. In Aug. 1985, 8,593 elderly persons were drawing an average of $ 102 per month, 878 blind persons $ 192 per month, and 16,831 disabled persons $194 per month. Aid to dependent children, established in 1974, was received by 39,813 families representing 123,762 persons at a monthly average of $335 per family. Books of Reference Statistical Information: State Departments of Health, Public Instruction and Social Services; State Aeronautics, Commerce and Development Commissions; Crop and Livestock Reporting Services, Des Moines; Iowa Dept. of Transportation, Ames; Geological Survey, Iowa City; Iowa College Aid Commission. Annual Survey of Manufactures. US Department of Commerce Government Finance. US Department of Commerce Official Register. Secretary of State. Des Moines. Biennial Petersen, W. J., Iowa History Reference Guide. Iowa City, 1952 Smeal, L., Iowa Historical and Biographical Index. New York, 1984 Vexier, R. I., Iowa Chronology andFactbook. Oceana, 1978 Iowa Slate Library: Des Moines 50319.

KANSAS HISTORY. Kansas, settled in 1727, was made a Territory (along with part of Colorado) in 1854, and was admitted into the Union with its present area on 29 Jan. 1861. AREA AND POPULATION. Kansas is bounded north by Nebraska, east by Missouri, with the Missouri River as boundary in the north-east, south by Oklahoma and west by Colorado. Area, 82,277 sq. miles, including 499 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,364,236, an increase of 5 1% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 2,450,000. Vital statistics, 1984: Births, 38,570 (15-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 21,742 (8-9); infant deaths, 336 (8-7 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 24,795 (10-2); divorces 12,915 (5 -3). Population in 5 federal census years was: 1870 1930 1960

White 346,377 1,811,997 2,078,666

Negro 17,108 66,344 91,445

1970 1980

2,122,068 2,168,221

106,977 126,127

Indian 914 2,454 5,069

Asiatic — 204 2,271

All others 17,533 69,888

Total 364,399 1,880,999 2,178,611

Per sq. mile 4-5 22-9 26-3

2,249,071 2,364,236

27-5 28-8

Of the total population in 1980,1,156,941 were male, 1,575,899 were urban and those 20 years of age or older numbered 1,620,368. Cities, with 1980 census population, are Wichita, 279,835; Kansas City, 161,148; Topeka (capital), 115,266; Overland Park, 81,784; Lawrence, 52,738. C L I M A T E . Dodge City. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7°C), July 78°F (25 6°C). Annual rainfall 21" (518 mm). Kansas City. Jan. 30°F(-1 1°C), July 79°F(26-PC). Annual rainfall 38" (947 mm). Topeka. Jan. 28°F(-2-2°C), July 78°F(25-6°C). Annual rainfall 35" (875 mm). Wichita. Jan. 31°F (-0-6°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 31 " (777 mm). See Mid-West, p. 1378. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The year 1861 saw the adoption of the present constitution; it has had 78 amendments. The Legislature includes a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 125 members, elected for 2 years. Sessions are annual. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The right to vote (with the usual exceptions) is possessed by all citizens. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 5 representatives.

KANSAS

1467

The state was the first (of 42 states) to establish in 1933 a Legislative Council; this is now called the Legislative Coordinating Council and has 7 members. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 649,423 votes, Mondale, 321,010. The capital is Topeka. The state is divided into 105 counties. Governor: Mike Hayden(R.), 1987-91 ($65,000). Lieut.-Governor: Thomas Docking (D.), 1987-91 ($18,207). Secretary of State: Bill Graves (R.) ($50,000). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1986 (Governor's Budget Report) general revenue fund was $ 1,863m. General expenditures were $ 1,738m. Bonded debt outstanding for 1982 amounted to $316 • 9m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 13,775. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Important minerals are coal, petroleum (75m. bbl. in 1985), natural gas (513,000m. cu. ft.), lead and zinc. Agriculture. Kansas is pre-eminently agricultural, but sometimes suffers from lack of rainfall in the west. In 1985, 72,000 farms covered 48m. acres; average farm, 667 acres. Cash income, 1985, from crops was $2,478m.; from livestock and products, $3,264m. Kansas is a great wheat-producing state. Its output in 1985 was 433-2m. bu. valued at $1,321m. Other crops in 1985 (in bushels) were maize, 140m. ($351m.); sorghum, 207m.; soybeans, 44m.; oats and barley. The state has an extensive livestock industry, comprising, on 1 Jan. 1986, 115,000 milch cows, 5-8m. all cattle, 210,000 sheep and lambs 1 • 5m. swine. I N D U S T R Y . Employment distribution (1985): total workforce 975,000, of which 245,000 were in trade; 191,000 in government; 187,000 in services; 174,000 in manufacturing; 65,000 in transport and utilities; 53,000 in finance, insurance and real estate; 44,000 in construction. The slaughtering industry, other food processing, aircraft, the manufacture of transport equipment and petroleum refining are important. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in Dec. 1982 had 135,087 miles of roads and streets including 8,916 miles of interstate and other primary and federally-aided highways. In 1985 2,157 vehicles were registered. Railways. There were 7,273 miles of railway in Jan. 1982. Aviation. There were 384 airports and landing strips in 1983, of which 168 were public. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. There were 4,748 prisoners in state institutions, 31 Dec. 1985. The death penalty (by hanging) for murder was abolished in 1907 and restored in 1935; there have been no executions since 1968; executions 1934 to 1968 have been 15 (all for murder). For the various Civil Rights Acts forbidding racial or political discrimination, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1955, p. 6 6 6 . T h e 1965 K a n s a s A c t against

Discrimination declared that it is the policy of the state to eliminate and prevent discrimination in all employment relations, and to eliminate and prevent discrimination, segregation or separation in all places of public accommodations covered by the Act. Religion. The most numerous religious bodies are Roman Catholic, Methodists and Disciples of Christ.

1468

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Education. In 1982-83 organized school districts had 1,519 elementary and secondary schools which had 407,074 pupils and 26,053 teachers. Average salary of public school teachers, 1986, $22,800 (elementary and secondary). There were 20 independent colleges, 20 community colleges, 2 Bible colleges, 1 municipal university. Kansas has 6 state-supported institutions of higher education: the University of Kansas, Lawrence, founded in 1865, had 24,774 students in 1985-86; Kansas State University, Manhattan (1863), had 17,570; Emporia State University, Emporia, had 5,344; Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, had 5,096; Fort Hays State University, Hays, had 5,657 and Wichita State University, Wichita, had 16,902. The state also supports a two-year technical school, Kansas Technical Institute, at Salina. Health. In 1983 the state had 165 hospitals (18,300 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association; hospitals had an average daily occupancy rate of 70-3%. Social Security. In Dec. 1985,20,900 persons received state and federal aid under programmes of aid to the aged or disabled, and 66,800 in 22,700 families received aid to dependent children. Average monthly payment to the aged, $121; the disabled, $206, per family with dependent children, $303 (1984). Books of Reference A nnual Economic Report of the Governor. Topeka Directory of State Officers, Boards and Commissioners and Interesting Facts Kansas. Topeka, Biennial Drury, J. W., The Government of Kansas. Lawrence, Univ. of Kansas, 1970 Zornow, W. ¥., Kansas: A History of the Jayhawk State. Norman, Okla., 1957 State Library: Kansas State Library, Topeka.

Concerning

KENTUCKY H I S T O R Y . Kentucky, first settled in 1765, was originally part of Virginia; it was admitted into the Union on 1 June 1792 and its first legislature met on 4 June. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Kentucky is bounded north by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Illinois, Indiana and Ohio), north-east by the Big Sandy River (forming the boundary with West Virginia), east by Virginia, south by Tennessee and west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Missouri). Area, 40,409 sq. miles, of which 740 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1980 3,660,777, an increase of 13-6% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 3,728,000. Births in 1985, 52,681 (14-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 34,807 (9-3); infant deaths, 592 (11 -2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 45,975 (12-3); divorces, 18,254 (4-9). Population in 5 census years was: 1930 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 2,388,364 2,742,090 2,820,083 2,981,766 3,379,006

Negro 226,040 201,921 215,949 230,793 259,477

All others 185 795 2,124 6,147 22,294

Total 2,614,589 2,944,806 3,038,156 3,218,706 3,660,777

Persq.mile 65-1 73-9 76-2 81 2 92-3

Of the total population in 1980,1,789,039 were male, 1,862,183 were urban and 2,359,614 were21 years old or older. The principal cities with census population in 1980 are: Louisville, 298,694 (urbanized area, 654,938); Lexington-Fayette, 204,165; Owensboro, 54,450; Covington, 49,585; Bowling Green, 40,450; Paducah, 29,315; Hopkinsville, 27,318; Ashland, 27,064; Frankfort (capital), 25,973. CLIMATE. Kentucky has a temperate climate. Temperatures are moderate

KENTUCKY

1469

during both winter and summer, precipitation is ample without a pronounced dry season, and there is little snow during the winter. Lexington. Jan. 33°F (0 • 6°C), July 76°F(24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,126 mm). Louisville. Jan. 33°F(0-6°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 4 3 " (1,077 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution dates from 1891; there had been 3 preceding it. The 1891 constitution was promulgated by convention and provides that amendments be submitted to the electorate for ratification. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 38 members elected for 4 years, one half retiring every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 100 members elected for 2 years. A constitutional amendment approved by the voters in Nov. 1979, changes the year in which legislators are elected from odd to even numbered years and establishes an organizational session of the legislature, limited to ten legislative days, in odd-numbered years. The amendment provides for regular sessions limited to 60 legislative days between the first Tuesday after the first Monday of Jan. and 15 April of even numbered years. The Governor and Lieut. Governor are elected for 4 years. All citizens are (with necessary exceptions) qualified as electors; the voting age was in 1955 reduced from 21 to 18 years. Registered voters, May 1986: 1,994,473. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 822,782 votes, Mondale, 539,589. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 7 representatives. The capital is Frankfort. The state is divided into 120 counties. Governor: Martha Layne Collins (D.), 1983-87 ($65,483).' Lieut. - Governor: Stephen L. Beshear (D.) ($55,647).1 Secretary of State.Drexell R. Davis (D.) ($55,647).' ' 1987. Salaries are revised annually by the percentage change in the Consumer Price Index.

B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1986 revenues received within the five major operating funds amounted to $5,223-8m. Included in this figure are $2,736-8m. General Fund revenues and $l ,373-7m. Federal Fund revenues. Total expenditures amounted to $4,857-7m. including education and humanities, $l,310-8m.; human resources benefits payments, $543-9m.; and transport, $467-8m. The general obligation bonded indebtedness on 30 June 1986 was $ 164 • 7m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 11,238. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Minerals. The principal mineral product of Kentucky is coal, 149-9m. short tons mined in 1985, value $4,234m. Output of petroleum, 7 -8m. bbls (of 42 gallons); natural gas, 73,126m. cu. ft; stone, 38-2m. short tons, value $139m.; clay 787,000 short tons, value $ 7 1 m . ; sand and gravel, 7-6m. short tons, value $19m. Total value of non-fuel mineral products in 1985 was $262,267,000. Other minerals include fluorspar, ball clay, lead, zinc, silver, cement, lime, industrial sand and gravel, oil shale and tar sands. Agriculture. In 1987, 99,000 farms had an area of 14-5m. acres. The average farm was 146 acres. Cash income, 1986, from crops, $l,078m., and from livestock, $l,310m. The chief crop is tobacco: production, in 1986, 315m. lb., ranking second to N. Carolina in US. Other principal crops include corn, soybeans, wheat, barley, sorghum grain, hay, oats and rye. Stock-raising is important in Kentucky, which has long been famous for its horses. The livestock in 1986 included 223,000 milch cows, 2-5m. cattle and calves, 32,000 sheep, 880,000 swine. Forestry. Total forests area, 1978,12,160,800 acres. Total commercial forest land, 1978,11,901,900 acres; 92% is privately owned. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 the state's 3,632 manufacturing plants had 187,800

1470

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

production workers; value added by manufacture in 1985 was $15,514-5m. The leading manufacturing industries (by employment) are non-electrical machinery, electrical equipment, apparel and other fabric products and foods. Direct foreign investment in manufacturing was $2,300m. in 1986. T O U R I S M . In 1986 tourist expenditure was $3,581m., producing over $252m. in tax revenues and generating 112,353 jobs. The state had (1986) 807 hotels and motels, 233 campgrounds and 45 state parks. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1987 the state had over 70,194 miles of federal, state and local roads. There were over 2-7m. motor vehicle registrations in 1986. Railways. In 1987 there were about 3,100 miles of railway. Aviation. There are (1987) 74 publicly-used airports and 2,070 registered aircraft in Kentucky. Shipping. There is an increasing amount of barge traffic on 1,090 miles of navigable rivers. There are 5 river ports, 2 under construction and 2 planned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 10 prisons within the Department of Adult Institutions and one privately-run adult institution; average daily population (1986-87), 6,119, including 4,745 in prison, 201 in a private prison, 862 in jails awaiting incarceration, 311 in local community centers. There has been no execution since 1962. A session of Congress in 1976 limited the death penalty to cases of kidnap and murder. Total executions, 1911-62, were 162, including 76 whites and 86 Negroes; 144 were for murder, 7 for rape, 6 for criminal offences, 5 for armed robbery. There are (1987) 32 people under death sentences. Religion. The chief religious denominations in 1980 were: Southern Baptists, with 883,096 members, Roman Catholic (365,277), United Methodists (234,536), Christian Churches and Church of Christ (81,222) and Christian (Disciples of Christ) (78,275). Education. Attendance at school between the ages of 5 and 15 years (inclusive) is compulsoiy, the normal term being 175 days. In 1986-87, 23,129 teachers were employed in public elementary and 11,338 in secondary schools, in which 429,085 and 213,693 pupils enrolled respectively. Expenditure on elementary and secondary day schools in 1986-87 was $1,918 -8m.; public school classroom teachers' salaries (1986-87) averaged $22,470. There were also 4,020 teachers working in private elementary and secondary schools with 66,951 students. The state has 25 universities and senior colleges, 4 junior colleges and 14 community colleges, with a total (autumn 1986) of 136,204 students. Of these universities and colleges, 23 are state-supported, and the remainder are supported privately. The largest of the institutions of higher learning are (autumn 1986): University of Kentucky, with 21,240 students; University of Louisville, 20,710 students; Western Kentucky University, 12,257 students; Eastern Kentucky University, 12,737 students; Murray State University, 7,073 students; Morehead State University, 5,894 students; Northern Kentucky University, 8,661 students. Five of the several privately endowed colleges of standing are Berea College, Berea; Centre College, Danville; Transylvania University, Lexington; Georgetown College, Georgetown; and Bellarmine College, Louisville. Health. In 1987 the state had 126 licensed hospitals (19,225 beds). There were 518 licensed long-term care facilities (29,034) and 517 licensed family care homes (1,447). Welfare. In April 1987 there were 270,914 persons receiving financial assistance;

LOUISIANA

1471

101,961 of these persons received the Federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI); 32,567 of them were aged, 2,078 blind, 67,316 disabled. Also, in the all state funded Supplementation programme, payments were made in April 1987 to 7,040 persons, of which 3,597 were aged, 91 blind and 3,352 disabled. The average State Supplementation payment was $118.70 to aged, $64.51 to blind and $121.46 to disabled. In the Aid to Families with Dependent Children Programme as of April 1987, aid was given to 161,913 persons in 60,492 families. The average payment per person was $72.00, per family $ 192.71. In addition to money payments, medical assistance, food stamps and social services are available. Books of Reference Kentucky Economic Statistics. Department of Economic Development, Frankfort Lee, L. G., A Brief History of Kentucky and its Counties. Berea, 1981

LOUISIANA H I S T O R Y . Louisiana was first settled in 1699. That part lying east of the Mississippi River was organized in 1804 as the Territory of New Orleans, and admitted into the Union on 30 April 1812. The section west of the river was added very shortly thereafter. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Louisiana is bounded north by Arkansas, east by Mississippi, with the Mississippi River forming the boundary in the north-east, south by the Gulf of Mexico and west by Texas, with the Sabine River forming most of the boundary. Area, 52,453 sq. miles, including lakes, rivers and coastal waters inside 3-mile limit; land area, 44,873 sq. miles. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,205,900, an increase of 15-5% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 4,481,000. Births, 1984, 83,195 (18-6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 36,549 (8-2); infant deaths, 1,037 (12 -5 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 41,295 (9 -3); divorces, 17,377 (1982). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 941,086 1,322,712 2,211,715

Negro 713,874 776,326 1,039,207

1970 1980

2,541,498 2,911,243

1,086,832 1,237,263

Indian 780 1,536 3,587

1

Asiatic 648 1,019 2,004

All others 12,976 55,466 Preliminary.

Total 1,656,388 2,101,593 3,257,022

Per sq. mile 36-5 46-5 72-2

3,641,306 4,203,972'

81 1 93-5

Of the 1980 total, 2,039,894 were male, 2,885,535 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 2,699,100. The largest cities with their 1980 census population are: New Orleans, 557,482; Baton Rouge (capital), 219,486; Shreveport, 205,815; Lafayette, 81,961; Lake Charles, 75,051; Kenner, 66,382. CLIMATE. New Orleans. Jan. 54°F (12-2°C), July 83°F (28-3°C). Annual rainfall 5 8 " (1,458 mm). See Gulf Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1974. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 39 members and a House of Representatives of 105 members, both chosen for 4 years. Sessions are annual; a fiscal session is held in odd years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. A Governor may serve a second consecutive term. Qualified electors are (with

1472

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

the usual exceptions) all registered citizens with the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,030,091 votes, Mondale, 648,040. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (corresponding with the counties of other states). Governor: Edwin W. Edwards (D.), 1984-88 ($73,440). Lieut.-Governor: Robert Freeman (D.), 1984-88 ($63,367). Secretary of State: James Brown (D.), 1984-88 ($60,169). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 (Louisiana State Budget Office figures) general revenues were $6,091,714,373, of which $1,236,983,444 were federal funds; total expenditures were $6,067,203,315 (education, $2,077,432,518; transport and development, $416,170,800; health, hospitals and public welfare, $ 1,578,334,592). Per capita personal income(1985)was$l 1,274. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. The yield in 1985 of crude petroleum was 508m. bbls; marketed production of natural gas, 5,146,000m. cu. ft. Rich sulphur mines are found in the state, and wells for the extraction of sulphur by means of hot water and compressed air are in operation; output, 1980,2 -6m. tonnes. Louisiana is the USA's main salt producer. Output of salt (1980) was 12-6m. short tons valued at $132-2m. Total output of minerals in 1982 was valued at $31,364m., of which $30,946m. was from fuel minerals. Agriculture. The state is divided into two parts, the uplands and the alluvial and swamp regions of the coast. A delta occupies about one-third of the total area. Manufacturing is the leading industry, but agriculture is important. In 1985 there were about 36,000 farms with annual average sales of at least $ 1,000; average farm, 278 acres; average value per acre $1,256. Cash income, 1985, from crops $968m.; from livestock, $ 4 9 l m . Production of crops (1985): Corn for grain, 23m. bu. (value $61m.); cotton lint, 742,000 bales ($194m.); soybeans, 44m. bu. ($223m.); wheat, hay, rice and sugar are also important. In 1983 the state contained 102,000 milch cows, 1 -4m. all cattle, 9,000 sheep and 135,000 swine. Fisheries. The catch in 1985 was 1,693m. lb., value $225m. Forestry. Forests, 14-5m. acres, represent 47% of the state's area. Income from manufactured products exceeds $2,500m. annually. In 1982 pulpwood cut, 3,867,994-3 cords; sawtimbercut, 927 -4m. bd ft. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacturing industries are chiefly those associated with petroleum, chemicals, lumber, food, paper. In 1985 178,000 were employed in manufacturing, 387,000 in trade and 320,000 in service industries. T O U R I S M . Travellers spent an estimated $3,300m. in 1982. State tax revenue, $99 • 3 m. (3% of state tax revenue). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state has more than 16,326 miles of public roads. In June 1985, over 3m. vehicles were registered in the state. Railways. In 1980 the railways in the state had a length of about 3,700 miles. Aviation. There were, 1981, about 240 commercial and private airports. Shipping. In 1981 New Orleans handled 188-9m. tons of cargo. The Mississippi and other waterways provide 7,500 miles of navigable water.

MAINE

1473

JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. State and federal prisons, Oct. 1984, had 13,919 inmates. Execution is by electrocution; there were 135between 1930 and 1961,6between 1977 and 1985. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination in Louisiana. The leading Protestant Churches are Southern Baptist and Methodist. Education. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 15, both inclusive. In 1983 there were 782,000 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools. In 1986 the 42,900 instructional staff had an average salary of $20,600. There are 16 four-year public colleges and universities and 12 non-public four-year institutions of higher learning. There are 53 state trade and vocational-technical schools. Superior instruction is given in the Louisiana State University with 36,128 students (1985-86). Tulane University in New Orleans had 10,106; The Roman Catholic Loyola University in New Orleans had 4,809; Dillard University in New Orleans had 1,189; and the Southern University, 3,000. Health. In 1983 the state had 158 licensed hospitals (26,400 beds); there were 3 mental hospitals. Social Security. In Dec. 1985, assistance was being given to 49,400 elderly persons; 78,800 families with dependent children; 74,700 disabled people. Aid was from state and federal sources. Books of Reference Louisiana Almanac. New Orleans, 1979-80 The History and Government of Louisiana. Legislative Council, Baton Rouge, 1975 Louisiana State Agencies Handbook. Public Affairs Research Council of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, 1979 The State of the Stale: an Economic and Social Report to the Governor. Louisiana State Planning Office, New Orleans, 1978 Statistical Abstract of Louisiana. Division of Business and Economic Research, Univ. o f N e w Orleans, 1977 Davis, E. A., Louisiana, the Pelican State. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 1975 Hansen, H.,(ed.), Louisiana, a Guide to the State. Rev. ed. New York, 1971 Kniffen, F. B., Louisiana, its Land and People. Louisiana State Univ. Press, Baton Rouge, 1968 State Library: The Louisiana State Library, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. State Librarian: F. Jaques.

Thomas

MAINE H I S T O R Y . After a first attempt in 1607, Maine was settled in 1623. From 1652 to 1820 it was part of Massachusetts and was admitted into the Union on 15 March 1820. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Maine is bounded west, north and east by Canada, south-east by the Atlantic, south and south-west by New Hampshire. Area, 33,265 sq. miles, of which 2,269 are inland water. Of the state's total area, about 17-2m. acres (87%)are in timber and wood lots. Census population, 1 April 1980 1,125,027, an increase of 13-29% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 1,174,000. In 1984 live births numbered 16,513 (14-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 10,796 (9-3); infant deaths, 119 (7-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 12,430 (10-8); divorces 5,864 (5-1). Population for 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950

White 739,995 795,185 910,846

Negro 1,363 1,096 1,221

1970 1980

985,276 1,109,850

2,800 3,128

Indian 892 1,012 1,522

Asiatic 121 130 185

All others 3,972 12,049

Total 742,371 797,423 913,774

Per sq. mile 24-8 25-7 29-4

992,048 1,125,027

31-0 36-3

1474

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Of the total population in 1980,48 • 5% were male, 40 • 7% were urban and 60 -5% were 21 years or older. The largest city in the state is Portland with a census population of 61,572 in 1980. Other cities (with population in 1980) are: Lewiston, 40,481; Bangor, 31,643; Auburn, 23,128; South Portland, 22,712; Augusta (capital), 21,819; Biddeford, 19,638; Waterville, 17,779. C L I M A T E . Average maximum temperatures range from 56-3°Fin Waterville to 48-3°F in Caribou, but record high (since c. 1950) is 103°F. Average minimum ranges from 36-9 0 F in Rockland to 28-3°F in Greenville, but record low (also in Greenville) is -42°F. Average annual rainfall ranges from 48-85" in Machias to 36 0 9 " in Houlton. Average annual snowfall ranges from 118-7" in Greenville to 59 -7" in Rockland. See New England, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1820 is still in force, but it has been amended 153 times. In 1951, 1965 and 1973 the Legislature approved recodifications of the constitution as arranged by the Chief Justice under special authority. The Legislature consists of the Senate with 35 members and the House of Representatives with 151 members, both Houses being elected simultaneously for 2 years. Apart from these legislators and the Governor (elected for 4 years), no other state officers are elected. The Justices of the Supreme Judicial Court give their opinion upon important questions of law and upon solemn occasions when required by the Governor, Senate or House of Representatives. The suffrage is possessed by all citizens, 18 years of age; persons under guardianship for reasons of mental illness have no vote. Indians residing on tribal reservations and otherwise qualified have the vote in all county, state and national elections but retain the right to elect their own tribal representative to the legislature. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 336,500 votes, Mondale, 214,515. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. The capital is Augusta. The state is divided into 16 counties. Governor: John McKernan (R.), 1987-91 ($35,000). Secretary of State: Rodney S. Quinn (D.), 1987-91 ($30,000). B U D G E T . For the financial year ending 30 June 1986 general revenue was $932m. and expenditure was $927m. Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 was $294 -5m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 12,709. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Minerals include sand and gravel, stone, lead, clay, copper, peat, silver and zinc. Mineral output, 1986, was valued at $46m. Agriculture. In 1985, 8,000 farms occupied 2m. acres; the average farm was 250 acres. Cash receipts, 1985, $378m., of which $80m. came from potatoes; Maine is the third largest producer of potatoes (about 7% of the country's total of 325 -7m. cwt). Other important items include eggs ($94m.), dairy products ($107-5m.) and poultry ($29-7m.); these with potatoes provide 78% of receipts. Sweet corn, peas and beans, oats, hay, apples and blueberries are also grown. On 1 Jan. 1983 the farm animals included 57,000 milch cows, 146,000 all other cattle, and 14,000 sheep. Forestry. Lumber, wood turnings and pulp are important. In 1982 the cut of softwood was 769,195m. bd ft; hardwood, 150,878m. bd ft, and pulpwood, 3,417,586 cords. Spruce and fir, white pine, hemlock, white and yellow birch, sugar maple, northern white cedar, beech and red oak are the most important species cut. There were (1982) 17,600,000 acres of commercial forest (98% in private ownership). National forests comprise 37,500 acres; other federal, 35,800;

MAINE

1475

state forests, 163,000 acres; municipal, 75,200 acres. Wood products industries are of great economic importance; in 1982 the lumber, wood and paper industries' production was valued at $3,355,731. There were (1982) 342 primary manufacturers and over 1,400 secondary. Fisheries. In 1983, 202,657,000 lb. offish and shellfish (valued at $107,889,000 were landed; the catch included 21,976,000 lb. of lobsters (valued at $51,234,000). 1 -97m. lb. of scallops ($10-8m.); 4- 14m. lb. ofsoftclams($7-24m.); 12-31m. lb of dabs ($6 0m.); 42 -4m. lb. of menhaden ($846,000); 40m. lb. of herring ($2 • 14m.). I N D U S T R Y . Total non-agricultural workforce, 1985, 459,000. Manufacturing employed 106,000; trade, 108,000; services, 95,000; government, 86,000; the main manufacture is paper at 47 plants, producing about 34% of manufacturing value added. L A B O U R . The four largest employers are government, education, health and tourism. T O U R I S M . In 1983 there were about 4m. tourists (including state residents on holiday), generating about $655 -5m. in business. Eating, drinking and accommodation produce 12 -4% of sales tax. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 22,098 miles of roads, of which 3,973 miles were state highways and 4,359 miles were state-aided; town streets and miscellaneous, 13,766 miles. In July 1984, 847,922 motor vehicles were registered, including 669,240 passenger vehicles, 87,267 commercial vehicles and 40,361 motorcycles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,516 miles of mainline railway tracks. Aviation. Licensed airports, 1984, numbered 76, including 37 commercial public airports, 12 non-commercial and 4 commuter airports, 15 commercial and 4 noncommercial seaplane bases, and 4 air-carrier airports. There were also 2 military airports and 23 private landing strips. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state's penal system in Sept. 1984 held 435 adults in the State Prison, 237 in the Correctional Center and 332 juveniles in the Youth Center. There is no capital punishment. Inmates serving life sentences are eligible for parole consideration after 15 years, less remission for good conduct, provided they were imprisoned before the passage of a new Criminal Code by the 107 th Maine Legislature, which abolished the parole system. Religion. The largest religious bodies are: Roman Catholic (270,283 members), Baptists (36,808 members) and Congregationalists (40,750 members), and other Christian Churches (34,066 members). Education. Education is free for pupils from 5 to 21 years of age, and compulsory from 7 to 17. In 1983-84 the 756 public schools (610 elementary, 105 secondary and 41 combined elementary and secondary) had 12,283 staff and 209,753 enrolled pupils. In 1983-84 there were 126 private schools with 1,035 teachers and 15,461 pupils. Public school teachers' salaries, 1983-84, averaged $17,328. Total public expenditure on public elementary and secondary education in 1982-83, $461,252,847. The state University of Maine, founded in 1865, had (1983-84) 1,003 teaching staff and 28,591 students at 7 locations; Bowdoin College, founded in 1794 at Brunswick, (107 and 1,371); Bates College at Lewiston, (104 and 1,424); Colby College at Waterville, (125 and 1,733); Husson College, Bangor, (31 and 1,465); Westbrook College at Westbrook, (56 and 1,120); Unity College at Unity, (23 and 325), and the University of New England (formerly St Francis College) at Biddeford, (55 and 848).

1476

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

Health. In 1984 the state had 42 general hospitals (4,571 beds for acute care); 3 hospitals for mental diseases, acute and psychiatric care (541 beds); 144 nursing homes (10,220 beds). Social Security. Supplemental Security Income (SSI) (maximum payment for single person, $324-30 per month) is administered by the Social Security Administration. It became effective on 1 Jan. 1974 and replaces former aid to the aged, blind and disabled, administered by the state with state and federal funds. SSI is supplemented by Medicaid for nursing home patients or hospital patients. State payments for SSI recipients for 1985 totalled $42-3m., covering 22,000 cases. Aid to families with dependent children is granted where one or both parents are disabled or absent and income is insufficient; aid was being granted in Aug. 1985 to 20,100 families (58,300 children) with an average payment per family of $321 per month. Payments under Maine Medicaid Assistance programme totalled $217m. for the financial year 1983-84. There is a programme of assistance for catastrophic illness. Child welfare services include basic child protective services, enforcing child support, establishing paternity and finding missing parents, foster home placements, adoptions; services in divorce cases and licensing of foster homes, day care and residential treatment services, and public guardianship. There are also protective services for adults. Books of Reference Maine Register, State Year-Book and Legislative Manual. Annual Banks, R., Maine Becomes A State. Wesleyan U.P., 1970 Caldwell, B., Rivers of Fortune. Gannett, 1983 Calvert, M. R., Dawn over the Kennebec. Private Pr., 1983 Clark, C., Maine. New York, 1977

Tower Publishing, Portland.

MARYLAND H I S T O R Y . Maryland, first settled in 1634, was one of the 13 original states. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Maryland is bounded north by Pennsylvania, east by Delaware and the Atlantic, south by Virginia and West Virginia, with the Potomac River forming most of the boundary, and west by West Virginia. Chesapeake Bay almost cuts off the eastern end of the state from the rest. Area, 10,460 sq. miles, of which 623 sq. miles are inland water; in addition, water area under Maryland jurisdiction in Chesapeake Bay amounts to 1,726 sq. miles. Census population, 1 April 1980,4,216,975, an increase since 1970 of293,078 or 7-5%. Estimate (1986) 4,463,000. In 1985 births were 67,985 (15-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 36,607 (8-3); infant deaths, 811(11-9 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 46,063 (10-5); divorces, 16,187 (3-7). Population for 5 federal censuses was: 1920 1930 1960

White 1,204,737 1,354,226 2,573,919

Negro 244,479 276,379 518,410

1970 1980

3,194,888 3,158,838

499,479 958,150

Indian 32 50 1,538

Asiatic 413 871 5,700

All others 28,032 99,987

Total 1,449,661 1,631,526 3,100,689

Persq. mite 145-8 165-0 314-0

3,922,399 4,216,975

396-6 428-7

Of the total population in 1980, 2,042,810 were male, 3,386,555 persons were urban and those 20 years old or older numbered 2,890,196. The largest city in the state (containing 16-9% of the population) is Baltimore, with 786,741 in 1980 (and 752,800 in 1986); Baltimore metropolitan area, 2-3m. Maryland residents in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area total more than 1 -6m. Other cities (1980) are Dundalk (71,293); Towson (51,083); Silver Spring

MARYLAND

1477

(72,893); Bethesda (62,736). Incorporated places, estimate 1984: Rockville, 45,065; Bowie, 34,461; Hagerstown, 33,036; Frederick, 31,943; Annapolis, 31,898; Gaithersburg, 29,548; Cumberland, 24,090; Cambridge, 11,207. C L I M A T E . Baltimore. Jan. 36°F (2-2°C), July 79°F (26- PC). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,026 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1867; it has had 125 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 47, and a House of Delegates of 141 members, both elected for 4 years, as are the Governor and Lieut.-Governor. Voters are citizens who have the usual residential qualifications. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 836,295 votes, Mondale, 757,635. Maryland sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. The state capital is Annapolis. The state is divided into 23 counties and Baltimore City. Governor: William D. Schaefer(D.), 1987-97 ($75,000). Lieut. - Governor: J. Joseph Q u r a n (D.), 1987-91 ($62,500). Secretary of State: Patricia Holtz ($45,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1986 general revenues were $6,751,471,000 ($4,713,904,000 from taxation). General expenditures, $6,659,000,000, including $1,516,492,000 for education and $2,080,925,000 for public welfare and health; $1,229,520,000 for transport. Total authorized long-term state debt, 30 June 1986 was $2,986,127,000. (Issued and outstanding, $2,110,075,000; authorized but not issued, $876,052,000.) Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 16,588. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Value of non-fuel mineral production, 1986, was $294m. Sand and gravel (16-7m. short tons) and stone (26-2m. short tons) account for over 65% of the total value. Coal is the leading mineral commodity by value followed by Portland cement, stone, sand and gravel. Output of coal was 4 1 m . short tons, valued at about $109m. Natural gas is produced from 1 field in Garrett County; 39m. cu. ft in 1985. A second gas field in the same county is used for natural gas storage. Agriculture. Agriculture is an important industry in the state. In 1986 there were approximately 17,000 farms with an area of 2 • 5m. acres (40% of the land area). Farm animals, 1 Jan. 1987, were: Milch cows, 125,000; all cattle, 330,000; swine, 190,000; sheep, 25,000; chickens (not broilers), 5 1m.. The most important crops, 1986, were: corn for grain, 42-3m. bu.; soybeans, 10-9m. bu.; tobacco, 24-3m. lb., and hay, 509,000 tons. Cash receipts from farm marketings, 1986, were $ 1,203m.; from livestock and livestock products, $814m., and crops, $389m. Dairy products and broilers are important. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufactories had 141,500 production workers earning $2,867-4m.; value added by manufacture, $1 l,906-6m. Chief industries are electrical and electronic equipment, food and kindred products, chemicals and products, printing and publishing. T O U R I S M . Tourism is one of the state's leading industries. In 1986 tourists spent over $4,707m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway department maintained, 1 Jan. 1987, 5,238 miles of highways, of which 84 miles were toll roads. The 23 counties maintained 17,873 miles of highways, and the 159 municipalities (including the city of Baltimore) maintained 4,010 miles of streets and alleys. Total mileage, 1 Jan. 1987, of public

1478

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

highways, streets and alleys, 27,121 miles. In 1986, about 3-5m. automobiles were registered. Railways. Railways, in 1987, had 1,150 miles of line. Aviation. There were, 1987,38 commercially licensed airports. Shipping. In 1986 Baltimore was the sixth largest US seaport in value of trade, seventh in tonnage handled. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Prisons on 1 Oct. 1987 had about 12,381 men and 443 women; the total equalled 285 per 100,000 population, a high rate, which may be explained by the fact that Maryland incarcerates domestic relations law violators in state prisons; state prisons also receive a considerable number of persons committed for misdemeanours by magistrates' courts of the counties as well as from Baltimore's court system. Since 1930 there have been 68 executions (by lethal gas since 1957; earlier by hanging)—7 whites and 37 Negroes for murder, and 6 whites and 18 Negroes for rape. Last execution was June 1961. Maryland's prison system has conducted a work-release programme for selected prisoners since 1963. All institutions have academic and vocational training programmes. In accordance with the 1950 Supreme Court decisions declaring segregation unconstitutional, the University of Maryland and other public and private colleges began admitting Black students in Sept. 1956; elementary and secondary schools followed. Religion. Maryland was the first US state to give religious freedom to all who came within its borders. Present religious affiliations of the population are approximately: Protestant, 32%; Roman Catholic, 24%; Jewish, 10%; remaining 34% is non-related and other faiths. Education. Education is compulsory from 6 to 16 years of age. In Sept. 1986 the public elementary schools (including kindergartens and secondary schools) had 675,747 pupils. Teachers and principals in the elementary and secondary schools numbered 41,836. Average salary, teachers and principals (Oct. 1985) was $27,806. Current expenditure by local school boards on education, 1985-86, was $2,682 -3m., of which the state's contribution was $ 1,076m. In 1986 there were 30 degree-granting 4-year institutions and 23 2-year colleges. The largest two were the University of Maryland system, with 66,331 students (Sept. 1986) and Towson State College with 15,411 students (Sept. 1986). Health. In April 1987, 84 hospitals (21,414 beds) were licensed by the State Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. The Maryland State Department of Health, organized in 1874, was in 1969 made part of the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene which performs its functions through its central office, 23 county health departments and the Baltimore City Health Department. For the financial year 1986 the department's budget was $1,411-9m., of which $995-8m. were general funds and $30-5m. special funds appropriated by the General Assembly. The balance of the budget, $385 -7m., derives from federal funds. During financial year 1986 Maryland's programme of medical care for indigent and medically indigent patients covered 398,721 persons. The programme, which covers in-patient and out-patient hospital services, laboratory services, skilled nursing home care, physician services, pharmacy services, dental services and home health services, cost approximately $759m. Social Security. Under the supervision of the Department of Human Resources, local social service departments administer public assistance for needy persons. In May 1987 families with dependent children received $20,759,308 (182,686 recipients, average actual monthly payment $113.55); genera! public assistance

MASSACHUSETTS

1479

payments were $2,670,578 (18,443 recipients, average actual monthly payments $144.88). Books of Reference Statistical Information: Maryland Department of Economic and Employment Development, Baltimore City, 21202. Maryland Manual: A Compendium of Legal, Historical and Statistical Information Relating to the State of Maryland. Annapolis. Biennial DiLisio, J. E„ Maryland. Boulder, 1982 Papenfuse, E. C., et al., Maryland, a New Guide to the Old Line Stale. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976 Rollo, V. F., Maryland's Constitution and Government. Maryland Hist. Press, Rev. ed., 1982 State Library: Maryland State Library, Annapolis. Director: Michael S. Miller.

MASSACHUSETTS H I S T O R Y . The first permanent settlement within the borders of the present state was made at Plymouth in Dec. 1620, by the Pilgrims from Holland, who were separatists from the English Church, and formed the nucleus of the Plymouth Colony. In 1628 another company of Puritans settled at Salem, forming eventually the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1630 Boston was settled. In the struggle which ended in the separation of the American colonies from the mother country, Massachusetts took the foremost part, and on 6 Feb. 1788 became the sixth state to ratify the US constitution. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Massachusetts is bounded north by Vermont and New Hampshire, east by the Atlantic, south by Connecticut and Rhode Island and west by New York. Area, 8,284 sq. miles, 460 sq. miles being inland water.The census population 1 April 1980, was 5,737,037, an increase of 47,867 or 0-8% since 1970. Estimate (1984) 5,741,000. Births, 1984 were 79,386 (13-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 59,104 (10-2 per 1,000); infant deaths, 739 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 53,198 (9 -2); divorces, 16,957 (2 -9). Population at 4 federal census years was: 1950 1960 1970 1980

White 4,611,503 5,023,144 5,477,624 5,362,836

Negro 73,171 111,842 175,817 221,279

Other 5,840 13,592 35,729 152,922

Total 4,690,514 5,148,578 5,689,170 5,737,037

Persq. mile 598-4 656-8 725-8 732 0

Of the total population in 1980, 47-6% were male, 83-8% were urban and 32% were 21 years old or older. In 1980 the population of the principal towns and cities was: Boston Worcester Springfield New Bedford Cambridge Brockton

562,994 161,799 153,319 98,478 95,322 95,172

Fall River Lowell Quincy Newton Lynn Somerville

92,574 92,418 84,743 83,622 78,471 77,372

Framingham Lawrence Waltham Medford Weymouth Chicopee

65,113 63,175 58,200 58,076 55,601 55,112

The largest of 10 standard metropolitan statistical areas, 1980 census were: Boston, 2,763,357; Springfield-Chicopee-Holyoke, 530,668; Worcester, 372,940. C L I M A T E . Boston. Jan. 28°F(-2-2°C), July 71°F(21-7°C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,036 mm). See New England, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution dates from 1780 and has had 116 amendments. The legislative body, styled the General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, meets annually, and consists of the Senate with 40 members, elected biennially, and the House of Representatives of 160 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 11 representatives to Congress.

1480

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,293,367 votes, Mondale, 1,219,513. Electors are all citizens 18 years of age or older. The capital is Boston. The state has 14 counties, 39 cities and 312 towns. Governor:Michael S. Dukakis(D.), 1987-91 ($75,000). Lieut.-Governor: Evelyn Murphy (D.), 1987-91 ($60,000). Secretary of the Commonwealth: Michael J. Connolly (D.) ($60,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1984 the total revenue of the state was $8,763,776,497 ($5,659-5m. from taxes and $l,800-3m. from federal aid); general expenditures, $8,649,394,825 ($603-4m. for education, $330-5m. for highway and transport construction and $2,097m. for public welfare). The net long-term debt on 30 June 1984 amounted to $3,346m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 16,380. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. There is little mining within the state. Total mineral output in 1983 was valued at $95 • 7m., of which most came from sand, gravel and stone. Agriculture. On 1 Jan. 1986 there were approximately 6,000 farms (11,179 in 1959) with an area of598,900 acres. Cash income, 1986, totalled $425-2m.; dairy, $76-3m.; greenhouse and nursery, $118m.; poultry, $30-8m.; vegetables, $38-8m.; tobacco, $7m.; cranberries, $98-6m.; other fruit, $23-2m.; potatoes, $2-6m. Total from crops, $295-2m., from livestock,$ 130m. Principal 1986 crops include cranberries, l-69m. bbls; apples, 2 1 m . bu. in 1985; potatoes, 825,000 cwt in 1985. On 1 Jan. 1982 farms in the state had 48,000 milch cows, 98,000 all cattle, 49,000 swine. In 1982 farms produced 145,000 turkeys and 0 • 8m. chickens. Forestry. About 68% of the state is forest. State forests cover about 256,000 acres. Total forest land covers about 3m. acres. Commercially important hardwoods are sugar maple, northern red oak and white ash; softwoods are white pine and hemlock. About 240m. bd ft of timber are cut annually. Fisheries. The 1985 catch amounted to 296m. lb. of fish and shellfish valued at $232m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985, manufacturing establishments employed an average of 661,000 workers. The 3 most important manufacturing groups, based on employment, were electric and electronic equipment, machinery (except electrical), instruments and related products. Service industries employed 779,000 and trade, 680,000. Total non-agricultural workforce, 2,926,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In Oct. 1984 the state had 33,800 miles of roads and streets and in 1985 registered 3 -8m. motor vehicles. Railways. In 1984 there were 1,310 miles of mainline railway. Aviation. There were, in 1983, 52 aircraft landing areas for commercial operation, of which 27 were publicly owned. Shipping. The state has 3 deep-water harbours, the largest of which is Boston (port trade (1983), 16,767,585 short tons). Other ports are Fall River and New Bedford. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. On 31 Dec. 1985 state penal institutions held 5,447 inmates. There have been no executions since 1947. Religion. The principal religious bodies are the Roman Catholics, Jewish Congregations, Methodists, Episcopalians and Unitarians.

MICHIGAN

1481

Education. A regulation effective from 1 Sept. 1972 makes school attendance compulsory for ages 6-16. In 1985-86 expenditure by cities and towns on public schools was $3,52lm. or $605 per capita, including debt retirement and service payments. In 1985-86 there were 56,400 classroom teachers and approximately 900,000 pupils. Within the state there were (1982) 126 degree-granting institutions of higher learning (including 89 colleges and universities). Some leading institutions are: Year opened 1636 1793 1821 1837 1843 1852 1861 1863 1863 1865 1869 1870 1875 1885 1887 1894 1898 1899 1948

Name and location of universities and colleges Harvard University, Cambridge ' Williams College, Williamstown 1 Amherst College, A m h e r s t 1 M o u n t HolyokeCollege, South H a d l e y 2 College o f t h e Holy Cross, W o r c e s t e r ' Tufts University, Medford V Mass. Institute of Technology, Cambridge 1 University of Massachusetts, A m h e r s t 1 Boston College (RC), Chestnut H i l l ' Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester ' Boston University, Boston ' WellesleyCollege, Wellesley 2 Smith College, N o r t h a m p t o n 1 Springfield College, Springfield' Clark University, W o r c e s t e r ' University of Lowell 1 Northeastern University, Boston '>4 Simmons College, Boston 2 BrandeisUniversity, Waltham '

' Co-educational. For women only.

2

3 4

Students 1985 16,217 1,983 1,540 1,950 2,684 7,415 9,626 27,852 14,476 4,449 27,181 2,230 2,637 2,280 2,799 15,262 35,271 3,958 3,403

Includes Jackson College for women. Includes Forsyth Dental Center School.

Health. In 1984 the state had 177 hospitals (with 41,200 beds); average daily census, 1982,32,736, including patients in public and private mental hospitals and institutions for the mentally retarded. Social Security. The Department of Public Welfare had an appropriation of $ 1,828m. in financial year 1984 and paid $388m. in aid to families with dependent children (average 95,798 families per month); other main items were general relief (average 27,242 cases), Supplemental Security Income (average 105,402 cases) and Medical Assistance only (average 65,841 cases). Books of Reference Annual Reports. Massachusetts and U S Boards, Commissions, Departments and Boston, annual Business Climate Studies (1983). Alexander G r a n t , Boston 1983 Manual for the General Court. By Clerk of the Senate and Clerk of the Representatives, Boston, Mass. Biennial Hart, Albert B., (ed.), Commonwealth History of Massachusetts, Colony, Province 5 vols., New York, 1966 Levitan, D., with Mariner, E. C., Your Massachusetts Government. Newton, Mass., Higher Education Publications, Washington, D.C., 1983

Divisions, House of and

State.

1984

MICHIGAN H I S T O R Y . Michigan, first settled by Marquette at Sault Ste Marie in 1668, became the Territory of Michigan in 1805, with its boundaries greatly enlarged in 1818 and 1834; it was admitted into the Union with its present boundaries on 26 Jan. 1837. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Michigan is divided into two by Lake Michigan. The northern part is bounded south by the lake and by Wisconsin, west

1482

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

and north by Lake Superior, east by the North Channel of Lake Huron; between the two latter lakes the Canadian border runs through straits at Sault Ste Marie. The southern part is bounded west and north by Lake Michigan, east by Lake Huron, Ontario and Lake Erie, south by Ohio and Indiana. Area, 58,527 sq. miles, of which 56,954 sq. miles are land area, 1,573 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 9,262,078, an increase of 380,252 or 4-3% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 9,145,000. In 1985 births were 138,902 (15-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 78,515 (8-7); infant deaths, 1,575 (11 -4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 79,022 (17 • 4); divorces, 3 8,77 5 (8 • 5). Population of 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,785,247 4,663,507 7,085,865

Negro 17,115 169,453 717,581

1970 1980

7,833,474 7,872,241

991,066 1,199,023

Indian 7,519 7,080 9,701

Asiatic 292 2,285 10,047

All others 50,543 190,814

Total 2,810,173 4,842,325 7,823,194

Per sq. mile 48-9 84-9 137-2

8,875,083 9,262,078

156-2 162-6

Of the total population in 1980, 4,516,189 were male, 6,551,551 persons were urban and those 20 years old or older numbered 6,146,694. 162,440 were of Spanish origin. Population of the chief cities (census of 1 April 1980) was: Detroit 1,203,339 Grand Rapids 181,843 161,134 Warren Flint 159,611 Lansing (capital) 130,414 Sterling Heights 108,999 Ann Arbor 107,316 104,814 Livonia

Dearborn Westland Kalamazoo Taylor Saginaw Pontiac St Clair Shores Southfield

90,660 84,603 79,722 77,568 77,508 76,715 76,210 75,568

Royal Oak Dearborn Heights Troy Wyoming Farmington Hills Roseville

70,893 67,706 67,102 59,616 58,056 54,311

Larger standard metropolitan areas, 1980 census: Detroit, 4,353,413; Grand Rapids, 601,680; Flint, 521,589; Lansing, 471,565. C L I M A T E . Detroit. Jan. 2 2 - P F (-5-5°C), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 3 2 " (813 mm). Grand Rapids. Jan. 23-8°F(-4-6°C), July 72-6°F(22 -5°C). Annual rainfall 33-6" (833 mm). Lansing. Jan. 21-7°F (-5-7°C), July 71°F (21-7°C). Annual rainfall 30-8" (782 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in April 1963 and became effective on 1 Jan. 1964. The Senate consists of 3 8 members, elected for 4 years, and the House of Representatives of 110 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Electors are all citizens over 18 years of age meeting the usual residential requirements. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 18 representatives. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,251,571 votes, Mondale, 1,529,638. The capital is Lansing. The state is organized in 83 counties. Governor: James J. Blanchard (D.), 1987-91 ($100,077). Lieut.-Governor: Martha Griffiths (D.), 1987-91 ($67,377). Secretary of State: Richard H. Austin (D.), 1987-91 ($89,000). B U D G E T . For the financial year ending 30 Sept. 1986, the general fund revenue was $12,769,500,000 (taxation, $9,270,600,000, and federal aid, $3,298,600,000); total revenue, $13,607,400,000; special revenue funds, $837,900,000; general expenditures, $12,235,600,000. Per capita personal income (1985 estimate) was $ 13,608. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Most important minerals by value of production are iron ore, petroleum

MICHIGAN

1483

and cement. Output (1985): Iron ore, 12-69m. long tons; Portland cement, 4-75m. short tons; petroleum, 31-5m. bbls; sand and gravel, 41-35m. short tons; lime, 534,000 short tons; natural gas, 153,484,651m. cu. ft; Salt, 991,000 short tons. Mineral output in 1984 was valued at $2,695-2m. Agriculture. The state, formerly agricultural, is now chiefly industrial. In 1985 it contained 63,000 farms with a total area of 1 lm. acres; the average farm was 175 acres. Cash income, 1985, from crops, $l,729-6m.; from livestock and products, $l,237m. Principal crops are maize (production, 1985,287-6m. bu. of grain), oats (26- lm. bu.), wheat (45m. bu.), sugar-beet (2-33m. tons); soybeans (34-6m. bu.), hay (5-7m. tons). On 1 Jan. 1986 there were in the state 108,000 sheep, 397,000 milch cows, 1 -41m. all cattle and 1 19m. swine; 8-9m. chickens and 38,000 (1985) turkey breeder hens. In 1985 the wool clip yielded 902,000 lb. of wool. Forestry. The forests of Michigan consist of 18-4m. acres, about 51% of total state land area. About 17 • 5m. acres of this total is commercial forest, 64% of which is privately owned, 20% state forest, 14% federal forest and 1 -5% in various public ownerships. Three-fourths of the timber volume is hardwoods, principally hard and soft maples, aspen, oak and birch. Christmas trees are another important forest crop. Michigan leads in the number of state parks and public campsites. There are 83 state parks and recreation areas, 6 state forests, 3 national forests and 3 national parks. There are 169 state forest campgrounds and 64 state game areas. I N D U S T R Y . Transport equipment and non-electrical machinery are the most important manufactures. The state ranks first in 19 manufacturing categories; among principal products are motor vehicles and trucks, cement, chemicals, furniture, paper, cereal, baby food and pharmaceuticals. Total non-agricultural labour force, 1986,4,386,000, of which 975,000 are in manufacturing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. State trunk-line mileage (31 July 1980) totalled, 9,500, all hard surfaced. Passenger car registrations, 1986,5,501,421. Railways. On 1 Jan. 1986 there were 4,770 miles of railway and 67 miles of active car-ferry routes. Aviation. Airports (1986) numbered 245 licensed airports and 22 air carrier airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. The 1963 Constitution provides that no person shall be denied the equal protection of the law; nor shall any person be denied the enjoyment of his civil or political rights or be discriminated against in the exercise thereof because of religion, colour or national origin. A Civil Rights Commission was established, and its powers and duties were implemented by legislation in the extra session of 1963. Earlier statutory enactments guaranteeing civil rights in specific areas are as follows. An Act of 1885, last amended in 1956, orders all places of public accommodation and resort, etc., to furnish equal accommodations without discrimination. An Act of 1941, as last amended, forbids the Civil Service in counties with population exceeding lm. to discriminate against employees or applicants on the ground of political, racial or religious opinions or affiliations. An Act of 1881 incorporated into the school code of 1955 forbids any discrimination in school facilities. An Act of 1893 incorporated in the insurance code of 1956 prohibits insurance companies from discriminating between white and coloured persons. In 1951 the legislature restored the unique one-man grand jury system abandoned in 1949. Religion. Roman Catholics make up the largest body; largest Protestant denominations, Lutherans, United Methodists, United Presbyterians, Episcopalians. Education. Education is compulsory for children from 6 to 16 years of age. The

1484

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AMERICA

operating expenditure for graded and ungraded public schools for the fiscal year 1985, was $5,704m. In 1984—85 there were 567 school districts (elementary and secondary schools) with 1,678,458 pupils and 75,193 teachers. Teachers' salaries in 1985 averaged $28,440. In 1985 there were 98 institutes of higher education with 508,000 students. Universities and students (autumn 1986): Founded 1817 1849 1855 1884 1885 1868 1892 1889 1903 1946 1959 1960 1965

Name University of Michigan Eastern Michigan University Michigan State University Ferris State College Michigan Technological University Wayne State University Centra] Michigan University Northern Michigan University Western Michigan University Lake Superior State College Oakland University G r a n d Valley State College Saginaw Valley College

Students 34,947 21,349 44,088 11,274 6,326 34,764 17,993 7,852 21,747 2,660 12,707 8,321 5,377

Social Welfare. Old-age assistance is provided for persons 65 years of age or older who have resided in Michigan for one year before application; assets must not exceed various limits. In 1974 federal Supplementary Security Income (SSI) replaced the adults' programme. In Jan. 1987 aid was supplied to a monthly average of418,572 dependent children in 188,972 families at $463.86 per family. Health. In 1983 the state had 231 hospitals (47,812 beds) licensed by the state and 12 psychiatric hospitals, 7 centres for developmental disabilities, 5 centres for emotionally disturbed children. In 1986 the Medicaid programme disbursed (with federal support) $l,642-9m. to 469,226 persons. Books of Reference Michigan Manual. Dept of Management and Budget. Lansing. Biennial Bureau of Business Research, Wayne State University. Michigan Statistical Abstract. Detroit, 1983 Bald, F. C., Michigan in Four Centuries. 2nd ed. New York, 1961 Blanchard, J. J., Economic Report of the Governor 1985. Lansing, 1985 Catton. B., Michigan—a Bicentennial History. Norton, New York, 1976 Lewis, F. E., State and Local Government in Michigan. Lansing, 1979 D u n b a r , W. F., and May, G . S., Michigan: A History of the Wolverine Stale. G r a n d Rapids, 1980 Sommers, L. (ed.), Atlas of Michigan. East Lansing, 1977 State Library Services: Library of Michigan, Lansing 48909. State Librarian: J a m e s W. Fry.

MINNESOTA H I S T O R Y . Minnesota, first explored in the 17th century and first settled in the 20 years following the establishment of Fort Snelling (1819), was made a Territory in 1849 (with parts of North and South Dakota), and was admitted into the Union, with its present boundaries, on 11 May 1858. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Minnesota is bounded north by Canada, east by Lake Superior and Wisconsin, with the Mississippi River forming the boundary in the south-east, south by Iowa, west by South and North Dakota, with the Red River forming the boundary in the north-west. Area, 84,402 sq. miles, of which 4,854 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,075,970, an increase o f 7 1 % since 1970. Estimate (1986), 4,214,013. Births in 1986,65,766

MINNESOTA

1485

(15-6 per 1,000 population); deaths, 35,064 (8-3); infant deaths, 600 (9-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 34,199 (8 -1); divorces, 14,426 (3 -4). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 2,059,227 2,542,599 3,371,603

Negro 7,084 9,445 22,263

1970 1980

3,736,038 3,935,770

34,868 53,344

Indian 9,053 11,077 15,496

Asiatic 344 832 3,642

All others 34,163 86,856

Total 2,075,708 2,563,953 3,413,864

Per sq. mile 25-7 320 42-7

3,805,069 4,075,970

47-6 51-4

Of the 1980 population, 1,997,826 were male; 2,725,270 were urban; those 21 years of age or older numbered 2,656,947. The largest cities are Minneapolis, 370,951; St Paul (capital), 270,230 (Minneapolis-St Paul standard metropolitan statistical area, 2,113,533 in 1980); Duluth, 92,811; Bloomington, 81,831; Rochester, 57,890. C L I M A T E . Duluth. Jan. 8°F(-13-3°C), July 63°F(17-2°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (719 mm). Minneapolis-St. Paul. Jan. 12°F (-11 • 1 °C), July 71°F (21 • TC). Annual rainfall 2 6 " (656 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1858; it has had 94 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 67 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 134 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 8 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Mondale polled 971,648 votes, Reagan 941,609. The capital is St Paul. There are 87 counties, four containing less than 400 sq. miles, the largest being 6,092 sq. miles. Governor: Rudy Perpich (DFL.), 1987-91 ($91,460). Lieut.-Governor: Marlene Johnson (DFL.), 1987-91 ($50,305). Secretary of State: Joan Anderson Growe (DFL.), 1987-91 ($50,305). B U D G E T . The general fund budget for the 1987-89 2-year period was $11,351m.; tax relief $2,293m., education $5,827m., public welfare $l,605m., transport $62m. Net long-term debt, 1 Oct. 1987, was$l,294m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $14,737. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. The iron ore and taconite industry is the most important in the USA. Production of usable iron ore in 1985 was 35m. tons, value $1,430m. Other important minerals are sand and gravel, crushed and dimension stone, lime and manganiferous ore. Total value of mineral production, 1985, $ 1,548m. Agriculture. In 1987 there were 92,000 farms with a total area of 30m. acres (60% of the land area); the average farm was of 323 acres. Average value of land and buildings (1985) $247,800. Commercial farms in 1982 numbered 94,385; 12% of the farms were operated by tenant-farmers. Cash income, 1986, from crops, $2,680m.; from livestock, $3,395m. In 1986 Minnesota ranked first in sugarbeet and processing sweet corn, and second in spring wheat, hay, dry milk, cheese, mink and turkeys. Other important products are wild rice, butter, eggs, flaxseed, milch cows, milk, corn, barley, swine, cattle for market, soybeans, honey, potatoes, rye, chickens, sunflower seed and dry edible beans. Of livestock, cattle represents 14% of total farm income, swine 11% and milk 20%. Of crops, corn represents 17% and soybeans 14%. On 1 Jan. 1987 the farm animals included 3- 15m. all cattle, 855,000 milch cows, 237,000 sheep and lambs, 4-26m. swine and 12-8m. chickens. Turkey production, 1986, 34m. In 1986 the wool clip amounted to 1 -63m. lb. of wool from 250,000 sheep.

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Most US commercial wild rice paddies are in Minnesota. Production from 25,000 acres (1986), 5 • 1 m. lb. of processed wild rice. Forestry. Forests of commercial timber cover 14m. acres, of which 53% is government-owned. The value offorest products in 1985 was $3,771m.; $881m. of this was from pulp and paper and $2,529m. from secondary manufacturing. Logging, pulping, saw-mills and associated industries employed 51,600 in 1985. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing establishments employed 367,800 workers; value added by manufacture was $ 19,400m. Largest manufacturing industry is non-electrical machinery (73,000 employees); then food products (39,000), printing and publishing (38,000). T O U R I S M . In 1985, travellers spent about $5,209-4m. The industry employed about 106,100. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway system (interstate and state trunk highways) covered 12,100 miles in 1987; total highway, road and street mileage, 132,000. In 1986, 3,250,000 passenger automobiles were registered. Railways. There are 3 Class I and 14 Class II and smaller railroads operating, with total mileage of 5,091. Aviation. In 1987 there were 141 airports for public use and 15 public seaplane bases. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. A Civil Rights Act (1927) forbids places of public resort to exclude persons 'on account of race or colour' and another section forbids insurance companies to discriminate 'between persons of the same class on account of race'. Contractors on public works may have their contracts cancelled if 'in the hiring of common or skilled labour' they are found to have discriminated on the grounds of'race, creed or colour'. The state's penal reformatory system on 30 June 1986 held 2,403 men and women. There is no death penalty in Minnesota. Religion. The chief religious bodies are: Lutheran with 1,088,304 members in 1980; Roman Catholic, 1,041,781; Methodist, 146,422. Total membership of all denominations, 2,653,161. Education. In 1986, there were 60,844 kindergarten students, 312,907 elementary students, and 332,045 secondary students enrolled in 1,511 public schools. There were 90,530 kindergarten, elementary, and secondary students enrolled in 628 private schools. The University of Minnesota, chartered in 1851 and opened in 1869, had a total enrolment in 1986 of 56,426 students on all campuses. The 18 public community colleges (2-year) had a total enrolment of 41,542. There are seven state universities (4-year) at Bemidji, Mankato, Marshall, Moorhead, St Cloud, Winona, Minneapolis and St Paul. Enrollment in all institutions of higher education, 1986,233,610. Health. In 1986 the state had 173 general acute hospitals with 19,969 beds. Patients resident in institutions under the Department of Human Services in Aug. 1986 included 1,067 mentally ill, 1,604 mentally retarded, 432 chemically dependent and 520 in state nursing homes. Social Security. Programmes of old age assistance, aid to the disabled, and aid to the blind are administered under the federal Supplemental Security Income (SSI) Programme. Minnesota has a supplementary programme, Minnesota Supplemental Aid (MSA) to cover individuals not eligible for SSI, to supplement SSI benefits for others whose income is below state standards, and to provide one-time payments for emergency needs such as major home repair, essential furniture or appliances, moving expenses, fuel, food and shelter.

MISSISSIPPI

1487

Books of Reference Statistical Information: Current information is obtainable from the State Planning Agency (300 Centennial Office Building, 658 Cedar Street, St Paul 55155); non-current material from the Reference Library, Minnesota Historical Society, St Paul 55101. Legislative Manual. Secretary of State. St Paul. Biennial Manufacturers' Directory. Nelson N a m e Service, Minneapolis, Biennial Minnesota Agriculture Statistics. Dept. of Agric., St Paul. Annual Minnesota Pocket Data Book 1985-86, St Paul, 1985

MISSISSIPPI H I S T O R Y . Mississippi, settled in 1716, was organized as a Territory in 1798 and admitted into the Union on 10 Dec. 1817. In 1804 and in 1812 its boundaries were extended, but in March 1817 a part was taken to form the new Territory of Alabama, leaving the boundaries substantially as at present. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Mississippi is bounded north by Tennessee, east by Alabama, south by the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana, west by the Mississippi River forming the boundary with Louisiana and Arkansas. Área, 47,689 sq. miles, 457 sq. miles being inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,520,638, an increase of 13-6% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 2,656,600. Births, occurring in the state, 1986, were 41,242; deaths, 23,584; infant deaths, 472; marriages, 24,283; divorces, 12,871. Population of 6 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1960

While 786,1 1 1 998,077 1,188,632 1,257,546

1970 1980

1,393,283 1,615,190

Negro 1,009,487 1,009,718 986,494 915,743 815,770 887,206

Indian 1,253 1,458 2,502 3,119

Asiatic 263 568 1,286 1,481

All others 7,859 18,242

Total 1,797,114 2,009,821 2,178,914 2,178,141 2,216,912 2,520,638

Persq. mile 388 42-4 46-1 46-1 469 530

Of the population in 1980, 1,213,878 were male, 1,192,805 were urban and 1,601,157 were 20 years old or older. The largest city (1980) is Jackson, 202,895. Others are: Biloxi, 49,311; Meridian, 46,577; Hattiesburg, 40,829; Greenville, 40,613; Gulfport, 39,676; Pascagoula, 29,318; Columbus, 27,383; Vicksburg, 25,434; Tupelo, 23,905. C L I M A T E . Jackson.Jan. 47°F (8-3°C), July 82°F (27-8'C). Annual rainfall 4 9 " (1,221 mm). Vicksburg. Jan. 48°F(8-9°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 5 2 " (1,311 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1890 without ratification by the electorate; 94 amendments by 1988. The Legislature consists of a Senate (52 members) and a House of Representatives (122 members), both elected for 4 years, as are also the Governor and Lieut.-Governor. Electors are all citizens who have resided in the state 1 year, in the county 1 year, in the election district 6 months next before the election and have been registered according to law. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 577,378 votes, Mondale, 351,195. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 5 representatives. The capital is Jackson; there are 82 counties. Governor: Ray Mabus(D.), 1988-92 ($63,000). Lieut.-Governor: Bradford Johnson Dye (D.) ($34,000). Secretary of State: Dick Molpus (D.) ($45,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1987 the general revenues were

1488

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

$3,404,824,819 (taxation, $2,048,698,474; federal aid, $ 1,051,441,229; other state resources, $304,685,116), and general expenditures were $4,555,373,423 ($1,174,353,643 for education, $339,753,275 for highways and $837,746,902 for public welfare). On 30 June 1987 the total net long-term debt was $427,222,908. Per capita personal income (1986) was $9,716 (lowest in US). ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Petroleum and natural gas account for about 90% (by value) of mineral production. Output of petroleum, 1986, was 29,996,554 bbls and of natural gas 207,870,866m. cu. ft. There are 6 oil refineries. Value of oil and gas products sold 1987 was $838,036,151. Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading industry of the state because of the semitropical climate and a rich productive soil. In 1987 there were 82 soil conservation districts covering 30m. acres. In 1984 farms with annual sales of $1,000 or more numbered 50,000 with an area of 14-2m. acres. Average size of farm was 284 acres. This compares with an average farm size of 138 acres in 1960. Cash income from all crops and livestock during 1983, including government payments, was $2,334-4m. Cash income from crops was $1,185 -9m. and from livestock and products, $926-7m. The chief product is cotton, cash income $426-7m. from lm. acres producing 1 -65m. bales o f 4 8 0 lb. Soybeans, rice, corn, hay, wheat, oats, sorghum, peanuts, pecans, sweet potatoes, peaches, other vegetables, nursery and forest products continue to contribute. On 1 Jan. 1984 there were 1 -7m. head of cattle and calves on Mississippi farms. Milch cows and heifers which had calved totalled 95,000, beef cows and heifers that had calved, 831,000; hogs and pigs, 300,000. Of cash income from livestock and products, 1983, $218-6m. was credited to cattle and calves. Cash income from poultry and eggs totalled $457 • 3m.; dairy products, $ 124 • 3m.; swine, $42 -2m. Forestry. In 1986 income from forestry amounted to $447m.; output of logs, lumber, etc., was 1,498,159 bd ft; pulpwood, 5,118,003 cords; distillate wood, 12,749 tons. There are about 16-9m. acres of forest (56% of the state's area). National forests area, 1987, l-21m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986 the 3,267 manufacturing establishments employed 224,020 workers, earning $3,895,224,854. T O U R I S M . Total receipts, 1986, $97-7m. from about 1-5m. tourists. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state in July 1987 maintained 10,352 miles of highways, of which 10,286 miles were paved. In 1986,1,739,556 cars were registered. Railways. The state in 1987 had 2,794 miles of railway. Aviation. There were 76 public airports in 1987, 69 of them general. There were also 4 privately owned airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. In 1987 there were no executions; from 1955 to 1987 executions (by gaschamber) totalled 32 (8 whites and 14 Negroes for murder, 9 Negroes for rape and 1 Negro for armed robbery). On 31 Dec. 1986 the state prisons had 6,914 inmates. Religion. Southern Baptists in Mississippi (1986), 654,735 members; United Methodists (1987) 198,000; Roman Catholics (1987), 96,916 in Biloxi and Jackson dioceses; Negro Baptists about 477,000. The number of churches relative to the population is the highest in the US (one church per 289 persons; national average, 814). Education. Attendance at school is compulsory as laid down in the Education

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MISSOURI

Reform Act of 1982. The public elementary and secondary schools in 1986-87 had 473,544 pupils and 26,217 classroom teachers. In 1986—87, teachers' average salary was $19,448. The expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance, 1986-87, was $2,204. There are 16 universities and senior colleges, of which 8 are state-supported. The University of Mississippi, at Oxford (1844), had, 1987-88, 391 instructors and 9,542 students; Mississippi State University, Starkville, 755 instructors and 12,801 students; Mississippi University for Women, at Columbus, 106 instructors and 2,043 students; University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 557 instructors and 11,937 students; Jackson State University, Jackson, 265 instructors and 6,045 students; Delta State University, Cleveland, 171 instructors and 3,513 students; Alcorn State University, Lorman, 136 instructors and 2,604 students; Mississippi Valley State University, Itta Bena, 102 instructors and 1,859 students. State support for the 8 universities (1987-88) was $ 155 • 5m. Junior colleges had (1986-87) 52,371 students and 2,189 instructors. The state appropriation for junior colleges, 1986-87, was $50m. Health. In 1987 the state had 127 acute general hospitals ( 15,846 beds) listed by the State Department of Health. The 14 hospitals with facilities for care of the mentally ill had 2,310 beds. Social Security. The state Medicaid commission paid (1986—87) $372-lm. for medical services, including $46-5m. for drugs, $51 -3m. for skilled nursing home care, $102-6m. for hospital services. There were 63,580 persons eligible for Aged Medicaid and 69,363 persons eligible for Disabled Medicaid benefits at 30 June 1987. In June 1986 53,685 families with 115,124 dependent children received $6,120,199 in the Aid to Dependent Children programme. The average monthly payment was $ 114 per family or $53.16 per child. Books of Reference 1980 Census ofPopulation and Housing: Mississippi. Mississippi Official and Statistical Register. Secretary of State. Jackson. Biennial Bettersworth, J. K., Mississippi: A History. Rev. ed. Austin, Tex., 1964 Mississippi Library Commission: PO Box 10700 Jackson, MS. 39209-0700. Director: David M. Woodburn.

MISSOURI HISTORY. Missouri, first settled in 1735 at Ste Genevieve, was made a Territory on 1 Oct. 1812, and admitted to the Union on 10 Aug. 1821. In 1837 its boundaries were extended to their present limits. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Missouri is bounded north by Iowa, east by the Mississippi River forming the boundary with Illinois and Kentucky, soutn by Arkansas, south-west by Oklahoma, west by Kansas and Nebraska, with the Missouri River forming the boundary in the north-west. Area, 69,697 sq. miles, 752 sq. miles being water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,916,766, an increase since 1970 of 51%. Estimate (1986), 5,066,000. Births, 1985, were 78,760 (15-7 per 1,000 population); deaths, 51,635 (10-3); infant deaths, 784 (10-2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 49,484 (9 -8); divorces, 24,990 (5). Population of 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 3,134,932 3,403,876 3,922,967

Negro 157,452 223,840 390,853

1970 1980

4,177,495 4,345,521

480,172 514,276

Indian 313 578 1,723

Asiatic 638 1,073 3,146

All others 19,732 56,889

Total 3,293,335 3,629,367 4,319,813 4,677,399 4,916,686

Per sq. mile 47-9 52-4 62-5 670 71-3

1490

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Of the total population in 1980, 2,365,487 were male, 3,350,746 persons were urban and those 18 years of age or older numbered 3,554,203. The principal cities at the 1980 census (and estimates, 1984) are: St Louis Kansas City Springfield Independence St Joseph

453,085(429,296) 448,159(443,095) 133,116(136,628) 111,806(112,121) 76,691 (74,860)

Columbia Florissant University City Joplin St Charles

62,061(63,294) 55,372 (55,949) 42,738(42,929) 38,893(39,650) 37,379(47,216)

Metropolitan areas, 1980: St Louis, 2,356,000; Kansas City, 1,327,000. C L I M A T E . Kansas City. Jan. 30°F(-1 • 1°C), July 79°F(26- I°C). Annual rainfall 3 8 " (947 mm). St. Louis. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 79°F (26-PC). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,004 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution, the fourth, was adopted on 27 Feb. 1945; it has been amended 27 times. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 34 members elected for 4 years (half for re-election every 2 years), and a House of Representatives o f l 6 3 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Missouri sends to Congress 2 senators and 9 representatives. Voters (with the usual exceptions) are all citizens and those adult aliens who, within a prescribed period, have applied for citizenship. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,242,678, Mondale, 808,601. Jefferson City is the state capital. The state is divided into 114 counties and the city of St Louis. Governor: John D. Ashcroft (R.), 1985-88 ($81,000). Lieut.-Governor: Harriett Woods (D.), 1985-88 ($48,600). Secretary of State: Roy D. Blunt (R.), 1985-88 ($64,800). B U D G E T . For the year 1985 the total revenues from all funds were $6,682m. (federal revenue, $1,500-7m., general revenue, $5,786m.). Total outstanding debt, 1985, was $3,319m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 13,724. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Principal minerals are lead (ranks first in USA), zinc (ranks second), clays, coal, iron ore, and stone for cement and lime manufacture. Value of production (1984) $731-9m. Agriculture. In 1986 there were 115,000 farms in Missouri covering 30-7m. acres. Production of principal crops, 1986: Com, 280-7m. bu.; soybeans, 177-5m. bu.; wheat, 18 • 8m. bu.; sorghum grain, 92• 3m. bu.; oats, 5m. bu.; cotton, 196,000 bales (of 480 lb.). Cash receipts from farming, 1986, $3,507-7m. Export value of farm produce, 1986, $910-4m., to which soybeans contributed $479-2m. Forestry. Forest land area, 1986,12 -9m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . The largest employer in 1985 was manufacturing, in which the transport equipment industry employed 67,191 workers. Other large industries are food and kindred products, electrical equipment and supplies, apparel and related products and non-electrical machinery, leather products, chemicals, paper, metal industries, stone, clay and glass. Retail trade employed 354,141 in 1985; wholesale trade employed 136,411. L A B O U R . The State Board of Mediation has jurisdiction in labour disputes involving only public utilities. The Prevailing Wage Law (1959) provides that no less than the local hourly rate of wages for work of a similar character shall be paid to any workmen engaged in public works. The Industrial Commission has authority to inspect records and to institute actions for penalties described in the Act. There

MISSOURI

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is a state programme for industrial safety in hand, under the Federal Occupational and Health Act. In 1986 the annual average number of employed was 2,318,238, and 165,175 were unemployed; the unemployment rate was 6 • 7%. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Federal and state highways, Sept. 1986, totalled 119,155 miles. In 1985 there were 3-6m. vehicles licensed in the state, of which 3,318 were private and commercial buses. Railways. The state has 10 Class I railways; approximate total mileage, 8,081. There are 7 other railways (switching, terminal or short-line), total mileage 229. Aviation. In 1987 there were 129 public airports and 282 private airports. Shipping. Ten carrier barge lines (1984) operated on about 1,000 miles of navigable waterways including the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Boat shipping seasons: Missouri River, April-end Nov.; Mississippi River, all seasons. Post and Broadcasting. There were 262 commercial radio stations and 35 TV stations in 1987. Newspapers. There were (1986) 45 daily and 213 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. State prisons in 1986 had an average of 10,239 inmates including 406 females. The median age was 27 -8, 52 -3% were between age 15 and 25. There have been no executions since 1965 although the death penalty was reinstated in 1978; since 1930 executions (by lethal gas) have totalled 40, including 31 for murder, 6 for rape and 3 for kidnapping. The Missouri Law Enforcement Assistance Council was created in 1969 for law reform. Religion. Chief religious bodies (1980) are Catholic, with 800,228 members, Southern Baptists (700,053), United Methodists (270,469), Christian Churches (175,101), Lutheran (157,928), Presbyterian (38,254). Total membership, all denominations, about2-6m. in 1980. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years for the full term. In the 1986-87 school year, public schools (kindergarten through grade 12) had 800,606 pupils. Total expenditure for public schools in 1985-86, $2,202m. Salaries for teachers (kindergarten through grade 12), 1985-86, averaged $21,945. Institutions for higher education include the University of Missouri, founded in 1839 with campuses at Columbia, Rolla, St Louis and Kansas City, with 4,389 accredited teachers and 51,935 students in 1986-87. Washington University at St Louis, founded in 1857, is an independent co-ed university with 8,311 students in 1986-87. St Louis University (1818), is an independent Roman Catholic co-ed university with 9,869 students in 1986-87. Sixteen state colleges had 234,250 students in 1986-87. Private colleges had (1986-87) 35,545 students. Church-affiliated colleges (1986-87) had 33,042 students. Public junior colleges had 52,838 students. There are about 82 secondary and post-secondary institutions offering vocational courses, and about 290 private career schools. There were 240,719 students in higher education in autumn 1986. Health. There were 9 state mental health hospitals and centres and 2 children's hospitals in 1986-87, admitting23,661 patients. Social Security. In 1985 the number of recipients of medicaid was 356,000. The number of recipients of Aid to Dependent Children was 198,500 with an average monthly payment per family of $239. Books of Reference Missouri Area Labor Trends, Department of Labour and Industrial Relations, monthly Missouri Farm Facts, Department of Agriculture, annual Report ofthe Public Schools of Missouri. State Board of Education, annual Statistical Abstract for Missouri. State and Regional Fiscal Studies Unit, College of Business and Public Administration, Columbia 1985

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MONTANA H I S T O R Y . Montana, first settled in 1809, was made a Territory (out of portions of Idaho and Dakota Territories) in 1864 and was admitted into the Union on 8 Nov. 1889. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Montana is bounded north by Canada, east by North and South Dakota, south by Wyoming and west by Idaho and the Bitterroot Range of the Rocky Mountains. Area, 147,138 sq. miles, including 1,551 sq. miles of water, of which the federal government, 1983, owned 27,409,000 acres or 29 -4%. US Bureau of Indian Affairs (1982) administered 5 03m. acres, of which 2,820,000 were allotted to tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980, 786,690, an increase of 13-3% since 1970. Estimate (1986), 819,000. Births, 1985, were 13,846 (16-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 6,644 (8 1); infant deaths, 103 (7 -4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 7,677 (9 • 3); divorces 4,407 (5 -3). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1970 1980

White 360,580 519,898 572,038 663,043 740,148

Negro 1,834 1,256 1,232 1,995 1,786

Indian 10,745 14,798 16,606 27,130 37,270

Asiatic 2,870 1,239 —

1,099 2,503

Total 376,053 537,606 591,024 694,409 786,690

Per sq. mile 2-6 3-7 4-1 4-7 53

Of the total population in 1980, 392,625 were male, 416,402 persons (52 -9%) were urban. Persons 20 years of age or older numbered 524,836. Median age, 29 years. Households, 283,742. The largest cities, 1980 (and 1982 estimate) are Billings, 66,798 (68,787); Great Falls, 56,725 (57,143). Others: Butte-Silver Bow, 37,205 (35,753); Missoula, 33,388 (33,078); Helena (capital), 23,938 (24,289); Bozeman, 21,645 (22,532); Anaconda-Deer Lodge County, 12,518 (11,583); Havre, 10,891 (11,290); Kalispell, 10,648 (10,558). CLIMATE. Helena. Jan. 18°F (-7-8°C), July 69°F (20-6°C). Annual rainfall 13" (325 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new constitution was ratified by the voters on 6 June 1972, and fully implemented on 1 July 1973; the Senate to consist of 50 senators, elected for 4 years, one half at each biennial election. The 100 members of the House of Representatives are elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Montana sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 207,163 votes, Mondale, 131,975. The capital is Helena. The state is divided into 56 counties. Governor: Ted Schwinden (D.), 1985-89 ($50,452). Lieut.-Governor: Georgt Turman (D.), 1985-89 ($36,141). Secretary of State: Jim Waltermire (R.), 1985-89 ($33,342). B U D G E T . Total state revenues for the year ending 30 June 1983 were $1,376,038,000 ($513-6m. taxes); total expenditures were $1,263,305,000 ($384m. for education, $ 168 • 3m. for highways and $ 151 • 5m. for public welfare). Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1983 was $ 127,157,000. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 11,904. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Electric power generated in March 1985 was 1,662 gwh., of which 695 gwh. was hydro-electric and 953 gwh. from coal-fired plants; 2 from oil-fired, 5 from gas-fired plants and 6 gwh. from other sources.

MONTANA

1493

Minerals (1983). Output of crude petroleum, 29-2m. bbls; copper, 33,337 tonnes; sand and gravel, 5-3m. short tons; phosphate rock, undisclosed; silver, 5-7m. troy oz.; gold, 161,436 troy oz.; zinc, undisclosed; natural gas, 35,647m. cu. ft; coal, 28-9m. short tons. Value of total mineral production (1983), $l,339-5m., with petroleum ($765 -4m.) the first, coal ($411 -3m.) the second, natural gas ($ 106 -6m.) the third and copper ($56 -25m.) the fourth most important commodity. Agriculture. In 1985 there were 24,000 farms and ranches (50,564 in 1935) with an area of 61- lm. acres (47,511,868 acres in 1935). Large-scale farming predominates; in 1985 the average size per farm was 2,542 acres. Income from all farm marketings was $ 1,659m. in 1984 (crops, $647m.; livestock, $772m.). Irrigated area harvested in 1983 was 1 • 54m. acres; non-irrigated, 7 16m. acres. The chief crops are wheat, amounting in 1983 to 136 -9m. bu.; barley, 11-lm. bu.; oats, 5 -28m. bu.; sugar-beet, hay, potatoes, alfalfa, dry beans, flax and cherries. In 1985 there were 27,000 milch cows, 2-96m. all cattle; 155,000 swine and 423,000 sheep. Forestry. Total forest area (1986), 22-6m. acres. In 1983 there were 16-8m. acres within 11 national forests. I N D U S T R Y . In 1981 manufacturing establishments numbering 612 had 17,264 production workers; value added by manufacture was (1982) $722 -7m. L A B O U R (June 1985). Work force, 426,600; total employed, 397,600; total nonagricultural workers, 362,900; agricultural workers, 34,700. Workers employed by major industry group: Mining, 7,100 (average net weekly earnings, $543.15); contract construction, 13,900 ($529.58); manufacturing, 22,100 ($432.22); transport and public utilities, 19,800 ($479.46; wholesale/retail trade, 77,800 ($207.21); finance/insurance/real estate, 13,600 ($243.21); services, 62,200 ($236.49); government, 71,600 (no income figures available). Average weekly earnings for all workers in private non-agricultural industries $292.58. Total unemployed 29,000 (6-8% of the work force in June 1985 as compared to 7-3% nationally for that month). There were 14 work stoppages in 1981 involving 9,200 workers, with a total of 42,200 man days idle during the year. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 the state had 58,331 miles of maintained public roads and streets including 11,746 miles of the federal-aid system. At 30 Sept. 1985 there were 517,804 passenger vehicles, 326,625 trucks and 45,929 motor cycles registered. Railways. In Nov. 1985 there were 3,418 route miles of railway in the state. Aviation. There were 121 airports open for public use in Dec. 1985, of which 120 were publicly owned. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. In Dec. 1985 the Montana state prison held 895 inmates and the Women's Correctional Center, 27. Since 1943 there have been no executions; total since 1930 (all by hanging) was 6; 4 whites and 2 Negroes, for murder. Religion. The leading religious bodies are (1984): Roman Catholic with 132,600 active members; Lutheran, 77,000; Methodist, 19,500 (church estimates). Education. In Oct. 1983 public elementary and secondary schools had 154,000 pupils. Public elementary and secondary school teachers (9,700 in 1985) had an average salary of $21,900. Expenditure on public school education (1984-85) was $626m. The Montana University system consists of the Montana State University, at Bozeman (autumn 1985 enrolment: 10,710 students), the University of Montana, at Missoula, founded in 1895 (8,989), the Montana College of Mineral Science and Technology, at Butte (1,932), Northern Montana College, at Havre (1,729),

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Eastern Montana College, at Billings (4,173) and Western Montana College, at Dillon (970). Social Security. In Aug. 1985,4,416 persons overage 65 were receiving in medical assistance an average of $758.85 per month; 51 blind persons, $450.08; 4,427 totally disabled, $544.15; 8,196 families (15,242 dependent children) receiving in aidto-dependent children assistance an average of $325 per month. Aid was from state and federal sources. Health. In Aug. 1985 the state had 62 hospitals (3,426 beds) listed by the Montana Board of Health. Four centres for mental disease and development disorders had 733 beds and 620 patients. Books of Reference Montana Agricultural Statistics. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, M o n t a n a Crop a n d Livestock Reporting Service. Biennial from 1946 Montana Employment and Labor Force. M o n t a n a Dept. of Labor and Industry. Monthly from 1971 Montana Federal-Aid Road Log. M o n t a n a Dept. of Highways and U S Dept. of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. A n n u a l from 1938 Montana Vital Statistics. M o n t a n a Dept. of Health and Environmental Sciences. Annually from 1954 Statistical Report. Montana Dept. of Social and Rehabilitation Services. Monthly from 1947 Lang, W, L., and Myers, R. C., Montana, Our Land and People. Pruett, 1979 Malone, M. P., and Roeder, R. B., Montana, A History of Two Centuries. Univ. of Washington Press, 1976 Spence.C. C., Montana, a History. New York, 1978

NEBRASKA H I S T O R Y . The Nebraska region was first reached by white men from Mexico under the Spanish general Coronado in 1541. It was ceded by France to Spain in 1763, retroceded to France in 1801, and sold by Napoleon to the US as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Its first settlement was in 1847, and on 30 May 1854 it became a Territory and on 1 March 1867 a state. In 1882 it annexed a small part of Dakota Territory, and in 1908 it received another small tract from South Dakota. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Nebraska is bounded north by South Dakota, with the Missouri River forming the boundary in the north-east and the boundary with Iowa and Missouri to the east; south by Kansas, south-west by Colorado and west by Wyoming. Area, 77,355 sq. miles, of which 711 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1980: 1,569,825, an increase of 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 1,605,574. Births, 1986, were 24,425 (15-3 per 1,000 population); deaths, 14,662 (9-2); infant deaths, 246 (10-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 12,107 (7 6): divorces, 6,127 (3-8). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1920 1960

White 1,180,293 1,279,219 1,374,764

Negro 7,689 13,242 29,262

1970 1980

1,432,867 1,490,381

39,911 48,390

Indian 3,502 2,888 5,545

Asiatic 730 1,023 1,195

All others 10,715 31,054

Total 1,192,214 1,296,372 1,411,330

Per sq. mile 15-5 16-9 18-3

1,483,791 1,569,825

19-4 20-5

Of the total population in 1980, 48 -8% were male,62-9% were urban 65 -6% were 21 years of age or older. The largest cities in the state are: Omaha, with a census population, 1980, of 313,911; Lincoln (capital), 171,932; Grand Island, 33,180; North Platte, 24,509; Fremont, 23,979; Hastings, 23,045; Bellevue, 21,813; Kearney, 21,158; Norfolk, 19,449.

NEBRASKA

1495

The Bureau of Indian Affairs, as of 30 June 1984, administered 65,000 acres, of which 23,000 acres were allotted to tribal control. C L I M A T E . Omaha. Jan. 22°F (-5-6°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (721 mm). See High Plains, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1875; it has been amended 188 times. By an amendment adopted in Nov. 1934 Nebraska has a single-chambered legislature (elected for 4 years) of 49 members—the only state in the Union to have one. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 4 years. Amendments adopted in 1912 and 1920 provide for legislation through the initiative and referendum and permit cities of more than 5,000 inhabitants to frame their own charters. A 'right-to-work' amendment adopted 5 Nov. 1946 makes illegal the 'closed shop' demands of trade unions. Nebraska is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 3 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 446,938 votes, Mondale, 183,838. The capital is Lincoln. The state has 93 counties. Governor: Kay Orr (R.), 1987-90 ($58,000). Lieut.-Governor: William E. Nichol (R.) ($40,000). Secretary of State: Allen Beerman (R.) ($32,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1985 (US Census Bureau figures) the state's revenues were $2,144m. (taxation, $l,040m. and federal aid, $525m.); general expenditures were $2,067m. ($693m. for education, $369m. for highways and $329m. for public welfare). The state has a bonded indebtedness limit of $ 100,000. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 13,777. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The total output of minerals, 1985, was valued at $212-2m., petroleum (7 • 1 m. bbls) and sand and gravel ( 1 1 1 m . tons) being the most important. Agriculture. Nebraska is one of the most important agricultural states. In 1986 it contained approximately 56,000 farms, with a total area of 47-2m. acres. The average farm was 843 acres. In 1986,7 -9m. acres were irrigated and 71,338 irrigation wells were registered. Cash income from crops (1986), $2,669m., and from livestock, $4,260m. Principal crops, with estimated 1986 yield: Maize, 896m. bu. (ranking third in US); wheat, 76m. bu.; sorghums for grain, 139-7m. bu.; oats, 21-2m. bu.; soybeans, 95-6m. bu. About 750 farms grow sugar-beet for 3 factories; output, 1986, l -4m. short tons. On 1 Jan. 1987 the state contained 5-5m. all cattle (ranking third in US), 167,000 milch cows, 173,000 sheep and 3 -9m. swine. Forestry. The area of national forest, 1985, was 352,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 there were 1,830 manufacturing establishments; 66,000 production workers earned $1,160m. and value added by manufacturing was $5,147m. The chiefindustry is meat-packing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state-maintained highway system embraced 9,961 miles in 1986; local roads, 86,207 miles. In 1986,860,882 automobiles were registered. Railways. In 1983 there were 7,185 miles of railway. Aviation. Airports (1984) numbered 324, of which 111 were publicly owned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A 'Civil Rights Act' revised in 1969 provides that all people are entitled to

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a 'full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities and privileges' of hotels, restaurants, public conveyances, amusement places and other places. The state university is forbidden to discriminate between students 'because of age, sex, color or nationality'. An Act of 1941 declares it to be 'the policy of this state' that no trade union should discriminate, in collective bargaining, 'against any person because of his race or color'. The state's prisons had, 9 Sept. 1986, 1,931 inmates (120 per 100,000 population). From 1930 to 1962 there were 4 executions (electrocution), 3 white men and 1 American Indian, all for murder, and none since. Religion. The Roman Catholics had 337,855 members in 1985; Protestant Churches, 737,361 ; Jews, 7,865 members. Total, all denominations, 1,083,081. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age. Public elementary schools, autumn 1985, had 144,949 enrolled pupils. Teachers' salaries, 1985-86, averaged $21,163. Estimated public school expenditure for year ending 30 Aug. 1985 was $788-4m. Total enrolment in 27 institutions of higher education, autumn 1985, was 97,283 students. The largest institutions were (1985): Opened 1867 1869 1878 1882 1883 1887 1891 1894 1905 1908 1910 1911 1923 1966

Institution Peru State College, Peru (State) Univ. o f N e b r a s k a , Lincoln (State) Creighton Univ., O m a h a (RC) Hastings College (Presbyterian) Midland Lutheran College, Fremont (Lutheran) Nebraska Wesleyan Univ. (Methodist) Union College, Lincoln (Seventh Day Adventist) Concordia Teachers' College, Seward (Lutheran) Kearney State College, Kearney (State) Univ. o f N e b r a s k a , O m a h a (State) Wayne State College, Wayne (State) Chadron State College, Chadron (State) College of St. Mary Bellevue College, Bellevue (Private)

Students 1,312 26,374 5,927 825 801 1,285 700 858 8,725 13,789 2,669 2,169 1,009 2,407

The state holds 1 -52m. acres of land as a permanent endowment of her schools; permanent public school endowment fund in Aug. 1986 was $86 -3m. Health. In 1986 the state had 112 hospitals and 584 patients in mental hospitals. Social Security. The administration of public welfare is the responsibility of the County Divisions of Welfare with policy-forming, regulatory, advisory and supervisory functions performed by the State Department of Public Welfare. In 1985 public welfare provided financial aid and/or services as follows: for 7,785 individuals who were aged, blind or disabled, with an average state supplement of $55.29; for 15,244 families with dependent children, with an average payment of $320.36 per family; for 90,000 individuals who had medical needs, $1,738.43, per individual; for 3,010 children in need of child welfare services; for 3,469 children who were in need of crippled children's services and medical care. The amount of aid is based on need in accordance with State assistance standards; the programme of aid to families with dependent children is limited to a maximum maintenance payment of $293 for 1 child plus $71 for each additional child. Books of Reference Agricultural Atlas of Nebraska. Univ. o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1977 Climatic Atlas of Nebraska. Univ. o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1977 Economic Atlas of Nebraska. Univ. o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1977 Nebraska. A Guide to the Cornhusker State. Univ. o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1979 Nebraska Statistical Handbook, 1988-89. Nebraska Dept. of Econ. Development, Lincoln Nebraska Blue-Book. Legislative Council. Lincoln. Biennial Olson, J. C., History of Nebraska. Univ. o f N e b r a s k a Press, 1955 Slate Library: State Law Library, State House, Lincoln. Librarian: Reta Johnson.

1497

NEVADA

NEVADA H I S T O R Y . Nevada, first settled in 1851, when it was a part of the Territory of Utah (created 1850), was made a Territory in 1861, enlarged in 1862 by an addition from Utah Territory and admitted into the Union on 31 Oct. 1864 as the 36th state. In 1866 and 1867 the area of the state was significantly enlarged at the expense of the Territories of Utah and Arizona. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Nevada is bounded north by Oregon and Idaho, east by Utah, south-east by Arizona, with the Colorado River forming most of the boundary, south and west by California. Area 110,561 sq. miles, 667 sq. miles being water. The federal government in 1982 owned 60,275,632 acres, or 85% of the land area. Vacant public lands, 47,977,331 acres. The Bureau of Indian Affairs controlled 1 06m. acres. Census population on 1 April 1980, 799,184, an increase of 310,446 or 63-5% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 1,007,850. Births, 1985, were 15,293 (16 1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 7,221 (7-5); infant deaths (1984), 154 (10-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 106,500(109-2per 1,000 population); divorces, 13,300(13-7). Population in 5 census years was: Asiatic and 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 74,276 84,515 263,443 449,850

Negro 513 516 13,484 27,579

1980

699,377

50,791

Indian 5,240 4,871 6,681 7,329

all others 1,846 1,156 1,670 3,980

All others 49,016

Total 81,875 91,058 285,278 488,738

Per sq. mile 0-7 0-8 2-6 4-4

799,184

7-2

Of the total population in 1980, 404,372 were male, 681,682 were urban and 556,021 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities are Las Vegas, with population at the 1980 census of 164,674 (1986 estimate, 201,500); Reno, 100,756 (115,210); North Las Vegas, 39,196 (47,250); Sparks, 38,114 (50,400); Carson City, 30,807 (36,040); and Henderson, 20,905 (42,180). Clark County (Las Vegas, North Las Vegas and Henderson) and Washoe County (Reno and Sparks) together had 81% of the total state population in 1980 (82% in 1982). C L I M A T E . Las Vegas. Jan. 44°F (6-7°C), July 85°F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 " (112 mm). Reno. Jan. 32°F(0°C), July 69°F(20-6"C). Annual rainfall 7 " (178 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution adopted in 1864 is still in force, with over 60 amendments. The Legislature meets biennially (and in special sessions) and consists of a Senate of 20 members elected for 4 years, half their number retiring every 2 years, and an Assembly of 40 members elected for 2 years. The Governor, Lieut.-Governor and Attorney-General are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are all citizens with the usual residential qualification. Nevada is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 2 representatives. A Supreme Court of 5 members is elected for 4 years on a non-partisan ballot. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 188,794 votes, Mondale, 91,654. The state capital is Carson City. There are 16 counties, 17 incorporated cities and towns, 44 unincorporated towns and 1 city-county (Carson City). Governor: Richard Bryan (D.), 1987-91 ($65,000). Lieut-Governor: Bob Miller (D.) ($10,500). Secretary of State: F. S. Del Papa (D.) ($42,500). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1986, state general fund revenues were $482-2m., including federal receipts; budget expenditures were $461-9m.

1498

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Education, followed by human resources and public safety, received the largest appropriations. State bonded indebtedness on 30 June 1986, was $25-3m. The state has no franchise tax, capital stock tax, special intangibles tax, chain stores tax, stock transfer tax, admissions tax, gift tax, income taxes or inheritance tax. The sales and use tax and gaming taxes are the largest revenue producers. Per capita personal income (1986) was $15,074. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Electricity. Electricity power stations in 1986 supplied about 352,174 residential customers, 51,078 commercial, and 477 industrial customers. Minerals. Production, 1985, in order of value was gold ($364-4m.), petroleum ($56-6m.), silver ($38-7m.), sand and gravel ($24 8m.), barite ($14-4m.), gypsum ($9-9m.). Other minerals are iron ore, mercury, lime, lithium, gemstones, lead, molybdenum, fluorspar, perlite, pumice, clays, talc, salt, tungsten, magnesite, diatonite and zinc. Agriculture. In 1986, an estimated 2,400 farms had a farm area of 8-8m. acres (9-2m. in 1960). Farms averaged 3,667 acres. Area under irrigation (1986) was 829,761 acres compared with 542,976 acres in 1959. Gross income, 1986, from crops, livestock and government payments, $262-3m. Cattle, hay, dairy products, potatoes and sheep are the principal commodities in order of cash receipts. Total value of crops produced, $134- l m . O n 1 Jan. 1986 there were 27,000 milch cows, 523,000 beef cattle, 86,000 sheep and lambs. Forestry. The area of national forests (1983) under US Forest Service administration was 5,150,088 acres. National forests: Toiyabe (2,561,441 acres); Humboldt (2,527,938), Inyo (60,656); Eldorado (53). I N D U S T R Y . The main industry is the service industry (32% of employment), especially tourism and legalized gambling; others include, mining and smelting, livestock and irrigated agriculture, chemical manufacturing, and lumber processing. In 1986 there were 999 manufacturing establishments with 22,254 employees, earning $483m. Gaming industry gross revenue for financial year 1986, $3,532m. There were at the same time 1,952 gaming licences in force and 4,269 licensed games. L A B O U R . The annual average unemployment for 1986 was 6% of the work force. All industries employed 509,000 workers. Main industries and employees, 1986: Service industries, 207,300; retail trade, 78,100; government, 61,500; finance, insurance and real estate, 10,100; transport, 15,200; public works and utilities, 11,400; mining, 6,300. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Highway mileage (federal, state and local) totalled 51,118 in 1984, of which 16,798 miles were surfaced; motor vehicle registrations at 31 Dec. 1985 numbered 825,727. Railways. In 1987 there were 1,465 miles of main-line railway. Nevada is served by Southern Pacific, Union Pacific and Western Pacific railways, and Amtrak passenger service for Las Vegas, Elko, Reno and Sparks. Aviation. There were 124 civil airports and heliports in 1984. During 1986 McCarren International Airport (Las Vegas) handled 12-4m. passengers and Reno-Cannon International Airport handled 3 -2m. passengers. Post. In 1986 there were 84 telephone exchanges, 11 local exchange carriers with 566,846 telephones in service. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Prohibition of marriage between persons of different race was repealed by statute in 1959.

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

1499

A 1965 Civil Rights Act makes it illegal for persons operating public accommodations, employers of 15 or more employees, labour unions, and employment agencies to discriminate on the basis of race, colour, religion or national origin; a 1971 law makes racial discrimination in the sale or renting of houses illegal. A Commission on Equal Rights of Citizens is charged with enforcing these laws. Between 1924 and 1967 executions (by lethal gas—the first state to adopt this method, in 1921), numbered 31. Capital punishment was abolished in 1972 and later re-introduced; there was 1 execution (by lethal gas) in 1979. Religion. Roman Catholics were the most numerous religious group at the 1980 census, followed by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) and various Protestant churches. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 7 to 17 years of age. In 1986 the 195 public elementary schools had 88,831 pupils; there were 95 secondary public schools with 72,408. There were 3,683 elementary teachers (average salary $26,569), 3,022 secondary teachers with an average salary of $27,914. There were 70 private schools. The University of Nevada, Reno, had, in 1985-86, 330 full-time instructors and 9,718 students (regular, non-degree and correspondent), and University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 349 instructors and 12,279 students. Twoyear community colleges operate as part of the University of Nevada system in Reno, Carson City, Elko and Las Vegas. There were (1985-86) 199 instructors and 24,803 students. Health. In 1986 the state had 35 hospitals (4,125 beds); there were 30 skilled nursing units (2,957 beds). Social Security. In 1986 benefits were paid to 130,000 persons: 86 retired (aged 62 and over) workers (average payment $491 per month); 14,000 widows and widowers ($453); 10,000 disabled workers ($514), their wives and husbands (9,000 at $247), 11,000 children ($251). Social Security beneficiaries represented 13-5% of the population. Books of Reference Information:

Bureau of Business and Economic Research (Univ. o f N e v a d a ) .

Bushnell, E., and Driggs, D. W., The Nevada Constitution: Origin and Growth. Univ. of Nevada Press, 5th ed., 1980 Hulse, James W., The Nevada Adventure, A History. Univ. o f N e v a d a Press, 2nd ed., 1969 Laxalt, R., Nevada: A History. New York, 1977 Mack, E. M., and Sawyer, B. W., Here is Nevada: A History of the State. Sparks, Nevada, 1965 Paher, S. W., Nevada, an Annotated Bibliography. Nevada, 1980 State Library: Nevada State Library, Carson City. State Librarian: Mildred J. Heyer.

NEW HAMPSHIRE H I S T O R Y . New Hampshire, first settled in 1623, is one of the 13 original states of the Union. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . New Hampshire is bounded north by Canada, east by Maine and the Atlantic, south by Massachusetts and west by Vermont. Area, 9,279 sq. miles, of which 286 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980,920,610, an increase of24-8% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 998,000. Births, 1984, were 12,656 (13 per 1,000 population); deaths, 7,749 (7 -9); infant deaths, 106 (8-4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 11,363 (11-6); divorces, 4,808 (4-9). Population at 5 federal censuses was:

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1910 1930 1960

White 429,906 464,351 604,334

Negro 564 790 1,903

1970 1980

733,106 910,099

2,505 3,990

Indian 34 64 135

Asiatic 68 88 549

All others 2,070 6,521

Total 430,572 465,293 606,921

Per sq. mile 47-7 51 -6 65-2

737,681 920,610

81-7 1019

Of the total population in 1980, 448,462 were male, 480,325 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 625,562. The largest city of the state is Manchester, with a 1980 census population of 90,757. Other cities are: Nashua, 67,817; Concord (capital), 30,400; Portsmouth, 26,214; Dover, 22,265; Keene, 21,385; Rochester, 21,579; Berlin, 13,090; Laconia, 15,579; Claremont, 14,575; Lebanon, 11,052; Somersworth, 10,313. CLIMATE. Manchester. Jan. 22°F (-5 6°C), July 70°F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 40" (1,003 mm). See New England, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. While the present constitution dates from 1784, it was extensively revised in 1792 when the state joined the Union. Since 1775 there have been 16 state conventions with 49 amendments adopted to amend the constitution. TTie Legislature consists of a Senate of 30 members, elected for 2 years, and a House of Representatives, restricted to between 375 and 400 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and 5 administrative officers called 'Councillors' are also elected for 2 years. Electors must be adult citizens, able to read and write, duly registered and not paupers or under sentence for crime. New Hampshire sends to the Federal Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 244,790 votes, Mondale, 110,268. The capital is Concord. The state is divided into 10 counties. Governor: John Sununu (R.), 1985-88 ($44,520). Secretary of State: William M. Gardner (D.) ($31,270). B U D G E T . The state government's general revenue for the fiscal year ending 30 June 1982 (US Census Bureau figures) was $1,306m. ($732m. from taxes, $320m. from federal aid); general expenditures, $ 1,392m. ($504m. on education, $188m. on public welfare, $ 174m. on highways). Net long-term debt, 30 June 1982, was $ 1,480m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 14,964. N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. Minerals are little worked; they consist mainly of sand and gravel, stone, and clay for building and highway construction. Agriculture. In 1985, there were 3,000 farms occupying lm. acres; average farm was 333 acres. Average value per acre, $1,419. The US Soil Survey estimates that the state has 164,167 acres of excellent soil, 486,615 acres of fair soil, 530,630 of poor soil and 3,843,798 of non-arable soil. Only 636,195 acres (11% of the total area) show moderate erosion. Cash income, 1986, from crops, $42-7m., and livestock, $71 -6m. The chief field crops are hay and vegetables; the chief fruit crop is apples. Forestry. In 1979 forest land totalled 5m. acres; national forest, 705,000 acres. Fisheries. The 1985 catch was 8m. lb., worth $5m. I N D U S T R Y . Total non-agricultural employment (1985), 466,000, of which 123,000 are in manufacturing, 113,000 in trade, 99,000 in services.

NEW JERSEY

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Principal manufactures: electrical machinery, non-electrical machinery, metal products, textiles and shoes. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 1 Jan. 1982 the state's highway mileage was 12,400 miles of rural roads, 2,100 miles of urban roads; there were 1,352 miles of federal-aid highways (primary), of which 202 miles were interstate. Motor vehicles registered, 1985, numbered 905,000. Railways. In 1975 the length of railway in the state was 826 miles. Aviation. In 1981 there were 15 public and 37 private airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state prison held 683 persons on 31 Dec. 1985. Since 1930 there has been only one execution (by hanging)—a white man, for murder, in 1939. Religion. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest single body. The largest Protestant churches are Congregational, Episcopal, Methodist and United Baptist Convention of N.H. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 6 to 14 years of age during the whole school term, or to 16 if their district provides a high school. Employed illiterate minors between 16 and 21 years of age must attend evening or special classes, if provided by the district. In 1983-84 the public elementary and secondary schools had 159,000 pupils and (1986) 10,500 classroom teachers. Public school salaries, 1986, averaged $20,150. Total expenditure on public schools in 1986 was estimated at $482m. or $483 per capita. Of the 4-year colleges, the University of New Hampshire (1866) had 10,609 students in 1985-86; New Hampshire College (1932) had 3,373; Keene State College (1909) had 2,981; River College (1933) had 2,285. Dartmouth College, at Hanover was founded in 1769 (4,604 students in 1985-86). Health. In 1983 the state had 34 hospitals (4,600 beds). On 1 Jan. 1980 mental hospitals had 608 patients, and there were 679 persons in state institutions for the mentally retarded. Social Security. The Division of Welfare handles public assistance for (1) aged citizens 65 years or over, (2) needy aged aliens, (3) needy blind persons, (4) needy citizens between 18 and 64 years inclusive, who are permanently and totally disabled, (5) needy children under 21 years, (6) Medicaid and the medically needy not eligible for a monthly grant. In Dec. 1985, 1,800 persons were receiving SSI old-age assistance of an average $109 per month; 4,300 permanently and totally disabled, $220 per month; 5,000 families with dependent children, $300 per month. Books of Reference Delorme, D. (ed.), New Hampshire Alias and Gazetteer. Freeport, 1983 Morison, E. E.,and E. F., New Hampshire. New York, 1976 Squires, J. D., The Granite State of the United States: A History of New Hampshire from 1623 to the present. 4 vols., New York, 1956

N E W JERSEY H I S T O R Y . New Jersey, first settled in the early 1600s, is one of the 13 original states in the Union. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . New Jersey is bounded north by New York, east by the Atlantic with Long Island and New York City to the north-east, south

1502

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by Delaware Bay and west by Pennsylvania. Area (US Bureau of Census), 7,787 sq. miles (319 sq. miles being inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 7,364,823, an increase of 2-7% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 7,562,000. Births, 1984, were 97,488 (13 per 1,000 population); deaths, 66,477 (8-8); infant deaths, 908 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 62,192 (8-3); divorces, 28,469 (38). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 2,445,894 3,829,663 5,539,003 6,349,908 6,127,467

Negro 89,760 208,828 514,875 770,292 925,066

Indian 168 213 1,699 4,706 8,394

Asiatic 1,345 2,630 8,778 20,537 103,847

All others 122 2,427 22,721 200,048

Total Per sq. mile 2,537,167 337-7 4,041,334 537-3 6,066,782 739-5 7,168,164 953-1 7,364,823 986-2

Of the population in 1980,3,533,012 were male, 6,557,377 persons were urban, 5,116,581 were 20 years of age or older. Census population of the larger cities and towns in 1980 was: Newark Jersey City Paterson Elizabeth T r e n t o n (capital) Camden Clifton East O r a n g e Bayonne

329,248 223,532 137,970 106,201 92,124 84,910 74,388 77,025 65,047

Irvington U n i o n City Vineland Passaic Woodbridge Hamilton Edison C h e r r y Hill

61,493 55,593 53,753 52,463 90,074 82,801 70,193 68,785

ParsippanyTroy Hills 49,868 Middletown 62,574 Union Township 50,184 Bloomfield 47,792 A t l a n t i c City 40,199 Plainfield 45,555 Hoboken 42,460 Montclair 38,321

Largest urbanized areas (1980) were: Newark, 1,963,000; Jersey City, 555,483; Paterson-Clifton-Passaic, 447,785; Trenton (NJ-Pa.), 305,678. C L I M A T E . Jersey City. Jan. 31°F (-0-6°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 41 " (1,025 mm). Trenton. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,003 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The legislative power is vested in a Senate and a General Assembly, the members of which are chosen by the people, all citizens (with necessary exceptions) 18 years of age, with the usual residential qualifications, having the right of suffrage. The present constitution, ratified by the registered voters on 4 Nov. 1947, has been amended 27 times. In 1966 the Constitutional Convention proposed, and the people adopted, a new plan providing for a 40-member Senate and an 80-member General Assembly. This plan, as certified by the Apportionment Commission and modified by the courts, provides for 40 legislative districts, with 1 senator and 2 assemblymen elected for each. Assemblymen serve 2 years, senators 4 years, except those elected at the election following each census, who serve for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 14 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,861,774 votes, Mondale, 1,229,206. The capital is Trenton. The state is divided into 21 counties, which are subdivided into 567 municipalities—cities, towns, boroughs, villages and townships. Governor: Thomas H. Kean (R.), 1986-90 ($85,000). Secretary of State: Jane Burgio ($66,000). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1985 (budget figures) general revenues were $9,080-2m. (taxation $4,921m. and federal aid, $2,419-6m.); general expenditures were $8,824m. (education, $2,663m.; highways, $117-5m., and public welfare, $912-7m.). Total net long-term debt, 31 Dec. 1984, was $2,381 -2m. Per capita personal income (1984) was $15,282.

NEW JERSEY

1503

NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. The chief minerals are stone ($15m., 1984) and sand and gravel ($34-3m.); others are zinc ($3m.), clay products ($986,000), peat and gemstones. New Jersey is a leading producer of greensand marl, magnesium compounds and peat. Total value of mineral products, 1984, was $ 149m. Agriculture. Livestock raising, market-gardening, fruit-growing, horticulture and forestry are pursued. In 1984, 9,400 farms had a total area of 970,000 acres; average farm in 1984 had 103 acres valued at $3,056 per acre. Cash income, 1984, from crops and livestock, $513m. Leading crops are tomatoes (value, $18-2m., 1984), all corn ($29-6m.), peaches ($29 -8m.), hay ($ 11 • 7m.), blueberries ($ 18 -2m.), soybeans ($22 -8m.). Farm animals on 1 Jan. 1984 included 40,000 milch cows, 100,000 all cattle, (1982) 8,000 sheep and lambs and 41,000 swine. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984 manufacturing establishments employed 731,200 workers, receiving (preliminary) $ 19,700m. in wages. The principal industries by value are: Chemicals and allied products, construction, electrical and electronic equipment, machinery (except electrical). COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1983 there were 33,879 miles of roads (municipal, 24,043 miles; state, 2,246 miles; county, 6,680 miles; others, 910 miles). Railways. In Sept. 1985, the state had 1,882 05 route miles of railway. Aviation. There were (1985) 95 airports (31 restricted), of which 14 (3) were publicly owned and 50 (28) privately owned. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. State prisons in Aug. 1985 had 12,814 adult and 587 juvenile inmates. The last execution (by electrocution) was in 1963; it was the 160th, all for murder. Future executions would be by lethal injection. The constitution of New Jersey forbids discrimination against any person on account of 'religious principles, race, color, ancestry or national origin'. The state has had, since 1945, a 'fair employment act', i.e., a Civil Rights statute forbidding any employer, public or private (with 6 or more employees), to discriminate against any applicant for work (or to discharge any employee) on the grounds of 'race, creed, color, national origin or ancestry'. Trade unions may not bar Negroes from membership. Religion. The Roman Catholic population of New Jersey in 1984 was 3 1m. The five largest Protestant sects were United Methodists, 150,000; United Presbyterians, 174,000; Episcopalians, 147,000; Lutherans, 89,000; American Baptists, 74,000. There were 40,000 African Methodists and 4,000 Christian Methodist Episcopalians. The main Jewish sects were Reform (38,000) and Conservative (27,000). Education. Elementary instruction is compulsory for all from 6 to 16 years of age and free to all from 5 to 20 years of age. In autumn 1984 public elementary schools had 725,700 and secondary schools had 422,138 enrolled pupils; public colleges in autumn 1984 had 313,985 students, including 117,212 in community colleges, and independent colleges had 63,607. The total cost of public schools, 1984—85, $5,507m. Average salary of all elementary and secondary classroom teachers in public schools 1984—85 was $25,000. Rutgers, the State University (founded as Queen's College in 1766) had, in 1984, an opening autumn enrolment of 47,200 full- and part-time students. Princeton (founded in 1746) had 4,500 undergraduate and 1,500 graduate students. Fairleigh Dickinson (1941), had 9,770 undergraduate and 5,658 graduate students; Kean College, 12,930 students in 1983; Montclair State College, 14,949 in 1983; Glassboro State College, 8,960 in 1983; Trenton State College, 9,268 in 1983.

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U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

Health. In 1984 the state had 136 hospitals (34,445 beds), listed by the American Hospital Association. Social Security. In the financial year 1982 gross expenditure for all public assistance programmes was $563,000,000. Average monthly total of cases was $358,000 with an average grant per case of $350. Books of Reference Legislative District Data Book. Bureau ofGovernment Research. Annual Manual of the Legislature of New Jersey. Trenton. Annual Boyd, J. P. (ed.), Fundamentals and Constitutions of New Jersey, 1664-1954. Princeton, 1964 Cunningham, J. T., New Jersey: America's Main Road. Rev. ed. New York, 1976 Kuli, I. Stoddard, (ed.), New Jersey, a History. New York, 1930 League of Women Voters of New Jersey. New Jersey: Spotlight on Government. Rutgers Univ. Press, 3rd ed., 1978 Lehne, R., and Rosenthal, A. (eds.), Politics in New Jersey. Rev. ed., Rutgers Univ. Press, 1979 State Library: 185 W. State Street, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Slate Librarian: Barbara F. Weaver.

NEW MEXICO H I S T O R Y . The first European settlement was established in 1598. Until 1771 New Mexico was the Spanish kings' 'Kingdom of New Mexico'. In 1771 it was annexed to the northern province of New Spain. When New Spain won its independence in 1821, it took the name of Republic of Mexico and established New Mexico as its northernmost department. When the war between the US and Mexico was concluded on 2 Feb. 1848 New Mexico was recognized as belonging to the US, and on 9 Sept. 1850 it was made a Territory. Part of the Territory was assigned to Texas; later Utah was formed into a separate Territory; in 1861 another part was transferred to Colorado, and in 1863 Arizona was disjoined, leaving to New Mexico its present area. New Mexico became a state in Jan. 1912. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . New Mexico is bounded north by Colorado, north-east by Oklahoma, east by Texas, south by Texas and Mexico and west by Arizona. Land area 121,335 sq. miles (258 sq. miles water). Public lands, administered by federal agencies (1975) amounted to 26-7m. acres or 34% of the total area. The Bureau of Indian Affairs held 7 -3m. acres; the State of New Mexico held 9 -4m. acres; 34 -4m. acres were privately owned. Census population, 1 April 1980, 1,302,894, an increase of 285,839 or 28% since 1970. Estimate (1987) 1,500,000. Vital statistics, 1986: Births, 27,281 (18 -4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 10,007 (6-8); infant deaths, 254 (9-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 14,142 (9-6); divorces, 8,872 (6 0). The population in 5 census years was:

1910 1940 1960 1970 1980

While 304,594 492,312 875,763 915,815 1,164,053

Negro 1,628 4,672 17,063 19,555 24,406 1

Asian and Pacific islander Other Indian 20,573 506 324 34,510 1,942 56,255 72,788 7,842 > 6,825 1,491 106,119 Includes unspecified races, 1970.

Total 327,301 531,818 951,023 1,016,000 1,302,894

Per sq. mile 2-7 4-4 7-8 8-4 10-7

Of the 1980 total, 642,157 were male, 939,963 persons were urban; 884,987 were 18 years of age or older. Before 1930 New Mexico was largely a Spanish-speaking state, but since 1945 an influx of population from other states has reduced the percentage of persons of Spanish origin or descent to 36 • 6%. The largest cities are Albuquerque, with census population, 1980, 332,336 (and 1986 estimate, 366,750); Santa Fe (capital), 48,953 (55,980); Las Cruces, 45,086 (54,090); Roswell, 39,676 (44,110); Farmington, 31,222 (39,050).

NEW

MEXICO

1505

CLIMATE. Santa Fe. Jan. 29°F ( - 1 - T Q , July 68°F (20°C). Annual rainfall 15" (366 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1912 is still in force with 105 amendments. The state Legislature, which meets annually, consists of 42 members of the Senate, elected for 4 years, and 70 members of the House of Representatives, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 3 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 304,950 votes, Mondale 200,953. The state capital is Santa Fe. For local government the state is divided into 33 counties. Governor: Garrey Carruthers (R.), 1987-91 ($63,000). Lieut.-Governor: JackStahl (R.), 1987-91 ($40,425). Secretary of State: Rebecca Vigil (D.), 1987-91 ($40,425). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1985 (US Census Bureau figures) the states general revenues were $3,124m. ($ 1,439m. from taxation and $527m. from federal government); general expenditures, $2,816m. (education, $159m.; highways, $ 100m., and public welfare, $ 190m.). Long-term debt on 30 June 1985 was $289m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 11,422. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. New Mexico is the country's largest domestic source of uranium, perlite and potassium salts. Production of recoverable UsOs was 1 -3m. lb. in 1986; perlite, 386,000 short tons; potassium salts, 1 1 m . short tons; petroleum, 75m. bbls (of 42 gallons); natural gas, 710m. cu. ft; natural gas liquids, 34 lm. bbls (of 42 gallons); copper, 294,265 short tons (1985); coal, 21m. short tons marketed. The value of the total mineral output (1985) was $5,658m. An average of 16,300 persons were employed monthly in the mining industry in 1986. Agriculture. New Mexico produces cereals, vegetables, fruit, livestock and cotton. Dry farming and irrigation have proved profitable in periods of high prices. There were 13,600 farms and ranches covering 44-6m. acres in 1986; in the 1982 US Census of Agriculture average farm (or ranch) was valued (land and buildings) at $618,708; 3,732 farms and ranches were of 1,000 acres and over. Cash income, 1986 (preliminary), from crops, $306-5m., and from livestock products, $712-lm. Principal crops are wheat (10-lm. bu. from 460,000 acres), hay (l-3m. tons from 310,000 acres) and sorghum/grains (10-4m. bu. from 250,000 acres). Farm animals on 1 Jan. 1987 included 61,000 milch cows, 1 -4m. all cattle, 480,000 sheep and 36,000 swine (1986). National forest area (1982) covered 9 • 3m. acres. I N D U S T R Y . Average monthly non-agricultural employment during 1987 was 529,500: 38,400 were employed in manufacturing, 138,200 in government. Value of manufactures shipments, 1985, $4,073-7m.; leading commodities, food and kindred products, transport and equipment, lumber and wood. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. On 13 March 1987 the state had 79,735 miles of road, of which the state maintained 11,722 miles. Motor vehicle registrations, 1986,1,315,745. Railways. On 31 Dec. 1986 there were 2,062 miles of railway. Aviation. There were 72 public-use airports in Sept. 1987. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The number of state prison inmates in Sept. 1987 was 2,620, including

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442 in juvenile centres; there were also 71 New Mexico prisoners held outside the state. The death penalty (by electrocution formerly, and now by lethal injection) has been imposed on 8 persons since 1933, 6 whites and 2 Negroes, all for murder. The last execution was in 1961. Since 1949 the denial of employment by reason of race, colour, religion, national origin or ancestry has been forbidden. A law of 1955 prohibits discrimination in public places because of race or colour. An 'equal rights' amendment was added to the constitution in 1972. Religion. There were (1975) approximately 356,530 Protestant Church members and 315,470 Roman Catholics. Education. Elementary education is free, and compulsory between 6 and 17 years or high-school graduation age. In 1985-86 the 88 school districts had an estimated enrolment of 291,185 students in elementary and secondary schools of which private and parochial schools had 24,983. There were 14,693 teachers receiving an average salary of $21,982. Public expenditure for elementary and secondary schools was $993m. The state-supported 4-year institutes of higher education are (1985-86 '): University of New Mexico, Albuquerque New Mexico State University, Las Cruces Eastern New Mexico University, Portales New Mexico Highlands University, Las Vegas Western New Mexico University, Silver City New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro 1

Full-time Faculty 1,228 684 286 122 83 86

Students 27,479 17,402 7,358 2,063 1,565 1,220

Figures include branches outside main campus in cities listed.

Health. In 1987 the state had 49 short-term hospitals (4,284 beds). Social Security. In Dec. 1985,16,483 persons were receiving federal supplemental security income for the disabled (average $235.25 per month); 9,329 persons were receiving old-age assistance (average $ 135.91 per month); 513 persons were receiving aid to the blind (average $229.70 per month). In 1985 a monthly average of 50,831 people received aid to families with dependent children (average $83.64 per month). Books of Reference New Mexico Business (monthly; annual review in Jan.-Feb. issue). Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of N.M., Albuquerque New Mexico Progress Economic Review (annual). Sunwest, Albuquerque New Mexico Statistical Abstract: 1984. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of N.M., Albuquerque, 1984 Beck, W., New Mexico: a History of Four Centuries. Univ. ofOklahoma, 1979 Garcia, C., Haine, P., and Rhodes, H., State and Local Government in New Mexico. Albuquerque, 1979 Jenkins, M . , a n d Schroeder, A., A Brief History of New Mexico. Univ. of New Mexico, 1974 Muench, D., and Hillerman, T., New Mexico. Belding, Portland, Oregon, 1974

NEW YORK STATE H I S T O R Y . From 1609 to 1664 the region now called New York was claimed by the Dutch; then it came under the rule of the English, who governed the country until the outbreak of the War of Independence. On 20 April 1777 New York adopted a constitution which transformed the colony into an independent state; on 26 July 1788 it ratified the constitution of the US, becoming one of the 13 original states. New York dropped its claim to Vermont after the latter was admitted to the Union in 1791. With the annexation of a small area from Massachusetts in 1853, New York assumed its present boundaries. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . New York is bounded west and north by

NEW YORK

1507

STATE

Canada with Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River forming the boundary; east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut, south-east by the Atlantic, south by New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Area, 49,108 sq. miles (1,731 sq. miles being water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 17,557,288, a decrease of 3-7% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 17,783,000. Births in 1984 were 251,062 (14-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 168,852 (9-5); infant deaths, 2,789 (11-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 168,860 (9-5); divorces, 61,075 (3-4, includes all dissolutions). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 8,966,845 12,143,191 15,287,071

Negro 134,191 412,814 1,417,511

1970 1980

15,834,090 13,961,106

2,168,949 2,401,842

Indian 6,046 6,973 16,491

Asiatic 6,532 15,088 51,678

All others 233,828 1,194,340

Tola! 9,113,614 12,588,066 16,782,304

Per sq. mite 191-2 262-6 350-2

18,236,967 17,557,288

380-3 367 0

Of the 1980 population, 8,338,961 were male, 14,857,202 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 12,232,284. Aliens registered in Jan. 1980 numbered 801,411. The population of New York City, by boroughs, census of 1 April 1980 was: Manhattan, 1,427,533; Bronx, 1,169,115; Brooklyn, 2,230,936; Queens, 1,891,325; Staten Island, 352,121; total, 7,071,030. The New York metropolitan statistical area had, in 1980,9,080,777. Population of other large cities and incorporated places census, April 1980, was: Buffalo Rochester Yonkers Syracuse White Plains Rome Hempstead Freeport Jamestown Valley Stream

357,002 241,509 194,557 170,292 46,999 43,826 40,404 38,272 35,775 35,769

Albany (capital) 101,767 Utica 75,435 Niagara Falls 71,344 New Rochelle 70,345 N. Tonawanda 35,760 Elmira 35,327 Auburn 32,548 Poughkeepsie 29,757 Watertown 27,861

Other large urbanized areas, census 1980; Buffalo, Albany-Schenectady-Troy, 794,298.

Schenectady Mount Vernon Troy Binghamton Lindenhurst Rockville Center Newburgh Garden City Massapequa Park

67,877 66,023 56,614 55,745 26,919 25,405 23,438 22,927

•2m.; Rochester, 970,313;

C L I M A T E . Albany. Jan. 24°F(-4-4°C), July 73°F(22-8°C). Annual rainfall 34" (855 mm). Buffalo. Jan. 24°F (-4-4°C), July 70°F (21-1°C). Annual rainfall 36" (905 mm). New York. Jan. 30°F (-1 • 1°C), July 74°F (23 -3°C). Annual rainfall 43" (1,087 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1894; a later constitutional convention, 1938, is now legally considered merely to have amended the 1894 constitution, which has now had 93 amendments. The Constitutional Convention of 1967 (4 April through 26 Sept.) was composed of 186 delegates who proposed a new state constitution; however this was rejected by the registered voters on 7 Nov. 1967. The Senate consists of 60 members, and the Assembly of 150 members, both elected every 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The right of suffrage resides in every adult who has been a citizen for 90 days, and has the residential qualifications; new voters must establish, by certificates or test, that they have had at least an elementary education. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 34 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 3,525,266 votes, Mondale, 3,013,521. The state capital is Albany. For local government the state is divided into 62 counties, 5 of which constitute the city of New York. New York leads in state parks and recreation areas, covering 252,984 acres in 1979.

1508

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Cities are in 3 classes, the first class having each 175,000 or more inhabitants and the third under 50,000. Each is incorporated by charter, under special legislation. The government of New York City is vested in the mayor (Edward Koch), elected for 4 years, and a city council, whose president and members are elected for 4 years. The council has a President and 37 members, each elected from a state senatorial district wholly within the city. The mayor appoints all the heads of departments, except the comptroller, who is elected. Each of the 5 city boroughs (Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Richmond) has a president, elected for 4 years. Each borough is also a county bearing the same name except Manhattan borough, which, as a county, is called New York, and Brooklyn, which is Kings County. Governor: Mario Cuomo (D.), 1987-91 ($130,000). Lieut.-Governor: Stan Lundine (D.), 1987-91 ($110,000). Secretary of State: Gail Schaefer (D.), 1987-91 ($79,218). B U D G E T . The state's general revenues for the financial year ending 31 March 1982 were $16,142m. ($14,959m. from taxes); general expenditures were $16,126m. ($5,298m. for education, $8,049m. for social services, $l,893m. for transport). Per capita personal income was $14,121 in 1984. The assessed valuation in 1980 of taxable real property in New York City was $38,056m. The assessed valuation ofthe state was $86,741 m. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Production of principal minerals in 1980: Sand and gravel (22,000 short tons), salt (5,500 short tons), zinc (33,629 tonnes), petroleum (824,296 bbls), natural gas (15,680m. cu. ft). The state is a leading producer of titanium concentrate, talc, abrasive garnet, wollastonite and emery. Quarry products include trap rock, slate, marble, limestone and sandstone. Value of mineral output in 1980 $497-9m. Agriculture. New York has large agricultural interests. In 1985 it had 45,000 farms, with a total area of 9m. acres; average farm was 200 acres; average value per acre, $808. Cash income, 1985, from crops $719m. and livestock, $l,845m. Dairying, with 18,500 farms, 1981, is an important type of farming with produce at a market value of $ 1,383m. Field crops comprise maize, winter wheat, oats and hay. New York ranks second in US in the production of apples, and maple syrup. Other products are grapes, tart cherries, peaches, pears, plums, strawberries, raspberries, cabbages, onions, potatoes, maple sugar. Estimated farm animals, 1986, included 2m. all cattle, 968,000 milch cows, 55,000 sheep, 130,000 swine and 8m. chickens. I N D U S T R Y . The main employers (1982 census) are service industries (997,800), trade (1,381,000) and manufacture (1,418,800). Leading industries were clothing, non-electrical machinery, printing and publishing, electrical equipment, instruments, food and allied products and fabricated metals. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1981) 109,485 miles of municipal and rural roads. The New York State Thruway extends 559 miles from New York City to Buffalo; in 1985 receipts from tolls amounted to $189,273,009. The Northway, a 176-mile toll-free highway, is a connecting road from the Thruway at Albany to the Canadian border at Champlain, Quebec. Motor vehicle registrations in 1985 were 9-6m., most of which (7-7m.) were private passenger vehicles. Railways. There were in 1981, 3,891 miles of Class I railways. New York City has NYCTA and PATH metro systems, and commuter railways run by Metro-North, New Jersey Rail and Long Island Rail Road. Aviation. There were 472 airports and landing areas in 1986.

NEW YORK

1509

STATE

Shipping. The canals of the state, combined in 1918 in what is called the Improved Canal System, have a length of 524 miles, of which the Erie or Barge canal has 340 miles. In 1981 the canals carried 807,925 tons of freight. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The State Human Rights Law was approved 12 March 1945, effective 1 July, 1945. The State Division of Human Rights is charged with the responsibility of enforcing this law. The division may request and utilize the services of all governmental departments and agencies; adopt and promulgate suitable rules and regulations; test, investigate and pass judgment upon complaints alleging discrimination in employment, in places of public accommodation, resort or amusement, education, and in housing, land and commercial space; hold hearings, subpoena witnesses and require the production for examination of papers relating to matters under investigation; grant compensatory damages and require repayment of profits in certain housing cases among other provisions; apply for court injunctions to prevent frustration of orders of the Commissioner. On 30 Dec. 1984,33,155 persons were in state prisons. In 1963-81 there were no executions. Total executions (by electrocution) from 1930 to 1962 were 329 (234 whites, 90 Negroes, 5 other races; all for murder except 2 for kidnapping). In 1985 murders reported in New York were 1,688; total violent crimes, 165,145. Police strength (sworn officers) in 1985 was 61,009 (39,193 New York City). Religion. The churches are Roman Catholic, with 6,367,576 members in 1981, Jewish congregations (about 2m. in 1981) and Protestant Episcopal (299,929 in 1980). Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16. In 1985 the public elementary and secondary schools had 2,605,363 pupils; classroom teachers numbered 175,256 in public schools. Total expenditure on public schools in 1985 was $13,244m. Teachers' salaries, 1985, averaged $29,200. The state's educational system, including public and private schools and secondary institutions, universities, colleges, libraries, museums, etc., constitutes (by legislative act) the 'University of the State of New York', which is governed by a Board of Regents consisting of 15 members appointed by the Legislature. Within the framework of this 'University' was established in 1948 a 'State University' which controls 64 colleges and educational centres, 30 of which are locally operated community colleges. The 'State University' is governed by a board of 16 Trustees, appointed by the Governor with the consent and advice of the Senate. Higher education in the state is conducted in 296 institutions (642,000 full-time and 371,000 part-time students in autumn 1982); 573,000 students are in publiccontrol colleges and 439,000 in private. In autumn 1980 the institutions of higher education in the state included: Founded 1754 1795 1824 1831 1846 1846 1847 1848 1854 1856 1857 1861 1863 1865 1870 1948

Name and place Columbia University, New York U n i o n University, Schenectady and Albany Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy New York University, New York Colgate University, New York Fordham University, New York University o f t h e City of New York, New York University of Rochester, Rochester Polytechnic Institute of New York St Lawrence University, Canton Cooper Union Institute of Technology, New York Vassar College, Poughkeepsie M a n h a t t a n College, New York Cornell University, Ithaca Syracuse University, Syracuse State University of New York

Teachers 3,965 178 442 2,615 205 958 12,426 1,549 242 173 161 230 291 1,863 1,100 13,228

Students 17,410 2,071 6,145 45,000 2,550 14,653 172,683 11,159 4,583 2,375 872 2,364 3,498 17,866 11,819 372,415

1510

U N I T E D STATES OF

AMERICA

The Saratoga Performing Arts Centre (5,100 seats), a non-profit, tax-exempt organization, which opened in 1966, is the summer residence of the New York City Ballet and the Philadelphia Orchestra—two groups which present special educational programmes for students and teachers. Health. In 1981 the state had 278 hospitals (67,798 beds), 585 skilled nursing homes (62,435 beds) and 241 other institutions (24,302 beds). In 1986 mental health facilities had 21,836 patients and institutions for the mentally retarded had 10,581 patients. Social Security. The federal Supplemental Security Income programme covered aid to the needy aged, blind and disabled from 1 Jan. 1975. In the state programme for 1980, $4,543m. was paid in Medicaid to 2,288,000 people; aid to dependent children in 1985 went to 1,109,610 recipients, average benefits $371 per family per month. Books of Reference New York Red Book. Albany, 1979-80 Legislative Manual. Department of State, 1980-81 Managing Modern New York: the Carey Era. Rockefeller Institute, Albany, 1985 New York State Statistical Yearbook, 1986-87. Rockefeller Institute, Albany Years. Academy of Connery, R. and G . B., Governing New York State: The Rockefeller Political Science, New York, 1974 Ellis, D. M., History of New York State. Cornell Univ. Press, 1967 Flick, A. (ed.), History of the State of New York. Columbia Univ. Press, 1933-37 Lincoln, C , Constitutional History of New York 1809-1877. Rochester, 1906 Wolfe, G . R., New York: A Guide to the Metropolis. New York Univ. Press, 1975 State Library: The New York State Library, Albany 12230. State Librarian Commissioner for Libraries: Joseph Shubert.

and

Assistant

NORTH CAROLINA HISTORY. North Carolina, first settled in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh and permanently settled in 1663, was one ofthe 13 original states of the Union. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . North Carolina is bounded north by Virginia, east by the Atlantic, south by South Carolina, south-west by Georgia and west by Tennessee. Area, 52,669 sq. miles, of which 3,826 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980,5,874,429, an increase of 15 -5% since 1970. Estimated population (1986), 6,331,000. Births, 1984, were 86,705 (14-1 per 1,000 population); marriages, 52,123 (8-5); deaths, 51,496 (8 -4); infant deaths, 1,099 (12 • 7 per 1,000 live births); divorces and annulments, 29,125 (4-7). Population in 6 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1960

While 1,500,511 2,234,958 2,983,121 3,399,285

Negro 697,843 918,647 1,047,353 1,116,021

1970 1980

3,901,767 4,453,010

1,126,478 1,316,050

Indian 7,851 16,579 3,742 38,129

Asiatic 82 92 — 2,012

All others 53,814 105,369

Total 2,206,287 3,170,276 4,061,929 4,556,155 5,082,059 5,874,429

Per sq 45 64 82 92

mile 3 5 7 2

104 1 111 5

Of the total population in 1980,2,852,012 were male, 2,818,794 were urban and 3,976,359 were 20 years old or older; 14-8% were non-white. Cities (with census population in 1980) are: Charlotte, 314,447; Greensboro, 155,642; Winston-Salem, 131,885; Raleigh (capital), 149,771; Durham, 100,831; High Point, 64,107; Asheville, 53,281; Fayetteville, 59,507.

NORTH

CAROLINA

1511

CLIMATE. Climate varies sharply with altitude; the warmest area is in the south east near Southport and Wilmington; the coldest is Mount Mitchell (6,684 ft). Raleigh. Jan. 42°F (5-6°C), July 79°F (26- PC). Annual rainfall 46" (1,158 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The present constitution dates from 1971 (previous constitution, 1776 and 1868/76); it has had 19 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members and a House of Representatives of 120 members; all are elected by districts for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The Governor may succeed himself but has no veto. There are 19 other executive heads of department, 8 elected by the people and 9 appointed by the Governor. All registered citizens with the usual residential qualifications have a vote. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 11 representatives. In the presidential election of 1984 Reagan polled 1,314,802 votes, Mondale, 809,876. The capital is Raleigh, established in 1792. Governor: James G. Martin, (R.), 1985-89 ($100,000, plus $11,500 annual expenses). Lieut.-Governor: Robert B. Jordan, III (D.) ($61,044, plus $11,500 annual expenses). Secretary ofState: Thad Eure (D.) ($61,044). BUDGET. General revenue for the year ending 30 June 1986 was $4,910-9m. General expenditure was $4,971 • 9m. On 30 June 1986 the net total long-term debt amounted to $757m. Per capita personal income (1985-86) was $ 11,903. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Mining production in 1985 was valued at $474-7m. Principal minerals were stone, sand and gravel, phosphate rock, feldspar, lithium minerals, olivine, kaolin and talc. North Carolina ranked first in the production of scrap mica, feldspar, lithium minerals, olivine and phrophyllite. It is also the leading producer of bricks, making more than 1,000m. bricks a year. Agriculture. In 1985 there were 76,000 farms in North Carolina covering 10-8m. acres; average size of farms was 142 acres and total estimated value $ 18,500m. Cash receipts from farming (1984), $4,125m., of which $2,198m. was from crops and $ 1,927m. from livestock, dairy and poultry products. Main crop production: flue-cured tobacco, maize, soybeans, peanuts, wheat, sweet potatoes and apples. On 1 Jan. 1985 farms had 1 • 17m. all cattle, 2 -3m. swine and 20-2m. chickens. Forestry. Commercial forest covered 18 -5m. acres (60% of land area), in 1984. Main products are hardwood veneer and hardwood plywood, furniture woods, pulp, paper and lumber. Fisheries. Commercial fish catch, 1985, amounted to 215m. lb.; value approximately $65m. The catch is mainly of menhaden, crabmeat, bay scallops, flounder, croaker, shrimps, sea trout, spots and clams. I N D U S T R Y . North Carolina's manufacturing establishments in 1985 had 827,400 workers. The leading industries by employment are textiles, clothing, furniture, electrical machinery and equipment, non-electrical machinery, and food processing. In 1985 investment in new and expanded industry was $2,758m. About 576,200 are employed in trade, 422,800 in government and 427,600 in services. T O U R I S M . Total receipts of the travel industry, $4,500m. in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintained, 1985, 76,459 miles of highways, comprising all rural

1512

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

roads and 5,088 miles of urban streets which are major thoroughfares. In Oct. 1986,3,499,178 automobiles, 1,152,156 trucks and 1,274,137 other vehicles were registered. Railways. The state in 1986 contained 3,682 miles of railway operating in 91 of the 100 counties. There are 22 Class I, II and III rail companies. Aviation. In 1986 there were 82 public airports of which 14 are served by major airlines. Shipping. There are 2 ocean ports, Wilmington and Morehead City. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Total executions 1910-86, 365. There was one execution (by lethal injection) in 1986. Prison population at 31 Oct. 1986,17,700. Religion. Leading denominations are the Baptists (48-9% of church membership), Methodists (20-7%), Presbyterians (7 -7%), Lutherans (3%) and Roman Catholics (2-7%). Total estimate of all denominations in 1983 was2-6m. Education. School attendance is compulsory between 6 and 16. Public school enrolment, 1985-86, was 1,080,887; elementary and secondary schools numbered 1,968. Instructional staff (1986) consisted of 57,630 classroom teachers; average salary $22,476. Expenditure for public schools was $2,770m., 65 • 5% from state, 25 -2% from local and 9 • 3% from federal sources. In autumn 1985-86 state-supported colleges and universities included 58 community and technical colleges with 654,000 full and part time students. The 16 senior universities are all part of the University of North Carolina system, the largest campus being North Carolina State University and Raleigh, with 23,400 students. The university system was founded in 1789 at Chapel Hill and first opened in 1792. Its 1986 autumn enrolment was 130,000 students. In addition to the state-supported institutions there were 7 private junior colleges with an enrolment of 2,585 and 31 private senior institutions with a total enrolment of 19,009. The total undergraduate enrolment in private institutions for 1985 was 21,594. Health. In Oct. 1986 the state had 160 hospitals (34,438 beds). Social Security. In June 1982 there were 900,070 persons receiving $300-4m. in social security benefits. Of that number 496,020 were retired, receiving $ 186 -67m.; 85,640 were disabled ($34-7m.); 318,410 others received $79m. Books of Reference North Carolina Manual. Secretary of State. Raleigh. Biennial Clay, J. W., el al, (eds.), North Carolina Atlas: Portrait of a Changing Southern State. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1975 Corbitt, D. L., The Formation of the North Carolina Counties. Raleigh, 1969 Lefler, H. T., and Newsome, A. R., North Carolina: The History of a Southern State. Univ. of N.C., Chapel Hill, 1973

NORTH DAKOTA H I S T O R Y . North Dakota was admitted into the Union, with boundaries as at present, on 2 Nov. 1889; previously it had formed part of the Dakota Territory, established 2 March 1861. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . North Dakota is bounded north by Canada, east by the Red River (forming a boundary with Minnesota), south by South Dakota and west by Montana. Land area, 69,262 sq. miles, and 1,403 sq. miles of water. The Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs administered (1971) 850,000 acres, of which 153,000 acres were assigned to tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980,

NORTH

1513

DAKOTA

652,717, an increase of 34,956 or 5-7% since 1970. Estimate (1984), 686,000. Births in 1984 were 1 1,833 (17 per 1,000 population); deaths, 5,538 (8 0); infant deaths, 97; marriages, 5,786; divorces, 2,249. Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 569,855 671,851 619,538

Negro 617 377 111

1970 1980

599,485 625,557

2,494 2,568

Indian 6,486 8,617 1 1,736

Asiatic 98 194 274

All others 15,782 24,692

TotaI 577,056 680,845 632,446

Persq. mile 8-2 9-7 91

617,761 652,717

8-9 9-4

Of the total population in 1980, 328,126 were male, 317,821 were urban and 419,234 were 21 years old or older. Estimated outward migration, 1970-80, 16,983. The largest cities are Fargo with population (census), 1980, of 61,383; Grand Forks, 43,765; Bismarck (capital), 44,485, and Minot, 32,843. C L I M A T E . Bismarck. Jan. 8°F ( - 1 3 - 3 ' Q , July 71°F (21-PC). Annual rainfall 16" (402 mm). Fargo. Jan. 6°F (-14-4°C), July 71°F (21 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 2 0 " (503 mm). See High Plains and Mid-West (SW North Dakota is in the Plains, the rest in the mid-west lowlands), p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1889; it has had 95 amendments. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Senate of 53 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 106 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizens and civilized Indians. The state sends to Congress 2 senators elected by the voters of the entire state and 1 representative. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 155,856 votes, Mondale, 80,839. The capital is Bismarck. The state has 53 organized counties. Governor: George A. Sinner (D.), 1985-89(560,862 plus expenses). Lieut. - Governor: Ruth Meiers (D.), 1985-89 ($12,500 plus expenses). Secretary of State: Ben Meier (R.), 1985-89 ($43,380 plus expenses). F I N A N C E . General revenue of state and local government year ending 30 June 1982, was $l,286m.; general expenditures, $l,191m., taxation provided $533m. and federal aid, $252m.; education took $449m.; highways, $148m., and public welfare, $ 104m. Total net long-term debt (local government) on 30 June 1982, $325m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 12,052. ENERGY A N D NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. The mineral resources of North Dakota consist chiefly of oil which was discovered in 1951. Production of crude petroleum in 1984 was 52-6m. bbls; of natural gas, 76,800m. cu. ft. Output of lignite coal was 21 - 7m. short tons. Total value of mineral output, 1984, $ 1,724m. Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief pursuit of the North Dakota population. In 1985 there were 33,000 farms (61,963 in 1954) with an area of 41m. acres (41,876,924 in 1954); the average farm was of 1,242 acres. The greater number of farms are cash-grain or livestock farms with annual sales of $20,000-$39,999. Cash income, 1985, from crops, $2,060m., and from livestock, $686m. North Dakota leads in the production of barley, sunflowers, flaxseed and durum. Other important products are wheat, pinto beans, sugar-beet, potatoes, hay, oats, rye and maize. The state has also an active livestock industry, chiefly cattle raising. On 1 Jan.

1514

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1985 the farm animals were: 97,000 milch cows, 2m. all cattle, 215,000 sheep and 250,000 swine. The wool clip yielded (1984), l -6m. lb. of wool from 180,000 sheep. Forestry. National forest area, 1977, 422,000 acres, of which 115,000 acres are federally owned or managed. I N D U S T R Y . From 1970 to 1984 agricultural employment fell from 51,920 to 51,480; non-agricultural jobs rose from 148,910 to 268,300. In 1985, 68,000 were employed in trade, 63,000 in government, 58,000 in services, 16,000 in transport and utilities, 15,000 in manufacturing. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highway department maintained, in 1985, 7,237 miles of highway; local authorities, 95,750 miles, and municipal, 3,243 miles. Car and truck registrations in 1985 numbered 712,000. Railways. In 1984 there were 5,262 miles of railway. Aviation. Airports in 1984 numbered 262, of which 107 were publicly owned. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The state penitentiary, on 31 Dec. 1985, held 407 inmates. There is no death penalty. Religion. The leading religious denominations are the Roman Catholics, with 171,185 members in 1975; Combined Lutherans, 216,579; Methodists, 28,880; Presbyterians, 18,636. Education. School attendance is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16, or until the 17th birthday if the eighth grade has not been completed. In Oct. 1983 the public elementary schools had 81,797 pupils; secondary schools, 34,892 pupils. State expenditure on public schools, 1986, $379m. or $553 per capita. Teachers (4,900 in elementary and 2,900 in secondary schools) earned an average $20,850 in 1986. The university at Grand Forks, founded in 1883, had 11,068 students in 1984; the state university of agriculture and applied science, at Fargo, 9,453 students. Total enrolment in the 8 public institutions of higher education, 1984,33,748. Health. In 1985 the state had 59 hospitals (6,000 beds), and 81 nursing homes (6,400). Social Security. In 1985 6,500 received SSI payments, including 2,400 aged (average $116 per month). 4,000 disabled ($209); total paid, $12-7m.; 13,100 recipients in 4,700 families received Aid to Families with Dependent Children. Books of Reference North Dakota Growth Indicators, 1984. 20th ed. Economic Development Commission, Bismarck, 1985 North Dakota Blue Book. Secretary of State, Bismarck, 1981 Statistical Abstract of North Dakota, 1983. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Univ. of North Dakota, 1983 Glaab, C. L., et al, The North Dakota Political Tradition. Iowa State Univ. Press, 1981 Jelliff, T. B., North Dakota: A Living Legacy. Fargo, 1983 Robinson, E. B., History ofNorth Dakota. Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1966

OHIO H I S T O R Y . The first organized white settlement was in 1788; Ohio unofficially entered the Union on 19 Feb. 1803; entrance was made official, retroactive to 1 March 1803, on 8 Aug. 1953.

1515

OHIO

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Ohio is bounded north by Michigan and Lake Erie, east by Pennsylvania, south-east and south by the Ohio River (forming a boundary with West Virginia and Kentucky) and west by Indiana. Area, 41,330 sq. miles, of which 325 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980 10,797,630, an increase of 145,402 or 1-4% since 1970. Estimate (1985) 10,744,000. In 1984 births numbered 159,939 (14-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 96,937 (9); infant deaths, 1,598 ( 10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 98,708 (9 -2); divorces and annulments, 53,492 (5). Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 4,654,897 6,335,173 8,909,698

Negro 111,452 309,304 786,097

1970 1980

9,646,997 9,597,458

970,477 1,076,748

Indian 127 435 1,910

Asiatic 645 1,785 8,692

All others 34,543 123,424

Total 4,767,121 6,646,697 9,706,397

Per sq. mile 117 0 161-6 236-9

10,652,017 10,797,630

260-0 263-2

Of the total population in 1980, 5,217,027 were male, 7,918,259 persons were urban. Those 20 years old or older numbered 7,294,471. Census population of chief cities on 1 April 1980 was: Cleveland Columbus Cincinnati Toledo Akron Dayton Youngstown Canton Parma Lorain Springfield

573,822 565,032 385,457 354,635 237,177 193,444 115,436 93,077 92,548 75,416 72,563

Hamilton Lakewood Kettering Euclid Elyria Cleveland Heights Warren Mansfield Lima Middletown

63,189 61,963 61,186 59,999 57,538 56,438 47,381 53,927 47,381 43,719

Cuyahoga Falls Mentor Newark Marion East Cleveland North Olmsted Upper Arlington Lancaster Garfield Heights Zanesville

43,890 42,065 41,200 37,040 36,957 36,486 35,648 34,953 34,938 28,655

Urbanized areas, 1980 census: Cleveland, 1,898,825; Cincinnati, 1,401,491; Columbus (the capital), 1,093,316; Dayton, 830,070; Akron, 660,328; Toledo, 791,599; Youngstown-Warren, 531,350; Canton, 404,421. C L I M A T E . Cincinnati. Jan. 33°F (0-6°C), July 78°F (25-6X). Annual rainfall 3 9 " (978 mm). Cleveland. Jan. 27°F (-2-8°C), July 71°F (21 • PC). Annual rainfall 3 5 " (879 mm). Columbus. Jan. 29°F H - 7 ° C ) , July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 3 4 " (850 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The question of a general revision of the constitution drafted by an elected convention is submitted to the people every 20 years. The constitution of 1851 had 141 amendments by 1983. In the 117th General Assembly the Senate consisted of 33 members and the House of Representatives of 99 members. The Senate is elected for 4 years, half each 2 years; the House is elected for 2 years; the Governor, Lieut.-Governor and Secretary of State for 4 years. Qualified as electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age who have the usual residential qualifications. Ohio sends 2 senators and 21 representatives to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,678,559 votes, Mondale, I,825,440. The capital (since 1816) is Columbus. Ohio is divided into 88 counties. Governor: Richard Celeste (D.), 1987-90 ($65,000). Lieut.-Governor: Paul Leonard (D.), 1987-90 ($42,543). Secretary of State: Sherrod Brown (D.), 1987-90 ($60,775). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1987 general revenue fund income was II,183 -9m. and expenditure, $ 10,550- 7m. The bonded debt on 30 June 1986 was $3,378m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 13,226 (current dollars).

1516

U N I T E D S T A T E S OF A M E R I C A

ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Ohio has extensive mineral resources, of which coal is the most important by value: output (1984) 39m. short tons; value at the mine, $ 1,269m. Production of crude petroleum, 1984,15m. bbls ($420m.); natural gas, 186,479-6m. cu. ft ($588 -4m.). Other minerals include stone, clay, sand and gravel. Value of non-fuel minerals, 1984, $283 -9m. Agriculture. Ohio is extensively devoted to agriculture. In 1985, 89,000 farms covered 16m. acres; average farm value per acre, $1,126. Cash income 1984, from crop and livestock and products, $3,843m. The most important crops in 1983 were: Maize (232m. bu.), wheat (58-6m. bu.), oats (15-4m. bu.), soybeans (101-7m. bu.). On 1 Jan. 1985 there were l -97m. swine 1 -8m. all cattle and 265,000 sheep. Forestry. State forest area, 1982,195,000 acres; total forest, 6,147,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In May 1987, manufacturing employed 1,091,000 workers; nonmanufacturing, 3,315,000. The largest industry was manufacturing of nonelectrical machinery, then transport equipment and fabricated metals. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 the state had 30,466 miles of urban and 82,518 miles of rural highway. The federal-aid highway system included 8,194 miles of primary roads, of which 1,549 miles were interstate. In 1985 there were (estimate) 8- lm. cars, trucks and buses, and 277,501 motorcycles. Railways. Class I railroads operated 6,238 miles in 1985. Aviation. Ohio had (1985) 194 commercial airports including one seaplane base; 597 non-commercial airports; 31 commercial heliports and 222 non-commercial. There were 5,825 licensed aeroplanes at 31 Dec. 1984. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A Civil Rights Act (1933) forbids inns, restaurants, theatres, retail stores and all other places of public resort to discriminate against citizens on grounds of 'colour or race'; none may be denied the right to serve on juries on the grounds of 'colour or race'; insurance companies are forbidden to discriminate between 'white persons and coloured, wholly or partially of African descent'. A state Civil Rights Commission (created 1959) has general administrative powers to prevent discrimination because of race, colour, religion, national origin or ancestry in employment, labour organization membership, use of public accommodations and in obtaining 'commercial housing' or 'personal residence'. Ohio has no de jure segregation in the public schools. The state's adult correctional institutions, Sept. 1985, held 20,000 inmates (average daily count). Total executions (by electrocution) since 1930 were 170, all for murder. There have been no executions since 1963. The Department of Rehabilitation and Correction was created in July 1972, and has established probation services in counties where services would otherwise be inadequate or nonexistent. Religion. Many religious faiths are represented, including (but not limited to) the Baptist, Jewish, Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. Education. School attendance during full term is compulsory for children from 6 to 18 years of age. In autumn 1985 public schools had 1,793,775 enrolled pupils and 98,264 full-time equivalent classroom teachers. Teachers' salaries (1985-86) averaged (estimate) $24,500. Operating expenditure on elementary and secondary schools for 1984—85 was $5,500m.: state average per pupil, $3,257. Universities and colleges had a total enrolment (autumn 1985) of 514,745 students of whom 135,481 were in private colleges. State appropriation to state universities 1984-85, $1,100m. Average annual charge (undergraduate) at 4-year institutions: $4,081 (state); $7,432 (private).

1517

OKLAHOMA

Main bodies, 1986: (figures are for main campus in named city): Founded 1804 1809 1819 1826 1850 1870 1870 1872 1887 1908 1910 1910 1962 1964 1964

Institutions Ohio University, Athens (State) Miami University, Oxford (State) University of Cincinnati (State) Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland (Indep.) University of Dayton (R.C.) University of Akron (State) Ohio State University, Columbus (State) University of Toledo (State) Sinclair C o m m u n i t y College, Dayton Youngstown University (State) Bowling Green State University (State) Kent State University (State) Cuyahoga C o m m u n i t y College District (State/local) Cleveland State University (State) Wright State University (State)

Enrolments 14,684 15,430 30,830 8,352 10,693 26,644 53,446 21,039 16,247 15,252 17,104 20,324 24,972 18,032 14,580

Health. In 1983 the state had 236 hospitals (62,405 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. State facilities for the severely mentally retarded had 2,862 resident in 1984. Mentally retarded who do not need constant supervision occupy 1,024 group homes (7,993 beds) in residential areas (1983). In 1986 17 psychiatric hospitals had a daily average of 4,012 residents. In 1984, general hospitals had 74 units (3,080 beds) for the mentally ill and 56 beds for mentally retarded. There were 384 community mental health agencies in 1986. Social Security. Public assistance is administered through 6 basic programmes: aid to dependent children, emergency assistance, Medicaid, general relief, food stamps and social services; 49% of the costs (except general relief and adult emergency assistance) are met by the federal government. In 1985 Medicaid cost $l,767-3m. and served an average l-5m. people. Aid to dependent children cost $759-5m., to 672,414 people per month at $290 maximum grant for a family of three. Food stamps cost $57-3m. General relief cost $206-8m., receipts varying from county to county. Optional State Supplement is paid to aged, blind or disabled adults. Free social services are available to those eligible by income or circumstances. Books of Reference Official Roster: Federal State, County Officers and Department Information. Secretary of State, Columbus. Biennial Rosebloom, E. H., and Weisenburger, F. P., A History of Ohio. State Arch, and Hist. Soc., Columbus, 1953

OKLAHOMA HISTORY. An unorganized area in the centre of the present state was thrown open to white settlers on 22 April 1889. The Territory of Oklahoma, organized in 1890 to include this area and other sections, was opened to white settlements by runs or lotteries during the next decade. In 1893 the Territory was enlarged by the addition of the Cherokee Outlet, which fixed part of the present northern boundary. On 16 Nov. 1907 Oklahoma was combined with the remaining part of the Indian Territory and admitted as a state with boundaries substantially as now. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Oklahoma is bounded north by Kansas, north-east by Missouri, east by Arkansas, south by Texas (the Red River forming part of the boundary) and, at the western extremity of the 'panhandle', by New Mexico and Colorado. Area 69,919 sq. miles, of which 1,137 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,025,290, an increase of 465,827 or 18% since 1970. Estimate (1986), 3,305,000. Births, 1986, were 50,536; deaths, 29,708; infant deaths 517; marriages, 3 3,805; divorces, including annulments, 24,747.

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The population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

While 1,444,531 2,130,778 2,107,900 2,280,362 2,597,783

Negro 137,612 172,198 153,084 171,892 204,658

Indian 74,825 92,725 68,689 97,179 169,292

Other 187 339 1,414 10,030 53,557

Total 1,657,155 2,396,040 2,328,284 2,559,253 3,025,290

Persq. mile 23-9 346 33 8 37-2 43-2

In 1980,1,476,719 were male, 2,035,082 were urban and those 20 years of age or older numbered 2,052,729. The US Bureau of Indian Affairs is responsible for 37 Indian tribes, 201,456 Indians on 1,229,341 acres(1984). The most important cities with population, 1980 (and estimate 1986) are Oklahoma City (capital), 403,213 (445,300), Tulsa, 360,919 (373,000); Lawton, 80,054 (82,700); Norman, 68,020 (78,300); Enid, 50,363 (50,300); Midwest City, 49,559 (53,700); Broken Arrow, 35,761 (52,000); Edmond, 34,637 (51,200). C L I M A T E . 1985: Oklahoma City. Jan. 30-6°F (-0-8°C), July 80-9°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 4 4 - 2 " (1,123 mm). Tulsa. Jan. 30-2°F (1-0°C), July 82-9°F (28 -3°C). Annual rainfall 51 -31" (1,303 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1378. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. The present constitution, dating from 1907, provides for amendment by initiative petition and legislative referendum; it has had 114 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 48 members, who are elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives elected for 2 years and consisting of 101 members. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4-year terms; the Governor can only be elected for two terms in succession. Electors are (with necessary exceptions) all citizens 18 years or older, with the usual qualifications. The state is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 6 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 793,258 votes, Mondale, 362,771. The capital is Oklahoma City. The state has 77 counties. Governor: Henry Bellmon (R.), 1987-91 ($70,000). Lieut.-Governor: Robert S. Kerr(R.), 1987-91 ($40,000). Secretary of State: Hannah Atkins (D.), 1988-91 ($37,500). B U D G E T . Total revenue for the year ending 30 June 1987 (State Budget Office figures) was $5,018 -3m. Total expenditure, $5,052 -9m. Bonded indebtedness for the year ending 30 June 1985, $ 1,599 -6m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $10,270. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Production of mineral fuels, 1986: Petroleum, 149m. bbls; natural gas (wet), 1,927,964,000,000m. cu. ft.; coal, 2-9m. short tons. In 1986 there were 93,997 oilwells and 25,762 natural gaswells in production. Non-fuel mineral production (short tons), 1985: Cement, l -6m.; gypsum, l-6m.; sand and gravel (construction), 12-6m.; stone, 31-2m.; clays, 997,000; other important minerals are iodine, tripoli, barite, cadmium, feldspar, refined germanum, helium, lime, nitrogen, pumice and zinc. Value of non-fuel production, 1985, $251 -6m. Agriculture. In 1985 the state had 71,000 farms with a total area of 33m. acres; average farm was 465 acres. In 1982,2-2% of the population were engaged in farming or ranching. Of these, 58% were full-time farmers or ranchers, 32% part-owners and 10-78% tenants. Cash income from crops and livestock products 1985, $2,664m. The most valuable crop is wheat (production, 1985, 165m. bu.). Other crops included hay, cotton, lint and grain sorghums. Livestock on farms, 1985: Cattle and calves, 5 -2m. head (valued at $1,050-lm.); milch cows, 113,000; sheep and lambs, 90,000; chickens, 3-4m.; hogs and pigs, 200,000. The Oklahoma Conservation Commission works with 91 conservation districts,

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universities, state and federal government agencies. The early work of the conservation districts, beginning in 1937, was limited to flood and erosion control: since 1970, they include urban areas also. Irrigated production has increased in the Oklahoma 'panhandle'. The Ogalala aquifer is the primary source of irrigation water there and in western Oklahoma, a finite source because of its isolation from major sources of recharge. Declining groundwater levels necessitate the most effective irrigation practices. Forestry. There are 8 -5m. acres of forest, one half considered commercial. The forest products industry is concentrated in the 18 eastern counties. There are 3 forest regions: Ozark (oak, hickory); Ouachita highlands (pine, oak); CrossTimbers (post oak, blackjack oak). Southern pine is the chief commercial species, at almost 80% of saw-timber harvested annually. Replanting is essential and encouraged by a federal investment tax credit (10%) to non-industrial forest land owners; the federal Forestry Incentives Program is also available in 7 counties, for planting on non-industrial private land. I N D U S T R Y . Total civilian labour force, 1985,1 -6m.; wholesale and retail trade employed 288,000; government and government enterprises, 252,400; services, 225,700; manufacturing, 172,400; mining, 66,300; finance, insurance and real estate, 64,000; transport and public utilities, 64,400; construction, 46,700. Unemployment, 1985,7-1%. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985-86 there were 668-8 miles of inter-state (non-toll) highways, and 11,565-71 miles of other state highway open; there were 485-83 miles of toll roads (including inter-state), 317-46 miles of state park roads and 86,475-79 miles of county roads; 11,275 -68 miles of local city streets; total roads and streets, 1986, 110,787-27 miles. Railways. In 1987 Oklahoma had 4,352 miles of railway operated by 19 companies. Aviation. Airports, 1987, numbered 320, of which 125 were publicly owned. Six cities were served by commercial airlines. Shipping. The McClellan-Kerr Arkansas Navigation System provides access from east central Oklahoma to New Orleans through the Verdigris, Arkansas and Mississippi rivers. The Tulsa port of Catoosa handled l-41m. tons inward and outward on 11,997 barges in 1986; about 30% arose from international trade. Muskogee handled 119,630 tons inward and outward, 30% international. Total tonnage, 3 - l m . tons, mainly chemical fertilizer, farm produce, petroleum products, iron and steel, coal, sand and gravel. Broadcasting. In 1987 there were 179 radio and 16 television broadcasting stations, and 7 cable-TV companies. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 51 daily and 183 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Penal institutions, 15Sept. 1987, held 8,281 inmates (7,743 o f t h e m male). There were 13 correction centres, 8 community treatment centres and 7 probation and parole centres. The death penalty was suspended in 1966 and re-imposed in 1976. Since 1915 there have been 83 (52 whites, 27 Negroes, 4 other races) executions. Electrocution was replaced (1977) by lethal injection. Religion. The chief religious bodies in 1980 were Baptists, 674,766; United Methodists, 248,635; Roman Catholics, 122,820; Churches of Christ, about 80,000; Assembly of God, 63,992; Disciples of Christ, 45,070; Presbyterian, 38,605; Lutheran, 33,664; Nazarene, 22,090; Episcopal, 21,500. Education. In 1984-85 there were 617,931 pupils enrolled in grades K-12. There

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were 40,889 teachers at elementary and secondary schools on average salaries of $22,458. Total expenditure on public schools, $1,631-67m. In 1985-86 total expenditure for vocational-technical education was $78,060,127; there were 28,028 students enrolled. institutions of higher education with over 4,000 students: Founded 1891 1891 1892 1894 1903 1909 1909 1909 1909 1965 1968 1969 1970

Name Oklahoma State University Central State University University o f O k l a h o m a University o f T u l s a Southwestern O k l a h o m a State University East Central O k l a h o m a State University Northeastern O k l a h o m a State University Southeastern O k l a h o m a State University Cameron University Oral Roberts University Rose State College Tulsa Junior College Oklahoma City C o m m u n i t y College

1985-86 Place Enrollment Stillwater, Okla. 34,400 City, Okmulgee 18,833 Edmond 27,435 Norman 6,019 6,744 Tulsa Weatherford 5,644 Ada 10,737 Tahlequah 5,820 Durant 7,519 Lawton 4,307 Tulsa 5,064 Midwest City 16,232 Tulsa 25,748 O k l a h o m a City 15,887

Total enrolment in institutions of higher education, 1985-86, 239,389; total expenditure, $5,172 • 39m. Health. In 1986 there were 142 hospitals (17,700 beds). Welfare. In 1985-86 the Oklahoma Department of Human Services provided for field operations, $72-7m., for payments and services, $184-4m.; children and youth services, $72-2m.; developmental disability, $64-3m., medical services, $490m.; rehabilitation, $41 -9m.; the ageing, $23-2m.; teaching hospitals, $148-9m.; administration, management information, and construction, $54-2m. In 1985 social security payments were being drawn by 497,000 persons; average monthly payments were: Retired workers, $452; disabled workers, $470; and widows and widowers, $407. There were 402,000 military veterans; 420,000 enrolled in medicare (payment $853m.); 270,000 receiving medicaid ($460m.); lm. workers (taxable wages $6,432m.) per month covered by state unemployment insurance; average weekly insured unemployment, 27,000 people. Books of Reference Directory of Oklahoma. Dept. of Libraries, O k l a h o m a City (irregular), 1985-86 Chronicles of Oklahoma. State Historical Society, O k l a h o m a City (from 1921, quarterly) Statistical Abstract of Oklahoma, 1984. Centers for Economic and M a n a g e m e n t Research, Univ. o f O k l a h o m a , N o r m a n , 1984 Dale, E. E., and Aldrich, G „ History of Oklahoma. New York, 1969 Gibson, A. M., The History of Oklahoma. Rev. ed., Univ. o f O k l a h o m a , N o r m a n , 1984 McReynolds, Edwin C., Oklahoma: A History of the Sooner State. Rev. ed. Univ. of O k l a h o m a , N o r m a n , 1964 Ruth, K.., et al., (eds.), Oklahoma: A Guide to the Sooner State. Rev. ed. Univ. o f O k l a h o m a , N o r m a n , 1957 Strain, J. W., Outline of Oklahoma Government. Rev. ed., Central State Univ., E d m o n d , 1983 State Library: O k l a h o m a Dept. of Libraries, 200 N.E. 18th Street, O k l a h o m a City 73105. State Librarian and State A rchivist: Robert L. Clark, Jr.

OREGON H I S T O R Y . Oregon was first settled in 1811 by the Pacific Fur Co. at Astoria, a provisional government was formed on 5 July 1834; a Territorial government was organized, 14 Aug. 1848, and on 14 Feb. 1859 Oregon was admitted to the Union. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Oregon is bounded north by Washington, with the Columbia River forming most of the boundary, east by Idaho, with the Snake River forming most of the boundary, south by Nevada and California and west by

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the Pacific. Area, 97,073 sq. miles, 889 sq. miles being inland water. The federal government owned (1976) 32,370,216 acres (52-55% of the state area). Census population, 1 April 1980, 2,633,105, an increase of 541,720 or 26% since 1970. Estimated population (1986), 2,698,000. In 1984 births numbered 39,536 (14 8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 23,229 (8 • 7); infant deaths 415 ( 10 • 5 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 22,594 (8 -4), and divorces, 15,463 (5 -8). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 655,090 938,598 1,732,037 2,032,079 2,490,610

Negro 1,492 2,234 18,133 26,308 37,060

Indian 5,090 4,776 8,026 13,510 27,314

Asiatic 11,093 8,179 9,120 13,290 34,775

Total 672,765 953,786 1,768,687 2,091,385 2,633,105

Per sq. mile 70 9-9 18-4 21-7 27-3

Of the total population in 1980, 1,296,566 were male, 1,788,354 persons were urban. Those 18 years and older numbered 1,910,048. The US Bureau of Indian Affairs (area headquarters in Portland) administers (1976) 742,151 -74 acres, of which 597,222-94 acres are held by the US in trust for Indian tribes, and 144,928 • 8 acres for individual Indians. The largest towns, according to 1980 census figures, are: Portland, 366,383; Eugene, 105,664; Salem (the capital), 89,233; Corvallis, 40,960; Medford, 39,603; Springfield, 41,621; Beaverton, 31,926; Albany, 26,678. Metropolitan areas (1980): Portland, 1,236,294; Eugene-Springfield, 273,114; Salem, 249,655. C L I M A T E . Portland. Jan. 39°F(3-9°C), July 67°F(19-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 4 " (1,100 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1859; some 80 items in it have been amended. The Legislative Assembly consists of a Senate of 30 members, elected for 4 years (half their number retiring every 2 years), and a House of 60 representatives, elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The constitution reserves to the voters the rights of initiative and referendum and recall. In Nov. 1912 suffrage was extended to women. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 5 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 618,824 votes, Mondale, 496,237. The capital is Salem. There are 36 counties in the state. Governor: Neil Goldschmidt (D.), 1987-91 ($72,050). Secretary of State: Barbara Roberts (D.) ($45,619). B U D G E T . Oregon has 2-year financial periods. Total resources for the biennium 1983-85 were$17,192,893,776 (federal funds, $ 1,267m.; taxes, $4,355-9m.); total expenditures, $10,525,619,308 (education, $2,660-2m.; economic development and consumer services, $2,958 -3m.; human resources, $2,377 -3m.). In Feb. 1983 the outstanding bonded debt was $6,000m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 12,622. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. On 1 Jan. 1984 four privately owned utilities, 11 municipally owned utilities, 18 co-operatives and 5 utility districts provided electricity in the state. The privately owned companies provided 77% of the electricity. Hydroelectricity plants (102 in 1985) have an installed capacity of 5 - l m . kw., of which multipurpose federal projects like the Bonneville Power Administration accounted for 3-5m. kw. The Trojan Nuclear plant has a capacity of l,080mw., and Boardman coal-fired plant, 530mw. Minerals. Oregon's mineral resources include gold, silver, nickel copper, lead, mercury, chromite, sand and gravel, stone, clays, lime, silica, diatomite, expansible shale, scoria, pumice and uranium. There is geothermal potential. Value of mineral products, 1986, was $ 131 m.

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Agriculture. Oregon, which has an area of 61,557,184 acres, is divided by the Cascade Range into two distinct zones as to climate. West of the Cascade Range there is a good rainfall and almost every variety of crop common to the temperate zone is grown; east of the Range stock-raising and wheat-growing are the principal industries and irrigation is needed for row crops and fruits. There were, in 1985, 37,000 farms with an acreage of 18-3m. (29-7% of the land area); average farm size was 486 acres; most are family-owned corporate farms. Average value per acre, $579. Cash receipts from crops in 1985 amounted to $1,156m., and from livestock and livestock products, $622m., of which cattle and calves made most. Principal crops are hay (l-3m. tons), wheat (56m. bu.), potatoes, peppermint, ryegrass seed, pears, onions, snap beans, sweet corn and barley. Livestock, 1 Jan. 1985: Milch cows, 96,000; cattle and calves, 1 -65m.; sheep and lambs, 430,000; swine, 110,000. Forestry. About 29 -8m. acres is forested, almost half of the state. Of this amount, 24-2m. is commercial forest land suitable for timber production; ownership is as follows (acres): US Forestry service, 11 -6m. (48%); Forest Industry, 5-5m. (22-8%); Small non-industrial landowners, 3-6m. (14-7%); US Bureau of Land Management, 2 -2m. (9%); State of Oregon, 820,000 acres (3-4%) and other owners (city, county, Indian), 496,000 acres (2 • 1%). Oregon's commercial forest lands provided an estimated 1982 harvest of 5,200m. bd ft of logs, as well as the benefits of recreation, water, grazing, wildlife and fish. Trees vary from the coastal forest of hemlock and spruce to the state's primary species, Douglas-fir, throughout much of western Oregon. In eastern Oregon, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine and true firs are found. Here, forestry is often combined with livestock grazing to provide an economic operation. Along the Cascade summit and in the mountains of northeast Oregon, alpine species are found. Production, 1981: plywood, 5,561m. sq. ft (value $991-5m.); Douglas Fir lumber, 3,842m. bd. ft ($948-3m.); Ponderosa Pine lumber, 1,273m. bd. ft ($386m.); pulp and paper, 4-8m. tons ($8-5m.). Fisheries. All food and shellfish landings in the calendar year 1985 amounted to a value of $46m. The most important are: tuna, crabs, bottom fish, shrimp. I N D U S T R Y . Forest products manufacturing is Oregon's leading industry, and provides for 20% of the country's softwood lumber needs, 40% of its plywood and more than 25% of the hardboard. More than one-third of the economy depends directly or indirectly on timber industries; about 78,130 (1981) people are employed. The payroll was $ 1,600m. and value of production, $3,490m. During 1985, manufacturing employed 200,000; trade, 259,000; services, 215,000; government, 197,000. T O U R I S M . In 1983, 15-5m. out-of-state tourists visited Oregon; the total income from tourism was estimated to be $2,030m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state maintains (1985) 7,555 miles of primary and secondary highways, almost all surfaced; counties maintain 27,823 miles, and cities 7,077 miles; there were 79,167 miles in national parks and federal reservations. Registered motor vehicles,31 Dec. 1985,totalled2-22m. Railways. The state had (1980) 19 common carrier railways with a total mileage of 4,428. Aviation. In Oct. 1984 there were 4 public-use and 85 personal-use heliports; 3 public-use seaplane bases; 203 personal-use airports; 111 public-use airports including 37 state-owned airports. Shipping. Portland is a major seaport for large ocean-going vessels and is 101 miles inland from the mouth of the Columbia River. In 1983 the port handled 7 1 m .

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short tons of cargo; main commodities for this and other Columbia River ports are grain and petroleum. Post and Broadcasting. In Dec. 1984 there were 137 commercial radio stations and 13 educational radio stations. There were 16 commercial television stations and 6 educational television stations. There were also 5 campus limited radio stations and 1 subscription radio station. Newspapers. In 1985 there were 22 daily newspapers with a circulation of more than 650,000 and 92 non-daily newspapers. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There are 3 correctional institutions in Oregon, all in Salem. The Oregon State Penitentiary, on 30 June 1982, held 1,779 males; the Women's Correctional Center had a resident population of 73; and the Oregon Correctional Institution, which is for first offenders, had a population of 926. The Oregon Correctional Division's Release Center in Salem held 323 inmates, 110 inmates were held in Oregon State Hospital wards and 16,174 offenders were on parole or probation. TTie sterilization law, originally passed in 1917, was amended in 1967. The amendments changed the number of persons on the Board of Social Protection from 15 to 7 and provided that the Public Defender would automatically represent all persons examined. The basis on which a person would be subject to examination by the Board are: (a) if such person would be likely to procreate children having an inherited tendency to mental retardation or mental illness, or (b) if such person would be likely to procreate children who would become neglected or dependent because of the person's inability by reason of mental illness or mental retardation to provide adequate care. Religion. The chief religious bodies are Catholic, Baptist, Lutheran, Methodists, Presbyterian and Mormon. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 18 years of age if the twelfth year of school has not been completed; those between the ages of 16 and 18 years, if legally employed, may attend part-time or evening schools. Others may be excused under certain circumstances. In 1983-84 the public elementary schools had 321,087 students and the secondary schools, 146,389. Total expenditure on elementary and secondary education (1986) was $l,802m.; teachers' average salary (1986), $26,000. Leading state-supported institutions of higher education (autumn 1986) included: Students University of Oregon, Eugene Oregon Health Sciences University: Oregon State University, Corvallis Portland State University, Portland Western Oregon State College, M o n m o u t h Southern Oregon State College, Ashland Eastern Oregon State College, La G r a n d e Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls

17,142 1,263 15,199 15,640 3,394 4,552 1,604 2,995

Largest of the privately endowed universities are Lewis and Clark College, Portland, with (1986) 2,846 students; University of Portland, 2,610 students; Willamette University, Salem, 1,948 students; Reed College, Portland, 1,243 students, and Linfield College, McMinnville, 1,098 students. There are 13 community colleges and 1 area education district with an estimated enrolment of 237,564 students in 1983-84. Health. In Oct. 1982 there were 91 licensed hospitals. In Oct. 1979 there were 4 state hospitals for mentally ill and mentally retarded (2 for mentally ill, 1 for mentally retarded and 1 with both programmes). On 30 June 1982 there were 931 mentally ill patients and 1,629 mentally retarded. Social Security. The State Adult and Family Services Division provides cash payments, medical care, food stamps, day care and help in finding jobs: In 1984-85

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there were about 70,000 people on low incomes, many of them children in singleparent families, benefiting from the Aid to Families with Dependent Children Programme; about 225,000 people received food stamps. There is also a Children's Services Division. A system of unemployment benefit payments, financed by employers, with administrative allotments made through a federal agency, started 2 Jan. 1938. Books of Reference Oregon Blue Book. Issued by the Secretary of State. Salem. Biennial Federal Writers' Project. Oregon: End of the Trail. Rev. ed. Portland, 1972 Baldwin, E. M., Geology of Oregon. Rev. ed. D u b u q u e , Iowa, 1976 Carey, C. H., General History of Oregon, prior to 1861. 2 vol. (1 vol. reprint, 1971) Portland, 1935 Corning, H. M. (ed.), Dictionary of Oregon History. New York, 1956 Dicken, S. N., Oregon Geography. 5th ed. Eugene, 1973.—with Dicken, E. F., Making of Oregon: a Study in Historical Geography. Portland, 1979.—with Dicken, E. F., Oregon Divided: A Regional Geography. Portland, 1982 Dodds, G. B., Oregon: A Bicentennial History. New York, 1977 Friedman, R., Oregon for the Curious. 3rd ed. Portland, 1972 Highsmith, R. M. Jr. (ed.), Atlas ofthe Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, 1973 McArthur, L. A., Oregon Geographic Names. 4th ed., rev. and enlarged. Portland, 1974 Patton, Clyde P., Atlas of Oregon. Univ. Oregon Press, Eugene, 1976 State Library: The Oregon State Library, Salem. Librarian: Marcia Lowell.

PENNSYLVANIA H I S T O R Y . Pennsylvania, first settled in 1682, is one of the 13 original states in the Union. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Pennsylvania is bounded north by New York, east by New Jersey, south by Delaware and Maryland, south-west by West Virginia, west by Ohio and north-west by Lake Erie. Area, 45,308 sq. miles, of which 420 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 11,863,895, an increase of63,129 orO-5% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 11,889,000. Births, 1984, 156,799; deaths, 121,358; infant deaths, 1,908; marriages, 91,610; reported divorces, 40,375. Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

While 7,467,713 9,196,007 10,454,004

Negro 193,919 431,257 852,750

1970 1980

10,745,219 10,652,320

1,015,884 1,046,810

Indian 1,503 523 2,122

All others 1,976 3,563 10,490

All others 39,663 164,765

Total 7,665,1 11 9,631,350 11,319,366

Persq. mile 1710 213-8 251-5

11,800,766 11,863,895

262-9 264-3

Of the total population in 1980, 47-9% were male, 69-3% were urban and 68-1% were 21 years of age or older. The population of the larger cities and townships, 1980 census, was: Philadelphia Pittsburgh Erie Allen town

1,688,210 423,938 119,123 103,758

Scranton Reading Bethlehem Altoona

88,117 78,686 70,419 57,078

Lancaster Harrisburg Wilkes-Barre York

54,725 53,264 51,551 44,619

Larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Philadelphia (in Pennsylvania), 3,682,709; Pittsburgh, 2,263,894; Northeast, 640,396, Allentown-Bethlehem-Easton (in Pennsylvania), 551,052; Harrisburg, 446,576. CLIMATE. Philadelphia. Jan. 32°F(0°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 40"

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(1,006 mm). Pittsburgh. Jan. 31°F (-0-6°C), July 74°F (23-3°C). Annual rainfall 37" (914 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1968. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members chosen for 4 years, one-half being elected biennially, and a House of Representatives of 203 members chosen for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Every citizen 18 years of age, with the usual residential qualifications, may vote. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 23 representatives. Registered voters in Nov. 1985,6,029,390. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 2,564,273 votes, Mondale, 2,209,137. The state capital is Harrisburg. The state is organized in counties (numbering 67), cities, boroughs, townships and school districts. Governor: Robert Casey (D.), 1987-91 ($85,000). Lieut-Governor: William W. Scranton (R.) ($54,500). B U D G E T . Total revenues for the year ending 30 June 1985 were $24,577-4m.; general fund expenditure, $ll,225-5m.; transport, $l,293-9m.; public welfare, $3,417m.). On 30 June 1985 outstanding long-term debt (excluding highway bonds) amounted to $4,987-7m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 13,43 7. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Pennsylvania is almost the sole producer of anthracite coal; its output reached a peak of 100,445,299 short tons in 1917 with a labour-force of 156,148 men. Production in 1985: Anthracite, 5-23m. tons, with about 3,225 employees; bituminous coal, 65-5m. tons, with about 19,661 men; crude petroleum (1985), 4 -26m. bbls; natural gas (1983), 360,076m. cu. ft. Total value of minerals produced (1983), $3,456m., of which $2,82 lm. was for fuel minerals. Agriculture. Agriculture, market-gardening, fruit-growing, horticulture and forestry are pursued within the state. In 1984 there were 58,000 farms with a total farm area of 8-7m. acres (4-5m. acres in crops). Cash income, 1985, from crops, $966m., and from livestock and products, $2,184m. Pennsylvania ranks first in the production of mushrooms (279-7m. lb., value $205-2m. in 1984). Other crops are (1984) tobacco (22-4m. lb., $20-98m.), wheat (8-4m. bu.), oats (15-96m. bu.), maize (148-5m. bu.), barley (3-6m. bu.) and potatoes (5-2m. cwt). On 1 Jan. 1985 there were on farms: 1 -96m. cattle and calves, including 792,000 milch cows, 88,000 sheep, 800,000 swine. Milk production, 1984, was 9,423m. lb. valued at $l,329-96m., and eggs numbered 4,282m. valued at $256-9m. Pennsylvania is also a major fruit producing state; in 1984 apples totalled 575m. lb.; peaches, 85m. lb.; tart cherries, 9m. lb.; sweet cherries, 900 tons; and grapes, 60,000 tons. Other important items are soybeans (5-95m. bu.), vegetables for processing (93,000 tons), fresh vegetables ( 1 1 6 m . cwt) and broilerchickens (121m.). Forestry. In 1982 national forest lands totalled 510,517 acres; state forests, 2,064,533 acres; state parks, 278,930 acres; state game land, 1,250,980 acres; game land leased but not owned by the state, 3,957,438 acres (co-operative and safetyzone programmes). I N D U S T R Y . Pennsylvania is third in national production of iron and steel. Output of steel, 1985,12 1m. net tons. In 1985, manufacturing employed 1,090,000 workers; services, 1,171,000; trade, 1,069,000; government, 679,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Highways and roads in the state (federal, local and state combined) totalled

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AMERICA

(1985) 114,865 miles. Registered motor vehicles for 1985 numbered 7,860,497 (including 5,854,497 passenger cars, 1,682,411 trucks, truck-tractors and trailers). Railways. In 1983, 41 railways operated within the state with a line mileage of about 6,300. Aviation. There were (1982) 161 commercial airports, 3 public landing strips, 242 heliports, 391 airports for personal use and 16 seaplane bases. Shipping. Trade at the ports of Philadelphia (1985), imports 56-lm. short tons, exports 7-4m. Post and Broadcasting. Broadcasting stations comprised (1982) 41 television stations and 378 radio stations. Newspapers. There were (1983) 111 daily and 219 weekly newspapers. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. No executions took place in 1963-85; since 1930 there have been 149 executions (electrocution), all for murder. State prison population, on 31 Dec. 1985, was 14,260. Religion. The chief religious bodies in 1977 were the Roman Catholic, with 3,717,667 members; Protestant, 3,150,920(1971); and Jewish, 469,078. The 5 largest Protestant denominations (by communicants) were: Lutheran Church in America, 766,276; United Methodist, 728,915 (1971), United Presbyterian Church in the USA, 573,905 (1971); United Church of Christ, 257,138; Episcopal, 193,399(1971). Education. School attendance is compulsory for children 8-17 years of age. In 1985-86 the public kindergartens and elementary schools had 841,419 pupils; public secondary schools had 841,802 pupils. Non-public schools had 270,541 elementary pupils and 103,857 secondary pupils. Average salary, public school professional personnel, men $29,155; women $24,967; for classroom teachers, men $25,292,women $23,412. Leading senior academic institutions included: Founded 1740 1787 1832 1833 1842 1846 1851 1852 1855 1855 1863 1864 1866 1871 1875 1878 1884 1885 1888 1891 1900

Institutions University of P e n n s y l v a n i a (non-sect.) University of Pittsburgh Lafayette College, Easton (Presbyterian) H a v e r f o r d College Villanova University (R.C.) Bucknell University (Baptist) St J o s e p h ' s University, P h i l a d e l p h i a (R.C.) California University of P e n n s y l v a n i a P e n n s y l v a n i a State University Millersville University of Pennsylvania LaSalle U n i v e r s i t y , P h i l a d e l p h i a (R.C.) S w a r t h m o r e College Lehigh University, Bethlehem (non-sect.) West C h e s t e r University of P e n n s y l v a n i a I n d i a n a University of Pennsylvania D u q u e s n e U n i v e r s i t y , Pittsburgh (R.C.) Temple University, Philadelphia Bryn M a w r College University of S c r a n t o n (R.C.) Drexel U n i v e r s i t y , P h i l a d e l p h i a C a m e g i e - M e l l o n University, Pittsburgh

Faculty Students (Autumn ¡986) (Autumn I9i 3,364 21,742 2,827 28,449 205 2,032 114 1,112 824 12,261 243 3,453 336 5,715 310 5,179 35,261 1,846 338 7,166 242 6,136 150 1,327 6,334 440 541 10,385 792 13,248 492 6,580 2,564 26,447 197 1,794 296 4,789 858 12,500 6,579 607

Health. In 1985 the state had 300 hospitals (51,216 beds) listed by the State Health Department, excluding federal hospitals and mental institutions. Social Security. During the year ending 30 June 1985 the monthly average number of cases receiving public assistance was: aid to families with dependent children, 553,003; blind pension, 3,649; general assistance, 146,194.

RHODE ISLAND

1527

Payments for medical assistance for the year ending 30 June 1985 totalled $2,246m. Under the medical assistance programme payments are made for inpatient hospital care ($195m.); care in public institutions (nursing homes, mental institutions and geriatric centres) ($444 -5m.); private nursing home care ($317 • 2m.); other medical care ($76 • 7m.). Books of Reference Encyclopaedia of Pennsylvania, New York, 1984 Pennsylvania Manual. General Services, Bureau of Publications, Harrisburg. Biennial Pennsylvania's Regions, A Survey oflhe Commonwealth. State Planning Board. Harrisburg, 1967 Pennsylvania Statistical Abstract. Dept. ofCommerce, Harrisburg. Annual Pennsylvania State Industrial Directory. Harris, Ohio. Annual Cochran, T. C., Pennsylvania, New York, 1978 Klein, P. S., and Hoogenboom, A., A History of Pennsylvania. New York, 1973 League of Women Voters of Pennsylvania, Key to the Keystone State. Philadelphia, 1972 Majumdar, S. K., and Miller, E. W., Pennsylvania Coal: Resources, Technology and Utilisation. Pennsylvania Science, 1983 Pennsylvania Chamber of Commerce, Pennsylvania Government Today. State College, Pa., 1973 Weigley, R. F„ (ed.) Philadelphia: A 300-year History. New York, 1984 Wilkinson, N. B., Bibliography of Pennsylvania History. Pa. Historical & Museum Commission. Harrisburg, 1957

RHODE ISLAND H I S T O R Y The earliest settlers in the region which now forms the state of Rhode Island were colonists from Massachusetts who had been driven forth on account of their non-acceptance of the prevailing religious beliefs. The first of the settlements was made in 1636, settlers of every creed being welcomed. In 1647 a patent was executed for the government of the settlements, and on 8 July 1663 a charter was executed recognizing the settlers as forming a body corporate and politic by the name of the 'English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, in New England, in America'. On 29 May 1790 the state accepted the federal constitution and entered the Union as the last of the 13 original states. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Rhode Island is bounded north and east by Massachusetts, south by the Atlantic and west by Connecticut. Area, 1,214 sq. miles, of which 165 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 947,154 a decrease of0-3% since 1970. Estimate (1986), 975,000. Births, 1986, were 13,324; deaths (excluding foetal deaths), 9,587; infant deaths, 125; marriages, 8,103; divorces, 3,683. Population of 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970

White 532,492 677,026 838,712 914,757

Negro 9,529 9,913 18,332 25,338

Indian 284 318 932 1,390

Asiatic 305 240 1,190 5,240

Total 542,610 687,497 859,488 949,723 1

Per sq. mile 508-5 649-3 812-4 905-0

All other 896,692 27,584 1980 22,878 947,154 903-0 1 Through tabulation errors there were 2,998 people unaccounted for, as to race and sex, in 1970.

Of the total population in 1980, 451,251 were male, 824,004 were urban and 665,054 were 20 years of age or older. The chief cities and their population (census, 1980) are Providence, 156,804; Warwick, 87,123; Cranston, 71,992; Pawtucket, 71,204; East Providence, 50,980; Woonsocket, 45,914; Newport, 29,259; North Providence (town), 29,188; Cumberland (town), 27,069. The Providence-Pawtucket-Warwick Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of 919,216 in 1980.

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

C L I M A T E . Providence. Jan. 28°F (-2-2°C), July 72°F (22-2°C). Annual rainfall 4 3 " (1,079 mm). See New England, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1843; it has had 42 amendments. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 50 members and a House of Representatives of 100 members, both elected for 2 years, as are also the Governor and Lieut.-Governor. Every citizen, 18 years of age, who has resided in the state for 30 days, and is duly registered, is qualified to vote. Rhode Island sends to Congress 2 senators and 2 representatives. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 212,080 votes, Mondale, 197,106. The capital is Providence. The state has 5 counties (unique in having no political functions) and 39 cities and towns. Governor: Edward DiPrete (R.), 1987-89 ($69,900). Lieut-Governor: Richard Licht(D.), 1987-89(552,000). Secretary of State: Kathleen Connell (D.), 1987-89 ($52,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1987 (Office of the State Controller) total revenues were $1,585 • 7m. (taxation, $1,032-8m., and federal aid, $361 • lm.); general expenditures were $1,529- l m . (education, $442-6m.; and public welfare, $453 lm.). Total net long-term debt on 30 June 1986 was $261 • 8m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 14,670. NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. The small mineral output, mostly stone, sand and gravel, was valued (1986) at an estimated $ 14m. Agriculture. While Rhode Island is predominantly a manufacturing state, agriculture contributed $ 105m. to the general cash income in 1986; it had 697 farms with an area of 73,000 acres (11% of the total land area), of which 31,000 acres were crop land; the average farm was 86 acres. Fisheries. In 1986 the catch was 94m. lb (live weight) valued at $73 • 5m. I N D U S T R Y . Total non-agricultural employment in 1987 was 451,400, of which 116,500 were manufacturing, 334,900 non-manufacturing. Manufacturing firms totalled 3,170; average weekly earnings for production workers in manufacturing, $327.60; value added by manufacture (1984), $4,24lm. Principal industries are metals and machinery, jewellery-silverware and transport equipment. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had (1 Jan. 1987)5,860 miles of road, of which 1,857 were stateowned. In 1987,754,294 motor vehicles were registered. Railways. In 1987,5 railways operated 135 line-miles. Aviation. In 1987 there were 6 state-owned airports. Theodore Francis Green airport at Warwick, near Providence, is served by 12 airlines, and handled over 2m. passengers and 22m. lb. of freight in 1987. Shipping. Waterborne freight through the port of Providence (1985) totalled 1 -9m. tons. Broadcasting. There are 24 radio stations and 5 television stations; there are 8 cable television companies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The state's penal institutions, June 1986, had 1,349 inmates (138 per 100,000 population).

SOUTH

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1529

The death penalty is illegal, except that it is mandatory in the case of murder committed by a prisoner serving a life sentence. Religion. Chief religious bodies are (estimated figures Sept. 1987): Roman Catholic with 550,000 members; Protestant Episcopal (baptized persons), 50,000; Baptist, 22,500; Congregational, 12,000; Methodist, 10,000; Jewish, 24,000. Education. In 1986-87 the 231 public elementary schools had 3,854 teachers and total enrolment of68,698 pupils; about 28,000 pupils were enrolled in private and parochial schools. The 61 senior and vocational high schools had 3,702 teachers and 65,451 pupils. Teachers' salaries (1987) averaged $23,400. Local expenditure, for schools (including evening schools) in 1986-87 totalled $547 • 7m. There are 11 institutions of higher learning in the state, including 1 junior college. The state maintains Rhode Island College, at Providence, with 600 faculty members, and 5,300 full-time students (1986), and the University of Rhode Island, at South Kingstown, with over 900 faculty members and over 13,000 students (including graduate students). Brown University, at Providence, founded in 1764, is now non-sectarian; in 1986 it had over 600 full-time faculty members and 7,000 full-time students. Providence College, at Providence, founded in 1917 by the Order of Preachers (Dominican), had (1986) 210 professors and 5,200 students. The largest of the other colleges are Bryant College, at Smithfield, with 160 faculty and 4,400 students, and the Rhode Island School of Design, in Providence, with about 155 faculty and 1,800 students. Health. In 1987 the state had 22 hospitals (over 7,000 beds), including 4 mental hospitals. Social Security. In 1986 aid to dependent children was granted to 44,200 children in 15,900 families at an average payment per family of $361 per month, and the state also had a general assistance programme. (All other aid programmes were taken over by the federal government.) Books of Reference Rhode Island Manual. Prepared by the Secretary ofState. Providence Providence Journal Almanac: A Reference Book for Rhode Islanders. Providence. Annual Rhode Island Basic Economic Statistics. Rhode Island Dept. of Economic Development. Providence, 1987 McLoughlin, W. G., Rhode Island: a History. Norton, 1978 Wright, M. I., and Sullivan, R . ) . , Rhode Island Atlas. Rhode Island Pubs., 1983 State Library: Rhode Island State Library, State House, Providence 02908. State Librarian: Elliott E. Andrews.

SOUTH CAROLINA H I S T O R Y . South Carolina, first settled permanently in 1670, was one of the 13 original states of the Union. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . South Carolina is bounded in the north by North Carolina, east and south-east by the Atlantic, south-west and west by Georgia. Area, 31,113 sq. miles, of which 909 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 3,121,833, an increase of 20-5 since 1970. Estimate July 1986 3,376,000. Births, 1985, were 51,846 (15-5 per 1,000 population); deaths, 27,072 (8 1); marriages, 52,805 (15-8); divorces and annulments, 13,456 (4); infant deaths, 735 (14 2 per 1,000 live births). The population in 5 census years was:

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

1910 1930 1960

White 679,161 944,049 1,551,022

Negro 835,843 793,681 829,291

1970 1980

1,794,432 2,150,507

789,040 948,623

Indian 331 959 1,098

Asiatic 65 76 946

All others 3,588 22,703

Total 1,515,400 1,738,765 2,382,594

Per sq. mile 49-7 56-8 78-7

2,587,060 3,121,833

83-2 1003

Of the total population in 1980, 49% were male, 54-1% were urban and 55% were 25 years old or older. Median age, 28. Populations of large towns in 1986 (with those of associated metropolitan areas): Columbia (capital), 93,020 (444,700); Charleston, 68,900 (485,600); Greenville, 58,370; Spartanburg, 44,210 (Greenville-Spartanburg, 606,400). CLIMATE. Columbia. Jan. 47°F (8-3°C), July 81°F (27-2°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,125 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1895, when it went into force without ratification by the electorate. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 46 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 124 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Only registered citizens have the right to vote. South Carolina sends to Congress 2 senators and 6 representatives. At the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 615,539 votes, Mondale 344,459 and Bergland 4,359. The capital is Columbia. Governor: Carroll Campbell (R.), 1987-91 ($60,000). Lieut.-Governor:N. A. Theodore(D.), 1987-91 ($35,000). Secretary of State: John Tucker Campbell (D.), 1987-91 ($55,000). B U D G E T . For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1986 general revenues were $2,509-3m.; general expenditures were $2,592-3m. On 30 June 1985 the total bonded debt was $626-6m. Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 11,096. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Non-metallic minerals are of chief importance: value of mineral output in 1985 was $159-4m., chiefly from limestone for cement, clay, stone, sand and gravel. Production of kaolin, vermiculite, scrap mica and fuller's earth is also important. Agriculture. In 1986 there were 27,500 farms covering a farm area of 5-5m. acres. The average farm was of200 acres. Of the 24,929 farms of the 1982 Census of Agriculture, there were 1,031 of 1,000 acres or more, average farm 224 acres; owners operated 14,756 farms; tenants 2,160. There were 2,331 farms with $100,000 or more in value of sales. Cash receipts from farm marketing in 1985 amounted to $646 • 1 m. for crops and $414-9m. for livestock, including poultry. Chief crops are tobacco ($167-5m.), soybeans ($129-6m.), and corn ($85-9m.). Production, 1985: Cotton 180,000 bales; peaches, 230m. lb.; soybeans, 24-6m. bu.; tobacco, 98-9m. lb.; eggs, 1,573m. Livestock on farms, 1986:635,000 all cattle, 400,000 swine. Forestry. The forest industry is important; total forest land (1986), 12-3m. acres. National forests amounted to 576,518 acres. I N D U S T R Y . A monthly average of 364,944 workers were employed in manufacturing in 1986, earning $7,726m. Major sectors are textiles (28-6%), apparel (12-4%) and chemicals (8 • 8%). Tourism is important; tourists spent an estimated $3,750m. in 1986, and tourism employed 85,000.

SOUTH

1531

DAKOTA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highway mileage in the combined highway system in June 1987 was 40,562 miles. Motorvehicleregistrationsnumbered2-4m. in 1986. Railways. In 1986 the length of railway in the state was about 2,300 miles. Aviation. In 1985 there were 139 aircraft facilities (63 public, 76 private) including 126 airports, 12 heliports and 1 seaplane base. Registered aircraft numbered 2,259 in 1986. Shipping. The state has 3 deep-water ports. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. At 31 Dec. 1985 penal institutions held 10,538 prisoners under State and federal jurisdiction. Education. In 1985-86 the total public-school enrolment (K-12) was 619,369; there were 358,580 white pupils and 260,789 non-white pupils. The total number of teachers was 34,834; average salary was $21,595. For higher education the state operates the University of South Carolina, founded at Columbia in 1801, with, (autumn 1986), 22,965 enrolled students; Clemson University, founded in 1889, with 13,062 students; The Citadel, at Charleston, with 3,339 students; Winthrop College, Rock Hill, with 5,323 students; Medical University of S. Carolina, at Charleston 2,468 students; S. Carolina State College, at Orangeburg, with 3,869 students, and Francis Marion College, at Florence, with 3,673 students; the College of Charleston has 5,531 students and Lander College, Greenwood, 2,276. There are 16 technical institutions (34,306). There are also 493 private kindergartens, elementary and high schools with total enrolment (1985-86) of 50,150 pupils, and 31 private and denominational colleges and junior colleges with (autumn 1986) enrolment of 50,150 students. Health. In 1985 the state had 289 non-federal health facilities with 29,246 beds licensed by the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control. Social Security. In 1985 there were 483,000 recipients of social security benefits. The average monthly expenditure in benefits was $ 183m. Books of Reference South Carolina Legislative Manual. Columbia. Annual South Carolina Statistical Abstract. South Carolina Budget and Control Board, Columbia. Annual Jones, L., South Carolina: A Synoptic History for Laymen. Stale Library: South Carolina State Library, Columbia.

Lexington, 1978

SOUTH DAKOTA H I S T O R Y . South Dakota was first visited by Europeans in 1743 when Verendrye planted a lead plate (discovered in 1913) on the site of Fort Pierre, claiming the region for the French crown. Beginning with a trading post in 1794, it was settled from 1857 to 1861 when Dakota Territory was organized. It was admitted into the Union o n 2 Nov. 1889. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . South Dakota is bounded north by North Dakota, east by Minnesota, south-east by the Big Sioux River (forming the boundary with Iowa), south by Nebraska (with the Missouri River forming part of the boundary) and west by Wyoming and Montana. Area, 77,116 sq. miles, of which 1,164 sq. miles are water. Area administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1985, covered 5m. acres (10% of the state), of which 2-6m. acres were

1532

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

held by tribes. The federal government, 1985, owned 3,148,000 acres or 6-4% of the total. Census population, 1 April 1980, 690,178, an increase of 3-5% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 708,000. Births, 1984, were 12,431 (17-8 per 1,000 population); deaths, 6,512 (9-3); infant deaths, 124 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 8,057 (11 -5); divorces, 2,498 (3-6). Population in 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960

White 563,771 669,453 653,098

Negro 817 646 1,114

1970 1980

630,333 638,955

1,627 2,144

Indian 19,137 21,833 25,794

Asiatic 163 101 336

All others 34,297 49,079

Total 583,888 692,849 680,514

Per sq. mile 7-6 90 8-9

666,257 690,178

8-8 90

Of the total population in 1980, 340,370 were male, 320,223 were urban and 441,851 were 21 years of age or older. Population of the chief cities (census of 1980) was: Sioux Falls, 81,071; Rapid City, 46,340; Aberdeen, 25,973; Watertown, 15,632, Mitchell, 13,917; Brookings, 14,915; Huron, 13,000. C L I M A T E . Rapid City. Jan. 25°F (-3-9°C), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 19" (474 mm). Sioux Falls. Jan. 14°F(-10°C), July 73°F (22 8°C). Annual rainfall 25" (625 mm). See High Plains, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Voters are all citizens 18 years of age or older who have complied with certain residential qualifications. The people reserve the right of the initiative and referendum. The Senate has 35 members, and the House of Representatives 70 members, all elected for 2 years; the Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 1 representative to Congress. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 198,119 votes, Mondale, 114,967. The capital is Pierre (population, 1980, 11,973). The state is divided into 66 organized counties. Governor: George Mickelson, Jr. (R.), 1987-89 ($57,325). Lieut.-Governor: Walter D. Miller, 1987-89 ($7,980, and $75 daily expense allowance). Secretary ofState: Joyce Hazeltine, 1987-89 ($38,940). BUDGET. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1986 the estimated general fund revenues were $349-93m. ($191 -5m. from sales and use tax); expenditure was also $349-93m. ($78-6m. on education). Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 11,850. N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. The mineral products include gold (310,527 troy oz. in 1984, second largest yield of all states), silver (50,000 troy oz.). Mineral products, 1984, were valued at $193 -4m., of which gold accounts for $ 111 -9m. and silver, $707,000. Agriculture. In 1985, 37,000 farms had an acreage of 45m.; the average farm had 1,203 acres. Farm units are large; in 1982 there were only 4,024 farms of 50 acres or less, compared with 10,165 exceeding 1,000 acres. 17,371 farms sold produce valued at $40,000 or over. South Dakota ranks first in the US as producer of oats (79-5m. bu. in 1985) and rye (4-4m. bu.) and second in sunflower seed (609-9m. lb.). The other important crops are flaxseed (l-3m. bu.), hay (3-2m. tons), durum wheat (2-6m. bushels), barley (32 -4m. bu.), corn for grain (252m. bu.), soybeans (40-6m. bu.) and potatoes

SOUTH

DAKOTA

1533

(l -9m. cwt.). The farm livestock on 1 Jan. 1986 included 3-6m. cattle, 540,000 sheep, 1 -6m. swine. Forestry. National forest area, 1985,1,997,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985, manufacturing establishments had 23,531 workers who earned $416-7m. Food processing is by far the largest industry with 96 plants employing 7,678 workers. Contract construction has 1,712 establishments employing 6,878. There are 179 printing and publishing plants employing 2,432 workers. Also significant are mining (59 establishments employing 2,381), dairy, lumber and wood products, machinery, transport equipment, electronics, stone, glass and clay products. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highway mileage was 17,056 in 1981; hard surface (1985), 8,324. Registered passenger cars numbered 637,000 in 1981. Railways. In 1986 there were 1,983-7 miles of railway in operation. The state owns 847 • 9 miles of track which is operating and 302-7 which is not. Aviation. In 1985 there were 61 general aviation airports and 9 commercial airports. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The State prisons had, in 1986,316 inmates. The death penalty was illegal from 1915 to 1938; since 1938, one person has been executed, in 1949 (by electrocution), for murder. Religion. The chief religious bodies are: Lutherans, Roman Catholics, Methodist, Disciples of Christ, Presbyterian, Baptist and Episcopal. Education. Elementary and secondary education are free from 6 to 21 years of age. Between the ages of 8 and 16, attendance is compulsory. In 1984-85 137,764 pupils were attending elementary and high (including parochial) schools (8,324 full-time equivalent classroom teachers). Teachers' salaries (1985-86) averaged an estimated $17,356. Total expenditure on public schools, $316m. Higher education (1985-86): The School of Mines at Rapid City, established 1885, had 2,260 students; the State University at Brookings, 6,837 students; the University of South Dakota, founded at Vermillion in 1882, 5,520; Northern State College, had 2,818; Black Hills State College, 2,117; Dakota State College, 867. The 11 private colleges had 8,442 students. The federal Government maintains Indian schools on its reservations and 1 outside at Flandreau. Health. In 1986 there were 70 licensed hospitals(5,157 beds). Social Security. In financial year 1985-86, 3,144 aged persons received $348,270; 135 blind persons received $28,610; 4,713 disabled persons received $908,370. Aid to dependent children was $ 1,469,308, to 11,339 children. Books of Reference Governor's Budget Report. South Dakota Bureau o f F i n a n c e and Management. A n n u a l South Dakota Historical Collections. 1902-82 South Dakota Legislative Manual. Secretary of State, Pierre, S.D. Biennial Berg, F. M., South Dakota: Land of Shining Gold. Hettinger, 1982 Karolevitz, Robert F., Challenge: the South Dakota Story. Sioux Falls, 1975 Milton, John R., South Dakota: a Bicentennial History. New York, W. W. N o r t o n , 1977 Schell, H. S„ History of South Dakota. 3rd ed. Lincoln, Neb., 1975 Vexler, R. I., South Dakota Chronology and Factbook. New York, 1978 State Library: South Dakota State Library, 800 Governor's Drive, Pierre, S.D., 5 7 5 0 1 - 2 2 9 4 . Slate Librarian: D r Jane Kolbe.

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TENNESSEE H I S T O R Y . Tennessee, first settled in 1757, was admitted into the Union on 1 June 1796. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Tennessee is bounded north by Kentucky and Virginia, east by North Carolina, south by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi and west by the Mississippi River (forming the boundary with Arkansas and Missouri). Area, 42,144 sq. miles (989 sq. miles water). Census population, 1 April 1980, 4,591,120, an increase of 665,102 or 16-9% since 1970. Estimate (1986), 4,803,000. Vital statistics, 1986: Births, 66,246 (13-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 44,236 (9 1); infant deaths 726 (11 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 59,730 (24-6); divorces, 30,031 (12 - 4). Population in 6 census years was: 1910 1930 1950 1960

White 1,711,432 2,138,644 2,760,257 2,977,753

Negro 473,088 477,646 530,603 586,876

1970 1980

3,293,930 3,835,452

621,261 725,942

Indian 216 161 339 638

Asiatic 53 105 334 1,243

All others 8,496 29,726

Total 2,184,789 2,616,556 3,291,718 3,567,089

Persq. mile 52-4 62-4 788 85-4

3,923,687 4,591,120

95-3 111-6

Of the population in 1980, 2,216,600 were male, 2,773,573 were urban and those 21 years of age or older numbered 3,026,398. The cities, with population, 1980 (and estimates 1986), are Memphis, 646,356 (652,640); Nashville (capital), 455,651 (473,670); Knoxville, 175,030 (173,210); Chattanooga, 169,565 (162,170); Clarksville, 54,777 (60,730); Jackson, 49,131 (52,810); Johnson City, 39,753 (44,700); Murfreesboro, 32,845 (40,960); Kingsport, 32,027 (31,470); Oak Ridge, 27,662 (26,920). Standard metropolitan areas 1980 (1986): Memphis, 810,043 (959,500); Nashville, 850,505 (930,700); Knoxville, 476,517 (591,100); Chattanooga, 320,761 (425,500); Johnson City-BristolKingsport, 343,041 (443,400); Clarksville, 83,342 (154,400); Jackson, 74,546 (78,000). C L I M A T E . Memphis. Jan. 41°F (5°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 4 9 " (1,221 mm). Nashville. Jan. 39° F (3-9°C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 4 8 " (1,196 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The state has operated under 3 constitutions, the last of which was adopted in 1870 and has been since amended 22 times (first in 1953). Voters at an election may authorize the calling of a convention limited to altering or abolishing one or more specified sections of the constitution. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 33 members and a House of Representatives of 99 members, senators elected for 4 years and representatives for 2 years. Qualified as electors are all citizens (usual residential and age (18) qualifications). Tennessee sends to Congress 2 senators and 9 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 990,212 votes, Mondale, 711,714. For the Tennessee Valley Authority see pp. 1406-07. The capital is Nashville. The state is divided into 95 counties. Governor: Ned McWherter (D.), 1987-91 ($85,000). Lieut.-Governor: John S. Wilder (D.), 1987-91 ($12,500). Secretary of State: Gentry Crowell (D.), ($62,500). B U D G E T . For 1985-86 total revenue was $5,354m.; general expenditure, $4,652m. Total net long-term debt o n 3 0 J u n e l 9 8 6 amounted to $696 • 1 m. Per capita personal income(1986) was$12,002.

TENNESSEE

1535

ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Minerals. Total value added by mining 1982: fuel minerals (mainly coal), $217•1 m.; non-fuel (mainly stone and zinc), $ 154 • 4m. Agriculture. In 1986, 96,000 farms covered 13m. acres. The average farm was of 135 acres (only a few states had a smaller average) valued, land and buildings, at $992. Cash income (1985) from crops was $l,057m.; from livestock, $l,000m. Main crops were cotton, tobacco and soybeans. On 1 Jan. 1986 the domestic animals included 210,000 milch cows, 2-5m. all cattle, 10,000 sheep, 950,000 swine. Forestry. Forests occupy 13 16m. acres (50% of total land area). The forest industry and industries dependent on it employ about 40,000 workers, earning $150m. per year. Wood products are valued at over $500m. per year. National forest system land (1985) 627,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacturing industries include iron and steel working, but the most important products are chemicals, including synthetic fibres and allied products, electrical equipment and food. In 1983, manufacturing establishments employed 457,400 workers; value added by manufactures was $ 19,868 • 3m. T O U R I S M . In 1986 39 -lm. out-of-state tourists spent $4,124m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1985 there were 68,768 miles of municipal and rural roads. The state is served by 115 intrastate bus companies and 31 privately owned internal bus services. Motor-vehicle registrations, 1986, totalled 4,289,592, of which 3,639,848 were cars. Railways. The state had (1985) 2,857 miles oftrack. Aviation. The state is served by 11 major airlines. In 1985 there were 74 public airports and 78 private; there were 71 heliports and 2 military air bases. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There has been no execution since 1960; since 1930 there have been 22 whites and 44 Negroes executed (by electrocution) for murder and 5 whites and 22 Negroes for rape. A US Supreme Court ruling prohibits the use of capital punishment under present Tennessee law, except for first degree murder. Prison population, 30 June 1987,7,239. The law prohibiting the inter-marriage of white and Negro was declared unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in June 1967. Religion. The leading religious bodies are the Southern Baptists, Methodists and Negro Baptists. Education. School attendance has been compulsory since 1925 and the employment of children under 16 years of age in workshops, factories or mines is illegal. In 1985-86 there were 1,645 public schools with a net enrolment of 846,823 pupils; 41,103 teachers earned an average salary of $21,874. Total expenditure for operating public schools (kindergarten to Grade 12) was $2,016m. Tennessee has 49 accredited colleges and universities, 18 2-year colleges and 28 vocational schools. The universities include the University of Tennessee, Rnoxville (founded 1794), with 25,463 students in 1986-87; Vanderbilt University, Nashville (1873) with 8,968, Tennessee State University (1912) with 6,734, the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga (1886) with 7,484, Memphis State University (1912), 20,046 and Fisk University (1866) with 538. Health. In 1985 the state had 155 hospitals with 28,434 beds. State facilities for the

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mentally retarded had 2,109 resident patients and mental hospitals had 1,723 in 1984. Social Security. In 1985 Tennessee paid $3,483m. to retired workers and their survivors and to disabled workers. Total beneficiaries: 500,000 retired; 162,000 survivors and 100,000 disabled. 362,000 people received $578m. in Medicaid. 58,000 families received aid to dependent children ($84m.). Supplemental Security Income ($278m.) was paid to 127,994. Books of Reference Tennessee Dept. of Finance and Administration, Annual Report, Annual Dept. of Education Annual Report for Tennessee, Annual Tennessee Blue Book. Secretary of State, Nashville Tennessee Statistical Abstract, Center for Business and Economic Research, Univ. of Tennessee. Annual Corlew, R. E., Tennessee: A Short History. Univ. Tennessee, 2nd ed., 1981 Davidson, D., Tennessee: Vol.1, The Old River Frontier to Secession, Univ. Tennessee, 1979 Dykeman, W., Tennessee, Rev. Ed., New York, 1984 State Library: State Library and Archives, Nashville. Librarian: Edwin Gleaves. State Historian: Wilma Dykeman.

TEXAS HISTORY. In 1836 Texas declared its independence of Mexico, and after maintaining an independent existence, as the Republic of Texas, for 10 years, it was on 29 Dec. 1845 received as a state into the American Union. The state's first settlement dates from 1686. AREA AND POPULATION. Texas is bounded north by Oklahoma, northeast by Arkansas, east by Louisiana, south-east by the Gulf of Mexico, south by Mexico and west by New Mexico. Area, 266,807 sq. miles (including 4,790 sq. miles of inland water). Census population, 1 April 1980 (provisional), 14,228,383, an increase of 27% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 16,370,000. Vital statistics for 1984: Births, 306,192 (19-2 per 1,000 population); deaths, 119,531 (7-5); infant deaths, 3,178 (10-4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 207,631(13); divorces, 98,074 (61).

Population for 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 3,204,848 4,967,172 8,374,831

Negro 690,049 854,964 1,187,125

1970 1980

9,717,128 11,197,663

1,399,005 1,710,250

Indian 702 1,001 5,750

Asiatic 943 1,578 9,848

All others 80,597 1,320,470

Total 3,896,542 5,824,715 9,579,677

Per sq. mile 14-8 22 1 36-5

11,196,730 14,228,383

42 7 54 2

Of the population in 1980, 6,998,301 were male, 11,327,159 persons were urban. Those 20 years old and older numbered 9,357,309. A census report, 1980, showed, 2,985,643 persons of Spanish origin. The largest cities, with census population in 1980, are: Houston 1,595,138 Dallas 904,078 San Antonio 785,882 385,164 Fort Worth El Paso 425,259 Austin (capital) 345,496 Corpus Christi 231,999 Lubbock 173,979

Amarillo Beaumont Wichita Falls Irving Waco Arlington Abilene Pasadena

149,230 118,102 94,201 109,943 101,261 160,113 98,315 112,560

Odessa Garland Laredo San Angelo Galveston Midland Tyler Port Arthur

90,027 138,857 91,449 73,240 61,902 70,525 70,508 61,195

Larger urbanized areas, 1980: Houston, 2,891,146; Dallas-Fort Worth, 2,964,342; San Antonio, 1,070,245.

TEXAS

1537

C L I M A T E . Dallas. Jan. 45°F (7-2°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 3 8 " (945 mm). El Paso. Jan. 44°F(6-7°C), July 81°F(27 -2°C). Annual rainfall 9 " (221 mm). Galveston. Jan. 54°F (12-2°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 4 6 " (1,159 mm). Houston. Jan. 52°F(11 • PC), July 83°F(28 -3°C). Annual rainfall 4 8 " (1,200 mm). See Central Plains, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1876; it has been amended 233 times. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 31 members elected for 4 years (half their number retire every 2 years), and a House of Representatives of 150 members elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Govemor are elected for 4 years. Qualified electors are all citizens with the usual residential qualifications. Texas sends to Congress 2 senators and 27 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 3,301,024 votes, Mondale, 1,873,499. The capital is Austin. The state has 254 counties. Governor: Bill Clements (R.), 1987-91 ($90,700). Lieut.-Govemor: William P. Hobby (D.), 1987-91 ($7,200). Secretary of State: John W. Fainter, Jr. (D.), ($61,200). B U D G E T . In the fiscal year ending 31 Aug. 1982 general revenues were $23,617m. ($13,671m. from taxes, $4,154m. federal aid); general expenditures, $21,334m. ($8,743m. on education, $2,506m. on highways, $2,067m. on hospitals, $ 1,741 m. on public welfare). Texas has a large revenue derived from the severance tax (i.e., tax on the removal of oil, natural gas and sulphur from the soil or waters of the state). Net long-term debt, 31 Aug. 1985, was $4,009m. Per capita personal income (198 5) was $ 13,483. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals. Production, 1985: Crude petroleum, 889m. bbls, natural gas 6,012,000 m.c.f.; other minerals include natural gasoline, butane and propane gases, helium, crude gypsum, granite and sandstone, salt and cement. Total value of mineral products in 1982, $45,388m., of which $43,834 was for fuels. Agriculture. Texas is one of the most important agricultural states of the Union. In 1985 it had 184,000 farms covering 136m. acres; average farm was of 739 acres valued, land and buildings, at $652 per acre. Large-scale commercial farms, highly mechanized, dominate in Texas; farms of 1,000 acres or more in number far exceed that of any other state. But small-scale farming persists. Soil erosion is serious in some parts. For some 97,297,000 acres drastic curative treatment has been indicated and for 51,164,000 acres, preventive treatment. Production, 1985: Cotton, 3,945,000 bales (of 480 lb., value $98 lm.); maize (157m. bu., value $422m.), wheat (187-2m. bu., value $580m.), oats, barley, soybeans, peanuts, oranges, grapefruit, peaches, potatoes, sweet potatoes. Cash income, 1985, from crops was $3,8 5 7m.; from livestock, $5,441 m. The state has a very great livestock industry, leading in the number of all cattle, 13-6m. on 1 Jan. 1986, and sheep, 1 -8m.; it also had 322,000 milch cows, and 435,000 swine. Forestry. There were (1980) 23 -3 m. acres of forested land. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing establishments employed l m . workers; trade employed 1 -7m.; government, lm.; services, 1 -3m.; construction, 448,000; finance, insurance and real estate, 442,000; transport and public utilities, 383,000. Chemical industries along the Gulf Coast, such as the production of synthetic rubber and of primary magnesium (from sea-water), are increasingly important.

1538

UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1979 there were 264,900 miles of roads including 199,500 miles of rural roads. Motor registration in 1985,12-6m. Railways. The railways (1974) had a total mileage of 19,134 miles, of which 13,303 miles were main lines. Aviation. In 1981 there were 322 public and 1,109 private airports. Shipping. The port of Houston, connected by the Houston Ship Channel (50 miles long) with the Gulf of Mexico, is the largest inland cotton market in the world. Cargo handled 1981,100-9m. tonnes. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. In Dec. 1985 the state prison held 37,532 men and women. Execution is by lethal injection; there were 300 between 1930 and 1968; between 1977 and 1986 there were 8. Texas has adopted 11 laws governing the activities of trade unions. An Act of 1955 forbids the state's payment of unemployment compensation to workers engaged in certain types of strikes. Religion. The largest religious bodies are Roman Catholics, Baptists, Methodists, Churches of Christ, Lutherans, Presbyterians and Episcopalians. Education. School attendance is compulsory from 7 to 17 years of age. In autumn 1983 public elementary and secondary schools had 2,990,000 enrolled pupils; in 1986 there were 175,500 classroom teachers whose salaries averaged $24,500. Total public school expenditure, 1986, $11,943m. or $750 per capita. The largest institutions of higher education, with faculty numbers and student enrolment, 1985-86, were: Founded 1845 1852 1869 1873 1876 1876 1879 1883 1890 1891 1889 1899 1903 1906 1911 1923 1923 1925 1934 1947 1951

Institutions Baylor University, Waco St Mary's University, San Antonio Trinity University, San Antonio Texas Christian University, Fort Worth Texas A. and M. Univ., College Station Prairie View Agr. and Mech. Coll., Prairie View Sam Houston State University University of Texas System (every campus) North Texas State University, Denton Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene East Texas State University, C o m m e r c e South West Texas State University, San Marcos Texas W o m a n ' s University, Denton Abilene Christian University, Abilene Southern Methodist University, Dallas Stephen F. Austin State University Texas Technical University, Lubbock Texas Arts and Industries University, Kingsville University of Houston, Houston Texas Southern University, Houston Lamar University, Beaumont

Control Baptist R.C. Presb. Christian State State State State State Baptist State State

Faculty 636 209 255 519 2,240 297

Students 11,481 3,298 2,759 6,925 35,675 4,627

365 6,328 884 124 363 833

10,345 105,810 21,210 1,817 6,867 19,267

State 520 Church ofChrist 275 Methodist 650 State 517 State 1,444 State 234 State 2,100 State 544 State 545

8,197 4,505 9,048 12,500 23,589 5,117 30,000 14,230 14,094

Health. In 1983, the state had 562 hospitals (84,900 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association; on 1 Jan. 1980 mental hospitals had 6,559 resident patients and state institutions for the mentally retarded, 11,178 resident patients ( 1980). Social Security. Aid is from state and federal sources. Old-age assistance (SSI) was being granted in Dec. 1985 to 123,400 persons, who received an average of $133 per month; aid was given to 127,100 disabled ($217) and 398,900 dependent children (average payment per family, $ 142 per month).

1539

UTAH

Books of Reference Texas Almanac. Dallas. Biennial Texas Faclbook. Univ. of Texas, 1983 Benton, W. E., Texas, ils Government and Politics. 4th ed., Englewood Cliffs, 1977 Cruz, G . R. and Irby, J. A. (eds.), Texas Bibliography. Austin, 1982 Fehrenbach, T. R., Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans. London, 1986 Jordan, T. G., and Bean, J. L., Jr., Texas. Boulder, 1983 MacCorkle, S. A., and Smith, D., Texas Government. 7th ed. New York, 1974 Richardson, R. N., Texas, the Lone Star State. 3 r d e d . New York, 1970 Legislative Reference James R. Sanders.

Library:

Box 12488, Capitol Station, Austin, Texas 7881 1. Director:

UTAH H I S T O R Y . Utah, which had been acquired by the US during the Mexican war, was settled by Mormons in 1847, and organized as a Territory on 9 Sept. 1850. It was admitted as a state into the Union on 4 Jan. 1896 with boundaries as at present. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Utah is bounded north by Idaho and Wyoming, east by Colorado, south by Arizona and west by Nevada. Area, 84,899 sq. miles, of which 2,826 sq. miles are water. The federal government (1967) owned 35,397,274 acres or 67 • 1% of the area of the state. The area of unappropriated and unreserved lands was 23,268,250 acres in 1974. The Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1974 administered 3,035,190 acres, all of which were allotted to Indian tribes. Census population, 1 April 1980, 1,461,037, an increase of 38% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 1,645,000. Births in 1984 were 39,677 (24 per 1,000 population); deaths, 9,295 (5 -6); infant deaths, 407 (10-3 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 17,579 (10-6); divorces, 8,134 (4-9). Population at 5 federal censuses was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 366,583 499,967 873,828 1,031,926 1,382,550

Negro 1,144 1,108 4,148 6,617 9,225

Indian 3,123 2,869 6,961 11,273 19,256

Asiatic 2,501 3,903 5,207 6,230 15,076

Total 373,851 507,847 890,627 1,059,273 1,461,037

Persq. mile 4-5 6-2 10-8 12-9 17-7

Of the total in 1980, 724,501 were male, 1,232,908 persons were urban; 860,304 were 20 years of age or older. The largest cities are Salt Lake City (capital), with a population (census, 1980) of 162,960; Provo, 74,007; Ogden, 64,444; Bountiful, 32,877; Orem, 52,399; Sandy City, 51,022 and Logan, 26,844. C L I M A T E . Salt Lake City. Jan. 29°F (-1 -7°C), July 77°F (25°C). Annual rainfall 16" (401 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Utah adopted its present constitution in 1896 (now with 61 amendments). It sends to Congress 2 senators and 3 representatives. The Legislature consists of a Senate (in part renewed every 2 years) of 30 members, elected for 4 years, and of a House of Representatives of 75 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The constitution provides for the initiative and referendum. Electors are all citizens, who, not being insane or criminal, have the usual residential qualifications. The capital is Salt Lake City. There are 29 counties in the state. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 464,535 votes, Mondale, 154,239. Governor: Norman Bangerter(R.), 1985-88 ($52,000). Lieut-Governor:^. Val Oveson(R.), 1985-88(535,500).

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1982 general revenue was $2,490m. ($ 1,332m. from taxes, $612m. from federal aid) while general expenditures were $2,490m. ($1,104m. on education, $279m. on highways, $234m. on public welfare). The net long-term debt on 30 June 1982 was about $2,171 m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $10,493. ENERGY AND NATURAL

RESOURCES

Minerals The principal minerals are: copper, gold, petroleum, lead, silver and zinc. The state also has natural gas, clays, tungsten, molybdenum, uranium and phosphate rock. Agriculture. In 1985 Utah had 14,000 farms covering 12m. acres, of which about 2m. acres were crop land and about 300,000 acres pasture. About 1 m. acres had irrigation; the average farm was of857 acres. Of the total surface area, 9% is severely eroded and only 9 -4% is free from erosion; the balance is moderately eroded. Cash income, 1985, from crops, $138m. and from livestock, $409m. The principal crops are: Barley, wheat (spring and winter), oats, potatoes, hay (alfalfa, sweet clover and lespedeza), maize. In 1985 there were 515,000 sheep; 80,000 milch cows; 800,000 all cattle; 28,000 swine. Forestry. Area of national forests, 1981, was 9,129,000 acres, of which 8 05m. acres were under forest service administration. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing establishments had 94,000 workers. Leading manufactures by value added are primary metals, ordinances and transport, food, fabricated metals and machinery, petroleum products. Service industries employed 132,000; trade, 148,000; government, 138,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state has about 50,000 miles of highway. In 1985 there were 1,103,000 motor vehicles registered. Railways. On 1 July 1974 the state had 1,734 miles of railways. Aviation. In 1981 there were 57 public and 45 private airports. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. The number of inmates of the state prison in Dec. 1985 was 1,570. Since 1930 total executions have been 14 (13 by shooting, 1 by hanging—the condemned man has choice), all whites, and all for murder. Religion. Latter-day Saints (Mormons) form about 73% of the church membership of the state; their church is a substantial property-owner. The Roman Catholic church and most Protestant denominations are represented. Education. School attendance is compulsory for children from 6 to 18 years of age. There are 40 school districts. Teachers' salaries, 1985, averaged $21,500. There were (autumn 1983) 379,000 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools, and (1986) 16,700 classroom teachers, average salary, $22,550; estimated public school expenditure was $ 1,092m. or $664 per capita. The University o f U t a h (1850) (24,770 students in 1985-86) is in Salt Lake City; the Utah State University (1890) (11,804) is in Logan. The Mormon Church maintains the Brigham Young University at Provo (1875) with 26,894 students. Other colleges include: Westminster College, Salt Lake City (1,302); Weber State College, Ogden (11,117); Southern Utah State College, Cedar City (2,587); College of Eastern Utah, Price (1,132); Snow College, Ephraim (1,328); Dixie College, St George (2,234).

VERMONT

1541

Health. In 1983, the state had 44 hospitals (5,400 beds) listed by the Utah Department of Social Services. Mental hospitals had 317 resident patients on 1 Jan. 1980; state facilities for the mentally retarded had 763. Social Security. In Dec. 1985 the state department of public welfare provided assistance to 37,800 persons receiving aid to dependent children at an average $322 per family per month; aid to the aged, the blind and disabled is provided from federal funds; there were 1,900 aged recipients in 1985 (average $150 per month), 6,600 disabled ($224).

Books of Reference Compiled Digest ofAdministrative Reports. Secretary of State, Salt Lake City. Annual Statistical Abstract of Government in Utah. Utah Foundation, Salt Lake City. Annual Utah Agricultural Statistics. Dept. of Agriculture, Salt Lake City. Annual Utah: Facts. Bureau of Economic and Business Research, Univ. ofUtah, 1975 Arlington, L., Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-Day Saints, 1900. Cambridge, Mass., 1958 Petersen, C. S., Utah, a History. New York, 1977

1830-

VERMONT H I S T O R Y . Vermont, first settled in 1724, was admitted into the Union as the fourteenth state on 4 March 1791. The first constitution was adopted by convention at Windsor, 2 July 1777, and established an independent state government. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Vermont is bounded north by Canada, east by New Hampshire, south by Massachusetts and west by New York. Area, 9,614 sq. miles, of which 341 sq. miles are inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 511,456, an increase of 15% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 541,000. Births, 1985, were 8,027 (15 per 1,000 population); deaths, 4,657 (8 -7); infant deaths, 68 (8 -5 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,375 (10 1); divorces, 2,173 (41). Population at 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 354,298 358,966 389,092 442,553 506,736

Negro 1,621 568 519 761 1,135

Indian 26 36 57 229 984

Asiatic 11 41 172 787 1,355

Total 355,956 359,611 389,881 444,732 511,456

Persq. mile 390 38-8 420 480 551

Of the population in 1980, 249,080 were male, 172,735 persons were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 343,666. Tlie largest cities are Burlington, with a population in 1980of37,712;Rutland, 18,436; Barre, 9,824. C L I M A T E . Burlington. Jan. 17°F(-8-3"C), July 70°F(21.1°C). Annual rainfall 33" (820 mm). See New England, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution was adopted in 1793 and has since been amended. Amendments are proposed by two-thirds vote of the Senate every 4 years, and must be accepted by two sessions of the legislature; they are then submitted to popular vote. The state Legislature, consisting of a Senate of 30 members and a House of Representatives of 150 members (both elected for 2 years), meets in Jan. in odd-numbered years. The Governor and Lieut.Governor are elected for 2 years. Electors are all citizens who possess certain residential qualifications and have taken the freeman's oath set forth in the constitution. The state is divided into 14 counties; there are 251 towns and cities and other minor civil divisions. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative, who are elected by the voters of the entire state.

1542

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 134,252 votes, Mondale, 94,518. The capital is Montpelier (8,241, census of 1980). Governor: Madeleine Kunin (D.), 1987-89 ($50,003). Lieut.-Governor: Howard Dean (D.) ($22,006). Secretary of State: James Douglas (R.) ($29,993). B U D G E T . The total revenue for the year ending 30 June 1986 was $866m.; total disbursements, $865-6m. Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1986, was $254-7. Per capita personal income (1984) was $ 10,692. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Stone, chiefly granite, marble and slate, is the leading mineral produced in Vermont, contributing about 60% of the total value of mineral products. Other products include asbestos, talc, peat, sand and gravel. Total value of mineral products, 1982, $50m. Agriculture. Agriculture is the most important industry. In 1985 the state had 7,000 farms covering 2m. acres; the average farm was of 286 acres. Cash income, 1984, from livestock and products, $369m.; from crops, $31m. The dairy farms produce about 2,300m. lb. of milk annually. The chief agricultural crops are hay, apples and maple syrup. In 1981 Vermont had 355,000 cattle, 11,000 sheep, 9,000 swine, 425,000 poultry. Forestry. In 1982 the harvest was 82m. bd ft hardwood and 93m. bd ft softwood saw-logs, and 267,000 cords of pulpwood and boltwood. About 600,000 cords was cut for firewood. The state is nearly 80% forest, with 12% in public ownership. National forests area (1983), 285,000 acres. State-owned forests, parks, fish and game areas, 250,000 acres; municipally-owned, 38,500 acres. I N D U S T R Y . In 1984, manufacturing establishments employed an average 49,000 workers; main manufactures include machine tools and electronic components. Service industries employed 52,000 and trade, 47,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had 14,000 miles of roads in 1984, including 12,900 miles of rural roads. Motor vehicle registrations, 1984,510,267. Railways. There were, in 1983, 756 miles of main line railway, 300 of which was leased by the state to private operators. Aviation. There were 22 airports in 1983, of which 10 were state operated, 2 municipally owned and 10 privately owned but open to public use. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND

WELFARE

Justice. In financial year 1984 6 prisons and centres had an average o f 5 2 4 inmates; average total inmates, 576; there were an average o f 4 , 3 5 0 people on probation and 313 on parole. Religion. The principal denominations are Roman Catholic, United Church of Christ, United Methodist, Protestant Episcopal, Baptist and UnitarianUniversalist. Education. School attendance during the full school term is compulsory for children from 7 to 16 years of age, unless they have completed the 10th grade or undergo approved home instruction. In 1982-83 the public elementary schools had 48,166 enrolled pupils; the public secondary schools had 43,344 pupils; the 82 private schools had 8,580 pupils. Full-time teachers for public elementary schools numbered 2,941, secondary schools 3,310. Teachers' salaries for 1983 averaged

VIRGINIA

1543

$15,794 (elementary) and $16,747 (secondary). Total expenditure on public schools, 1984, $30 lm. The University of Vermont (1791) had 9,218 full-time students in 1981-82, of whom 7,833 were undergraduates; Middlebury College (1800), 1,932 students; Norwich University (1834 but founded as an academy 1819), 2,308 students (including Vermont College); St Michael's College, 1,721 students; the 5 state colleges, 3,796 students; all other colleges, 3,120. Health. In Sept. 1983 the state had 16 general hospitals (898 beds), 2 mental hospitals and 1 T.B. hospital. There was 1 federal general hospital with 224 beds. Social Security. Old-age assistance (SSI) was being granted in 1980 to 2,400 persons, drawing an average of $108 per month; aid to dependent children was being granted to 24,300 persons, drawing an average of $340 per family per month; and aid to the permanently and totally disabled was being granted to 5,200 persons, drawing an average of $ 192. Books of Reference Legislative Directory. Secretary of State, Montpelier. Biennial Vermont Annua! Financial Report. Auditor of Accounts, Montpelier. Annual Vermont Facts and Figures. Office of Statistical Co-ordination, Montpelier Vermont Year-Book, formerly Walton's Register. Chester. Annual BassettT., and Seymour D. (eds.), Vermont: A Bibliography of its History, Boston, 1981 Delorme, D. (ed.), Vermont Atlas and Gazetteer, Rev. ed., Freeport, 1983 Morrissey, C. T., Vermont. New York, 1981 State Library: Vermont Dept.of Libraries, Montpelier. State Librarian:

Patricia Klinck.

VIRGINIA H I S T O R Y . The first English Charter for settlements in America was that granted by James I in 1606 for the planting of colonies in Virginia. The state was one of the 13 original states in the Union. Virginia lost just over one-third of its area when West Virginia was admitted into the Union (1863). A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Virginia is bounded north-west by West Virginia, north-east by Maryland, east by the Atlantic, south by North Carolina and Tennessee and west by Kentucky. Area, 40,767 sq. miles including 1,063 sq. miles of inland water. Census population, 1 April 1980, 5,346,818, an increase of 695,370 or 14-9% since 1970. Estimate 1986 5,787,000. In 1985 there were 85,984 births (15 per 1,000 population); 45,236 deaths (7-9); 990 infant deaths (11-5 per 1,000 live births); 66,541 marriages and 24,131 divorces. Population for 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 1,389,809 1,770,441 3,142,443

Negro 671,096 650,165 816,258

1970 1980

3,761,514 4,230,000

861,368 1,008,311

Indian 539 779 2,155

Asiatic 168 466 4,725

All others 25,612 108,517

Total 2,061,612 2,421,851 3,966,949

Per sq. mile 51-2 60-7 99-3

4,648,494 5,346,818

116-9 134-7

Of the total population in 1980,49% were male, 66% were urban and 59% were 21 years of age or older. The population (census of 1980) of the principal cities was: Norfolk, 266,979; Virginia Beach, 262,199; Richmond, 219,214; Newport News, 144,903; Hampton, 122,617; Chesapeake, 114,226; Portsmouth, 104,577; Alexandria, 103,219; Roanoke, 100,427; Lynchburg, 66,743. C L I M A T E . Average temperatures in Jan. are 41°F in the Tidewater coastal area and 32°F in the Blue Ridge mountains; July averages, 78°F and 68°F respectively. Precipitation averages 36" in the Shenandoah valley and 4 4 " in the south. Snowfall is 5-10" in the Tidewater and 25-30" in the western mountains. Norfolk. Jan.

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41°F (5°C), July 79°F (26 TC). Annual rainfall 46" (1,145 mm). See Atlantic Coast, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution dates from 1971. The General Assembly consists of a Senate of 40 members, elected for 4 years, and a House of Delegates of 100 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. Qualified as electors are (with few exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age, fulfilling certain residential qualifications, who have registered. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 10 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,325,516 votes, Mondale, 793,711. The state capital is Richmond; the state contains 95 counties and 41 independent cities. Governor: Gerald L. Baliles (D.), 1986-90(575,000). Lieut.-Governor:L. Douglas Wilder (D.) $20,000. Secretary ofthe Commonwealth: Sandra D. Bowen (D.) ($45,959). BUDGET. General revenue for the year ending 30 June 1985 was $6,652,678,000 (taxation, $4,489,878,000, and federal aid, $1,298,159,000); general expenditures, $5,844,421,000 ($1,644,836,000 for education, $ 1,079,596,000 for transport and $1,950,440,000 for public welfare). Total net long-term debt, 30 June 1984, amounted to $521,032,000. Per capita personal income (1986) was $15,374. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. Coal is the most important mineral, with output (1984) of 35,500,000 short tons. Lead and zinc ores, stone, sand and gravel, lime and titanium ore are also produced. Total mineral output was $382m. in 1986. Agriculture. In 1985 there were 55,000 farms with an area of 10m. acres; average farm had 182 acres and was valued at $ 106,220. Income, 1985, from crops, $623m., and from livestock and livestock products, $ 1,004m. The chief crops are corn, hay, peanuts and tobacco. Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1985 included 162,000 milch cows, l-76m. all cattle, 125,000 sheep and 370,000 swine (Dec. 1984). Forestry. National forests, 1984, covered 1,634,000 acres. I N D U S T R Y . The manufacture of cigars and cigarettes and of rayon and allied products and the building of ships lead in value of products. T O U R I S M . Tourists spend about $4,100m. a year in Virginia, attracted mainly by the state's outstanding scenery, coastline and historical interest. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state highways system, 31 Dec. 1983, had 61,977 miles of highways, of which 8,958 miles were primary roads. Motor registrations, 1985,4 1m. Railways. In 1985 there were 3,693 miles of railways. Aviation. There were, in 1985,81 airports, ofwhich 58 were publicly owned. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Executions (by electrocution) since 1930 totalled 100. Prison population, 31 Dec. 1985,12,073 in federal and state prisons. Religion. The principal churches are the Baptist, Methodist, Protestant-Episcopal, Roman Catholic and Presbyterian.

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Education. Elementary and secondary instruction is free, and forages 6 - 1 7 attendance is compulsory. No child under 12 may be employed in any mining or manufacturing work. In 1984 the 135 school districts had, in primary schools, 578,305 pupils and 34,167 teachers and in public high schools, 369,956 pupils and 26,286 teachers. Teachers' salaries (1986) averaged $23,450. Total expenditure on education, 1986, was $3,233m. The more important institutions for higher education (1986) were: Founded 1693 1749 1776 1819 1832 1832 1838 1839 1865 1868 1872 1882 1908 1910 1930 1956

Name and place of college College o f W i l l i a m and Mary, Williamsburg (State) Washington and Lee University, Lexington Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney (Pres.) University of Virginia, Charlottesville (State) R a n d o l p h - M a c o n College, Ashland (Methodist) University of R i c h m o n d , Richmond (Baptist) Virginia C o m m o n w e a l t h University, Richmond Virginia Military Institute Lexington (State) Virginia U n i o n University, R i c h m o n d H a m p t o n University Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Virginia State University, Petersburg James Madison University, Harrisonburg Radford University (State) Old D o m i n i o n University, Norfolk George Mason University (State)

Staff 526 194 74 1,772 102 349 1,885 100 98 297 2,209 263 600 365 713 715

Students 6,616 1,804 825 17,149 1,013 4,705 19,641 1,350 1,311 4,483 22,345 3,583 9,757 7,500 15,463 17,652

Health. In 1983 the state had 135 hospitals (31,300 beds) listed by the American Hospital Association. Social Security. In 1938 Virginia established a system of old-age assistance under the Federal Security Act; in March 1983 persons in 2,034 cases were drawing an average grant of $202.79; aid to permanently and totally disabled, 1,766 cases, average grant $218.96; aid to dependent children, 164,383 persons, average grant $85.77; general relief, 6,642 persons, average grant $ 146.62. Books of Reference Virginia Facts and Figures. Virginia Division of Industrial Development, Richmond. A n n u a l Dabney, V., Virginia, the New Dominion. 1971 Friddell.G., The Virginia Way. Burda, 1973 G o t t m a n n , ) . , Virginiain our Century. Charlottesville, 1969 Morton, R. L., Colonial Virginia. 2 vols. Univ. Press of Virginia, 1960 Rouse, P. Virginia: a Pictorial History. Scribner, 1975 Rubin, L. D., Jr., Virginia: a Bicentennial History. Norris, 1977 State Library: Virginia State Library, R i c h m o n d 23219. Stale Librarian: Ella Gaines Yates.

WASHINGTON H I S T O R Y . Washington, formerly part of Oregon, was created a Territory in 1853, and was admitted into the Union as a state on 11 Nov. 1889. Its settlement dates from 1811. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Washington is bounded north by Canada, east by Idaho, south by Oregon with the Columbia River forming most of the boundary, and west by the Pacific. Area, 68,139 sq. miles, of which 1,627 sq. miles are inland water. Lands owned by the federal government, 1977, were 12-4m. acres or 29-1% of the total area. Census population, 1 April 1980 (preliminary), 4,130,163, an increase of 730,994 or 21 -4% since 1970. Estimated population (1985), 4,409,000. Births, 1984 were 73,605 (16-9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 35,212 ( 8 1 ) ; infant deaths, 690 (9-4 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 44,730 (10 3); divorces and annulments,27,313 (6-3).

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Population in 5 federal census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 1,109,111 1,521,661 2,751,675 2,351,055 3,777,296

Negro 6,058 6,840 48,738 71,308 105,544

Indian 10,997 11,253 21,076 33,386 60,771

AMERICA Asiatic and others 15,824 23,642 31,725 53,420 186,552

Total 1,141,990 1,563,396 2,853,214 3,409,169 4,130,163

Per sq 17 23 42 51 62

mile 1 3 8 2 0

Of the total population in 1980, 2,051,369 were male, 3,037,765 persons were urban; 2,837,607 were 20 years of age or older. There are 24 Indian reservations, the largest being held by the Yakima tribe. Indian reservations in Sept. 1979 covered 2,496,423 acres, of which 1,996,018 acres were tribal lands and 497,218 acres were held by individuals. Total Indian population, 1980,60,771. Leading cities are Seattle, with a population (1980 census) of491,897; Spokane, 170,993; Tacoma, 158,101; Bellevue, 73,711. Others : Yakima, 49,826; Everett, 54,413; Vancouver, 42,834; Bellingham, 45,794; Bremerton, 36,208; Richland, 33,578; Longview, 31,052; Renton, 30,612; Edmonds, 27,526; Walla Walla, 25,618. Urbanized areas (1980 census): Seattle-Everett, 1,600,944; Tacoma, 482,692; Spokane, 341,058. CLIMATE. Seattle. Jan. 40°F (4-4°C), July 63°F (17-2°C). Annual rainfall 34" (848 mm). Spokane. Jan. 27°F(-2-8°C), July 70°F(2M°C). Annual rainfall 14" (350 mm). See Pacific Coast, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution, adopted in 1889, has had 63 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 49 members elected for 4 years, half their number retiring every 2 years, and a House of Representatives of 98 members, elected for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. The state sends 2 senators and 7 representatives to Congress. Qualified as voters are (with some exceptions) all citizens 18 years of age, having the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 939,124 votes, Mondale, 731,440. The capital is Olympia (population, 1980 census, 27,447). The state contains 39 counties. Governor: Booth Gardner (D.), 1985-89 ($63,000). Lieut. - Governor: John A. Cherberg (D.), 1985-89 ($28,600). Secretary of State: Ralph Munro (R.), 1985-89 ($31,000). B U D G E T . For the 2-year budget period 1981-83 the state's total revenue is (projected) $13,545-2m.; general expenditure is (projected) $13,873-5m. (education, $6,150-7m.; transportation, $706-6m., and human resources, $3,636m.). Total outstanding debt in 1982 was $2,492m. Per capita personal income (1985) was $ 13,876. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. With about 20% of potential water-power resources of US, the state has ample developed and potential hydro-electricity. Minerals. Mining and quarrying are not as important as forestry, agriculture or manufacturing. Uranium is mined but figures are not disclosed; other minerals include sand and gravel, stone, coal and clays. Agriculture. Agriculture is constantly growing in value because of more intensive and diversified farming and because of the lm.-acre Columbia Basin Irrigation Project. In 1985 there were 38,000 farms with an acreage of 16m.; average farm was of 421 acres. Average value per acre, $923.

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Cash return from farm marketing, 1985, was $2,797m. (from crops, $ 1,865m.; from livestock and dairy products, $932m.). Wheat, cattle and calves, milk and apples are important. On 1 Jan. 1985 animals on farms included 211,000 milch cows, l -47m. all cattle, 53,000 sheep and 45,000 swine. Forestry. Forests cover about 23m. acres, of which 9m. acres are national forest. In 1982, lumber production was 3,014m. bd ft; plywood, 1,200m. bd ft, and pulp wood (1981)3,494,000 short tons. Fisheries. Salmon and halibut are important; total catch, 1985, 167m. lb.; value, $93m. I N D U S T R Y . In 1985 manufacturing employed 294,000 workers, of whom about half were in aerospace and the forest products industry. Abundance of electric power has made Washington the leading producer of primary aluminium. In 1985 trade employed 422,000, service industries, 373,000; government, 343,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state (1979) maintained 6,920 miles of highway; the counties, 40,767 miles; municipalities, 9,888 miles. Motor vehicle registrations (1985), 3,576,000. Railways. The railways had, in 1980,6,057 miles. Aviation. There were in 1979, 365 airports, 120 publicly owned. In 1978 SeattleTacoma Airport traffic was 8-3m. passengers, 48,000 tons of mail and 185,000 tons of freight and express. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The adult population in state prisons in Dec. 1985 was 6,909. Since 1963 there have been no executions; total 1930-63 (by hanging) was 47, including 40 whites, 5 Negroes and 2 other races, all for murder, except 1 white for kidnapping. Religion. Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholic, United Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Latter-day Saints and Episcopalian. Education. Education is given free to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years, and is compulsory for children from 8 to 15 years of age. In autumn 1983 there were 736,000 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools. In 1986 there were 36,200 classroom teachers, average salary, $26,100. The total expenditure on public elementary and secondary schools for the school year 1986 was $3,124m. or $708 per capita. The University of Washington, founded 1861, at Seattle, had, 1985-86, 34,086 students, and Washington State University at Pullman, founded 1890, for science and agriculture, had 16,139 students. Twenty-seven community colleges had (1981) a total enrolment of 161,244 students (89,263 full-time equivalent). Health. In 1981 the 2 state hospitals for mental illness had a daily average of 1,204 patients; schools for handicapped children, 1,999 residents in Sept. 1981. In 1982 the state had 121 general hospitals (15,700 beds); in 1981, 3 licensed psychiatric hospitals (181 beds) and 3 alcoholism hospitals (174 beds). Social Security. Old-age assistance is provided for persons 65 years of age or older without adequate resources (and not in need of continuing home care) who are residents of the state. In Dec. 1985, 12,100 people were drawing an average of $157 per month; aid to 189,000 children in 67,900 families averaged $419 per family monthly; to 35,000 totally disabled, $266 monthly.

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Books of Reference Washington State Research Council. Handbook: A Compendium of Statistical and Explanatory Information about State and Local Government in Washington. 4th ed. Olympia, 1973.—The Book of Numbers: A Statistical Handbook on Washington State Government. Olympia, 1977 Avery, M. W., Washington, a History of the Evergreen State. Univ. of Wash. Press, 1965.— Government of Washington State. Univ. ofWash. Press, revised ed. 1973 State Library: Washington State Library, Olympia. State Librarian: Roderick Swartz.

WEST V I R G I N I A H I S T O R Y . In 1862, after the state of Virginia had seceded from the Union, the electors of the western portion ratified an ordinance providing for the formation of a new state, which was admitted into the Union by presidential proclamation on 20 June 1863, under the name of West Virginia. Its constitution was adopted by the voters almost unanimously on 26 March 1863. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . West Virginia is bounded north by Pennsylvania and Maryland, east and south by Virginia, south-west by the Sandy River (forming the boundary with Kentucky) and west by the Ohio River (forming the boundary with Ohio). Area, 24,282 sq. miles, of which 102 sq. miles are water. Census population, 1 April 1980,1,949,644, an increase of 11 -8% since 1970. Estimate (1985), 1,936,000. Births, 1986, 23,066 (11 -9 per 1,000 population); deaths, 19,659 (10-2); infant deaths, 234 (10-1 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 13,900 (7-2); divorces, 9,797 (5 1). Population in 5 federal census years was: 1910 1940 1960 1970 1980

While 1,156,817 1,614,191 1,770,133 1,673,480 1,874,751

Negro 64,173 114,893 89,378 67,342 65,051

Indian 36 18 181 751 1,610

Asiatic 93 103 419 1,463 5,194

Total 1,221,119 1,729,205 1,860,421 1,744,237 1,949,644

Persq. mile 50-8 71-8 77-3 71-8 80-3

Of the total population in 1980,945,408 were male, 705,319 were urban; those 20 years of age or older numbered 1,319,566. The 1980 census (and 1985 estimate) population of the principal cities was: Huntington, 63,684 (61,086); Charleston, 63,968 (59,371). Others: Wheeling, 43,070 (42,082); Parkersburg, 39,967 (39,399); Morgantown, 27,605 (27,786); Weirton, 24,736 (23,878); Fairmont, 23,863 (22,822); Clarksburg, 22,371 (21,379). C L I M A T E . Charleston. Jan. 34°F (1 • 1°C), July 76°F (24-4°C). Annual rainfall 4 0 " (1,010 mm). See Appalachian Mountains, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The present constitution was adopted in 1872; it has had 60 amendments. The Legislature consists of the Senate of 34 members elected for a term of 4 years, one-half being elected biennially, and the House of Delegates of 100 members, elected biennially. The Governor is elected for 4 years and may succeed himself once. Voters are all citizens (with the usual exceptions) 18 years of age and meeting certain residential requirements. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 4 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 396,332 votes, Mondale, 322,142. The state capital is Charleston. There are 55 counties. Governor: Arch Moore Jr. (R.), 1985-89 ($72,000). Secretary of Slate: Ken Hechler(D.), ($43,200). F I N A N C E . General revenues for the year ending 30 June 1986 were $3,130m.

WEST VIRGINIA

1549

($ 1,547m. from taxes, $846m. from federal funds); general expenditures were $3,29 lm. (education, $1,333m.; highways, $629m.; public welfare, $673m.). Debts outstanding were $ 1,026 • 7m. on 30 June 1986. Estimated per capita personal income (1987) was $ 10,576. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Minerals. 38% of the state is underlain with mineable coal; 127-5m. short tons of coal were produced in 1985. Petroleum output, 3 -3m. bbls; natural gas production was 144,883m. cu. ft. Salt, sand and gravel, sandstone and limestone are also produced. TTie total value of mineral output in 1985 was $5,198m. Agriculture. In 1987 the state had 21,000 farms with an area of 3-7m. acres; average size of farm was 176 acres and valued at $527 per acre. Livestock farming predominates. Cash income, 1986, from crops was $71-3m.; from government payments, $8-4m., and from livestock and products, $156- lm. Main crops harvested, 1985: hay (1 -2m. tons); all corn (7-7m. bu.); tobacco (3-4m. lb.). Area of main crops, 1986: hay, 570,000 acres; corn, 95,000 acres. Apples (230m. lb. in 1986) and peaches (23m. lb.) are important fruit crops. Livestock on farms, 1 Jan. 1987, included 560,000 cattle, of which 32,000 were milch cows; sheep, 78,000; hogs, 37,000; chickens, 670,000 excluding broilers. Production, 1986, included 29m. broilers, 109m. eggs;2-2m. turkeys. Forestry. State forests, 1985, covered 79,365 acres; national forests, 1,673,000 gross acres; 75% of the state is woodland. I N D U S T R Y . In 1986, 1,613 manufactories had 86,892 production workers who earned $2,154m. Leading manufactures are primary and fabricated metals, glass, chemicals, wood products, textiles and apparel, and machinery. In 1986 non-agricultural employment was 596,800 of whom 136,700 were in trade, 128,700 in government and 120,900 in service industries. The first commercial coal liquefaction plant in the USA is being built near Morgantown with the co-operation of the governments of Federal Republic of Germany and Japan and the Gulf Oil Co. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. Total highways on 30 June 1986, 37,739 miles (state maintained, 33,835 miles; inter-state, 393 miles; national parks and other roads, 3,904 miles). Registered motor vehicles, financial year ending 30 June 1986, numbered 1,479,937. Railways. In 1986 the state had 3,430 miles of railway, all operated by diesel or electric trains. Aviation. There were 42 licensed airports in 1986. Post and Broadcasting. There are 64 AM radio stations, 64 FM radio stations. Television stations number 9 VHFand 5 UHF. Newspapers. Daily newspapers number27; weekly newspapers 65. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state court system consists of a Supreme Court and 31 circuit courts. The Supreme Court of Appeals, exercising original and appellate jurisdiction, has 5 members elected by the people for 12-year terms. Each circuit court has from 1 to 7 judges (as determined by the Legislature on the basis of population and case-load) chosen by the voters within each circuit for 8-year terms. Effective on 1 July 1967, the West Virginia Human Rights Act prohibits discrimination in employment and places of public accommodations based on race, religion, colour, national origin or ancestry. There are 5 penal and correctional institutions which had, on 30 June 1985, 1,574 inmates. In 1965 the state legislature abolished capital punishment.

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UNITED STATES OF

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Religion. Chief denominations in 1987 were United Methodist (159,000 members, estimate), Baptists (116,000) and Roman Catholics (109,000). Education. Public school education is free for all from 5 to 21 years of age, and school attendance is compulsory for all between the ages of 7 and 16 (school term, 200 days—180-185 days of actual teaching). The public schools are non-sectarian. In autumn 1986 public elementary and secondary schools had 352,397 pupils and 25,532 classroom teachers. Average salary of teachers in 1986, $21,396. Total 1986 expenditures for public schools, $ 1,196m. Leading institutions of higher education in 1985: Founded 1837 1837 1867 1868 1872 1872 1872 1891 1895 1895 1901 1972 1976

Marshall University, Huntington School of Medicine West Liberty State College, West Liberty Fairmont State College, Fairmont West Virginia University, Morgantown School of Medicine Concord College, Athens Glenville State College, Glenville Shepherd College, Shepherdstown West Virginia State College West Virginia Institute of Technology, Montgomery Bluefield State College, Bluefield Potomac State College of West Virginia Univ., Keyser West Virginia College o f G r a d u a t e Studies School of Osteopathic Medicine, Lewisburg

Full-time students 11,229 196 2,552 5,230 15,828 1,346 2,356 2,061 3,853 4,383 2,833 2,593 1,040 2,835 234

In addition to the universities and state-supported schools, there are 3 community colleges (8,510 students in 1986), 10 denominational and private institutions of higher education (9,074 students in 1986) and 18 business colleges. Health. In 1986 the state had 76 hospitals and 50 licensed personal care homes, 81 skilled-nursing homes and 3 mental hospitals. Social Security. The Department of Human Services, originating in the 1930s as the Department of Public Assistance, is both state and federally financed. In the year ending 30 June 1987 day care for 4,592 children per month was provided; aid was given to 28,399 families with dependent children (average award, $248.63 per month); handicapped children's services conducted 9,777 examinations; 94,307 families per month received food stamps. On 1 Jan. 1974 all blind, aged and disabled services were converted to the Federal Supplemental Security Income programme. Books of Reference West Virginia Blue Book. Legislature, Charleston. Annual, since 1916 West Virginia Statistical Handbook, 1974. Bureau of Business Research, W. Va. Univ., Morgantown, 1974 Bibliography of West Virginia. 2 parts. Dept. of Archives and History, Charleston, 1939 West Virginia History. Dept. of Archives and History. Charleston. Quarterly, from 1939 Conley, P., and Doherty, W. T., West Virginia History. Charleston, 1974 Davis, C. J., and others, West Virginia State and Local Government. West Virginia Univ. Bureau for Government Research, 1963 Rice, O. K., West Virginia: A History. Univ. Press ofKentucky, Lexington, 1985 Williams, J. A., West Virginia: A Bicentennial //«Wry. New York, 1976 State Library: Division of Archives and History, Dept. of Culture and History, Charleston.

WISCONSIN H I S T O R Y . Wisconsin was settled in 1670 by French traders and missionaries. Originally a part of New France, it was surrendered to the British in 1763 and in 1783, when ceded to the US, became part of the North-west Territory. It was then

1551

WISCONSIN

contained successively in the Territories oflndiana, Illinois and Michigan. In 1836 it became part of the Territory of Wisconsin, which also included the present states of Iowa, Minnesota and parts of the Dakotas. It was admitted into the Union with its present boundaries on 29 May 1848. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Wisconsin is bounded north by Lake Superior and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, east by Lake Michigan, south by Illinois, west by Iowa and Minnesota, with the Mississippi River forming most of the boundary. Area, 56,154 sq. miles, including 1,439 sq. miles of inland water, but excluding any part of the Great Lakes. Census population, 1 April 1980 4,705,642, an increase of 6-5% since 1970. Estimated population (1987), 4,794,792. Births in 1986 were 72,229 (15 -1 per 1,000 population); deaths, 41,027 (8 • 8); infant deaths, 663 (9 -2 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 38,373 (8 0); divorces and annulments, 16,395 (3 4). Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960 1970 1980

White 2,320,555 2,916,255 3,858,903 4,258,959 4,443,035

Negro 2,900 10,739 74,546 128,224 182,592

All others 10,405 12,012 18,328 30,750 80,015

Total 2,333,860 2,939,006 3,951,777 4,417,933 4,705,642

Per sq. mile 42-2 53-7 72-2 80-8 864

Of the total population in 1980, 49% were male, 64-2% were urban and 67% were 20 years old or older. Population of the larger cities, 1980 census, was as follows: Milwaukee Madison Racine Green Bay Kenosha WestAUis Wauwatosa

636,297 170,616 85,725 87,889 77,685 63,982 51,308

Appleton Oshkosh La Crosse Sheboygan Janesville Eau Claire Waukesha

58,913 49,620 48,347 48,085 51,071 51,509 50,365

Beloit Fond du Lac Manitowoc Wausau Superior Brookfield

35,207 35,863 32,547 32,426 29,571 34,035

Population of larger urbanized areas, 1980 census: Milwaukee, 1,207,008; Madison, 213,678; Duluth-Superior (Minn.-Wis.), 132,585; Racine, 118,987; Green Bay, 142,747. C L I M A T E . Milwaukee. Jan. 19°F(-7-2°Q, July 70°F(21-1°C). Annual rainfall 2 9 " (727 mm). See Great Lakes, p. 1379. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution, which dates from 1848, has 125 amendments. The legislative power is vested in a Senate of 33 members (1987 term: 19 Democrats, 14 Republicans) elected for 4 years, one-half elected alternately, and an Assembly o f 9 9 members (1987 term: 55 Democrats, 43 Republicans, one vacancy) all elected simultaneously for 2 years. The Governor and Lieut.-Governor are elected for 4 years. All 6 constitutional officers serve 4-year terms. Wisconsin has universal suffrage for all citizens 18 years of age or over; but, as there is no official list of voters, the size of the electorate is unknown; 2,211,689 voted for President in 1984. Wisconsin is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 9 representatives. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 1,198,584 votes, Mondale, 995,740. The capital is Madison. The state has 72 counties. Governor: Tommy G. Thompson (R.), 1987-91 ($86,149). Lieut.-Governor: Scott McCallum (R.), 1987-91 ($46,360). Secretary of State: Douglas La Follette (D.), 1987-91 ($42,089). B U D G E T . For the year ending 30 June 1987 (Wisconsin Bureau of Financial Operations figures) total revenue for all funds was $13,194,862,901 ($5,414,384,761 from taxation and $2,105,167,430 from federal aid). General

1552

U N I T E D S T A T E S OF A M E R I C A

expenditure from all funds was $10,898,836,365 ($3,092,150,212 for education, $3,312,484,638 for human resources). Per capita personal income (1986) was $ 14,249. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. There were, Dec. 1986, 87 hydro-electric power plants (15 of them municipal, 57 private in Wisconsin; 15 private outside the state) operated by public utilities with a total installed capacity of 454,332 kw.; output, 1986, was 2,283,713mwh. The 15 outside plants are in Michigan; installed capacity 99,990 kw., output 436,35 lmwh. Fossil fuel and nuclear plants numbered 23 (4 municipal); the former had a total installed capacity of 7,052,828 kw.; total output, (1986), 25,905,900mwh; the 2 nuclear plants had an installed capacity of 1,540,682 kw. and a total output (1986) of 11,093,856mwh. There were also 32 internal combustion reciprocating plants (one in Michigan), with a total installed capacity of 116,042 kw. and a total output of (1985) 4,962mwh., and 17 internal combustion turbine plants with a total installed capacity of 1,285,950 kw.; total output was(1985) 15,212mwh. There was a total of 155 plants, with a total installed capacity of 10,408,449 kw. and a total output of (1986) 39,279,826mwh. Minerals. Sand and gravel, crushed stone and lime are the chief mineral products. Mineral production in 1985 was valued at $ 125 • 1 m. This value included $51 m. for sand and gravel, $42m. for crushed stone and about $19m. for lime. Value of all other minerals including natural abrasives, peat, cement and gemstones, $ 13m. The large Forest County sulphide deposit (5,000 ft long, about 200 ft wide and over 2,000 ft deep and almost vertical) south of Crandon is estimated at over 77m. tons, averaging 5% zinc, 1 % copper and lesser amounts of lead, silver and gold. Agriculture. The total number of farms has declined in the last 50 years, but farms have become larger and more productive. On 1 Jan. 1987 there were 82,000 farms with a total acreage of 17-6m. acres and an average size of 214-6 acres, compared with 142,000 farms with a total acreage of 22 -4m. acres and an average of 158 acres in 1959. Cash income from products sold by Wisconsin farms in 1986, $5,001m.; $4,112m. from livestock and livestock products and $889m. from crops. Wisconsin ranked first among the states in 1986 in the number of milch cows, milk and butter production, output of American, Brick, Muenster, Italian and Blue Mold Cheese. Production of all cheese accounted for 34 -8% of the nation's total. The state also ranked first in bulk whole condensed milk, bulk skim condensed milk lactose for human use, whey solids in wet blends, whey protein concentrate and dry whey. The state also ranked first in mink pelts. In crops the state ranked first for snap beans and green peas for processing, all hay and corn for silage. Production of the principal field crops in 1986 included: Corn for grain, 365-8m. bu.; corn for silage, 10-64m. tons; oats, 52-7m. bu.; all hay, 10-8m. tons. Other crops of importance 20-2m. cwt of potatoes, 10-8m. lb. of tobacco, 1 -2m. bbls of cranberries, 1 • 5m. cwt of carrots and the processing crops of656,200 tons of sweet corn, 114,200 tons of green peas and 247,400 tons of snap beans. Forestry. Wisconsin has an estimated 14 • 8m. acres of forest land (about 41 • 5% of land area). Of more than 14m. acres of commercial forest (June 1986) national forests covered l -4m. acres; state forests, 0-7m.; county and municipal forests, 2-2m.; forest industry, 1 -2m.; private land, 8-6m. Growing stock (1985), 15,500m. cu. ft, of which 11,900m. cu. ft is hardwood and 3,600m. cu. ft, softwood. Largest timber stands: maple and birch, 4m. acres; aspen, 3 -3m.; conifers, 2 -8m. I N D U S T R Y . Wisconsin has much heavy industry, particularly in the Milwaukee area. Non-electrical machinery is the major industrial group (19% of all manufacturing employment). Wood-using industries come second in value of product (over $9,000m. in 1986). Also important are food processing, fabricated

WISCONSIN

1553

metals, electrical machinery, paper and products, transport equipment, primary metals and printing. Manufacturing establishments in 1986 provided 26% of all employment, 31% of all earnings. The total number of establishments was 8,923 in 1986; the biggest concentration is in the south-east. T O U R I S M . The tourist-vacation industry ranks among the first three in economic importance. The decline of lumbering and mining in the northern section of the state has increased dependency on the recreation industry. The Division of Tourism of the Department of Development spent $4,607,790 to promote tourism in financial year 1986-87. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The state had on 1 Jan. 1987, 108,535 miles of highway. 75% of all roads in the state have a bituminous (or similar) surface. There are 11,869 miles of state trunk roads and 19,552 miles of county trunk roads. In the year ending 1 Jan. 1986 Wisconsin registered 3,418,789 motor vehicles. Railways. On 1 Aug. 1985 the state had 4,675 road-miles of railway. Aviation. There were, in 1986,97 publicly operated airports. Twelve scheduled air carrier airports were served by 8 regional and national air carriers. Shipping. With the opening of the St Lawrence Seaway in 1959, 14 Wisconsin ports became accessible to ocean-going vessels. Green Bay, Kenosha, Manitowoc, Marinette, Milwaukee, Sheboygan and Superior (one of the world's largest iron-ore and grain ports) have developed foreign waterborne commerce. Cargo is also carried by barge on the river Mississippi. Other ports handle mainly Great Lakes traffic. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The state's penal, reformatory and correctional system on 31 July 1987 held 5,580 men, 311 women and 526 juveniles in 15 state-owned and other institutions for adult and juvenile offenders; the probation and parole system was supervising 21,604 men and 4,593 women. Wisconsin does not impose the death penalty. Religion. Wisconsin church affiliation, as a percentage of the 1980 population, was estimated at 32-2% Catholic, 20 06% Lutheran, 3-74% Methodist, 10-41% other churches and 32 -6% un-affiliated. Education. All children between the ages of 7 and 16 are required to attend school full-time to the end of the school term in which they become 16 years of age. Children living in a district with a vocational school must attend until 18. In 1986— 87 the public school grades kindergarten-8 had 499,892 pupils and 30,116 (fulltime equivalent) teachers; school grades 9-12 had 267,927 pupils and 16,926 teachers. Grade kindergarten-8 teachers' salaries, 1986-87, averaged $25,950; grade 9-12 teachers, $27,133. In 1986-87 vocational, technical and adult schools had an enrolment of 438,082, and there were 6,719 faculty members (full-time equivalent). There is a school for the visually handicapped and a school for the deaf. The University of Wisconsin, established in 1848, was joined by law in 1971 with the Wisconsin State Universities System to become the University of Wisconsin System with 13 degree granting campuses, 13 two-year campuses in the Center System, and the University Extension. The 26 campuses had, in 1986-87, 7,164 full-time professors and instructors and 1,896 (full-time equivalent) teaching assistants. In autumn 1986, 164,518 students enrolled (11,103 at Eau Claire, 4,978 at Green Bay, 9,659 at La Crosse, 44,384 at Madison, 25,930 at Milwaukee, 11,800 at Oshkosh, 5,195 at Parkside, 5,321 at Platteville, 5,612 at River Falls, 9,555 at Stevens Point, 7,686 at Stout, 2,307 at Superior, 10,897 at Whitewater and 10,091 in the Center System freshman-sophomore centres). There are also several independent institutions of higher education. These (with 1985-86 enrolment)

1554

U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

include 2 universities (12,469), 18 liberal arts colleges (18,205), 5 technical and professional schools (4,067), and 4 theological seminaries (466). The total expenditure, 1985-86, for all public education (except capital outlay and debt service) was $4,479m. The state maintains an educational broadcasting and television service. Health. In Oct. 1986 the state had 141 general and allied special hospitals (20,156 beds), 18 mental hospitals (1,876 beds), 10 treatment centres for alcoholism and 1 rehabilitation centre. Patients in state mental hospitals and institutions for the mentally retarded in June 1986 averaged 2,632. Social Security. On 1 Jan. 1974 the US Social Security administration assumed responsibility for financial aid (Supplemental Security Income) to persons 65 years old and over, blind persons and totally disabled persons, who satisfy requirements as to need. Recipients receive a federal payment plus a federally administered state supplementary payment, except for those who reside in a medical institution. In Oct. 1987, there were 77,941 SSI recipients in the state; payments were $443 for a single individual, $494 for an eligible individual with an ineligible spouse, and $676 for an eligible couple. A special payment level of $543 for an individual and $1,029 for a couple may be paid with special approval for SSI recipients who are developmentally disabled or chronically mentally ill, living in a non-medical living arrangement not his or her own home. All SSI recipients receive state medical assistance coverage. Under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children programme, 94,802 families constituting 287,488 persons received an average of $498.81 per family in Aug. 1987; there were 3,892 county foster care cases (average cost per case of $256.06) and 157 state cases ($385.54). There were 537 group-home cases. Books of Reference Wisconsin Statistical Abstract. Wis. Dept. of Administration, State Bureau of Planning and Budget, Madison, 1979 Dictionary of Wisconsin Biography. Wis. Historical Society, Madison, 1960 Wisconsin Blue Book. Wis. Legislative Reference Bureau, Madison. Biennial Current, R. N., The History of Wisconsin, Vol. II. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1976.— Wisconsin, a History. New York, 1977 Nesbit, R. C., Wisconsin, A History. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1973 Smith, Alice E., The History of Wisconsin, Vol. 1. State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1973 Vexier, R. I., Wisconsin Chronology andFactbook. New York, 1978 State Information Agency: Legislative Reference Bureau, State Capitol, Madison, Wis. 53702. Chief D r H. R u p e r t Theobald.

WYOMING H I S T O R Y . Wyoming, first settled in 1834, was admitted into the Union on 10 July 1890. The name originated with the Delaware Indians. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Wyoming is bounded north by Montana, east by South Dakota and Nebraska, south by Colorado, south-west by Utah and west by Idaho. Area 97,809 sq. miles, of which 820 sq. miles are water. The Yellowstone National Park occupies about 2,221,733 acres; the Grand Teton National Park has 310,350 acres. The federal government in 1979 owned 28,888,546 acres (46 • 1% of the total area of the state). The Federal Bureau of Land Management administers 17,546,188 acres. Census population, 1 April 1980, 469,557, an increase of 41-25% since 1970. Estimate (1986) 485,111. Births in 1984 were 9,741 (20 per 1,000 population); deaths, 3,172 (6-4); infant deaths, 104 (10 per 1,000 live births); marriages, 5,783; divorces, 3,705.

1555

WYOMING

Population in 5 census years was: 1910 1930 1960

White 140,318 221,241 322,922

Negro 2,235 1,250 2,183

1970 1980

323,619 446,488

2,568 3,364

Indian 1,486 1,845 4,020

Asiatic 1,926 1,229 805

All others 6,229 19,705

Total 145,965 225,565 330,066

Per sq. mile 1-5 2-3 34

332,416 469,557

3-4 4-8

Of the total population in 1980, 240,560 were male, 295,898 were urban and those over 21 years of age numbered 295,908. The largest towns are Cheyenne (capital), with census population in 1980 of58,429; Casper, 59,287; Laramie, 24,410; Rock Springs, 19,458. C L I M A T E . Cheyenne. Jan. 25°F (-3-9X), July 66°F (18-9°C). Annual rainfall 15" (376 mm). Yellowstone Park. Jan. 18°F (-7-8°C), July 61°F (16- 1°C). Annual rainfall 18"(444 mm). See Mountain States, p. 1378. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. The constitution, drafted in 1890, has since had 43 amendments. The Legislature consists of a Senate of 30 members elected for 4 years, and a House of Representatives of 64 members elected for 2 years. The Governor is elected for 4 years. The state sends to Congress 2 senators and 1 representative, elected by the voters of the entire state. The suffrage extends to all citizens, male and female, who have the usual residential qualifications. In the 1984 presidential election Reagan polled 131,998 votes, Mondale, 53,154. The capital is Cheyenne. The state contains 23 counties. Governor: Mike Sullivan (D.), 1987-90 ($70,000). Secretary of State: Kathy Karpan (D.), 1987-90 ($52,500). BUDGET. In the fiscal year ending 1 July 1987 (State Treasurer's figures) cash receipts were $ 1,681,314,115; general expenditures were $ 1,504,570,195. Per capita personal income (1984) was $12,238. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Minerals. Wyoming is largely an oil-producing state. In 1986 the output of petroleum was valued at $2,889m.; natural gas, $ 1,238m. Other mining: Coal, $ 1,256m.; trona, $97m.; uranium, $17m.; other minerals mined include iron ore, feldspar, gypsum, limestone, phosphate, sand, gravel and marble, taconite, bentonite and hematite. Agriculture. Wyoming is semi-arid, and agriculture is carried on by irrigation and by dry farming. In 1986 there were 8,800 farms and ranches; total land area 34 -8m. acres. Cash receipts, 1986, from crops, $236-4m.; from livestock and products, $314m. Principal commodities are wheat, cattle and calves, lambs and sheep, sugar-beet, barley, hay and wool. Animals on farms on 1 Jan. 1987 included 10,000 milch cows, 1 -3m. all cattle, 775,000 sheep and lambs and 35,000 swine. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In 1987 there were 531 manufacturing establishments. There were 964 mining companies or producers. A large portion of the manufacturing in the state is based on natural resources, mainly oil and farm products. Leading industries are food, wood products (except furniture) and machinery (except electrical). There were 931 new business incorporations in 1986. The Wyoming Industrial Development Corporation assists in the development of small industries by providing credit.

1556

U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

Labour. The mining industry employed an average of 17,700 workers in June 1987. The total civilian labour force for June 1987 was 253,682; non-agricultural, 198,800. The average unemployment rate (Jan.-July 1987) was 8-3% and average weekly earnings $611 for mining (production workers). Tourism. There are over 5m. tourists annually, mainly sportsmen. The state has the largest elk and pronghorn antelope herds in the world, 11 fish hatcheries and numerous wild game. Receipts from hunters and fishermen in 1986, $ 14,628,081. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The roads in 1986 comprised 5,240 miles offederal highways, 349 miles of state highways and 914 miles of inter-state highway. There were (1986) 616,718 registered motor vehicles and 12 bus companies. Railways. The railways, 1986, had a length of 2,615 mainline miles and 550 branch miles. Aviation. There were 11 towns with commuter air services and 2 towns on jet routes in 1987. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. The state penitentiary in Oct. 1987 held 684 inmates and 16 on work release, the Womens' Center, 50. There are 2 other state correctional institutions. There have been 14 executions in Wyoming, 8 by hanging and 6 by lethal gas. Religion. Chief religious bodies are the Roman Catholic (with 45,917 members in 1974), Mormon (28,954 in 1971) and Protestant churches (83,327 in 1974). There were 5,000 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1972. Education. In 1986-87 public elementary and secondary schools had 98,455 pupils. Enrolment in the parochial elementary and secondary schools was about 4,000. Approximately 6,273 public school teachers earned an average of $28,230. The average total expenditure per pupil for 1985-86 was $4,970. The University of Wyoming, founded at Laramie in 1887, had in academic year 1986-87 9,980 students. There are 2-year colleges at Casper, Riverton, Torrington, Cheyenne, Powell, Rock Springs and Sheridan with credit course enrolment of 16,780 students in 1985-86. Social Welfare. In Jan. 1974 the federal government assumed many of the previous state programmes including old age assistance, aid to the blind and disabled. In 1987 financial year, $16-2m. was distributed in food stamps; $17-6m. in aid to families with dependent children; $626,314 in general assistance; $1,189,902 in emergency assistance; $41m. in Medicaid. Total state expenditure on public assistance and social services programmes, financial year 1987, $123 -5m. Health. In 1986 the state had 30 hospitals. There are 29 registered nursing homes. Books of Reference NewsofBig Wyoming. Cheyenne, 1975 Official Directory. Secretary of State. Cheyenne. Biennial 1987 Wyoming Data Handbook. Dept. of Administration and Fiscal Control. Division of Research and Statistics, Cheyenne, 1987 Brown, R. H., Wyoming: A Geography. Boulder, 1980 Larsen, T. A., History of Wyoming. Rev. ed. Univ. ofNebraska, 1979 Treadway, T., Wyoming. New York, 1982 Vexler, R. I., Wyoming Chronology andFactbook. New York, 1978

OUTLYING TERRITORIES Non-Self-Governing Territories: Summaries of Information Transmitted to the SecretaryGeneral of the United Nations. Annual Perkins, W. T., The United States and its Dependencies. Leiden, 1962 Wiens, H. J., Pacific Island Bastions of the US. New York and London, 1962

GUAM

1557

GUAM H I S T O R Y . Magellan is said to have discovered the island in 1521; it was ceded by Spain to the US by the Treaty of Paris (10 Dec. 1898). The island was captured by the Japanese on 10 Dec. 1941, and retaken by American forces from 21 July 1944. Guam is of great strategic importance; substantial numbers of naval and air force personnel occupy about one-third of the usable land. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Guam is the largest and most southern island of the Marianas Archipelago, in 13° 26' N. lat., 144° 43' E. long. The length is 30 miles, the breadth from 4 to 10 miles, and there are about 209 sq. miles (541 sq. km). Agana, the seat of government is about 8 miles from the anchorage in Apra Harbour. The census on 1 April 1980 showed a population of 105,979, an increase of 20,983 or 24-7% since 1970; those of Guamanian ancestry numbered about 50,794; foreign-born, 28,572; density was 507 per sq. mile. Estimated population (1984), 115,756. On 1 July 1980 transient residents connected with the military were estimated at 20,000. The Malay strain is predominant. The native language is Chamorro; English is the official language and is taught in all schools. C L I M A T E . Tropical maritime, with little difference in temperatures over the year. Rainfall is copious at all seasons, but is greatest from July to Oct. Agana. Jan. 81°F(27-2°C), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall93"(2,325 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Guam's constitutional status is that of an 'unincorporated territory' of the US. Entry of US citizens is unrestricted; foreign nationals are subject to normal regulations. In 1949-50 the President transferred the administration of the island from the Navy Department (who held it from 1899) to the Interior Department. The transfer conferred full citizenship on the Guamanians, who had previously been 'nationals' of the US. There was a referendum on status, 30 Jan. 1982. 38% of eligible voters voted; 48 -5% of those favoured Commonwealth status. The Governor and his staff constitute the executive arm of the government. The Legislature is unicameral; its powers are similar to those of an American state legislature. At the general election of Nov. 1982, the Democratic Party won 14 seats and the Republicans 7. All adults 18 years of age or over are enfranchised. Guam returns one non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives. Governor: Ricardo Bordallo (D.), 1982-85. ($50,000). Lieut.-Governor: Edward D. Reyes (D.), 1982-85. ECONOMY Budget. At 30 Sept. 1983 total assets were $65- lm.; federal grants $35-2m., taxes, $26- 7m.: total liabilities were $ 149 • 3m. Banking. Recent changes in banking law make it possible for foreign banks to operate in Guam. NATURAL RESOURCES Water. Supplies are from springs, reservoirs and groundwater; 65% comes from water-bearing limestone in the north. The Navy and Air Force conserve water in reservoirs. The Water Resources Research Centre is at Guam University. Agriculture. The major products of the island are sweet potatoes, cucumbers, water melons and beans. In 1982 there were 140 full-time and 1,904 part-time farmers. Livestock (1985) included 2,000 cattle, 8,000 pigs, and (1984) 36,430 poultry. Commercial productions (1983) amounted to 6-6m. lb. of fruit and vegetables ($3-4m.), 567,000 doz. eggs ($811,093). There is an agricultural experimental station at Inarajan. Fisheries. Fresh fish caught in 1982, 319,300 lb. Offshore fishing produced 100,687 lb., including 6,080 lb. of shrimps.

1558

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Guam Economic Development Authority controls three industrial estates: Cabras Island (32 acres); Calvo estate at Tamuning (26 acres); Harmon estate (16 acres). Industries include textile manufacture, cement and petroleum distribution, warehousing, printing, plastics and ship-repair. Other main sources of income are construction and tourism. Labour. In 1983 51% of employment was in government, 18% in trade, 5% in construction, 13% in services, 4% in manufacturing, 5% in transport and 4% in finance. Trade. Guam is the only American territory which has complete 'free trade'; excise duties are levied only upon imports of tobacco, liquid fuel and liquor. In the year ending 31 Dec. 1980 imports were valued at $544- lm. and accounted for 90% of trade. Tourism. Tourism is developing; there were 1,900 visitors in 1964 and 407,100 in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are 419 miles of all-weather roads. Aviation. Seven commercial airlines serve Guam. Post and Broadcasting. Overseas telephone and radio dispatch facilities are available. In 1983 there were 23,442 telephones. There are 4 commercial stations, a commercial television station, a public broadcasting station and a cable television station with 24 channels. Newspapers. There is 1 daily newspaper, a twice-weekly paper, and 4 weekly publications (all of which are of military or religious interest only). JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Organic Act established a District Court with jurisdiction in matters arising under both federal and territorial law; the judge is appointed by the President subject to Senate approval. There is also a Supreme Court and a Superior Court; all judges are locally appointed except the Federal District judge. Misdemeanours are under the jurisdiction of the police court. The Spanish law was superseded in 1933 by 5 civil codes based upon California law. Religion. About 98% of the Guamanians are Roman Catholics; others are Baptists, Episcopalians, Bahais, Lutherans, Mormons, Presbyterians, Jehovah's Witnesses and members of the Church of Christ and Seventh Day Adventists. Education. Elementary education is compulsory. There are Chamorro Studies courses and bi-lingual teaching programmes to integrate the Chamorro language and culture into elementary and secondary school courses. There were, Dec. 1983, 24 elementary schools, 6 junior high schools, 5 senior high schools, one vocationaltechnical school for high school students and adults and 1 school for handicapped children. There were 17,725 elementary school pupils, 7,418 junior high and 5,776 senior high school pupils. Department of Education staff included 1,258 teachers. The Catholic schools system also operates 3 senior high schools, 3 junior high and 5 elementary schools. The Seventh Day Adventist Guam Mission Academy operates a school from grades 1 through 12, serving over 100 students. St John's Episcopal Preparatory School provides education for 530 students between kindergarten and the 9 th grade. The University of Guam (an accredited institution) had 2,774 students, 1983-84. Health. There is a hospital, 8 nutrition centres, a school health programme and an extensive immunization programme. Emphasis is on disease prevention, health education and nutrition.

FREELY-ASSOCIATED

1559

STATES

Books of Reference Report (Annual) of the Governor of Guam to the US Department of Interior Guam Annual Economic Review. Economic Research Center, Agana Carano, P., and Sanchez, P. C., Complete History of Guam. Rutland, Vt., 1964

FREELY-ASSOCIATED STATES H I S T O R Y . Under the Treaty of Versailles (1919) Japan was appointed mandatory to the former German possessions north of the Equator. In 1946 the US agreed to administer the former Japanese-mandated islands of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana groups (except Guam) as a Trusteeship for the United Nations; the trusteeship agreement was approved by the Security Council 27 April 1947 and came into effect on 18 July 1947. The Trust Territory was administered by the US Navy until 1951, when all the islands except Tinian and Saipan in the Marianas were transferred to the Secretary of the Interior. In 1962 the Interior Department assumed responsibility for them also. In April 1976 the US government separated the administration of the Northern Marianas (see below) from that of the rest of the Trust Territory. The rest was 3 entities, each with its own constitution: the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia (Yap, Kosrae, Truk and Pohnpei) and the Republic of Palau. The US Congress agreed compacts of free association with all except Palau (see below) in 1985-86; free association gives the USA the authority to control military and defence activities in return for federal government assistance and budget supports to the autonomous constitutional governments. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The territories extend from 1° to 22° N. lat. and from 137° to 172° E. long. The area is generally known as Micronesia, or 'land of the small islands' (Guam, Kiribati and Nauru, not part of the territories, are also ethnically and geographically Micronesian). Areas, populations and headquarters: Kosrae Pohnpei Truk Yap Federated States ofMicronesia Marshall Islands Total

Sq. miles 42 134 49 46

1980 Census 5,491 22,081 37,488 8,100

Estimate 1984 6,262 26,922 44,596 10,595

271 70

73,160 30,873

88,375 34,923

341

104,033

123,298

Headquarters Lelu Kolonia Moen Colonia Kolonia Majuro

Nine different languages are spoken, each with variations; English is used in the schools and is the official language. CLIMATE. Marked by high temperatures throughout the year and high rainfall. Marshall Islands, Jaluit. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 82°F (27-8°C). Annual rainfall 161" (4,034 mm). Caroline Islands, Ponape. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 79°F (26- 1°C). Annual rainfall 194" (4,859 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D GOVERNMENT. Hie Federated States of Micronesia has a congress, a Federal President and Vice-President, both elected for four-year terms; each state has an elected governor (four years) and a unicameral assembly. The congress consists of 1 four-year Senator from each state, and 10 two-year Senators elected on a population basis. The Marshall Islands form a republic with an elected assembly and an elected president, both serving fouryear terms. The assembly has 33 members, and a presidential candidate must be a member. I N D U S T R Y . Tourism is the main source of income from overseas; industrial

1560

UNITED STATES OF

AMERICA

development is limited. There is some commercial fishing and agriculture, a coconut-processing plant and a tuna-freezing plant. Small scale manufacturing has begun, mainly of garments, buttons (from trochus shell) and handicraft goods. COMMUNICATIONS Aviation. The island groups are served by Continental Air Micronesia, Japan Airlines and Air Nauru providing connexions to the South Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Japan, Hawaii and Guam. Several small commuter airlines connect Guam with Yap and Ulithi, Pohnpei and Kosrae, Pingelap and Mokil. Air Marshall Islands serves the Marshall Islands, Kosrae and Pohnpei. There are connexions to international routes in Guam. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. Local constitutions and government statutes are the basis for law. Local customs are recognized and protected in legal practice, when not in conflict with higher law. Religion. Freedom of religion is guaranteed in all constitutions. Education. Education is free and compulsory through elementary school (grades 1-8). There are public and private elementary and secondary schools and government post-secondary education at the 2-year College of Micronesia. Health. The public health system, which includes 7 main hospitals as well as other hospitals in population centres and dispensaries on outlying islands, is carried on by a staff consisting chiefly of trained Micronesian medical and dental officers and assistants, US doctors, UN volunteers and local support staff. Books of Reference Report to the United Nations Trusteeship Council, 1979. Dept. of State, Washington, D.C., 1984 Basic Information. Office of Freely Associated States' Affairs, D e p a r t m e n t of State, Washington D.C. 20520; Office of the President, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Majuro; Office of the President, Federated States ofMicronesia, Ponape, Caroline Islands.

REPUBLIC OF PALAU The Republic lies west of the Federated States ofMicronesia, and has a land area of 192 sq. miles, divided between 26 larger islands and more than 300 islets. The largest island is Babelthuap (143 sq. miles). Population (1980 census) 12,116; 1987 estimate, 15,000. The language is Palauan. The headquarters is Koror. The Republic has a bicameral parliament with an 18-member Senate, and 16-member House of Delegates, both elected for four years as are the president and vice-president. The Constitution, adopted in July 1980, provided for ultimate free-association status, but it also defines Palau as a nuclearfree zone; this is in conflict with the United States' intention of basing nuclear weapons on the islands, as part of the defence responsibility included in the Free Association Compact. To cancel the anti-nuclear clause and accept the Compact required a 75% vote at referendum. When this was not achieved by successive referenda, the constitution was amended to allow a simple majority to suffice. Palau voted in favour of the Compact (67%) in Aug. 1987; the decision was to be ratified by the US Congress early in 1988.

THE N O R T H E R N M A R I A N A S The islands form a chain, extending 560 km north from Guam; there are 16 islands, all mountainous, with a combined land area of 477 sq. km (184 sq. miles). On 17

AMERICAN SAMOA

1561

June 1975 the voters of the Northern Mariana Islands, in a plebiscite observed by the UN, adopted the covenant to establish a Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands in Union with the USA. In April 1976 the US government approved the convenant and separated the administration of the Northern Marianas from that of the rest of the Pacific Islands Trust Territory. The Northern Marianas form a Commonwealth with an elected governor and lieutenant-governor, both serving 4-year terms; the bicameral parliament has a 9-member Senate, elected for four years, and a 15-member House of Representatives (elected for two). The population, 1980 census, 16,780 (1984 estimate, 19,635). Saipan is the seat of government. The official language is English, 55% (1980) speak Chamorro. Books of Reference Basic Information. Saipan.

Office of the Governor, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands,

AMERICAN SAMOA H I S T O R Y . The Samoan Islands were first visited by Europeans in the 18th century; the first recorded visit was in 1722. On 14 July 1889 a treaty between the USA, Germany and Great Britain proclaimed the Samoan islands neutral territory, under a 4-power government consisting of the 3 treaty powers and the local native government. By the Tripartite Treaty of 7 Nov. 1899, ratified 19 Feb. 1900, Great Britain and Germany renounced in favour of the US all rights over the islands of the Samoan group east of 171° long, west of Greenwich, the islands to the west of that meridian being assigned to Germany (now the Independent State of Western Samoa, see p. 1592). The islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u were ceded to the US by their High Chiefs on 17 April 1900, and the islands of the Manu'a group on 16 July 1904. Congress accepted the islands under a Joint Resolution approved 20 Feb. 1929. Swain's Island, 210 miles north of the Samoan Islands, was annexed in 192 5 and is administered as an integral part of American Samoa. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The islands (Tutuila, Aunu'u, Ta'u, Olosega, Ofii and Rose) are approximately 650 miles east-north-east of Fiji. The total area of American Samoa is 76-1 sq. miles (197 sq. km); population, 1980, 32,297, nearly all Polynesians or part-Polynesians. The island's 3 Districts are Eastern (population, 1980, 17,311), Western (13,227) and Manu'a (1,732). There is also Swain's Island, with an area of 1 • 9 sq. miles and 29 inhabitants (1980), which lies 210 miles to the north west. Rose Island (uninhabited) is 0-4 sq. mile in area. In 1981 there were 1,158 births and 153 deaths. C L I M A T E . A tropical maritime climate with a small annual range of temperature and plentiful rainfall. Pago-Pago. Jan. 83°F (28-3°C), July 80"F (26-7°C). Annual rainfall 194" (4,850 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . American Samoa is constitutionally an unorganized unincorporated territory of the US administered under the Department of the Interior. Its indigenous inhabitants are US nationals and are classified locally as citizens of American Samoa with certain privileges under local laws not granted to non-indigenous persons. Polynesian customs (not inconsistent with US laws) are respected. Fagatogo is the seat of the Government. The islands are organized in 15 counties grouped in 3 districts; these counties and districts correspond to the traditional political units. On 25 Feb. 1948 a bicameral legislature was established, at the request of the Samoans, to have advisory legislative functions. With the adoption of the Constitution of 22 April 1960, and the revised Constitution of 1967, the legislature was vested with limited lawmaking authority. The lower house, or House of Representatives, is composed of

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20 members elected by universal adult suffrage and 1 non-voting member for Swain's Island. The upper house, or Senate, is comprised of 18 members elected, in the traditional Samoan manner, in meetings of the chiefs. Governor: A. P. Lutali. Lieut.-Governor: Eni F. Hunkin, Jr. ECONOMY Planning. The first formal Economic Development and Planning Office completed its first year in 1971. Much has been done to promote economic expansion within the Territory and a large amount of outside investment interest has been stimulated. The Office initiated the first Territorial Comprehensive Plan. This plan when completed will, with periodic updating, provide a guideline to territorial development for the next 20 years. The planning programme was made possible under a Housing and Urban Development '701' grant programme, and Economic Development Administration '302' planning programmes. The focus will be on physical development and the problems of a rapidly increasing population with severely limited labour resources. Budget. The chief sources of revenue are annual federal grants from the US, and local revenues from taxes, and duties, and receipts from commercial operations (enterprise and special revenue funds), utilities, rents and leases and liquor sales. During the financial year 1983-84 the Government had a revenue of $76-6m. including local appropriations of $9-5m., federal appropriations of $39-6m. and enterprise funds of $ 17 • 5m. Banking. The American Samoa branch of the Bank of Hawaii and the American Samoa Bank offer all commercial banking services. The Development Bank of American Samoa, government owned, is concerned primarily through loans and guarantees with the economic advancement of the Territory. E N E R G Y AND N A T U R A L

RESOURCES

Electricity. Net power generated (financial year 1981) was 72-2m. kwh., of which 23- lm. kwh. was supplied to large power users and 20-2m. kwh. to householders. All the Manu'a islands have electricity. Agriculture. Of the 48,640 acres of land area, 11,000 acres are suitable for tropical crops; most commercial farms are in the Tafuna plains and west Tutuila. Principal crops are taro, bread-fruit, yams, bananas and coconuts. Local sales (1982): tare, 770,315 lb.;bananas, lm. lb.; vegetables, 584,143 lb. Livestock(1986): Pigs, 11,000; (1984) goats, 8,000; poultry, 45,000. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. Fish canning is important, employing the second largest number of people (after government). Attempts are being made to provide a variety of light industries. Tuna fishing and local inshore fishing are both expanding. Commerce. In 1982 American Samoa exported goods valued at $ 186,782,060 and imported goods valued at $119,416,918. Chief exports are canned tuna, watches, pet foods and handicrafts. Chief imports are building materials, fuel oil, food, jewellery, machines and parts, alcoholic beverages and cigarettes. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There are (1983) about 76 miles of paved roads and 16 miles of unpaved within the Federal Aid highway system. There are 21 miles of other unpaved roads. Motor vehicles registered, 1983,3,657. Aviation. South Pacific Island Airways and Polynesian Airlines operate daily services between American Samoa and Western Samoa. South Pacific Island Airways

OTHER PACIFIC TERRITORIES

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also operates between Pago Pago and Honolulu, and between Pago Pago and Tonga. The islands are also served by Air Nauru which operates between Pago Pago, Tahiti and Auckland, and Air Pacific (Fiji and westward). South Pacific and Manu'a Air Transport run local services. Shipping. The harbour at Pago Pago, which nearly bisects the island of Tutuila, is the only good harbour for large vessels in Samoa. By sea, there is a twice-monthly service between Fiji, New Zealand and Australia and regular service between US, South Pacific ports, Honolulu and Japan. Post and Broadcasting. A commercial radiogram service is available to all parts of the world through 2 principal trunks, United States and Western Samoa. Commercial phone and telex services are operated to all parts of the world on a 24-hour service. Number of telephones (Sept. 1983), 6,029; telex subscribers, 78. J U S T I C E , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. Judicial power is vested firstly in a High Court. The trial division has original jurisdiction of all criminal and civil cases. The probate division has jurisdiction of estates, guardianships, trusts and other matters. The land and title division decides cases relating to disputes involving communal land and Matai title court rules on questions and controversy over family titles. The appellate division hears appeals from trial, land and title and probate divisions as well as having original jurisdiction in selected matters. The appellate court is the court of last resort. Two American judges sit with 5 Samoan judges permanently. In addition there are temporary judges or assessors who sit occasionally on cases involving Samoan customs. There is also a District Court with limited jurisdiction and there are 69 village courts. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 18. The Government (1983) maintains 24 consolidated elementary schools, 5 senior high schools with technical departments, 1 community college, special education classes for the handicapped and 92 Early Childhood Education Centres for pre-school children. Total elementary and secondary enrolment (1983), 8,300; in ECE schools, 1,611; classes for the handicapped, 68; total elementary and secondary classroom teachers, 480. Ten private schools had 2,108 students. Learning is by a variety of media including television. Health. The Department of Health provides the only curative and preventive medical and dental care in American Samoa. It operates a general hospital (173 beds including 49 bassinets), 3 dispensaries on Tutuila, 4 dispensaries in the Manu'a group, 1 on Aunu'u and 1 on Swain's Island. A $3-5m. tropical medical centre was completed and placed in service in 1968. This now embraces the general hospital as well as preventive health services and out-patient clinics for surgery, obstetrics, gynaecology, emergencies, family practice, internal medicine, paediatrics; there are clinics for treatment of the eye, ear, nose and throat, dental and public health departments. In 1983 there were 27 doctors, 7 dentists, 2 optometrists, 3 nurse anaesthetists, and 3 physician assistants. Total number of health service employees, 397.

OTHER PACIFIC TERRITORIES Johnston Atoll. Two small islands 1,150 km south-west of Hawaii, administered by the US Air Force. Area, under 1 sq. mile; population (1980 census) 327, with Sand Island. Midway Islands. Two small islands at the western end of the Hawaiian chain, administered by the US Navy. Area, 2 sq. miles; population ( 1980 census) 453. Wake Island. Three small islands 3,700 km west of Hawaii, administered by the US Air Force. Area, 3 sq. miles; population (1980 census) 302.

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AMERICA

COMMONWEALTH OF PUERTO RICO H I S T O R Y . Puerto Rico, by the treaty of 10 Dec. 1898 (ratified 11 April 1899), was ceded by Spain to the US. The name was changed from Porto Rico to Puerto Rico by an Act of Congress approved 17 May 1932. Its territorial constitution was determined by the 'Organic Act' of Congress (2 March 1917) known as the 'Jones Act', which ruled until 25 July 1952, when the present constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was proclaimed. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Puerto Rico is the most easterly of the Greater Antilles and lies between the Dominican Republic and the US Virgin Islands. The island has a land area of 3,459 sq. miles and a population, according to the census of 1980, of 3,196,520, an increase of484,487 or 17-9% over 1970. Of the population in 1970 about 529,000 were bilingual, Spanish being the mother tongue and (with English) one of the two official languages. Urban population (1980)2,134,365(66-8%). Vital statistics (1984-85): Births, 63,629 (19-4 per 1,000 population); deaths, 23,194 (71); deaths under 1 year, 947 (14 • 9 per 1,000 live births). Chief towns (1980) are: San Juan, 434,849; Bayamón, 196,207; Ponce, 189,046; Carolina, 165,954; Caguas, 117,959; Mayaguez, 96,193; Arecibo, 86,766. The Puerto Rican island of Vieques, 10 miles to the east, has an area of 51 -7 sq. miles and 7,662 inhabitants. The island of Culebra, with 1,265 inhabitants, between Puerto Rico and St Thomas, has a good harbour. CONSTITUTION

AND

G O V E R N M E N T . Puerto Rico has representative

government, the franchise being restricted to citizens 18 years of age or over, residence (1 year) and such additional qualifications as may be prescribed by the Legislature of Puerto Rico, but no property qualification may be imposed. Women were enfranchised in 1932 (with a literacy test) and fully in 1936. Puerto Ricans do not vote in the US presidential elections, though individuals living on the mainland are free to do so subject to the local electoral laws. The executive power resides in a Governor, elected directly by the people every 4 years. Fourteen heads of departments form the Governor's advisory council, also designated as his Council of Secretaries. The legislative functions are vested in a Senate, composed of 27 members (2 from each of the 8 senatorial districts and 11 senators at large), and the House of Representatives, composed of 51 members (1 from each of the 40 representative districts and 11 elected at large). Puerto Rico sends to Congress a Resident Commissioner to the US, elected by the people for a term of 4 years, but he has no vote in Congress. Puerto Rican men are subject to conscription in US services. On 27 Nov. 1953 President Eisenhower sent a message to the General Assembly of the UN stating 'if at any time the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico adopts a resolution in favour of more complete or even absolute independence' he 'will immediately thereafter recommend to Congress that such independence be granted'. For an account of the constitutional developments prior to 1952, see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 5 2 , p . 7 4 2 . T h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n w a s d r a f t e d b y a

Puerto Rican Constituent Assembly and approved by the electorate at a referendum on 3 March 1952. It was then submitted to Congress, which struck out Section 20 of Article 11 covering the 'right to work' and the 'right to an adequate standard of living'; the remainder was passed and proclaimed by the Governor on 25 July 1952. At the election on 4 Nov. 1984 the Popular Democratic Party, headed by Rafael Hernández Colon, polled 822,783 votes (47-8% of the total); the New Progressive Party, headed by Carlos Romero Barceló, polled 768,742 votes (44-6% of the total); the Independence Party (full independence by constitutional means), 61,316 (3-6% of the total); Renewal Puerto Rican Party, 69,865 votes (3 -6% of the total). Governor: Rafael Hernández Colon (Popular Democratic Party), 1984-88 ($35,000).

PUERTO

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RICO

ECONOMY Budget. Central Government budget, year ending 30 June 1986: Balance at 1 July 1985, $63,752,000; receipts, $6,079,319,000; disbursements, $5,863,929,000. Assessed value of property, 30 June 1985, was $9,544-6m., and bonded indebtedness (30 June 1987), $2,551m. The US administers and finances the postal service and maintains air and naval bases. US payments in Puerto Rico, including direct expenditures (mainly military), grants-in-aid and other payments to individuals and to business totalled: 1983-84, $3,699-6m; 1984-85, $3,882-9m.; 1985-86, $4,180-2m.;$4,221-6m. Banking. Banks on 30 June 1987 had total deposits of $21,990-9m. Bank loans were $9,980m. This includes 18 commercial banks, 2 government banks and 3 trust companies. NATURAL RESOURCES Minerals. Production: Cement (1984-85), lm. short tons; stone (1984), 5-8m. short tons, value $27 • 7m. Total value of mineral production in 1984 (estimate) was $120m. Agriculture. In 1974 there were 47 'proportional profit' farms of 22,051 cords (about 22,704 acres) (mostly sugar-cane). The land had been bought from the big corporations by the Land Authority. Production of raw sugar, 96 degrees basis, 1987 crop year, was 96,416 tons. Livestock (1987): Cattle, 579,129; pigs, 197,962; poultry, 9 • 3m. C O M M E R C E . In 1986-87 imports amounted to $10,723-8m., of which $6,977-4m. came from US; exports were valued at $12,067-8m., of which $10,515-6m. went to US. In financial year 1987 the US took: Sugar, 11,692 short tons; cigarettes, cigars and cheroots, 1,049,930,000 units; other tobacco and products, 2,475,470 lb.; rum, 20,474,669 proof gallons. Puerto Rico is not permitted to levy taxes on imports. Total trade between Puerto Rico and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 58,804 35,936

1984 76,854 72,695

1985 126,971 117,861

1986 81,131 49,620

1987 76,347 39,405

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Department of Public Works had under maintenance in June 1985, 6,876 1 km of paved road. Motor vehicles registered 30 June 1987,1,569,309. Shipping. In financial year 1986-87, 9,338 American and foreign vessels of 53,378,302 gross tons entered and cleared Puerto Rico. Post and Broadcasting. In 1987 there were 104 broadcasting stations and 14 television companies. There were (1987) 871,311 telephones (excluding Puerto Rico Communication Authority). Cinemas (1983-84). Cinemas had an annual attendance of 5 -6m. Newspapers. In 1987 there were 5 main newspapers, El Nuevo Dia had a daily circulation of about 194,605 (Aug. 1987); El Vocero, 212,470 (Oct. 1986); San Juan Star, 47,000 (May 1986); ElMundo, 120,000 (Aug. 1987) and El Reportero, 35,000(1987). JUSTICE AND EDUCATION Justice. The Commonwealth judiciary system is headed by a Supreme Court of 7 members, appointed by the Governor, and consists of a Superior Tribunal with 11 sections and 92 superior judges, a District Tribunal with 38 sections and 99 district judges, and 60 municipal judges all appointed by the Governor. The police force (1984) consisted of 10,052 men and women.

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U N I T E D STATES OF AMERICA

Education. Education was made compulsory in 1899, but in 1981, 3-6% of the children still had no access to schooling. The percentage of illiteracy in 1980 was 10-3% of those 10 years of age or older. Total enrolment in public schools, 1986-87, was 679,489. Accredited private schools had 99,488 pupils (1985-86). All instruction below senior high school standard is given in Spanish only. The University of Puerto Rico, in Río Piedras, 7 miles from San Juan, had 56,549 students in 1986-87 of which 3,713 were in 5 Regional Colleges. Higher education is also available in the Inter-American University of Puerto Rico (41,690 students in 1986-87), the Catholic University of Puerto Rico (11,762), the Sacred Heart College (8,274) and the Fundación Educativa Ana G. Méndez (17,530). These and other private colleges and universities had 98,486 students. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The area of Economic Research and Evaluation of the Puerto Rico Planning Board publishes: (a) annual Economic Report to the Governor; (b) External Trade Statistics (annual report); (c) Reports on national income and balance of payments; (d) SocioEconomic Statistics (since 1940); (e) Puerto Rico Monthly Economic Indicators. In addition there are annual reports by various Departments. Annual Reports. Governor of Puerto Rico. Washington Bloomfield, R. J., Puerto Rico: The Search for a National Policy. Boulder, 1985 Carr, R., Puerto Rico: A Colonial Experiment. New York Univ. Press, 1984 Cevallos, E., Puerto Rico. [Bibliography], Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1985 Crampsey, R. A., Puerto Rico. Newton Abbot, 1973 Dietz, J. L., Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capital Princeton Univ. Press, 1987 Falk, P. S.,(ed.) The Political Status of Puerto Rico. Lexington, Mass., 1986

Development.

Commonwealth Library: Univ. of Puerto Rico Library, Rio Piedras. Librarian: José Lázaro.

VIRGIN ISLANDS OF THE U N I T E D STATES H I S T O R Y . The Virgin Islands of the United States, formerly known as the Danish West Indies, were named and claimed for Spain by Columbus in 1493. They were later settled by Dutch and English planters, invaded by France in the mid-17th century and abandoned by the French c. 1700, by which time Danish influence had been established. St Croix was held by the Knights of Malta between two periods of French rule. They were purchased by the United States from Denmark for $25m. in a treaty ratified by both nations and proclaimed 31 March 1917. Their value was wholly strategic, inasmuch as they commanded the Anegada Passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean Sea and the approach to the Panama Canal. Although the inhabitants were made US citizens in 1927, the islands are, constitutionally, an 'unincorporated territory'. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The Virgin Islands group, lying about 40 miles due east of Puerto Rico, comprises the islands of St Thomas (28 sq. miles), St Croix (84 sq. miles), St John (20 sq. miles) and about 50 small islets or cays, mostly uninhabited. The total area of the 3 principal islands is 136 sq. miles, of which the US Government owns 9,599 acres as National Park. The population, according to the census of 1 April 1985, was 110,800, an increase of 15,209 or 16% since 1980. Population had slowly declined since 1835, when it stood at 43,000, but began to recover in the 1940s, and increased greatly after 1960. Population of St Croix, 55,300; St Thomas, 52,660; St John, 2,800. About 20-25% (1980) are native-born, 35-40% from other Caribbean islands, 10% from mainland USA and 5% from Europe. St Croix has over 40% of Puerto Rican origin or extraction, Spanish speaking. In financial year 1986, live births were 2,266 and deaths, 507. The capital and only city, Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas, had a population

VIRGIN

ISLANDS

1567

(1985) of 52,660; there are two towns on St Croix. Christiansted with (1980) 2,856 and Frederiksted with 1,054. C L I M A T E . Average temperatures vary from 77°F to 82°F throughout the year; humidity is low. Average annual rainfall, about 45 inches. The islands lie in the hurricane belt; tropical storms with heavy rainfall can occur in late summer, but hurricanes rarely. C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Organic Act of 22 July 1954 gives the US Department of the Interior full jurisdiction; some limited legislative powers are given to a single- chambered legislature, composed of 15 senators elected for 2 years representing the two legislative districts of St Croix and St Thomas-St John. The Governor is elected by the residents. Since 1954 there have been four attempts to redraft the Constitution, to provide for greater autonomy. Each has been rejected by the electorate. The latest was defeated in a referendum in Nov. 1981,50% of the electorate participating. For administration, there are 15 executive departments, 14 of which are under commissioners and the other, the Department of Justice, under an AttorneyGeneral. The US Department of the Interior appoints a Federal Comptroller of government revenue and expenditure. The franchise is vested in residents who are citizens of the United States, 18 years of age or over. In 1986 there were 34,183 voters, of whom 26,377 participated in the local elections that year. They do not participate in the US presidential election but they have a nonvoting representative in Congress. The capital is Charlotte Amalie, on St Thomas Island. Governor: Alexander A. Farrelly ($62,400). Lieut.-Governor: Derek N. Hodge ($57,000). ECONOMY Budget. Under the 1954 Organic Act finances are provided partly from local revenues—customs, federal income tax, real and personal property tax, trade tax, excise tax, pilotage fees, etc.—and partly from Federal Matching Funds, being the excise taxes collected by the federal government on such Virgin Islands products transported to the mainland as are liable. Budget for financial year 1987, $255 • 5m. Currency and Banking. United States currency became legal tender on 1 July 1934. Banks are the Chase Manhattan Bank; the Bank of Nova Scotia; the First Federal Savings and Loan Association of Puerto Rico; Barclays Bank International; Citibank; First Pennsylvania Bank; Banco Popular de Puerto Rico, and the First Virgin Islands Federal Savings Bank. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority provides electric power from generating plants on St Croix and St Thomas; St John is served by power cable and emergency generator. Water. There are 6 de-salinization plants with maximum daily capacity of 8-7m. gallons of fresh water. Rain-water remains the most reliable source. Every building must have a cistern to provide rain-water for drinking, even in areas served by mains (10 gallons capacity per sq. ft of roof for a single-storey house). Agriculture. Land for fruit, vegetables and animal feed is available on St Croix, and there are tax incentives for development. Sugar has been terminated as a commercial crop and over 4,000 acres of prime land could be utilized for food crops. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 5,802; goats, 4,556; pigs, 2,300; sheep, 2,879, poultry, 18,360.

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Fisheries. There is a fishermen's co-operative with a market at Christiansted. There is a shellfish-farming project at Rust-op-Twist, St Croix. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main occupations on St Thomas are tourism and government service; on St Croix manufacturing is more important. Manufactures include rum (the most valuable product), watches, pharmaceuticals and fragrances. Industries in order of revenue: tourism, refining oil, watch assembly, rum distilling, construction. Commerce. Exports, calendar year 1986, totalled $2,119m. (of which $2,052m. to USA) and imports $2,643m. ($ 1,453m.). Total trade between the US Virgin Islands and UK (financial years, British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 56,871 3,657

1985 514 4,060

1 986 5,455 5,955

1 987 2,674 6,503

Tourism. Tourism is the most important business. There were about l-52m. visitors in 1986 spending $509-8m.; 728,700 came by air and 827,151 on cruise ships, mainly to St Thomas which has a good, natural deepwater harbour. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Virgin Islands have (1986) 660 miles of roads, and 48,800 motor vehicles registered. Aviation. There is a daily cargo and passenger service between St Thomas and St Croix. Alexander Hamilton Airport on St Croix can take all aircraft except Concorde. Cyril E. King Airport on St Thomas takes 727-class aircraft. There are air connexions to mainland USA, other Caribbean islands, Latin America and Europe. Shipping. The whole territory has free port status. There is an hourly boat service between St Thomas and St John. Post and Broadcasting. All three Virgin Islands have a dial telephone system. In Dec. 1986 there were 39,232 telephones. Direct dialling to Puerto Rico and the mainland, and internationally, is now possible. Worldwide radio telegraph service is also available. The islands are served by 10 radio stations, 4 television stations 3 newspapers, 2 of them daily, and several monthlies. RELIGION AND EDUCATION Religion. There are churches of the Protestant, Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths in St Thomas and St Croix and Protestant and Roman Catholic churches in St John. Education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 4xk and 16 years, inclusive. In 1987-88 there were 34 public schools (ranging from kindergarten to high schools); enrolment was 24,000; 36 private schools had 6,460 pupils. In 1985-86 revenues to school district were $103-2m., of which $85-83m. was from local, and$17-4m. from federal sources. Public school expenditure was $76-75m., of which $52 -2m. was for instruction. In autumn 1987 the University of the Virgin Islands had 2,545 registered students; 2,361 undergraduates and 184 graduate students. The College is part of the United States land-grant network of higher education. Books of Reference Boyer, W. W., America's Virgin Islands. Durham, N.C., 1983 Dookhan, I., A History of the Virgin Islands of the United States. Caribbean Univ. Press, 1974 Lewis, G. K., The Virgin Islands: A Caribbean Lilliput. Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1972

Capital: Montevideo Population: 2-95 m. (1986) GNP per capita: US$ 1,800 ( 1984)

URUGUAY República Oriental del Uruguay

H I S T O R Y . The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its independence 25 Aug. 1825 which was recognized by the treaty between Argentina and Brazil signed at Rio de Janeiro 27 Aug. 1828. The first constitution was adopted 18 July 1830. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Uruguay is bounded on the north-east by Brazil, on the south-east by the Atlantic, on the south by the Rio de la Plata and on the west by Argentina. The area is 186,926 sq. km (72,172 sq. miles). The following table shows the area and the population of the 19 departments at census 1975: Departments Artigas Canelones Cerro-Largo Colonia Durazno Flores Florida Lavalleja Maldonado Montevideo Paysandú Río Negro Rivera Rocha Salto San José Soriano Tacuarembó Treinta y Tres

Sq. km 11,928 4,536 13,648 6,106 11,643 5,144 10,417 10,016 4,793 530 13,922 9,282 9,370 10,551 14,163 4,992 9,008 15,438 9,529

Census 1975 58,404 325,594 74,027 111,832 55,699 24,745 67,129 65,180 76,211 1,237,227 98,508 50,123 82,043 60,258 103,074 88,000 80,614 84,535 45,683

Capital Artigas Canelones Meló Colonia Durazno Trinidad Florida Minas Maldonado Montevideo Paysandú Fray Bentos Rivera Rocha Salto San José Mercedes Tacuarembó Treinta y Tres

Census 1975 29,256 15,938 38,260 16,895 25,811 17,598 25,030 35,433 22,159 1,237,227 62,412 19,569 49,013 21,672 71,881 28,427 34,667 34,152 25,757

Total population, census (1975) 2,788,429 and estimate 1986 was 2,947,000. In 1980 Montevideo (the capital) had an estimated population of 1,362,000. C L I M A T E . A warm temperate climate, with mild winters and warm summers. The wettest months are March to June, but there is really no dry season. Montevideo. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 50°F(10°C). Annual rainfall 3 8 " (950 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . Since 1900 Uruguay has been unique in her constitutional innovations, all designed to protect her from the emergence of a dictatorship. The favourite device of the group known as the 'Batllistas' (a Colorado faction) which, until defeated at the 1958 elections, held the majority for over 90 years, has been the collegiate system of government, in which the two largest political parties were represented. One such pattern lasted from 1917 to 1933, when it was abolished by a dictator who re-established the system of an individual President. Until 1951 Presidents were elected every 4 years and they selected their own Cabinet Ministers (we list of Presidents in T H E STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1956, p. 1493). Presidential elections were held on 25 Nov. 1984 and Julio Maria Sanguinetta of the Colorado Party was elected. The first-choice candidates of the National (Blanco) Party and the Broad Front Party were vetoed by the military government. 1569

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URUGUAY

Gen. Gregorio Alvarez resigned on 12 Feb. 1985 and a return to civilian rule took place on 1 March 1985. President: Julio Maria Sanguinetta (sworn in on 1 March 1985). The Cabinet in Dec. 1986 was as follows: Vice-President: Enrique Tarigo. Defence: Juan Vicente Chiarino. Foreign Affairs: Enrique Iglesias. Interior: Antonio Marchesano. Economy: Ricardo Zerbino. Public Health: Dr Raul Ugarte. Industry and Energy: Jorge Presno. Transport and Public Works: Jorge Sanguinetti. Labour: Hugo Fernandez. Agriculture: Pedro Bonino. Justice, Education and Culture: Dr Adela Reta. Tourism: Alfredo Silvera National flag: Nine horizontal stripes of white and blue, a white canton with the 'Sun of May' in gold. National anthem: Orientales, la patria ó la tumba (words by Francisco Acuña de Figueroa; music by Francisco José Deballi). DEFENCE

Army. The Army consists of volunteers who enlist for 1 -2 years service. There are 3 cavalry brigades and a Presidential Escort regiment; 1 infantry, 1 engineering and 1 signals brigade; 4 infantry divisions including mechanized, motorized, airborne, artillery and engineer units. Equipment includes 17 M-24,28 M-3A1 and 22 M-41 light tanks. Strength ( 1988) 18,800, with 120,000 former regulars as reserve. Navy. The Navy consists of 3 small frigates (ex-US old destroyer escorts, 2 of 1943 vintage, 1 of 1954), 1 corvette (ex-1942 US fleet minesweeper), 1 patrol vessel (excoastal minesweeper), 4 other patrol vessels, 3 coastal patrol craft, 1 transport, 1 training ship, 1 salvage vessel, 7 minor amphibious craft, 2 oilers and 1 tender. Personnel in 1988: totalled 4,500 officers and ratings including 550 naval infantry (marines) and Coastguard, and the small US-equipped naval air service of 390 with 18 aircraft and 3 helicopters. Air Force. Organized with US aid, the Air Force had (1988) about 3,000 personnel and 110 aircraft, including 1 counter-insurgency squadron with 6 IA 58 Pucara, 4 AT-33 armed jet trainers and 6 A-37B light strike aircraft, a reconnaissance and training squadron with 10 T-6Gs, 3 transport squadrons with 2 turboprop F.27 Friendships, 5 Brazilian-built EMB-110 Bandeirantes (1 equipped for photographic duties), 5 CASA C-212 Aviocars and 6 Queen Airs, a search and rescue squadron with Cessna U-17A aircraft and Bell helicopters, and a number of Cessna 182 light aircraft for liaison duties. Basic training types are the T-41 and T-34. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Uruguay is a member of UN, OAS and LAIA (formerly LAFTA). ECONOMY

Budget. The receipts and expenditure of the national accounts as approved by the National Council of Government (UR$ 1 m.): Revenue Expenditure

1981 21,260,000 21,368,600

1982 19,551,900 30,761,400

1983 29,486,400 36,897,300

1984 55,513,000 69,373,000

Currency. The unit of currency is the Nuevo Peso (1,000 old pesos) of 100 centésimos. The actual circulating medium consists of paper notes issued by the Central Bank in Nuevo Peso denominations of 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 Nuevo Peso, and 1, 2,5 and 10 coins. In March 1988, US$1 =304pesos; £1 = 534-69 pesos. Banking. The Bank of the Republic (founded 1896), whose president and directors are appointed by the Government has a paid-up capital of N$ 1,852m. The Banco Central was inaugurated on 16 May 1967. Note circulation in Dec. 1983 was N$10,538-7m.

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A state-owned National Insurance Bank (Banco de Seguros del Estado) has a monopoly of new insurance business of all kinds. Weights and Measures. The metric system was adopted in 1862. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Power output in 1986 was 3,730m kwh. Oil. Petroleum production (1981)185,000 tonnes. Agriculture. Uruguay is primarily a pastoral country. Of the total land area of 46m. acres some 41m. are devoted to farming, of which 90% to livestock and 10% to crops. Some large estancias have been divided up into family farms; rural landlordism is much less than elsewhere. Animals and animal products constituted 34 • 9% of the exports in 1983. There were (1986) 9,961,000 cattle, 24,526,000 sheep, 500,000 horses, 195,000 pigs, 12,000 goats and 6m. poultry. The wool clip in 1984 was 91,000 tonnes. Agricultural products are raised chiefly in the departments of Paysandu, Rio Negro, Colonia, San José, Soriano and Florida. The average farm is about 250 acres. The principal crops and their estimated yield (in tonnes) in 2 crop years were as follows: Wheat Linseed Oats

1985 440,000 8,000 48,000

1986 234,000 7,000 34,000

Barley Maize Rice

1985 140,000 108,000 423,000

1986 77,000 92,000 421,000

Uruguay is self-sufficient in rice, with a surplus for export. Three sugar refineries handle cane and (mainly) beet, their total production being approximately 92,000 tonnes, and approaching self-sufficiency. Wine is produced chiefly in the departments of Montevideo, Canelones and Colonia, about enough for domestic consumption. The country has some 6m. fruit trees, principally peaches, oranges, tangerines and pears. Forestry. In 1983 roundwood removals were 2,975,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1984, the total catch was 134,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries include meat packing, oil refining, cement manufacture, foodstuffs, beverages, leather and textile maufacture, chemicals, light engineering and transport equipment. There are about 100 textile mills, but with the exception of half a dozen large plants, these are on the whole small. Trade Unions. Trade unions number about 150,000 members. About 1 0 5 m. (3 5%) population are classed as gainfully occupied. Commerce. The foreign trade (officially stated in US$, with the figure for imports based on the clearance permits granted and that for exports on export licences utilized) was as follows (in US$ 1,000): Imports Exports

1981 1,598-9 1,215-4

1982 1,057-9 975-8

1983 705-0 1,044-5

1984 732-0 925-0

Of the imports in 1984 (in USSlm.) USA, 65-9; Nigeria, 113-3; Brazil, 135; Argentina, 88-4; Federal Republic of Germany, 48-6; UK, 18-2. Of the exports in 1984 Brazil took 144-8; Argentina, 88-3; Federal Republic of Germany, 79-3; USSR, 45-7; USA, 123-9; Iran, 49-2;UK, 37-7. Principal imports (1984) (in US$1,000): Mineral products, 262,500; chemical products, 113,252; machinery and appliances, 94,219. Exports: Textiles and textile products, 281,703; live animals and animal products, 229,079; skins and hides, 146,508; vegetable products, 129,110.

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URUGUAY

Total trade between Uruguay and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): i m i m m 5 ] m J m ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

33,361 10,763

33,292 13,980

28,824 15,513

41,366 24,465

40,474 26,484

Tourism. There were 1,168,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) about 52,000 km of roads including 12,000 km of motorways. Registered motor vehicles, 31 Dec. 1981, are estimated at 281,275 passenger cars and 47,102 trucks and buses. Railways. The total railway system open for traffic was (1986) 2,991 km of 1,435 m m gauge. In 1986 it carried 3-3m. passengers and 867,000 tonnes of freight. Aviation. Carrasco, 22-5 km from Montevideo, is the most important airport. US, Argentine, Brazilian, Chilean, Dutch, French, Fed. German, Scandinavian and Paraguayan airlines fly to and from Uruguay. The state-operated civil airline P L U N A runs services in the interior of the country and to Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, and Spain. Shipping. In 1983 there were 13 merchant vessels and 3 tankers. In 1982, 1,115 vessels cleared Montevideo. River transport (1,270 km) is extensive, its main importance being to link Montevideo with Paysandu and Salto. Post and Broadcasting. The telephone system in Montevideo is controlled by the State; small companies operate in the interior. Telephone instruments, 1986, numbered 337,000. There are 1,277 post offices. Uruguay has 85 long-wave and 17 short-wave broadcasting stations. There were (1984) about 1 -6m. wireless sets and 440,000 television receivers. There are 4 television stations in Montevideo and 11 in the interior. The State itself operates one of the most powerful sound broadcasting stations in South America. Cinemas ( 1980). Cinemas numbered 85 with seating capacity of47,000. Newspapers (1984). There were 5 daily newspapers in Montevideo with aggregate daily circulation of about 210,000; most of the 25-30 provincial newspapers appear bi-weekly. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Ministry of Justice was created in 1977 to be responsible for relations between the Executive Power and the Judiciary and other jurisdictional entities. The Court of Justice is made up by 5 members appointed by the Council of the Nation at the suggestion of the Executive Power, for a period of 5 years. This court has original jurisdiction in constitutional, international and admiralty cases and hears appeals from the appellate courts, of which there are 4, each with 3 judges. In Montevideo there are also 8 courts for ordinary civil cases, 3 for government (Juzgado de Hacienda), as well as criminal and correctional courts. Each departmental capital has a departmental court; each of the 224 judicial divisions has a justice of peace court. Religion. State and Church are separated, and there is complete religious liberty. The faith professed by 66% of the inhabitants is Roman Catholic although only 50% attend church. Education. Primary education is obligatory; both primary and superior education are free. In 1983 there were 350,178 primary school pupils, and 1983,197,890 secondary school pupils. The University of the Republic at Montevideo, inaugurated in 1849, has about 16,200 students; tuition is free to both native-born and foreign students; there are 10 faculties. There are 43 normal schools for males and females, and a college of arts and trades with about 33,000 students. There are also many religious seminar-

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1573

ies throughout the Republic with a considerable number of pupils, a school for the blind, 2 for deaf and dumb and a school of domestic science. Health. Hospital beds, 1981, numbered (estimate) 23,000; physicians numbered 5,600. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Uruguay in Great Britain (48 Lennox Gdns., London, SW1X 0DL) Ambassador: Dr Luis Alberto Solé-Romeo. Of Great Britain in Uruguay (Calle Marco Bruto 1073, Montevideo) Ambassador: Eric Vines, CMG, OBE. Of Uruguay in the USA (1918 F. St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20006) Ambassador: Dr Hector Luisi. Of the USA in Uruguay (Lauro Muller 1776, Montevideo) Ambassador: Malcolm R. Wilkey. Of Uruguay to the United Nations Ambassador: Felipe Héctor Paolillo. Books of Reference The official gazette is the Diario Oficial Statistical Reports of the Government. Montevideo. Annual and biennial Anales de Instrucción Primaria. Montevideo. Quarterly Finch, M.H.J.,.4 Political Economy of Uruguay Since 1870. London, 1981 Salgado, José, Historia de la República O. del Uruguay. 8 vols. Montevideo, 1943 National Library: Biblioteca Nacional del Uruguay, Guayabo 1793, Montevideo. It publishes Anuario Bibliográfico Uruguayo.

VANUATU

Capital: Vila Population: 141,400(1987) GNPper capita: US$3 50 ( 1981 )

Republic of Vanuatu

HISTORY. The group was administered for some purposes jointly, for others unilaterally, as provided for by Anglo-French Convention of 27 Feb. 1906, ratified 20 Oct. 1906, and a protocol signed at London on 6 Aug. 1911 and ratified on 18 March 1922. On 30 July 1980 the Condominium of the New Hebrides achieved independence and became the Republic of Vanuatu. AREA A N D POPULATION. The Vanuatu group lies roughly 500 miles west of Fiji and 250 miles north-east of New Caledonia. The estimated land area is 5,700 sq. miles (14,760 sq. km). The larger islands of the group are: (Espiritu) Santo, Malekula, Epi, Pentecost, Aoba, Maewo, Paama, Ambrym, Efate, Erromanga, Tanna and Aneityum. They also claim Matthew and Hunter islands. Population at the census (1979) 112,596. Estimate (1987) 141,400. Vila (the capital) 15,000. There are 3 active volcanoes, on Tanna, Ambrym and Lopevi, respectively. Earth tremors are of common occurrence. Language: The national language is Bislama (spoken by 82% of the population); English and French are also official languages. C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, but moderated by oceanic influences and by trade winds from May to Oct. High humidity occasionally occurs and cyclones are possible. Rainfall ranges from 90" (2,250 mm) in the south to 155" (3,875 mm) in the north. Vila. Jan. 80oF(26-7°C), July 72°F(22.2°C). Annual rainfall 84" (2,103 mm). A cyclone hit Vila in Feb. 1987. CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT. General elections took place in Nov. 1975 to elect a 42-member Representative Assembly, replacing the former advisory council. Further general elections took place in 1979 and 1983. A committee system was instituted and the Assembly chose its own President from its own members. Legislative power resides in a 39-member unicameral Parliament elected for a term of 4 years. Executive power is vested in the Council of Ministers. President: Ati George Sokomanu, MBE (re-elected in 1984). The cabinet in Jan. 1984 was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Walter Hadye Lini, CBE. Home Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister: S. Regenvanu. Foreign Affairs and Trade: S. Molisa. Education: O. Tahi. Finance: K. Kalsakau. Health: W. Korisa. Transport, Communications and Public Works: A. Sande. Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries: J. Hopa. Lands: D. Kalpokas. Flag: Red over green, with a black triangle in the hoist, the three parts being divided by fimbriations of black and yellow, and in the centre of the black triangle a boar's tusk overlaid by two crossed fern leaves. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Vanuatu is a member of the UN and the Commonwealth and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. A Development Plan (1982-86) envisaged expenditure ofUS$12m. Budget. The budget for 1986 envisages expenditure of5,298m. Vatu and revenue of 1574

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VANUATU

6,130m. Vatu. The main sources of revenue were import and taxes on goods and services. Currency. The currency is the Vatu. March 1988: £1 = 183 Kaiu;US$l = 103. Banking (1986). The Finance Centre, established in 1970-71 and based primarily in Vila, consists of 4 international banks (including the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation) and 6 trust companies (including Melanesia International Trust Company Ltd, a Hongkong Bank group associate). In Aug. 1984 the Asian Development Bank opened a regional office in Vila. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in force. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 20m. kwh. Minerals. The manganese mine, established at Forari on Efate closed in 1978 and the extraction of pozzolana to supply the local cement industry ceased in 1985. Preliminary prospecting for gold began in 1985 and prospects have been identified on Efate, Malekula and Santo. Agriculture. The main commercial crops are copra, cocoa and coffee. In 1984 almost 47,000 tonnes of copra were exported, accounting for 62% of total exports by value. Production, 1985: Copra, 38,319 tonnes; cocoa, 967 tonnes; coffee, 65. In 1985 about 80% of the population were engaged in subsistence agriculture. Yams, taro, manioc, sweet potatoes and bananas are grown for local consumption. A large number of cattle are reared on plantations, and an up-grading programme using pure-bred Charolais, Limousins and Illawarras has begun. A beef industry is developing. Livestock (1985): Cattle, 130,000; goats, 8,000; pigs, 71,000. Forestry. In 1987 some 1,900 hectares of plantation had been established. Production (1985) 37,900 cu. metres of logs and sawn timber. Fisheries. The principal catch is tuna (1985, 3,962 tonnes) mainly exported to USA. Small-scale commercial fishing (1985) over 200 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Industries in 1987 included copra processing, meat canning and fish freezing, a saw-mill, soft drinks factories and a print works. Building materials, furniture and aluminium were also produced, and in 1984 a cement plant opened. Commerce. Imports and exports were (in 1 m. Vatu): Imports Exports

1982 5,794 2,199

1983 5,287 2,940

1984 5,801 4,300

1985 7,529 3,263

In 1985 the main exports (in lm. Vatu) were: Copra, 1,392; fish, 761; beef and veal, 198; logs and sawn timber, 136; cocoa, 133. 48% of exports went to the Netherlands, 17% to Japan, 14% to Belgium and 12% to France. Australia (36%), Japan (12%), New Zealand (10%) and France (8%) were the major sources of imports and principal imports (in lm. Vatu) were machinery and transport equipment (1,413), food and live animals (1,234), basic manufactures (1,084), fuels and lubricants (667) and chemicals (397). Total trade between Vanuatu and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from UK

1985 174 768

1986 62 1,037

1987 15 1,058

Tourism. In 1986 there were 18,000 visitors to Vanuatu. In addition there were over 56,000 tourists from cruise ships. Earnings from tourism 2,000m. Vatu. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 there were 1,062 km of roads in Vanuatu, of these about 250 km

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VANUATU

are paved, mostly on Efate Island and Espíritu Santo. There were 3,087 registered cars in Vanuatu (1984). Aviation (1986). Air Vanuatu provides services to Australia; Air Nauru, Air Pacific, Air Caledonie, Solair and UTA serve Pacific routes; Air Melanisia provides regular services to 16 domestic airfields, and charter services. There are international airfields at Vila and Santo. Shipping. Several international shipping lines serve Vanuatu, linking the country with Australia, New Zealand, other Pacific territories notably Hong Kong, Japan, North America and Europe. The chief ports are Vila and Santo. In 1977, 394 vessels arrived including 48 cruise ships carrying 40,412 visitors. 92,340 tons of cargo were exported and 102,867 tons discharged. Small vessels provide frequent interisland services. Telecommunications. Internal telephone and telegram services are provided by the Posts and Telecommunications and Radio Departments. There are automatic telephone exchanges at Vila and Santo; rural areas are served by a network of teleradio stations. In 1983 there were 6 post offices and 3,000 telephones. External telephone, telegram and telex services are provided by VANITEL, through their satellite earth station at Vila. There are direct circuits to Noumea, Sydney, Hong Kong and Paris and high quality communications are available on a 24-hour basis to most countries in the world. Air radio facilities are provided. Marine coast station facilities are available at Vila and Santo. Radio Vanuatu operates a service 7 days a week in, French, English and Bislama. J U S T I C E , RELIGION, E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. A study was being made in 1980 which could lead to unification of the judicial system. Religion. Over 80% of the population are Christians, but animist beliefs are still prevalent. Education. There were (1987) 224 English primary schools with 13,000 pupils, 105 French primary schools with 10,000 pupils, 11 government and denominational secondary schools with 2,000 pupils and Matevulu College. Tertiary education is provided at the Vanuatu Technical Institute and the Teachers College, while other technical and commercial training is through regional institutions in the Solomon Islands, Fiji and Papua New Guinea. Eleven new secondary institutions are planned to open in 1987. Health. In 1987 there were 10 govemment-run hospitals throughout the islands (2 in Vila) and a number of clinics and dispensaries. In 1984 there were 19 doctors and, in 1982,2 dentists, 3 pharmacists, 5 midwives and 266 nursing personnel. D I P L O M A T I C REPRESENTATIVES Of Vanuatu in Great Britain High Commissioner: (Vacant). Of Great Britain in Vanuatu (Melitco Hse., Rue Pasteur, Vila) High Commissioner: Malcolm Creek, LVO, OBE. Of Vanuatu to the United Nations Ambassador: Nikenike Vurobaravu.

VATICAN STATE

CITY

Stato della Città del Vaticano H I S T O R Y . For many centuries the Popes bore temporal sway over a territory stretching across mid-Italy from sea to sea and comprising some 17,000 sq. miles, with a population finally of over 3m. In 1859-60 and 1870 the Papal States were incorporated into the Italian Kingdom. The consequent dispute between Italy and successive Popes was only settled on 11 Feb. 1929 by three treaties between the Italian Government and the Vatican: (1) A Political Treaty, which recognized the full and independent sovereignty of the Holy See in the city of the Vatican; (2) a Concordat, to regulate the condition of religion and of the Church in Italy; and (3) a Financial Convention, in accordance with which the Holy See received 750m. lire in cash and 1,000m. lire in Italian 5% state bonds. This sum was to be a definitive settlement of all the financial claims of the Holy See against Italy in consequence of the loss of its temporal power in 1870. The treaty and concordat were ratified on 7 June 1929. The treaty has been embodied in the Constitution of the Italian Republic of 1947. A revised Concordat between the Italian Republic and the Holy See was subsequently negotiated and came into force on 3 June 1985. The Vatican City State is governed by a Commission appointed by the Pope. The reason for its existence is to provide an extra-territorial, independent base for the Holy See, the government of the Roman Catholic Church. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The area of the Vatican City is 44 hectares (108-7 acres). It includes the Piazza di San Pietro (St Peter's Square), which is to remain normally open to the public and subject to the powers of the Italian police. It has its own railway station (for freight only), postal facilities, coins and radio. Twelve buildings in and outside Rome enjoy extra-territorial rights, including the Basilicas of St John Lateran, St Mary Major and St Paul without the Walls, the Pope's summer villa at Castel Gandolfo and a further Vatican radio station on Italian soil. Radio Vaticana broadcasts an extensive service in 34 languages from the transmitters in the Vatican City and in Italy. The Vatican City has about 1,000 inhabitants. C O N S T I T U T I O N . The Pope exercises sovereignty and has absolute legislative, executive and judicial powers. The judicial power is delegated to a tribunal in the first instance, to the Sacred Roman Rota in appeal and to the Supreme Tribunal of the Signature in final appeal. The Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals, meeting in secret conclave. The election is by scrutiny and requires a two-thirds majority. Name andfamily Benedict XIV (Lambertini) Clement XIII (Rezzonico) Clement XIV (Ganganelli) Pius VI (Braschi) Pius VII (Chiaramonti) Leo XII (della Genga) Pius VIII (Castiglioni) Gregory XVl(Cappellari) Pius IX (Mastai-Ferretti)

Election 1740 1758 1769 1775 1800 1823 1829 1831 1846

Name andfamily Leo XIII (Pecci) Pius X (Sarto) Benedici X V (della Chiesa) Pius XI (Ratti) Pius XII (Pacelli) John XXIII (Roncalli) Paul VI (Montini) John Paul I (Luciani) John Paul II (Wojtyla)

Election 1878 1903 1914 1922 1939 1958 1963 1978 1978

Supreme Pontiff: John Paul II (Karol Wojtyla), born at Wadowice near Cracow, 1577

1578

VATICAN CITY

STATE

Poland, 18 May 1920. Archbishop of Cracow 1964-78, created Cardinal in 1967, elected Pope 16 Oct. 1978, inaugurated 22 Oct. 1978. Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian to be elected since Pope Adrian VI (a Dutchman) in 1522. Secretary of State: Cardinal Agostino Casaroli (appointed May 1979). Flag: Vertically yellow and white, with on the white the crossed keys and tiara of the Papacy. R O M A N C A T H O L I C C H U R C H . The Roman Pontiff (in orders a Bishop, but in jurisdiction held to be by divine right the centre of all Catholic unity, and consequently Pastor and Teacher of all Christians) has for advisers and coadjutors the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting in Sept. 1987 of 140 Cardinals appointed by him from senior ecclesiastics who are either the bishops of important Sees or the heads of departments at the Holy See. In addition to the College of Cardinals, the Pope has created a ' Synod of Bishops'. This consists of the Patriarchs and certain Metropolitans of the Catholic Church of Oriental Rite, of elected representatives of the national episcopal conferences and religious orders of the world, of the Cardinals in charge of the Roman Congregations and of other persons nominated by the Pope. The Synod meets as and when decided by the Pope. The last Synod (on the laity) met in Oct. 1987. The central administration of the R o m a n Catholic Church is carried on by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, each composed of a number of Cardinals and diocesan bishops (both appointed for 5-year periods), with Consultors and Officials. Besides the Secretariat of State and the Council for Public Affairs of the Church (which deals with external relations) there are now 10 Sacred Congregations, viz.: Doctrine, Oriental Churches, Bishops, the Sacraments, Divine Worship, Clergy, Religious, Catholic Education, Evangelization of the Peoples and Causes of the Saints. There are also 3 Secretariats: for Christian Unity, Non-Christians and Non-Believers; a Prefecture of Economic Affairs, a Prefecture of the Pontifical Household and a Statistical Office. Furthermore, the Roman Curia contains 3 tribunals, the Apostolic Penitentiary, the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature and the Sacred Roman Rota; and, lastly, various other councils and commissions dealing with the Laity, Justice and Peace, Women, the Family, the Information and Revision of Canon Law, Social Communications, Migration and Tourism and Culture. The Pontifical Academy of Sciences was revived by Pius XI in 1936 with 70 members. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

In its diplomatic relations with foreign countries the Holy See is represented by the Secretariat of State and the Council for Public Affairs of the Church. It maintains permanent observers to the U N in New York and Geneva and to UNESCO and FAO. The Holy See is a member of IAEA and the Vatican City State is a member of U P U and ITU. It therefore attends as a member those international conferences open to State members of the U N and specialized agencies. Of the Holy See in Great Britain (54 Parkside, London, SW19 5NF) Apostolic Pro-Nuncio in Great Britain: Archbishop Luigi Barbarito (accredited 7 April 1986). Of Great Britain at the Holy See (91 Via Condotti, 00187, Rome). Ambassador: J. K. E. Broadley. First Secretary: P. J. McCormick. Of the Holy See in the USA (3339 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008). Apostolic Pro Nuncio: Most Rev. Pio Laghi. Of the USA at the Holy See (Villino Pacelli, Via Aurelia 294,00165, Rome). Ambassador: Frank Shakespeare.

VATICAN CITY

STATE

1579

Books of Reference Acta Apostolica Sedis Romana. Rome Annuario Pontificio. Rome. Annual L'Attività della Santa Sede. Rome. Annual The Catholic Directory. London. Annual Code of Canon Law. London, 1983 The Catholic Directory for Scotland. Glasgow. Annual The New Catholic Encyclopedia. New York The Catholic Almanac. Huntingdon, Annual HxA\,G., Inside the Vatican. London, 1982 Cardinale, Mgr. Igino, Le Saint-Siège et la diplomane. Parisand Rome, 1962.—The Holy See and the International Order. Gerrards Cross, 1976 Hales, E. E., The Catholic Church and the Modern World. London, 1958 Hebblethwaite, P., In the Vatican. London, 1986 Mayer, F. et al, The Vatican: Portrait ofa Slate and a Community. Dublin, 1980 Nichols, P., The Pope's Divisions. London, 1981 Walsh, M. J., Vatican City State. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1983

Capital: Caracas Population: 17 -32m. (1985) GNP per capita:\JS$2,680 (1985)

VENEZUELA República de Venezuela

H I S T O R Y . Venezuela f o r m e d part of t h e Spanish colony of N e w G r a n a d a until 1821 w h e n it b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t in u n i o n with C o l o m b i a . A separate, independent republic was f o r m e d in 1830. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Venezuela is b o u n d e d north b y t h e C a r i b b e a n , east by G u y a n a , south b y Brazil, south-west a n d west by C o l o m b i a . T h e official estimate of t h e area is 9 1 2 , 0 5 0 sq. k m (352,143 sq. miles); t h e frontiers with C o l o m b i a , Brazil a n d G u y a n a extend for 4,782 k m a n d its C a r i b b e a n coastline stretches for s o m e 3,200 k m . P o p u l a t i o n (1981) census, 14,516,735. Estimate (1985) 17,316,740. T h e 1981 census excluded tribal Indians estimated at 53,350 (chiefly in A m a z o n a s Territory) a n d illegal immigrants, estimated (1979) at a b o u t 3 m . T h e official language is Spanish, spoken b y all b u t 2 • 5% of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . T h e areas, p o p u l a t i o n s a n d capitals of t h e 2 0 states a n d 4 federally-controlled areas are: State Anzoátegui Apure Aragua Barinas Bolivar Carabobo Cojedes Falcon Guárico Lara Mérida Miranda Monagas Nueva Esparta Portuguesa Sucre Táchira Trujillo Yaracuy Zulia Ter. Amazonas Ter. Delta Amacuro Federal District Federal Dependencies

Sq. km 43,300 76,500 7,014 35,200 238,000 4,650 14,800 24,800 64,986 19,800 11,300 7,950 28,900 1,150 15,200 11,800 11,100 7,400 7,100 63,100 175,750 40,200 1,930 120

Census 1981 Capital 683,717 Barcelona San Fernando 188,187 891,623 Maracay 326,166 Barinas 668,340 Ciudad Bolivar 1,062,268 Valencia San Carlos 133,991 503,896 Coro San Juan 393,467 945,064 Barquisimeto 459,361 Mérida 1,421,442 Los Teques Maturin 388,536 197,198 La Asunción 424,984 Guanare 585,698 Cumanà 660,234 San Cristóbal 433,735 Trujillo San Felipe 300,597 1,674,252 Maracaibo 45,667 Puerto Ayacucho 56,720 Tucupita 2,070,742 Caracas 850 — 1 Estimate, 1980.

Census 1981 156,519 54,000 ' 440,048 109,906 181,864 616,037 30,000 ' 71,000' 53,000 • 496,684 142,752 112,206 154,957 9,000 1 47,000 ' 191,941 198,578 42,000 1 56,000 ' 888,824 15,000' 29,000 ' 1,816,901 —

O t h e r large towns (1980) are Petare (334,800), C i u d a d G u y a n a (314,041, census 1981), Baruta (180,100), C a b i m a s (138,529, census 1981), Acarigua (126,000), M a i q u e t i ä (120,200), Valera (101,981, census 1981), C h a c a o (101,900), P u e r t o Cabello (94,000), C a r i i p a n o (82,000) a n d P u e r t o La C r u z (81,800). Venezuela is t h e most urbanised Latin A m e r i c a n nation; in 1985, 86% of t h e p o p u l a t i o n lived in u r b a n areas. O v e r half t h e p o p u l a t i o n live in t h e valleys of C a r a b o b o a n d Valencia (once t h e capital). A t t h e 1981 census, 69% were of mixed ethnic origin (mestizo), 20% white, 9% black a n d 2% a m e r i n d i a n . Vital statistics (1981 estimates): 510,000 births, 102,000 marriages, 8 1 , 0 0 0 deaths. Life expectancy ( 1 9 8 1 ) 6 8 years with 4 0 • 5% of p o p u l a t i o n u n d e r 15 years. 1580

VENEZUELA

1581

C L I M A T E . The climate ranges from warm temperate to tropical. Temperatures vary little throughout the year and rainfall is plentiful. The dry season is from Dec. to April. Caracas. Jan. 65°F(18-3°C), July 69°F(20 6°C). Annual rainfall 3 2 " (833 mm). Ciudad Bolivar. Jan. 79°F(26- PC), July 81°F(27-2°C). Annual rainfall 4 1 " (1,016 mm). Maracaibo. Jan. 81°F (27-2°C), July 85°F (29-4°C). Annual rainfall 2 3 " (577 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The constitution of 1961 provides for popular election for a term of 5 years of a President, a National Congress, and State and Municipal legislative assemblies, and guarantees the freedom of labour, industry and commerce. Aliens are assured of treatment equal to that extended to nationals. Congress consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. At least 2 Senators are elected for each State and for the Federal District. Senators must be Venezuelans by birth and over 30 years of age. Deputies must be native Venezuelans over 21 years of age; there is 1 for every 50,000 inhabitants. The territories, on reaching the population fixed by law, also elect deputies. Voting (by proportional representation) is compulsory for men and women over 18. Owing to the high rate of illiteracy, voting is by coloured ballot cards. TTie President must be a Venezuelan by birth and over 30 years of age; he has a qualified power of veto. The following is a list of presidents since 1941: Took Office Took Office Gen. Isaias Medina Angarita 6 M a y l 9 4 1 Dr Edgard Sanabria 14Nov.l958 3 Rómulo Betancourt 20 Oct. 1945 Rómulo Betancourt 13 Feb. 1959 Rómulo Gallegos 15 Feb. 1948 Raul Leoni 11 March 1964 Lieut.-Col. Carlos Delgado Rafael Caldera 11 March 1969 4 Chalbaud 24 Nov. 1948 Carlos Andres Pérez 1 Dr G. Suárez Flamerich 27 Nov. 1950 Rodríguez 12 March 1974 Col. Marcos Pérez Jiménez. 3 Dec. 1952 1 Dr Luis Herrera Campins 12 March 1979 Rear-Adm. Wolfgang Dr Jaime Lusinchi 2 Feb. 1984 Larrazábal Ugueto 23 Jan. 1958 2 J 2 3 4 'Deposed. Resigned. Provisional. Assassinated 13 Nov. 1950.

President: Dr Jaime Lusinchi, elected 4 Dec. 1983 with 57% of the votes, assumed office on 2 Feb. 1984. Foreign Minister: Germán Nava Carrillo. Finance Minister: Héctor Hurtado Navarro. At the Congressional elections held 4 Dec. 1983, 112 of the 200 seats in the Chamber of Deputies were won by Acción Democrática, 61 by COPEI (the Social Christians) and 27 by other parties. The city of Caracas is the capital. The 20 states, autonomous and politically equal, have each a legislative assembly and a governor. The states are divided into 156 districts and 613 municipalities. There are also 2 federal territories with 7 departments, and a federal district with 2 departments and 2 parishes. Each district has a municipal council, and each municipio a communal junta. The federal district and the 2 territories are administered by the President of the Republic. Nationalflag: Three horizontal stripes of yellow, blue, red, with an arc of 7 white stars in the centre, and the national arms in the canton. National anthem: Gloria al bravo pueblo (1811; words by Vicente Salias, tune by Juan Landaeta). D E F E N C E . All Venezuelans on reaching 18 years of age are liable for 2 years in the Armed Forces. Army. The Army consists of 1 cavalry and 3 infantry divisions; 1 Ranger brigade, supporting regiments and groups. Equipment includes 81 AMX-30 main battle and 36 AMX-13 light tanks. Army aviation comprises 16 helicopters and 15 aircraft. Strength (1988) 34,000. Navy. Strength includes 3 diesel-powered patrol submarines (2 modem built in Federal Republic of Germany and 1 very old « - U S submarine), 6 modern frigates

1582

VENEZUELA

built in Italy, 5 tank landing ships, 2 transports, 1 logistic support ship, 2 utility landing craft, 12 minor landing craft, 1 survey ship, 2 survey launches, 12 river patrol craft, 1 training ship and 3 tugs. The Coastguard, under Naval control (commanded by a Rear-Admiral) comprises 2 old Italian-built frigates, 6 British-built fast attack craft and 2 large armed tugs. Coastal patrol boats operated by the National Guard (Fuerzas Armadas de Cooperation) now number 40, and there are 25 service craft. New construction (delayed) planned includes 4 corvettes, 2 more submarines, several mine countermeasures vessels, 2 landing ships and 1 survey ship. There is a naval academy and sail training ship for the training of officer cadets and a school of staff studies and various technical training schools. Personnel in 1988 totalled: 10,000 officers and men including the Marine Corps, the Coastguard, the National Guard and the Naval Air Arm comprising 6 S-2E Trackers, 8 Aviocars and 1 Dash-7, 6 Agusta AB-212 shipborne helicopters and 2 Bell 47 helicopters for search and rescue and training and 6 light twin aircraft for various and coastguard duties. Air Force. Formed in 1920, the Air Force of some 5,000 officers and men is a small, but well-equipped service with a total of about 200 aircraft. There are 7 combat squadrons. Two are equipped with 18 F-16A and 6 F-16B Fighting Falcons. Another has 14 Canadair CF-5A fighter-bombers and 6 two-seat CF-5Ds, and one has 10 Mirage III/5s respectively. Two bomber squadrons are equipped with 19 modernized Canberra jet-bombers and a single reconnaissance Canberra. Another operational squadron has 14 OV-lOE Bronco twin-turboprop counter-insurgency aircraft. A helicopter force consists of more than 40 Bell JetRangers, 212s, 214STs and 412s, UH-1B/D/H Iroquois and Alouette Ills. Transport units are equipped with 12 C-123 Providers, 5 C-130H Hercules, 5 C-47s and 6 Aeritalia G222s. Communications aircraft are Queen Airs and other types. T-34 Mentors are used for training, together with 20 T-2D Buckeye advanced jet trainers, which have a secondary attack role along with 30 Tucanos now being delivered from Brazil. A battalion of paratroops comes within Air Force responsibility. There is a staff college and a cadet academy. National Guard, a volunteer force of some 22,000 under the Ministry of Defence, is broadly responsible for internal security. It includes customs and forestry duties among its tasks. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Venezuela is a member of UN, OAS, LAIA (formerly LAFTA), OPEC and the Andean Group. ECONOMY Planning. The seventh 5-year plan (1984-88) aimed to achieve economic growth but with a reorientation of priorities towards production of tradeable goods and services, agriculture, industry and tourism. There are 8 major projects: Caracas underground, Guri hydro-electric scheme, INOS water supply, major housing schemes, the Eastern Motorway, the Carbozulia coal mines, the Bauxiven bauxite mines and the upgrading of aluminium plants. Total planned investment, Bs. 170,000m. for the period 1986-88. Budget. The revenue and expenditure for calendar years were, in Bs.lm., as follows: 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 Revenue Expenditure

102,808 103,539

118,039 113,307

165,000 165,000

180,000 180,000

Currency. The bolivar (Bs.) is divided into 100 céntimos. Gold coins, 100 (pachanos), 20 and 10 bolivars have been minted but are no longer in circulation; silver coins are 5 (fuertej, 2, 1 bolivars; nickel, 50 (real), 25 (medio) and 12-5 céntimos (locha), coppernickel, 5 céntimos (puya).

VENEZUELA

1583

The bank-notes in circulation are 500, 100, 50,20 and 10 bolivars. The circulation of foreign bank-notes is forbidden. In March 1988, £ 1 = Bs.51 08; US$ 1 = 29-40 on the free market. Banking. The major banks include: Banco Provincial SAICA, Banco de Venezuela, Banco Consolidado, Banco Unión, Banco Mercantil, Banco Latino, Banco de Maracaibo, Banco Industrial de Venezuela, Bank of America. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 50,240m. kwh. The Guri dam hydroelectric project was opened in Nov. 1986. It will supply 70% of the country's needs. Oil.The oil-producing region around Maracaibo, covering some 30,000 sq. miles, produces about three-quarters of Venezuelan petroleum. Deposits in the Orinoco region are likely to prove one of the largest heavy oil reserves in the world. Nationalization of the privately owned oil sector in 1976 has proved successful. New distribution channels have been established, with the result that the major transnational companies which took 80% of Venezuela's oil in 1976 handled only 50% in 1980. Crude oil production (1987) 90-2m. tonnes. Proven crude oil reserves in Dec. 1986 stood at 55,521m. bbls. However, these are considered conservative estimates and new fields off-shore have estimated reserves of6,000-40,000m. bbls. The Orinoco tar sands belt has reserves variously estimated at between 700,000m. bbls. and 3,000,000m. bbls. Gas. Production (1985) 33,059m. cu. metres. Minerals. Bauxite is being exploited in the Guayana region by Bauxien, a state agency. There are important goldmines in the region south-east of Bolivar State, and new deposits have been discovered near El Callao (1959) and Sosa Méndez (1961) in the Guayana region. Output, 1982, amounted to 902 kg. Diamond output, from Amazonas territory, was 687,000 carats in 1977. Manganese deposits, estimated at several million tons, were discovered in 1954. Phosphate-rock deposits (yielding from 64 to 82% tricalcium phosphate) are found in the state of Falcon; reserves of 15m. tons of high-quality rock have been established. The state of Sucre has large sulphur deposits. Coal is worked in the states of Táchira, Aragua and Anzoátegui. Coal proven reserves in Zulia (160m. tons) are to be developed to service a new thermal power station in the Maracaibo area. An important nickel deposit (at Loma de Hierro near Tejerías) is estimated to equal 600,000 tons of pure nickel. Saltmines are now worked by the Government on the Araya peninsula. Asbestos and copper pyrite are being exploited. There were proven reserves (1984) of bauxite totalling 200m. tonnes and production of about 3m. per annum are scheduled from 1986. Iron ore is exploited in Bolivar State by the Orinoco Mining Co. and Iron Mines of Venezuela, subsidiaries respectively of the US Steel Corp. and the Bethlehem Steel Co. Proven reserves at the end of 1980 were 1,800m. tonnes. National output ofironore, 1985,14-9m. tonnes of which 9m. was exported. Agriculture. Venezuela is divided into 3 distinct zones—the agricultural, the pastoral and the forest zone. In the first are grown coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, maize, rice, wheat (grown in the Andes), tobacco, cotton, beans, sisal, etc.; the second affords grazing for more than 6m. cattle and numerous horses; and in the third, which covers a very large portion of the country, tropical products, such as caoutchouc, balatá (a gum resembling rubber), tonka beans, dividivi, copaiba, vanilla, growing wild, are worked by the inhabitants. The 1986 livestock estimate showed cattle, 12,371,000; pigs, 2,852,000; goats, l-34m.; sheep, 422,000; poultry, 51m. Area under cultivation is 5,530,898 acres. Over 50% of all farmers are engaged in subsistence agriculture and growth rates in agricultural production have not kept pace with the high population increase. Government has introduced a programme of price support, tax incentives and price increases. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes) rice, 322; maize, 1,300; cassava, 312; sugarcane, 6,535; bananas, 1,002; oranges, 382; potatoes, 250; tomatoes, 107; coffee, 69; sesame seed, 65; tobacco, 14; cocoa, 12.

1584

VENEZUELA

The coffee plantations number 62,673, covering 543,400 acres with 135m. bushes. The Venezuelan cocoa, from 13,000 plantations, is considered to be of high quality; it is grown chiefly in the states of Sucre and Miranda. The sugar industry has 6 government and 20 privately owned mills. Forestry. Resources have been barely tapped; 600 species of wood have been identified. Fisheries. Total catch (1985) was 263,840 tonnes. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Production (1985): Steel, 2-72m. tonnes; aluminium, 407,000; ammonia, 490,000; fertilizers, 650,000; cement, 5 - 12m.; paper, 550,000; vehicles (units) 116,000. Industrial development is concentrated in capital intensive areas where it can have a competitive advantage within the Andean Group, whereas in more labour intensive industries, the low labour costs of other member countries gives them an advantage. However, Venezuela currently produces 90% of its requirements of processed food, beverages, tobacco, clothing and textiles. Labour. The labour force in 1985 was 6m., 16-3% were in agriculture, 15-3% in manufacturing and 7% in construction. Wages are the highest in Latin America, there is a high turnover of labour and a corresponding rate of absenteeism. 45% of the labour force is unionized. The most powerful confederation is the CTV (Confederación de Trabajadores de Venezuela, formed 1947), which is dominated by the Acción Democrática party. Estimated membership, 11m., claims 2m. Comprises 68 regional and industrial federations with over 6,000 unions, including: FCV (peasants), 700,000; FETRACONS (construction workers), lm.; FETRASALUD (health workers), 45,000; FETRAMETAL (metal workers and miners), 32,000; the very important FEDEPETROL (oil workers), 6,000; Federación Venezolana de Maestros (teachers). Other confederations are CUTV (Confederación Unitaria de Trabajadores Venezolanos, formed 1963). Estimated membership, 40,000, claims 100,000. Comprises 8 regional and 5 industrial federations in 185 local unions; and, CODES A (Confederación de Sindicatos Autonomos de Venezuela, formed 1964). Estimated membership, 10,000, claims 35,000. Dominated by COPEI party. Comprises 120 local unions, including textile, petrol distribution, public health and education workers' federations. Commerce. Venezuela's exports and imports (in US$ 1 m.): Exports Imports

1983 14,759 6,409

1984 15,967 7,262

1985 14,178 7,388

1986 8,880 7,600

Main export markets in 1982 were USA, Netherlands Antilles because of its oil refining and transhipment facilities, Canada, Puerto Rico, Italy and Spain. Principal imports are machinery and equipment, manufactured goods, chemical products, foodstuffs. The USA supplied 47% of all imports in 1982, followed by Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, Italy and the UK. Total trade between UK and Venezuela (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 183,731 87,937

1984 253,770 102,400

1985 238,879 165,268

1986 96,339 170,101

1987 91,749 157,760

Tourism. 317,300 tourists visited Venezuela in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were, 1985, 62,601 km of road fit for traffic the year round; of these 24,036 km are paved. There are 10,097 km of high-speed 4-lane motorway

VENEZUELA

1585

type. The motorway system runs from Caracas to Puerto Cabello via Valencia and will shortly be linked direct with one from La Guaira to Caracas. Railways. Plans have existed since 1950 for large-scale railway construction but only the Puerto Cabello to Barquisimeto and Acarigua lines (336 km-1,435 mm gauge) has been completed. In 1986 it carried 17-lm. passenger-km and 1 l-5m. tonne-km. A metro is under construction in Caracas the first section of which was opened in March 1983. Aviation. In 1985 there were 7 international airports, 51 national and over 200 private airports. The chief Venezuelan airlines are LAV (Líneas Aéreas Venezolanas), a government-owned concern, and AVENSA (Aerovías Venezolanas). Both operate numerous internal services. VIASA operates international routes in conjunction with KLM. There are also 3 specialist air freight companies. In all there are over 100 commercial aircraft in operation. In addition to Venezuelan international services, a number of US and Latin American and European lines operate services to Venezuela. British Airways operates twice-weekly flights between London and Caracas. Shipping. Foreign vessels are not permitted to engage in the coasting trade, except by special concessions or by contract with the Government. La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello, Puerto Ordaz and Guanta are the chief ports. In Dec. 1978 the merchant fleet had an aggregate gross tonnage of 824,000; this included tankers of 368,000 gross tons. The principal navigable rivers are the Orinoco and its tributaries Apure and Arauca, from San Fernando to Tucupita through Ciudad Bolívar, Puerto Ordaz and San Félix; San Juan from Caripito to the Gulf of Paria; and Escalante in Lake Maracaibo. Post and Broadcasting. There were 1,165,699 telephones in 1985. An international telex service operates in the Caracas metropolitan zone. There is a submarine telephone link with USA. In 1983 there were 5m. radio receivers and 77 radio stations at Caracas, Maracaibo, Maracay and other towns. There were 3 television stations in Caracas (two privately owned), of which 2 cover, with relays, most of the country. In 1986 there were about 2-75m. homes with TV receivers and 6 -75m. radio receivers. Cinemas (1977). There were 563 cinemas and 25 drive-ins. Newspapers (1983). There were 25 leading daily newspapers with a circulation of over l-7m. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D HEALTH Justice. The Supreme Court, which operates in Divisions, each with 5 members, is elected by Congress for 5 years. The country is divided into 20 legal districts. They select their own President and Vice-President. The Federal Procurator-General is appointed for 5 years. There are lower federal courts. Each state has a Supreme Court with 3 members, a superior court, or superior tribunal, courts of first instance, district courts and municipal courts. In the territories there are civil and military judges of first instance, and also judges in the municipios. Finally, there is an income-tax claims tribunal. Religion. The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion, but there is toleration of all others. There are 4 archbishops, 1 at Caracas, who is Primate of Venezuela, 2 at Mérida and 1 at Ciudad Bolivar. There are 19 bishops. In the state primary schools instruction is given only to those children whose parents expressly request it. Protestants number about 20,000. Education. In 1982-83 there were 12,816 primary and secondary schools with 130,505 teachers and 2,998,803 pupils. The number of students in higher education was 282,274 with 25,268 teaching staff in the 106 establishments, including 17 universities.

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Health. In 1976 t h e r e w e r e 14,211 d o c t o r s a n d 3 8 6 h o s p i t a l s a n d d i s p e n s a r i e s w i t h 3 6 , 1 2 6 beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f V e n e z u e l a in G r e a t Britain (1 C r o m w e l l R d . , L o n d o n , S W 7 ) Ambassador: D r F r a n c i s c o Kerdel-Vegas, C B E (accredited 5 N o v . 1987). O f G r e a t Britain in V e n e z u e l a ( T o r r e L a s M e r c e d e s , A v e n i d a L a C h u a o , C a r a c a s 1060) Ambassador: Giles F i t z h e r b e r t .

Estancia,

O f V e n e z u e l a in t h e U S A ( 2 4 4 5 M a s s a c h u s e t t s A v e . , N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 20008) Ambassador: Valentin Hernandez. O f t h e U S A in V e n e z u e l a ( A v e n i d a F r a n c i s c o d e M i r a n d a a n d A v e n i d a P r i n c i p a l de la Floresta, Caracas) Ambassador: O t t o J. R e i c h . Of Venezuela to the United Nations Ambassador: D r A n d r é s Aguilar. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information: The following are some of the principal publications: Dirección General de Estadística, Ministerio de Fomento, Boletín Mensual de Estadística.—Anuario Estadístico de Venezuela. Caracas, Annual Banco Central, Memoria Annual and Boletín Mensual Ministerio de Sanidad y Asistencia Social, Dirección de Salud Pública, Anuario de Epidemiología y Asistencia Social Bigler, G. E., Politics and State Capitalism in Venezuela. Madrid, 1981 Braveboy-Wagner, J. A., The Venezuela- Guyana Border Dispute: Britain's Colonial Legacy in Latin America. Boulder and Epping, 1984 Buitrón, A., Causas y Efectos del Exodo Rural en Venezuela.—Efectos Económicos y Sociales de las Inmigraciones en Venezuela.—Las Inmigraciones en Venezuela. Pan American Union, Washington, D.C., 1956 Ewell,J., Venezuela: A Century of Change. London, 1984 Lombard, ]., Venezuelan History: A Comprehensive Working Bibliography. Boston, 1977.—Venezuela: The Search for Order, the Dream of Progress. OUP, 1982 Martz, J. D., and Myers, D. J., Venezuela: The Democratic Experience. New York, 1986

? p ì '7Ì h T;qs

VIETNAM Công Hòa Xä Hôi Chu Nghïa Viêt Nam—The Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Population: -95m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$300 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . The history of Vietnam can be traced to the beginning of the Christian era. Conquered by the Chinese in B.C. 111, it broke free of Chinese domination in 939, though at many subsequent periods it was a nominal Chinese vassal. (For subsequent history until the cessation of hostilities with France at the Geneva C o n f e r e n c e o f J u l y 1 9 5 4 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 ) .

The Geneva conference stipulated that elections should take place in 1956. Ngo Dinh Diem became Prime Minister of South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) in 1954 and President in 1955. Elections were never held. In 1963 Diem was overthrown. In 1965 Nguyen Van Thieu took power as chairman of a National Leadership Committee, becoming President in 1967. From 1959 the North promoted insurgency in the South; US involvement began in 1961. In Paris on 27 Jan. 1973 an agreement was signed ending the war in Vietnam. After the US withdrawal, however, hostilities continued between the North and the South until the latter's defeat in 1975.150,000-200,000 South Vietnamese fled the country, including the former President Thieu. For details of the former Republic of Vietnam, see THE STATESMAN'S YEARBOOK, 1975-76. After the collapse of Thieu's regime the Provisional Revolutionary Government established an administration in Saigon. A general election was held on 25 April 1976 for a National Assembly representing the whole country. Voting was by universal suffrage of all citizens of 18 or over, except former functionaries of South Vietnam undergoing 're-education', the last of whom (approximately 7,000) were released in Sept. 1987 and Feb. 1988. The unification of North and South Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam took place formally on 2 July 1976. In 1978 Vietnam signed a 25-year treaty of friendship and co-operation with the USSR. Relations with China correspondingly deteriorated, an exacerbating factor being the Vietnamese military intervention in Cambodia. Occasional skirmishing along the China-Vietnam border continued into 1987. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The country has a total area of 329,566 sq. km and is divided administratively into 40 provinces. Areas and populations (in 1,000) at the census of Oct. 1979 were as follows: Province Lai Chau Son La Hoang Lien Son Ha Tuyen Cao Bang Lang Son Bac Thai Quang Ninh Vinh Phu Ha Bac Ha Son Binh Hanoi (city) 1 Hai Hung

Sq. km 17,408 14,656 14,125 13,519 }

13,731 8,615 7,076 5,187 4,708 6,860 597 2,526

1979 322,077 487,793 778,217 782,453 {479,823 1484,657 815,105 750,055 1,488,348 1,662,671 1,537,190 2,570,905 2,145,662

Province Thai Binh Hai Phong (city) 1 Ha Nam Ninh Thanh Hoa Nghe Tinh Binh Tri Thien Quang Nam - Da Nang Nghia Binh Già Lai - Kon Turn Dac Lac Phu Khanh Lam Dong Thuan Hai

' Autonomous city.

1587

Sq. km 1,344 1,515 3,522 11,138 22,380 19,048 11,376 14,700 18,480 18,300 9,620 10,000 11,000

1979 1,506,235 1,279,067 2,781,409 2,532,261 3,111,989 1,901,713 1,529,520 2,095,354 595,906 490,198 1,188,637 396,657 938,255

1588 Province Dong Nai Song Be Tay Ninh Long An Dong Thap ThanhPhoHoChi Minh 1 Tien Giang

VIETNAM Sq. km 12,130 9,500 4,100 5,100 3,120

1979 1,304,799 659,093 684,006 957,264 1,182,787

1,845 2,350

3,419,978 1,264,498

' Autonomous city.

Province Sq. km Ben Tre 2,400 4,200 CuuLong 4,140 An Giang 5,100 Hau Giang 6,000 Kien Giang Minh Hai 8,000 Vung Tau - Con D a o 2

1979 1,041,838 1,504,215 1,532,362 2,232,891 994,673 1,219,595 91,160

329,466

52,741,766

2

Special area.

At the census of Oct. 1979 the population was 52,741,766 (25,580,582 male; 19-7% urban). Population (1986), 61-95m. (Ho Chi Minh 4m.; Hanoi, 2m. (1979); growth rate (1986) 2-8% per annum. Density, 181 per sq. km. Women are urged to confine their families to two children, one not before 22 and one 5 years later. 84% of the population are Vietnamese (Kinh). There are also over 60 minority groups thinly spread in the extensive mountainous regions. The largest minorities are (1976 figures in 1,000): Tay (742); Khmer (651); Thai (631); Muong (618); Nung (472); Meo (349); Dao (294). In 1987 lm. Vietnamese were living abroad, mainly in USA. There is a plan to resettle 12m. inhabitants of the congested Red River Delta in the less populated highland and central districts. From 1979 to July 1984 59,730 persons emigrated legally. Between Apr. 1975 and Aug. 1984 a further 554,000 illegal emigrants ('boat people') succeeded in finding refuge abroad. In 1985 it was estimated that 'boat people' were still leaving Vietnam at the rate of about 1,000 a month, putting some strain on the resources of the UN High Commission for Refugees and countries such as Indonesia. In 1986 1,400 people a month were leaving legally under the UN's orderly departure s c h e m e . (For p r e v i o u s details see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 ) . In

Jan. 1988 the USA announced a plan to accept all Asian-American children in Vietnam as refugees. An airlift of30,000 persons over 2 years is envisaged. C L I M A T E . The humid monsoon climate gives tropical conditions in the south and sub-tropical conditions in the north, though real winter conditions can affect the north when polar air blows south over Asia. In general, there is little variation in temperatures over the year. Hanoi. Jan. 62°F (16-7°C), July 84°F (28-9°C). Annual rainfall 72" (1,830 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was adopted in Dec. 1980. It states that Vietnam is a state of proletarian dictatorship and is developing according to Marxism-Leninism. At the elections for the National Assembly held on 19 April 1987, 829 candidates stood and 496 were elected. Turn-out of voters was said to be 99 • 32%. Local government authorities are the people's councils, which appoint executive committees. Local elections were held with the National Assembly elections in 1987. 'The standing organ of the National Assembly and presidium of the Republic' is the State Council: Chairman: Vo Chi Cong. Vice-Chairmen: Nguyen Huu Tho, Le Quang Do, Nguyen Quyet, Dam Quang Trung, Huynh Tan Phat, Mrs Nguyen Thi Dinh. Chairman of the National Assembly: Le Quang Do. 8 ministers were dismissed in June 1986 and 12inFeb. 1987. All political power stems from the Communist Party of Vietnam (until Dec. 1976 known as the Workers' Party of Vietnam), founded in 1930; it had l-7m. members in 1986. In Dec. 1986 Truong Chinh (First Secretary) and other senior veteran leaders left its Politburo, which in April 1988 consisted of Nguyen Van Linh (First Secretary); Vo Chi Cong (Chairman, State Council); Do Muoi (Deputy Prime Ministerj; Vo Van Kiet (Acting Prime Minister and Chairman, State Planning Commission); Le Due Anh (Minister of Defence) ; Nguyen Due Tam; Nguyen Co Thach (Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister); Dong Si Nguyen

VIETNAM

1589

(Deputy Prime Minister)', Tran Xuan Bach; Nguyen Thanh Binh; Doan Khue; Mai Chi Tho (Minister of the Interiorj. Candidate: Dao Duy Tung. Ministers not in the Politburo include: Vo Nguyen Giap; Tran Quynh; Vu Dinh Lieu; Nguyen Ngoc Triu (Deputy Prime Ministers)', Doan Duy Than (Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Trade)', Hoang Quy (Finance)', Tran Hoan (Information). There are 2 puppet parties, the Democratic (founded 1944) and the Socialist (1946), which are unified with the trade and youth unions in the Fatherland Front. Nationalflag: Red, with a yellow 5-pointed star in the centre. National anthem: 'Tien quan ca' ('The troops are advancing'). D E F E N C E . Vietnam has the world's largest armed forces after USSR, China and USA. Men between 18 and 35 and women between 18 and 25 are liable for conscription of 3 years, specialists 4 years. Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured division, 65 infantry divisions (of varying strengths), 8 engineer and 16 economic construction divisions, and 10 field artillery brigades, 8 engineer divisions. Equipment includes some 1,600 main battle and 450 light tanks. Strength was (1988) about lm. Paramilitary forces are Border Defence (60,000) and Peoples' Defence Force (lm.). In 1988 some 50,000 troops were stationed in Laos and 140,000 in Cambodia. Navy. Before the North Vietnamese victory in 1975 the Navy comprised 3 old coastal escorts, 2 fast missile boats, 28 fast torpedo boats, 22 fast motor gunboats, 34 small patrol boats, 24 landing craft, 4 minesweeping boats, 10 tenders, 100 auxiliaries and 200 armed junks. It also had 10 Mi-4 SAR helicopters. At least 1 frigate, several other major warships and a considerable number of auxiliaries were captured after the South Vietnamese surrender. The fleet reportedly includes 5 ex-Soviet escorts, 2 old frigates, 2 old corvettes, 1 fleet minesweeper, 8 old patrol vessels, 8 fast missile boats, 16 fast torpedo boats, 5 fast hydrofoil torpedo craft, 15 fast gunboats, 9 fast patrol craft, 6 coastal patrol cutters, 9 landing ships, 12 landing craft, 1 torpedo recovery vessel, 1 fleet minesweeper, 2 coastal minesweepers, 1 inshore minehunter, 1 survey ship, 15 auxiliaries and 100 armed junks; but due to the lack of maintenance, spares and trials it is difficult to accurately assess the operational availability, fitness for sea or steaming capacity of this heterogeneous collection or the availability of trained personnel. It is estimated that 4 missile craft, 6 torpedo boats, 22 gunboats, 3 minesweepers, 24 patrol craft, 25 coastguard cutters and 100 motor launches are nonoperational together with 580 riverine craft, 100 landing craft, 30 monitors, 100 converted amphibious craft, 26 vedettes, 36 auxiliaries and 75 service craft. In 1988 there were an estimated 6,000 naval personnel but there had been up to 34,000 additional conscripts. Air Force. The Air Force, built up with Soviet and Chinese assistance, has about 20,000 personnel and 350 combat aircraft (plus many stored), including modern US types captured in war. There are reported to be 3 squadrons of variablegeometry MiG-23s, 6 squadrons of MiG-17s and Su-20s, over 150 MiG-21 interceptors; An-2, Li-2, C-47, An-24, An-26 and 11-14 transports; and a strong helicopter force with UH-1 Iroquois, Mi-6, Mi-8 and Mi-24 helicopters. 'Guideline', 'Goa' and 'Gainful' missiles are operational in large numbers. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Vietnam is a member of UN, Comecon and IMF. ECONOMY Planning. Long-term forward planning gives priority to self-sufficiency in agriculture and stimulating regional industry. The fourth 5-year plan covers 1986-90. (For previous plans see T H E STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1985-86.).

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Curtailment of Western aid, and resistance to Government measures have contributed to a shortage of consumer goods and widespread malnutrition. Small family businesses were legalized in 1986. Since assuming Party leadership in Dec. 1986 Nguyen Van Linh has denounced the inefficiency and bureaucracy of the past and announced major economic reforms injecting free enterprise principles and reducing central control. Currency. The monetary unit istheiforcg. A currency reform of 14 Sept. 1985 substituted a new dong at a rate of 1 new dong= 10 (old) dong. Notes are issued for 1,2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 new dong. (For former currency see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1985-86). In March 1988 £1 =653 dong, US$1 =368 dong. Inflation was 700% in 1986. Banking. The bank of issue is the National Bank of Vietnam (founded in 1951). There is also a Bank for Foreign Trade (Vietcombank). ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. In 1986, 5,400m. kwh. of electricity were produced. A hydro-electric power station with a capacity of 2m. kw. is being built at Hoa-Binh with Soviet assistance. Minerals. North Vietnam is rich in anthracite, lignite and hard coal: total reserves are estimated at 20,000m. tonnes. Anthracite production in 1975 was 5m. tonnes. Coal production was 5-3m. tonnes in 1980. There are deposits of iron ore, manganese, titanium, chromite, bauxite and a little gold. Reserves of apatite are some of the biggest in the world. A Soviet-Vietnamese enterprise claimed to have struck oil in May 1984. Agriculture. In 1985, 62% of the population was engaged in agriculture. In 1977 there were 15,200 co-operatives in the North averaging 300-500 hectares (less than 100 hectares in mountain regions) and a workforce of 1,000-2,000. The intemperate collectivization of agriculture in the South after 1977 had disastrous effects which the Government is now trying to rectify by a system of incentives to peasants which allows them small private plots and the right to market some of their own produce. There were 105 state farms employing in all 70,000 workers and with 55,000 hectares arable and 50,000 hectares of pasture. Other crops include maize, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes and cotton. The cultivated area in 1980 was 6-97m. hectares (5 • 54m. hectares for rice). In 1984 there were some 23,000 production collectives and 268 agricultural co-operatives in the South accounting for 47% of the cultivated area. There were about 300 state farms. Production in 1,000 tonnes in 1986: Rice (16,179), soybeans (120), tea (29), rubber (60), maize (600), tobacco (38), potatoes (235), sweet potatoes (2,000) from 400,000 hectares, sorghum (53) from 33,000 hectares, dry beans (76) from 63,000 hectares, coffee (8). Cereals production was 16-85m. tonnes in 1986. Livestock (1986): Cattle 2 • 5m.; pigs, 13m.; goats, 273,000; poultry, 100m. Animal products, 1985: Eggs, 147,100 tonnes, meat, 948,000 tonnes. Forestry. 1,626,000 cu. metres of timber were produced in 1980. Fisheries. Fishing is important, especially in Halong Bay. In 1976, 6m. tonnes of sea fish and 180,000 tonnes of freshwater fish were caught. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Next to mining, food processing and textiles are the most important industries; there is also some machine building. Older industries include cement, cotton and silk manufacture. Private businesses were taken over in 1978. Foreign firms, principally French, are continuing to function, but all US property has been nationalized. There is little heavy industry. Most industry is concentrated in the Ho-Chi-Minh area. Production (1980, in 1,000 tonnes) iron, 125; steel, 106; sulphuric acid, 6,700;

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caustic soda, 4,500; mineral fertilizer, 260; pesticides, 18,400; paper, 54,000; sugar, 94,000, cement, 705. 1,500 tractors were built in 1980, and 621 railway coaches. Footwear production, 200,000 pairs. Beer, 942,000 hectolitres. Labour. Average wage (1984) 200 dong per month. Workforce (1985) 28-76m., of whom 17-91m. were in agriculture. Commerce. 65% of exports are to, and 85% of imports from, Communist countries. USSR and Japan are Vietnam's main trading partners; others are Singapore and Hong Kong. Main exports are coal, farm produce, sea produce and livestock. Imports: Oil, steel, artificial fertilizers. There is an aid agreement with the USSR for 1986-90 amounting to about 9,000m. roubles. In 1987 Vietnam's total indebtedness was estimated at US$6,000m. In 1978 the IMF approved a virtually interest-free loan of US$90m. repayable over 50 years, but in April 1985 suspended all further credits to Vietnam. Sweden gives annual aid of US$47m. A law of June 1987 regulates foreign firms established in Vietnam; concessions include light taxation and authorization to export all profits. Trade between Vietnam and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 1,154 1,787

1985 1,758 2,077

1986 1,200 1,288

1987 357 2,598

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1986 there were about 65,000 km of roads described as 'main roads'. Railways. Route length was 4,200 km in 1986. The Hanoi-Ho Chi Minh City line is being rebuilt in a programme of reconstruction and extension. About 50m. passengers and 10m. tonnes of freight are carried annually. Aviation. Air Vietnam operates internal services from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City, Cao Bang, Na Son and Dien Bien, Vinh and Hue, and from Ho Chi Minh City to Ban Me TTiuot and Da Nang, Can Tho, Con Son Island and Quan Long and from Hanoi to Bangkok in conjunction with Thai Airways. Aeroflot (USSR) operate regular services from Ho Chi Min City to Moscow and from Hanoi to Moscow, Rangoon and Vientiane, Interflug (German Dem. Rep.) to Berlin, Moscow and Dacca, Philippine Airlines to Manila, and Air France to Paris. Shipping. In 1986 there were 150 ships totalling 338,668 GRT. The major ports are Haiphong, which can handle ships of 10,000 tons, Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang, and there are ports at Hong Gai and Haiphong Ben Thuy. There are regular services to Hong Kong, Singapore, Kampuchea and Japan. In 1987 there were some 6,000 km of navigable waterways. Cargo is handled by the Vietnam Ocean Shipping Agency; other matters by the Vietnam Foreign Trade Transport Corporation. Post and Broadcasting. In 1984 there were 6m. radios. There were 106,100 telephones in 1984. There were 2-25m. TV sets in 1984. Cinemas and theatres. 116 films were produced in 1980 (including 10 full-length). There were 145 theatres. Newspapers and books. The Party daily is Nhan Dan ('The People') circulation, 1985: 500,000. The official daily in the South is Giai Phong. Two unofficial dailies, CongGiao VaDan Toe (Catholic) and Tin Sang (independent) are also published. 2,564 books were published in 1980 totalling 90-9m. copies. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION AND WELFARE Justice. A new penal code came into force 1 Jan. 1986 'to complete the work of the 1980 Constitution'. Penalties (including death) are prescribed for opposition to the people's power, and for economic crimes. There are the Supreme People's Court, local people's courts and military courts. The president of the Supreme Court is

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responsible to the National Assembly, as is the Procurator-General, who heads the Supreme People's Office of Supervision and Control. Religion. Taoism is the traditional religion but Buddhism is widespread. At a Conference for Buddhist Reunification in Nov. 1981, 9 sects adopted a charter for a new Buddhist church under the Council of Sangha. The Hoa Hao sect, associated with Buddhism, claimed 1 • 5m. adherents in 1976. Caodaism, a synthesis of Christianity, Buddhism and Confucianism founded in 1926, has some 2m. followers. There are some 500,000 Roman Catholics (mainly in the south) headed by Cardinal Trinh Van Can, Archbishop of Hanoi and 13 bishops. There were 2 seminaries in 1988. In 1983 the Government set up a Solidarity Committee of Catholic Patriots. Education. Primary education consists of a 10-year course divided into 3 levels of 4, 3 and 3 years respectively. There were 500,000 teachers in 1988. Numbers of pupils and students in 1980-81: nurseries, 2-66m.; primary schools, 121m.; complementary education, 2-19m.; vocational secondary education, 130,000. In 1980—81 there were 92,913 nurseries. There were 11,400 schools and 280 vocational secondary schools, with 357,000 and 13,000 teachers respectively. In 1980-81 there were 83 institutions of higher education (including 3 universities: (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Central Highlands University at Ban Me Thuot), 13 industrial colleges, 7 agricultural colleges, 5 economics colleges, 9 teachertraining colleges, 7 medical schools and 3 art schools, in all with 16,000 teachers and 159,000 students. In 1981 there were 5,000 Vietnamese studying in the USSR. Health. In 1975 there were 1,996 hospitals and dispensaries and 93 sanatoria. There were some 13,517 doctors and dentists in 1981 and 197,000 hospital beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Vietnam in Great Britain (12-14 Victoria Rd., London, W8) Ambassador: Tran Van Hung (accredited 29 Oct. 1986). Of Great Britain in Vietnam (16 Pho Ly Thuong Kiet, Hanoi) Ambassador: Emrys T. Davies, CMG. Of Vietnam to the United Nations Ambassador: (Vacant). Books of Reference Bui Phung, Vietnamese-English Dictionary. Hanoi, 1987 Chen, J. H.-M., Vietnam: A Comprehensive Bibliography. London, 1973 Dellinger, D., Vietnam Revisited. Boston (Mass.), 1986 Duiker, W. J., The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. Boulder, 1981.— Vietnam: Nation in Revolution, Boulder, 1983 Fforde, A., The Limits of National Liberation: Problems of Economic Management in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. London, 1987 Harrison, J. P., The Endless War: Fifty Years of Struggle in Vietnam. New York, 1982 Higgins, H., Vietnam. 2nd ed. London, 1982 Ho Chi Minh, Selected Writings, 1920-1969. Hanoi, 1977 Hodgkin, T., Vietnam: The Revolutionary Path: London, 1981 Houtart, F., Hai Van: Life in a Vietnamese Commune. London, 1984 Karnow, S., Vietnam: A History. New York, 1983 Lawson, E. K.., The Sino- Vietnamese Conflict. New York, 1984 Lewy, G., America in Vietnam. OUP, 1979 Leitenberg, M., and Burns, R. D., War in Vietnam. 2nd ed. Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1982 Nguyen Tien Hung, C , Economic Developments of Socialist Vietnam, 1955-80. New York, 1977 Nguyen Van Canh, Vietnam under Communism, 1975-1982. Stanford Univ. Press, 1983 Popkin, S. L., The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam. Berkeley, 1979 Smith, R. B., An International History of the Vietnam War. London, 1983 Truong Chinh, Selected Writings. Hanoi, 1977 Truong Nhu Tang, Journal of a Vietcong. London, 1986

BRITISH V I R G I N ISLANDS

Capital: Road Town Population: 12,034 (1980) GNPper capita: US$4,500 ( 1982)

HISTORY. The Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus on his second voyage in 1493. The British Virgin Islands were first settled by the Dutch in 1648 and taken over in 1666 by a group of English planters. In 1774 constitutional government was granted and in 1834 slavery was abolished. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . The British Virgin Islands form the eastern extremity of the Greater Antilles and, exclusive of small rocks and reefs, number 40, of which 15 are inhabited. The largest are Tortola (1980 population, 9,322), Virgin Gorda (1,443), Anegada (169) and Jost Van Dyke (136). Other islands in the group have a total population of 82; Marine population, 220; Institutional population, 662. Total area about 59 sq. miles (130 sq. km); population (1980), 12,034. Road Town, on the south-east of Tortola, is a port of entry; population, approximately 3,976. C L I M A T E . A pleasantly healthy sub-tropical climate with summer temperatures lowered by sea breezes. Nights are cool and rainfall averages 50" (1,250 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . In 1950 representative government was introduced and in 1967 a new Constitution was granted (amended 1977). The Governor is responsible for defence and internal security, external affairs, the public service, and the courts. The Executive Council consists of the Governor, 1 ex-officio member who is the Attorney-General and 4 ministers in the Legislature. The Legislative Council consists of 1 ex-officio member who is the AttorneyGeneral and 9 elected members, one of whom is the Chief Minister and Minister of Finance; the Speaker is elected from outside the Council. Governor: J. Mark Herdman, LVO. Chief Minister: H. Lavity Stoutt. Flag: The British Blue Ensign with the arms of the Territory in the fly. ECONOMY Budget. In 1987 revenue (estimate) was US$24,401,000; expenditure, US$23,511,100. Currency. The unit of currency is the US dollar. Banking. Bank of Nova Scotia, Barclays Bank PLC, Chase Manhattan Bank NA, Craigmuir Trust Company Ltd and First Pennsylvania Bank NA hold General Banking Licences and had total deposits of US$191m. at 31 Dec. 1985. Five institutions hold restricted banking licences and there are also a large number of trust companies. ENERGY AND NATURAL R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Production, 1986,31 m. kwh. Agriculture. Agricultural production is limited, with the chief products being livestock (including poultry), fish, fruit and vegetables. Fruit production, 1986, 1,000 tonnes. In 1985 the Agriculture Department was extended to include an abattoir. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 2,000; pigs, 3,000; sheep, 8,000; goats, 12,000. I N D U S T R Y AND T R A D E Industry. The entire economy is based on tourism, from which is derived directly 1593

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or indirectly some 75% of GDP. The construction industry is a significant employer. Commerce. There is a very small export trade almost entirely with the Virgin Islands of the USA. In 1983 imports were US$67-2m. and exports US$3 • 1 m. Total trade between the British Virgin Islands and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

1985 698 3,522

1986 267 3,491

1987 752 3,310

Tourism. There were 176,451 visitors in 1986. In 1985 visitors spent (estimate) US$97,291,000. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1985) over 70 miles of roads and (1986) 4,706 licensed vehicles. Aviation. Beef Island Airport, about 16 km from Road Town, is capable of receiving 80-seat short-take-off-and-landing jet aircraft. Air BVI operates internal flights and external flights to San Juan (main route), Puerto Rico; the USVI and St Kitts. Other services to the BVI are Eastern Metro Express, LIAT and American Eagle. Shipping. There are services to Europe, the USA and other Caribbean islands, and daily services by motor launches to the US Virgin Islands. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1986) nearly 3,000 telephones and 83 telex subscribers, and an external telephone service links Tortola with Bermuda and the rest of the world, and cable communications also exist to all parts of the world. Radio ZBVI transmits 10,000 watts and has stand-by transmitting facilities of 1,000 watts. British Virgin Islands operates Cable TV of approximately 12 television channels plus a number of FM stereo broadcasting stations. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. There are Anglican, Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Roman Catholic and Baptist Churches in the Territory. The Church of God is also represented. Education. Primary education is provided in 16 government schools, two with secondary divisions, and 9 private schools. Total number of pupils (Dec. 1986) 2,415. Secondary education to the GCE level and Caribbean Examination Council level is provided by 3 local High Schools. Total number of secondary level pupils (Dec. 1986) 1,444 including those attending Literacy and Skills Programme at post-primary level. Government expenditure, 1987 (estimate), US$3-2m. In 1987 the total number of teachers in all Government schools was 182. In 1986 a branch of the Hull University (England) School of Education was established. Health. In 1987 there were 7 doctors, 42 nurses, 50 public hospital beds and 1 private hospital with 8 beds. Expenditure, 1987 (estimate) was US$2 -4m. Books of Reference Dookhan, I., A History of the British Virgin Islands. Epping, 1975 Harrigan, N., and Varlack, P., British Virgin Islands: A Chronology. London, 1971. Pickering, V. W., Early History of the British Virgin Islands. London, 1983. Library: Public Library, Road Town. Librarian: Mr Peter Moll.

WESTERN SAMOA

Capital: Apia Population: 163,000(1986) GNPper capita: US$770 (1984)

Samoa i Sisifo

HISTORY. Western Samoa, a former German protectorate (1899-1914), was administered by New Zealand from 1920 to 1961, at first under a League of Nations Mandate and from 1946 under a United Nations Trusteeship Agreement. In May 1961a plebiscite held under the supervision of the United Nations on the basis of universal adult suffrage voted overwhelmingly in favour of independence as from 1 Jan. 1962, on the basis of the Constitution, which a Constitutional Convention had adopted in Aug. 1960. In Oct. 1961 the General Assembly of the United Nations passed a resolution to terminate the trusteeship agreement as from 1 Jan. 1962, on which date Western Samoa became an independent sovereign state. Under a treaty of friendship signed on 1 Aug. 1962 New Zealand acts, at the request of Western Samoa, as the official channel of communication between the Samoan Government and other governments and international organizations outside the Pacific islands area. Liaison is maintained by the New Zealand High Commissioner in Apia. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Western Samoa lies between 13° and 15° S. lat. and 171° and 173° W. long. It comprises the two large islands of Savai'i and Upolu, the small islands of Manono and Apolima, and several uninhabited islets lying off the coast. The total land area is 1,093 sq. miles (2,830-8 sq. km),ofwhich659-4sq. miles (1,707-8 sq. km) are in Savai'i, and 431-5 sq. miles (1,117-6 sq. km) in Upolu; other islands, 2 • 1 sq. miles (5 -4 sq. km). The islands are of volcanic origin, and the coasts are surrounded by coral reefs. Rugged mountain ranges form the core of both main islands and rise to 3,608 ft in Upolu and 6,094 ft in Savai'i. The large area laid waste by lava-flows in Savai'i is a primary cause of that island supporting less than one-third of the population of the islands despite its greater size than Upolu. The population at the 1981 census was 158,130, of whom 114,980 were in Upolu (including Manono and Apolima) and 43,150 in Savai'i. The capital and chief port is Apia in Upolu (population 33,170 in 1981). Estimate (1986)163,000. C L I M A T E . A tropical marine climate, with cooler conditions from May to Nov. and a rainy season from Dec. to April. The rainfall is unevenly distributed, with south and east coasts having the greater quantities. Average annual rainfall is about 100" (2,500 mm) in the drier areas. Apia. Jan. 80°F (26-7°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 112" (2,800 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution provides for a Head of State known as 'Ao o le Malo', which position from 1 Jan. 1962 was held jointly by the representatives of the two royal lines of Tuiaana/Tuiatua and Malietoa. On the death of HH Tupua Tamasese Mea'ole, CBE, on 5 April 1963, HH Malietoa Tanumafili II, CBE, became, as provided by the constitution, the sole Head of State for life. Future Heads of State will be elected by the Legislative Assembly and hold office for 5-year terms. The executive power is vested in the Head of State, who appoints the Prime Minister and, on the Prime Minister's advice, the 8 Ministers to form the Cabinet which has general direction and control of the executive Government. The Legislative Assembly has 45 members elected from territorial constituencies 1595

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on a franchise confined to matais or chiefs (of whom there are about 11,000) and 2 members elected on universal adult suffrage from the individual voters roll, which has replaced the old European roll (approximately 1,3 50 in 1971). One Member is elected as Speaker. The Constitution also provides for a Council of Deputies of 3 members. In the elections held Feb. 1985, the Human Rights Protection Party won 31 seats. The official languages are Samoan and English. Head of State andOleAoole

Malo: HH Malietoa Tanumafili II, GCMG, CBE.

The cabinet in Feb. 1987 was composed as follows: Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Internal Affairs, Immigration, Police and Prisons, Attorney General: Va'ai Kolone. Works: Tupuola Efi. Finance: Faasootauloa Semu Saili. Agriculture: Fuimaono Mimio. Economic Affairs: Le Tagaloa Pita. Education: Le Mamea Ropati Mualia. Health: Toeolesulusulu Siueva. Justice: George Michael Lober. Lands: Faumuina Anapapa. National flag: Red with a blue quarter bearing 5 white stars of the Southern Cross. I N T E R N A T I O N A L RELATIONS Membership. Western Samoa is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, the South Pacific Forum and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. In 1987 budgeted revenue was $WS82-2m.; expenditure, SWSl18m. Currency. The Western Samoa currency i: the tala (dollar). In March 1988, £1 = 3-53; US$1 = 1 00. Banking. A Central Bank was established in 1984. In 1959 the Bank of Western Samoa was established with a capital of $WS500,000, of which $WS275,000 was subscribed by the Bank of New Zealand and $WS225,000 by the Government of Western Samoa. In 1977 the Pacific Commercial Bank was established jointly by Australia's Bank of New South Wales and the Bank of Hawaii. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 79m. kwh. Agriculture. The main products (1986, in 1,000 tonnes) are coconuts (200), taro (39), copra (24), bananas (23), papayas (12), mangoes (6), pineapples (6) and cocoa beans (2). Livestock (1986): Horses, 3,000; cattle, 27,000; pigs, 64,000; poultry lm. Fisheries. The total catch (1983) was 3,150 tonnes, valued at $WS5 • 1 m. I N D U S T R Y A N D TRADE Industry. Some industrial activity is being developed associated with agricultural products and forestry. Commerce. In 1985, imports were valued at SWSl 15,074,000 and exports at $WS36,195,000. Principal exports were coconut oil (10,926 tonnes; SWSl 5,622,000), cocoa (581 tons; $WS2,356,000), taro (22,000 cases, $WS5,113,000), coconut cream ($WS2,833,000); fruit juice (SWSl,002,000); beer ($WS385,000) and cigarettes ($WS5,558,000). Chief imports in 1983 included food and live animals ($WS15,195,000), beverages and tobacco (SWSl,913,000), machinery and transport equipment (SWSl4,968,000), mineral fuels, lubricants and other materials (SWSl3,133,000), chemicals ($WS4,221,000) and miscellaneous manufactured articles ($WS5,279,000).

WESTERN

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Total trade between Western Samoa and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m 3 j m m j ] m m ? Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

156 468

421 1,183

292 619

622 433

531 1,650

Tourism. There were 49,710 visitors in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1987). Western Samoa has 2,085 km of roads, 400 km of which are surfaced and 1,200 km plantation roads fit for light traffic. In 1984 there were 1,498 private cars, 1,909 pick-up trucks, 398 trucks, 187 buses, 297 taxis and 144 motor cycles. Aviation. Western Samoa is linked by daily air service with American Samoa, which is on the route of the weekly New Zealand-Tahiti and New ZealandHonolulu air services, with connexions to Fiji, Australia, USA and Europe. There are also services throughout the week to and from Tonga, Fiji, Nauru, the Cook Islands and New Zealand. Internal services link Upolu and Savai'i. Shipping. Western Samoa is linked to Japan, USA, Europe, Fiji, Australia and New Zealand by regular shipping services. Post and Broadcasting. There is a radio communication station at Apia. Radio telephone service connects Western Samoa with American Samoa, Fiji, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, USA and UK. Telephone subscribers numbered 3,641 in 1984. In 1982 there were 70,000 radio receivers and about 2,500 television sets. Cinemas. In 1987 there were 4 cinemas. Newspapers. In 1985, there were 4 weeklies, circulation 12,000 and 2 monthlies (8,000); all were in Samoan and English. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. In 1981, 47% of the population are Congregationalists, 22% Roman Catholic and 16% Methodist. Education. In 1983 there were 162 primary schools with 31,447 pupils, 38 secondary schools with 20,404 pupils, and 8 vocational schools and 2 teacher-training colleges with a total of 1,213 students. Health. In 1987 there were 16 hospitals and 16 subcentres (with a total of682 beds) and 44 doctors. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Western Samoa in Great Britain High Commissioner: Feesago George Fepulea'i (resides in Brussels). Of Great Britain in Western Samoa High Commissioner: R. A. C. Byatt, CMG (resides in Wellington, New Zealand). Of Western Samoa in the USA and to the United Nations Ambassador: Maiava Iulai Toma. Books of Reference Statistical Year-Book. Annual Fox, J. W. (ed.), Western Samoa. Univ. of Auckland, 1963 Milner, G. B., Samoan-English, English-Samoan Dictionary. OUP, 1965

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

Capital: San'a Population:(ì-S'ìm. (1987) GNP per capita: US$510 ( 1983)

al Jamhuriya al Arabiya al Yamaniya

HISTORY. On the death of the Iman Ahmad on 18 Sept. 1962, army officers seized power on 26-27 Sept., declared his son, Saif Al-Islam Al-Badr (Iman Mansur Billah Muhammad), deposed and proclaimed a republic. The republican régime was supported by Egyptian troops, whereas the royalist tribes received aid from Saudi Arabia. On 24 Aug. 1965 President Nasser and King Faisal signed an agreement according to which the two powers are to support a plebiscite to determine the future of the Yemen; a conference of republican and royalist delegates met at Haradh on 23 Nov. 1965, but no plebiscite was agreed upon. At a meeting of the Arab heads of state in Aug. 1967 the President and the King agreed upon disengaging themselves from the civil war in Yemen. At the time there were still about 50,000 Egyptian troops in the country, holding San'a, Ta'iz, Hodeida and the plains, whereas the mountains were in the hands of the royalist tribes. By the end of 1967 the Egyptians had withdrawn. AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . In the north the boundary between the Yemen and Saudi Arabia has been defined by the Treaty of Taif concluded in June 1934. This frontier starts from the sea at a point some 5 or 10 miles north of Maidi and runs due east inland until it reaches the hills some 30 miles from the coast, whence it runs northwards for approximately 50 miles so as to leave the Sa'da Basin within the Yemen. Thence it runs in an easterly and south-easterly direction until it reaches the desert area near Nejran. The area is about 73,300 sq. miles (195,000 sq. km) with a population of 7,160,851, census 1981; estimate (1987) 6,533,265. There were 1,395,123 citizens working abroad mainly in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates not included in the census total. The capital is San'a with a population of (1981) 277,817. Other important towns are the port of Hodeida (population, 126,386), and Ta'iz (119,572); other towns are Ibb, Yerim, Dhamar and the ports of Mokha and Loheiya. C L I M A T E . A desert climate, modified by relief. San'a. Jan. 57"F(13-9°C), July 71 °F (21 • 7°C). Annual rainfall 20" (508 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N AND G O V E R N M E N T . A provisional Constitution was promulgated on 19 June 1974 by the Command Council, which later established a 99-member People's Constituent Assembly on 6 Feb. 1978 (membership raised to 159 on 8 May 1979) before dissolving itself on 22 April 1978. The Assembly elects the President of the Republic, who appoints a Prime Minister and other members of the Cabinet. A General People's Congress met in 1982 composed of 1,000 members (700 elected). President of the Republic: Col. Ali Abdullah Saleh (elected 17 July 1978; reelected 22 May 1983). The Council of Ministers in Dec. 1987 was composed of: Chairman (PrimeMinister), Vice-President: Maj. Abdel Aziz Abdel Ghani. Vice-President: Abd al-Karim al Arishi. Deputy Prime Ministers: Col. Mujahid Abu Shawrib; Dr Abdul Karim al-Iryani (Foreign Affairs)', Dr Hassan Mohammed Makki. Agriculture and Fisheries: Dr Husayn Abdallah al-Amri. Waafs and Guidance: Qadi Ali ibn Ali Samman. Civil Service: Ismail Ahmad al Wazir. Transport: 1598

1599

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

Ahmad Muhammad al Ansi. Development: Dr Muhammad Said al Attar. Economy: Muhammad al-Khadim al-Wajih. Education: Abdallah al Jayfi. Finance: Alwi Salah as-Salami. Health: Dr Muhammad Ahmad al Kabab. Justice: Qadi Ahmad Muhammad al Jubi. There are also 2 Ministers of State. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with a green star in the centre. Local government: There are 8 provinces (Liwa'): Sa'dah, al-Bayda, San'a, alHudaydah (Hodeida), Hajjah, Rida, Ibb and Ta'iz. D E F E N C E . Military service for 3 years is compulsory. Army. The Army consists of 6 armoured, 3 mechanized, 9 infantry, 1 paracommando, 1 Special Forces brigade, 3 artillery brigades, 1 central guard force and 3 anti-aircraft artillery and 2 air defence battalions. Equipment includes 125 T-34, 460 T-54/-55,34 T-62 and 64 M-60A1 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 35,000. Navy. The flotilla consists of 3 patrol craft, 2 fast attack craft, 2 inshore minehunters, 4 landing craft (all 11 ex-Soviet) and 12 small coastal patrol boats. Personnel in 1988 numbered 600 regular officers and men. Air Force. Built up with aid from both the USA and USSR, as well as Saudi Arabia, the Air Force is believed to be receiving many new Soviet aircraft. Current equipment includes 15 Su-22 fighter-bombers, 25 MiG-21 and 14 F-5 fighters, a total of 14 11-14, An-24/26, C-130 Hercules and Skyvan transports, and over 30 Mi-8 and Agusta-Bell JetRanger and 212 helicopters. Personnel (1988) about 1,000. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. The Yemen Arab Republic is a member of U N and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The second development plan (1982-86) envisaged expenditure of 29,300m. riyals. Budget. The budget for 1986 provided for expenditure of 9,944,396,000 riyal and revenue of7,179,029,000 riyal. Currency. The currency is the riyal of 100 fils. In March 1988,18-20 riyal=£ 1 and 9-88rc>a/=US$l. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 556m. kwh. Oil. The first large-scale oilfield and pipeline was inaugurated in 1987, following the discovery in 1984. Minerals. The only commercial mineral being exploited is (1981) production was 64,000 tons. Reserves (estimate) 25m. tonnes.

salt

and

Agriculture. Of the total area of 19-5m. hectares, 1 -3m. are arable or permanent crops. Cotton is grown in the Tihama, the coastal belt, round Bait al Faqih and Zabid. Fruit is plentiful, especially fine grapes from the San'a district. Production (1986, in 1,000 tonnes): Sorghum, 391; potatoes, 208; grapes, 85; dates, 7; wheat, 85; barley, 41; maize, 49. Livestock(1986): Cattle, 952,000; camels, 57,000; sheep, 1 -85m.;goats,2-26m.; poultry, 16m. Fisheries. Total catch (1984) 18,300 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. There is very little industry. The largest is a textile factory at San'a. Production of cement (1982) 85,000 tonnes.

1600

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC

Commerce. Imports totalled US$1 -2m. riyals in 1985, the largest items being food and live animals. Exports totalled US$1 -2m. in 1985. Total trade between Yemen Arab Republic and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 1,857 56,315

1984 2,536 58,761

1985 2,312 94,382

1986 2,106 58,149

1987 2,306 55,334

Tourism. There were about 44,000 tourists in 1986. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) 36,000 km of roads. Aviation. There are 3 international airports: San'a, Ta'iz and Hodeida. Shipping. Hodeida, Mokha, Salif and Loheiya are the 4 main ports. Post and Broadcasting. There were about 35,000 telephones in 1984. In 1984 there were 37,000 television and 110,000 radio receivers. RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Religion. The population is almost entirely Moslem, comprising 39% Sunni (Shafi'i) and 59% Shi'a (Zaidi). Education. There were (1983) 731,989 pupils at primary schools, 78,700 in secondary schools, and 4,489 at teacher-training establishments. In 1982 the University of San'a (founded in 1974) had 6,719 students. Health. In 1983 there were 60 hospitals and health centres with 4,000 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Yemen Arab Republic in Great Britain (41 South St., London, W1Y5PD) Ambassador: Mime,iiYi&ik\\ah Al-Azeib (accredited 160ct. 1982). Of Great Britain in Yemen Arab Republic (129 Haddah Rd., San'a) Ambassador: M. A. Marshall. Of Yemen Arab Republic in the USA (600 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20037) Ambassador: Mohsin A. Alaini. Of the USA in Yemen Arab Republic (RO. Box 1088,San'a) Ambassador: William A. Rugh. Of Yemen Arab Republic to the United Nations Ambassador: Mohamed Salem Basendwah. Books of Reference Bidwell, R., The Two Yemens. Boulder and London, 1983 El Mallakh, R., The Economic Development of the Yemen Arab Republic. London, 1986 Peterson, J. E., Yemen: The Search for a Modern Stale. London, 1982 Smith, G. R., The Yemens. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Stookey, R. W., Yemen: The Politics of the Yemen Arab Republic. Boulder, 1978

Capital: Aden Population: 2-3m.(1987) GNPper capita: US$500 ( 1985)

THE PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC R E P U B L I C OF YEMEN Jumhuriyah al-Yemen al Dimuqratiyah al Sha'abiyah— Southern Yemen

H I S T O R Y . Between Aug. and Oct. 1967 the 17 sultanates of the Federation of South Arabia (see map in the STATESMAN'S Y E A R - B O O K , 1965-66) were overrun by the forces of the National Liberation Front (NLF). The rulers were deposed, resigned or fled. At the same time the rival organization of FLOSY (Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen) fought a civil war against N L F and harassed the British forces and civilians in Aden. In Nov. the U A R withdrew its support from FLOSY, and with the backing of the Army the N L F took over throughout the country. The last British troops left Aden on 29 Nov. 1967, and on 30 Nov. the Southern Yemen People's Republic was proclaimed and the name was subsequently changed to the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in 1970. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen is bounded north by the Yemen Arab Republic and Saudi Arabia, east by Oman, south by the Gulf of Aden and west by the Yemen Arab Republic and Bab AlMandab Strait. The Republic covers an area of approximately 130,065 sq. miles (336,869 sq. km). Land area can be divided into 4 areas: (/) the coastal lands in the south, nearly 1,200 km long and 12-25 km wide; (ii) the inner lands and plateaus; (iii) the northern desert to the north of Hadhramaut; (¡v) the green valleys scattered between the high lands. Population (estimate, 1987) 2,278,000; urban, 33%; rural, 57% and nomads, 10%. The main towns are (1984) Aden (capital) (population, 318,000), and Mukalla (158,000). The island of Kamaran in the Red Sea (area 181 sq. km) was in British occupation from 1915 to 1967, when the inhabitants opted in favour of remaining with the Republic but Yemen Arab Republic occupied it in 1972. The island of Perim (300 sq. km) was first occupied by the French in 1738. In 1799 the British took formal possession but evacuated the island the same year. It was reoccupied by the British in Jan. 1851 and was later used as a coaling station. In Nov. 1967 the inhabitants opted in favour of remaining with the Republic. The island of Socotra lying to the east of the Horn of Africa in the Arabian sea (area 3,500 sq. km) was formerly part of the Sultanate of Qishn and Socotra and became part of the Republic in 1967. C L I M A T E . A desert climate prevails, modified in parts by altitude, which affects temperatures by up to 12°C, as well as rainfall, which is very low in coastal areas. Aden. Jan. 75"F(24°C), July 90°F(32°C). Annual rainfall 1 -8" (46 mm). CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT An amended Constitution was approved by the Supreme People's Council on 31 Oct. 1978. 1601

1602

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF YEMEN

Meetings took place during 1984-85 between President Mohammed and the President Saleh of the Yemen Arabic Republic, to discuss further steps towards unification. On 13 Jan. 1986 there was a coup attempt against President Ali Nasser Mohammed which developed into virtual civil war. By 24 Jan. the rebel forces had taken control of the capital, Aden, and at a meeting of the Socialist Party Central Committee the presidium of the Supreme People's Council announced that the Acting President was Haidaral-Attas. He was elected President on 6 Feb. 1986. National flag. Three horizontal stripes of red, white, black, with a blue triangle based on the hoist bearing a red star. Local Government. There are 6 govemorates (Aden, Lahej, Abyan, Shabwa, Hadhramaut and Al-Mahra), sub-divided into 30 provinces. D E F E N C E . Military service for2 years is compulsory. Army. The Army comprises 1 armoured, 3 mechanized, 8 infantry, 3 artillery, 2 rocket and 2 surface-to-surface missile brigades and 10 artillery battalions. Equipment includes 470 T-34/-54/-55/-62 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) about 24,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 8 fast missile craft, 2 fast torpedo-boats, 2 fast attack craft, 1 tank landing ship, 3 medium landing ships and 5 minor landing craft, all transferred from the Soviet Navy and 10 very small British-built launches. Personnel in 1988 totalled 1,000 officers and men. Air Force. Formed in 1967, the Air Force is now equipped mainly with aircraft of Soviet design. It has received about 50 MiG-21 fighters, 35 MiG-17 and 25 MiG-23 fighter-bombers, 30 Su-22 attack aircraft, 15 Mi-24 gunship helicopters, 4 An-24 and 2 An-26 twin-turboprop transports and about 30 Mi-8 and 6 Mi-4 helicopters. Personnel (1988) about 2,500. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen is a member of U N and the Arab League. ECONOMY Planning. The development plan (1986-91) envisaged expenditure of 998-2m. dinars. Budget. The budget (in lm. Yemeni dinars) for 1986 envisaged general revenue at 214-4 and general expenditure at 3 41 • 4. Currency. The currency is the South Yemen dinar and is divided into 1,000 fils. Coins: 50, 25, 5 fils; notes: 10, 5 and 1 dinar, 500 and 250 fils. In March 1988, £ 1 = 0 • 608 dinars; US$ 1 = 0 • 343 dinars. Banking. The only commercial bank is the National Bank of Yemen with the Bank of Yemen carrying on the functions of the Central Bank. All foreign banks have been nationalized. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 556m. kwh. Agriculture. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people. This is largely of a subsistence nature, sorghum, sesame and millet being the chief crops, and wheat and barley widely grown at the higher elevations. Of increasing importance, however, are the cash crops which have been developed since the Second World

1603

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF YEMEN

War, by far the most important of which is the Abyan long-staple cotton, now the country's major export. Owing to paucity of rainfall, cultivation is largely confined to fertile valleys and flood plains on silt, built up and irrigated in the traditional manner. These traditional methods are being augmented and replaced by the use of modern earth moving machinery and pumps. Irrigation schemes with permanent installations are in progress. Production (1985 in 1,000 tonnes): Millet, 80; wheat, 15; cotton lint, 5; cotton seed, 10; sesame, 3; barley, 2. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 96,000; sheep, 930,000; goats, 1.38m.; poultry, 2m. Fisheries. There is a thriving fisheries industry, fish being the Republic's major export after cotton. Catch (1985) 80,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Light industry is being established and paint, match and textile factories are in production. Commerce. Trade is mainly transhipment and entrepot, Aden serving as a centre of distribution to and from neighbouring territories. Transit trade is mainly in cotton piece-goods, grains, coffee, hides and skins, and cheap consumer goods. Importation of all commodities specified for local consumption is subject to a prior import licence from the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Supply. Importation of any commodities is completely forbidden except by virtue of a valid import licence. In 1985 imports totalled 241 m. dinar; exports and re-exports, 10m. dinar. Total trade between Republic of Yemen and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £ 1,000 sterling): ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 10,627 36,673

1984 18,238 45,221

1985 7,938 34,827

1986 4,848 23,928

1987 1,056 28,271

COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1986) 1,929 km of roads. Registered motor vehicles in 1984 numbered 51,884. Aviation. There are airports at Khormaksar (Aden) and Mukalla. Nine airlines operate scheduled services: Alyemda, Air-France, Ethiopian Airlines, Middle East Airlines, Yemen Airlines, Aeroflot, Saudi Airlines, Kuwait Airways, and Air Djibouti. Shipping. Because of its favourable geographical position and its efficient service to ships, Aden used to be one of the busiest oil-bunkering ports in the world, handling some 550 ships a month. In 1983,4-8m. tonnes of cargo were unloaded and 3-6m. tonnes loaded. Five alongside berths were under construction in 1988. Post and Broadcasting. The automatic telephone system provided service to about 31,000 subscribers in 1985. In 1985 there were 180,000 radio and 30,000 television receivers. Cinemas ( 1971 ). There were 19 cinemas with a seating capacity of about 20,000. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. There is a Supreme Court and Magistrates' Courts. In some areas Moslem and local Common Law are administered. Religion. The majority of the population is Moslem. There are small numbers of Christians and Hindus. Education. There were (1984, estimate) 238,004 primary school pupils and 27,908 secondary school pupils. A state university was founded in 1975 and the number of students is increasing. In 1985, 400,000 students were studying at schools at various levels. Efforts are being made to eradicate illiteracy among adults. Welfare. There were (1986) 54 hospitals with 4,499 beds and about 652 doctors.

1604

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF

YEMEN

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen in Great Britain (57 Cromwell Rd., London, SW7 2ED) Ambassador: Ahmed AbdoRageh (accredited 18 Feb. 1987). Of Great Britain in the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (28 Shara Ho Chi Minh, Khormaksar, Aden) Ambassador: Arthur S.-M. Marshall, CBE. Of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen to the United Nations Ambassador: Abdalla Saleh Al-Ashtal. The US Embassy in Aden was closed on 26 Oct. 1969 and UK acts as the protective power. Books of Reference Bidwell, R., The Two Yemens. London, 1984 Ismael, T. Y., and Ismael, J. S., The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen: Politics, Economics and Society. London, 1986 Kostiner,J., The Struggle for South Yemen. London and New York, 1984 Lackner, H., P.DR. Yemen: Outpost of Socialist Development in Arabia. London, 1985 Smith, G. R., The Yemens. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Stookey, R. W., South Yemen: A Marxist Republic in Arabia. Boulder and London, 1982 Thesiger, V/., Arabian Sands. London, 1959

Capital: Belgrade Population: 23-27m. (1986) GNPper capita: US$5,600 ( 1985)

YUGOSLAVIA Socijalisticka Federativna Republika Jugoslavija— Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

H I S T O R Y . In 1917 the Yugoslav Committee in London drew up the Pact of Corfu, which proclaimed that all Yugoslavs would unite after the first world war to form a kingdom under the Serbian royal house. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was proclaimed on 1 Dec. 1918. In 1929 the name was changed to Yugoslavia. During the Second World War Tito's partisans set up a provisional government (AVNOJ) which was the basis of a Constituent Assembly after the war. On 29 Nov. 1945 Yugoslavia was proclaimed a republic. The peace treaty with Italy, signed in Paris on 10 Feb. 1947, stipulated the cession to Yugoslavia of the greater part of the Italian province of Venezia Giulia, the commune of Zara and the island of Pelagosa and the adjacent islets. By an agreement of 10 Nov. 1975 the city of Trieste ('Zone A') was recognized as Italian and the Adriatic coastal portion of the former Free Territory of Trieste ('Zone B') as Yugoslav. A free industrial zone was set up in the Fernetici-Sezana region on both sides of the frontier. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Yugoslavia is bounded in the north by Austria and Hungary, north-east by Romania, east by Bulgaria, south by Greece and west by Albania, the Adriatic Sea and Italy. The area is 255,804 sq. km. Population at the 1981 census: 22,424,771. Population by sex at the 1981 census: females, 11,340,933. Estimate (1986) 23,271,000. The federal capital is Belgrade (Beograd). Population (census, 1981) 1,470,073 and of other principal towns (B = Bosnia and Herzegovina; C = Croatia; K = Kosovo; Ma=Macedonia; Mo = Montenegro; Se=Serbia; SI=Slovenia; V=Voj vodina): Banja Luka (B) Bitolj (Ma) Caiak(Se) Cakovec(C) Gostivar (Ma) Kragujevac (Se) Kraljevo (Se) KruSevac(Se) Kumanovo (Ma) Leskovac (Se) Ljubljana (SI) Maribor (SI) Mostar(B) NiS (Se) Novi Sad (V) Osijek (C) Panievo(V) Pec (K.) Prijedor(B)

183,618 137,835 110,676 116,825 101,188 164,823 121,622 132,972 126,368 159,001 305,211 185,699 110,377 230,711 257,685 158,790 123,791 111,071 108,868

PriStina (K) Prizren (K) Rijeka(C) Sabac(Se) Sarajevo (B) Skopje (Ma) Slavonski Brod (C) Smederevo (Se) Split (C) Subotica (V) Tetovo (Ma) Titograd (Mo) Titova Mitrovica (K.) Tuzla(B) UroSevac(K) Zadar(C) Zagreb (C) Zenica(B) Zrenjanin (V)

216,040 134,526 193,044 119,669 448,500 506,547 106,400 107,366 235,922 154,611 162,414 132,290 105,323 121,717 113,680 116,174 1,174,512 132,733 139,300

Population (1981 census) by ethnic group was (i) the 6 'leading nations': Serbs, 8,140,452; Croats, 4,428,005; Moslems, 1,999,957; Slovenes, 1,753,554; Macedonians, 1,339,729; Montenegrins, 579,023; (ii) of the 18 other 'nationalities': Albanians, 1,730,364; Hungarians, 426,866. 1,219,045 persons declared them1605

1606

YUGOSLAVIA

selves 'Yugoslavs' (i.e. not wanting to be listed with any minority). In 1986 about 460,000 nationals worked abroad. There were 181,000 Gypsies in 1986. Vital statistics, 1986 (per 1,000 population): Live births, 15-4; deaths, 9; marriages, 6-9; infant mortality, 27-1; natural increase, 6-4. Divorces per 1,000 marriages: 1321. Expectation of life in 1981: males, 67-2; females, 73-6. The Yugoslav (i.e., South Slav) languages proper are Slovene, Macedonian and Serbo-Croat, the latter having 2 variants (Serbian and Croatian) which are regarded as constituting one language. There are claims, largely politically-motivated, that Croatian is a separate language and Macedonian a dialect of Bulgarian. Macedonian is and Serbian may be written in the Cyrillic alphabet. There are also substantial Albanian and Hungarian-speaking minorities. Art. 246 of the Constitution lays down that 'The languages of the nations and nationalities and their alphabets shall be equal throughout the territory of Yugoslavia'. In practice Serbo-Croat serves as a lingua franca throughout the country. C L I M A T E . Most parts have a central European type of climate, with cold winters and hot summers, but the whole coast experiences a Mediterranean climate with mild, moist winters and hot, brilliantly sunny summers with less than average rainfall. Belgrade. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 72°F (22°C). Annual rainfall 24 4 " (610 mm). Sarajevo. Jan. 31°F (-0-5°C), July 67°F (19-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 4 " (856 mm). Sibenik. Jan. 45°F (7°C), July 78°F (25-5°C). Annual rainfall 32 5 " (813 mm). Split. Jan. 47°F (8-5°C), July 78°F (25-6°C). Annual rainfall 3 5 " (870 mm). Zagreb. Jan. 32°F (0°C), July 72°F(22°C). Annual rainfall 34-6" (865 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution passed on 31 Jan. 1946 declared the Federal Republic to be composed of 6 republics: Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro. On 13 Jan. 1953 a new Constitution confirmed the management of all public affairs by the workers and their representatives. The Constitution promulgated 7 April 1963 set up the 2 socialist autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Voj vodina within the framework of Serbia. Under this Constitution, social self-government was exercised by the representative bodies of communes, districts, autonomous provinces, republics and the Federation and the rights to self-government and distribution of income proclaimed in 1953 were extended to those employed in public services. The former Council of Producers was replaced by Councils of Working Communities representing employees in every field of social activity. All the means of production and all natural resources are social property. Exceptions are peasants' holdings (up to 10 hectares of arable land) and handicrafts. Citizens may be owners of dwellings for personal and family needs. A new Constitution was proclaimed on 21 Feb. 1974. This directly transfers economic and political decision making to the working people through the 'assembly system'. An assembly is defined (Art. 132) as 'a body of social selfmanagement and the supreme organ of power within the framework of the rights and duties of its socio-political community'. Assemblies are based upon the workplace or community and take various forms depending upon the nature of employment. Art. 133 states, 'working people in basic self-managing organizations and communities and in socio-political organizations shall form delegations for the purpose of the direct exercise of their rights, duties and responsibilities and of organized participation in the performance of the functions of the assemblies of the socio-political communities', and Art. 135, 'Candidates for members of delegations of basic self-managing organizations and communities shall be proposed and determined by the working people in these organizations and communities in the Socialist Alliance of the Working People... or in trade union organizations'. At the apex of the assembly system is the federal legislature, the Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which has 2 Chambers: the Federal Chamber and the Chamber of Republics and Autonomous Provinces. The Federal Chamber consists of 30 delegates of self-managing organizations, communities and socio-political organizations from each Republic, and 20 delegates from each Autonomous Province. The Chamber of Republics and Autono-

YUGOSLAVIA

1607

mous Provinces consists of 12 delegates from each Republican Assembly and of 8 delegates from each Autonomous Province's Assembly. Delegates are elected for 4 years. They retain their normal employment. A parliamentary commission was set up in 1987 to study a radical series of proposed constitutional amendments. President of the Federal Assembly: Maijan RoiiC. Every citizen over the age of 18 has the suffrage (16 if employed). The last elections were held from Jan. to April 1986. The State Presidency is elected by the Federal Assembly every 5 years. It has 9 members: 8 representatives of the Republics and Autonomous Provinces, and the President of the Presidium of the League of Communists ex officio. The annual President is head of state. The President-elect, Hamdija Pozderac, resigned in Sept. 1987 following a financial scandal. Membership of the state Presidency: Bosnia and Herzegovina: Raif Dizdarevic (President, 1988-89); Croatia: Josip Vrhovec; Macedonia: Lazar Mojsov; Montenegro: Veselin Djuranovic; Serbia: Gen. Nikola Ljubiiic; Slovenia: Stane Dolanc; Kosovo: Sinan Hasani; Vojvodina: Radovan Vlajkovic. The Government is the Federal Executive Council of President (i.e. Prime Minister), Vice-Presidents, Ministers without Portfolio and Federal Secretaries, who are elected by the Federal Assembly every 4 years in conformity with equality of representation of the Republics and Autonomous Provinces. The present Government consists of Branko Mikulic (Prime Minister), MiloS Milosavljevic and Janez ZemljariC (Deputy Prime Ministers), the following Federal Secretaries: Sava Vujkov (Agriculture), Aleksandar Donev (Economy), Svetozar Rikanovic (Finance), Vacant (Foreign Affairs), Nenad Krekic (Foreign Trade), Andrej Ocvirk (Industry), Svetozar Durutovic (Information), Dobroslav Culafic (Internal Affairs), Petar Vajovic (Justice), Janko Obocki (Labour), Lojze Ude (Law), Admiral Branko Mamula (Defence), BoZidar Matic (Science), Miodrag Mirovic (Tourism), Mustafa Pljakic (Transport), Ilija Vakic (Veterans), and 12 Ministers without Portfolio. The only political party is the League of Communists, which had 2,167,860 members in 1985 (30-3% workers; 25% under 27 years). The Presidium of its Central Committee in March 1988 consisted of BoSko Krunic (President)-, Ivan Brigic, DuSan Ckrebic, RadiSa Gaiic, Stefan KoroSec, Marko Orlandic, Milan PanCevski, Ivica Ratan, Milenko Renovica, Franc Setinc, Kol Shiroka, Stipe Suvar, Vasile Tupurkovski, Vidoje Zarkovic. There are also 9 ex-officio members. National flag: Three horizontal stripes of blue, white, red, with a large red, yellow-bordered star in the centre. National anthem: Hej, Slaveni, joSte iivi reC naSih dedova—O Slavs, our ancestors' words still live. Local Government. Within the federal framework of republics Yugoslavia is administratively divided into 527 communes (opStina). D E F E N C E . Military service for 12 months is compulsory. The General People's Defence Law of 1969 bases Yugoslavia's defence on the principle of a nation in arms ready to wage partisan war against any invader. The partisan Territorial Defence Force number about 3m. Army. The Army is divided into 7 Military Regions and comprises 12 infantry divisions; 8 independent tank, 9 independent infantry, 3 mountain and 1 airborne brigades; 6 field artillery, 11 anti-aircraft, 6 anti-tank and 4 surface-to-air missile regiments. Equipment includes 760 T-54/-55,200 M-84 and 60 M-47 main battle tanks. Strength (1988) 165,000 (including 110,500 conscripts), with a reserve of 500,000. Navy. The Navy comprises 5 diesel powered patrol submarines, 8 midget (four 5-man and four 2-man) submarines, 3 new ex-Soviet frigates, 16 fast missile boats, 15 fast torpedo boats, 3 small corvette-style patrol vessels, 10 fast attack craft, 4 minehunters, 17 patrol boats, 10 inshore minesweepers, 21 river minesweepers, 3

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YUGOSLAVIA

tank landing ships, 12 minelaying landing craft, 1 survey ship, 1 salvage vessel, 2 headquarters ships, 6 transports, 2 training ships, 22 minor landing craft, 2 oilers and 12 tugs. The Naval Air Arm operates 4 fixed-wing amphibians and 20 'Hip', Mi-8 and 10 'Holmone' Ka-25 helicopters. Personnel in 1988 totalled: 1,500 officers and 11,600 ratings. Air Force. The Air Force has about 250 combat aircraft and is organized in 2 Air Corps, with HQ at Zagreb and Zemun. There are 2 fighter divisions equipped primarily with about 125 Russian-built MiG-21s, 2 ground-attack divisions of locally-built Jastreb and Orao jet attack aircraft, and 2 squadrons of Jastreb jet reconnaissance aircraft. Transport units fly 11-14 and An-26 twin-engined aircraft, 4-turboprop An-12s, and a few other types in small numbers, notably CL-215 amphibians, C-47s, Turbo-Porters and Yak-40s, Mystère 50s and Leaijets for VIP duties. Training types are the nationally-designed UTVA-75 armed primary trainer, Galeb jet basic trainer and the Super Galeb jet advanced trainer. A large number of Gazelle, Agusta-Bell 205, Mi-4 and Mi-8 helicopters are in service. 'Guideline' and 'Goa' surface-to-air missiles have been supplied by the USSR. Personnel (1988) 36,000. INTERNATIONAL

RELATIONS

Membership. Yugoslavia is a member of U N and has special relationships with Comecon and OECD. ECONOMY Planning. A 5-year plan of economic development for 1981-85 envisaged that industrial production should increase by 4 -5-5%, and that of agriculture by 4 -5%. A Long-Term Economic Stabilisation Programme was introduced in 1983 to deal with the economic crisis, and laws were passed to ensure the prompt repayment of foreign debts. By a law of Aug. 1985 planning at Federal level was introduced into the activities of railways, the post office, energy suppliers and large enterprises. Foreign indebtedness was US$20,000m. in 1987. Control of some consumer goods prices and sharp increases in others were introduced in Nov. 1987 in an attempt to control inflation, which was officially put at 136%. Balance of payments (in US$1 m.) in 1984: receipts, 17,356; expenditure, 16,852. Budget. Revenue and expenditure for 1987,1,971,600m. dinars. 459,609m. dinars were allotted to defence in 1985. Currency. On 26 July 1965 the value of 1 dinar, divided into 100 para, was fixed at 0-710937 milligrammes of fine gold instead of 2-96224 milligrammes. A new dinar, equivalent of 100 old dinars, was introduced on 1 Jan. 1966. There are coins of 1 , 2 , 5 , 1 0 , 2 0 , 50 and 100 dinars, and notes of 5,10,20, 50,100, 500 and 1,000 dinars. Currency in circulation in 1985 was 551,300m. dinars. There have been several devaluations since 1980. In March 1988, £1 =2,387 dinars', US$1 = 1,353 dinars. International reserves, 1987: US$1,539m. Banking. The National Bank is the bank of issue. There are also republican National Banks, 115 (in 1980) 'internal banks', 160 'basic banks' and 9 'associated banks'. In 1985 credits amounted to 590,900m. dinars. Savings deposits totalled 1,070,400m. dinars in 1985, foreign exchange savings 2,494,200m. Weights and Measures. The metric weights and measures have been in use since 1883. The wagon of 10 tonnes is used as a unit of measure for coal, roots and corn. The Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1919. ENERGY A N D N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S Electricity. Output in 1985, 74,802m. kwh, of which 24,270m. was hydro-electric. There is a 664-mw nuclear power plant at KrSko (opened 1981). This was closed for investigation in Feb. 1987. Plans for 4 more have been shelved. Oil. Crude oil production (1987) 10-5m. tonnes.

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Minerals. Yugoslavia has considerable mineral resources, including coal (chiefly brown coal), iron, copper ore, gold, lead, chrome, antimony and cement. The most important iron mines are at VareS and Ljubija in Bosnia, and there are also considerable siderite and limonite iron ores between Prijedor, Sanski Most and Topusko. Copper ore is exploited chiefly at Bor (Serbia). The principal lead mines are at TrepCa and MeZice. Chrome mines are in southern Serbia (Kosovo) and Macedonia (Skopje, Kumanovo). There are 2 antimony mines in western Serbia (Podrinje). Mining output, in 1,000 tonnes, in 1985 (and 1984): Coal, 400 (388); lignite, 56,635 (53,293); bauxite, 3,250 (3,347); salt, 410 (379); manganese ore, 32 (21); iron ore, 5,478 (5,321); copper ore, 26,166 (25,279); lead and zinc ore, 4,590 (4,634); antimony ore, 71 (51); pyrite concentrates, 507 (609); magnesite, 417 (326). In 1983,gold output was4,238 kg; silver(1984), 128,000 kg. Agriculture. The economically active agricultural population was 2,488,000 in 1981 (47 -5% female). The cultivated area was 8 -41m. hectares in 1985 of which 8-32m. were in private farms and l-52m. in agricultural organizations, of which there were 3,593 in 1985. In 1984 only 6-5%ofthe2-6m. private farms were more than 10 hectares of land. Area (in hectares) and yield (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1985: Maize, 2-4m. (9,896); wheat, 1 -4m. (4,859); sugar beet, 150,000 (6,268); rye, 45,000 (77); tobacco, 68,272 (79); sunflower, 112,000 (233); potatoes, 274,000 (2,431). Livestock, 1986: cattle, 5,034,000; pigs, 7,821,000; sheep, 7,693,000; poultry, 78,281,000. 1985 yield of fruit (in 1,000 tonnes): Apples, 368; grapes, 962; plums, 484. 6 • 3 m. hectolitres of wine were produced. There were 881,693 tractors in 1985, of which 850,000 were in private hands. Forestry. The forest areas consist largely of beech, oak and fir. Forest area in 1985: 9,405,000 hectares (3,025,000 in private hands). Gross timber cut: 22,428,000 cu. metres. Fisheries. In 1985 the landings offish were (in tonnes): salt-water, 49,373; freshwater, 25,684. The number of fishing craft was 285 motor vessels (11,536 GRT) and 1,363 sailing and rowing vessels. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Employment. In 1984 there were 9,666 large industrial enterprises and 1,492 small businesses in the social sector, and 151,690 small businesses in the private sector. In Dec. 1985 (women in brackets) there were 138,000 (51,000) employed in the private sector and 6-5m. (2-45m.) in the social sector (excluding armed forces) of whom 2-52m. (0-92m.) were in manufacturing and mining, and 1 08m. (0-66m.) in the social services. There were 1,091,000 unemployed in 1986. Average monthly income per worker in 1986: 60,000 dinars. There were (1982) 5,485,000 trade union members. A wage freeze was imposed in Feb. 1987. Industry. The majority of industries are situated in the north-west part of the country. Industrial output (in 1,000 tonnes) in 1985 (and 1984): Pig-iron, 3,120 (2,845); steel, 4,480 (4,236); cement, 9,027 (9,315); sulphuric acid, 1,489 (1,471); fertilizers, 2,445 (2,486); plastics, 586 (551). Fabrics (in lm. sq. metres): Cotton, 344 (318); woollen, 101 (99). Sugar (1,000 tonnes), 933 (891). Motor cars (in 1,000s), 228 (244). Commerce. Foreign trade, in lm. dinars, for calendar years (Before 1984 official figures were given at a parity of US$ 1 = 63 • 40 dinars, in 1984 at US$ 1 = 124 • 80 and since 1985 at US$1 = 185 -70. Figures for 1983 and 1984 are given at both parities to facilitate comparison): Imports Exports

1982 557,353 428,071

1983 789,330(1,475,783) 637,170(1,209,709)

1984 1,498,285(2,162,300) 1,279,978(1,855,622)

1985 2,262,138 1,977,957

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Structure of exports (and imports) in 1985 (%): investment goods, 19 -2 (13-8); intermediate goods, 49 -7 (82); consumer goods, 3 1 1 (4 -2). Largest suppliers in 1985 (goods in lm. dinars): USSR, 376,329; Federal Republic of Germany, 290,662; Iraq, 159,662; Italy, 186,875; Czechoslovakia, 108,967; USA, 137,493; Libya, 109,058. Largest export markets: USSR, 623,056; Italy, 175,168; Federal Germany, 167,592; Czechoslovakia, 102,264; USA, 85,745; Iraq, 50,359. Main exports as % share in 1985: Machinery and transport equipment, 32-7; other manufactures, 17-5; food and tobacco, 9; chemicals, 11-2; raw materials, 4 1 ; fuel, 3-1. Imports: Fuel, 28-3; machinery and transport equipment, 23-8; chemicals, 13-6; raw materials, 12-2. Joint ventures with Western firms are permitted, and since 1984 the Western partner has been able to own 98% of the capital. There were 186 joint ventures in 1984. In April 1983 a five-year trade and co-operation agreement with the EEC was signed. A trade pact was signed with the USSR in March 1983. Total trade between Yugoslavia and U K (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): B>

Imports to UK Exports and re-exports from UK

¡983 83,951 148,645

¡984 108,479 163,871

¡985 122,132 177,530

¡986 145,127 188,390

¡987 175,301 206,932

Tourism. In 1985,8,436,000(1986:8,431,000) tourists visited Yugoslavia. COMMUNICATIONS Roads (1985). There were 66,999 km of asphalted roads and 33,227 km of macadamized roads. There were 2,824,267 passenger motor cars and 218,551 trucks and buses in 1985. In 1985, 1,045m. passengers and 221m. tonnes of freight were carried by public road transport. The north-south highway is being converted to 6-lane motorway. There were 60,135 road traffic casualties in 1985 (4,142 deaths). Railways. In 1985 Yugoslavia had 9,283 km of railway, of which 3,534 km are electrified, and ran 11,999m. passenger-km and 28,719m. tonne-km of freight. Aviation. The national airline, Jugoslovenski Aero Transport (Inex Adriaaviopromet, Panadria and Aviogenex) in 1985 flew on its home and international services, 60-7m. km and carried 5-3m. passengers and 93m. ton-km of freight; international services (without Panadria), 5 -9m. passengers and 61 - 2m. ton-km of freight. The chief airfields are Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Sarajevo, Skopje, Dubrovnik, Split, Titograd, Tivat, Pula and Zadar. Shipping. In 1985 Yugoslavia possessed a total of472 vessels of 2-8m. gross tons. In 1985 vessels of 51m. net tons entered the ports of Yugoslavia. In 1985 Yugoslavia had 1,179 river craft with 1,991 passenger capacity. The length of the navigable rivers amounted to 1,673 km, that of canals to 664 km. There are 2 navigable lakes: Skadar (391 sq. km, of which 243 in Yugoslavia) and Ohrid (348 sq. km, of which 230 in Yugoslavia). A Tisza-Danube canal system is under construction. Pipeline. An oil pipeline runs from Krk to PanCevo. Post and Broadcasting. There were 3,956 post offices and 3,322,000 telephone subscribers in 1985. Jugoslovenska Radiotelevizija consists of almost 250 main, relay and local stations operating on medium-waves and FM. In 1986 23 broadcasts a week were made in 10 foreign languages. Radio Koper also broadcasts commercial programmes in Italian for northern parts of Italy. National and regional TV programmes are broadcast. Advertisements are broadcast for maximum 170 minutes each week. Number of receivers in 1985: radio, 4-7m.; television, 4-1 m. Cinemas(1985). 1,298, seating 437,000.24 full-length films were made in 1985. Theatres (1984-85). 70, seating 27,885. Newspapers and Books (1985). There were 27 dailies and 4,721 other newspapers and periodicals. There are no party newspapers but Borba and Politika (circulation

YUGOSLAVIA

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in 1985: 47,000 and 256,000) enjoy semi-official status. 11,175 book titles (960 by foreign authors) were published in 1985. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. There are county tribunals, district courts, supreme courts of the constituent republics and a Supreme Court. There are also self-management courts, including courts of associated labour. In county tribunals and district courts the judicial functions are exercised by professional judges and by lay assessors constituted into collegia. There are no assessors at the supreme courts. All judges are elected by the socio-political communities in their jurisdiction. The judges exercise their functions in accordance with the legal provisions enacted since the liberation of the country. The constituent republics enact their own criminal legislation, but offences concerning state security and the administration are dealt with at federal level. In 1985 262,000 crimes were reported, 164,000 charges made and 108,000 convictions obtained (excluding juveniles). Religion. Religious communities are separate from the State and are free to perform religious affairs. All religious communities recognized by law enjoy the same rights. Serbia has been traditionally Orthodox and Croatia Roman Catholic. Moslems are found in the south as a result of the Turkish occupation. The 1953 percentage of the denominations was: Orthodox, 41-2%; Roman Catholic, 31-7%; Moslems, 12-3%; Protestants, 0-9%; without religion, 12-6%. 1984 estimates of believers: Orthodox, 9m.; Roman Catholic, 7m.; Moslems, 4m. The Serbian Orthodox Church with its seat in Belgrade has 20 bishoprics within the country and 4 abroad, 3 in US and Canada and 1 in Hungary. The Serbian Orthodox Church numbers about 2,000 priests. The Macedonian Orthodox Church with the Archbishop of Ohrid and Macedonia as its head in Skopje, has 4 bishoprics in the country and 1 abroad (American-Canadian-Australian). The Macedonian Orthodox Church numbers about 300 priests. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into two provinces: Zagreb with 4 suffragan sees, and Sarajevo with 2 suffragan sees. In addition, the Roman Catholic Church has 4 archbishoprics, 10 independent bishoprics directly connected with the Vatican and 3 Apostolic Administrators. There is a National Conference of Bishops with the Archbishop of Zagreb, Cardinal Franjo KuhariC, at its head. The Roman Catholic Church has about 4,000 priests, 2 theological faculties and 15 seminaries. Relations with the Vatican are regulated by a 'Protocol' of 1966. The Moslem Religious Union has 4 republic Superiorates in Sarajevo, Skopje, Titograd and PriStina. The highest authority is the supreme synod of the Islamic Religious Community, which elects the Reis-ul-Ulema and the Supreme Islamic Superiorate. The Moslem religious community has about 2,000 priests. The Protestant churches covering 4 independent Lutheran Churches, numbering about 150,000 believers, the Reformed Christian Church, numbering about 60,000 believers, include also several much smaller churches of Baptists, Methodists, Adventists, Nazarenes, etc., numbering together about 100,000 believers. The Protestant churches have about 450 priests. Also there are independent Old Catholic Churches with Synodal Council at Zagreb. The Jewish religion has about 35 communities making up a common league of Jewish Communities with its seat in Belgrade. Education. Compulsory general education lasts 8 years, secondary 3-4 years. In 1985-86 there were 12,148 primary schools with 134,884 teachers and 2,846,845 pupils, 1,212 secondary schools with 62,643 teachers and 952,904 pupils, 126 primary schools for adults with 8,908 pupils, and 138 secondary schools for adults with 33,304 pupils. 88-6% of primary school leavers entered secondary school. Primary (and secondary) schools of ethnic minorities: Albanian, 1,198 (180); Hungarian, 153 (68); Bulgarian, 50 (nil); Czech, 13 (1); Slovak, 20 (8); Italian, 28 (15); Romanian, 31 (7); Turkish, 64 (16); Ukrainian, 4 (2).

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In 1 9 8 4 - 8 5 t h e r e w e r e 3 4 0 institutes of higher e d u c a t i o n w i t h 3 5 9 , 1 7 5 s t u d e n t s a n d 15,701 teachers. Health. In 1985 t h e r e were 4 9 , 3 4 1 d o c t o r s a n d dentists, a n d 141,039 h o s p i t a l beds (10,192 psychiatric). H e a l t h i n s u r a n c e b e n e f i t s totalled 2 8 1 , 7 7 3 m . d i n a r s a n d p e n s i o n s 3 9 5 , 4 5 8 m . d i n a r s in 1984. 2 5 , 0 4 2 m . d i n a r s w e r e p a i d in child a l l o w a n c e s in 1983. C o n s u m p tion of f o o d p e r c a p i t a in 1985: m e a t , 5 4 - 6 kg.; cereals, 151-4 kg.; m i l k , 113 -6 litres; vegetables a n d fruit, 184-5. D a i l y c o n s u m p t i o n : 14,897 kilojoules. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

O f Yugoslavia in G r e a t Britain (5 L e x h a m G d n s . , L o n d o n , W 8 5 J J) Ambassador: M i t k o Calovski. O f G r e a t Britain in Yugoslavia (46 G e n e r a l a Z d a n o v a , Belgrade) Ambassador: Andrew Wood, C M G . O f Yugoslavia in t h e U S A ( 2 4 1 0 C a l i f o r n i a St., N W , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 2 0 0 0 8 ) Chargé d'Affaires: V l a d i m i r M a t i c . O f t h e U S A in Yugoslavia (50 K n e z a MiloSa, Belgrade) Ambassador: J o h n D . Scanlan. O f Yugoslavia t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s Ambassador: D r a g o s l a v Pejic. B o o k s of Reference Statistical Information: The Federal Statistical Office (Savezni Zavod za Statistiku; Kneza Miloäa 20, Belgrade) was founded in Dec. 1944. Director: Dr D. Grupkovic. It publishes: Indeks (from April 1952, with English and French translations); Statistilki bilten (1950 f l , with English or French translations); Statistical Yearbook (from 1954, with English, Russian and French translations); Statistics of Foreign Trade of the SFR Yugoslavia (annual, from 1946; half-yearly, from 1951); Statistical Pocket-book (from 1955; in 5 eds.: Yugoslav, English, French, Russian, German). The Assembly of the SFRof Yugoslavia. Belgrade, 1974 The Constitution ofthe Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Belgrade, 1974 Alexander, S., Church and Statein Yugoslavia since 1945. CUP, 1979 Artesien, P. F. R., Joint Ventures in Yugoslav Industry. Aldershot, 1985 Banac, I., The National Question in Yugoslavia. Cornell Univ. Press, 1985 Burg, S. L., Conflict and Cohesion in Socialist Yugoslavia: Political Decision-Making since 1966. Princeton Univ. Press, 1983 Ci£in-Sain, A. and Ellis, M. (eds.), Doing Business with Yugoslavia: Economic and Legal Aspects. Belgrade, 1986 Cohen, L. J., Political Cohesion in a Fragile Mosaic: The Yugoslav Experience. Boulder, 1983 Dedijer, V., et at., History of Yugoslavia. New York, 1974 Djilas, M., Memoir of a Revolutionary. New York, 1973.—Rise and Fall. London, 1985 Doder, D. The Yugoslavs. New York, 1978 Drvodelic, M., Croatian or Serbian-English Dictionary. 4th ed. Zagreb, 1978 Filipovic, R., English-Croatian or Serbian Dictionary. Zagreb, 1980.—The New Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade Regime of Yugoslavia. Belgrade, 1986 Horton, J. J., Yugoslavia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1978 Horvat, B., The Yugoslav Economic System. White Plains, 1976 Kotnik, J., Slovensko-angleskislovar. 4th ed. Ljubljana, 1959 Milosevic, D., Investing in Yugoslavia and Other Forms of Long-Term Economic Co-operation with Yugoslav Enterprises. 2nd ed. Belgrade, 1986 Minie, M„ The Foreign Policy of Yugoslavia, 1973-1980. Belgrade, 1982 Prout.C., Market Socialism in Yugoslavia. OUP, 1985 Ramet, P., Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1963-1983. Indiana Univ. Press, 1984. — Yugoslavia in the 1980s. Boulder, 1985 Singleton, F., Twentieth Century Yugoslavia. London, 1976.—(with B. Carter) The Economy ofYugoslavia. London, 1982.—A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples. CUP, 1985 Sire, L., The Yugoslav Economy under Self Management. London, 1979 Stojanovic, R., (ed.) The Functioning of the Yugoslav Economy. New York, 1982 Tito, J. B„ The Essential Tito. New York, 1970

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REPUBLICS A N D AUTONOMOUS PROVINCES The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia comprises the 6 republics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia, and the 2 autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina within the Republic of Serbia. Each has its own Constitution, Assembly of 3 Chambers (of Associated Labour; of Communes; Socio-Political) and League of Communists within the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, though the latter is not formally a federal institution. State Presidents and League of Communist Secretaries in 1988: Bosnia and Herzegovina: Mato Andric, Zivko Grubor; Croatia: Mika Spiljak, Stanko StojCevic; Kosovo: Svetislav DolaSevic, Bajram Seljani; Macedonia: Milan Panievski, Jakov Lazarovski; Montenegro: Vidoje Zarkovic, Velisav Vuksanovic; Serbia: Petar Graéanin, RadiSa Gaéic; Slovenia: Andrej Marine, Miha Ravnik; Vojvodina: BoSko Krunic, Katalin Hajnal. Indicators (in %) for 1985: Yugoslavia Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Slovenia

Population 100 18-7 20-1 8-7 2-7 41-5 8-3 1

Workers 100 15-5 23-8 7-7 2-4 37-7 12-9 1984.

Social product1 100 13-5 25-5 5-8 2-1 37-7 15-4

Investments 100 15-8 22-5 5-1 3-6 38-6 14 4

BOSNIA A N D HERZEGOVINA H I S T O R Y . The country was settled by Slavs in the 7th century, the original clan system evolving between the 12th and 14th centuries into a principality under a Ban, during which time the Bogomil Christian heresy became entrenched. Bosnia was conquered by the Turks in 1463, and the majority of the Bogomils were converted to Islam. At the Congress of Berlin (1878) the territory was assigned to Austro-Hungarian administration under nominal Turkish suzerainty. AustriaHungary's outright annexation in 1908 generated tensions which contributed to the outbreak of the first world war. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . The republic is bounded in the north and west by Croatia, in the east by Serbia and in the south-east by Montenegro. It is virtually land-locked, having a coastline of only 20 km with no harbours. Its area is 51,129 sq. km. The capital is Sarajevo. Population at the 1981 census: 4,124,256 (2,073,343 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Moslems (1,630,033), Serbs (1,320,738) and Croats (758,140). Population density per sq. km: 80-7. Population, 1985,4-3 lm. Vital statistics: Growth rate 1984 1985

Live births 72,056 69,913

Marriages 35,190 34,446

Deaths 28,968 26,892

per 1,000 10-6 10 0

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1984 the agricultural area was 2 -53m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 420 (147); barley, 73 (36); maize, 873 (248); soya, 8,829 (5,354); potatoes, 357 (51). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 130; cattle, 984; sheep, 1,508; pigs, 793. Timber cut in 1984: 7 • 1 m. cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 11,990m. kwh; lignite, 7-39m. tonnes; iron ore, 4 - 6 l m . tonnes; pig iron, 1 -31m. tonnes; bauxite, 1 -38m. tonnes; cement, 674,000 tonnes; cotton fabrics, 20m. sq. metres; cars, 26,000.

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YUGOSLAVIA

Employment. Population of working age, 1985, 2-84m.; non-agricultural workforce, 1 m., of whom 0-84m. worked in production.

CROATIA HISTORY. The Croats migrated to their present territory in the 6th century and were converted to Roman Catholicism. Croatia was conquered by Hungary in 1091 and remained under Hungarian domination until after the first world war. During the second world war an independent fascist state was set up. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Croatia is bounded in the north by Slovenia and Hungary and in the east by Serbia. It has an extensive Adriatic coastline well provided with ports, and includes the historical areas of Dalmatia, Istria and Slavonia, which no longer have administrative status. The capital is Zagreb. Its area is 56,538 sq. km. Population at the 1981 census was 4,601,469 (2,374,579 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Croats (3,454,661) and Serbs (531,502). Population density per sq. km: 81-4. Population, 1985,4 -66m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 65,532 63,170

Marriages 32,763 31,717

Deaths 54,822 52,673

Growth rate per 1,000 2-3 2 3

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 3-24m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 1,131 (284); barley, 212 (65); maize, 2,564 (523); sugar beet, 1,295 (29); soya, 37,520 (16,270); potatoes, 677 (80). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 57; cattle, 914; sheep, 717; pigs, 1,963. Timber cut in 1983: 5-26m. cu. metres. Industry. Production (1984): Electricity, 8,059m. kwh; coal, 254,000 tonnes; bauxite, 375; crude petroleum, 2-85m. tonnes; steel, 423,000 tonnes; plastics, 154,000 tonnes; cement, 3-2m. tonnes; cotton fabrics, 66m. sq. metres; sugar, 211,000 tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: 3 05m.; non-agricultural workforce, 1-55m., of whom 1 -26m. worked in production.

MACEDONIA H I S T O R Y . The Slavs settled in Macedonia since the 6th century, who had been Christianized by Byzantium, were conquered by the non-Slav Bulgars in the 7th century and in the 9th century formed a Macedo-Bulgarian empire, the western part of which survived until Byzantine conquest in 1014. In the 14th century it fell to Serbia, and in 1355 to the Turks. After the Balkan Wars of 1912-13 Turkey was ousted, and Serbia received the greater part of the territory, the rest going to Bulgaria and Greece. In 1918 Yugoslav Macedonia was incorporated into Serbia as 'South Serbia'. Possession of this territory has long been a source of contention between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. AREA A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Macedonia is land-locked, and is bounded in the north by Serbia and Kosovo, in the east by Bulgaria, in the south by Greece and in the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. Its area is 25,713 sq. km. Population at the 1981 census was 1,909,136 (940,993 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Macedonians (1,279,323), Albanians (377,208) and Turks (86,591). Population density per sq. km, 74 -2. Population, 1985,2 02m.

1615

YUGOSLAVIA Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Livebirlhs 39,811 39,133

Marriages 16,492 16,507

Deaths 14,464 14,844

Growth rate per 1,000 12-7 12 0

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was l-33m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 288 (112); barley, 113 (54); maize, 80 (42); cotton, 888 (1,531); tobacco, 30 (28). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 82; cattle, 286; sheep, 2,315; pigs, 202. Timber cut in 1984:1,086,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 3,575m. kwh; lignite, 3,327,000 tonnes; iron ore, 786,000 tonnes; pig-iron, 232,000 tonnes; steel, 397,000 tonnes; copper ore, 2,851,000 tonnes; sulphuric acid, 84,000 tonnes; cement, 684,000 tonnes; cotton fabrics, 53m. sq. metres. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: l-27m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-45m., of whom 0-4m. worked in production.

MONTENEGRO H I S T O R Y . Montenegro emerged as a separate entity on the break-up of the Serbian Empire in 1355. It was never effectively subdued by Turkey. It was ruled by Bishop Princes until 1851, when a royal house was founded. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Montenegro is a mountainous region which opens to the Adriatic in the south-west. It is bounded in the north-west by Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the north-east by Serbia and in the south-east by Albania. The capital is Titograd. Its area is 13,812, sq. km. Population at the 1981 census was 584,310 (294,571 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Montenegrins (400,488), Moslems (78,080) and Albanians (37,735). Population density per sq. km: 42 -3. Population, 1985,0-61m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 10,473 10,268

Marriages 4,181 4,198

Deaths 3,706 3,751

Growth rate per 1,000 11-2 10 6

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 517,000 hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 11 (4); barley, 12 (6); maize, 10 (8); potatoes, 30 (7). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 23; cattle, 189; sheep, 481; pigs, 30. Timber cut in 1984: 885,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 2,878m. kwh; lignite, 2-73m. tonnes; bauxite, 735,000 tonnes; cement, 168,000 tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: 0-39m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-15m., of whom 0-13m. worked in production.

SERBIA H I S T O R Y . The Serbs received Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantines. They threw off the latter's suzerainty to become a large prosperous medieval state, which was destroyed by the Turks at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. After revolutions in 1804 and 1815 Serbia won increasing degrees of autonomy from Turkey; complete independence came with the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. Its prince took the title of king in 1881.

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A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Serbia is land-locked and is bounded in the north-west by Croatia, in the north by Hungary, in the north-east by Romania, in the east by Bulgaria, in the south by Macedonia and in the west by Albania, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina. It includes the Autonomous Provinces of Kosovo in the south and Vojvodina in the north, which have substantial Albanian and Hungarian populations respectively. Without these its area is 55,968 sq. km. The capital is Belgrade. Population at the 1981 census was 9,313,676 (4,684,349 females), of whom the predominating ethnic group was Serbs (6,182,155). Population density per sq. km: 105-4. Population, 1985,9 -6m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 160,288 156,524

Marriages 67,783 64,313

Deaths 92,187 92,180

Growth rate per 1,000 7 1 6 7

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 5-74m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and areas sown (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 2,900 (765); barley, 262 (91); maize, 6,227 (1,502); sugar-beet, 4,597 (110); soya, 128,798 (79,115); potatoes, 873 (92). Livestock in 1986: (in 1,000 head): Horses, 130; cattle, 2,249; sheep, 2,633; pigs, 5,064. Timber cut in 1984: 3-94m. cu. metres. Industry. (1985): Electricity, 35,805m. kwh; coal, 38-45m. tonnes; lignite, 37,848,000 tonnes; pig-iron, 531,000 tonnes; steel, 669,000 tonnes; copper ore, 23,315,000 tonnes; lorries, 11,672; cars, 158,000; sulphuric acid, 988,000 tonnes; plastics, (1984) 79,000 tonnes; cement, 2,742,000 tonnes; sugar, 650,000 tonnes; cotton fabrics, 73m. sq. metres; woollens, 42m. sq. metres. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: 6-21m.; non-agricultural workforce, 2 -46m., of whom 1 -98m. were in production.

KOSOVO A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area: 10,887 sq. km. The capital is PriStina. Population at the 1981 census, 1,584,441 (766,048 females), of whom the predominating ethnic groups were Albanians (1,226,736), and Serbs (209,498). Albanian-Serb tensions have led to outbreaks of violence since 1987. Population density per sq. km: 145-5. Population, 1985, l -76m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 53,324 54,436

Marriages 12,617 12,569

Deaths 9,949 9,947

Growth rate per 1,000 25-2 25-3

ECONOMY Agriculture. The agricultural area in 1985 was 585,000 hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and sown areas (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 275 (97); maize, 115 (96); sugar-beet, 61 (3); potatoes, 53 (8). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 35; cattle, 404; sheep, 396; pigs, 64. Timber cut in 1984,420,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 5,393m. kwh; lignite, 9-78m. tonnes; sulphuric acid, 78,000 tonnes; cement, 290,000 tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: 0-95m.; non-agricultural workforce, 201,905, of whom 157,044 worked in production.

VOJVODINA A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Area: 21,506 sq. km. The capital is Novi Sad. Population at the 1981 census, 2,034,772 (1,041,392 females), of whom the predo-

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minating ethnic groups were Serbs (1,107,378) and Hungarians (385,356). Population density per sq. km: 94 -6. Population, 1985,2 05m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 26,250 25,005

Marriages 14,922 14,248

Deaths 23,931 23,584

Growth rate per 1,000 11 1-0

ECONOMY Agriculture. The agricultural area in 1984 was 1 -78m. hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and sown areas (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 1,737 (325); barley, 219 (50); maize, 4,821 (743); sugar-beet, 4,342 (88); soya, 164,006 (82,722); potatoes, 315 (23). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 35; cattle, 297; sheep, 345; pigs, 2,239. Timber cut in 1984: 754,000 cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 1,395m. kwh; crude petroleum, 1 13m. tonnes; sulphuric acid, 55,000 tonnes; plastics, (1984) 53,000 tonnes; cement, 1 -28m. tonnes. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: l-36m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-53m., of whom 0-5m. worked in production.

SLOVENIA H I S T O R Y . The lands originally settled by Slovenes in the 6th century were steadily encroached upon by Germans. Slovenia developed as part of AustriaHungary and only gained independence in 1918. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Slovenia is bounded in the north by Austria, in the north-east by Hungary, in the south-east by Croatia and in the west by Italy. There is a small strip of coast south of Trieste. Its area is 20,251 sq. km. The capital is Ljubljana. Population at the 1981 census: 1,891,864(973,098 females), of whom the predominating ethnic group were Slovene (1,712,445). Population density per sq. km: 93-4. Population, 1985,1 -93m. Vital statistics: 1984 1985

Live births 28,276 27,925

Marriages 11,541 10,658

Deaths 20,960 20,297

Growth rate per 1,000 3-8 4 0

ECONOMY Agriculture. In 1985 the agricultural area was 877,000 hectares. Yields (in 1,000 tonnes) and sown areas (in 1,000 hectares) of principal crops were: Wheat, 162 (44); maize, 299 (63); sugar-beet, 159 (5); potatoes, 422 (32). Livestock in 1985 (1,000 head): Horses, 16; cattle, 577; sheep, 26; pigs, 620. Timber cut in 1984: 3 -54m. cu. metres. Industry. Production (1985): Electricity, 12,205m. kwh; lignite, 5m. tonnes; steel, 814,000 tonnes; lorries, 4,100; cars, 43,000; sulphuric acid, 232,000 tonnes; sugar, 36,000 tonnes; cement, 1 -31m. tonnes; cotton fabrics, 121m. sq. metres; woollens, 24m. sq. metres. Employment. Population of working age, 1985: l-24m.; non-agricultural workforce, 0-80m., of whom 0-7m. worked in production.

Capital: Kinshasa Population: 31 -78m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$ 160 ( 1983)

ZAÏRE République du Zaïre

H I S T O R Y . Until the middle of the 19th century the territory drained by the Congo River was practically unknown. When Stanley reached the mouth of the Congo in 1877, Ring Leopold II of the Belgians recognized the immense possibilities of the Congo Basin and took the lead in exploring and exploiting it. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 recognized King Leopold II as the sovereign head of the Congo Free State. The annexation of the state to Belgium was provided for by treaty of 28 Nov. 1907, which was approved by the chambers of the Belgian Legislature in Aug. and Sept. a n d b y t h e King on 180ct. 1908. The law of 18 Oct. 1908, called the Colonial Charter (last amended in 1959), provided for the government of the Belgian Congo, until the country became independent on 30 June 1960. The country's name was changed from Congo to Zaire in Oct. 1971. For subsequent history to 1 9 7 7 see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 0 - 8 1 , p. 1 6 1 3 .

A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Zaire is bounded north by the Central African Republic, north-east by Sudan, east by Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Lake Tanganyika, south by Zambia, south-west by Angola, north-west by Congo. There is a 40-km Atlantic coastline separating Angola's province of Cabinda from the rest of that country. The area of the republic is estimated at 2,344,885 sq. km (905,365 sq. miles). The population is composed almost entirely of Bantu groups, with minorities of Sudanese (in the north), Nilotes (northeast), Pygmies and Hamites (in the east). In the 1984 census the population was 29,671,407 (44%, urban). Estimate (1987) 31 -78m. In Dec. 1986 there were about 301,000 refugees in Zaire including 261,000 from Angola. The area (in sq. km) and populations (census) 1984 of the regions were as follows, together with their chief towns: Region Bandundu Bas-Zaire Equateur Haut-Zai're Kasai Occidental Kasai Oriental Kinshasa City Kivu Shaba

Sq.km 295,658 53,920 403,293 503,239 156,967 168,216 9,965 256,662 496,965

Population Census 1984 3,682,845 1,971,520 3,405,512 4,206,069 2,287,416 2,402,603 2,653,558 5,187,865 3,874,019

Chief town Bandundu (Banningville) Matadi Mbandaka (Coquilhatville) Kisangani (Stanleyville) Kananga (Luluabourg) Mbuji-Mayi (Bakwanga) Kinshasa (Leopoldville) Bukavu (Costermansville) Lubumbashi (Elizabethville) 1

Population Census 1984 96,841 1 144,742 125,263 282,650 290,898 423,363 2,653,558 171,064 543,268

1976.

Other large towns (1976): Likasi (194,465 in 1984); Kikwit (146,784 in 1984); Kalemie (172,297); Kamina (160,020); Ilebo (142,036); Boma (93,965) and Kolwezi (77,277). French is the only official language, but of more than 200 languages spoken, 4 are recognized as national languages. Of these, Kiswahili is used in the east, Tshiluba in the south, Kikongo in the area between Kinshasa and the coast, while Lingala is spoken widely in and around Kinshasa and along the river; Lingala has become the lingua franca after French. C L I M A T E . Because of the size and the relief of the country, the climate is very varied, the central region having an equatorial climate, with year-long high tem1618

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1619

peratures and rain at all seasons. Elsewhere, depending on position north or south of the Equator, there are well-marked wet and dry seasons. The mountains of the east and south have a temperate mountain climate, with the highest summits having considerable snowfall. Kinshasa. Jan. 79°F (26-PC), July 73°F (22-8°C). Annual rainfall 4 5 " (1,125 mm). Kananga. Jan. 76°F(24-4°C), July 74°F(23-3°C). Annual rainfall 6 2 " (1,584 mm). Kisangani. Jan. 78°F (25-6°C), July 75°F (23-9°C). Annual rainfall 6 8 " (1,704 mm). Lubumbashi. Jan. 72°F(22-2°C), July 61 °F ( 16 • 1°C). Annual rainfall 50" (1,237 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . A new Constitution was promulgated on 15 Feb. 1978 and amended in Nov. 1980. The supreme institution is the sole political party, the Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution (MPR), whose leader and President is automatically Head of State, of the National Executive Council and of the National Legislative Council. His nomination by the Political Bureau of the MPR (whose 38 members are all nominated by him) is confirmed for a 7-year term (renewable once) by election by universal adult suffrage (all Zaïreans acquire automatic membership of the MPR at birth). Former President: Joseph Kasavubu, 1 July 1960-25 Nov. 1965 (deposed in coup). President: Marshal Mobutu Sésé Séko Kuku Ngbendu wa Zabanga (took office 25 Nov. 1965,elected 1 Nov. 1970 and re-elected Dec. 1977andJuly 1984). The National Executive Council is composed of State Commissioners appointed by the President. In July 1987 it was composed as follows: Prime Minister: Mabi Mulumba. Vice-Prime Minister: Sambwa Pida Nbangui. Planning: Mulumba Lukoji. Finance: Kinzonzi Mvutukidi Ngi. Economy and Industry: Nyembo Shabani. Budget: Kamitatu Masamba. Portfolio: Tambwe Masamba. Justice: N'Singa Udjuu Ongwakebi Untumbe. Territorial Administration and Decentralization: Duga Kugbe Toro. Foreign Affairs and International Co-operation: Ekila Liyonda. Citizens' Rights: Nimy Mayidika Ngimbi. Information and Press: Mandungu Bula Nyati. Foreign Trade: Kasereka Kasai. Agriculture: Kayinga Onsi Ndal. Rural Development: D'Zbo Kalogi. Mines and Energy: Ileo Itambala. Public Works and Regional Development: Mokolo Wa Mpombo. Transport and Communications: Sampassa Kaweta Milombe. Land Affairs, Environment and Conservation: Pendje Demodetdo. Higher Education, Universities and Scientific Research: Mokondo Bonza. Primary and Secondary Education: Nzege Aliazimbana. Youth, Sports and Leisure: Tshimbombo Mukuna. Women's and Family Affairs: Mayuma Kala. Public Health and Social Affairs: Dr Ngandu Kabeya. Civil Service: Mwando Nsimba. Labour and Social Security: Kisolokele Wamba. Posts and Telecommunications: Tokwaulu Bolamba. Culture, Arts and Tourism: Beyeye Djema. There are 16 Secretaries of State. Parliament consists of a unicameral National Legislative Council comprising People's Commissioners (one per 100,000 inhabitants) elected by universal suffrage for a 5-year term. At the latest elections (Sept. 1982) 310 People's Commissioners were elected from a list of 1,409 candidates presented by the MPR. National flag: Green, with a yellow disc bearing an arm holding a flaming torch. Local government: Zaïre is composed of the ville neutre of Kinshasa (administered by a Governor) and 8 regions, each under a Regional Commissioner and 6 Councillors; all are appointed by the President. The regions are divided into 13 urban and 24 rural sub-regions. DEFENCE Army. The Army is divided into 3 Military Regions and comprises 1 infantry division (3 infantry brigades), and 1 Special Forces division (1 parachute, 1 commando and 1 Presidential Guard brigades). Equipment includes 50 Chinese Type-62 light tanks, and 95 AML-60 and 60 AML-90 armoured cars. Strength (1988) 22,000. There is a paramilitary gendarmerie which is responsible for security and also numbered (1988) about 25,000, organized in 40 battalions.

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Navy. The Navy consists of 3 flotillas, 1 coastal, 1 river and 1 lake, comprising 35 coastal patrol boats including 6 US-built and 29 French-built. Personnel in 1988 numbered 1,500 officers and men including 600 marines. Air Force. The Air Force has been built up with training assistance from Italy. In 1987 it operated 7 Mirage 5 supersonic fighters, 12 Aermacchi MB.326GB and 3 MB.326K armed jet trainers, 5 C-130 Hercules and 3 DHC-5 Buffalo turboprop transports, 8 C-47, 13 Bell 47, Puma and Super Puma helicopters, 9 SIAIMarchetti SF.260MC basic trainers and a variety of other transport and training aircraft. Personnel (1988) 2,500. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Zaïre is a member of UN, O AU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 5-year Development Plan, 1986-90 envisages expenditure of US$5,000m. emphasis is being placed on promoting food production and increasing agricultural exports. Budget. Revenue was envisaged at 67-9m. zai'res in 1986, and expenditure, 70-6m. Currency. The currency unit, is the zaïre, divided into 100 makuta. Each likuta (plural makuta) is divided into 100 sengi. Bank-notes are issued in the following denominations: 50,10,5 and 1 zaïre and 50 makuta; there are coins of 20,10 and 5 makuta, 1 likuta and 10 sengi. In March 1988, £1 sterling = 246-20 zaïre; US$1 = 143-55 zaïre. Banking. The central bank is Banque du Zaïre. A development bank with state backing is the Société Financière de Développement (SOFIDE). Commercial banks operating in Zaïre are Banque de Paris et des Pays-Bas, Banque de Kinshasa, National & Grindlays Bank, Barclays Bank SZPRL, First National City Bank, Union Zaïroise de Banques, Banque Commerciale Zaïroise, Banque du Peuple, Caisse Nationale d'Epargne et de Crédit Immobilier and Banque Internationale pour L'Afrique au Zaïre. Weights and Measures. The metric system was introduced by law on 17 Aug. 1910. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 5,280m. kwh. A huge new dam at Inga, on the Zaire River near Matadi, has a potential capacity of39,600 mw. Oil. Offshore oil production began in Nov. 1975; crude production (1987) was 1 -4m. tonnes. Minerals. In 1984 33% of Zaire's foreign exchange was derived from mining of copper (502,600 tonnes), zinc (197,700 tonnes), cobalt (19,600 in 1985), as well as manganese, tin, gold and silver. The most important mining area is in the region of Shaba (formerly Katanga). The principal mining companies are the State-owned Gécamines; the Zaire-Japanese Sodimiza; the international Société Minière du Tenke-Fungurume which started production in 1976; and 2 diamond companies, MIBA and British Zaire Diamond Distributors. Production (1985) 19-6m. metric carats. Agriculture. There were ( 1984) 5 -65m. hectares of arable land and 24 • 8m. hectares of pastures and meadows. The main food crops (1986 production in 1,000 tonnes) are: Cassava, 15,570; plantains, 1,500; sugar-cane, 1,050; maize, 730; groundnuts, 400; bananas, 335; yams, 220; rice, 300. Cash crops (1986) include palm oil, 160; coffee, 90; palm kernels, 70; rubber, 26; seed cotton 77. There are also (1986) pineapples, 170; mangoes, 150; oranges, 147. Livestock (1986): Cattle, M m . ; sheep, 770,000; goats, 2-93m.; pigs, 780,000; poultry, 18m.

ZAÏRE

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Forestry. Equatorial rain forests cover 55% of Zaire's land surface, and 32-6m. cu. metres of timber were produced in 1984. Fisheries. The catch for 1984 was 101,000 tonnes, almost entirely from inland waters. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. The main manufactures are foodstuffs, beverages, tobacco, textiles, leather, wood products, cement and building materials, metallurgy and metal extraction, small river craft, and bicycles. Commerce. Imports in 1982 totalled 2,759-7m. zai'res, exports totalled 9,924-9m. zai'res. In 1982, 40% of the exports (by value) consisted of copper, 19% of coffee, 12% of diamonds and 7% of cobalt. 36% of all exports went to USA, 31% to Belgium and 6% to France, while 22% of imports came from Belgium, 13% from France, 10% from USA and 10% from Federal Republic of Germany. Total trade between Zaire and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): 6

ImportstoUK Exports and re-exports from UK

1983 1 1,192 21,129

1984 7,720 36,254

1985 35,198 34,975

1986 17,192 34,217

1987 8,544 26,142

Tourism. There were 51,000 visitors in 1986 spending US$ 16 • 3 m. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. In 1984 of 160,000 km of roads only 20,600 km are of national importance and all roads are earth-surfaced. In 1982 there were 89,471 passenger cars and 16,807 commercial vehicles. Railways. There are two railway operators, the Zaire National Railways (SNCZ) and the National Office of Transport and Communications (Onatra), which leases two lines from SNCZ. Length in 1985 was 5,116 km on 3 gauges, of which 858 km is electrified. In 1985 SNCZ carried 292m. passenger-km and 1,955m. tonne-km of freight. Aviation. There are 4 international airports at Kinshasa (Ndjili), Lubumbashi (Luano), Kisangani and Bukavu. There are another 40 airports with regular scheduled internal services, and over 150 other landing strips. More than twelve international airlines, including British Caledonian Airways, operate in and out of Kinshasa from Europe, Africa and the USA. The national airline Air Zaire, operates on all the main internal routes as well as on international routes to Europe and other African cities. Shipping. The Zaire River and its tributaries are navigable for about 13,700 km. Regular traffic has been established between Kinshasa and Kisangani as well as Ilebo, on the Lualaba (i.e., the river above Kisangani), on some tributaries and on the lakes. Zaire has only 40 km of sea coast. The merchant marine in 1981 comprised 34 vessels with a total tonnage of92,044 GRT. Kinshasa, Matadi and Boma are the main seaports; in 1978, 629,422 tonnes of freight were unloaded and 498,380 loaded. Post and Broadcasting. In 1978 there were 351 post offices. Length of telegraph lines, 2,459 km. There were 15 broadcasting stations, 161 stations of wireless telegraphy and 206 telegraph offices; telephones numbered 31,200 in 1985. There is a ground satellite communications station outside Kinshasa. In 1986 there were 525,000 radio and 15,000 television receivers. Cinemas (1974): 91 cinemas had a seating capacity of23,300. Newspapers. There were (1984) 4 dailies: Salongo (mornings) and Elima (evenings) in Kinshasa; Njumbe in Lubumbashi and Boyoma in Kisangani. J U S T I C E , R E L I G I O N , E D U C A T I O N A N D WELFARE Justice. A Justice Department was established in Jan. 1980 to replace the Judicial

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Council. There is a Supreme Court at Kinshasa, 9 Courts of Appeal and 32 courts of first instance. Religion. In 1985 there were about 15m. Roman Catholics, 9m. Protestants and 5m. Kimbanguistes, as well as some 400,000 Moslems and 2,000 Jews. The remaining inhabitants (about 1 m.) adhere to animist beliefs. Education. In 1983 there were 4,654,613 pupils and 112,077 teachers in 10,065 primary schools; and in 1978-79 there were 611,349 pupils in 2,511 secondary schools; 70,342 students in technical schools and 138,170 in teacher-training colleges. In 1971 all Institutes of Higher Education combined to form the National University of Zaïre, but in 1981 this was divided to form 3 Universities at Kinshasa, Kisangani and Lubumbashi; in 1978-79 in all there were 28,430 students and 2,782 teaching staff at 36 higher education establishments. Health. In 1979 there were 1,900 doctors, 58 dentists, 414 pharmacists, 3,043 midwives, 14,661 nursing personnel and 942 hospitals and medical centres with 79,244 beds. DIPLOMATIC

REPRESENTATIVES

Of Zaire in Great Britain (26 Chesham Pl., London, SW1X8HH) Ambassador: Nkikele Kitshode (accredited 17 Feb. 1988). Of Great Britain in Zaïre (Ave. de l'Equateur, Kinshasa) Ambassador: R. L. B. Cormack. Of Zaire in the USA (1800 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20009) Ambassador: Nguza Karl-I.-Bond. Of the USA in Zaïre (310 Ave. des Aviateurs, Kinshasa) Ambassador: (Vacant). Of Zaïre to the United Nations Ambassador: Bagbeni Adeito Nzengeya. Books of Reference Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa). US Government Printing Office, Washington, 1971 Atlas Général du Congo. Académie Royale, Brussels Gran, G Z a i r e : The Political Economy of Underdevelopment. New York, 1979 Slade, R. M., King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo's Independent State. OUP, 1962 Young, C., and Turner, T., The Rise and Decline of the Zaïrian State. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1985

ZAMBIA

Capital: Lusaka Population:! • 12m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$410 ( 1984)

H I S T O R Y . The independent Republic of Zambia (formerly Northern Rhodesia) came into being on 24 Oct. 1964 after 9 months of internal self-government following the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland on 31 Dec. 1963. A R E A A N D P O P U L A T I O N . Zambia is bounded by Tanzania in the north, Malawi in the east, Mozambique in the south-east and by Zimbabwe and South West Africa (Namibia) in the south. The area is 290,586 sq. miles (752,614sq. km). Population (1980 census) 5,679,808 of which 43% urban; estimate (1987) 7- 12m. The republic is divided into 9 provinces. Their names, headquarters, area (in sq. km) and census population in 1980 were as follows: Province Headquarters Area Population Copperbelt Ndola 31,328 1,248,888 Luapula Mansa 50,567 412,798 Northern Kasama 147,826 677,894 Central Kabwe 94,395 513,835 Lusaka Lusaka 21,898 693,878

Province Headquarters Area Population Eastern Chipata 69,106 656,381 Southern Livingstone 85,283 686,469 N.-Western Solwezi 125,827 301,677 Western Mongu 126,386 487,988

The seat of Government is at Lusaka (population, 1980, 538,469); other large towns are Kitwe (314,794), Ndola (282,439), Mufulira (149,778), Chingola (145,869), Luanshya (132,164), Chililabombwe (61,928) and Kalulushi (59,213) on the Copperbelt; Kabwe, the oldest mining township (143,635); Livingstone, the old capital (71,987); and other provincial capitals at Kasama (38,093), Mansa (34,801), Chipata (32,291) and Mongu (24,919). The official language is English and the main ethnic groups are the Bemba (34%), Tonga (16%), Malawi (14%) and Lozi (9%). C L I M A T E . The climate is tropical, but has three seasons. The cool, dry one is from May to Aug., a hot do* one follows until Nov., when the wet season commences. Frosts may occur in some areas in the cool season. Lusaka. Jan. 70°F (21 • PC), July 6 P F (161°C). Annual rainfall 33" (836 mm). Livingstone. Jan. 75°F(23-9°C), July 61°F(161°C). Annual rainfall 27" (673 mm). Ndola. Jan. 70° F (21 PC), July 59° F (15°C). Annual rainfall 52" (1,293 mm). C O N S T I T U T I O N A N D G O V E R N M E N T . The Constitution provides for a President, elected in the first instance by the General Conference of the ruling party, the United National Independence Party, and thereafter he is elected by the electorate. On 13 Dec. 1972 President Kaunda signed a new Constitution based on one-party rule. The single political party is the United National Independence Party. Its fulltime executive organ (headed by a Secretary-General) is the Central Committee, whose 24 members are elected by the General Conference of the Party. The Central Committee has precedence over the legislative body, the National Assembly, which is led by the Prime Minister and consists of 125 elected members and up to 10 nominated members, including a cabinet of 18 ministers. Presidential elections were held in Oct. 1983 and on 30 Oct. President Kaunda was sworn in for a fifth 5-year term. The Cabinet, as in Jan. 1988, was composed as follows: President and Commander-in-Chief: Dr Kenneth David Kaunda. Secretary General of the Party: A. G. Zulu. Prime Minister: K. S. K. Musokotwane. Defence: M. Masheke. Foreign Affairs: L. Mwananshiku. Finance and Planning: G. Chigaga. Attorney-General: F. M. Chomba. Higher Education: L. Goma. 1623

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Health: R. Sakuhuka. Industry: J. K. M. Kalaluka. Home Affairs: P. Malukutila. Mines: P. S. Chitambala. Agriculture: F. Chuula. Power: Gen. G. K. Chinkuli. Works: H. Mwale. Labour and Social Services: U. G. Mwila. Tourism: L. S. Subulwa. Information: J. C. M. Punabantu. Youth: F. Hapunda. Education and Culture:B. R. Kabwe. Co-operatives:}. Mukando. National flag: Green, with in the fly a panel of 3 vertical strips of dark red, black and orange, and above these a soaring eagle in gold. National anthem: Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free. The 9 provinces (sub-divided into 53 districts) are administered by Central Committee Members for the provinces who are responsible for the overall government and Party administration of their respective areas. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured regiment and 6 infantry battalions, with supporting artillery, engineer and signals units. Equipment includes some 30 main battle tanks and 78 armoured cars. Strength (1988) 15,000. There are also paramilitary police units numbering 1,200 men. Air Force. Creation of the Zambian Air Force was assisted initially by an RAF mission. Training and expansion of the Air Force was next taken over by Italy, with the purchase of 23 Aermacchi M.B.326G armed jet basic trainers (of which 18 remain in service), 8 SIAI-Marchetti SF.260M piston-engined trainers and the 15 Agusta-Bell 47G, 10 AB.205 and 2 AB.212 helicopters. Twelve F-6 (MiG-19) jet fighter-bombers and some BT-6 primary trainers have since been acquired from China, a squadron of 14 MiG-21 fighters, 3 Yak-40 light jet transports, 4 An-26 twin-turboprop transports and 6 Mi-8 helicopters from the Soviet Union, 5 DHC-5 Buffalo twin-turboprop transports from Canada, 6 C-47s built in the USA, 10 Do 28D Skyservant light transports from Germany, 15 Supporter armed light trainers from Sweden. Serviceability of most types is reported to be low. The survivors of 6 Jastreb light attack aircraft and 2 Galeb trainers supplied by Yugoslavia are thought to be in storage. Personnel (1988)1,200. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Zambia is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, SADCC, OAU and is an ACP state of EEC. ECONOMY Budget. Revenue and expenditure for 1986 (in Kim.): envisaged expenditure of 4,556 and revenue of3,472. Currency. The Kwacha (K) is divided into 100 ngwee (n). There are coins of 50,20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 ngwee and banknotes of K20, K10, K5, K2 and K1 are in use. In March 1988, £1 = 13- 80 Kwacha; US$ 1 = 8 • 05 Kwacha. Banking. Barclays Bank has 25 branches, 6 sub-branches and 17 agencies; Standard Bank has 18 branches and 17 agencies; National & Grindlays, 10 branches and 1 sub-branch; Zambia National Commercial Bank, 10 branches and 1 in London; the post office saving bank has branches throughout the republic. The Finance Development Corporation (FINDECO) controls the building societies, all insurance companies, one commercial bank and has shares in a second one. The Agricultural Finance Corporation provides loans to fanners, cooperatives, farmers' associations and agricultural societies. ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. The total installed capacity of hydro and thermal power stations, excluding Zambia's share of Kariba South, amounts to 1,924,700 kw and the energy production during 1986 amounted to some 11,100m. kwh. Zambia exports electricity to Zaire, Zimbabwe and Angola.

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The hydro stations are located at Mbala, Mansa, Kasama, Mulungushi, Lunsemfwa and Victoria Falls, Lusiwasi and Kafue Gorge. Work has started on the Kariba North Project. The thermal stations are located on the Copperbelt. A number of diesel power stations have been installed, mostly in the North-Western and Northern Provinces. Minerals. The total value of minerals produced in 1982 was: Copper Zinc Lead

Output Value (1,000 tonnes) (K1.000) 584-2 710,636 38-9 27,648 14-5 6,050

Output (1,000 tonnes) 603-9 2-4 -

Coal Cobalt Other

Value (K1.000) 22,346 45,257 43,227

Agriculture. Although 70% of the population is dependent on agriculture only 10% of GDP is provided by the industry. Principal agricultural products (1986) were maize, 1,112,000 tonnes; sugar-cane, 118m. tonnes; seed cotton, 31,000 tonnes; tobacco, 4,000 tonnes; groundnuts, 15,000 tonnes. Livestock (1986): 2-77m. cattle; 214,000 pigs; 46,000 sheep; 240,000 goats, and 14m. poultry. Fisheries. Total catch (1983) 67,000 tonnes. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. In Dec. 1982 there were 34,020 persons employed in agriculture, forestry and fisheries; 60,270 in mining and quairying; 48,070 in manufacturing; 8,060 in electricity and water; 42,150 in construction and 25,350 in transport and communications. Commerce. Trade in 1 m. kwacha for 3 years: Imports Exports

1983 893-2 1,047-5

1984 1,107-9 1,188-1

1985 2,089-5 1,486-1

In 1983, copper provided 89% of all exports (by value), cobalt 4%, zinc 2%. Total trade between Zambia and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): Imports to U K Exports and re-exports from UK

1984 48,069 66,746

1985 27,879 85,949

1986 27,260 77,840

1987 30,310 75,178

Tourism. There were 100,000 visitors in 1985. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. There were (1984) 37,279 km of roads including over 5,592 km of tarred roads. In 1982 there were 33,000 commercial vehicles and 68,000 cars. Railways. In 1985 the total route-km was 1,266 km (1,067 mm gauge). In 1985 the Zambian railways (excluding Tan-Zam) carried l-8m. passengers and 4-9m. tonnes of freight. The Tan-Zam railway, giving Zambia access to Dar es Salaam, comprises 892 km of route in Zambia. Aviation. There were (1982) 130 aiiports in Zambia (46 government owned). Lusaka is the principal international airport. Seven foreign airlines use Lusaka. Post and Broadcasting. There were (1982) 13 head post offices and 236 other post ofTices. In 1984 there were 72,000 telephones, lm. radio and 240,000 television receivers. Cinemas. In 1971 there were 28 cinemas with a seating capacity of 13,400. Newspapers. There were (1984) 2 national daily papers: The Times of Zambia (circulation, 65,000) and Zambia Daily Mail (45,000) and The Sunday Times (74,000).

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JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The Judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the High Court and 4 classes of magistrates' courts; all have civil and criminal jurisdiction. The Supreme Court hears and determines appeals from the High Court. Its seat is at Lusaka. The High Court exercises the powers vested in the High Court in England, subject to the High Court ordinance of Zambia. Its sessions are held where occasion requires, mostly at Lusaka and Ndola. All criminal cases tried by subordinate courts are subject to revision by the High Court. Religion. Freedom of worship is one of the constitutional rights of Zambian citizens. The Christian faith with 66% of the population has largely replaced traditional African religions. There are 20,000 Moslems. Education. In 1982 there were 1,121,769 pupils in 2,894 primary schools, secondary schools, 104,859 in 142 schools. In 1984 there were 4,910 students in technical colleges and 4,653 students were enrolled for teacher-training. In 1984 the University ofZambia had 3,621 full-time students. Health. In 1981 there were 821 doctors, 52 dentists, 36 pharmacists, 866 midwives and 871 nursing personnel. There were also 636 hospitals and clinics with 20,638 beds. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES OfZambia in Great Britain (2 Palace Gate, London, W8 5LS) High Commissioner: W. J. Phiri (accredited 9 Oct. 1986). Of Great Britain in Zambia (Independence Ave., Lusaka) High Commissioner: J. M. Willson, CMG. OfZambia in the USA (2419 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Nalumino Mundia. Of the USA in Zambia (PO Box 31617, Lusaka) Ambassador: Paul J. Hare. Of Zambia to the United Nations Ambassador: Peter Dingi Zuze. Books of Reference General Information: The Director, Zambia Information Services, PO Box 50020, Lusaka. Laws ofZambia. 13 vols. Govt. Printer, Lusaka Beveridge, A. A., and Oberschall, A. R., African Businessmen and Development in Zambia. Princeton Univ. Press, 1980 Bliss, A. M. and Riggs, J. A., Zambia. [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1984 Gertzel, C. (ed.), The Dynamics of a One-Party State in Zambia. Manchester Univ. Press, 1984 Kaunda, Kenneth D., Zambia Shall be Free. London, 1962.—Humanism in Zambia. Lusaka. 2 vols. 1967 and 1974.—Zambia's Economic Revolution. Lusaka, 1968.—Zambia's Guidelines for the Next Decade. Lusaka, 1968.—Letter to my Children. Lusaka, 1973 Roberts, A., A History of Zambia. London, 1977

ZIMBABWE

Capital: Harare Population: 8 • 64m. (1987) GNP per capita: US$780 ( 1984)

HISTORY. Prior to Oct. 1923 Southern Rhodesia, like Northern Rhodesia, was under the administration of the British South Africa Co. In Oct. 1922 Southern Rhodesia voted in favour of responsible government. On 12 Sept. 1923 the country was formally annexed to His Majesty's Dominions, and on 1 Oct. 1923 government was established under a governor, assisted by an executive council, and a legislature, with the status of a self-governing colony. For the history of the period 1961-1979 including the period of unilateral declaration of independence see THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1 9 8 0 - 8 1 , p p . 1 6 2 3 - 2 5 . R h o d e s i a ( S o u t h e r n R h o d e s i a )

became the Republic of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.

AREA AND P O P U L A T I O N . Zimbabwe is bounded north by Zambia, east by Mozambique, south by the Republic of South Africa and west by Botswana. The area is 150,699 sq. miles (390,308 sq. km). The capital is Harare (Salisbury). The total population was (1982 census) 7,539,300; 1987 estimate, 8-64m. There are 8 provinces: Province Manicaland Mashonaland Central Mashonaland East Mashonaland West

Sq. km Census 1982 35,219 1,099,202 29,482 563,407 26,813 1,495,984 55,737 858,962

Province Masvingo Matabeleland North Matebeleland South Midlands

Sq. km Census 1982 55,777 1,031,697 76,813 885,339 54,941 519,606 55,977 1,091,844

Population of main urban areas (1982 census): Bindura, 18,243; Bulawayo, 414,800; Masvingo (Fort Victoria) 31,000; Kadoma (Gatooma) 45,000; Gweru (Gwelo) 79,000; Chegutu (Hartley) 26,617; Marondera (Marandellas) 37,092 Kwekwe (Que Que) 48,000; Redcliffe, 22,000; Harare (Salisbury) 656,100 Zvishavane (Shabani) 27,000; Chinhoyi (Sinoia) 24,322; Mutare (Umtali) 70,000 Hwange (Wankie) 39,000; Chitungwiza, 175,000. In 1982 23% were urban and 51% under 15. Vital statistics (1986): Birth rate was 37-2 per 1,000 population, the death rate 10-8 per 1,000. The official language is English. Shona and Sindebele are the main spoken languages. C L I M A T E . Though situated in the tropics, conditions are remarkably temperate throughout the year because of altitude, and an inland position keeps humidity low. The warmest weather occurs in the three months before the main rainy season, which starts in Nov. and lasts till March. The cool season is from mid-May to mid-Aug. and, though days are mild and sunny, nights are chilly. Harare. Jan. 69° F (20-6°C), July 57°F (13-9"C). Annual rainfall 33" (828 mm). Bulawayo. Jan. 71°F (21 7°C), July 57°F (13-9°C). Annual rainfall 24" (594 mm). Victoria Falls. Jan. 78°F (25 • 6°C), July 61 °F (16 • 1 °C). Annual rainfall 28" (710 mm). CONSTITUTION

AND GOVERNMENT.

At the Commonwealth Con-

ference held in Lusaka in Aug. 1979 agreement was reached for a new Constitutional Conference to be held in London and this took place between 10 Sept. and 15 Dec. 1979 at Lancaster House. It was attended by the various factions in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, including Abel Muzorewa, Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo, and was chaired by Lord Carrington. It achieved 3 objectives: (i) the terms of the Constitution for an independent Zimbabwe; (it) terms for a return to legality: and (Hi) a ceasefire. Lord Soames became Governor of Southern Rhodesia in Dec. 1979 and elections took place in March 1980, resulting in victory for the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU, PF). The Constitution provides for a bicameral Parliament. Parliament consists of a 40-member Senate elected by the common roll; 10 chiefs elected by all the 1627

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country's tribal chiefs; 6 nominated by the Prime Minister and a 100-member House of Assembly; Universal suffrage for citizens over the age of 18; A President (elected for a 6-year term of office by Parliament) who heads the Executive; An independent judiciary enjoying security of tenure; A justiciable Declaration of Rights, derogation from certain of the provisions being permitted, within specified limits, during a state of emergency; Independent Service Commissions exercising powers in respect of staffing and conditions of service in the Public Service, the uniformed forces and the judiciary; Special entrenchment of certain provisions of the Constitution until April 1990 (the protective provisions of the Declaration of Rights). In 1987 there were 2 constitutional changes: Racial representation was abolished and an executive presidency established. Under the Constitution no Parliament may continue in existence for more than 5 years. In March 1988 the composition of the House of Assembly was, ZANU, PF 78 members, the Zimbabwe African People's Party (ZAPU) 14, ZANU, 1 and Independents, 6. Executive President: Robert G. Mugabe (sworn in on 30 Dec. 1987). The Cabinet in March 1988 was composed as follows: Ministers in the Office of the President: Joshua Nkomo, Maurice Nyagumbo, Dr Bernard Chidzero. Foreign Affairs: Dr Nathan Shamuyarira. Telecommunications: Dr Witness Mangwende. Higher Education: Dr Dzingai Mutumbuka. Primary and Secondary Education: Fay Chung. Industry and Technology: Dr Callistus Ndlovu. Trade and Commerce: Oliver Munyaradzi. Transport: Simbarashe Mumbengegwi. Construction and National Housing: Joseph Msika. Mines: Richard Hove. Defence: Enos Nkala. Lands, Agriculture and Rural Settlement: David Karimanzira. Youth, Sports and Culture: Dr Kewdini. Community Development, Co-operatives and Women's Affairs: Joyce Wachuru. Justice, Legal and Parliamentary Affairs: Emmerson Munangagwa. National Supplies: Simbi Mubako. Health: Brig. Felix Muchemwa. Energy, Water Resources and Development: Kumbirai Kangai. Labour, Manpower Planning and Social Welfare: John Nkomo. Home Affairs: Moven Mahachi. Natural Resources and Tourism: Victoria Chitepo. Local Government, Rural and Urban Development: Enos Chikowore. There are 3 Ministers of State. National flag: Seven horizontal stripes of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow and green; on a white black-edged triangle in the hoist a red star surmounted by the Zimbabwe Bird in yellow. The first municipal elections were held in Nov. 1980. DEFENCE Army. The Army consists of 1 armoured, 1 air-defence and 1 artillery regiments; 20 infantry, 1 commando and 2 parachute battalions; and 7 engineer and 7 signals squadrons. Equipment includes 8 T-54 and 35 Ch T-59 main battle tanks. Strength was (1988) 46,000, and there are a further 15,000 paramilitary police. Air Force. The Zimbabwe Air Force (regular) has a strength of(1987) about 1,000 personnel and 130 aircraft in 8 squadrons, of which 2 are intended primarily for a training role. Headquarters ZAF and the main ZAF stations are in Harare; the second main base is at Gweru, with many secondary airfields throughout the country. Equipment includes 1 squadron of Hunter FGA.9 fighter-bombers, 1 squadron of Hawk training and light attack aircraft, a transport squadron with 6 turboprop CASA Aviocars, 6 twin-engined Islanders and 12 C-47s; a squadron with 9 Reims/Cessna 337 Lynx attack aircraft; a squadron with 14 SIAI-Marchetti SF.260W Genet and 17 SF.260C Genet trainers; a helicopter liaison/transport squadron with 40 Alouette II/IIIs, a helicopter casualty evacuation/transport squadron with 10 Agusta-Bell 205s and 12 Bell 412s. Nine Canberra bombers are

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in storage. Reports of the supply of Chinese-built MiG-21 fighters had not been confirmed in early 1988. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Membership. Zimbabwe is a member of UN, the Commonwealth, OAU, SADCC, the Non-Aligned Movement and is an ACP state of the EEC. ECONOMY Planning. The 5-year development plan (1986-90) emphasizes greater publicsector involvement in all parts of the economy. Budget. Revenue and expenditure (in Z$1,000): Revenue Expenditure

1983-84 2,000,417 2,431,978

1984-85 2,212,839 2,641,260

1985-86 2,616,185 3,136,738

1986-87 2,997,000 3,828,528

Receipts during the year ended 30 June 1985 were (in Z$1,000): Income and profits tax, 1,066,584; taxes on goods and services, 1,137,808; miscellaneous taxes and other income, 311,757. The gross amount of the public debt outstanding in June 1986 was Z$5,192,729,612. Currency. On 17 Feb. 1970 decimal currency was adopted. The unit of currency is the Zimbabwe dollar divided into 100 cents. In March 1988, £ 1 = Z$3 08; US$ 1 = Z$1 -74. Banking. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe is the country's central bank; it became operative when the Bank of Rhodesia and Nyasaland ceased operations on 1 June 1965. It acts as banker to the Government and to the commercial banks and as agent of the Government for important financial operations. It is also the central note-issuing authority and co-ordinates the application of the Government's monetary policy. The Zimbabwe Development Bank, established in 1983 as a development finance institution, is 51 % Government-owned. The post office savings bank had Z$652,787,470 deposits at 30 June 1985. The 5 commercial banks are Barclays Bank of Zimbabwe Ltd, Grindlays Bank Ltd, Zimbabwe Banking Corporation Ltd, Standard Chartered Bank Zimbabwe Ltd, Bank of Credit and Commerce Zimbabwe (Pvt) Ltd. In 1986 they had 119 branches and 75 agencies. The 4 merchant banks are Standard Chartered Merchant Bank, Merchant Bank of Central Africa, RAL Merchant Bank and Syfrets Merchant Bank. There are 5 registered finance houses, 3 of which are subsidiaries of commercial banks. Weights and Measures. The metric system is in use but the US short ton is also used. ENERGY A N D NATURAL RESOURCES Electricity. Production (1986) 4,670m. kwh. Minerals. The total value of all minerals produced in 1986 was Z$699,386,000, Output (in 1,000 tonnes) and value (in Z$ 1,000): Asbestos Gold (1,000 oz.) Chrome ore Coal Copper Nickel Iron Ore Silver(l,000oz.)

1984 165-3 478 0 476-4 3,1090 22-6 10-3 925-0 895-0

Output 1985 173-5 472-0 526-5 3,114-0 20-7 9-9 1,098-0 799-0

1986 163-6 478-0 553-1 4,047-0 20-6 9-7 1,115-0 840-0

1984 80,778 214,120 29,719 58,264 33,764 59,704 14,532 9,031

Value 1985 84,544 241,312 33,676 66,844 43,339 73,429 18,930 7,869

1986 85,789 292,770 39,698 89,144 43,272 60,672 21,144 10,612

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Agriculture. The most important single food crop in Zimbabwe is maize, the staple food of a large proportion of the population; deliveries to the Grain Marketing Board in 1985 were 1 -7m. tonnes. The export potential for the livestock industry has increased with the possibility of new markets in EEC countries. Milk production by the Dairy Marketing Board in 1985 was 202,119,075 litres. The country is suitable for the production of both citrus and deciduous fruits and fruit production is now well established. In 1985-86 seed cotton production was 297,538 tonnes and irrigated wheat production was 205,528 tonnes. Tea is grown in the Inyanga and Chipinge districts and production in 1985-86 was 14,000 tonnes. Coffee growing is of increasing importance (production, 1985-86, 11,354 tonnes) as is sugar (production, 1985,430,000 tonnes). Other crops grown in substantial quantities include small grains (sorghums and millet), soya-beans and groundnuts. A wide variety of vegetable crops are also produced. Tobacco is the most important single product, accounting for over 40% of the value of earnings from agricultural exports. In 1984 tobacco exports were valued at Z$282m. In 1985 tobacco production was 294,905 tonnes and exports accounted for 17% of all Zimbabwean foreign exchange earnings. Production, 1986 in 1,000 tonnes, of maize, 2,546; wheat, 248; sorghum, 131; barley, 29; millet, 141; soyabeans, 108; seed cotton, 203; fruit, 129. Livestock (1986): Cattle, 4 • 8m.; pigs, 170,000; sheep, 550,000; goats, 1 • 5 5m. Fisheries. Trout is farmed in Nyanga, prawns at Lake Kariba and bream at Mount Hampden near Harare to supplement supplies of fish caught in dams and lakes. In 1986 trout were caught at the rate of200,000 a year, and the planned production of bream was 400-500 tonnes a year. INDUSTRY AND TRADE Industry. Metal products account for over 20% of industrial output. Important agro-industries include food processing, textiles, furniture and other wood products. Labour. The labour force (1985) was 2-8m. In 1984, 1,036,400 were employed; of whom 271,200 were in agriculture, forestry and fishing and 166,300 in manufacturing. Commerce. The Customs Agreement with the Republic of South Africa was extended in March, 1982 pending further discussion. Zimbabwe has also entered into Trade Agreements with Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola and Swaziland and with countries outside Africa. Imports and exports (in Z$ 1,000): Imports Exports

1982 999,000 1,118,000

1983 1,061,600 1,150,200

1984 1,200,700 1,453,000

1985 543,700 1,545,343

1986 1,699,764

Principal imports in 1984 (in Z$ 1,000): Machinery and transport equipment, 373,550; petroleum products, 256,924; chemicals, 178,111; manufactured goods, 177,851; miscellaneous manufactured goods, 78,615. Principal exports in 1986 (in Z$1,000): Unmanufactured tobacco, 238,213; ferro-alloys, 210,079; asbestos, 82,741; cotton lint, 130,548. In 1985, 13% of exports (excluding gold) went to UK, 10-8% to the Republic of South Africa, 9-9% to Federal Republic of Germany, 8-1% to USA, 5-9% to Italy and 4 • 6% to Japan, while the Republic of South Africa provided 18 • 9% of imports, U K 10-4%, USA 10-1%, Federal Republic of Germany 6 -9%, Japan 3 -9% and Italy 3%. Total trade between Zimbabwe and UK (British Department of Trade returns, in £1,000 sterling): m } m 4 1985 1986 I987 Imports to UK. Exports and re-exports from UK

68,445 64,734

74,090 66,636

90,398 73,571

80,702 61,937

79,771 63,181

Tourism. In 1987, 454,779 tourists visited Zimbabwe. The main tourist areas

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are Victoria Falls, Kariba, Hwange, the Eastern Highlands and Great Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Tourist Development Corporation is in Harare and Victoria Falls. COMMUNICATIONS Roads. The Ministry of Transport is responsible for the construction and maintenance of all State roads and bridges, and all road bridges outside municipal areas. The Ministry offers advice and help on roads and bridges, through Provincial Road Engineers, to district councils. State roads are those connecting all the main centres of population, international routes, major links in the system and main roads serving rural communities. The total length of roads is approximately 85,237 km including surfaced, 12,000; gravel, 46,187; earth, 27,000. Number of motor vehicles, 1984: Passenger cars, 237,128; commercial vehicles, 17,058; motorcycles, 24,347; trailers, 33,227; tractors, 5,695. Railways. Zimbabwe is served by the National Railways of Zimbabwe, which connect with the South African Railways to give access to the South African ports; with the Mozambique Railways to give access to the ports of Beira and Maputo; and with the Zambia railway system. In 1985 there were 3,394 km (1,067 mm gauge) of railways including 311 km electrified. In the year ending 30 June 1986 National Railways of Zimbabwe carried 14m. tonnes of freight and 2-7m. passengers. Aviation. Air Zimbabwe operates domestic services and also regular flights to Zambia, Kenya, Malawi, Botswana and South Africa, and to London, Frankfurt and Athens in Europe and also to Perth and Sydney in Australia in association with Qantas. The country is also served by British Airways, Kenya Airways, Ethiopian Airlines, Air Tanzania, Air Malawi, Zambian Airways, Balkan Bulgarian Airlines, Mozambique Airlines, South African Airways, Air Botswana, the Royal Swazi Airlines, TAP Air Portugal, Qantas, Lesotho Airways and Air India. Services by KLM, Swissair and UTA were temporarily suspended in 1986. In 1985,660,858,000 passenger-km were flown by Air Zimbabwe. Shipping. Zimbabwe outlets to the sea are Maputo and Beira in Mozambique, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania and the South African ports. Post and Broadcasting. At 31 Aug. 1986 there were 170 full post offices, 47 postal telegraph agencies and 86 postal agencies. At 30 June 1986 there were 251,344 telephones in Zimbabwe served by 96 exchanges; 2,102 telex connexions, served by 2 telex exchanges. Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation is an independent statutory body broadcasting a general service in English, Shona, N'debele, Nyanja, Tonga and Kalanga. There are 3 national semi-commercial services, Radio 1, 2 and 3, in English, Shona and N'debele. Radio 4 transmits formal and informal educational programmes. Zimbabwe Television broadcasts 2 channels 95 hours a week via 11 transmitters. In June 1986 there were 130,500 television and 450,000 radio licences. JUSTICE, RELIGION, EDUCATION A N D WELFARE Justice. The general common law of Zimbabwe is the Roman Dutch law as it applied in the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope on 10 June, 1891, as subsequently modified by statute. Provision is made by statute for the application of African customary law by all courts in appropriate cases. The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and at least two (in 1985 there were three) permanent Supreme Court judges. It is Zimbabwe's final court of appeal. It exercises appellate jurisdiction in appeals from the High Court and other courts and tribunals; its only original jurisdiction is that conferred on it by the Constitution to enforce the protective provisions of the Declaration of Rights. The Court's permanent seat is in Harare but it sits regularly in Bulawayo also. The High Court is also headed by the Chief Justice, supported by the Judge President and an appropriate number of High Court judges. It has full original jurisdiction, in both Civil and Criminal cases, over all persons and all matters in Zimbabwe. The Judge President is in charge of the Court, subject to the directions of the

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Chief Justice. The Court has permanent seats in both Harare and Bulawayo and sittings are held three times a year in three other principal towns. Regional courts, established in Harare and Bulawayo but also holding sittings in other centres, exercise a solely criminal jurisdiction that is intermediate between that of the High Court and the Magistrates' courts. Magistrates' courts, established in twenty centres throughout the country, and staffed by full-time professional magistrates, exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. The tribal courts and district commissioners' courts of colonial days were abolished in 1981, to be replaced by a system of primary courts, consisting of village courts and community courts. By 1982 1,100 village and 50 community courts had been established. Village courts are presided over by officers selected for the purpose from the local population, sitting with two assessors. They deal with certain classes of civil cases only and have jurisdiction only where African customary law is applicable. Community courts are presided over by presiding officers in full-time public service who may be assisted by assessors. They have jurisdiction in all civil cases determinable by African customary law and also deal with appeals from village courts. They also have limited criminal jurisdiction in respect of petty offences against the general law. Religion. The largest religious groups are the Anglicans and Roman Catholics. Other denominations include Presbyterians, the Methodist Church in Zimbabwe and the United Methodist Church. Islam, Hinduism and traditional indigenous religions are represented. Education. Education is non-racial at all levels and is compulsory. All primary schools offer free tuition; government secondary schools charge from Z$8-Z$25 per term. All instruction is given in English. There are also over 3,800 private primary schools and over 950 private secondary schools, all of which must be registered by the Ministry of Education. In 1986 there were 2,260,367 pupils at primary schools and 545,841 pupils at secondary schools. There are 10 teachers' training colleges, 8 of which are in association with the University of Zimbabwe. In addition, there are 4 special training centres for teacher trainees in the Zimbabwe Integrated National Teacher Education Course. In 1986 there were 12,029 students enrolled at teachers' training colleges, 875 students at agricultural colleges and 11,261 students at technical colleges. The University of Zimbabwe provides facilities for higher education. In 1986 the total enrolment of students in the 9 Faculties of Agriculture, Arts, Commerce and Law, Education, Engineering, Medicine, Science, Social Studies and Veterinary Science, was 5,886. Health. In 1985 there were 162 hospitals, 1,062 static rural clinics and health centres and 32 mobile rural clinics operated by the Ministry of Health. All mission health institutions get 100% government grants-in-aid for recurrent expenditure. There is a medical school attached to the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, four government training schools attached to the 4 central hospitals for training state registered nurses, 14 training schools for medical assistants out of which 11 are administered by missions, and two for training maternity assistants, health assistants/health inspectors. Social Services. It is a statutory responsibility of the government in many areas to provide: Processing and administration of war pensions and old age pensions; protection of children; administration of remand, probation and correctional institutions; registration and supervision of welfare organisations. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES Of Zimbabwe in Great Britain (Zimbabwe Hse., 429 Strand, London, WC2R OSA) High Commissioner: Dr Herbert M. Murerwa (accredited 1 March 1984). Of Great Britain in Zimbabwe (Stanley Hse., Stanley Ave., Harare) High Commissioner: Michael Ramsay Melhuish, CMG.

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1633

Of Zimbabwe in the USA (2852 McGill Terr., NW, Washington, D.C., 20008) Ambassador: Edmund Richard Mashoko Garwe. Of the USA in Zimbabwe (172 Rhodes A ve., Harare) Ambassador: James Wilson Rawlings. Of Zimbabwe to the United Nations Ambassador: Dr Stanley Mudenge. Books of Reference Statistical Information: The Central Statistical Office, PO Box 8063, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe, originated in 1927 as the Southern Rhodesian G o v e r n m e n t Statistical Bureau. Ten years later its n a m e was changed to Department of Statistics, and in 1948 it assumed its present title when it took over responsibility for certain Northern Rhodesian and Nyasaland statistics (which it relinquished in Dec. 1963 on the dissolution of the Federation). It publishes Monthly Digest of Statistics. Akers, M., Encyclopaedia Rhodesia. Harare, 1973 Caute, D., Under the Skin: The Death of White Rhodesia. London, 1983 Davies, D. K., Race Relations in Rhodesia. London, 1975 Keppel-Jones, A., Rhodes and Rhodesia: The While Conquest of Zimbabwe, 1884-1902. Univ. of Natal Press, 1983 Linden, I., The Catholic Church and the Struggle for Zimbabwe. London, 1980 Martin, D., and Johnson, P., The Struggle for Zimbabwe. London, 1981.—Destructive Engagement. Harare, 1986 Meredith, M „ The Past is Another Century: Rhodesia 1890-1979. London, 1979 Morris-Jones, W. H., (ed.) From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe. London, 1980 N k o m o , J., Nkomo: The Story of My Life. London, 1984 O ' M e a r a , P., Rhodesia:Racial Conflict or Co-Existence. Cornell Univ. Press, 1975 Pollak, K. and Pollak, O. B., Rhodesia/Zimbabwe [Bibliography] Oxford and Santa Barbara, 1979 Schatzberg, M. G., The Political Economy of Zimbabwe. New York, 1984 S t o n e h a m . C . , Zimbabwe's Inheritance. London, 1982 Thornycroft, P., A Fieldfor Investment. Harare, annual Verrier, A., The Road to Zimbabwe. 1890-1980. London, 1986 Wiseman, H. and Taylor, A. M., From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe: The Politics of Transition. Elmsford, N.Y., 1981 Reference Library: National Archives of Zimbabwe, PO Box 8043, Causeway, Harare.

PLACE A N D INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS INDEX A a c h e n ( F R G ) , 525. 552 Aalborg (Denmark), 413,421, 423 A a l s m e e r (Neth.), 882 Aalst,sec Alost A a r g a u (Switz.), 1157, 1159 Aarhus (Denmark), 413,421,423 A b a (Nigeria), 9 3 0 A b a c o ( B a h a m a s ) , 174 A b a d a n (Iran), 7 0 0 , 7 0 2 A b a i a n g (Kiribati), 768 Abajo (Cuba), 395 A b a k a n ( U S S R ) , 1254 A b a n c a y (Peru), 9 8 4 A b a r i r i n g a (Kiribati), 7 6 8 A b a s t u m a n ( U S S R ) , 1262 A b b o t s f o r d (B.C.), 304 A b d e l M a g i d (Sudan), 1130 A b e c h e (Chad), 3 4 3 - 4 5 A b e m a m a (Kiribati), 768 Abengourou (Cote d'lvoire), 388 A b e o k u t a (Nigeria), 9 3 0 A b e r c o m , see M b a l a A b e r d e e n ( H o n g Kong), 6 0 5 A b e r d e e n (S.D.), 1532 A b e r d e e n ( U K ) , 1294, 1296, 1339,1344-45 A b e r k a t e i b (Sudan), 1130 Aberystwyth (UK), 1344-45 A b h a (Saudi A r a b i a ) , 1045, 1050 A b h a z i a R e p . (USSR), 1263 A b i d j a n (Cote d ' l v o i r e ) , 3 8 8 - 9 1 A b i l e n e (Tex.), 1 5 3 6 , 1 5 3 8 A b o , see T u r k u A b o (Finland), 4 7 1 - 7 2 A b o i s s o (Cote d ' l v o i r e ) , 3 8 8 A b o m e y (Benin), 2 0 9 , 2 1 1 A b q a i q (Saudi A r a b i a ) , 1 0 4 8 - 4 9 A b r u z z i (Italy), 733 Abu Dhabi (UAE), 1284-88 A b u G h a r a d e q (Egypt), 4 4 7 A b u H a m a d (Sudan), 1131 A b u j a (Nigeria), 929 A b u M a d i (Egypt), 4 4 7 A b u Q i r (Egypt), 4 4 6 - 4 8 A b u Z a b a d ( S u d a n ) , 1131 A b y a h (S. Y e m e n ) , 1602 A b y s s i n i a , see E t h i o p i a Agaba (Mauritania), 846 A c a j u t l a (El Salv.), 4 5 3 - 5 4 A c a p u l c o de J u a r e z (Mex.), 854 A c a r i g u a (Venez.), 1580, 1585 A c a m a n i a (Greece), 566 Accra (Ghana), 558-61 Aceh (Indon.), 6 9 2 , 6 9 7 A c h t h a r s p e l e n ( N e t h . ) , 887 A c k l i n ' s Is. (Bahamas), 174 A c o n c a g u a (Chile), 342 A c r e (Brazil), 2 2 9 , 2 3 5 A c r e (Israel), 726 A d a (Okla), 1520 A d a m a o u a ( C a m e r o o n ) , 267 Adana (Turkey), 1200-01 A d d i s A b a b a (Ethiopia), 4 5 9 - 6 0 , 462-63 A d - D i w a n i y a h (Iraq), 705 A d e l a i d e (S. Aust.), 9 5 - 9 6 142-43,146 Aden (S.Yemen), 1601-04 A d i l a b a d (India), 6 4 7 A d i y a m a n (Turkey), 1200 A d j a r a R e p . ( U S S R ) , 1263 A d o - E k i t i (Nigeria), 9 3 0 A d o l a ( E t h i o p i a ) , 461

A d o n i (India), 647 A d r a r (Algeria), 72 A d r a r ( M a u r i t a n i a ) , 846 Adventure (Guyana), 590 Adygei ( U S S R ) , 1245, 1253 A d z o p e (Cote d ' l v o i r e ) , 3 8 8 .'Egean Is. (Greece), 567 /Etolia (Greece), 566 A f a m (Nigeria), 932 Afghanistan,61-65 A f y o n k a r a h i s a r ( T u r k e y ) , 1200 A g a d e z (Niger), 9 2 8 Agadir (Morocco), 8 7 0 - 7 1 , 8 7 3 Agalega Is. ( M a u r i t i u s ) , 849 Agalteca ( H o n d . ) , 599 A g a n a ( G u a m ) , 1557 Agartala ( T r i p u r a ) , 6 4 6 , 6 8 2 A g b o v i l l e (Cote d ' l v o i r e ) , 388 A g h i o s N i k o l a o s (Greece), 567 A g h i o n O r o s ( G r e e c e ) , 567 Agigea ( R o m a n i a ) , 1025 A g i n - B u r y a t ( U S S R ) , 1254 A g i n s k o e ( U S S R ) , 1254 A g i n s k y (USSR), 1245 A g o n a , see S w e d r u A g r a (India), 6 2 5 , 6 5 6 . 6 8 4 Agri (Turkey), 1200 A g u a l v a - C a c e m (Port.). 1007 A g u a s c a l i e n t e s (Mex.), 8 5 3 A h m a d i ( K u w a i t ) , 781 A h m e d a b a d (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 3 , 646.654-55 A h m e d n a g a r (India), 666 A h u a c h a p a n (El Salv.), 451 A h v e n a n m a a ( F i n l a n d ) , 471 A h v a z (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 A i d i n , see A y d i n Ain C h o k - H a y Hassani (Morocco). 870 A i o u n el A t r o u s s ( M a u r i t a n i a ) , 848 Air(Niger), 928-29 A i r d r i e (Alb.), 2 9 8 A i s e n (Chile), 346 A i t u t a k i ( C o o k Is.), 9 2 0 A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e (France), 4 8 2 , 487 Aizawl (Mizoram), 6 4 6 , 6 7 0 Ajaccio (France), 481 A j d a b i y a (Libya), 801 A j m a n ( U A E ) , 1284, 1 2 8 6 - 8 7 A j m e r (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 6 , 6 5 6 , 676 A k a s h a t (Iraq). 7 0 8 Akashi (Japan), 749 A k e r m a n ( U S S R ) , 1219 Akershus (Norway), 936 Akhai'a ( G r e e c e ) , 566 A k h a l i - A n t o n i (USSR), 1263 A k i t a ( J a p a n ) , 749 A k j o u i t ( M a u r i t a n i a ) , 847 A k m o l i n s k , see T s e l i n o g r a d A k o l a (India), 6 6 6 - 6 7 Akosambo (Ghana), 560 A k o u t a (Niger), 9 2 7 - 2 8 A k r a n e s (Iceland), 617 A k r o n (Ohio), 1375, 1517, 1518 A k s u ( U S S R ) , 1274 A k t y u b i n s k ( U S S R ) , 1217, 1237,1273-74 A k u r e (Nigeria), 931 A k u r e y r i (Iceland), 6 1 7 , 6 2 1 A k y a b (Burma), 2 5 1 , 2 5 5 A l a b a m a ( U S A ) , 1373, 1379, 1383-84,1405, 1406,1410,1428-30

1635

A l a d j a (Nigeria), 9 3 3 A l a g o a s (Brazil), 227 Al A i n ( U A E ) , 1284, 1287 A l a j u e l a (Costa Rica), 3 8 3 , 3 8 6 A l - A m a r a h (Iraq), 705 A l a m o s a (Colo.), 1443 Al-Anbar(Iraq), 705 Aland (Finland), 4 7 1 , 4 7 3 A l - A r i s h (Egypt), 4 4 4 A l a s k a (USA), 1 3 7 1 - 7 4 , 1376,1378,1383-84, 1387,1402,1406, 1420,1430-33 Al A s n a m (Algeria), 72 A l a v a (Spain), 1 1 0 7 - 1 1 0 9 A l a v e r d i (USSR), 1265 A l b a ( R o m a n i a ) , 1020 A l b a c e t e (Spain), 1109 A l - B a h r A l - A h m a r (Egypt), 4 4 4 A l b a lulia ( R o m a n i a ) , 1020, 1026 Albania, 66-71 A l b a n y (Ga.). 1452 A l b a n y (N.Y.), 1375 A l b a n y (Ore.), 1521 A l b a n y (W. Aust.), 160 Al Basrah (Iraq), 705 a l - B a y d a ( Y e m e n ) , 1599 Alberta (Canada), 2 6 9 - 7 1 , 275,282-84,290-91, 297-301 — a g r i c u l t u r e , 299 — a r e a and pop., 2 9 7 - 9 8 —education, 300-01 —govt, and representation, 298-99 Albertirsa (Hungary), 612 A l b e r t o n (S. Afr.), 1080 A l b i n a ( S u r i n a m e ) , 1135 a l - B o u l a i d a (Algeria), 72 A l b u q u e r q u e ( N . M . ) , 1375, 1504,1506 A l b u r y ( N S W ) , 128 A l b u r y (Vic.), 155 A l c a l a de H e n a r e s (Spain), 1109, 1118

A l c o r c o n (Spain), 1109 A l d a b r a (Seychelles), 2 3 6 , 1056 A l d e r n e y ( C h a n n e l Is.), 1295, 1365-66,1368 A l e g r a n z a (Spain), 1108 A l e p p o (Syria), 1 1 6 8 , 1 1 7 0 - 7 1 A l e s s a n d r i a (Italy), 733 Alesund (Norway), 937 A l e x a n d r i a (Egypt), 4 4 4 - 4 6 A l e x a n d r i a ( R o m a n i a ) , 1021 A l e x a n d r i a (Va.), 1375, 1388,1544 A l e x a n d r o u p o l i s (Greece), 567 A l g e c i r a s (Spain), 1109 A l g e r , see Algiers Algeria, 72-76 A l - g h u r d a q a h (Egypt), 4 4 4 Algiers (Algeria), 7 2 - 7 6 A l - H i l l a h (Iraq), 7 0 5 Al H o c e i m a ( M o r o c c o ) , 8 7 0 , 8 7 3 A l h u c e m a s ( S p . Afr.), 1108 a l - H u d a y d a h ( Y e m e n ) , 1599 A l i c a n t e (Spain), 1109, 1114, 1118 Alice S p r i n g s (N. Aust.), 109, 1 2 0 - 2 1 , 122 A l i g a r h (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 4 , 6 8 4 Ali-Sabieh (Djibouti), 428 A l - J a d i d a ( M o r o c c o ) , 871

1636 Al Jawf (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Al-Jazair (Algeria), 72 Al Kharg (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Al-Kharijah (Egypt), 444 Al Khobar (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Al-Khour (Qatar), 1016 Alkmaar(Neth.), 887 Al-Kut (Iraq), 705 Allahabad (India), 625,632,643, 684 Allentown (Pa.), 1375,1523 AIlerdale(UK), 1291 Allied Command Europe, 37-38 Alma-Ata (USSR), 1217, 1235, 1237,1242,1273 Almada (Port.), 1007,1012 Al-Mahra (S. Yemen), 1602 Almelo(Neth.), 887 Almere (Neth.), 887 Almería (Spain), 1107,1109 Almetyevsk (USSR), 1232 Almirante (Pan.), 969 Almirante Brown (Argen.), 89 Al Mobarraz (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Al-Muthanna (Iraq), 705 Alo(Wallis), 514 Al-Obeid (Sudan), 1128 Alofi (Niue Is.), 920 Alofi Is. (Wallis and Futuna), 514 Alor Setar (Malaysia), 821 Alost (Belgium), 194 Alotau (Papua New Guinea), 972 Alphen a/d Rijn (Neth.), 887 Alphonse Is. (Seychelles), 1056 AlQadarif (Sudan), 1128 Al-Qadisiya (Iraq), 705 Alsace (France), 481 Altai (USSR), 1245 Alta Verapaz (Guat.), 576, 578 Al Taweela (UAE), 1287 Alto Adige (Italy), 733,736 Alto Beni (Bolivia), 220 Altoona (Pa.), 1523 Alto Paraguay (Para.), 978 Alto Paraná (Para.), 9 7 8 , 9 8 9 Álvsborg (Sweden), 1141 Al-Wadi al-Jadid (Egypt), 444 Al Wasil (Qatar), 1017 Amadora (Port.), 1007 Amagasaki (Japan), 750 Amambay (Para.), 978 Amapá (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 2 - 3 4 Amarillo (Tex.), 1375,1537 Amarkantak (India), 664 A m a r p u r (India), 682 Amasya (Turkey), 1200 Amatuku (Tuvalu), 1211 Amazonas (Brazil), 227,233 Amazonas (Colom.), 371 Amazonas (Peru), 984 Amazonas Terr. (Venez.), 1580 Ambala (India), 655-56 Ambato (Ecuador), 438 Ambatondrazaka (Madag.), 816 Amber Valley (UK), 1291 Amboina (Indon.), 693,696 Ambouli (Djibouti), 429 Ambrym (Vanuatu), 1574 Amersfoort (Neth.), 887 Ames (Iowa), 1464-66 Amherst (Mass.), 1481-82 Amherst (N.S.), 315 Amida (Turkey), 1206 Amiens (France), 482 Amindivi Is. (India), 661,690

PLACE INDEX Amirantes (Seychelles), 1056 Amman (Jordan), 758-61 Ampang (Malaysia), 827 Amphissa (Greece), 566 Amravati (India), 625,666-67 Amreli (India), 652 Amritsar (India), 6 2 5 , 6 7 4 - 7 5 Amstelveen (Neth.), 887 Amsterdam (Neth.), 886-88,895 Amsterdam Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 Amstetten (Austria), 168 Am Timan (Chad), 343 A m u r (USSR), 1245 Anaconda (Mont.), 1492 Anadolu (Turkey), 1200 Anadyr (USSR), 1237,1254 Anaheim (Calif.), 1375,1438 Anambra (Nigeria), 930 Anantapur (India), 647,649 Ancash (Peru), 984 Anchorage (Alaska), 1375, 1430,1432 Anchorage Is. (Cook Is.), 919 Ancön (Pan.), 969 Ancona (Italy), 734,743 Andalusia (Spain), 1105-06, 1109 Andaman and Nicobar Is. (India),625,628,642, 646,686-91 Anderson (Ind.), 1462 Andhra Pradesh (India), 624, 628,636, 646-49 Andijan (USSR), 1233,1276 Andina (Argen.), 88 Andizhan (USSR), 1217, 1232,1277 Andorra, 77-78 Andorre-la-Vieille (Andorra), 77-78 Andropov (USSR), 1217 Andros (Bahamas), 174 Androth Is. (India), 690 Anegada(Br. Virgin Is.), 1594 Aneho (Togo), 1184,1186 Aneityum (Vanuatu), 1574 Angarsk (USSR), 1217 Angeles (Philipp.), 990 Angers (France), 4 8 2 , 4 9 3 An Giang (Vietnam), 1588 Angola, 79-82 Angouleme (France), 482 Anguilla(W. Indies), 83-84 Angul (India), 673 Angus (UK), 1294 Anhui (China), 353,358 Anjouan (Comoros), 376 Ankang (China), 361 Ankara (Turkey), 1100-01, 1205-06 Annaba (Algeria), 7 2 - 7 3 , 7 6 An-Najaf (Iraq), 705 Annamalainagar (India), 681 Annandale and Eskdale (UK), 1293 Annapolis (Md.), 1477 Ann Arbor (Mich.), 1375, 1482 An-Nasiriyah (Iraq), 705 Annecy (France), 482 Annobon (Equat. Guin.), see Pagalu Annabon (Equat.Guin.), 456 Ansari Nagar (India), 690 Anshan (China), 353,358 Antalya (Turkey), 1200-01 Antananarivo (Madag.), 813, 815-16

Antarctic territories —Argentina, 88-89 —Australia, 123-25 —British, 236 —Canada, 329 —Chile, 346 —France, 508 —NewZealand,918 —Norway, 948 Antigua (Guat.), 576 Antigua and Barbuda (W. Indies), 85-87 Antioch (Turkey), 1206 Antioquia (Colom.), 369,373 Antipodes Is.(NZ),917 Antofagasta (Chile), 346-47, 350-52 Antrim (N. Ireland), 1355 Antseranana (Madag.), 813 Antwerp (Belgium), 193-94, 200-01 Anuradhapura (Sri Lanka), 1120 Anvers, see Antwerp Anzoâtegui (Venez.), 1580,1583 Aoba (Vanuatu), 1574 Aomori (Japan), 750 Aorangi (NZ), 904 Aoteoroa (NZ), 914 Apeldoom (Neth.), 887 Apia(W. Samoa), 1595,1597 Apoera (Suriname), 1135 Apolima Is. (W. Samoa), 1595 Apostles Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 Appenzell (Switz.), 1157, 1159-60 Appleton (Wise.), 1551 Apra (Guam), 1557 Apure (Venez.), 1580 Apurimac (Peru), 984 Aqaba (Jordan), 758,761 Aquitaine (France), 481 Arab Republic of Egypt, 4 4 4 - 5 0 Aracajù (Brazil), 227-28 A r i d (Romania), 1020 Aragon (Spain), 1107-09 Aragua (Venez.), 1580,1583 Arak (Iran), 699-700 Araku Valley (India), 648 Aranuki (Kiribati), 768 Ararat (Vic.), 152 Aratu (Brazil), 231 Arauca (Colom.), 370 Araucania (Chile), 346 Arawa (Papua New Guinea), 972 Arba Minch (Ethiopia), 460 Arcadia (Greece), 566 Archangel, see Arkhangelsk Archnan (USSR), 1238 Ardabil (Iran), 700 Ards(N. Ireland), 1355 Arecibo (Puerto Rico), 1564 Arequipa (Peru), 984 Arezzo (Italy), 738, 742 Argentia (Nfndlnd.), 314 Argentina, 88-94 Arges (Romania), 1020, 1023 Argolis (Greece), 566 Argostolion (Greece), 566 Argovie, see Aargau Argyll and Bute (UK), 1294 Argyrocastro, see Gjirokaster Arica (Chile), 346 Arima (Trinidad), 1191 Arizona (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1402,1405,1410, 1433-35

PLACE INDEX Arkansas (USA), 1373, 1379, 1384-85,1405, 1410,1432-35 Arkhangelsk (USSR), 1217-18, 1237-38,1245 Arlington (Tex.), 1375,1538 Arlit (Niger), 9 2 7 - 2 9 Arlon (Belgium), 193 Armagh (N.Ireland), 1355,1361 A r m a v i r (USSR), 1217,1232 A r m e n i a (Colom.), 370 A r m e n i a (USSR), 1217-18, 1231-32,1264-65 Armidale (NSW), 128 Arnhem(Neth.), 887-88 A r n h e m Land(Aust), 120 Arorae (Kiribati), 768 Arrah (India), 651 A r - R a m a d i (Iraq), 705 Arras (France), 482 Arta (Greece), 566 Artigas (Urug.), 1569 Arts Council of Great Britain, 1347-48 Artvin (Turkey), 1200 A r u a (Uganda), 1212 Aruba, 898-900 A r u n (UK), 1291 Arunachal Pradesh (India), 625,628,646-47, 649-50,669 A r u s h a (Tanz.), 1172 Arussi (Ethiopia), 4 6 0 Arvada (Colo.), 1441 Aryanah (Tunisia), 1195 Asahikawa (Japan), 749 Asamankese (Ghana), 558 Asansol (India), 6 2 5 , 6 8 5 - 8 6 Ascension (Atlantic), 1035 Ashanti (Ghana), 558 Ashdod (Israel), 729 Asheville (N.C.), 1510 Ashfield(UK), 1291 Ashford (UK), 1291 A s h k h a b a d (USSR), 1217, 1275-77 Ashland (Ky.), 1469 Ashland (Ore.), 1523 Ashland (Va.), 1545 A s h m o r e and Cartier Is. (N. Aust.),95,127, Asimah (Jordan), 758 Asmara (Ethiopia), 4 6 0 , 4 6 2 Assab (Ethiopia), 461 As-Salimiya (Kuwait), 781 Assahba (Saudi Arabia), 781 Assam (India), 6 2 4 , 6 2 8 , 635-36,649-51 As-Samawah (Iraq), 705 Assela (Ethiopia), 460 Assen (Neth.), 887 Assn. S.E. Asian Nations, 51 As-Sulaymaniyah (Iraq), 705 Assumption Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Aston (UK), 1345 Astove Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Astrakhan (USSR), 1217,1245 Astrida, see Butare Asturias (Spain), 1 1 0 7 - 0 8 , 1 1 1 1 Asuncion (Para.), 9 7 8 , 9 8 0 - 8 3 Aswan (Egypt), 4 4 4 - 4 5 , 4 4 7 , 4 4 9 Asytit (Egypt), 4 4 4 , 4 4 9 A t a c a m a (Chile), 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 Atafu Is. (Tokelauls.), 918 Atakora (Benin), 207 A t a k p a m é (Togo), 1184,1186 Atar (Mauritania), 8 4 6 , 8 4 8

Atbara (Sudan), 1128,1131 Athabasca (Canada), 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 Athens (Ga.), 1454 Athens (Greece), 566-67, 571-72 Athens (Ohio), 1517 Athens (W. Va.), 1550 A t h l o n e (Ireland), 721 Ati (Chad), 343 Atiu (Cook Is.), 920 Atizapan de Zaragoza (Mex.), 854 Atkinson, see Timehri Atlanta (Ga.), 1 3 7 4 , 1 4 5 2 - 5 Atlantic City (N.J.), 1503 Atlantic Is., HMS, 1035 Atlantico (Colom.), 370 Atlantida (Hond.), 597 Atlantique (Benin), 207 Attica (Greece), 566 A t - T u r (Egypt), 444 A u b u m (Maine), 1474 A u b u r n (N.Y.), 1507 Auckland (NZ), 9 0 3 - 0 4 , 906-08,913-14 A u c k l a n d Is. ( N Z ) , 9 1 7 Augsberg (FRG), 5 3 0 , 5 4 3 Augusta (Maine), 1473-74 A u n u ' u Is. (Samoa, USA), 1561 Aurangabad (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 3 , 666-67 A u r o r a (Colo.), 1375,1441 Aurora (111.), 1459 Aust-Agder (Norway), 836 Austin (Tex.), 1375, 1536-37 Austral Is. (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Australia, C o m m o n w e a l t h of, 9 5 - 1 6 7 {see also component states) —agriculture, 105 — a r e a and pop., 9 5 - 9 6 — b a n k i n g , 104 —education, 113-15 —govt, and representation, 96-99 — m i n i n g , 105 — p r o d u c t i o n , 106 —religion, 112-13 —social welfare, 115-17 Australian Capital Terr., 9 5 - 9 7 , 99,106,109-11,113-14, 119-20 —area and pop., 119 — e d u c a t i o n , 120 —govt., 119 — p r o d u c t i o n , 119-20 Australind (Aust.), 163 Austria, 168-73 Auvergne (France), 481 Avarau Is. (Cook Is.), 919 Aveiro (Port.), 1007,1012 Avellaneda (Argen.), 89 Avignon (France), 482 Avila (Spain), 1109,1114 Avon (UK), 1290 Awassa (Ethiopia), 460 Awbari (Libya), 801 A y a c u c h o (Peru), 984 Aydin (Turkey), 1200, 1204 Aylesbury Vale (UK), 1291 Aysen (Chile) 3 4 6 , 3 5 0 A y u t l a ( G u a t . ) , 579 Ayutthaya (Thail.), 1177 Azerbaijan E. (Iran), 6 9 9 , 7 0 2 Azerbaijan W. (Iran), 699 Azerbaijan (USSR), 1217-18, 1221,1258-60 Azilal (Morocco), 870

1637 Aziziyah (Libya), 801 Azogues (Ecuador), 438 Azores (Port.), 1007,1009, 1010-12 Azraq (Jordan), 760 A z u a ( D o m . Rep.), 433 Azuay (Ecuador), 438 Baarle-Hertog (Belgium), 193 Baarn (Neth.), 887 Babahoyo (Ecuador), 438 Babanousa (Sudan), 1131 Babelegi (S. Aft.), 1100 Babelthuap (Pacific), 1560 Babil (Iraq), 705 Bacäu (Romania), 1020,1023 Bacolod (Philipp.), 990 Bäcs Kiskun (Hungary), 609 Bac Thai (Vietnam), 1587 Badajoz (Spain), 1109,1118 Badakhshän (Afghan.), 63 Badalona (Spain), 1109 Baden (Austria), 168 Badenoch and Strathspey (UK), 1294 Baden-Württemberg (FRG), 529-30,535,541-42 Badulla(Sri Lanka), 1120 Bafata (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Baffin (N.W.T.), 329 Bafoulabe (Mali), 836 Bafoussam (Cameroon), 267 Bafra (Turkey), 1204 Baga-Nuur (Mongolia), 865 Bagdogra (India), 6 7 9 , 6 8 6 Baghdad (Iraq), 7 0 5 - 0 6 , 7 0 8 - 0 9 Baghdad Pact, see Central Treaty Organ. Baghelkhand (India), 664 Baghlan (Afghan.), 6 1 , 6 3 Bagmati (Nepal), 883 Bagram (Afghan.), 62 Baguio (Philipp.), 990 Bahamas, 174-78 Bahawalpur(Pak.),957 Bahia (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 2 , 235 Bahia Bianca (Argen.), 8 9 , 9 3 Bahia Las Minas (Pan.), 969 Bahoruco (Dom. Rep.), 433 Bahrain, 179-83 Bahr al-ghazal (Sudan), 1130 Bahr D a r (Ethiopia), 460 Baia Mare (Romania), 1020 Baidea (Somalia), 1074 Baimsdale (Vic.), 152 Bait al Falaj (Oman), 954 Bait al Faqih (Yemen), 1599 Baja California (Mex.), 853 Baja California Sur (Mex.), 853 Baja Verapaz (Guat.), 576 Bajram-Curri (Albania), 66 Bakan (Gambia), 519 Bakersfield (Calif.), 1375 Bakhtaran (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 , 7 0 2 B a k o u m o (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 341 Baku (USSR), 1 2 1 7 , 1 2 3 2 , 1 2 3 7 , 1258,1261 Bakwanga, see Mbuji Mayi Balaju (Nepal), 883 Balaka (Malawi), 819 Balbao (Pan.), 969 Balbao Heights (Pan.), 966 Balchik(Bulg.), 244 Bale, see Basel Bale (Ethiopia), 460 Baleares (Spain), 1108-09, 1111,1115

1638 Balearic Is. (Spain), 1107-08, 1111,1114 Bali (Indon.), 686-87,692-93, 697-98 Balikesir (Turkey), 1200-01 Balkassar (Pak.), 960 Balkh (Afghan.), 63 Balkhash (USSR), 1274 Ballarat (Vic.), 152,155 Ballsh (Albania), 69 Ballymena (N. Ireland), 1355, 1361 Ballymoney (N. Ireland), 1355 Balqa (Jordan), 758 Baltimore (Md.), 1374,1416, 1477-78 Baltistan (Pak.), 958 Baluchistan (Pak ), 957-58, 961 Bam (Burkina Faso), 248 Bamako (Mali), 837-39 Bambari (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 340 Bamberg (FRG), 538, 543 Bamenda (Cameroon), 264 Bamian (Afghan.), 63 Banaba (Ocean Is.), 768-69 Banas Kantha (India), 652 Banat (Romania), 1026 Banbridge (N. Ireland), 1355 Bancroft, see Chililabombwe Banda Aceh (Indon.), 692 Bandar-e-Abbas (Iran), 699,702 Bandarban (Bangladesh), 184 Bandar Khomeini (Iran), 702 Bandar Seri Begawan (Brunei), 237,239-40 Bandundu (Zaire), 1618 Bandung (Indon.), 693 Baneasa (Romania), 1025 Banffand Buchan (UK), 1294 Banfora (Burkina Faso), 248 Bangalore (India), 625,632,64244,646,659-61 Bangarem (Lakshadweep), 690 Bangi (Pen. Malaysia), 828 Bangkok (Thail.), 1177,1180-82 Bangladesh, 184-89 Bangolo (Cote d'lvoire), 390 Bangor (Maine), 1474,1478 Bangor (UK), 1344-45 Bangui (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 340-42 Banhà (Egypt), 444 Banias (Syria), 1170 Banja Luka (Yug.), 1605 Banjarmasin (Indon.), 693 Banjul (Gambia), 519-21 Ban Me Thuot (Vietnam), 1591-92 Banningville, see Bandundu Banska Bystrica (Czech.), 406 Baoji (China), 361 Baoshan (China), 358 Baotou (China), 353,358,361 Ba'qubah (Iraq), 705 Baquerizo Moreno (Dom. Rep.), 438 Baracaldo (Spain), 1109 Barahona (Dom. Rep.), 433 Baranovichi (USSR), 1258 Baranya (Hungary), 609 Barauni (India), 652 Barbados (W. Indies), 190-92 Barbil (India), 672 Barcelona (Spain), 1109 1112,1114,1116-18 Barcelona (Venez.), 1580 Bardo (Tunisia), 1195

PLACE INDEX Bareilly (India), 625 Barentseya (Svalbard), 948 Bargi (India), 663 Bari (Italy), 734,743 Barima-Waini (Guyana), 588 Barinas (Venez.), 1580 Barisal (Bangladesh), 184 Barking and Dagenham (UK), 1293 Barlavento (C. Verde Is.), 335-36 Barnaul (USSR), 1217,1235 Bamet (UK), 1293 Bameveld (Neth.), 887 Bamsley (UK), 1291 Baroda (India), 654 Barquisimeto (Venez.), 1580, 1585 Barranquilla (Colom.), 370-71, 374 Barre (Vt.), 1541 Barreiro (Port.), 1007 Baruta (Venez.), 1580 Base Alfred-Faure (Fr. Ant.), 508 Base Dumont d'Urville (Fr.Ant.), 508 Basel (Switz.), 1 158-59, 1 165-67 Basel-Land (Switz.), 1157 Basel-Stadt (Switz.), 1157 Base Martin de Vivies (Fr. Ant.), 508 Bashkir Rep. (USSR), 1231 Bashkiria (USSR), 1245-47 Basildon (UK), 1291 Basilicata (Italy), 734,736 Basingstoke and Deane (UK), 1291 Basque (Spain), 1107-08,1111, 1116,1118

Basra (Iraq), 705,708 Bassa (Liberia), 798 Bassar (Togo), 1184 Bassas da India (Réunion), 503 Bassein (Burma), 255,258 Basse-Normandie (France), 481 Basseterre (Guadel.), 497-98 Basse-Terre (St Kitts-Nevis), 1032 Bassetlaw(UK), 1291 Bass Strait Is. (Vic.), 154 Basutoland, see Lesotho Bas-Zaïre (Zaïre), 1618 Bata (Equat. Guin.), 456-58 Batakunku (Gambia), 520 Batangas (Philipp.), 990 Bath (UK), 1345 Batha (Chad), 343 Bathurst (Gambia), see Banjul Bathurst (New Brans.), 308 Bathurst (NSW), 128 Batman (Turkey), 1203 Batna (Algeria), 72,76 Baton Rouge (La.), 1375,1468 Batote-Kishtwar (India), 658 Batoumi (USSR), 1231,1261, 1263 Battambang (Cambodia), 261, 263 Batticaloa (Sri Lanka), 1120 Batumi (USSR). 1232,1262 Bat-Yam (Israel), 725 Bauchi (Nigeria), 930 Bavaria (FRG), 529-31,535, 542-43 Bawku (Ghana), 561 Bayamo (Cuba), 392 Bayamon (Puerto Rico), 1564 Bayern, see Bavaria

Bay of Plenty (NZ), 903 Bayonne (France), 482 Bayonne (N.J.), 1502 Bayreuth (FRG), 538,543 Bazar (USSR), 1280 Bazega (Burkina Faso), 248 Bearsden and Milngavie (UK), 1294 Beau Bassin (Mauritius), 849 Beaufort (Sabah), 830 Beaumont (Tex.), 1375,1537, 1539 Beaverton (Ore.), 1521 Bechar (Algeria), 72 Bechuanaland, see Botswana Bedford (N.S.), 315 Bedfordshire (UK), 1290 Beersheba (Israel), 725-26 Begumpet (India), 633 Behera (Egypt), 444 Beijing (China), 352-54, 361 - 6 3 Beira,see Sofala Beirut (Lebanon), 789-93, Beja (Port.), 1007 Beja (Tunisia), 1195,1198 Bejaia (Algeria), 72, 74 Bekes (Hungary), 609 Bekescsaba (Hungary), 609 Belait (Brunei), 237 Belaya Tserkov (USSR), 1217 Beiern (Brazil), 227-28,230-31 Belep Arch. (New Caled.), 509 Belfast (N. Ireland), 1296 1355-57,1361-63 Belgaum (India), 625,660-61 Belgium, 193-202 Belgorod (USSR), 1217, 1245 Belgrade (Yug.), 1605-06, 1610-12,1616 Belinga (Gabon), 517 Belize, 203-06 Belize City (Belize), 203-06 Belize Dist. (Belize), 203 Bellary (India), 660-61 Bellevue (Nebr.), 1494,1495 Bellevue (Wash.), 1546 Bellingham (Wash.), 1546 Bellona Is. (Solomon Is.), 1073 Belmopan (Belize), 203,205-06 Belo Horizonte (Brazil), 227-28, 234 Beloit (Wise.), 1551 Belonia (India), 682 Belorussia (USSR), 1217-18, 1257-58 Beloyarsk (USSR), 1231-32 Beltsk (USSR), 1266 Belur (India), 685 Bemidji (Minn.), 1486 Benalla (Vic.), 152, 155 Bendel (Nigeria), 930 Bendery (USSR), 1268 Bendigo (Vic.), 152,155 Bendja (Liberia), 797 Benelux Economic Union, 198,811,894 Bengal, East, see Bangladesh Bengal, West (India), 625,628, 635-36,646,684-88 Benghazi (Libya), 801,805 Bengkulu (Indon), 692 Bengo (Angola), 80 Benguela (Angola), 79-80 Benha (Egypt), 444 Beni (Bolivia),217,221 Beni-Mellal (Morocco), 870-71 Benin, formerly Dahomey, 207-10

PLACE Benin, (Nigeria), 930 Beni Slimane (Morocco), 870 Ben Msik-Sidi Othmane (Morocco), 870 Benoni (Transvaal), 1078 Ben Slimane (Morocco), 870 Benson ville (Liberia), 797 Ben Tre (Vietnam), 1588 Benue (Nigeria), 930 Beograd, see Belgrade Bequia (Grenadines), 1038,1040 Berar, see Madhya Pradesh Berat (Albania), 66 Berazategui (Argen.), 89 Berber (Sudan), 1131 Berbera (Somalia), 1074-76 Berberati (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 340 Berbice (Guyana), 588 Berea (Ky.), 1470 Berezniki (USSR), 1217 Bergamo (Italy), 733,738,742 Bergen, see Mons Bergen (Norway), 937 Bergen op Zoom (Neth.), 887 Bergisch-Gladbach (FRG), 530 Bergslagen (Sweden), 1147 Berkeley (Calif.), 1375 Berkshire (UK), 1290,1440 Berlin (Germ.), 522,527-28, 534,544 Berlin, East (GDR), 524-25 Berlin, West (FRG), 529-31, 535,537-38,544-45 Berlin (N.H.), 1500 Bermejo (Bolivia), 221 Bermo (India), 651 Bermuda,211-13 Berne (Switz.), 1157-59, 1165-67 Bern (Saudi Arabia), 1048 Berry Is. (Bahamas), 174 Bern (Kiribati), 768 Bertoua (Cameroon), 264 Berwickshire, (UK), 1291 Besançon (France), 481-82 Beshumi (USSR), 1261 Bessarabia (USSR), 1217, 1266 Best (Neth.), 887 Bethesda (Md.), 1477 Bethlehem (Pa.), 1525, 1527 Bethune (France), 482 Betio (Kiribati), 769-70 Betla (India), 652 Beverley (UK), 1291 Beverwijk (Neth.), 887-88 Bex (Switz.), 1162 Bexley (UK), 1293 Beyrouth, see Beirut Beziers (France), 482 Bhàdgâon (Nepal), 882 Bhadravati (India), 661 Bhagalpur (India), 652 Bhaktapur (Nepal), 882 Bhandara (India), 666 Bharuch (India), 652 Bhavnagar (India), 625,654 Bheemavaram (India), 647 Bheemunipatnam (India), 648 Bheri (Nepal), 883 Bhilai (India), 664-65 Bhir (India), 666 Bhopal (India), 625,646, 664-65 Bhubaneswar (India), 646, 672-73 Bhuj (India), 654 Bhuntar (India), 657

INDEX

Bhutan,214-16 Biala Podlaska (Poland), 998 Bialystok (Poland), 998 Biankouma (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Bibliän (Ecuador), 441 Bicol (Philipp), 990 Bidar (India),633,647 Biddeford (Maine), 1474,1476 Bie (Angola), 80 Biel (Switz.), 1158 Bielefeld (FRG), 530, 538,552 Bielsko-Biala (Poland), 998 Big Bend (Swazi.), 1137 Bihar (India), 624,627-28,635, 636,646,651-52 Biharsharif (India), 651 Bihor (Romania), 1020 Biisk (USSR), 1217 Bijagoz (Guinea Bissau), 584 Bijulpura (Nepal), 884 Bikaner (India), 625,676 Bilaspur (India), 646,663-4, 664 Bilbao (Spain), 1109,1112,1114, 1116,1118 Bilecik (Turkey), 1200 Bilibino (USSR), 1231 Billings (Mont.), 1493-94 Biloxi (Miss.), 1487 Biltine (Chad), 343 DeBilt (Neth.), 887 Bimini Is. (Bahamas), 174 Bin Aras (Tunisia), 1195 Bindura (Zimbabwe), 1627 Binghamton (N.Y.), 1507 Bingöl (Turkey), 1200 Binh Tri Thien (Vietnam), 1587 Bintulu Port (Sarawak), 833 Bio-Bio (Chile), 346 Bioko (Equat. Guin.), 456-58 Bioko Norte (Equat. Guin.), 456 Bioko Sur (Equat. Guin.), 456 Biombo (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Biratnagar (Nepal), 882 Bird Is. (S.Georgia), 1106 Bird Rock (St. Kitts), 1032 Birgung (Nepal), 884 Birkama (Gambia), 519 Birmingham (Ala.), 1375, 1428-29 Birmingham (UK), 1291, 1296, 1345 Birnie (Kiribati), 768 Birobijan (USSR), 1253 Bisho (Ciskei), 1104-05 Biskra (Algeria), 72 Bismarck (N.D.), 1513 Bissalanka (Guinea-Bissau), 585 Bissau (Guinea-Bissau), 584—86 Bissau City (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Bistrita-Näsäud (Romania), 1020 Bitlis (Turkey), 1200 Bitolj (Yug.), 1605 Bitia Is. (India), 690 Biyagama(Sri Lanka), 1124 Bizerta (Tunisia), 1 195,1 197-98 Bjomeborg, see Pori Bjamoya, (Svalbard), 949 Blackburn (UK), 1291 Blackpool (UK), 1291 Blagoevgrad (Bulg.), 241 Blagoveshchensk (USSR), 1217 Blantyre (Malawi), 817-18 Blekinge (Sweden), 1141,1145 Blenheim (NZ), 904 Blida (Algeria), 72 Blitta (Togo), 1186

1639 Bloemfontein (OFS), 1080,1082, 1085,1087,1094 Bloomfield(N.J.), 1502 Bloomington (Ind.), 1463 Bloomington (Minn.), 1485 Blowing Point (Anguilla), 84 Bluefield(W. Va.), 1550 Bluefields (Nicar.),925 Blue Nile Prov. (Sudan), 1130 Bo (S.Leone), 1054, 1062-63 Boaco (Nicar.), 922 Boa Vista (Brazil), 227 Boa Vista (C. Verde Is.), 335-36 Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso), 248-250 Bobruisk (USSR), 1217,1257 Boca Raton (Fla.), 1451 Bocas del Toro (Pan.), 966 Bochum (FRG), 530,538,552 Bode (Norway), 937 Bodhgaya (India), 652 Boe (Guinea-Bissau), 585 Boeotia (Greece), 566 Bogor (Indon.), 693 Bogotá (Colom.), 370-71, 374-75 Bogra (Bangladesh), 184 Bohol Is. (Philipp.), 990 Boise City (Idaho), 1374, 1457-58 Bokaro Steel City (India), 625, 652 Boké (Guinea), 582 Bokhara (USSR), 1278 Boksburg (Transvaal), 1078 Bol (Chad), 343 Bolama Is. (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Bolama Bijagos (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Bolgatanga (Ghana), 558 Boliden (Sweden), 1147 Bolivar (Colom.), 370 Bolivar (Ecuador), 438 Bolivar (Venez.), 1580,1583 Bolivia, 217-22 Bologna (Italy), 734, 743 Boloma (Guinea-Bissau), 586 Bolton (UK), 1291 Bolu (Turkey), 1200,1204 Bolungarvik (Iceland), 617 Bolzano (Italy), 733-34 Boma (Zaire), 1618,1621 Bombay (city) (India), 625, 632,641-43,646,666 Bombay (Greater) (India), 666-67 Bombay (State) (India), 646 Bombo (Uganda), 1212 Bomi Hills (Liberia), 799 Bonaire Is. (Neth. Ant.), 900-02 Bonanza (Nicar.), 925 Bonavista (Nfndlnd.), 311 Bondoukou (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Bone (Algeria), 72 Bong (Liberia), 799 Bongaigaon (India), 650 Bongouanou (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Bongor (Chad), 343 Bonin Is. (Japan), 749 Bonn (FRG), 529-30, 537, 540, 552 Bonthe (S. Leone), 1062 Bonthe-Sherbro (S. Leone), 1062 Booué (Gabon), 517 Bophuthatswana (S. Afr.), 1080, 1098-100 Boqueron (Para.), 978 Bor(Yug.), 1609

1640 Bora-Bora (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Boras (Sweden), 1142 Bordeaux (France), 4 8 1 - 8 3 , 4 8 7 , 491 Bordo Is. (Denmark), 424 Borgou (Benin), 207 Borisov (USSR), 1258 Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti (Chad), 343 Borlange (Sweden), 1142 Borneo (Malaysia), 8 2 1 , 8 2 5 Bomholms (Denmark), 413 Borno (Nigeria), 930 Borujerd (Iran), 670 Borsod Abauj-Zemplén (Hungary), 609 Bosnia (Yug.), 1605,1613-14 Bossangoe (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 337 Boston (Mass.), 1374,1479-81 Bota (Cameroon), 267 Botkyrka (Sweden), 1142 Botosani (Romania), 1020 Botswana, 223-26 Bottrop (FRG), 530 Bouafle (Côte d'Ivoire), 388 Bouaké (Côte d'Ivoire), 388,391 Bouar (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 340 Bou Arfa (Morocco), 874 Bouches-du-Rhône (France), 488 Bouenza (Congo), 379 Bougie (Algeria), 72 Bougouriba (Burkina Faso), 248 Bouira (Algeria), 72 Boujdour (Morocco), 870 Boulaida (Algeria), 76 Boulder (Colo.), 1441,1443 Boulder (W. Aust.), 160 Boulemane (Morocco), 870 Boulgou (Burkina Faso), 248 Boulkiemde (Burkina Faso), 248 Boulogne-sur-Mer (France), 482 Boumedes (Algeria), 76 Bouna (Côte d'Ivoire), 388 Boundiali (Côte d'Ivoire), 388 Bountiful (Utah), 1539 Bounty Is. (NZ), 917 Bourbon Is, see Réunion Bouren (Mali), 838 Bourges (France), 482 Bourgogne (France), 481 Bournemouth (UK), 1291 Bouvet Is. (Norway), 949 Bowen Basin (Queensld.), 138 Bowie (Md.), 1477 Bowling Green (Ky.), 1468 Boxtel (Neth.), 887 Boyacà (Colom), 370 Boyer Ahmadi va Kohkiluyeh (Iran), 699 Bozeman (Mont.), 1492-93 Brabant (Belgium), 193 Bracknell (UK), 1291,1309 Bradford (UK), 1291,1345 Braga (Port.), 1007,1012 Bragança (Port.), 1007 Braila (Romania), 1020-21, 1025 Braintree (UK), 1291 Brajrajnagar (India), 673 Brak (Libya), 804 Brakna (Mauritania), 846 Brakpan (Transvaal), 1072 Brandon (Man.), 305,307 Brasilia (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 1 , 234-35 Braçov (Romania), 1020,1023, 1026 Bratislava (Czech), 4 0 6 , 4 0 9 - 1 1

PLACE INDEX Bratsk (USSR), 1214,1231 Braunau am Inn (Austria), 168 Braunschweig (FRG), 530, 551 Brava (C. Verde Is.), 335-36 Brazil, 227-35 Brazzaville (Congo), 379-82 Brechou (Channel Is.), 1295, 1366 Breckland(UK), 1291 Breda (Neth.), 887-88 Brega (Libya), 803 Bregenz (Austria), 168 Bremen (FRG), 5 2 9 - 3 1 , 5 3 3 , 538,544-45 Bremerhaven (FRG), 530,545 Bremersdorp, see Manzini Bremerton (Wash.), 1546 Brent (UK), 1291 Brescia (Italy), 7 3 4 , 7 3 9 , 7 4 3 Breslau, see Wroclaw Brest (France), 4 8 2 , 4 8 5 Brest (USSR), 1217,1257 Bretagne (France), 481 Breyten (Swazi.), 1139 Brezhnev, see Naberezhnye Chelny Bria (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 340 Briansk (USSR), 1246 Bridgeport (Conn.), 1375,1443 Bridgetown (Barbados), 190,192 Brighton (UK), 1291 Brisbane (Queensld.), 95-96, 137 Bristol (Conn.), 1443 Bristol (Tenn.), 1534 Bristol (UK), 1291,1345 British Columbia (Canada), 269-71,275,277,282-84 290-91,301-04 British Council, 1345-46 British Honduras, see Belize —Indian Ocean Terr., 236 Brittany (France), 481 Brno (Czech.), 4 0 6 , 4 1 0 - 1 1 Broadland (UK), 1291 Brockton (Mass.), 1479 Broken Hill, see Kabwe Broken Hill (NSW), 128 Brokopondo (Suriname), 431 Bromley (UK), 1291 Brong-Ahafo (Ghana), 558 Bronsweg (Suriname), 1135 Bronx (N.Y.), 1508 Brookfield (Wise.), 1551 Brookings (S.D.), 1532-33 Brooklyn (N.Y.), 1508 Broxtowe (UK), 1291 Bruck an der M u r (Austria), 169 Brugge or Bruges (Belgium), 193-94 Brummen (Neth.), 887 Brunei, 2 3 7 - 4 0 , 8 2 1 Brunei Muara (Brunei), 237 Brunssum (Neth.), 887 Brunswick (Maine), 1475 Brunswick, see Braunschweig Bruny Is. (Tasm.), 148 Brussels (Belgium), 193-94,198, 200-02 Bryansk (USSR), 1217 Bucaramanga (Colom.), 370 Buchanan (Liberia), 797 Bucharest (Romania), 1020-21, 1026-27 Buckingham (UK), 1344 Buckinghamshire (UK), 1290 B u C r a a (W.Sahara), 1119 Bucure§ti, see Bucharest Budapest (Hungary), 609-12, 614-15

Buea (Cameroon), 2 6 4 , 2 6 7 Buenaventura (Colom.), 374 Buenos Aires (Argen.), 88-89, 92-93 Buffalo (N.Y.), 1374,1507-08 Buffalo Head Hills (Alb.), 299 Bujumbura (Burundi), 260-62 Bukavu (Zaïre), 1618,1621 Bukhara (USSR), 1217,1276-77 Bukit Mertajam (Malaysia), 827 Bukovina, Northern (USSR), 1219,1256 Bulawayo (Zimbabwe), 1627, Buldana (India), 666 Bulgaria, 2 4 1 - 4 7 Bulsar (India), 652 Bunbury(W. Aust.), 160 Bundaberg (Queensld.), 137 Bundelkhand (India), 664 Bura (Kenya), 763 Buraida (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Buraimi (UAE), 1287 Burao (Somalia), 1074 Burdur (Turkey), 1200 Burdwan (India), 685 Burg(GDR), 527 Burgas (Bulg.), 2 4 1 , 2 4 4 - 4 5 Burgenland (Austria), 168-69 Burgos (Spain), 1109 Burgundy (France), 481 Burhanpur (India), 663 Buri R a m (Thail.), 1177 Burkina (Burkina Faso), 251 Burkina Faso, 248-51 Burlington (Iowa), 1461 Burlington (Vt.), 1541 Burma, 252-56 Bumaby (B.C.), 304 Bumie(Aust.), 147,151 Burnley (UK), 1287 Burrel (Albania), 67 Bursa (Turkey), 1200-01, 1204-05 Burundi, 257-59 Bury (UK), 1291 Buryatia (USSR), 1241,1245-47 Bushehr(lran), 6 9 9 , 7 0 2 Buskerud (Norway), 936 Busoga (Uganda), 1212 Bussag(USSR), 1238 Bussum (Neth.), 887 Butare (Rwanda), 1028 Butaritari (Kiribati), 768 Butebo (Uganda), 1212 Butha Buthe (Lesotho), 794 Butte (Mont.), 1492-93 Butterworth (Malaysia), 827 Butuan (Philipp.), 990 Buyo (Côte d'Ivoire), 390 Buzau (Romania), 1020 Bydgoszcz (Poland), 998-99 Byelgorod (USSR), 1234 Byrnihat (India), 669 Bytom (Poland), 998 Byumba (Rwanda), 1028 Caacupé, (Para.), 983 Caaguazû, (Para.), 978 Caazapà, (Para.), 978 Cabarias (El Salv.), 451 Cabanatuan (Philipp.), 990 Cabimas (Venez.), 1580 Càbinda (Angola), 79-81 Cabo Delgado (Mozamb.), 876 Cabora Bassa (Mozamb.), 878 Cabras Is. (Guam), 1558 Cacak (Yug.), 1606 Câceres (Spain), 1109,1118

PLACE Cacheu (Guinea-Bissau), 584, 586 Cadiz (Philipp.), 990 Cádiz (Spain), 1107,1109,1111, 1118

Caen (France), 481-82 Cagayan de Oro (Philipp.), 990 Cagliari (Italy), 734, 739, 743 Caguas (Puerto Rico), 1564 Cairns (Queensld.), 137 Cairo (Egypt), 444-45,447, 449-50 Caithness (UK), 1294 Cajamarca (Peru), 984 Cakovec (Yug.), 1605 Calabar (Nigeria), 931,933-34 Calabria (Italy), 734, 736 Calais (France), 482 Calamata (Greece), 566 Cálárasi (Romania), 1020 Calbayog (Philipp.), 990 Calcutta (India), 625-26, 641-43,685-86, Caldas (Colom.), 370, 373 Calderdale (UK), 1291 Calgary (Alb.), 269,289,297-98, 300 Cali (Colom.), 370-71, 374 Calicut (India), 625,662 California (USA), 1378, 1384,1405,1438-41 Callao (Peru), 984-86,988 Caloocan (Philipp.), 990 Camagiiey (Cuba), 392 Camayenne (Guinea), 582 Cambodia, 260-63 Cambridge (Md.), 1477 Cambridge (Mass.), 1479-81 Cambridge (UK), 1291, 1338, 1345 Cambridge Bay (N.W. Terr.), 329 Cambridgeshire (UK), 1290 Camden (N.J.), 1502 Camden (UK), 1291 Camerino (Italy), 743 Cameroon, Rep. of, 264-70 Camiri (Bolivia),218-19,221 Camotra (Nicobar Is.), 687 Campania (Italy), 734, 736 Campbell Is. (NZ),917 Campbellton (New Bruns.), 308 Campeche (Méx.), 853-55,858 Campiña Grande (Brazil), 228 Campinas (Brazil), 228,235 Campo (Cameroon), 267 Campo Grande (Brazil), 227-28 Camrose(Alb-), 298 Canada (see also Provinces), 271-334 —agriculture 283-85 —area and pop. 270-71 —banking, 281 —defence, 274-79 —education, 291 —finance, 280-81 —govt, and representation, 271-73 —justice, 290 —mining, 282-83 —railways, 289 —religion, 290-91 —shipping, 289-90 Canakkale (Turkey), 1200 Cañar (Ecuador), 438 Canary Is. (Spain), 1108,1111, 1115,1118 Canberra (Aust.), 95-96,110

INDEX

Canea (Greece), 567 Canelones(Urug.), 1569, 1571 Canendiyu (Para.), 978 Canillo (Andorra), 78 Cankiri (Turkey), 1200 Cannanore (India), 663 Cannes (France), 482 Canoas (Brazil), 228 Canouan (St Vincent), 1038 Cantabria (Spain), 1108,1111 Canterbury (NZ), 904 Canterbury (UK), 1291,1337-38, 1344 C a n T h o (Vietnam), 1591 Canton, see Kwangchow Canton (N.Y.), 1509 Canton (Ohio), 1515 Canungra (Aust.), 100 Cao Bang (Vietnam), 1587, 1591 Cape Coast (Ghana), 558,562 Capelle a/d Ijssel (Neth.), 887 Cape ofGood Hope Prov. (S. Afr.), 1077,1086, 1089-90 Cape Schmidt (USSR), 1237 Cape Town (Cape), 1078, 1082,1083,1087,1090 Cape Verde Is., 335-37 Cap Haitien (Haiti), 592, 595 Capital Dist. (Mali), 837 Caprivi-Zipfel (SW Afr.), 1095 Caqueta (Colom.), 370 Carabobo (Venez.), 1580 Caracas (Venez.), 1580-83, 1585-86 Carajàs (Brazil), 232-33 Caranda (Bolivia), 219 Caras-Severin (Romania), 1020 Carazo (Nicar.), 922 Carbondale(Ill-), 1461 Carbonear (Nfndlnd.), 311 Carchi (Ecuador), 438 Carcross (Yukon), 333 Cardiff (UK), 1292,1294, 1344-45 Careysburg (Liberia), 797 Caribou (Maine), 1474 CARICOM, 54-55 Carinthia (Austria), 168-69 Caripito (Venez.), 1585 Carlin (Nev.), 1499 Carlisle (UK), 1291 Carlow (Ireland), 710,721 Carmen (Mex.), 858 Car Nicobar (Nicobar Is.), 687 Carolina, see N. and S. Carolina Carolina (Puerto Rico), 1564 Caroline Is. (Kiribati), 768 Caroline Is. (Pacific), 1559 Carriacou (Grenadines), 573-74 Carrickfergus (N. Ireland), 1355 Carsamba (Turkey), 1204 Carson City (Nev.), 1497,1499 Cartagena (Colom.), 370,374 Cartagena (Spain), 1109, 1112 Cartago (Costa Rica), 383,386 Carrier Is., see Ashmore and Carupano (Venez.), 1580 Casablanca-Anfa (Morocco), 870-72,873-75 Casamance (Senegal), 1052 Casanare (Colom.), 370 Cascais(Port.),1012 Caseros (Argen.), 89 Casey (Aust. Antar. Terr.), 124 Casino (N.S.W.), 128 Casper (Wyo.), 1555-56

1641 Cassino (Italy), 742 Castellón (Spain), 1109,1111, II14 Castelo Braneo (Port.), 1007 Casticum (Neth.), 883 Castilla La Mancha (Spain), 1108 Castilla-Leon (Spain), 1108 Castle Archdale (N.Ireland), 1361 Castlegar(B.C-), 304 Castlemaine(Vic.), 152 Castlereagh (N. Ireland), 1355 Castletown (I.O.M.), 1364 Castoria (Greece), see Kastoria Castricum (Neth.), 887 Castries (St Lucia), 1036-37 Catalonia, see Castellón Catamarca (Argen.), 88,92 Catania (Sicily), 734,745 Catanzaro (Italy), 734, 745 Cat Is. (Bahamas), 174 Catio (Guinea-Bissau), 586 Catoosa (Okla), 1519 Cauca (Colom.), 370,373 Cavan (Ireland), 711 Cawnpore, see Kanpur Cayenne (Fr. Guiana), 499-500 Cayman Is. (W. Indies), 338-39 Cayman Brac(W. Indies), 338-39 Cayo (Belize), 203 Ceara (Brazil), 227 Cebu (Philipp.), 990 Cedar City (Utah), 1540 Cedar Falls (Iowa.), 1464-65 Cedar Rapids (Iowa), 1375, 1464-65 Celaya (Méx.), 854 Cengkareng (Indon.), 697 Central African Empire, see Central African Republic Central African Republic, 340-42 Central American Common Market, 53-54 Central (Dept.) (Para.), 978 Central Dist. (Israel), 725 Centrale Region (Togo), 1184 Central Otago(NZ), 904 Central Prov. and Berar, see Madhya Pradesh Central Prov. (Kenya), 763, 765 Central Prov. (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Central Prov. (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Central Prov. (Solomon Is.), 1071 Central Prov. (Sri Lanka), 1120, Central Prov. (Uganda), 1212 Central Prov. (Zambia), 1623 Central Region (Ghana), 558 Central Region (Hond.), 599 Central Region (Malawi), 817-18 Central Region (Sudan), 1128 Central Region (Thail.), 1177 Centre Dept. (Haiti), 592 Centre Prov. (Cameroon), 264 Centre (Region) (France), 481 Centre-Sud-Est (New Caled.), 509 Centro Prov. (Argen.), 88 Centro-Sur (Equat. Guin.), 456 Cerro Colorado (Panama), 968 Cerro de Pasco (Peru), 984 Cerro-Largo (Urug.), 1569 Cesar (Colom.), 370 Ceské Budëjovice (Czech.), 406 Ceuta (Sp. Afr.), 1107-08, U l i , 1119

1642 Chacao (Venez), 1580 Chachapoyas (Peru), 984 Chaco (Argen.), 88 Chaco (Para.), 978-83 Chad, Rep. of, 343-45 Chadak (USSR), 1278 Chadron (Nebr.), 1496 Chafarinas (Sp. Afr.), 1108 Chagos Arch. (British Indian Ocean Terr.), 236 Chahar Mahal and Bakhtiari (Iran), 699 Chai Wan (Hong Kong), 606 Chalatenango (El Salv.), 451 Chalcis (Greece), 568 Chalna (Bangladesh), 188 Chaman (Afghan.), 64 Chambery (France), 482 Champagne Ardenne (France), 481 Champasak (N. Korea), 788 Champerico (Guat.), 579 Chanda (India), 666 Chandbali (India), 673 Chanderi (India), 665 Chandigarh (city) (India), 625, 646,655-56,674-75 Chandigarh (Terr.) (India), 625, 628,643,646-47, 687 Changchun (China), 353,361, 363 Changhua (Taiwan), 365 Changi (Singapore), 1067-68 Chang'Ombe (Tanz.), 1176 Changsha (China), 353 Channel Islands, 1295,1315-16, 1337-38,1366-70 Channel-Port aux Basques (Nfndlnd.), 311 Chapel Hill (N.C.), 1512 Chapra (India), 651 Chardzou (USSR), 1275-76, 1278 Chari-Baguirmi (Chad), 343 Charity (Guyana), 589 Charikar (Afghan.), 61 Charleroi (Belgium), 194,200 Charleston (111.), 1461 Charleston (S.C.), 1530-31 Charleston (W. Va.), 1548 Charlestown (Nevis), 1031 Charlotte (N.C.), 1374,1510 Charlotte Amalie (Virgin Is., USA), 1566-67 Charlottesville (Va.), 1545 Charlottetown (P.E.I.), 277, 322-23 Charm (USSR), 1280 Chamwood (UK), 1291 Charzhou see Chardzou Chateaubelair(S. Vincent), 1040 Chatham Is. (NZ), 903,906 Chattanooga (Tenn.), 1375, 1534-35 Cheboksary (USSR), 1217,1247 Chechaouen (Morocco), 870 Checheno-Ingush (USSR), 1245,1247 Cheghcheran (Afghan.), 61 Chegutu (Zimbabwe), 1627 Cheju (Korea), 771,774 Chekiang, see Zhejiang Chelm (Poland), 998 Chelmsford (UK), 1291 Chelyabinsk (USSR), 1217, 1237,1245

PLACE

INDEX

Chemba (India), 657 Chemnitz, see Karl-Marx-Stadt Chengchow, see Zhengzhou Chengdu (China), 353,361, 363 Chengtu, see Chengdu Cherbourg (Fiance), 482,485 Cherepovetz (USSR), 1217 Cherkassy (USSR), 1217,1255 Cherkessk (USSR), 1241 Chernigov (USSR), 1217,1235, 1255 Chernabyl (USSR), 1231 Chernovtsy (USSR), 1217,1255 Chemyakovsk (USSR), 1217 Cherrapunji (India), 626 Cherry Hill (N.J.), 1502 Cherwell (UK), 1291 Chesapeake (Va.), 1375 Cheshire (UK), 1290 Chester (UK), 1291 Chesterfield (UK), 1291 Chesterfield Is. (New Caled.), 509 Chestnut Hill (Mass.), 1481 Chetumal (Mex.),853 Cheyenne (Wyo.), 1555-56 Chiang Mai (Thail.), 1181 Chiapas (Mex.),853,857 Oliatura (USSR), 1262 Chiayi (Taiwan), 365 Chiba (Japan), 748 Chicago (III.), 1374,1459-61 Chichester (UK), 1291 Chichigalpa (Nicar.), 922 Chickmagalur (India), 660 Chiclayo (Peru), 984,986 Chicopee (Mass.), 1479 Chicoutimi-Jonquiere (Canada), 270 Chieti (Italy), 742 Chihuahua (Mex.), 853-54,858 Chile, 346-51 Chililabombwe (Zambia), 1623 Chilian (Chile), 346 Chilliwack (B.C.), 304 Chiloé (Chile), 350 Chilpancingo (Mex.), 853 Chiltem (UK), 1291 Chimaltenango (Guat.), 576 Chimborazo (Ecuador), 438 Chimbu (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Chimkent (USSR), 1217, 1273-74 Chimoio (Mozam.), 876 China, 352-65 —agriculture, 359 —area and pop., 352-53 —education, 363 —govt, and representation, 354-56 China Bay (Sri Lanka), 1122 Chinandega (Nicar.), 922,925 Chinghai, see Qinghai Chinglaput (India), 647 Chingola (Zambia), 1623 Chinhoyi (Zimbabwe), 1627 Chin State (Burma), 252 Chining, see Tsining Chipata (Zambia), 1623 Chipinge (Zimbabwe), 1630 Chiquimula (Guat.), 576 Chirchik (USSR), 1278 Chiriqui (Pan.), 966,968 Chita (USSR), 1217,1237, 1241, 1245 Chitaldrug (India), 660 Chitral (Afghan.), 64

Chitré(Pan.), 966 Chittagong (Bangladesh), 184-85,187-88 Chittagong Hill (Bangladesh), 184 Chittaranjan (India), 685 Chitungwiza (Zimbabwe), 1627 Chivor(Colom.), 373 Chobe (Botswana), 225 Chocó (Colotn.), 370,373 Choiseul (Solomon Is.), 1071 Choluteca (Hond.), 597-98,600 Chomutov (Czech.), 409 Chonchu (Korea), 772 Chongjin (N. Korea), 776-77, 779 Chongqing(China), 353-54, 361 Chontales (Nicar.), 922 Chorley (UK), 1291 Chota Nagpur (India), 651 Choumen, see Shumen Chowdwar (India), 673 Choybalsan (Mongolia), 866 Christ Church (Barbados), 192 Christchurch (NZ), 904,913,914 Christiansted (Virgin Is., USA), 1567-68 Christmas Is. (Aust.), 95,113, 125-26 Christmas Is. (Pacific), see Kiritimati (Kiribati) Chubu (Japan), 749 Chubut (Argen.), 89 Chugoku (Japan), 749 Chukot (USSR), 1245,1254 Chuquisaca (Bolivia), 217 Chur(Switz.), 1166 Chuvash (USSR), 1245,1247 Cicilia (Turkey), 1206 Ciechanow (Poland), 998 Ciego de Avila (Cuba), 392 Cienfuegos (Cuba), 392,395 Cinchan,38 Cincinnati (Ohio), 1374,1515 Cirebon (Indon.), 693 Ciskei, 1080,1103-05 Ciudad Bolivar (Venez.), 1580-81,1585 Ciudad de la Habana (Cuba), 392 Ciudad Gu>-na (Venez.), 1580 Ciudad Juárez (Méx.), 854 Ciudad Madero (Méx.), 854 Ciudad Oboregon (Méx.), 854 Ciudad-Real (Spain), 1108 Ciudad Trujillo, see Santo Domingo Ciudad Victoria (Méx.), 853-54 Clackmannan (UK), 1291 Clare (Ireland), 710 Claremont (N.H.), 1500 Clarendon (Jamaica), 744 Clark County (Nev.), 1497 Clarksburg (W. Va.), 1548 Clarksville (Tenn.), 1534 Clausthal-Zellerfeld (FRG), 551 Clearwater (Fia.), 1450 Ciechanow (Poland), 998 Clermont-Ferrand (France), 481-82 Cleveland (Miss.), 1489 Cleveland (Ohio), 1374,1515, 1517 Cleveland (UK), 1290 Cleveland Heights (Ohio), 1515 Clifton (N.J.), 1502 Clinton (Iowa), 1464 Clipperton Is. (Fr. Polyn.), 513

PLACE C l u j (Romania), 1020,1026 Cluj N a p o c a (Romania), 1020 Clutha (NZ), 904 Clwyd (UK), 1291 C l y d e b a n k ( U K ) , 1294 Clydesdale (UK), 1294 Clydeside (UK), 1295 CMEA, 48-49 Coahuila (Mex.), 8 5 3 , 8 5 7 Coastal Region (NZ), 904 Coast Province (Kenya), 763, 765 Coatbridge (UK), 1294 Coats Land (Brit. Ant. Terr.), 236 Coatzacoalcos (Mex.), 854, 858 Coban (Guat.), 576, 578 Cobija (Bolivia), 2 1 7 - 1 8 C o c h a b a m b a (Bolivia), 2 1 7 - 1 8 , 221-22 Cochin (India), 6 2 3 - 2 5 , 6 3 3 , 642,646,663 C o d e (Pan.), 966 Cocos (Keeling), Is. (Aust.), 95, 113,124-25 Codrington (Barbuda), 8 5 - 8 6 Coetivy Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Coffin Bay (S. Aust.), 146 Coihaique (Chile), 346 Coimbatore (India), 6 2 5 , 6 3 3 , 681 C o i m b r a ( P o r t ) , 1007,1012 Cojedes (Venez.), 1580 Cojutepeque (El Salvador), 451 Colac(Vic-), 152 Colchester (UK), 1291 Colchis (USSR), 1262-63 Cold Lake (Alb.), 299 C o l e r a i n e ( N . Ireland), 1351,1361,1363 Colima(Mex.),853 College Station (Tex.), 1538 C o l m a r (France), 482 Coloane (Portugal), 1014 Cologne (FRG), 530, 5 3 7 - 3 8 , 552 Colombia, 3 7 0 - 7 5 C o l o m b o (Sri Lanka), 1120, 1126 C o l o m b o Plan, 49-51 Colon (Ecuador), 438 Colon (Hond.), 597 Colon (Pan.), 9 6 6 , 9 6 8 - 7 0 Colonia (Urug.), 1568,1571 Colorado (USA), 1371,1378, 1384,1405,1440-43 Colorado Springs (Colo.), 1375, 1441-43 Columbia, Dist. of, see Dist. of Columbia C o l u m b i a (Mo.), 1490-91 C o l u m b i a (S.C.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 5 3 0 - 3 1 Columbus(Ga-), 1375, 1452 C o l u m b u s (Miss.), 1487, 1489 C o l u m b u s (Ohio), 1374,1515, 1517 Comayagua (Hond.), 597 Comayaguela (Hond.), 598 COMECON, 4 8 - 4 9 Comilla (Bangladesh), 184 C o m i n o (Malta), 840 C o m m e r c e (Texas), 1538 C o m m e w i j n e (Suriname), 1133-35 C o m m o n Agric. Policy, 4 4 - 4 5 C o m m o n Market, see European Economic C o m m u n i t y C o m m o n w e a l t h , The, 27-31 C o m o d o r o Rivadavia (Argen.), 89,93

INDEX

C o m o é (Burkina Faso), 248 Comoros, 3 7 6 - 7 8 C o m o x (B.C.), 304 C o n a k r y (Guinea), 5 8 1 - 8 3 Concepción (Chile), 3 4 4 , 3 5 0 - 5 1 Concepción (Pan.), 968 Concepción (Para.), 9 7 8 , 9 8 2 - 8 3 Concord (Calif.), 1375 Concord (N.H.), 1500 Concordia (Argen.), 89 Con Dao (Vietnam), 1588 Congo,379-82 Congo (Kinshasa), see Zaire C o n n a c h t (Ireland), 711 Connecticut (USA), 1372, 1377,1384, 1386, 1443-46 Con Son Is. (Vietnam), 1591 Constanta (Romania), 1020-21, 1025-26 Constantine (Algeria), 7 2 , 7 5 - 7 6 Constantinople, see Istanbul Cook Is. (NZ), 9 1 8 - 2 0 C o o k s t o w n ( N . Ireland), 1355 C o o m a c k a (Guyana), 589 C o o p e r Eromanga (Aust.), 138 Coorg (India), 6 4 6 , 6 6 0 Copán (Hond.), 597 Copenhagen (Denmark), 413, 415,421,423,427 C o p i a p o (Chile), 346 Copperbelt (Zambia), 1623, 1625 Coquilhatville, see Mbandaka C o q u i m b o (Chile), 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 Coralline Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Coral Sea Is. (Aust.), 9 5 , 1 2 7 - 2 8 Cordillera (Para.), 978 Córdoba (Argen.), 8 8 - 8 9 , 9 2 - 9 3 Córdoba (Colom.), 370 Córdoba (Méx.), 854 Córdoba (Spain), 1107,1 109, 1118

C o r e n t y n e (Guyana), 588 C o r f u (Greece), 571 Corinto(Nicar.), 9 2 2 , 9 2 5 Coriseo (Equat. Guin.), 449 Cork (Ireland), 7 0 9 - 1 1 , 713,721 Cornelia (Spain), 1107 C o r n e r Brook (Nfndlnd.), 311 Cornwall (UK), 1290 C o r o (Venez.), 1580 Coronel Oviedo (Para.), 982-83 Coronie (Suriname), 1134-35 Corovodé (Albania), 67 Corozal T o w n (Belize), 203 C o r p u s Christi (Tex.), 1375, 1536 Corradine (Malta), 841 Corrientes (Argen.), 8 8 , 9 3 Corrientes (Para.), 982 Corriverton (Guyana), 587 Corsica (France), 481 Cortés (Hond.), 597 C o r u m (Turkey), 1200 C o r u n n a (Spain), 1108-09 Corvallis(Ore.), 1521,1523 Corvo (Azores), 1007 Cosenza (Italy), 7 3 4 , 7 4 3 Cosmoledo Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Costa Rica, 3 8 3 - 8 7 Cotaje (Bolivia), 220 Cote d'lvoire, 388-91 Cotonou (Benin),207-10 Cotopaxi (Ecuador), 438 Cottbus (GDR), 523

1643 Council Bluffs (Iowa), 1464 Council of Europe, 3 9 - 4 1 Courtrai (Belgium), 194 Covasna (Romania), 1020 Coventry (UK), 1291 Covington (Ky.), 1468 Crabwood Creek (Guyana), 589 Craçow, see Kraków Craigavon (N. Ireland), 1356, 1361 Craiova (Romania), 1 0 2 0 , 1 0 2 6 Cranbrook (B.C.), 3 0 1 , 3 0 4 Crandon (Wise.), 1552 Cranston (Rhode Is.), 1527 Cran well (UK), 1309 Crawfordsburn (N. Ireland), 1361 Créil (France), 482 Crete (Greece), 5 6 7 , 5 7 1 Crewe and Nantwich (U K), 1291 Crimea (USSR), 1236, 1255 Crisana (Romania), 1023 Cristobal (Pan.), 9 6 6 , 9 6 9 Croatia (Yug.), 1 6 0 5 , 1 6 1 3 Crooked Is. (Bahamas), 174 Cross River(Nigeria), 930 Croydon (UK), 1293 Crozet Is. (France), 508 Crumlin (N. Ireland), 1358 Csongrâd (Hungary), 609 C u a n d o - C u b a n g o (Angola), 80 C u a n z a Norte (Angola), 80 C u a n z a Sul (Angola), 80 Cuba, 392-97 C ü c u t a (Colom.), 370 Cuddalore (India), 681 C u d d a p a h (India), 647 Cudjoe Head (Montserrat), 869 Cuenca (Ecuador), 4 3 8 , 4 4 0 - 4 1 Cuenca (Spain), 1108 Cuernavaca (Mex.), 8 5 3 - 5 5 Cueva (Bolivia), 222 Cuiabà (Brazil), 227 Culebra Is. (Puerto Rico), 1564 C u l e m b o r g (Neth.), 890 Culiacan Rosales (Mex.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 , 859 C u m a n â (Venez.), 1580 C u m b e r l a n d (Md.), 1477 C u m b e r l a n d (R. I.), 1527 C u m b e r n a u l d and Kilsyth (UK), 1294-95 C u m b r i a (UK), 1290 C u m n o c k and Doon Valley (UK), 1294 C u n d i n a m a r c a (Colom.), 370 C u n e n e (Angola), 80 C u n n i n g h a m e (U K), 1294 C u r a ç a o Is. (Neth. Ant.), 891-92,900-02 C u r e p i p e (Mauritius), 849 Curitiba (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 4 Cuscatlàn ( E I S a l v . ) , 4 5 1 , 4 5 4 Cutch,5£e Kutch Cuttack (India), 6 2 5 , 6 7 2 - 7 3 C u t u c o (El Salv.), 453 Cuu Long (Vietnam), 1588 Cuvette (Congo), 379 Cuyahoga Falls (Ohio), 1515 C u y a n i - M a z a r u n i (Guyana), 588 C u z c o (Peru), 9 8 4 - 8 5 Cyangugu (Rwanda), 1028 Cyclades (Greece), 567 Cyprus, Turkish R e p u b l i c of Northern, 3 9 8 - 4 0 4 Cyrenaica (Libya), 801

1644

PLACE INDEX

Czechoslovakia, 405-12 Czestochowa (Poland), 998 Dabakala (Còte d'lvoire), 388 Dacca, see Dhaka (Bangladesh) Dac Lac (Vietnam), 1587 Dacorum (UK), 1291 Dadong (China), 361 Dadra (India), 625,628,643, 646.687-88 Dafur (Sudan), 1128 Dagang (China), 358 Dagestan (USSR), 1247-48 Dagupan (Philipp.), 990 Dahab (Morocco), 870 Dahomey, see Benin Dahuk (Iraq), 705 Daitari (India), 673 Daito Is. (Japan), 750 Dajabón (Dom. Rep.),433,435 Dakar (Senegal), 1052,1054-55 Dakhla (W.Sahara), 1119 Dakhlet Nouàdhibou (Mauritania), 846 Dalaba (Guinea), 582 Dalion (China), 353,362 Dallas (Tex.), 1374, 1537-38 Dalmatia (Yug.), 1614 Daloa (Còte d'lvoire), 388,391 Dalvik (Iceland), 617 Daman and Diu (India), 625,628, 646.688-89 Damanganga (India), 688 Damanhur (Egypt), 444 Damanjodi (India), 673 Damascus (Syria), 1168,1 170-71 Damietta (Egypt), 444 Dammam (Saudi Arabia), 1045, 1049-50 DampierfW. Aust.), 165 Danané (Còte d'lvoire), 388 Da Nang (Vietnam), 1587,1591 Danbury (Conn.), 1443 Danger Is. (Cook Is.), 919 Dangs (India), 652 Danli (Hond.), 597 Danube Commission, 58 Danville (Ky.), 1470 Danzig, see Gdansk Dapaong (Togo), 1184,1186 Daqahliya (Egypt), 444 Daqing (China), 358,362 Darbhanga (India), 651-52 Dar es Salaam (Tanz.), 1172-73 1175-76 Darién (Pan.), 966,968 Dar-i-Suf (Afghan.), 63 Daijeel ing (India), 626 Darkhan (Mongolia), 863, 865-66 Darlington (UK), 1291 Darmstadt (FRG), 530,549 Daros Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Dartmouth (N.S.), 315 Daru (Papua New Guinea), 972 Darwin (N. Aust.), 95-96,120, 122

Das Is. (UAE), 1287 Daugavpils (Latvia USSR), 1269 Daval (USSR), 1265 Davao (Philipp.), 990 Davenport (Iowa), 1375,1465 David (Pan.), 966,968 Davis (Aust. Antar. Terr.), 124 Dawson City (Yukon), 331-33 Dawson Creek (BC), 304 Dayr as-Zawr (Syria), 1168

Dayton (Ohio), 1375,1515,1517 De Aar(SW Afr.), 1096 Dearborn (Mich.), 1482 Dearborn Heights (Mich.), 1482 Death Valley (Calif.), 1438 Debrecen (Hungary), 609-611, 615 Debre Markos (Ethiopia), 460 Debre Zeit (Ethiopia), 460 Decatur (Ga.), 1454 Decatur (111.), 1459 Dedza (Malawi), 818 Deer Lodge County (Mont.), 1492 Degari (Pak.), 961 Degrad des Cannes (Fr. Guiana), 500 Dehiwela (Sri Lanka), 1120 Dehra Dun (India), 625,631 De Kalb (111.), 1461 De La Kara Reg. (Togo), 1184 Delaware (USA), 1373,1378, 1383-84,1446-48 Delft (Neth.), 887 Delfzjil (Neth.), 887,893 Delhi (city), (India), 625,632, 641-42,644,688 Delhi, New (India), 624,626, 631,635,645,688 Delhi (Terr.),(India), 625,628, 646,689-90 Delta Amacuro Terr. (Venez.), 1580 Demerara (Guyana), 588 Democratic Saharan Arab Rep., 1119 Den Helder (Neth.), 891 Denizli (Turkey), 1200-01 Denjong (India), 676 Denmark, 413-27 Den Pasar (lndon.), 693 Denton (Tex.), 1538 Denver (Colo.), 1374,1441-43 De Panne (Belgium), 200 Der'a (Syria), 1168 Dera Ghazi Khan (Pak ), 961 Dera Ismail Khan (Pak.), 961 Derby (UK), 1291 Derbyshire (UK), 1290 Derna (Libya), 801,805 Derry (N. Ireland), 1356, 1361,1363 Desaguadero (Bolivia), 221 Desful (Iran), 700 Des Moines (Iowa), 1375, 1465-67 Des Plateaux (Togo), 1184 Desroches (Seychelles), 236, 1056 Dessau (GDR), 523 Des Savanes Reg. (Togo), 1184 Dessie (Ethiopia), 460 Detroit (Mich.), 1374,1483 Deurne (Neth.), 887 Deusto (Spain), 1118 Deva (Romania), 1020 Deventer (Neth.), 887 Devonport (Aust.), 147-48 Devon (UK), 1290 Dewangiri (Bhutan), 114 Dewas (India), 664 Dhahran (Saudi Arabia), 1049-50 Dhaka (Bangladesh), 184,186, 188-89 Dhamar (Yemen), 1598 Dhanbad (India), 625,651 Dharmanagar (India), 682 Dharwar (India), 661

Dhaulagiri (Nepal), 883 DhiQar (Iraq), 705 Dhodak (Pak.), 960 Dhofar(Oman),951,953-54 Dhulia (India), 666 Dhullian (Pak.), 960 Dhursing (Nepal), 884 Diadema (Brazil), 228 Diamou (Mali), 838 Dibré (Albania), 66-67 Dibrugarh (India), 650 Dickson Is. (USSR), 1237 Diego Garcia (Br. Indian Ocean Terr.), 236 Diégo-Suarez (Madag.), see Antseranana Dien Bien Phu (Vietnam), 1591 DilTa (Niger), 928 Differdange (Luxembourg), 809 Dijon (France), 481-82 Dikchu (India), 678 Dikhil (Djibouti), 428 Dili (lndon.), 693 Dillon (Mont.), 1494 Dilolo (Angola), 81 Dimani (Venda), 1103 Dimapur (India), 671 Dimasho (Syria), 1168 Dimbasa (Ciskei), 1104 Dimbokro (Còte d'lvoire), 388 Dimbovita (Romania), 1020 Dinajpur (Bangladesh), 184 Diourbel (Senegal), 1052,1054 Direction Is. (Cocos Is.), 125 Dire Dawa (Ethiopia), 460 Dispur (India), 646,650,669 District of Columbia (USA), 1373,1379, 1384, 1389,1411,1419, 1421,1448-50 Distrito Federal (Brazil), 227-28 Distrito Federal (Mex.), 853 Ditsobotla (S. Afr.), 1100 Diu (India), 625,628,646, 688-89 Divo (Còte d'lvoire), 388 Diyala(Iraq.), 705 Diyarbakir (Turkey), 1200-01 Djaikak (USSR), 1278 Djakarta, see Jakarta Djambala (Congo), 379 Djambul (USSR), 1217 Djebel Berga (Algeria), 74 Djelfa (Algeria), 72 Djerba (Tunisia), 1195 Djetygar (USSR), 1274 Djibouti, 428-30 Djibouti (Cap.) (Djibouti), 428-30 Djoue (Congo), 380 Dneprodzerzhinsk (USSR), 1217 Dnepropetrovsk (USSR), 1217, 1237,1255 Doba (Chad), 343 Dobrich, see Tolbukhin Dodecanese Is. (Greece), 567, 571 Dodge City (Kans.), 1467 Dodoma (Tanz.), 1172 Doetinchem (Neth.), 887 Doha (Qatar), 1016,1018 Dolgano (USSR), 1245 Dolisie, see Loubomo Dolj (Romania), 1020 Dolni Dubnik(Bulg-), 247 Dominica (W. Indies), 431-32 Dominican Rep., 433-37

PLACE INDEX Doncaster(UK), 1291 Donegal (Ireland), 711 Donetsk (USSR), 1217, 1237, 1255-56 Donetz (USSR), 1255 Dongen (Neth.), 887 Dongeradeel (Neth.), 887 Dong Nai (Vietnam), 1588 Dongola (Sudan), 1131 DongThap (Vietnam), 1588 Doomik, see Toumai Dordrecht (Neth.), 887-88 Dombim (Austria), 168 Dorset (UK), 1290 Dortmund (FRG), 530,538, 552 Dosso (Niger), 928 Douai (France), 482 Douala (Cameroon), 264,267 Douglas (I.O.M.), 1364-65 Douglas-Daly (Aust.), 122 Dover (Del.), 1446 Dover (N.H.), 1500 Dover (UK), 1291 Down (N. Ireland), 1356 Downpatrick (N. Ireland), 1361 Drama (Greece), 567 Drammen (Norway), 937 Drenthe (Neth.), 886 Dresden (GDR), 523-24 Drobeta (Romania), 1020 Dronten (Neth.), 887 Drumheller (Alb.), 298 Dschang (Cameroon), 264,267 Duarte (Dom. Rep.), 433 Dubai (UAE), 1284-88 Dubbo (NSW), 128 Dublin (Ireland), 710-11, 718,721,723 Dublin-Belgard (Ireland), 710 Dublin-Fingal (Ireland), 710 Dubossarsk (USSR), 1266 Dubrovnik (Yug.), 1610 Dubuque (Iowa), 1465-67 Ducie(Pitcairn), 996 Dudelange (Luxembourg), 809 Dudinka (USSR), 1254 Dudley (UK), 1291 Duff Is. (Solomon Is.), 1071 Duisberg (FRG), 530 Dukhan (Qatar), 1016 Duluth(Minn.), 1485 Dumfries and Galloway Region (UK), 1291 Dumyàt (Egypt), 444 Dunbar Point (Andaman Is.), 686 Dunbarton(UK), 1294 Dundalk (Ireland), 721 Dundalk(Md-), 1476 Dundee (UK), 1294,1344-45 Dundigal (India), 633 Dunedin (NZ), 899,904,913,915 Dunfermline (UK), 1291-94 Dungannon(N. Ireland), 1356 Dunkerque (France), 482 Dun Laoghaire (Ireland), 710-11 Duntroon (Aust.), 100 Duque de Caxios (Brazil), 1232 Durango (Colo.), 1443 Durango (Mex.), 853,857 Durant (Okla.), 1520 Durazno(Urug.), 1569 Durazzo, see Durres Durban (Natal), 1078,1081-82, 1084,1086 Durgapur (India), 625,68 5 Durg Bhilainagar (India), 625, 664

Durham (N.C.), 1371,1510 Durham (UK), 1290,1338, 1345 Durres (Albania), 66,68-70 Durrsi, see Durres Dushanbe (USSR), 1217, 1279-81 Diisseldorf (FRG), 530,538, 551-52 Dyfed (UK), 1291 Dzaoudzi (Mayotte), 505 Dzerzhinsk (USSR), 1217 Dzhambul (USSR), 1273-74 Dzhezkazgan (USSR), 1273-74 Dzhizak (USSR), 1277 Eagle (Br. Ind. Ocean Terr.), 236 Ealing (UK), 1291 Easington (G.B.), 1291 East Bank (Jordan), 758 East Bengal, see Bangladesh East Berbice (Guyana), 588 East Cape (NZ),903 East Cleveland (Ohio), 1515 East Devon (UK), 1291 Easter Is. (Chile), 346 Eastern Dist. (Samoa USA), 1561 Eastern Dist. (Sikkim), 677 Eastern Highlands (Papua New Guinea), 973-74 Eastern Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 Eastern Prov. (Kenya). 763, 765 Eastern Prov. (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Eastern Prov. (Sri Lanka), 1120 Eastern Prov. (Uganda), 1212 Eastern Prov. (Zambia), 1623 Eastern Region (Ghana), 558 Eastern Region (Sierra Leone), 1059 Eastern Region (Sudan), 1128 East Essex (UK), 1290 East Falkland Is., 464-65 East Gippsland (Vic.), 155 East Greenland (Denmark), 425 East Griqualand (Cape Prov.), 1090 Eastham (UK), 1330 East Hampshire (UK), 1291 East Hertfordshire (UK), 1291 East Is. (Ashmore Is.), 127 East Kilbride (UK), 1294-95 Eastleigh (UK), 1291 EastLindsey (UK),1291 East London (Cape), 1078, 1082,1083 East Lothian (UK), 1294 East New Britain (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Easton(Pa.), 1524,1526 East Orange (N.J.), 1502 East Providence (R.I.), 1527 East Region (Iceland), 617 East Sepik (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 East Staffordshire (UK), 1291 East St Louis (111.), 1459 East Sussex (UK), 1290 East Timor, see Loro Sae Eastwood (UK), 1294 Eau Claire (Wise.), 1551,1553 Ebolowa (Cameroon), 264 ECA, 5 ECE, 5 ECLA, 5 Ecuador, 438-43 ECWA, 5 Edam-Volendam (Neth.), 887

1645 Ed-Daein (Sudan), 1131 Ede (Neth.), 887 Ede (Nigeria), 930 Edea (Cameroon), 264,266 Edessa (Greece), 567 Edgeoya (Svalbard), 948 Edinburgh (St. Helena), 1035 Edinburgh (UK), 1294,1296, 1339,1344-45 Edirne (Turkey), 1200 Edison (N.J.), 1501 Edjélé (Algeria), 74 Edmond (Okla.), 1520 Edmonds (Wash.), 1546 Edmonton (Alb.), 269,278, 297-98,300 Edmundston (New Bruns.), 308 Efate (Vanuatu), 1574 ElTon-Alaiye (Nigeria), 931 Eger (Hungary), 609 Egmont (Br. Indian Ocean Terr.), 236 Egypt, see Arab Republic of Eichstätt (FRG), 538,543 Eilat (Israel), 727,729-30 Eindhoven (Neth.), 887-88 Eire, see Ireland Ejde (Faroe Is.), 425 El Aaiun (Morocco), 1114 Elazig (Turkey), 1200-01 Elbasan (Albania), 66,69 Elblag (Poland), 998 El Bluff (Nicar.), 925 Elburg (Neth.), 887 El Callao (Venez.), 1583 Elche (Spain), 1109 EI Dammer (Sudan), 1131 Eldoret (Kenya), 763,766 Eleuthera (Bahamas), 174 El Ferrol (Spain), 1109,1112 El Gassi (Algeria), 74 Elgin (111.), 1459 Elia (Greece), 566 Elias Pina (Dom. Rep.), 435-36 Elisabethville, see Lubumbashi Elista (USSR), 1248 Elizabeth (N.J.) 1375,1502 El Jadida (Morocco), 870 El Keláa Srarhna (Morocco), 870 Elko (Nev.) 1499 Ellesmere Port (UK), 1330 Ellice Is. see Tuvalu Ellicott's Mills (Md.), 1416 Elmbridge (UK), 129! Elmira(N.Y.), 1507 El Mochito (Hond.), 599 El Obeid (Sudan), 1131 El Oro (Ecuador), 438 El Paraiso (Hond.), 597 El Paso (Tex.), 1374, 1536-37 Elphinstone (Andaman Is.), 687 El Porvenir (Panama), 966 El Progreso (Guat.), 576 El Progreso (Hond.), 597-98 El Rahad (Sudan), 1131 Elsa (Yukon), 331,333 El Salvador, 451-55 El Seibo (Dom. Rep ), 433 Elsmere Town (Del.), 1446 Eluru (India), 647 El Yopal (Colom.), 370 Elyria (Ohio), 1515 Emba (USSR), 1274 Emek Hefer (Israel), 726 Emet (Turkey), 1203 Emilia-Romagna (Italy), 732, 736

1646 Emmen (Neth.),887 Empangeni (Natal), 1087 Emporia (Kans.), 1468 'Empty Quarter' (Oman), 951 Emsland (FRG), 534 Encamp (Andorra), 78 Encarnación (Para.), 978,982-83 Enderbury Is. (Kiribati), 768 Enfield (UK), 1291 Enga (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Engels (USSR), 1217,1235 England and Wales (see also Gt. Britain) —area and pop., 1289-93, 1295 —education, 1339-45 —justice and crime, 1331-37 —local government, 1302-1305 —religion, 1337-39 —welfare, 1348-54 Enid (Okla.), 1518 Enschede(Neth.), 887-88 Ensenada (Méx.), 854 Entebbe (Uganda), 1212-14 Entre Rios (Argen.), 88,93 Enugu (Nigeria), 930,934 Epe (Neth.), 887 Epe (Nigeria), 933 Ephraim (Utah), 1540 Epi (Vanuatu), 1574 Epirus (Greece), 566, 570 Epping Forest (UK), 1291 Equateur (Zaire), 1618 Equatoria (Sudan), 1126,1130 Equatorial Guinea, 456-58 Erden et (Mongolia), 863,865-66 Eregli (Turkey), 1204 Erevan (USSR), 1217-18,1227, 1229,1264-65, Erewash (UK), 1291 Erfurt (GDR), 523 Ergani (Turkey), 1203 Erie (Pa.), 1375,1524 Eritrea (Ethiopia), 459-61 Erlangen (FRG), 538,543 Ermelo (Neth.), 887 Ernakulam (India), 663 Erode (India), 625 Errachidia (Morocco), 870 Erromanga (Vanuatu), 1574-75 Erseké, see Kolonje Erzgebirge (GDR), 526 Erzincan (Turkey), 1200 Erzurum (Turkey), 1200-01 Esbjerg (Denmark), 413-15 Esbo, see Espoo Escalante (Venez.), 1585 ESCAP, 5 Esch-Alzette (Luxembourg), 809 Escuintla(Guat.), 576 Esfahan (Iran), 699-700 Eskifjóróur (Iceland), 617 Eskilstuna (Sweden), 1142 Eskisehir (Turkey), 1200-01 Esmeraldas (Ecuador), 438,441 Espaillat (Dom. Rep.), 433 Espargos (Cape Verde Is.), 337 Espirito Santo (Brazil), 227, 232 Espíritu Santo (Vanuatu), 1574, 1576 Espoo (Finland), 472 Esquimalt (B.C.), 275 Essaouira (Morocco), 870, 873 Es Semara (Morocco), 870 Essen (FRG), 530 Essequibo Is. (Guyana), 588 Essex (UK), 1290,1345

PLACE

INDEX

Essonne (France), 491 Est Prov. (Cameroon), 264 Esteban Echeverría (Argen.), 89 Esteli (Nicar.), 922,925 Estevan (Sask.), 327 Estonia (USSR), 1214,1219, 1241,1267-68 Estuaire (Gabon), 515 Etchmiadzin (USSR), 1241 Ethiopia, 459-63 Eton (UK), 1344 Etten-Leur (Neth.), 887 Ettrick and Lauderdale (UK), 1293 'Eua (Tonga), 1188,1190 Euboea (Greece), 566,569 Euclid (Ohio), 1515 Eugene (Ore.), 1374,1521,1523 Euroa (Vic.), 155 Europa (Réunion), 503 European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), 41,45 European Coal and Steel Community, 41,43-44 European Communities, 41-46 European Court of Justice, 42 European Economic Community, 41,44-45 European Free Trade Assn., 46-47 European Investment Bank, 42-43 European Monetary System, 45 European Parliament, 42-43 European Trade Union Confederation, 32-33 Evanston (111.), 1459,1461 Evansville(Ind-), 1375,1462 Evenki (USSR), 1245,1254 Everett (Wash.), 1546 Everton (Guyana), 590 Evora (Port.), 1007,1012 Evros (Greece), 567 Evrytania (Greece), 566 Exeter (UK), 1291,1345 Extremadura (Spain), 1108,1118 Extreme-North Prov. (Cameroon), 264 Exuma (Bahamas), 174 Fada N'Ngourma (Burkina Faso), 248 Faial (Azores), 1007 Fairbairn (ACT), 101 Fairbanks-North Star (Alaska), 1430,1432 Fairmont(W. Va.), 1548, 1550 Faisalabad (Pak.), 957 Faiyûm (Egypt), 444 Faizabad (Afghán.), 61 Fakaofo Is. (Tokelau Is.), 918 Falch (Libya), 801 Falcon (Venez.), 1580,1583 Falkirk (UK), 1291 Falkland Is., 89,464-65 Fall River (Mass.), 1479-80 Falun (Sweden), 1142 Famagùsta (Cyprus), 398,402, 404 Family Is. (Bahamas), 175-77 Fangataufa (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Fanling (Hong Kong), 602 Fanning Is. (Kiribati), see Tabuaeran FAO, 14-15 Farafenni (Gambia), 519 Farakka (India), 686 Fareham (UK), 1291

Fargo (N.D.), 1513-14 Farhah (Saudi Arabia), 1048 Faridabad (India), 625 Faridpur (Bangladesh), 184 Farmington Hills (Mich.), 1482 Farmington (N.M.), 1504 Faro (Port.), 1007,1011 Faro (Yukon), 331,333 Faroe Is. (Denmark), 415, 419,421,424-25 Farquhar Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Fars (Iran), 699 Fatu-Hiva (Fr. Polyn.), 512 Faya-Largeau (Chad), 343 Fayetteville (Ark.), 1435 Fayetteville (N.C.), 1510 Federal Cap. (Argen.), 88 Federal Cap. Terr. (Nigeria), 930 Federal Cap. Terr. (Pak.), 958 Federal Dist. (Argen.), 89 Federal Dist. (Congo), 379 Federal Dist. (Hond.), 597-98 Federal District (Méx.), 855 Federal Dist. (Venez.), 1580 Federal Republic ofGermany, 529-57 Federal Territory (Malaysia), 822 Feira de Santana (Brazil), 228 Fejér (Hungary), 609 Feldkirch (Austria), 168 Feltre (Italy), 743 Ferghana (USSR), 1217, 1276-78 Ferkéssédougon (Cote d'l voire), 388,390 Fermanagh (N. Ireland), 1356 Fernando de Noronha (Brazil), 229,232 Femando Poo (Equat. Guin.), see Macias Nguema Fernetici-Sezana (Yug.), 1605 Ferozepore (India), 656,674 Ferrara (Italy), 734, 743 Fez (Morocco), 870-71,873, 875 Fianarantsoa (Madag.), 809 Fier (Albania), 66 Fife (UK), 1291 Figueira di Foz (Port.), 1011 Figuig (Morocco), 870 Fiji, 467-70 Finland, 471-80 Finnmark (Norway), 936 Flagstaff (Ariz), 1436 Flanders (Belgium), 193 Flandreau (S.D.), 1533 Flevoland (Neth.), 886 Flinders Is. (Tasm.), 148 Flin Flon (Man.), 305 Flint (Kiribati), 768 Flint (Mich.), 1375,1482 Florence (Italy), 734, 739,741, 743 Florence (S.C.), 1531 Florencia (Colom.), 370 Flores (Azores), 1007 Flores (Urug.), 1569 Floriana (Malta), 844 Florianópolis (Brazil), 227 Florida (Solomon Is.), 1071 Florida (Urug.), 1569,1571 Florida (USA), 1373,1374-75, 1384, 1406,1410, 1449-52 Fiorina (Greece), 567 Florissant (Mo.), 1490

PLACE INDEX Flushing (Nelh.), 891 Focsani (Romania), 1021 Foggia (Italy), 733 Fogo (C.Verde Is.), 335-36 Fomboni (Comoros), 376 Fond du Lac (Wise.), 1551 Fontvieille (Monaco), 861-62 Foochow, see Fuzhou Forari (Vanuatu), 1575 Forbach (France), 482 Forest County (Wise.), 1552 Forli (Italy), 733 Formosa (Argen.), 88 Formosa Is., see Taiwan Fortaleza (Brazil), 227-28,234 Fort Clayton (Panama), 971 Fort Collins (Colo.), 1441,1443 Fort-de-France (Martinique), 501-02 Fort Dodge (Iowa), 1464 Fort George G. Meade (Md.), 1387 Fort Gillem (USA), 1387 Fort Huachuca (Ariz.), 1388 Fort Jameson, see Chipata Fort Lamy, see N'djamena Fort Lauderdale (Fla.), 1374, 1450 Fort Liberté (Haiti), 592 Fort McMurray (Alb.), 298-99 Fort McNair (USA), 1388 Fort McPherson (Ga.), 1387 Fort Monroe (Va.), 1387 Fort Providence (NW Terr.), 330 Fort Resolution (NW Terr.), 330 Fort Roseberry, see Mansa Fort Sam Houston (Tex.), 1386-88 Fort Sasketchewan (Alberta), 298 Fort Sheridan (USA), 1387 Fort Simpson (NW Terr.), 330 Fort Smith (Ark.), 1436 Fort Smith (NW Terr.), 330-31 Fort St John (B.C.), 301,304 Fort Victoria, see Nyanda Fort Wayne (Ind.), 1462 Fort Worth (Tex.), 1375, 1533,1538 Fotan (Hong Kong), 606 Foumban (Cameroon), 264 Fourah Bay (S. Leone), 1062 Fouta Djallon (Guinea), 582 Framingham (Mass.), 1479 France, 481-514 —agriculture, 489 —area and pop., 481 -82 —banking, 488 —defence, 485-87 —education, 492-94 —govt., 483-84 —industry, 489-90 —justice, 491-92 —religion, 492 —welfare, 494-96 Franceville (Gabon), 515 Franche-Comte (France), 481 Francisco Morazan (Hond.), 597 Francistown (Botswana), 223 Franekeradeel (Neth.), 887 Frankfort (Ky.), 1468-69 Frankfurt (GDR), 523 Frankfurt-on-Main (FRG), 530, 534,538,549 Fray Bentos (Urug.), 1569 Frederick (Md.), 1477

Fredericton (New Bruns.), 308-10 Frederiksberg (Denmark), 413 Frederiksborg (Denmark), 413 Frederiksted (Virgin Is., USA), 1567 Fredrikstad (Norway), 937 Freely-Associated States (USA), 1559 Freeport (Bahamas), 176 Freeport (N.Y.), 1507 Freetown (S. Leone), 1059-63 Fregate (Seychelles), 1056,1058 Freiburg (FRG), 530,538, 542 Fremantle (W. Aust.), 160,165 Fremont (Calif.), 1375,1438 Fremont (Nebr.), 1494-95 French Is. (Vic.), 154 French Guiana, 499-500 —Overseas Depts., 496 —Overseas Terr., 496-97 —Polynesia, 511-13 —Southern and Antarctic Terr., 508 —Terr, of Afars and Issas, see Djibouti Fresno (Calif.), 1375, 1438 Fria (Guinea.), 582 Fribourg(Switz.), 1 157-59, 1166 Friendly Is., see Tonga Friesland (Neth.), 886 Friuli VeneziaGiulia (Italy), 733,736 Frobisher Bay (NW Terr.), 329, 331 Front Range (Colo.), 1442 Frunze (USSR), 1217,1235, 1282-84 Frydek-mistek (Czech.), 406 Fuenlabrada (Spain), 1109 Fuerteventura (Canary Is.), 1108 Fuglafiordur (Faroe Is.), 425 Fujairah(UAE), 1284, 1287 Fujian (China), 353,360-61, 363 Fujisawa (Japan), 749 Fukien, see Fujian Fukui (Japan), 749 Fukuoka (Japan), 749, 756 Fukushima (Japan), 749 Fukuyama (Japan), 749 Fullerton (Calif), 1375 Funabashi (Japan), 749 Funafuti (Tuvalu), 1210-11 Funchal (Madeira), 1007-08, 1012

Fushun (China), 353 Fuzhou (China), 353 Fylingdales(U.K-), 1307 Fyns (Denmark), 413 Gabeit (Sudan), 1130 Gabela (Angola), 81 Gabes (Tunisia), 1195 Gabon, 515-18 Gaborone (Botswana), 225, 227-28 Gabrovo (Bulg.), 244 Gabu (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Gafsa (Tunisia), 1195 Gagnoa (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Gagra (USSR), 1263 Gainesville (Fla.), 1450-51 Gaithersburg (Ind.), 1477 Galápagos Is. (Ecuador), 438-39 Galati (Romania), 1020,1025

1647 Galerazamba (Colom.), 373 Galicia (Spain), 1108-09,1111 Galilee (Israel), 727 Galle (Sri Lanka), 1120 Gällivare (Sweden), 1147 Galloway (UK), 1293 Galveston (Tex.), 1536-37 Galway (Ireland), 711,721 Gambeila (Sudan), 1131 Gambia, 519-21 Gambier Is. (Fr. Polyn), 511 Gand, see Ghent Gandaki (Nepal), 883 Gander (Nfndland.), 311 Gandhinagar (India), 652-53 Ganga-Mula (India), 659 Gangtok (Sikkim), 646,677-79 Ganjam (India), 672 Gansu (China), 362 Ganta (Liberia), 797 Ganzourgou (Burkina Faso), 251 Gao (Mali), 837,839 Garankuwa(S. Afr.), 1100 Garöabaer (Iceland), 617 Garden City (N.Y.), 1507 Garden Grove (Calif.), 1375, 1438 Gardez (Afghan.), 61 Garfield Heights (Ohio), 1515 Garian (Libya), 804 Garland (Texas), 1375,1536 Garo Hills (India), 668 Garoua (Cameroon), 264,267 Garrett County (Md.), 1474 Gary (Ind.), 1375,1459 Garzan (Turkey), 1203 Gateshead (UK), 1291 Gatooma, see Kadoma GATT, 24-26 Gävle (Sweden), 1142 Gävleborg (Sweden), 1141 Gaya (India), 652 Gaza (Egypt), 444-45,449 Gaza (Mozamb.), 876,878 Gazankulu(S. Afr.), 1077, 1080,1092 Gaza Strip, 724 Gaziantep (Turkey), 1200-01 Gazli (USSR), 1232 Gbarnga (Liberia), 797 Gdansk (Poland), 998-99,1003 Gdynia (Poland), 998,1003 Gedaref (Sudan), 1131 Gedling (UK), 1291 Geelong(Vic.),96,152, 155 Gelderland (Neth.), 886 Geldermalsen (Neth.), 887 Geldrop (Neth.), 887 Geleen (Neth.), 887-88 Gelsenkirchen (FRG), 530 Gemas (Pen. Malaysia), 827 Gembloux (Belgium), 201 Gemu Gofa (Ethiopia), 460 Gendringen (Neth.), 887 General de Sarmiento (Argen.), 89 General San Martin (Argen.), 89 General Santos (Philipp.), 990 Geneva (Switz.), 1157-59, 1366 Genk (Belgium), 194 Genoa or Genova (Italy), 734, 737-38, 743 Gentofle (Denmark), 413 George (S. Afr.), 1085 Georgetown (Ascension), 1035 George Town (Cayman Is.), 338-39

1648 Georgetown (Dela.), 1448 Georgetown (Guyana), 587, 590-91 Georgetown (Ky.), 1470 Georgetown (St Vincent), 1040 George Town (Tasm.), 150 Georgia (USA), 1373,1379, 1384,1405,1406, 1410,1452-54 Georgia (USSR), 1217-18 1221,1261-62 Gera (GDR), 523 Geraldton (W. Aust.), 160 Germany, 522 German Democratic Republic, 523-28 German Federal Rep., 529-57 —agriculture, 534—35 —area and pop., 529-30 —banking, 534 —defence, 532-33 —education, 538 —govt., 530-32 —industry, 535-36 —justice, 537 —religion, 537-38 —welfare, 539 Germiston (Transvaal), 1078 Gerona (Spain), 1108-09 Getafe (Spain), 1112 Geuwa (Transkei), 1101 Gezira (Sudan), 1130 Ghadames (Libya), 801, 804 Ghana, 558-62 Ghangbatoke (Sierra Leone), 1062 Ghanzi (Botswana), 225 Gharbiya (Egypt), 444 Gharyan (Libya), 801 Ghat (Libya), 803-04 Ghatsila (India), 652 Ghawan (Saudi Arabia), 1048 Ghaziabad (India), 625 Ghazni (Afghan.), 61 Ghent (Belgium), 193-94,200-01 Ghubriah (Oman), 953 Gia Lai (Vietnam), 1587 Gibraltar, 563-65 Giessen (FRG), 538, 549 Gifu (Japan), 749 Gijon (Spain), 1109 Gikongoro (Rwanda), 1028 Gilan (Iran), 699 Gilbert & Ellice Is., see Kiribati Gilbert Islands, 768 Gilgit(Pak-), 958 Gillingham (UK), 1291 Gilze en Rijen (Neth.), 887 Gippsland(Vic.), 154,155-56 Giresun (Turkey), 1200 Gisborne (NZ), 903-04 Gisenyi (Rwanda), 1028 Gitarama (Rwanda), 1028 Gitega (Burundi), 257,259 Giurgiu (Romania), 1020 Gizo (Solomon Is.), 1071,1073 Gjirokaster (Albania), 66 Gjavik (Norway), 937 Glace Bay (N.S.),315 Gladstone (Queensld.), 137 Glarus (Switz.), 1 157,1159-60 Glasgow (UK), 1294,1296, 1339,1344-45 Glendale (Ariz.), 1434 Glendale (Calif.), 1375, 1438 Glenorchy (Tasm.), 148 Glenrothes (UK), 1295

PLACE

INDEX

Glenville (W.Va.), 1550 Gliwice (Poland), 998 Gloucester (UK), 1291 Gloucestershire (UK), 1290 Gnagna (Burkina Faso), 251 Gniezno (Poland), 1004 Goa (India), 625,628,632,646 652-53,689 Goba (Ethiopia), 460 Gobi Altai (Mongolia), 866 Godoy Cruz (Argen.), 89 Godthaab (Greenland), 425-26 Goes (Neth.), 887 Goiania (Brazil), 227-28 Goias (Brazil), 227-28,235 Gojjam (Ethiopia), 460 Golan Heights (Israel), 725 Golciik (Turkey), 1202 Gold Coast (Queensld.), 96,137 Golden (Colo.), 1443 Golden Rock (St Kitts), 1032 Golfito (Costa Rica), 383,386 Gomel (USSR), 1217, 1257 Gomera (Canary Is.), 1108 Gomez Palacio(Mex-), 854 Gonaives (Haiti), 592 Gondar (Ethiopia), 460,463 Gongola (Nigeria), 930 Goose Bay (Lab.), 311 Gopalpur (India), 673 Gorakhpur (India), 625,641, 684 Gordon (UK), 1294 Gorey (Channel Is.), 1368 Gorgol (Mauritania), 846 Gori (USSR), 1261 Gorinchem (Neth.), 887 Gorj (Romania), 1020,1023 Gorky (USSR), 1217,1232, 1236,1242,1245 Gorlovka (USSR), 1217 Gorno-Altai (USSR), 1245, 1253 Gorno-Altaisk (USSR), 1253, Gorno-Badakhshan (USSR), 1279,1281 Goroka (Papua New Guinea), 972 Gorzow (Poland), 998 Gostivar (Yug.), 1605 Goteborg (Sweden), 1141-42, 1151 Gothenborg (Sweden), 1144-45 Gotland (Sweden), 1141-42, Gottingen (FRG), 530,538, 551 Gottwaldov (Czech.), 406 Gouda (Neth.), 887 Gough Is. (Atlantic), 1035 Goulbum (NSW), 128 Gourma (Burkina Faso), 248 Gove (Aust. N. Terr.), 120-21 Gozo (Malta,), 840,843 Gracios a Dios (Hond.), 597 Graciosa (Azores), 1007 Graciosa (Canary Is.), 1048 Grafton (NSW), 128 Graham Land (Bri. Ant. Terr.), 236 Grahamstown (Cape), 1087 Gramsh (Albania), 66 Granada (Nicar.), 922,925 Granada (Spain), 1107,1118 Grand Bahama (Bahamas), 174-77 Grand Bassa County (Liberia), 797-98 Grand Bourg (Guadel.), 497 Grand Caicos (W. Indies), 1208

Grand Cape Mount County (Liberia), 798,800 Grand Cayman (W. Indies), 338-39 Grande Anse (Guadel.), 497 Grande Anse (Haiti), 592 Grande Comore (Comoros), 376 Grande Prairie (Alb.), 298 Grande Terre (Fr. Ant.), 508 Grande-Terre (Guadel.), 497 Grand Falls (Nfndland.), 311 Grand Forks (N.D.), 1514-15 Grand Island (Nebr.), 1494 Grand Junction (Colo.), 1443 Grand Lake (N. Bruns.), 309 Grand Rapids (Mich.), 1375, 1482 Grand Turk (W. Indies), 1208-09 Grangesberg (Sweden), 1147 Granitic Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Granma (Cuba), 392 Gratianopolis (Turkey), 1206 Graubiinden (Switz.), 1157-59 's-Gravenhage (Neth.), 887 Gravesham (UK), 1291 Graz (Austria), 168,171-72 Great Andaman, Is., 686 Great Barrier Is. (NZ), 906 Great Britain, 1289-1370 —agriculture, 1319-20 —air force, 1309-10 —area and pop., 1289-95 —army, 1305-07 —Arts Council, 1347-48 —aviation, civil, 1329 —banking, money and, 1315-16 —benefit, sickness, etc., 1349 —births, marriages, deaths, 1295 —boroughs, Greater London, 1293 —British Council, 1345-47 —broadcasting, 1330-31 —budget, 1310-11 —cabinet, 1300-02 —civil list, 1297 —coal, 1318-19 —coinage, 1315 —commerce, 1322-27 —communications, 1327-31 —constitution, 1297-300 —conurbations, 1292 —counties, 1290-91 —county boroughs, 1293 —county districts, 1291-92 —criminal statistics, 1336-37 —currency, 1314-15 —customs and excise, 1311 —defence, 1305-10 —education, 1339-45 —electorate, 1298-99 —electricity, 1317-18 —emigration and immigration, 1295-96 —estate duties, 1311 —exports, 1322-27 —finance (see also banking), 1310-12 —fisheries, 1320-21 —forestry, 1320 —fuel and power, 1317-18 —gas, 1318 —govt., central and local, 1297-303 —govt., members of, 1300-02 —gross national product,

PLACE Great Britain (conld) 1313 —illegitimacy, 1295 —imports, 1322-27 —industry, 1321 —inland waterways, 1329-30 —justice, 1331-37 —labour and employment, 1321 —land distribution, 1320 —languages, 1289 —law officers, 1301 —livestock, 1320 —local authority areas, 1293-94 —metals, 1319 —mining, 1318-19 —motor vehicle duties, 1311 —national health, 1353-54 —national insurance, 1348-52 —navy, 1307-1308 —oil, 1318 —parishes and communities, 1303-04 —parliaments, 1294 —pensions, 1350-51 —police force, 1334 —political parties, 1298 —population in industry, 1321 —posts and telecommunications, 1330 —production, 1314-21 —queen, 1296-97 —railways, 1328-29 —religion, 1337-39 —revenue and expenditure, 1311 —roads, 1327-28 —royal family, 1296-97 —savings banks, 1316 —shipping, 1329 —social services, 1354 —supplementary benefit, 1352-53 —taxation, local, 1312-13 —taxes and taxation, 1312-13 —tourism, 1327 —trade disputes, 1322 —trade unions, 1322 —universities, 1344-45 —vital statistics, 1295 —weights and measures, 1317 —welfare, 1348-53 Greater Accra (Ghana), 558 Greater Manchester (UK), 1290, 1303 Great Falls (Mont.), 1492 Great Nicobar Is., 687 Great Sark(Channel Is.), 1366 Greece, 566-72 Greeley (Colo.), 1441-43 Green Bay (Wise.), 1551, 1553 Greencastle(Ind.), 1464 Greenland,415,419, 421,425-27 Greenock (UK), 1294 Greensboro (N.C.), 1375,1510 Greenvale (Queensld.), 138 Greenville (Liberia), 797 Greenville (Maine), 1474 Greenville (Miss.), 1487 Greenville (S.C.), 1530 Greenwich (Conn.), 1443 Greenwich (UK), 1293 Greenwood (N.S.), 276 Greenwood (S.C.), 1531 Grenada (W. Indies), 573-75 Grenadines (W. Indies), 1038-40

INDEX

Grenoble (France), 482,491 Grevena (Greece), 567 Greymouth (NZ), 904 Grigoriopol (USSR), 1266 Grigorevsky (USSR), 1238 Grimsby (UK), 1291 Grindavik (Iceland), 617 Grinnell (Iowa), 1465 Grisons, see Graubunden Grodno (USSR), 1217, 1257-58 Groningen (Neth.), 886-88 Groote Eylandt (Aust. N. Terr.), 121

Grootfontein (S. W. Afr.), 1096 Grosseto (Italy), 739 Grozny (USSR), 1217,1232, 1247 Guadalajara (Mex.), 853-54, 859 Guadalajara (Spain), 1108 Guadalcanal (Solomon Is.), 1071 Guadeloupe (Fr.), 497-98 Guahan, see Guam Guainia (Colom.), 371 Guairâ (Para.), 978 Guajira, La (Colom.), 370 Guam (Mariana Is.), 1371,1374, 1384,1386-87,1389, 1411,1419,1554-56 Guanabara (Brazil), 230 Guanacaste (Costa Rica), 383 Guanajuato (Mex.), 853 Guanare (Venez.), 1580 Guangdong (China), 353, 359 Guangxi-Zhuang (China), 352-53 Guangzhou (China), 353-362 Guanta (Venez.), 1585 Guantanamo (Cuba), 392-93 Guapore, see Rondônia Guaqui (Bolivia), 221 Guaranda (Ecuador), 438 Guarda (Port.), 1007 Guârico (Venez.), 1580 Guarullios (Brazil), 228 Guatemala, 576-80 Guatemala City, 576,579-80 Guaviare (Colom), 371 Guayana (Venez.), 1583 Guayaquil (Ecuador), 438-39, 441 Guayas (Ecuador), 438 Guaymallén (Argen.), 89 Guaymas (Mex.), 858 Gudauta (USSR), 1263 Guelma (Algeria), 72 Guelmim (Morocco), 870 Guera(Chad), 343 Guernsey (Channel Is.), 1295, 1366-70 Guerrero (Mex.), 853 Guiana, French, see French G. Guiana, Neth., see Suriname Guidimaka (Mauritania), 846 Guiglo (Côte d'Ivoire), 388 Guildford (UK), 1291 Guilin (China), 361 Guimaraes (Port.), 1012 Guinea, 581-83 Guinea-Bissau, 584-86 Guinée-Forestière (Guinea), 581 Guineé-Maritime (Guinea), 581 Guinguinéo (Senegal), 1054 Guipuzcoa (Spain), 1107-09

1649 Guiyang (China), 353, 361 Guizhou (China), 353 Gujarat (India), 624,628,636, 646,653-55 —agriculture, 654 —area and pop., 653-54 —education, 655 —govt, and representation, 654 —see also Bombay (State) Gujranwala (Pak.), 957 Gujrat(Pak.),957 Gulbahar (Afghan.), 63 Gulbarga (India), 647,660-61 Gulfport (Miss.), 1487 Gulf Prov. (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Gulripsha (USSR), 1263 Gulu (Uganda), 1212 Gumiisane (Turkey), 1200 Gunjur (Gambia), 519 Gunnison (Colo.), 1443 Guntur (India), 625,649 Gunza (Angola), 81 Gurdaspur (India), 674 Gurgaon (India), 655 Guryev (USSR), 1232, 1273-74 Gusau (Nigeria), 931 Gustavia (Guadel.), 497 Guwahati (India), 641,643, 650-51 Guyana, 587-91 Guyane, see F. Guiana Gwalior (India), 625,643, 664,665 Gwelo, see Gweru Gwent(UK), 1291 Gweru (Zimbabwe), 1627-28 Gwynedd(UK), 1291 Gyalshing (Sikkim), 678-79 Gyor (Hungary), 609 Gyor-Sopron (Hungary), 609 Ha'apai Is.,(Tonga), 1188, 1190 Haarksbergen (Neth.), 887 Haarlem (Neth.), 887-88 Haarlemmermeer (Neth.), 887 Ha Bac (Vietnam), 1587 Habana, see Havana Hachioji (Japan), 750 Hackney (UK), 1293 Hadhramaut (S. Yemen), 1601-03 Haeju (N.Korea), 776-77 Hafnarfjordur (Iceland), 617 Hagen (FRG), 530 Hagerstown (Nd.), 1477 Hagondange-Briey (France), 482 Hague, The, (Neth.), 888,891, 896 Hahaya (Comoros), 378 Haifa (Israel), 725-27,731 Hai Hung (Vietnam), 1587 Ha'il (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Hainan (China), 360 Hainaut (Belgium), 193 Haines (Alaska), 1432 Haiphong (Vietnam), 1587,1591 Haiphong Ben Thuy (Vietnam), 1591 Hairitan (Afghan.), 64 Haiti, 592-96 Haiya (Sudan), 1131 Hajdu-Bihar (Hungary), 609 Hajjah (Yemen), 1599 Hakkari (Turkey), 1200 Hakodate (Japan), 750 Halaib (Sudan), 1130

1650 Halden (Norway), 937 Haidia (India), 642,685-86 Halifax (N.S.), 273,277, 315,317-18 Halland (Sweden), 1141 Halle (GDR), 523 Hallein (Austria), 168 Halmstad (Sweden), 1142 Haiton (UK.), 1291 Hama (Syria), 1168 Hamadan (Iran), 699-700 Hamamatsu (Japan), 749 Hamburg (FRG), 529-31,535, 537-38,546-48 Hame (Finland), 471 Hameenlinna (Finland), 472 Hamheung(N. Korea), 776-77 Hami (China), 361 Hamilton (Bermuda), 211 Hamilton (N.J.), 1502 Hamilton (NZ), 903-05,914 Hamilton (Ohio), 1515 Hamilton (Ont.), 270,319 Hamilton (UK), 1294 Hamilton (Vie.), 152 Hamirpur (India), 657 Hamm (FRG), 530 Hammersmith and Fulham (UK), 1293 Hammond (Ind.), 1462 Hampden-Sydney(Va.), 1545 Hampshire (UK), 1290 Hampton (Va.), 1375, 1543 Ha Nam Ninh (Vietnam), 1587 Hangchow, see Hangzhou Hangha (Sierra Leone), 1061 Hangzhou (China), 353,361 Haninge (Sweden), 1142 Hanoi (Vietnam), 1587-88, 1591-92 Hanover (FRG), 530, 537-38 549 Hanover (Jamaica), 745 Hanover (N.H.), 1498 Hao (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Happy Valley (Lab.), 311 Haradh (Saudi Arabia), 1045, 1049 Harar (Ethiopia), 460,463 Harare (Zimbabwe), 1627-28, 1631-33 Hararge (Ethiopia), 460 Harbin (China), 353, 361 Hardenberg (Neth.), 887 Harderwijk (Neth.), 887 Hargeisa (Somalia), 1074,1076 Harghita (Romania), 1020 Haringey (UK), 1293 Hamai (Pak.), 961 Harper (Liberia), 797,800 Harrisburg (Pa.), 1523-25 Harrisonburg (Va.), 1545 Harrogate (UK), 1291 Harrow (UK), 1293 Harstad (Norway), 937 Hartford (Conn.), 1375,1443-46 Hartlepool (UK), 1291 Haryana (India), 624,628, 646-47,655-56 Ha Son Binh (Vietnam), 1587 Hasakah (Syria), 1168 Hassan (India), 660 Hasselt (Belgium), 193-94 Hassi Messaoud (Algeria), 74 Hassi-R'Mel (Algeria), 74 Hassleholm (Sweden), 1142 Hastings (Nebr.), 1494 Hastings (NSW), 128

PLACE

INDEX

Hastings (Sierra Leone), 1062 Hatay (Turkey), 1200-01 Hattiesburg (Miss.), 1487, 1489 Ha Tuyen (Vietnam), 1587 HatYai (Thail.), 1177,1182 Haugesund (Norway), 937 Hau Giang (Vietnam), 1588 Haulbowline Is. (Ireland), 713 Haus Khaz (India), 690 Haute Guinée (Guinea), 581 Haute-Normandie (France), 481 Haut-Ogoouë (Gabon), 515 Hauts-de-Seine (France), 491 Haut-Zaïre (Zaïre), 1618 Havana (Cuba), 392,395-97 Havant (UK), 1291 Havelock Mine (Swazi.), 1137-38 Havering (UK), 1293 Havirov (Czech.), 406 Havre (Mont.), 1492,1493 Hawaii (USA), 1371-73,1379, 1383-84,1387,1402, 1406,1420,1454-56 Hawalli (Kuwait), 781 Hawar Is. (Bahrain), 179 Hawke's Bay (NZ), 902 Hay Mohamed-Aïn Sebâa (Morocco), 870 Hay River (NW Terr.), 829-31 Hays (Kans.), 1468 Hazaribad (India), 652 Hazart Nizamuddin (India), 688 Hazelwood(Vic.), 155 Heard Is. (Aust.),95,127 Hebbal (India), 654,661 Hebei (China), 353, 358-59, 370 Hedmark (Norway), 936 Heemskerk (Neth.), 887 Heemstede (Neth.), 887 Heerenveen (Neth.), 887 Heerhugowaard (Neth.), 887 Heerlen (Neth.), 887-88 Hefei (China), 353 Hegoumenitsa (Greece), 566 Heidelberg (FRG), 530,538, 542 Heilbronn (FRG), 530 Heilongjiang (China), 353, 359 Heilongkiang, see Heilongjiang Heiloo (Neth.), 887 Den Helder (Neth.), 887 Helena (Mont.), 1492 Heletz (Israel), 728 Hellendoom (Neth.), 887 Hellevoetsluis (Neth.), 887 Helmond (Neth.), 887 Heisingborg (Sweden), 1142 Helsingor (Denmark), 413 Helsinki or Helsingfors (Finland), 471-72,478-79 Hempstead (N.Y.), 1507 Henan (China), 353 Henderson (Nev.), 1494 Henderson (Pitcairn), 996 Hengelo (Neth.), 887-88,893 Hengyang (China), 361 Henrique de Carvalho, see Saurimo Heraklion (Greece), 567 Herat (Afghan.), 61,64 Heredia (Costa Rica), 383 Hereford and Worcester (U K), 1290 Herm (Channel Is.), 1295,1366 Hermannstadt, see Sibiu Hermosillo (Mex.), 853-54 Hermoupolis (Greece), 567 Heme (FRG), 530 Heming (Denmark), 413

Herrera (Pan.), 966 Herstal (Belgium), 194 Hertfordshire (UK), 1290 's-Hertogenbosch (Neth.), 887-88 Herzegovina (Yug.), 1605 Hessen (FRG), 529-31,535, 548-49 Heves (Hungary), 609 Hhohho (Swazi.), 1138 Hialeah (Fla.), 1375, 1450 Hidalgo (Mex.), 853 Hiddls. (Bahrain), 179 Hierro (Spain), 1109 Higashiosaka (Japan), 748 High Point (N.C.), 1510 Higuey (Dom. Rep.), 435 Hildesheim (FRG), 530,538, 551 Hillingdon (UK), 1291 Hillsborough (New Bruns.), 309 Hilo (Hawaii), 1454 Hilversum (Neth.), 887-88 Himachal Pradesh (India), 624, 628,646-47,656-57, Himeji (Japan), 749 Hinche (Haiti), 592 Hinckley and Bosworth (G.B.), 1291 Hirakud (India), 673 Hirakata (Japan), 749 Hiroshima (Japan), 749-50 Hispaniola, see Dom. Rep. and Haiti Hissar (India), 655 Hiva-Oa Is. (Marquesas Is.), 512 HMS Atlantic Isle (Atlantic), 1035 HMS Tamar (Hong Kong), 603 Ho (Ghana), 558, 561 Hoa Binh (Vietnam), 1589 Hoang Lien Son (Vietnam), 1587 Hobart (Tasm.), 95-96,147-48, 151 Hoboken (N.J.), 1502 Hobson ville (N.Z.),907 Ho Chi Min City (Vietnam), 1588,1590-92 Hodeida (Yemen), 1597,1600 Hodh ech Chargui (Mauritania), 846 Hodh el Gharbi (Mauritania), 846 Hodmezöväsärhely (Hungary), 600 Hofuf(Saudi Arabia), 1045,1050 Hoggar (Niger), 929 Hohenheim (FRG), 538, 542 Hohhot (China),353,363 Hokitika(NZ), 904 Hokkaido Is. (Japan), 749, 751,756 Holguin (Cuba), 392 Holland, see Netherlands Hollywood (Fla.), 1375,1450 Holon (Israel), 725 Holyoke (Mass.), 1479 Holy See, see Vatican City Home Is. (Cocos Is.), 125 Horns (Syria), 1168 Honan (China), 362 Honduras, 597-601 Honduras, British, see Belize Hong Gai (Vietnam), 1591 Hong Kong, 352,602-08 Honiara (Solomon Is.), 1071, 1073 Honolulu (Hawaii), 1374,1454 Honshu (Japan), 749

PLACE Hoogeveen (Neth.), 887 Hoogezand-Sappemeer (Neth.), 887 Hoorn (Neth.), 887 H o p e Brook (Nfdland.), 313 Hopei, see Hefei H ö p e n (Svalbard), 949 Hopkinsville (Kans.), 1468 Hordaland (Norway), 936 Hormozgan (Iran), 6 9 9 , 7 0 2 Horow W e n u a (NZ),903 Horsburgh Is. (Cocos Is.), 125 Horsens (Denmark), 413 Horsham (UK), 1291 H o r s h a m (Vic.), 152 Horeley Hills (India), 648 Hoshangabad (India), 6 6 4 - 6 6 H o s h i a p u r (India), 655 Hospitalet (Spain), 1109 Hot Springs (Ark.), 1436 Houet (Burkina Faso), 248 Houlton (Maine), 1474 Hounslow (UK), 1291 Houston (Tex.), 1374, 1533-35 H o w r a h (India), 686 Hradec Krélové (Czech.), 406 Hsiangfan, see Xiangfan Hsinchu (Taiwan), 365 H u a c h i p a t o (Chile), 350 H u a h i n e Is. (Fr. Polyn.),511 Hualien (Taiwan), 365, 368 H u a m b o (Angola), 7 9 - 8 0 , 8 2 H u a n a n (China), 353 Huancavelica (Peru), 984 H u a n c a y o (Peru), 984 H u a n g p u (China), 362 H u a n u c o (Peru), 984 H u a r a z (Peru), 984 Hubei (China), 353 Hubli D h a w a r (India), 625 Huddinge (Sweden), 1142 H u é (Vietnam), 1591 H u e h u e t e n a n g o (Guat.), 576 Huelva (Spain), 1107,1109 Huesca (Spain), 1107 H u h e h o t , see H o h h o t Huila (Angola), 80 Huila (Colom.), 370 Huizen (Neth.), 887 Hull (Quebec), 2 7 0 , 3 2 4 Hull (UK), 1345 H u l w a n (Egypt), 444 Humberside (UK), 1290 H u m p h r e y (Cook Is.), 919 H u n a n (China), 3 5 3 , 3 5 9 H u n e d o a r a (Romania), 1020 Hungary, 6 0 9 - 1 6 H u n g Horn (Hong Kong), 606 H u n g n a m (N. Korea), 779 Hungry Steppe (USSR), 1277 H u n t e r Is. (New Caled.), 509, 1574 Huntingdon (UK), 1291 H u n t i n g t o n (W. Va.), 1548, 1550 Huntington Beach (Calif.), 1375, 1438 Huntsville(Ala-), 1375,1428 H u o n Is. (New Caled.), 509 H u p e i . i e e Hubei H u r g h a d a (Egypt), 446 H u r o n (S.D.), 1532 Husaiba (Iraq), 708 Hüsavik (Iceland), 617 Hwange (Zimbabwe), 1627,1631 Hyderabad (India), 6 2 5 - 2 6 , 644,646-49 Hyderabad (Pak.), 957

INDEX

1651

Hyesan (N. Korea), 7 7 7 , 7 7 9 Hyvinge, see Hyvinkàà Hyvinkàa (Finland), 472

India (contd) —cities, 625 —commerce, 639-40 —communications, 640-42 — c o m p a n i e s , 638 —constitution, 6 2 6 - 2 9 —co-operative m o v e m e n t , 638 —currency, 6 3 3 - 3 4 —debt, 633 —defence, 6 3 0 - 3 3 — d i p l o m a t i c reps. 645 —education, 6 4 3 - 4 4 —electricity and power, 635 —exports, 6 3 9 - 4 0 —fisheries, 637 —forestry, 637 —govt., 6 2 9 - 3 0 —govt., local, 630 — h e a l t h , 645 —imports, 639-40 —industry, 637 —justice and crime, 6 4 2 - 4 3 — l a b o u r , 638 — l a n d tenure, 6 3 6 - 3 7 —language, 629 —literacy, 643 — m i n e r a l production, 6 3 5 - 3 6 —navy, 631-32 —newspapers, 642 — o p i u m , 637 —parliament, 627-28 — p l a n n i n g , 633 —police, 643 —population, 624-26 —post, 642 —presidency, 6 2 6 , 6 2 9 —production, 635-36 —railways, 641 —religion, 643 — r e v e n u e , 633 —rice, see Rice (Product Index) —roads, 6 4 0 - 4 1 —shipping, 6 4 1 - 4 2 —social security, 645 — t e a , see Tea (Product Index) —telegraphs and telephones, 642 — t o u r i s m , 640 —vital statistics, 624 —weights and measures, 6 3 4 - 3 5 Indiana (USA), 1 3 7 3 , 1 3 7 8 , 1384,1405,1461-63 Indianapolis (Ind.), 1374, 1462-63 Indonesia, 6 9 2 - 9 8 Indore (India), 6 2 3 , 6 4 3 , 6 6 4 - 6 5 Inga (Zaire), 1620 I n h a m b a n e (Mozamb.), 8 7 6 , 8 7 8 Inner Mongolia (China), 3 5 2 - 5 3 Innsbruck (Austria), 168, 171-72 Inter. A t o m i c Energy Agency, 12 Inter. Bank., 2 0 - 2 1 , 4 9 Inter. Civil Aviation Organ., 21-22 Inter. Court of Justice, 6 - 7 Inter. D e v e l o p m e n t Assn., 21 Inter. Energy Agency, 35 Inter. Fed. of Trade U n i o n s , 34 Inter. Finance Corp., 21 Inter. F u n d Agr. D e v e l o p m e n t , 27 Inter. Invest. Bank, 49 Inter. Labour Organ., 12-14 Inter. Maritime Organ., 24 Inter. Monetary F u n d , 18-20

Ialomita (Romania), 1020 Iasi (Romania), 1020,1026 Ibadan (Nigeria), 9 3 0 - 3 1 , 9 3 3 Ibagué (Colom.), 370 Ibaraki (Japan), 749 Ibarra (Ecuador), 438 Ibb (Yemen), 1598-99 lea (Peru), 984 Icel (Turkey), 1200-01 Iceland, 6 1 7 - 2 3 ICFTU, 33-34 Ichikawa (Japan), 749 Ichinomiya (Japan), 749 Idaho (USA), 1 3 7 1 , 1 3 7 8 , 1 3 8 4 , 1402,1456-58 Idaho Falls (Idaho), 1457 Idlib (Syria), 1168 Ife (Nigeria), 930 Ifrane (Morocco), 867 Igarka (USSR), 1237 Iglesias (Italy), 738 Iisalmi (Finland), 472 Ijebu-Ode (Nigeria), 931 Ikare (Nigeria), 931 Ikeja (Nigeria), 934 Ikere-Ekiti (Nigeria), 930 Ila (Nigeria), 930 Ilam (Iran), 699 Han (Taiwan), 365 Ilebo (Zaire), 1618 Ile-de-France (France), 482 Ile de la G o n a v e s (Guyana), 592 lies de H o o r u (Wallis), 514 lies des Saintes (Guadel.), 497 lies d u Vent (Fr. Polyn.),511 lies Glorieùses (Reunion), 503 Ilesha (Nigeria), 930 lies sous le Vent (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Ilhas Desertas (Portugal), 1008 Ilhas Selvagens (Portugal), 1008 Iligan (Philipp.), 990 Illinois (USA), 1 3 7 3 , 1 3 7 8 - 7 9 , 1 3 8 4 - 8 5 , 1 4 0 5 , 1458-61 Illubabor (Ethiopia), 460 Ilobu (Nigeria), 931 Ilocos (Philipp.), 990 Iloilo (Philipp.), 990 Ilopango (El Salv.), 454 Ilorin (Nigeria), 930 Imathia (Greece), 567 Imatra (Finland), 472 Imbabura (Ecuador), 438 Imeretia (USSR), 1262 Imo (Nigeria), 930 I m p f o n d o (Congo), 379 Imphal (India), 6 4 6 , 6 6 7 - 6 8 Inaccessible Is. (Atlantic), 1035 lnagua (Bahamas), 174 I n c e ( U K ) , 1330 Inchiri (Mauritania), 846 Inchon (Korea), 7 7 1 - 7 2 Independence (Mo.), 1375,1490 Independencia (Dom. Rep.), 433 India, 624-91 —agriculture, 6 3 6 - 3 7 — a i r force, 6 3 2 - 3 3 —area, 6 2 4 - 2 5 — a r m y , 631 —aviation,civil,641 — b a n k i n g , 634 —budget, 633 —calendar, 635 — c i n e m a s , 642

1652 Inter. Tele. Union, 22-23 Inter. Trade Unionism, 32-34 Intibucà (Hond.), 597 Inuvik (NW Terr.), 330-31,333 Invercargill (NZ), 904 Inverclyde(UK), 1294 Inverness (UK), 1294 Inyanga (Zimbabwe), 1630 Ionian Is. (Greece), 566 Iowa (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1405,1410, 1420,1464-65 Iowa City (Iowa), 1464-65 Ipoh (Pen. Malaysia), 821,828 Ipswich (UK), 1291 Iquique (Chile), 346 Iquitos (Peru), 984,986-87 Iraklion (Greece), 567 Iran, 699-704 Irapuato (Mex.), 854 Iraq, 705-09 Irbid (Jordan), 761 Irbil (Iraq), 705,708 Ireland, 710-23 Irian Jaya (Indon.), 692-93,697 Iringa (Tanz.), 1172 Irkutsk (USSR), 1217,1237, 1241,1245,1252 Iron Knob (S. Aust.), 146 Irrawaddy (Burma), 252 Irtysh (USSR), 1274 Irvine (U.K.), 1295 Irving (Texas), 1375, 1536 Irvington (N.J.), 1502 Isabel (Solomon Is.), 1071 Isafjoròur (Iceland), 617 Isa Town (Bahrain), 179,181 Iseyin (Nigeria), 930 Isfjord (Norway), 949 Ishimbaev (USSR), 1231 Ishpushta (Afghan.), 63 Iskenderun (Turkey), 1202-05 Isla de Cedros (Mex.), 858 Isla de la Juventud (Cuba), 392 Isla de Pascua, see Easter Is. Islamabad (Pak.), 956-57, 963-65 Islas de la Bahia (Hond.), 597 Islas Diego Ramirez (Chile), 346 Islas Juan Fernandez (Chile), 346 Isle of Man (Brit. Isles), 1295, 1315,1337-38,1364-66 Isle of Pines (New Caled.), 509 Isle of Pines (Cuba), see Isla de la Juventud Isle ofWight (UK), 1290 Isle ofYouth (Cuba), 392 Isles ofScilly(UK), 1290 Islington (UK), 1293 Ismail (USSR), 1219 Ismailia (Egypt), 444-45 Isparta (Turkey), 1200-01 Israel, 724-31 Issia (Còte d'lvoire), 388 Issyk-Kul (USSR), 1282 Istanbul (Turkey), 1200-01, 1205-07 Istria (Yug.), 1614 Itabira (Brazil), 232 Italy, 732-43 Itanagar (India), 646 Itapua (Para.), 978 Ithaca (N.Y.), 1509 Ithmaniya (Saudi Arabia), 1049 Itta Bena (Miss.), 1489 Ituni (Guyana), 589 Ivano-Francovsk (USSR), 1217, 1255

PLACE INDEX Ivanovo (USSR), 1217, 1245 Ivigtut (Greenland), 426 Ivoloina (Madag.), 816 Ivory Coast, see Cote d'lvoire Iwaki (Japan), 748 Iwo (Nigeria), 930 Izabal (Guat.), 576 Izhevsk (USSR), 1252 [zmail (USSR), 1255 Izmir (Turkey), 1200-01, 1204-06 Izmit (Turkey), 1204 Jabal-al akhdar (Libya), 801 Jabalpur (India), 625,664-65 Jabal-us-Seraj (Afghan.), 63 Jabirú (Aust.), 120 Jackson (Miss.), 1375,1487,1489 Jackson (Tenn.), 1534 Jacksonville (Fia.), 1374, 1450-51 Jacmel (Haiti), 592 Jacob (Congo), see N'Kayi Jadotville, see Likasi Jaén (Spain), 1107, 1109 Jaffa (Israel), 725 Jaffna (Sri Lanka), 1 120,1 125-27 Jagang(N. Korea), 111 Jahangirnagan (Bangladesh), 189 Jahra (Kuwait), 791 Jaintia Hills (India), 668 Jaipur (India), 625,643,646, 676-77 Jakarta (Indon.), 692-93, 697-98 Jakarta Raya (Indon.), 693,696 Jalahalli (India), 633 Jalálábád (Afghán.), 61,64-65 Jalal-Abad (USSR), 1281 Jalandhar (India), 625 Jalapa (Guat.), 576 Jalapa Enriquez (Méx.), 853-54, 859 Jalgaon (India), 666 Jalisco (Méx.), 853 Jalpaiguri (India), 685 Jaluit (Pacific), 1559 Jamaica, 744-48 Jamalpur (Bangladesh), 184,187 Jambi (Indon.), 692 Jamestown (N.Y.), 1507 Jamestown (St Helena), 1034 Jammu, (India), 658-59 Jammu and Kashmir, 624, 625-28,636,646, 657-59 Jamnagar (India), 625,632, 652,654 Jamshedpur (India), 625,652 Jamtland (Sweden), 1141 Janakpur(Nepál), 883-84 Janesville (Wise.), 1551 Jan Mayen Is. (Norway), 940, 949 Japan,750-57 Jarfalla (Sweden), 1142 Jarvenpáa (Finland), 472 Jarvis Is. (Kiribati), 768 Jassy, see Iasi Java (Indon.), 693,696-97 Javakalimantan (Indon.), 692 Jawa (Indon.), 693 Jawa Barat (Indon.), 693 Jawa Tengah (Indon.), 693 Jawa Timur (Indon.), 693 Jayapura (Indon.), 693 Jebel Ali(UAE), 1288 Jebel Amman (Jordan), 762

Jedda, see Jiddah Jefferson City (Mo.), 1490 Jelenia Gora (Poland), 998 Jelgava (Latvia, USSR), 1269 Jena (GDR), 523 Jendouba (Tunisia), 1195 Jérémie (Haiti), 592 Jerez de la Frontera (Spain), 1109 Jersey (Channel Is.), 1295, 1366-68 Jersey City (N.J.), 1375,1502 Jerusalem (Israel), 724-25 Jervis Bay (ACT), 101,119 Jesselton, see Kota Kinabalu Jessore (Bangladesh), 184 Jethou (Channel Is.), 1295 Jety-Oguz (USSR), 1282 Jewish Aut. Region (USSR), 1245,1253 Jhang(Pak-), 957 Jhansi (India), 625,684 Jiangsu (China), 353 Jiangxi (China), 353 Jibuti, see Djibouti Jidda (Bahrain), 179 Jidda, see Jiddah Jiddah (Saudi Arabia), 1045-47, 1049-50 Jidhafs (Bahrain), 179 JihoCesky (Czech.), 406 Jihomoravsky (Czech.), 406 Jijel (Algeria), 72 Jilikulam (USSR), 1281 Jilin (China), 353,358 Jimma (Ethiopia), 460 Jinan (China), 353 Jinja (Uganda), 1212 Jinotega (Nicar.), 922 Jinotepe (Nicar.), 922 Jisan (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Joâo Pessôa (Brazil), 227-28, 234 Joda (India), 673 Jodhpur (India), 625,632,676 Joensuu (Finland), 472,478 Jogjakarta, see Yokyakarta Johannesburg (Transvaal), 1078, 1082,1085,1087 Johnson City (Tenn.), 1534 Johnston Is. (Pacific), 1371, 1374,1387,1560 Johor (Pen. Malaysia), 820-22, 826-27 Johor Baharu (Pen. Malaysia), 821 Joinville (Brazil), 230 Joliet (111.), 1459 Jonesboro (Ark.), 1436 Jönköping (Sweden), 1141-42 Joplin (Mo.), 1490 Jordan, 758-62 Jordanstown (N. Ireland), 1363 Jorf Lasfar (Morocco), 874 Jorhat (India), 650 Jos (Nigeria), 930 Jost van Dyke (Br. Virgin Is.), 1593 Jounieh (Lebanon), 792 JoyaMair(Pak-), 960 Juan de Nova (Réunion), 503 Juba (Somalia), 1075 Juba (Sudan), 1128-29, 1131-32 Jubail (Saudi Arabia), 1045-47, 1048 Jubharhathi (India), 657 Judaea (Israel), 724

PLACE Jugoslavia, see Yugoslavia Juigalpa (Nicar.), 922,925 Juiz de Fora (Brazil), 228 Jujuy (Argen.), 88 Julienne Lake (Nfdland.), 313 Jullundur, 674 Junagadh (India), 652 Jundiai (Brazil), 28 Juneau (Alaska), 1430,1432 Junin (Peru), 984 Junk Bay (Hong Kong), 602 Jura (Switz.), 1157-59 Jurong (Singapore), 1067-68 Jutiapa (Guat.), 576 Juticalpa (Hond.), 597 Jwaneng (Botswana), 223,225 Jyväskylä (Finland), 472,478 Kabardino-Balkar (USSR), 1245,1248 Kabul (Afghan.), 61,63-65 Kabwe (Zambia), 1623 Kachchativu (Sri Lanka), 1120 Kachin (Burma), 254 Kadiogo (Burkina Faso), 248 Kadoma (Zimbabwe), 1627 Kaduna (Nigeria), 930,932 Kaédi (Mauritania), 846,848 Kaesong (N. Korea), 776-77,779 Kafan (USSR), 1265 Kafr el-Dawwar (Egypt), 444 Kafr el-Sheikh (Egypt), 444 Kafue Gorge (Zambia), 1625 Kagera (Tanz.), 1172 Kagoshima (Japan), 750 Kagulsk (USSR), 1266 Kahoolawe (Hawaii), 1454 Kahramanmeras (Turkey), 1200 Kailasahar (India), 682 Kaira (India), 652 Kairak-Kum (USSR), 1280 Kairouan (Tunisia), 1195 Kaiserslautem (FRG), 538,553 Kajaani (Finland), 472 Kakanda (Guinea), 582 Kakata (Liberia), 797 Kakhetia (USSR), 1262 Kakhovka (USSR), 1234,1256 Kakinada (India), 647-48 Kalabagh (Pak.), 961 Kalach (USSR), 1238 Kalamazoo (Mich.), 1482 Kalat(Pak.),96l Kalba(UAE), 1284 Kalemie (Zaïre), 1618 Kalgoorlie (W. Aust.), 160,163, 165 Kalimantan (Indon.), 693, 696-97 Kalimantan Barat (Indon.), 693 Kalimantan Selatan (Indon.), 693 Kalimantan Tengah (Indon.), 693 Kalimantan Timur (Indon.), 693 Kalingapatnam (India), 648 Kalinin (USSR), 1217,1245 Kaliningrad (USSR), 1217, 1219,1245 Kalispell (Mont.), 1492 Kalisz (Poland), 998 Kalmar (Sweden), 1141-42 Kalmyk Rep. (USSR), 1241, 1245,1248 Kalol (India), 653 Kaluga (USSR), 1217,1245 Kalulushi (Zambia), 1623

INDEX

Kalutara (Sri Lanka), 1120 Kamalpur (India), 682 Kamaran Is. (Red Sea), 1601 Kamchatka (USSR), 1245 Kamanetz-Podolsk, see Khmelnitsky Kamembe (Rwanda), 1030 Kameng (India), 649 Kamensk-Uralski (USSR), 1217,1266 Kamina (Zaire), 1618 Kamloops (B.C.), 301,304 Kampala (Uganda), 1212-13, 1215 Kampen (Neth.), 887 Kampot (Cambodia), 263 Kampuchea, Democratic, see Cambodia Kamyshin (USSR), 1230, 1234-35 Kananga (Zaire), 1618-19 Kanazawa (Japan), 750 Kandahar (Afghan.), 61,63-64 Kandalaksha (USSR), 1249 Kandi (Benin), 207,209 Kandla (India), 642,654-55 Kandy (Sri Lanka), 1120-21 Kanem (Chad), 343-45 Kangar(Pen. Malaysia), 821 Kanggye (N. Korea), 777, 779 Kangra (India), 656-57 Kangson (N. Korea), 779 Ka Ngwane (S. Afr.), 1077, 1080,1092 Kangwon (N. Korea), 771 Kankan (Guinea), 581-83 Kano (Nigeria), 930-31 Kanombe (Rwanda), 1030 Kanpur (India), 625,684 Kansas (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1405,1410,1467-69 Kansas City (Kans.), 1375,1466 Kansas City (Mo.), 1374, 1490-91 Kansu, see Gansu Kanto (Japan), 749 Kanton (Kiribati), 768 Kanye (Botswana), 223 Kaohsiung (Taiwan), 365, 368 Kaolack (Senegal), 1052, 1054-55 Kapanda (Angola), 80 Kapfenberg (Austria), 168 Kaposvar (Hungary), 609 Kaptai (Bangladesh), 185 Kapuithala (India), 674 Kara (Togo), 1184 Karabiik (Turkey), 1204 Karachayevo-Cherkess (USSR), 1245,1253-54 Karachi (Pak.), 957-60, 962-64 Karadag(USSR), 1260 Karaganda (USSR), 1217,1238, 1273-74 Karaj (Iran), 700 Kara-Kalpak Rep. (USSR), 1276-77, 1279 Karakul (USSR), 1278 Karamai (China), 358, 361 Karamoja (Uganda), 1212 Karaskpai (USSR), 1274 Karbala (Iraq), 705 Karbi-Langpi (India), 650 Karditsa (Greece), 566

1653 Karelian Rep.(USSR), 1217, 1245,1249 Karelo-Finnish Rep., see Karelian Rep. Karen State (Burma), 252 Karikal (India), 646,690 Karima (Sudan), 1131 Karimnaga (India), 647 Karkar (Afghan.), 63 Karl-Marx-Stadt (GDR), 523 Karlskrona (Sweden), 1142 Karlsruhe (FRG), 530, 538,542 Karlstad (Sweden), 1142 Karnal (India), 655 Karnali (Nepal), 883 Kamataka (India), 624,627-28, 636,646,659-61 Kärnten, see Carinthia Karonga (Malawi), 819 Karpenissi (Greece), 566 Kars (Turkey), 1200 Karshe-Kitab (USSR), 1278 Kartong (Gambia), 520 Karvinà (Czech.), 406 Karwar (India), 660 Karyai (Greece), 567 Kasai Occidental (Zaire), 1618 Kasai Oriental (Zaire), 1618 Kasama (Zambia), 1623,1625 Kasaragod (India), 661 Kashiwa (Japan), 749 Kashkadar(USSR), 1277 Kashmir (Pak.), 958 Kashmir, see Jammu and Kashmore (Pak.), 961 Kaslik (Lebanon), 793 Kassala (Sudan), 1 128, 1 130-31 Kassel (FRG), 530 Kassérine (Tunisia), 1197 Kassinga (Angola), 80 Kassou (Cote d'lvoire), 390 Kastamonu (Turkey), 1200, 1204 Kastoria (Greece), 567 Kasugai (Japan), 749 Kasungu (Malawi), 818 Kasur (Pak.), 957 Katanga, see Shaba Katerini (Greece), 567 Katherine (N. Aust.), 120, 122 Käthmändu (Nepal), 882, 884-85 Katihar (India), 651 Katiola (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Katni (India), 665,669 Katowice (Poland), 998 Katsina (Nigeria), 930 Katunayake (Sri Lanka), 1121, 1124 Katwijk (Neth.), 887 Kauai (Hawaii), 1454 Kaunas (Lithuania, USSR), 1214,1241,1271-72 Kavajè (Albania), 66 Kavalla (Greece), 567 Kavaratti Is. (Laccadive Is.), 690 Kavieng (Papua New Guinea), 972 Kawagoe (Japan), 749 Kawaguchi (Japan), 750 Kawasaki (Japan), 750 Kaya (Burkina Faso), 248,250 Kayah (Burma), 252 Kayes (Mali), 837,839 Kayseri (Turkey), 1200-01

1654 Kazakhstan (USSR), 1215,1217, 1226,1241,1272-73 Kazan (USSR), 1215,1242, 1245,1251 K e a r n e y (Nebr.), 1 4 9 4 - 9 6 K e b a n ( T u r k e y ) , 1203 K e b i l i ( T u n i s i a ) , 1195 K e ç i b o r l u ( T u r k e y ) , 1203 Kecskemet (Hungary), 609 Kedah (Pen. Malaysia), 8 2 1 - 2 2 , 826 K e d i r i (Indon.), 6 9 3 K e e l i n g Is., see C o c o s Is. Keelung (Taiwan), 3 6 5 , 3 6 8 K e e n e ( N . H . ) , 1500 Keewatin (N.W.T.), 329 Kefa (Ethiopia), 460 K e f a l l e n i a ( G r e e c e ) , 566 K e f l a v i k (Iceland), 6 1 7 K e k s h o l m ( U S S R ) , 1249 K e l a n g (Malaysia), 821 K e l a n i y a (Sri L a n k a ) , 821 Kelantan (Pen. Malaysia), 821-22,826-27 K e l o w n a (B.C.), 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 Kemerovo (USSR), 1217,1237, 1245 Kemi (Finland), 472 K e m p t o n P a r k (S. Afr.), 1078 K e n a i P e n i n s u l a (Alaska), 1430 K e n a n a (Sudan), 1130 K e n d a r i (Indon.), 6 9 3 K e n e d o u g o u ( B u r k i n a Faso), 2 4 8 K e n e m a (S. Leone), 1057, 1061-62 K e n i n g a u (Sabah.), 8 2 9 - 3 0 Kenitra (Morocco), 870-71 K e n n e r (La.), 1471 K e n o s h a (Wise.), 1 5 5 1 , 1 5 5 3 Kensington and Chelsea (UK) 1293 Kent (UK), 1290,1345 Kentucky (USA), 1373,1379, 1384,1405,1406, 1468-71 Kenya, 762-67 K e r a l a (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 6 3 6 - 3 7 , 642-43,646,661-63 see also T r a v a n c o r e Cochin Kerava (Finland), 472 K e r c h ( U S S R ) , 1217 Kerema (Papua New Guinea), 972 K e r g u e l e n Is. (Fr. A n t . ) , 5 0 8 K e r i c h o ( K e n y a ) , 766 K e r k i - T e r m e z ( U S S R ) , 1278 Kerkrade(Neth.), 885-88 K e r k y r a (Greece), 566 K e r m a d e c Is. ( N Z ) , 9 1 7 K e r m a n (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 , 703 K e r m a n s h a h (Iran), 702 K e r r y (Ireland), 7 1 0 K e s h o d (India), 6 5 4 K e s k i - S u o m i ( F i n l a n d ) , 471 K e t a ( G h a n a ) , 558 K e t c h i k a n G a t e w a y (Alaska), 1430,1432 K e t e - K r a c h i ( G h a n a ) , 561 K e t t e r i n g ( O h i o ) , 1515 K e y s e r ( W . Va.), 1545 K e y West (Fla.), 1450 K h a b a r o v s k ( U S S R ) , 1217, 1237,1245,1253 K h a d a k v a s l a (India), 631 K h a d o l i (India), 6 8 8 K h a i r a g a r h (India), 6 6 5 K h a j u r a h o (India), 6 6 5

PLACE

INDEX

K h a k a s s ( U S S R ) , 1245, 1254 K h a l k i d i k i ( G r e e c e ) , 567 K h a m i s - m u s h a i t (Saudi A r a b i a ) , 1045 K h a m m a m (India), 647 K h a n a q i n (Iraq), 7 0 8 K h a n d w a r (India), 6 6 3 , 6 6 5 K h a n m u h (India), 6 5 8 K h a n t y - M a n s i ( U S S R ) , 1245, 1254 K h a n t i m a n s i i s k ( U S S R ) , 1254 K h a r a g p u r (India), 6 8 6 K h a r a r T e h s i l (India), 6 5 5 K h a r g l s . (Iran), 7 0 2 K h a r k o v ( U S S R ) , 1217, 1237, 1239,1255-56 K h a r t o u m ( S u d a n ) , 1128, 1131-32 K h a s i (India), 6 6 8 Khaskovo(Bulg.), 241,245 K h a t a n g a ( U S S R ) , 1237 Khemisset (Morocco), 870-72 Khenifra (Morocco), 870 Kherson (USSR), 1217,1235, 1255 K h i o s ( G r e e c e ) , 567 K h i v a ( U S S R ) , 1270 K h m e l n i t s k y ( U S S R ) , 1255 K h m e r (Cambodia), 262 K h m e r R e p u b l i c , see Cambodia K h n e i fis (Syria), 1170 K h o n Kaen (Thai.), 1177,1182 K h o r a s a n (Iran), 6 9 9 , 7 0 2 Khorezm (USSR), 1276-79 Khorog (USSR), 1280-81 K h o r r a m a b a d (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 K h o r r a m s h a h r (Iran), 7 0 0 K h o t a (India), 6 7 6 K h o t i n ( U S S R ) , 1219 Khouribga (Morocco), 870-71, 874 K h o w a i (India), 6 8 2 K h u l n a (Bangladesh), 1 8 4 - 8 5 K h u m s (Libya), 801 K h u z e s t a n (Iran), 6 9 9 Kiangsi, j e e Jiangxi K i a n g s u , see J i a n g s u K i b u n g o ( R w a n d a ) , 1028 K i b u y e ( R w a n d a ) , 1028 K i d i r a (Senegal), 1054 K i d s t o n ( Q u e e n s l d . ) , 138 Kiel ( F R G ) , 5 3 0 , 5 3 8 , 556 Kielce ( P o l a n d ) , 9 9 8 K i e n G i a n g ( V i e t n a m ) , 1588 Kie-Ntem (Equat. Guin.),456 Kieta (Papua N e w Guin.), 974 Kiev (USSR), 1 2 1 7 - 1 8 , 1 2 3 7 , 1239,1241-42,1255 Kiffa (Mauritania), 848 Kigali ( R w a n d a ) , 1 0 2 8 , 1 0 3 0 K i g o m a (Tanz.), 1172 K i k w i t (Zaire), 1618 K i l d a r e (Ireland), 7 1 0 K i l e m b e ( U g a n d a ) , 1214 K i l i m a n j a r o (Tanz.), 1 1 7 2 , 1 1 7 5 K i l i n d i n i ( K e n y a ) , 766 K i l k e n n y (Ireland), 7 1 0 Kilkis ( G r e e c e ) , 567 Kilmarnock and Loudoun ( U K ) , 1294 K i l r o o t ( N . I r e l a n d ) , 1358 K i m b e ( P a p u a N e w G u i n e a ) , 972 Kimberley (Cape), 1078,1085 K i m c h a e k ( N . K o r e a ) , 776 Kincardine and Teeside (UK), 1294 Kindia (Guinea), 581-82

K i n g Is. ( T a s m a n i a ) , 148 K i n g m a n R e e f (Kiribati), 7 6 8 K i n g s C o u n t y (N.Y.), 1508 King's Lynn and West Norfolk ( U K ) , 1291 K i n g s p o r t ( T e n n . ) , 1534 Kingston (Jamaica), 7 4 5 - 4 9 K i n g s t o n u p o n H u l l ( U K ) , 1291 Kingston u p o n T h a m e s (UK), 1293 K i n g s t o w n (St V i n c e n t ) , 1038-40 K i n g s v i l l e (Tex.), 1538 Kinguélé (Gabon), 516 K i n g W i l l i a m ' s T o w n (Ciskei), 1104 K i n k a l a ( C o n g o ) , 379 K i n k i ( J a p a n ) , 749 K i n s h a s a (Zaire), 1 6 1 8 - 1 9 , 1621-22 Kiofi (Burundi), 259 Kirghizia (USSR), 1217, 1219,1272,1281-82 Kiribati, 7 6 8 - 7 0 , 1 5 5 9 K i r i k k a l e ( T u r k e y ) , 1200 Kiritimati (Kiribati), 7 6 8 - 6 9 K i r k c a l d y ( U K ) , 1293 K i r k l a r e l i ( T u r k e y ) , 1200 K i r k l e e s ( U K ) , 1291 K i r k u k (Iraq), 7 0 5 , 7 0 7 - 0 8 Kirov (USSR), 1217,1245 K i r o v a b a d ( U S S R ) , 1217, 1259-60 Kirovakan (USSR), 1264-65 Kirovograd (USSR), 1217,1255 K i r s e h i r ( T u r k e y ) , 1200 K i r u n a (Sweden), 1147 K i s a n g a n i (Zaire), 1 6 1 8 - 1 9 , 1621-22 K i s h i n e v ( U S S R ) , 1217, 1237, 1266 Kisii ( K e n y a ) , 766 K i s i m a i o ( S o m a l i a ) , 1074 Kisimayu (Somalia), 1 0 7 4 , 1 0 7 6 Kiskunfelegyhaza (Hungary), 611

Kislaya G u b a ( U S S R ) , 1231 Kissy (S. Leone), 1063 Kisumu (Kenya), 7 6 3 , 7 6 6 Kitakyushu (Japan), 750 Kitale (Kenya), 766 K i t c h e n e r (Ont.), 2 7 1 , 3 1 9 K i t i k m e o t ( N . W . T e r r . ) , 329 K i t w e ( Z a m b i a ) , 1623 K i v u (Zaire), 1618 K l a d n o (Czech.), 4 0 6 , 4 0 9 K l a g e n f u r t ( A u s t r i a ) , 168, 171-72 Klaipéda (Lithuania, USSR), 1217,1271 K l a k s v i g ( F a r o e Is.), 4 2 5 K l a m a t h Falls ( O r e . ) , 1523 Kleisoura (Greece), 563 K l o s t e m e u b u r g ( A u s t r i a ) , 168 K . M a r a s ( T u r k e y ) , 1201 K n o b Lake (Nfndlnd.), 313 K n o w s l e y ( U K ) , 1291 K n o x v i l l e ( T e n n . ) , 1375, 1406,1535 Koba (Guinea), 582 Kobe (Japan), 750 K o b e n h a v n , see C o p e n h a g e n Koblenz (FRG), 530, 554 K o b u l e t i ( U S S R ) , 1263 Kocaeli (Turkey), 1200-01 K o c h b u l a k ( U S S R ) , 1278 Kochi (Japan), 750 K o d i a k Is. ( A l a s k a ) , 1 4 3 0 , 1 4 3 1

PLACE INDEX Koforidua (Ghana), 558 Kogo (Equat. Guin.), 456,458 Kohima (India), 646,671 Kohistan (Pak.), 963 Kohtla-Järve (Estonia, USSR), 1268 Koidu (S.Leone), 1062 Kokand (USSR), 1278 Kokchetav (USSR), 1271 Kokkola (Finland), 472 Kolaba (India), 666 Kolahun (Liberia), 800 Kolar (India), 660 Kolba City (Liberia), 797 Kolding (Denmark), 413 Kole (Cameroon), 269 Kolhapur (India), 625,666-65 Köln, see Cologne Kolombangara (Solomon Is.), 1071 Kolomna (USSR), 1241 Kolonje (Albania), 66-67 Kolwezi (Zaire), 1618 Komärom (Hungary), 609 Kombo St. Mary (Gambia), 519 Komi Rep. (USSR), 1245, 1249-50,1254 Komotini (Greece), 567 Kompong Cham (Cambodia), 262 Kompong Som (Cambodia) 262-63 Komsomolsk-on-Amur (USSR), 1217,1228,1237 Konark (India), 673 Kondapalli (India), 648 Kong Karls Land (Svalbard), 948 Kongsberg (Norway), 937 Königsberg, see Kaliningrad Königswusterhausen (GDR), 527 Konin (Poland), 998 Konstanz (FRG), 538,542 Kon Tum (Vietnam), 1584 Konya (Turkey), 1200-01,1204 Kopavogur (Iceland), 617 Kopparberg (Sweden), 1131 Korangi Creek (Pak.), 959 Koraput (India), 672 Korba (India), 664-65 Korea, see Korce Korce (Albania), 66,70 Kordestan (Iran), 699 Korea, 771-75 Korea, North, 771,776-80 Korea,South,771,773-74 Korhogo (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Korinthia (Greece), 566 Korinthos (Greece), 566 Koritza, see Korce Koriyama (Japan), 750 Koror (Pacific), 1560 Kortrijk, see Courtrai Koryak (USSR), 1245 Koshigaya (Japan), 750 Kosi (Nepal), 883 KoSice (Czech.), 406,410-11 Kosovo (Yug.), 1605,1609, 1613,1616 Kosrae (Pacific), 1559-60 Kossi (Burkina Faso), 248 Kosti (Sudan), 1128,1131 Kostroma (USSR), 1219,1245 Koszalin (Poland), 998 Kota Baharu (Pen. Malaysia), 821 Kotah (India), 625,676

Kota Kinabalu (Sabah), 821, 829-31 Kothagudam (India), 647 Kotka (Finland), 472 Kotri(Pak-), 961 Kottayam (India), 662 Kotte(Sri Lanka), 1120 Kotu (Tonga), 1188 Koudougou (Burkina Faso), 248 Kiuilou (Congo), 379 Koulamoutou (Gabon), 515, 517 Koulikoro (Mali), 837,839 Kouritenga (Burkina Faso), 248 Kourou (Fr. Guiana), 499-500 Kouroussa (Mali), 839 Kouvola (Finland), 472,478 Kovno, see Kaunas Kowloon (Hong Kong), 602, 605-06 Kowloon Tong (Hong Kong), 606 Koyali (India), 653 Kozani (Greece), 567 Kozhikode (India), 662-63 Kpalimé (Togo), 1184-86 Kpandu (Ghana), 561 Kpémé (Togo), 1186 Kragujevac (Yug.), 1605 Krakow (Poland), 998-99,1004 Kraljevo (Yug.), 1605 Kramatorsk (USSR), 1217 Krasnodar (USSR), 1217,1245 Krasnovodsk (USSR), 1275 Krasnoyarsk (USSR), 1217, 1231,1237,1245 Krefeld (FRG), 530 Kremenchug (USSR), 1217, 1232 Krems (Austria), 168 Kribi (Cameroon), 268 Krimpen a/d Ijssel (Neth.), 887 Krishnapatnam (India), 648 Kristiania, see Oslo Kristiansand (Norway), 937 Kristianstad (Sweden), 1141-42 Krivoi Rog(USSR), 1217, 1255-56 Kronoberg (Sweden), 1141 Krosno (Poland), 998 Krsko (Yug.), 1609 Krugersdorp (Transvaal), 1078 Krujë (Albania), 66 Krutitsy (USSR), 1241 Krusevac (Yug.), 1605 Kuala Belait (Brunei), 237,239 Kuala Lumpur (Pen. Malaysia), 821-23,826-28 Kuala Terengganu (Pen. Malaysia), 821 Kuantan (Pen. Malaysia), 821, 827-28 Kuching (Sarawak), 821, 831-33 Kucove, see Qytet Stalin Kudat (Sabah), 829 Kudremukh (India), 659 Kufrah (Libya), 801 Kudymkar (USSR), 1254 Kuibyshev (USSR), 1217,1232, 1237-38,1245 Kujang(N. Korea), 779 Kukës (Albania), 66 Kulu (India), 657 Kulyab(USSR), 1276,1279 Kumamoto (Japan), 750 Kumanovo (Yug.), 1605,1609 Kumasi (Ghana), 558-62 Kumba (Cameroon), 264

1655 Kumo (Nigeria), 931 Kundiawa (Papua New Guinea), 972 Kunduz (Afghan), 61,64 Kungrad(USSR), 1276,1278 Kungsbacka (Sweden), 1142 Kunming (China), 352,361, 363 Kuolayarvi (USSR), 1249 Kuopio (Finland), 471,472,478 Kupang(Indon.),693 Kurashiki (Japan), 750 Kurdufan (Sudan), 1128 Kurdzhali (Bulg.), 241 Küre (Turkey), 1203 Kurgan (USSR), 1217,1245 Kurgan-Tyube (USSR), 1279-81 Kuria (Kiribati), 768 Kuria Muria Is. (Oman), 951 Kurile Is. (USSR), 1219 Kurnool (India), 647 Kursk (USSR), 1217,1228, 1231,1245 Kurukshetra (India), 656 Kushtia (Bangladesh), 184 Kustanai (USSR), 1217,1273, 1274 Kütahya (Turkey), 1200-01 Kutaisi (USSR), 1217 Kutaradja, see Banda Atjeh Kutch (India), 646,652 Kuusankoski (Finland), 472 Kuwait, 781-84 Kuwait (capital), 781-84 Kvitoya (Svalbard), 948 Kwabhaca (Transkei), 1101 Kwai Chung (Hong Kong), 602, 606 Kwa Ndebele (S. Afr.), 1077, 1080,1092 Kwangchow (China), 358,361, 363 Kwangchu (Korea),772 Kwangsi-Chuang, see GuangxiZhuang Kwangtung, see Guangdong Kwara (Nigeria), 930 Kwa Zulu (S. Afr.), 1077,1080, 1091 Kweichow, see Guizhou Kweiyang, see Guiyang Kwekwe (Zimbabwe), 1627 Kwinana (W. Aust.), 163 Kwun Tong (Hong Kong), 606 Kyle and Carrick (UK), 1294 Kymi (Finland), 471 Kyonggi (Korea), 771 Kyoto (Japan), 750,752,757 Kyrenia (Cyprus), 398,404 Kyüshü Is. (Japan), 750,752 Kyustendil (Bulg.), 241 Kyzyt-Kiva (USSR), 1251, 1282 Kzyl-Orda (USSR), 1217, 1273-74 La Altagracia (Dom. Rep.), 433 La Asuncion (Venez.), 1580 Laayoune (Morocco), 870 1119 Labe (Guinea), 581 Labrador City, 311,313 Labuan Is. (Sabah), 821,823, 829-30 Labyrinth Is., 687 Lac (Chad), 343 La Castilla (Spain), 1103 Laccadive Is. (India), 661,690

1656 La Ceiba (Hond.), 597-98 La Condamine (Monaco), 861 Laconia (N.H.), 1500 U Coruna (Spain), 1108-09 Lacq (France), 488 La Crosse (Wise.), 1551, 1553 L a d a n o (Brazil), 230 La Dèsirade (Guad.), 497 La Digue Is. (Seychelles), 1056 La Dorado (Colom.), 374 Lady Julia Percy Is. (Vic.), 154 Lae (Papua New Guinea), 972 La Estrelleta (Dom. Rep.), 433 La Faleme (Senegal), 1054 Lafayette (Ind.), 1460 Lafayette (La.), 1471 Laghouat (Algeria), 72 Lagos (town) (Nigeria), 930-31, 934-35 La Grande (Ore.), 1523 La Guaira (Venez), 1585 Lahad Datu (Sabah), 830 Lahaul (India), 655 Lahej (S. Yemen), 1602 Lahore (Pak.), 9 5 7 - 5 8 , 9 6 3 - 6 4 U h t i (Finland), 472 Lai (Chad), 343-45 Lai Chau (Vietnam), 1587 Lajjan (Jordan), 760 La Joya (Peru), 987 Lake George (New Bruns.), 309 Lake Macquarie (NSW), 96,128 Lakewood (Colo.), 1375, 1441 Lakewood(Ohio), 1515 Lakhra (Pak.), 961 Lakonia (Greece), 566 Lakota (Côte d'Ivoire), 388 U k s h a d w e e p (India), 625,628, 642,646,690 Lakwa (India), 650 La Laguna (Canary Is.), 1109 La Libertad (El Salv.), 451,453 La Libertad (Peru), 984 Lalitpur (Nepal), 880 La Louvière (Belgium), 194 La Marea (Tunisia), 1198 Lambaréné (Gabon), 515,517 Lambayeque (Peru), 984 Lambeth (UK), 1293 Lam Dong (Vietnam), 1587 Lamia (Greece), 566 Lampang (Thail.), 1177 Lampeter (UK), 1344-45 Lampung (Indon.), 692,697 Lanai (Hawaii), 1454 Lancashire (UK), 1290,1332 Lancaster (Ohio), 1515 Lancaster (Pa.), 1524 Lancaster (UK), 1291, 1332, 1345 Lanchow, see Lanzhou Landgraaf (Neth.), 887 Langbaurgh(UK), 1291 Langlade (St Pierre and Miq.), 506 Lang Son (Vietnam), 1587 Languedoc-de-Roussillon (France), 482 Lansing (Mich.), 1375, 1482 Lanus(Argen.), 89 Lanzarote (Canary Is.), 1108 Lanzhou (China), 3 5 3 , 3 6 1 - 6 3 Laoighis (Ireland), 710 Laos, 785-88 La Palma (Pan ), 966 La Palma (Spain), 1108 La Pampa (Argen.), 88

PLACE

INDEX

La Paz(Bolivia),217-18, 221-22 La Paz (El Salv.), 451 La Paz (Hond.), 597 La Paz (Mex.), 853-54 Lapland, 478 La Plata (Argen.), 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 3 Lappeenranta (Finland), 472, 478 Lappi or Lappland (Finland), 471 L'Aquila (Italy), 743 Lara (Venez.), 1580 Laramie (Wyo.), 1555-56 Laredo (Tex.), 1536 Largo (Fla.), 1450 La Rioja (Argen.), 88,92 La Rioja (Spain), 1109,1111 Larissa (Greece), 566 Larnaca (Cyprus), 398,402 Larne (N.Ireland), 1356,1362 La Rochelle (France), 482 La R o m a n a (Dom. Rep), 433 L'Artibonite (Haiti), 592 LasCruces (N.M.), 1504,1506 La Serena (Chile), 346 Lashkargah (Afghan), 63 La Skhirra (Tunisia), 1198 Las Palmas (Canary Is.), 1107-08, 1111,1118

La Spezia (Italy), 734,737 Lassithi (Greece), 567 Las Tablas (Pan.), 966 Lastourville (Gabon), 517 Las Tunas (Cuba), 392 U s Vegas (Nev.), 1375,1497, 1499 U s Vegas (N.M.), 1506 U t a (Solomon Is.), 1073 U t a c u n g a (Ecuador), 438 U t i n - A m e r . Econ. Groupings, 53-54 U t i n - A m e r . Free Trade Assn., 53 U Tortue (Haiti), 592 U t r a b j a r g (Iceland), 617 U t t a k i a (Syria), 1164,1166-67 U t v i a (USSR), 1217, 1219, 1241,1269-70 U u c a l a Bay (Fiji), 470 U u n c e s t o n (Tasmania), 147-48,151 U Union (El Salv.), 451,453 U u r i u m (Greece), 569 U u s a n n e (Switz.), 1158, 1166 U u t o k a (Fiji), 4 6 7 , 4 6 9 U v a l (Quebec), 324 Uvalleja(Urug.), 1569 U Vega (Dom. Rep.), 433, 436 U Villiaze (Channel Is.), 1369 U w r a (Ghana), 561 U w r e n c e (Kans.), 1467-68 U w r e n c e (Mass.), 1479 U w t o n (Okla.), 1518,1520 Lazaro Cadenas (Mex.), 858 U z i o (Italy), 731,734 League of Arab States, 56-57 Leba (Poland), 1001 Lebanon,789-93 Lebanon (N.H.), 1500 Lebowa (S. Afr.), 1077,1080, 1092 Lecce (Italy), 741 Leduc (Canada), 298 Leeds (UK), 1291,1345 Leeuwarden (Neth.), 887 Leeward Is. (Fr. Polyn.), 511

Leeward Is. (Neth. Ant.), 900 Lefka (Cyprus), 404 Lelkas (Greece), 566 Leganes (Spain), 1109 Legaspi (Philipp.),990 Leghorn (Italy), 733, 736 Legnica (Poland), 998 Leguan Is. (Guyana), 590 Leh (India), 659 Le Havre (France), 482 Leicester (UK), 1291,1345 Leicestershire (UK), 1290 Leiden (Neth.), 887-88 Leiderdorp (Neth.), 887 Leidschendam (Neth.), 887 Leinster (Ireland), 710 Leipzig (GDR), 523-24, 527 Leiria (Port.), 1007,1012 Leith (S.Georgia), 1106 Leitrim (Ireland), 711 Le Kef (Tunisia), 1195 Lekemti (Ethiopia), 4 6 0 Lekoumou (Congo), 379 Lelystad (Neth.), 888 Le Mans (France), 482 Lempira (Hond.), 597 Lena (USSR), 1237 Leninabad (USSR), 1276, 1279 U n i n a k a n (USSR), 1217, 1264-65 Leningrad (USSR), 1217-18, 1231, 1237-39, 1241-42, 1245,1268 Leninogorsk (USSR), 1274 Leninsk-Kuznetski (USSR), 1276 Lenkoran (USSR), 1260 Lennoxville (Quebec), 326 Lens (France), 482 Leoben (Austria), 168,172 Leon (Nicar.), 922,925 Leon (Spain), 1108-09,1118 Leon de los Aldamas (Mex.), 854 Leonding (Austria), 168 Leopoldville, see Kinshasa Leraba (Cote d'lvoire), 390 Leribe (Lesotho), 794-95 Lerida (Spain), 1108-09 Les Abymes (Guadl.), 497 LesCayes (Haiti), 592 Les Escaldes (Andorra), 77,78 Leskovac (Yug.), 1605 Lesotho, 794-96 Lesser Antilles (Caribb.), 1031 Lesser Sundas, see Nusa Tenggara Lesvos (Greece), 567 U s z n o (Poland), 998 Lethbridge (Alb.), 2 9 7 - 9 8 , 3 0 0 Letieia (Colom.), 371 Letterkenny (Ireland), 721 Leusden (Neth.), 888 Leuuka (Fiji), 469 I.cuvcn, sir Louvain Levadeia (Greece), 568 Leverkusen (FRG), 530 Leverock (Neth. Ant.), 900 Levin (NZ), 903 Lewisburg (W. Va.), 1550 Lewisham (UK), 1291 Lewiston (Idaho), 1456,1458 Lewiston (Maine), 1473, 1475 Lexington-Fayette (Ky.), 1375, 1468 Lexington (Va.), 1470,1545 Leyte (Philipp.), 990 Lezhe (Albania), 66

1657

PLACE INDEX Lhasa (Tibet), 353,362 Lianyungkang (China), 361 Liaoning(China), 353,358 Libau, see Liepaja Liberador (Chile), 346 Liberec (Czech.), 408 Liberia, 797-800 Liberia (Costa Rica), 383 Librazhd (Albania), 66 Libreville (Gabon), 515,517-18 Libya, 801-05 Lichfield (UK), 1291 Lichinga (Mozamb.), 876 Lida (USSR), 1258 Liechtenstein, 806-08 Liège (Belgium), 193-94, 201 Lienyunkang (China), 361 Liepàja (Estonia), 1251,1269 Leirre or Lier (Belgium), 194 Li fou Is. (New Caled.), 509 Liguria (Italy), 732,735 Lihou (Channel Is.), 1295,1366 Li kasi (Zaire), 1618 Likouala (Congo), 379 Lille (France), 4 8 2 , 4 9 1 , 4 9 3 Liilehammer (Norway), 937 Lilongwe (Malawi), 8 1 7 - 1 8 , 8 2 0 Lima (Ohio), 1515 Lima (Peru), 9 8 4 - 8 5 , 9 8 7 - 8 9 Limassol (Cyprus), 398 Limavady (N. Ireland), 1356 Limbe (Cameroon), 267 Limbe (Malawi), 818 Limbourg (Belgium), 193,201 Limburg(Neth-), 886 Limerick (Ireland), 710-11,721 Limoges (France), 482 Limon (Costa Rica), 383,386 Limousin (France), 482 Lincoln (Nebr.), 1375,1494-95 Lincolnshire (UK), 1290 Linden (Guyana), 587, 589 Lindenhurst (N.Y.), 1507 Lindi (Tanz.), 1172 Linè Is. (Kiribati), 768 Lïnguère (Senegal), 1054 Linkòping (Sweden), 1142 Linz (Austria), 168,171-72 Lipa (Philipp.), 990 Lipetsk (USSR), 1217, 1245 Lisboa (Port.), 1007 Lisbon (Port.), 1007-08, 1011-13 Lisbum (N. Ireland), 1356, 1361 Lismore (NSW), 128 Lisse (Neth.), 888 Litha (Ciskei), 1104 Lithgow Greater (NSW), 128 Lithuania (USSR), 1217,1219, 1242,1270-72 Litoral Prov. (Argen.), 88 Litoral Prov. (Equat. Guin.), 456 Little Andaman Is., 686 Little Cayman (W. Indies), 338 Little Rock (Ark.), 1375, 1436-37 Little Sark (Channel Is.), 1366 Littoral Prov. (Cameroon), 264 Liuchow, see Liuzhou Liuzhou (China), 361 Liverpool (UK), 1291 Livingstone (UK), 1295 Livingstone (Zambia), 1623 Livonia (Mich.), 1375,1482 Livorno, see Leghorn Ljubija (Yug.), 1609 Ljubljana (Yug.), 1605,1610, 1617

Lloydminster (Alb.), 298 Lloydminster(Sask.), 327 Lobatse (Botswana), 223,225 Lobito (Angola), 79,81 Lobos (Spain), 1108 Lochaber(UK), 1294 Lódz (Poland), 998 Logan (Utah), 1539-40 Logone Occidental (Chad), 343 Logone Oriental (Chad.), 343 Logrono, see La Rioja Logrono (Spain), 1108-09 Loheiya (Yemen), 1598,1600 Lohit (India), 649 Loja (Ecuador), 438 Lokeren (Belgium), 194 Lokossa (Benin), 207 Lorna de Hierro (Venez.), 1583 Lomasde Zamora (Argen.), 89 Lombardy (Italy), 732,735, 738 Lombok (Indon.), 693 Lomé (Togo), 1184, 1 186-87 Lomza (Poland), 998 Lonavla (India), 632 London (Ont.), 2 7 1 , 3 1 9 London (UK), 1289,1293,1296, 1304,1313,1315,1327-, 28,1332, 1337-38,1354 London, Greater (UK), 1290, 1292-93,1304,1313, 1344-45 Londonderry (N. Ireland), see Derry Londrina (Brazil), 228 Long An (Vietnam), 1588 Long Beach (Calif.), 1374,1438, 1441 Long Cay (Bahamas), 174 Longford (Ireland), 710 Longford (Vic.), 155 Longhai (China), 361 Long Is. (Bahamas), 174 Long Island (USA), 1509 Longovilo (Chile), 351 Longview (Wash.), 1546 Longyearbyen (Norway), 949 Loon op Zand (Neth.), 888 Lopevi (Vanuatu), 1574 Lorain (Ohio), 1515 Lord Howe Is. (Solomon Is.), 1071 Lord Howe Is. (NSW), 128 Lorengau (Papua New Guinea), 972 Lorestan (Iran), 699 Loreto (Peru), 984 Lorient (France), 482 Lorman (Miss.), 1489 Loro Sae (Indon.), 693,697 Lorraine (France), 482 Los Angeles (Calif), 1374, 1438-41,1489 Los Lagos (Chile), 346 Los Móchis (Mex.), 854,858 Los Rios (Ecuador), 438 Los Santos (Pan.), 966 Losser (Neth.), 888 Los Teques (Venez.), 1580 Lothian Region (UK), 1294 Lotschberg (Switz.), 1165 Loubomo (Congo), 379 Louga (Senegal), 1052,1054 Loughborough (UK), 1345 Louisburg(N.S.), 290 Louis Gentil, see Youssoufia Louisiana (USA), 1371,1379, 1383-84,1386,1405-06, 1408,1471-73

Louisville (Ky.), 1375,1468, 1470 Lourenço Marques, see Maputo Loures (Port.), 1012 Louth (Ireland), 710 Louvain (Belgium), 194,201 Lovech (Bulg.), 241,246 Lowell (Mass.), 1479 Lower Austria, 168-69 Lower Buchanan (Liberia), 799 Lower Saxony (FRG), 529-31, 534-35,549-51 L o W u (Hong Kong), 606 Loyalty Is. (New Caled.), 509 Loy Yang (Aust.), 155 Luanda (Angola), 79-82 Luang Prabang (Laos), 785,788 Luanshya (Zambia), 1623 Luapula (Zambia), 1623 Luba (Equat. Guin.), 456,458 Lubango (Angola), 79,82 Lubbock (Tex.), 1375,1535 Lübeck (FRG), 530, 557 Lublin (Poland), 998 Lubombo (Swazi.), 1136 Lubumbashi (Zaïre), 1618-19, 1621-22 Lucena (Philipp.), 990 Lucerne (Switz.), 1157-60,1166 Lucknow (India), 625,642, 646,683-84 Luda (China), 361-62 Luderitz (S. Afr.), 1085,1098 Ludhiana (India), 625,674 Ludwigshaven (FRG), 530 Lugano (Switz.), 1166 Lugansk (USSR), 1256 Lugo (Spain), 1108-09 Lugovaya (USSR), 1283 Luik, see Liège Luleâ (Sweden), 1142,1147 Luluabourg, see Kananga Lumbini (Nepal), 883 Lumut (Malaysia), 823 Lund (Sweden), 1142 Lunda-Norte (Angola), 80 Lunda-Sul (Angola), 80 Lüneburg (FRG), 538,551 Lunsemfwa (Zambia), 1625 Luoyang (China), 353 Lusaka (Zambia), 1623, 1625-26 Lushnjë (Albania), 66 Lushun-Talien, j e e L ü - t a Lusikisiki (Transkei), 1103 Lusiwasi (Zambia), 1625 Lustenau (Austria), 168 Luton (UK), 1291 Luxembourg (Belgium), 193 Luxembourg, 809-12 Luxembourg (City), 809,812 Luxor (Egypt), 4 4 4 - 4 5 , 4 4 9 Luyengo (Swazi.), 1140 Luzern, see Lucerne Luzon Is. (Philipp.), 994 Lvov (USSR), 1215, 1237,1255 Lwow (Poland), 1004 Lyemun (Hong Kong), 603 Lynchburg (Va.), 1543 Lynn (Mass.), 1479 Lyon (France), 4 8 2 - 8 3 , 4 9 1 , 4 9 3 Lyttleton(NZ), 913 Lyubertsy (USSR), 1217

Maalla (S.Yemen), 1601 Ma'an (Jordan), 758,761 Maanshan (China), 358 Maarssen (Neth.), 888 Maasluis (Neth.), 888

1658 Maastricht (Neth.),888 Macao (Port. China), 352,358, 1015-17 Macapà (Brazil), 227 Macas (Ecuador), 438 Macaulay Is. (NZ.), 917 Macclesfield (UK.), 1291 Macedonia (Greece), 566,570 Macedonia (Yug.), 1603, 1611,1613-15 Maceió (Brazil), 227-28 Macerata (Italy), 742 Machakos (Kenya), 763 Machala (Ecuador), 438,441 Machias (Maine), 1474 Machida (Japan), 748 Machilipatnam (India), 647-48 Machkund (India), 647 Macias Nguema, see Bioko Mackay (Queensld.), 137 Mackenzie (Guyana), 590 Macmillan Pass (Yukon), 333 Macomb. (111.), 1461 Macon (Ga.), 1374, 1452-54 Macquarie Is. (Tasm.), 124,148 MacRobertson Land (Aust. Ant.), 124 Madagascar,813-16 Madang (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Madeira (Port.), 1007-09 Madhopur (India), 676 Madhya Bharat (India), 646 Madhya Pradesh (India), 625, 627-28,635-36,643,646, 663-65 Madison (Wise.), 1375, 1551, 1553 Madiun (Indon.), 693 Madras (city), (India), 625-26, 641-43,646,648,680-81 Madras, see Tamil Nadu Madre de Dios (Peru), 984 Madrid (Spain), 1107-09, 1111,1114,1116-17 Madriz (Nicar.), 922 Madura (Indon.), 692-93 Madurai (India),625,681 Maebashi (Japan), 750 Mae-Moh (Thail.), 1180 Maewo (Vanuatu), 1574 Mafeteng (Lesotho), 794 Magadan (USSR), 1245 Magai lanes (Chile), 346,349-50 Magdalena (Colomb.), 370 Magdeburg (GDR), 523 Magelang (Indon.), 693 Magherafelt (N. Ireland), 1356 Magnessia (Greece), 566 Magnitogorsk (USSR), 1217 Magwa(S. Afr.), 1101 Magwe (Burma), 252,255 Mahachkala (USSR), 1217,1231, 1247 Mahaica (Guyana), 588 Mahajanga (Madag.), 813,816 Mahakali (Nepal), 883 Mahalapye (Botswana), 223 Mahalla el Kubra (Egypt), 444 Maharashtra (India), 624-25 627-28,635-36, 646,666-67 —see also Bombay (state) Mahdia (Tunisia), 1195 Mahbubnaga (India), 647 Mahé (India), 646,663,690 Mahé (Seychelles), 1056-58

PLACE

INDEX

Maheshwar (India), 665 Mahipar (Afghan.), 63 Mahon (Balearic Is.), 1112 Mahuae(NZ), 919 Maiana (Kiribati), 768 Maidstone (UK), 1291 Maiduguri (Nigeria), 930 Maikop (USSR), 1227, 1253 Mai mana (Afghán.), 61,63 Maine (USA), 1372,1379, 1384,1420,1473-76 Mainz (FRG), 530, 538, 552-53 Maio (C.Verde Is.), 335-36 Maio (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Maiquetiá (Venez.), 1580 Majunga (Madag.), see Mahajanga Makak (Cameroon), 267 Makaleb (Syria), 1170 Makati (Philipp.), 990 Makeni (S. Leone), 1059, 1062 Makeyevka (USSR), 1217 Makhachkala (USSR), 1232, 1247 Makhado (Venda), 1103 Makin (Kiribati), 768 Makira (Solomon Is.), 1071 Makkah (Saudi Arabia), 1046 Makkovik (Lab.), 313 Makokou (Gabon), 515 Makula (Solomon Is.), 1071 Malabar (India), 660 Malabo (Equat. Guin.), 456-58 Malacca (Pen. Malaysia), 822 Málaga (Spain), 1107, 1109, 1118

Malagasy Rep., see Madagascar Malang (Indon.), 693 Malange (Angola), 79-81 Malanjkhand (India), 664 Malatya (Turkey), 1200-01 Malawi, 817-20 Malaya, see Peninsular Malaysia Malaysia, 821-28 Maiden (Kiribati), 768 Maldives (Rep.), 835-36 Maldonado(Urug-), 1569 Malé (Maldive Is.), 835-36 Malekula (Vanuatu), 1574 Mali, 837-39 Malines, see Mechelen Malmberget (Sweden), 1147 Malmö (Sweden), 1142,1144 Malmöhus (Sweden), 1141 Malolos (Philipp.), 990 Malta, 840-45 Maluku (Indon.), 692-93,697 Malvinas, see Falklands Malwa (India), 664 Mamao (Fr.Polynesia), 513 Mamoundzou (Martinique), 505 Man, Isle of, see Isle of Man Man (Côte d'Ivoire), 388 Manabi (Ecuador), 438 Managua (Nicar.), 922-23,925 Manali (India), 657 Manama (Bahrain), 179,181-83 Manaure (Colom.), 373 Manaus (Brazil), 227-28,234 Manawatu (NZ), 903 Manchester (Jamaica), 744 Manchester (N.H.), 1500 Manchester (UK), 1290-91, 1296,1303,1330, 1332, 1344-45

Manchouli, see Manzhouli Manchuria, 361 Mandalay (Burma), 253,256 Mandaluyong (Philipp.), 990 Mandaue (Philipp.), 990 Mandeville (Jamaica), 743 Mandsaur (India), 663 Mandya (India), 660 Manga (Niger), 928 Mangaia (Cook Is.), 920 Mangalia (Romania), 1018 Mangalore (India), 625,661 Mangan (Sikkim), 678-79 Mango (Togo), 1186 Mangyshlak (USSR), 1273 Manhattan (Kans.), 1468 Manhattan (N.Y.), 1508 Manihiki (Cook Is.), 919 Manica (Mozamb.), 876 Manicaland (Zimbabwe), 1627 Manila (Philipp.), 990-91, 995 Manipur (India), 625,628,643, 646-47,667-69 Manisa (Turkey), 1200-01 Manitoba (Canada), 270-72, 276,282-84,290-91, 304-07 Manitowoc (Wise.), 1551, 1553 Manizales (Colom.), 370,374 Mankato (Minn.), 1486 Mankayana (Swazi.), 1139 Mankono (Còte d'lvoire), 388 Manmad (India), 667 Mannheim (FRG), 530, 538,542 Manono Is. (W. Samoa), 1595 Manra (Kiribati), 768 Mansa (Zambia), 1623,1625 Mansfield (Ohio), 1513 Mansfield (UK), 1291 Mansudae (Korea North), 779 Mansura (Egypt), 444 Mantes-la-Jolie (France), 482 Manu'a Is. (Samoa, USA), 1561-62 Manuae (Cook Is.), 919 Man us Is. (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Manzanillo (Mex.), 858 Manzhouli (China), 361 Manzini (Swazi), 1137-39 Mao (Chad.), 343 Maple Ridge (B.C.), 304 Maputo (Mozamb.), 876-79 Mara (Tanz.), 1172 Maracaibo (Venez.), 1580-81, 1583,1585 Maracay (Venez.), 1580,1585 Maradi (Niger), 927-29 Marakei (Kiribati), 768 Marampa (S. Leone), 1060-62 Maramures (Romania), 1017 Marandellas, see Marondera Maranhào (Brazil), 227 Marburg on Lahn (FRG), 538, 549 Marche (Italy), 731,734 Marcus Is. (Japan), 748 Mar del Plata (Argen.), 89,93 Mardin (Turkey), 1200,1206 Maré Is. (New Caled.), 509 Mariana Is. (Pacific), 1371, 1560 Mari Rep. (USSR), 1245, 1250 Maria Trinidad Sanchez (Dom. Rep.), 433 Maribor(Yug-), 1605

PLACE Marico (Bophuth.), 1099 Marie-Galante Is. (Guadel.), 497 Marigot (Guadel.), 497 Marikina (Philipp.), 990 Marinette (Wise.), 1553 Marion (Ohio), 1515 Marion Is.(S. Afr.), 1077, 1100 Marka (Somalia), 1076 Markazi (Iran), 699 Marlborough (NZ), 904 Marmagoa (India), 690 Marondera (Zimbabwe), 1627 Maroua (Cameroon), 265 Marovoay (Madag.), 816 Marowijne (Suriname), 113335 Marquesas Is. (Fr. Polyn.), 511-13 Marrakesh (Morocco), 8 7 0 - 7 1 , 874-75 Marsa (Malta), 841 Marsaxlokk (Malta), 841 Marseille (France), 4 8 2 , 4 9 1 Marshall (Minn.), 1486 Marshall Is. (Pacific), 1374, 1559-60 Martinique (Fr.), 500-02 Marwar (India), 676 Mary (USSR), 1275 Maryborough (Queensld.), 137, 152 Maryborough (Vic.), 152 Maryland C o u n t y (Liberia), 797 Maryland (USA), 1374, 1379, 1384,1477-79 Marystown (Nfndland), 311 Marzuq (Libya), 801 Masaka (Uganda), 1212 Masan (Korea), 772 Masat (India), 688 Masaya (Nicar.), 9 2 2 , 9 2 5 Masbate Is. (Philipp.), 990 Mascara (Algeria), 72 Maseru (Lesotho), 7 9 4 - 9 6 Mashhad (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 Mashonaland Cent. (Zimbabwe), 1627 Mashonaland East (Zimbabwe), 1627 Mashonaland West (Zimbabwe), 1627 Mason City (Iowa), 1464 Massachusetts (USA), 1372, 1378-79,1384,1406, 1479-81 Massapequa Park (N.Y.), 1507 Massawa (Ethiopia), 460-61 Masterton (NZ), 903 Masuku (Gabon), 5 1 5 - 1 7 Masvingo (Zimbabwe), 1627 Mat (Albania), 6 6 - 6 7 Matabeleland N o r t h (Zimbabwe), 1627 Matabeleland South (Zimbabwe), 1627 Matadi (Zaire), 1618,1621 Matagalpa (Nicar.), 9 2 2 , 9 2 5 Matamoros(Mex-), 854 Matanuska-Susitna (Alaska), 1430 Matanzas (Cuba), 392 Matara (Sri Lanka), 1120 M a t a r a m (Indon.), 693 Mataro (Spain), 1109 M a t a u r a (Fr. Polyn.), 511 M a t a U t u (Wallis),514 M a t e u r (Tunisia), 1197

INDEX

M a t h u r a (India), 683 M a t o Grosso (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 2 , 235 M a t o Grosso d o Sul (Brazil), 227 Matosinhos (Port.), 1011-12 M a t r u h (Egypt), 444 Matsapa (Swazi.), 1 1 3 9 - 4 0 Matsudo (Japan), 748 M a t s u y a m a (Japan), 748 Matthew Is. (New Caled.), 509, 1574 Mattu (Ethiopia), 4 6 0 Maturin (Venez.), 1580 M a u a (Brazil), 228 Maubeuge (France), 482 Maui (Hawaii), 1454 M a u k e (Cook Is.), 920 Maule (Chile), 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 M a u n (Botswana), 2 2 3 , 2 2 5 Maupiti (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Mauritania, 8 4 6 - 4 8 Mauritius, 8 4 9 - 5 1 Mawson (Aust. A n t . Terr.), 124 M a y a b a n d a r ( A n d a m a n Is.), 687 M a y a g u a n a (Bahamas), 174 Mayaguez (Puerto Rico), 1564 Maya Maya (Congo), 381 M a y n o o t h (Ireland), 721 M a y o (Ireland), 711 M a y o (Yukon), 331 Mayo-Kabbi (Chad.), 343 Mayotte, 5 0 4 - 0 6 May Pen (Jamaica), 744 Mayreau (St Vincent), 1038 Maysan (Iraq), 705 M a y u m b a (Gabon), 517 M a z a n d a r a n (Iran), 6 9 9 , 7 0 2 Mazar-i-Sharif (Afghan.), 6 1 - 6 2 , 64 Mazaruni (Guyana), 588 Mazatenango (Guat.), 576 Mazatlan (Mex.), 8 5 4 , 8 5 8 M b a b a n e (Swazi.), 1 1 3 7 - 4 0 Mbala (Zambia), 1625 Mbale (Uganda), 1212 M'Balmayo (Cameroon), 264, 267 M b a n d a k a (Zaire), 1618 M'Banga (Cameroon), 267 Mbarara (Uganda), 1212 Mbeya (Tanz.), 1172 Mbini (Equal. Guin.), 458 Mbuji-Mayi (Zaire), 1618 M c D o n a l d Is. (Aust.), 9 5 , 1 2 7 Mchinji (Malawi), 819 M c K e a n (Kiribati), 768 McMinville(Ore-), 1523 M d a n t s a n e (Ciskei), 1104 Meath (Ireland), 710 Mecca (Saudi Arabia), 1045-46, 1049 Mechelen (Belgium), 194 Mechi (Nepal), 883 Medak (India), 647 Medan (Indon.), 692 Medea (Algeria), 72 Medellin (Colom.), 3 7 0 - 7 1 , 3 7 4 M e d e n i n e (Tunisia), 1195 Medford (Mass.), 1476-81 Medford (Ore.), 1521 Medicine Hat (Alb.), 298 M e d i n a (Saudi Arabia), 1045-46, 1049-50 Medvezhye (USSR), 1232 Meerssen (Neth.), 888 Meerut (India), 6 2 5 , 6 8 4

1659 Meghalaya (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 643,646-47,669-70 Megri (USSR), 1265 Mégrine (Tunisia), 1197 Mehedinti (Romania), 1020 M e h e t i a ( F r . Polyn.), 511 Mehsana (India), 6 5 2 - 5 3 Meiji (Japan), 755 M é k a m b o (Gabon), 516 Mekele (Ethiopia), 460 Meknès (Morocco), 870-71 Melaka (Malaysia), 821 M e l b o u r n e (Vic.), 9 5 - 9 6 , 111,152,155,157-59 Melfort (Sask.), 327 Melilla(Sp. Afr.), 1107-08, 1111,1115 Melitopol (USSR), 1217 Mellersta Finland (Finland), 466 Melo (Urug.), 1559 Melun (France), 482 Melville (Sask.), 327 Melville Bay (Aust. N. Terr.), 123 M e m b e r States of U.N., 7 - 8 M e m p h i s (Tenn.), 1374, 1534-35 M e n a d o (Indon.), 693 Mendi (Papua New Guinea), 972 M e n d i p (UK), 1291 M e n d i p a t h a r (India), 669 Mendoza (Argen.), 8 8 - 8 9 , 9 2 - 9 3 M e n o n g u e (Angola), 81 M e n t o r (Ohio), 1515 M e n ù f i y a (Egypt), 444 Menzel Bourguiba (Tunisia), 1197 Meppel (Neth.), 888 Merca (Somalia), 1074 Mercedes (Urug.), 1569 Mereenie (Aust.), 121 Mérida (Mex.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 Merida (Spain), 1108 Mérida (Venez.), 1580 Meriden (Conn.), 1443 Meridian (Miss.), 1484 Merlo (Argen.), 89 Mersa M a t r u h (Egypt), 4 4 4 , 4 4 6 , 449 Mers el Kebir (Algeria), 73 Merseyside(UK), 1290, 1292, 1303 Mersin (Turkey), 1205 Merton (UK), 1293 M e r u (Kenya), 7 6 3 , 7 6 6 Merv, see Maruy Mesa (Ariz.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 3 4 M e s o p o t a m i a (St. Vincent), 1040 Messenia (Greece), 566 Messina (Sicily), 7 3 4 , 7 4 3 Méta (Colom.), 370 Meterlam (Afghan.), 61 Metropolitan Region (Chile), 346 Metz (France), 4 8 2 , 4 8 7 Mexicali (Mex.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 Mexico, 8 5 3 - 6 0 Mexico City (Mex.), 8 5 3 - 5 5 , 858-60 Meyal (Pak.),960 M e i ice (Yug.), 1609 M h l u m e (Swazi.), 1137 M i a m i (Fla.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 5 0 - 5 1 Miami Beach (Fla.), 1450 Miaoli (Taiwan), 365 Michigan (USA), 1373, 1378-79,1384,1419, 1482-83

1660 Michoacân de O c a m p o (Mex.), 853 Microncsia, 1374, 1559-60 Mid-Bedfordshire (UK), 1291 Middelberg (Neth.), 888 Middle Caicos Is., 1208 Middle Is. (Ashmore Is.), 127 Middlesbrough (UK), 1291 Middletown (N.J.), 1502 Middletown (Conn.), 1445 Middletown (Ohio), 1515 Mid-Glamorgan (UK), 1291 Midi-Pyrénées (France), 482 Midland (Tex.), 1536 Midlands Prov. (Zimbabwe), 1627 Midlothian (UK), 1294 Mid-Sussex (UK), 1291 Midway Is. (USA), 1374,1563 Midwest City (Okla.), 1518, 1520 Miercurea Ciuc (Romania), 1020 Mikhailovgrad (Bulg.), 241 Mikkeli (Finland), 471 Mikomiseng (Equal. Guin.), 456 Milan (Italy), 733, 737, 740,742 Mildura (Vic.), 152 Milford (Conn.), 1446 Milford City (Del.), 1447 Milledgeville (Ga.), 1454 Milne Bay (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Milner Bay (Aust. N. Terr.), 123 Milton Keynes (UK), 1291, 1344 Milwaukee (Wise.), 1374, 1551-53 Mina al-Amadi (Kuwait), 783 Mina al Fahal (Oman), 954 M i n a Qaboos (Oman), 954 Mina Raysut (Oman), 954 Minas (Urug.), 1566,1569 Minas Gérais (Brazil), 227, 232,235 M i n a Sulman (Bahrain), 182 Minatitlan (Mexico), 854 M i n d a n a o Is. (Philipp.), 990 Mindelo (C.Verde Is.), 337 M i n d o r o Is. (Philipp.), 990 Mingechaur (USSR), 1260 Minh Hai (Vietnam), 1588 Minicoy (India), 6 6 1 , 6 9 0 M i n n a (Nigeria), 931 Minneapolis (Minn.), 1374, 1485-86 Minnesota (USA), 1372, 1379,1384,1405, 1420,1481-84 Minot (N.D.), 1513 Minsk (USSR), 1217,1237, 1242,1257 Minya (Egypt), 444 Miquelon Langlade, 506 Miranda (Venez.), 1580, 1584 Mirdite (Albania), 6 6 - 6 7 Mi.ri (Sarawak), 831 Misiones (Argen.), 88 Misiones (Para.), 978 Miskolc (Hungary), 609 Mississippi (USA), 1372,1378 1384,1405-06,1410, 1488-90 Missolonghi (Greece), 566 Missoula (Mont.), 1492-93 Missouri (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1405,1489-92 Misurata (Libya), 8 0 1 , 8 0 3 , 8 0 5

PLACE I N D E X Mitchell (S.D.), 1532 Mitiaro (Cook Is.), 919 Mitu (Colom.), 371 Mitylini (Grcece), 566 Miyazaki (Japan), 750 Mizo Hill (India), 647 Mizoram (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 646-47,670 M m a b a t h o (S. Afr.), 1098-96 M m a m a b u l a (Botswana), 225 Mnganzana (Transkei), 1101 Moanda (Gabon), 516-17 Mobile (Ala.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 2 8 - 2 9 Mozambique, see M o z a m b i q u e Mogamedes (Angola), 79 Mochudi (Botswana), 223 Mocoa (Colom.), 370 Modena (Italy), 733, 742 Modesto (Calif.), 1375 Mödling (Austria), 168 Moe (Vic.), 152 Moengo (Suriname), 1135 Moeskroen, see Mouscron Mogadishu (Somalia), 1074, 1076 Mogilev (USSR), 1217, 1257 Mogwase(S. Afr.), 1100 Mohale's Hoek (Lesotho), 794-95 M o h a m a d i a - Z n a t a (Morocco), 870 Mohéli (Comoros), 376 Mohindergarh (India), 655 Mokanji (S. Leone), 1062 M o k h a (Yemen Arab Rep.), 1598-99 Mokhotlong (Lesotho), 794 Mokil (Pacific), 1560 M o k o k c h u n g (India), 671 Moldavian Rep. (USSR), 1217, 1266-69 Moide (Norway), 937 Molepolote (Botswana), 223 Molise (Italy), 733, 735 Mölndal (Sweden), 1142 Molodechno (USSR), 1258 Molokai Is. (Hawaii), 1454 Molotov, see Perm Molotovsk (USSR), 1226 Moluccas Is. (Indon.), 693 Mombasa (Kenya), 763—66 Mon (Burma), 254 Mon (India), 671 Monaco, 8 6 1 - 6 2 Monaco City, 861 Monaco-Ville (Monaco), 861 Monagas (Venez.), 1530 Monaghan (Ireland), 711 Monastir (Tunisia), 1195 M ö n c h e n - G l a d b a c h (FRG), 530 Monclova (Mex.), 854 Moncton (New Bruns.), 308, 310 M o n g a m o (Equat. Guin.), 456 Mongo (Chad.), 343 Mongolia (China), 361 Mongolian Republic, 8 6 3 - 6 7 Mongu (Zambia), 1623 Monklands (UK), 1294 M o n m o u t h (Ore.), 1523 M o n m o u t h s h i r e (UK), 1289 M o n o (Benin), 207 M o n o (Solomon Is.), 1071 Monrovia (Liberia), 7 9 7 - 8 0 0 Möns (Belgium), 193-94,201 M o n t a n a (USA), 1373, 1378, 1384-85, 1402,1405, 1493-95

M o n t a ñ a Clara (Canary Is.), 1108 Montbeliard (France), 482 Mont-Belo (Congo), 381 Montclair (N.J.), 1502 Monte Alegre (Brazil), 233 M o n t e Carlo (Monaco), 861 Montecristi (Dom. Rep.),433, 435 Montego Bay (Jamaica), 744, 747 Montenegro (Yug.), 1605, 1613, 1615 Monteria (Colom.), 370 Monterrey (Méx.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 , 859 Montevideo (Urug.), 1569, 1571-73 Montgomery (Ala.), 1375, 1428-29 Montgomery (W. Va.), 1550 Montpelier(Vt-), 1542 Montpellier (France), 482 Montreal (Quebec), 2 6 9 , 2 7 9 , 290,324-25 Montserrat (W. Indies), 8 6 8 - 6 9 Montshiwa (S. Afr.), 1100 Monywa (Burma), 252 Monza (Italy), 733 Moorea (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Moorhead (Minn.), 1457 M o o r o o p n a (Vic.), 152 Moose Jaw (Sask.), 327 Mopti (Mali), 837-38 Moquegua (Peru), 984 Moradabad (India), 625 Morang (Nepál), 882 M o r a t u w a (Sri Lanka), 1120, 1126 Moray (UK), 1294 Morazán (El Salv.), 4 5 1 , 4 5 3 Mordovian Rep. (USSR), 1245, 1250 Morehead City (N.C.), 1512 Morelia (Méx.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 , 8 6 0 Morelos (Méx.),853 More og Romsdal (Norway), 936 Moreton (Queensld.), 138 Morgantown (W. Va.), 1548, 1550 M o r m u g a o (India), 642 M o m a g (Tunisia), 1197 Morobe (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Morocco, 8 7 0 - 7 5 Morogoro (Tanz.), 1172,1174 Moron (Argen.), 8 9 - 9 3 Morona-Santiago (Ecuador), 438 Morón de la Frontera (Spain), 1111 Moroni (Comoros), 376, 378 M o r a t o (Uganda), 1212 M o r p h o u (Cyprus), 3 9 8 , 4 0 4 M o r u p u l e (Botswana), 225 Morwell (Vic.), 1 5 2 , 1 5 5 - 5 6 Moscow (Idaho), 1458 Moscow (USSR), 1216-18, 1227,1232,1237-39, 1241-43,1245 Mosquito Reserve (Nicar.), 923 Moss (Norway), 937 MosselBay(S. Afr.), 1082, 1085 Most (Czech.), 4 0 6 , 4 0 9 Mostaganem (Algeria), 72, 74, 76 MostarfYug.), 1605 Mostoles (Spain), 1109 Mosul (Iraq), 7 0 5 - 0 6 , 7 0 8 Mótala (Sweden), 1142

PLACE INDEX Motherwell (UK), 1294 M o u h o u n (Burkina Faso), 248 Mouila (Gabon), 515, 517 M o u l m e i n (Burma), 2 5 2 , 2 5 5 M o u n a n a (Gabon), 516 M o u n d o u (Chad), 3 4 3 , 3 4 5 M o u n t Abu (India), 643 M o u n t Athos (Greece), 567 M o u n t G a m b i e r (S. Aust.), 142 M o u n t Hägen (Papua New Guinea), 972 Mount H a m p d e n (Zimbabwe), 1630 M o u n t Isa (Queensld.), 123, 137-38 M o u n t Morgan (Queensld.), 138 M o u n t Pleasant (Falklands), 4 6 5 M o u n t Vernon (Iowa), 146 5 M o u n t Vernon (N.Y.), 1507 Mouscron (Belgium), 194 Moxico (Angola), 80 Moyen-Chari (Chad), 343 M o y e n n e - G u i n é e (Guinea), 581 Moyen-Ogooué (Gabon), 515 M o y l e ( N . Ireland), 1356 M o y o b a m b a (Peru), 984 Mozambique, 876-79 Mpaka (Swazi.), 1136 M p o k o (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 342 Msellata (Libya), 804 M'Sila (Algeria), 72 Mt. Lavinia (Sri Lanka), 1120 Mtskheta (USSR), 1241 M t u n t h a m a (Malawi), 818 Mtwara(Tanz.), 1172 M u a r a (Brunei), 237 Mubarraz (UAE), 1286 M u d a n j i a n g (China), 361 Mudwari-Katni (India), 663 M u f u l i r a (Zambia), 1623 Mugla (Turkey), 1200 M u h a m m a d i a (Morocco), 873 M u h a r r a q Is. (Bahrain), 179, 181-82 Mukalla(S. Yemen), 1601 M u k d e n , see Shenyang Mülheim a. d. R u h r (FRG), 530 M u l h o u s e (France), 482 Muloza (Malawi), 818 Multan (Pak.), 9 5 7 , 9 6 0 Mulungushi (Zambia), 1625 M u n a n k u a n , see Yuyikuan M ü n c h e n , see Munich Muncie (Ind.), 1462-63 M u n g h y r (India), 651 M u n i c h (FRG), 530, 538, 542-43 Munster (FRG), 538, 552 Munster (Ireland), 709-1 1 Murcia (Spain), 1108-09, 1111,1118 Mures (Romania), 1020 Murfreesboro(Tenn.), 1534 M u r g a b ( U S S R ) , 1238,1280 Murgul (Turkey), 1203 Muri (India), 652 M u r m a n s k (USSR), 1217,1238, 1245 M u r u n t a u (USSR), 1278 M u r u r o a (Fr. Polyn.), 5 11 M u s (Turkey), 1200 Musan ( N . K o r e a ) , 779 Muscat (Oman), 9 5 1 , 9 5 4 - 5 5 Muscat and O m a n , see O m a n Mushin (Nigeria), 930 Muskogee (Okla.), 1519 Muslimbagh (Pak.), 961

Mustique (St. Vincent), 1040 Mutankiang, sec M u d a n j i a n g Mutare (Zimbabwe), 1627 Mutrah (Oman), 9 5 1 , 9 5 4 M u t s a m u d u (Comoros), 376 Muzaffarpur (India), 6 5 1 - 5 2 , 958 M u z o (Colom.), 373 Mwali (Comoros), 376, 378 Mwanza (Tanz.), 1172 Myitkyina (Burma), 255 Mymensingh (Bangladesh), 184 Myongchon (N. Korea), 779 Mysore (city), (India), 625, 660-61 Mysore, sec Karnataka Mzuzu (Malawi), 8 1 7 - 1 8 Naaldwijk (Neth.), 888 Naberezhnye Chelny (USSR), 1217 Nabeul (Tunisia), 1195 N a b i h S a l e h (Bahrain), 179 Nacala (Mozamb.), 878 Nacka (Sweden), 1142 Nadi (Fiji), 469 N a d o r (Morocco), 870-71, 873 Naga (Philipp,), 990 Naga Hills (India), 647 Nagaland (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 6 3 0 , . 643,646-47,670-71 Nagano (Japan), 749 Nagapattinam (India), 681 Nagar Haveli (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 643,646,687-89 Nagarjunasagar (India), 648 Nagasaki (Japan), 7 4 9 - 5 0 Naghlu (Afghan.), 63 Nagorno-Karabakh (USSR), 1259-61 Nagoya (Japan), 749, 756 N a g p u r (India), 6 2 5 , 6 3 2 , 6 4 3 , 666-67 N a h a (Japan), 752 N a h o u r i (Burkina Faso), 248 Nairn (UK), 1294 Nairobi (Kenya), 763, 766-67 Najaf(Iraq), 705 Najin, i t r Raj in Najran (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Nakhichevan (USSR), 1259-60 N a k h o d k a (USSR), 1237 N a k h o n P a t h o m (Thail.), 1177 Nakhon Sawan (Thail.), 1177 N a k h o n Si T h a m m a r a t (Thail.), 1177 Nakoura (Lebanon), 792 Nakuru (Kenya), 763, 766 Nalanda (India), 652 Nalaykha (Mongolia), 866 Nalchik (USSR), 1217,1246 Nalgonda (India), 647 N a l u t Y e f r e n (Libya), 804 N a m a n g a n (USSR), 1217, 1277 Namchi(Sikkim), 678-79 N a m d o k e h o n (N. Korea), 779 N a m e n , see N a m u r Namentenga (Burkina Faso), 248 Namibe (Angola), 79-81 Namibia, see South-West Africa N a m p a (Idaho), 1457 N a m p o (N. Korea), 7 7 6 - 7 7 , 779 N a m p u l a (Mozam.), 8 7 6 , 8 7 8 N a m r u p (India), 650 N a m u r (Belgium), 193-94,201 N a n a i m o (B.C.), 3 0 1 , 3 0 3 - 0 4 N a n c h a n g (China), 3 5 3 , 3 6 1 Nancowrie (Nicobar Is.), 687

1661 Nancy (France), 482 Nanded (India), 6 4 7 , 6 5 5 , 6 6 6 Nangal (India), 656 Nangarhar (Afghan.), 63 Nanisana (Madag.), 816 Nanjing (China), 3 5 3 , 3 6 1 , 363 N a n k i n g (China), 353 N a n n i n g (China), 3 5 3 , 3 6 1 Nantes (France), 482 Nantou (Taiwan), 365 N a n u m a n g a (Tuvalu), 1210 N a n u m e a (Tuvalu), 1210 Napier Hastings (NZ), 9 0 3 - 0 5 Naples (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 3 7 , 7 4 0 , 7 4 2 N a p o (Ecuador), 438 N a q b Ishtar (Jordan), 761 Nara (Japan), 749 Narayani (Nepal), 883 N a r i n o (Colom.), 3 7 0 , 3 7 3 Narbarlek (Aust.), 122 N a r r o g i n ( W . Aust.), 160 Narsapur (India), 648 Narva (Estonia, USSR), 1267 Narvik (Norway), 944 N a r y a n - M a r (USSR), 1254 Naryn (USSR), 1282 N a s h u a (N.H.), 1500 Nashville-Davidson (Tenn.), 1374,1534-35 Nasik (India), 6 2 5 , 6 6 6 Nasiriyah (Iraq), 705 N a S o n (Vietnam), 1591 Nassau (Bahamas), 174-78 Nassau (Cook Is.), 919 Nassau (FRG), 548 Natal (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 0 , 234 Natal (S. Afr.), 1 0 7 7 , 1 0 9 0 - 9 2 National Capital Dist. (Papua New Guinea), 9 7 2 - 7 3 National District (Dom. Rep.), 433-34 National Dist. (Nicar.), 923 Natitingou (Benin), 2 0 7 , 2 0 9 Nauen (FRG), 527 Nauplion (Greece), 566 N a u r u (Pacific), 8 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 5 5 9 Navarra (Spain), 1108-09, 1111 Navoi (USSR), 1277 Navotos (Philipp.), 990 Navrongo (Ghana), 561 Naxos (Greece), 571 Nayarit(Mex.), 853 Nazareth (Israel), 724 Nazret (Ethiopia), 460 Ndele (Cent. Afr. Rep.), 340 N ' d j a m e n a (Chad), 3 4 3 , 3 4 5 N'Djole (Gabon), 517 Ndola (Zambia), 1623, 1626 N e a m t (Romania), 1020 Nebit-Dag (USSR), 1275-76 Nebraska (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1405,1410, 1495-98 N e e m b u c u (Para.), 978 N e e m u c h (India), 664 Negeri S e m b i l a n ( P e n . Malaysia), 8 2 1 - 2 2 , 8 2 6 Negev (Israel), 728 N e g o m b o (Sri Lanka), 1120 Negros Is. (Philipp.), 990 Neiba (Dom. Rep.), 435 Neiva (Colom.), 370 Nejran (Yemen), 1598 Nel lore (India), 647 Nelson (NZ), 904 Nelson Bays (NZ), 904

1662 Nema (Mauritania), 848 Nenetz (USSR), 1245, 1254 Nepal, 882-85 Nepanagar (India), 664 Neskaupstaòur (Iceland), 617 Netherlands, 886-902 —Antilles, 900-02 Neubrandenburg (GDR), 523 Neuchâtel (Switz.), 1 158-59, 1166 Neuquén (Argen.), 88,93 Neuss (FRG), 530 Neutral Zone (Kuwait), 781 Neuwerk Is. (FRG), 546 Nevada (USA), 1373,1378,1384, 1402,1410,1498-500 Nevis, see St Christopher-Nevis Nevsehir (Turkey), 1200 New Amsterdam (Guyana), 587,590 Newark (Del), 1446-47 Newark (N.J.), 1375, 1502 Newark (Ohio), 1515 Newark (UK), 1291 New Bedford (Mass.), 1480-81 New Britain (Conn.), 1443 New Brunswick (Canada), 27072,276,282-84,290-ÇH, 307-10 —agriculture, 309 —area and pop., 307-08 —education, 310 —govt, and representation, 308 Newburgh (N.Y.), 1507 Newbury (UK), 1291 New Caledonia (Fr.), 508-1 1 Newcastle (NSW), 95,128,132, 134-35 Newcastle under Lyme (UK), 1291 Newcastle upon Tyne (UK), 1291,1338,1345 New Delhi, see Delhi, New New Forest (UK), 1291 Newfoundland and Labrador (Canada), 270-72,276, 282,284,290-91,311-14 —agriculture, 314 —area and pop., 311 —education, 314 —govt, and representation, 311-12 New Georgia (Solomon Is.), 1071 New Glasgow (N.S.), 315 New Guinea (Aust.), see Papua New Guinea Newham (UK), 1291 New Hampshire (USA), 1372, 1379,1384-85,1499-1501 New Haven (Conn.), 1375, 1443, 1445 New Hebrides, see Vanuatu New Ireland (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 New Jalpaiguri (India), 684 New Jersey (USA), 1372,137879, 1384-85,1416, 1501-1504 New Kowloon (Hong Kong), 605 New Kuching(Malaysia), 833 New London (Conn.), 1445 New Mangalore (India), 642 New Mexico (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1504-06 New Orleans (La.), 1374, 1473

PLACE INDEX New Plymouth (NZ), 903-04 Newport (Mon.), 1292 Newport (R.I.), 1527 Newport News (Va.), 1375,1543 New Providence (Bahamas), 174-77 New Rochelle (N.Y.), 1507 Newry and Moume (N. Ireland), 1356 New South Wales (Aust.), 9 5 96,99,105-06,109-11, 113-14,127-36 —agriculture, 131 —area and pop., 127 —education, 134-35 —govt, and representation, 128-30 New Territories (Hong Kong), 602,605 Newton (Mass.), 1480 Newtownabbey (N. Ireland), 1359 New Waterford, (N.S.),315 New Westminster (B.C.), 303-05 New York (city), (USA), 1374, 1401,1503-10 New York (state), (USA), 1372, 1378-79, 1384, 1419,1506-10 New Zealand, 903-21 —agriculture, 909 —area and pop., 903-04 —banking, 908 —defence, 906-07 —education, 915 —finance, 907 —govt, and representation, 905-06 —justice, 915 —mining, 908-09 —railways, 913 —shipping, 913 Neyagawa (Japan), 750 Neyveli (India), 681 Ngaoundéré (Cameroon), 264, 266-67 Nghe Tinh (Vietnam), 1587 Nghia Binh (Vietnam), 1587 Ngounié (Gabon), 515 Ngwenya(Swazi-), 1138 Nhlangano (Swazi.), 1137 Nhulumbuy (Aust.), 120 Niagara Falls (Canada), 271 Niagara Falls (N.Y.), 1507 Niamey (Niger), 927-29 Niamtougou (Togo), 1186 Niari (Congo), 379 Niassa (Mozamb.), 876 Nicaragua, 922-26 Nice (France), 482 Nickerie (Suriname), 1133-34 Nicobar Is., Andaman Is. Nicosia (Cyprus), 398-99, 402-03,404 Nicoya (Costa Rica), 385 Nidwalden (Switz.), 1157 Nieuwegein (Neth.),888 Nigat al-Khums (Libya), 801 Nigde (Turkey), 1200 Niger, 927-29 Niger (Nigeria), 930 Nigeria, 930-35 Nightingale Is. (St Helena), 1035 Niigata (Japan), 750 Niihau (Hawaii), 1454 Nijkerk(Neth-), 888 Nijmegen (Neth.),888

Nikolaiev (USSR), 1217,1226, 1255 Nikopol (USSR), 1256 Nikumororo (Kiribati), 768 Nikunau (Kiribati), 768 Nile Prov. (Uganda), 1212 Nimba (Liberia), 799 Nîmes (France), 482 Ninawa(Iraq), 705 Ningxia-Hui (China), 352-53, 362 Nirmal (India), 648 NiS (Yug.), 1605 Nishinomiya (Japan), 750 Niteroi (Brazil), 228,234 Nithsdale (UK), 1291 Nitra Banska (Czech.), 406 Niuafo ou (Tonga), 1188 Niuas (Tonga), 1188 Niuatoputapu (Tonga), 1190 Niue Is. (NZ), 920-21 Niulakita (Tuvalu), 1210 Niutao (Tuvalu), 1210 Nizamabad (India), 647 Nizam Sagar (India), 647 Nizhnevartovsk (USSR), 1237 Nizhni Tagil (USSR), 1217 Njala (S.Leone), 1062 Njazidja (Comoros), 376-77 Njarovik (Iceland), 617 N'Kayi (Congo), 379 Nkongsamba (Cameroon), 264, 267 Noakhali (Bangladesh), 184 Nôgrad (Hungary), 609 Nokia (Finland), 472 Nome (Alaska), 1432 Nome de Deus de Macao (Portugal), 1014 Nomuka (Tonga), 1188 Nong Khai (Thail.), 1182 Nonouti (Kiribati), 768 Noord-Brabant (Neth.), 886 Noord-Holland (Neth.), 886 Noordoostpolder (Neth.), 888 Noordwijk (Neth.), 888 Nord Dept. (Haiti), 592 Nordaustlandet (Norway), 948 Nord-Est Dept. (Haiti), 592 Nordjyllands (Denmark), 413 Nordland (Norway), 936 Nord-ouest Dept. (Haiti), 592 Nord-ouest Prov. (Cameroon), 264 Nord-Pas-de-Calais (France), 482 Nord Prov. (Cameroon), 264-65 Nord region (New Caled.), 509 Nord-Trendelag (Norway), 936 Norfolk (Nebr.), 1494 Norfolk (UK), 1290,1330 Norfolk (Va.), 1375,1543, 1545 Norfolk Is. (Aust.), 95, 113, 126-27 Norilsk (USSR), 1217,1231 Normal (111.), 1461 Norman (Okla.), 1518,1520 Norman Wells (N. W. Terr.), 330 Norrbotten (Sweden), 1141 Norrland (Sweden), 1145 Norrtalje (Sweden), 1142 Norte de Santander (Colom.), 370 Norte Prov. (Argen.), 88 Northam (W. Aust.), 160 Northampton (Mass.), 1478 Northampton (UK), 1291 Northamptonshire (UK), 1290

PLACE North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 35-38 Northavon(UK), 1291 North Battieford (Sask.), 327 North Bay (Ont.), 275 North Bedfordshire (UK), 1291 North Borneo, see Sabah North Buganda (Uganda), 1212 North Caicos Is., 1208-09 North Carolina (USA), 1373, 1379,1384-85, 1405, 1406,1410,1511-13 North Cholla (Korea), 771 North Chungehong (Korea), 771 North Coast Region (Hond.), 599 North Dakota (USA), 1373, 1378,1384, 1409,1410, 1419,1512-14 North Down (N. Ireland), 1356 North-East Derbyshire (UK), 1291 North East Frontier Agency (India), see Arunachal Pradesh North Eastern Prov. (Kenya), 763 North-East region (Thail.), 1177 Northern Dist., (Israel), 724 Northern Dist. (Sikkim), 677 Northern Ireland, 1355-64 Northern Marianas, Commonwealth of, 1377,1419, 1560-61 Northern Prov. (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 Northern Prov. (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Northern Prov. (Sri Lanka), 1120 Northern Prov. (Uganda), 1212 Northern Prov. (Zambia), 1623, 1625 Northern Region (Ghana), 558 Northern Region (Malawi), 817-18 Northern Region (Sierra Leone), 1059 Northern Region (Sudan), 1130 Northern Territory (Aust.), 9597,99,106,109,113-14, 120-23 —agriculture, 121-22 —area and pop., 120 —education, 123 —govt, and representation, 121

North Greenland (Denmark), 425 North Hamgyong(N. Korea), 776 North Hertfordshire (UK), 1291 North Hwanghai (N. Korea), 776 North Is. (NZ), 903,908 North Is. (Seychelles), 1056 North Kangwon (N. Korea), 777 North Keeling Is. (Cocos Is.), 125 North Kyongsang (Korea), 771 North Lakhimpur (India), 650 Northland (NZ), 903 Northland East (Iceland), 617 Northland West (Iceland), 617 North Las Vegas (Nev.), 1497 North Little Rock (Ark.), 1436 North Olmsted (Ohio), 1515 North Ossetia (USSR), 1245, 1251 North Otago(NZ), 904 North Platte (Nebr.), 1494 North Providence (R.I.), 1527 North Pyongan (N. Korea), 777 North region (Thail.), 1179

INDEX

North Rhine-Westphalia (FRG) 529-31,534-36, 551-52 North Solomons (Papua New Guinea), 972-73 North Sydney (N.S.), 315 North Tonawanda (N.Y.), 1507 North Tyneside (UK), 1292 Northumberland (UK), 1290 North-West Dist. (Guyana), 589 North Western Prov. (Sri Lanka), 1120 North Western Prov. (Zambia), 1623,1625 North-West Frontier Prov. (Pak), 957-58 Northwest Territories (Canada), 270-72,276-77,282, 290-91,329-31 North Wiltshire (UK), 1292 Northwood (UK), 1307 North Yorkshire (UK), 1290 Norwalk(Conn-), 1443 Norway, 936-50 Norwich (UK), 1292 Nottingham (UK), 1292,1345 Nottinghamshire (UK), 1291 Nouadhibou (Mauritania), 846,848 Nouakchott (Mauritania), 846, 848 Noumea (New Caled.), 508-11 Nouvelle Amsterdam (Fr. Ant.), see Amsterdam Is. Nova Goa, see Panjim Nova Igua^u (Brazil), 228 Nova Lisboa, see Huambo Novara (Italy), 733 Nova Scotia (Canada), 270-73, 276,282-84,290-91, 315-18 Novgorod (USSR), 1217,1245 Novi Sad (Yug.), 1605, 1616 Novocherkassk (USSR), 1218 Novokuznetsk (USSR), 1218 Novomoskovsk (USSR), 1256 Novorissisk (USSR), 1218 Novosibirsk (USSR), 1218, 1237,1245 Novo-Voronezh (USSR), 1231 Nowgong (India), 650 Nowra (NSW), 101 Nowy Sacz (Poland), 998 Nsanje (Malawi), 819 Nsawam (Ghana), 558 Nuclear Energy Agency, 35 Nuenen c.a. (Neth.), 888 Nueva Asunción (Para.), 978,982 Nueva Esparta (Venez.), 1580 Nueva San Sa!vador(EI Salv.), 451 Nueva Segovia (Nicar.), 922,924 Nuevitas (Cuba), 395 Nuevo Laredo (Méx.), 8 54 Nuevo León (Méx.), 853,857 Nui (Tuvalu), 1210 Nukha (USSR), 1260 Nukualofa (Tonga), 1188,1190 Nukufetau (Tuvalu), 1210 Nuku-Hiva (Marquesas ls.), 512 Nukulaelae (Tuvalu), 1210 Nukunonu (Tokelau Is.), 918 Nukus (USSR), 1279 Nuneaton and Bedworth (UK), 1292 Nunspeet (Neth.), 888 Nuremburg(FRG), 530 Nürnberg (FRG), 543

1663 Nusa Tenggara (Indon.), 692 Nusu Tenggara Barat (Indon.), 693 Nusu Tenggara Timur(Indon-), 693 Nuuk, see Godthaab Nuwara-Eliya (Sri Lanka), 1123 Nwangundu (Venda), 1103 Nyakagunda (Burundi), 259 Nyala (Sudan), 1131 Ny-Alesund (Svalbard), 949 Nyanga (Gabon), 515 Nyanza (Kenya), 763, 765 Nyanza-Lac (Burundi), 259 Nyasaland, see Malawi Nyeri (Kenya), 766 Nyiregyhaza (Hungary), 609 Nykoping (Sweden), 1142 Nyland (Finland), 471 Nyslott, see Savonlinna Nzérékoré (Guinea), 581 Nzwani (Comoro Is.), 376,378 Oahu (Hawaii), 1454 Oakland (Calif), 1375,1438 Oak Ridge (Tenn.), 1534 Oaxaca (Mex.), 853-54 Obando (Colomb), 371 Oberhausen (FRG), 530 Oberhessen (FRG), 548 Obock (Djibouti), 428 Obuasi (Ghana), 558 Obwalden (Switz.), 1157 Occidental Prov. (Para.), 978-79 Ocean Is. (Kiribati), 768 Ochanomizu (Japan), 757 Ocotepeque (Hond.), 597 Oda (Ghana), 558 Odense (Denmark), 413,421,423 Odessa (Tex.), 1537 Odessa (USSR), 1218,1236-37, 1242,1255 Odi (S. Afr.), 1099 Odienné (Còte d'Ivoire), 388 Odivelas (Port.), 1007 Oeiras (Port.), 1007,1012 Oeno (Pitcaim), 996 Offa (Nigeria), 931 Offaly (Ireland), 710 Offenbach (FRG), 530 Ofuls. (Samoa, USA), 1561 Ogaden (Ethiopia), 459-60 Ogasawara Gunto, see Bonin Is. Ogbomosho (Nigeria), 930 Ogden (Utah), 1539-40 Ogooué Ivindo (Gabon), 515 Ogooué Loló (Gabon), 515 Ogooué - Maritime (Gabon), 515 Ogun (Nigeria), 930 Ogwr(UK), 1292 Ohio (USA), 1373, 1379,1384,1405,1514-17 Ohrid (Yug.), 1611 Oio (Guinea-Bissau), 584 Oita (Japan), 748 Oka-Akoko (Nigeria), 931 Okara(Pak-), 957 Okayama (Japan), 749 Okazaki (Japan), 750 Okha (India), 647 Okihawa (Japan), 749 Oklahoma (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1405,1517-20 Oklahoma City (Okla.), 1374, 1518,1520 Oktemberyan (USSR), 1265 Olafsfjoròur (Iceland), 617

1664 Olanchito (Hond.), 597 Olancho (Hond.), 597 Old Crow (Yukon), 333 Oldebroek (Neth.), 888 Oldenburg (Germ.), 530, 538,551 Oldenzaal (Neth.), 888 Oldham (UK), 1292 Olgiy (Mongolia), 866 Olhao (Port.), 1103 Olinda (Brazil), 228 Olomouc (Czech.), 406,410-11 Olongapo (Philipp.), 990 Olosega Is. (Samoa, USA), 1561 Olsztyn (Poland), 998 Olt (Romania), 1021,1026 Olympia (Wash.), 1546 Omagh, (N. Ireland), 1356,1361 Omaha (Nebr.), 1375, 1494-95 Oman, 951-55 Omdurman (Sudan), 1126,1132 Omiya (Japan), 750 Omsk (USSR), 1218,1232, 1237,1245 Ondo (Nigeria), 931 Onigbolo (Benin.), 209 Onitsha (Nigeria), 930 Onotoa (Kiribati), 768 Ontario (Canada), 270-72, 276,279-80,282-83, 290-91,318-21 —agriculture, 321 —area and pop., 318-19 —education, 321 —govt, and representation, 319-20 Ontong Java (Solomon Is.), 1071 Onverwacht (Suriname), 1135 Oostende, see Ostend Oosterhout (Neth.), 888 Ooststellingwerf (Neth.), 888 Opava (Czech.), 406 Opole (Poland), 998 Oppland (Norway), 936 Opsterland (Neth.), 888 Oradea (Romania), 1020,1026 Oran (Algeria), 72,74-76 Orange (NSW), 128 Orangeburg (S.C.), 1531 Orange Free State (S. Afr.), 1077,1093-94 Orange Walk Town (Belize), 203 Oranjstad (Aruba), 899-900 Oranjestad (Neth. Ant.), 899-900 Orapa (Botswana), 223,224 Ordu (Turkey), 1201 Ordzhonikidze (USSR), 1216, 1251 Orebro (Sweden), 1141-42 Oregon (USA), 1373, 1378, 1384,1420,1520-24 Orel (USSR), 1218,1245 Orem (Utah), 1539 Orenburg (USSR), 1218,1232, 1245 Orense (Spain), 1108-09 Organ, of Afr. Unity, 57 Organ, of American States, 51-53 Organ, for Econ. Co-op., 34-35 Organ. Petroleum Exporting Countries, 57 Orgeev (USSR), 1268 Oriental Prov. (Para.), 978-79, 981 Oriental Region (Ecuador), 438-39

PLACE

INDEX

Oriente (Cuba), 395 Orinoco (Venez.), 1583 Orissa (India), 625,628,636, 646,671-74 Orizaba (Mex.),854 Orkney Is. (UK), 1294, 1304 Orlando (Fla.), 1374,1450-51 Orléans (France), 481-82 Ormoc (Philipp.), 990 Órnskoldsvik (Sweden), 1142 Orona (Kiribati), 763 Orsk(USSR), 1218,1232 Orumiyeh (Iran), 699-700 Oruro (Bolivia), 217-18,221 -22 Osaka (Japan), 749-50,756 Osasco (Brazil), 228 Osh (USSR), 1218,1280 1282-83 Oshawa (Ont.), 271 Osh kosh (Wise.), 1551, 1553 Oshogbo (Nigeria), 930 Osijek (Yug.), 1605 Oslo (county) (Norway), 936,938 Oslo (town) (Norway), 936-37, 945,950 Osmanabad (India), 666 Osnabriick (FRG), 530, 538,551 Osomo (Chile), 346 Oss (Neth.), 888 Ostend (Belgium), 194 Ostergotland (Sweden), 1141 Osterò Is., 424 Òstersund (Sweden), 1142 Òstfold (Norway), 936 Òstrava (Czech.), 406,409 Ostroleka (Poland), 998 Otanmaki (Finland), 475 Otopeni (Romania), 1025 Ottawa (Ont.), 269-70,276-78 295,319 Ottumwa (Iowa), 1464 Otu Tolu (Tonga), 1188 Ouaddai (Chad), 343 Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), 248,250-51 Ouahigouya (Burkina Faso), 248 Ouahran (Algeria), 72 Ouargla (Algeria), 72 Ouarzazate (Morocco), 870 Oubritenga (Burkina Faso), 248 Oudalan (Burkina Faso), 248 Oued Ed (Morocco), 870 Oued Zem (Morocco), 874 Ouémé (Benin), 207 Ouesso (Congo), 379 Ouest Dept. (Haiti), 592 Ouest Prov. (Cameroon), 264 Ouidah (Benin),207,209 Oujda (Morocco), 870-71,875 Oulu (Finland),471-72,478 Oum el Bouaghi (Algeria), 72 Oumé (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Outer group (Seychelles), 1056 Outer Hebrides (UK), 1317 Outer Mongolia, see Mongolian Republic Outokumpu (Finland), 475 Overijssel (Neth.), 886 Overland Park(Kans.), 1466 Oviedo (Spain), 1108-09,1118 Ovwian (Nigeria), 933 Owando (Congo), 379 Owendo (Gabon), 517 Ownesboro (Ky.), 1468 Owo (Nigeria), 931 Oxelòsund (Sweden), 1147 Oxford (Miss.), 1489 Oxford (Ohio), 1517

Oxford (UK), 1292,1338, 1345 Oxfordshire (UK), 1291 Oxnard (Calif.), 1375,1438 Oyapoc (Fr. Guiana), 500 Oyem (Gabon), 515,517 Oyo (Nigeria), 930 Paama (Vanuatu), 1574 Pabna (Bangladesh), 184 Pachuca de Soto (Mex.), 853-54 Padang(Indon.), 692-93 Paderborn (FRG), 530 Padua (Italy), 734, 743 Paducah (Ky.), 1468 Pago Pago (Samoa, USA), 1561,1563 Pahandut,5?? Palangka Raja Pahang (Pen. Malaysia), 821-22 Pailin (Cambodia), 263 Paisley (UK), 1294 Pakan Baru (Indon.), 692 Pakistan, 956-65 —agriculture, 961-62 —area and pop., 957 —education, 964 —govt, and representation, 957-58 Paknam (Thail), 1179 Paks (Hungary), 612 Pakse (Laos), 785 Palam (India), 688 Palana (USSR), 1254 Palang Karaya (Indon.), 693 Palapye (Botswana), 223 Palau (Indon.), 693 Palau (Pacific), 1374,1559-61 Palau Lain (Indon.), 693 Palawan Is. (Philipp.), 990 Palembang (Indon.), 692 Palencia (Spain), 1108-09 Palermo (Sicily), 733, 742 Palestine (Israel), 729 Palestine (Jordan), 758 Palisadoes (Jamaica), 747 Palm Is. (St. Vincent), 1039 Palma de Mallorca (Spain), 1108-09,1116,1118 Palmer Land (Bri. Ant. Terr.), 236 Palmerston (Cook Is.), 919 Palmerston North (NZ), 903-04, 914 Palm Valley (Aust.), 121 Palmyra Is. (Kiribati), 768 Palu (Indon.), 693 Pal won (N.Korea), 779 Pamanzi (Mayotte), 505 Pamplona (Colom.), 374 Pamplona (Spain), 1108-09, 1118

Panaji (India), 666,689-90 Panama, 966-71 Panama Canal, 966,969-71 Panama City (Panama), 966, 968-69,971 Panama Province (Panama), 966 Panay (Philipp.), 990,994 Pancevo (Yug.), 1605,1610 Panch Mahals (India), 652 Pando (Bolivia), 217 Panevezys (Lithuania, USSR), 1271 Panguma(S. Leone), 1061 Panjim, see Panaji Pantnagar (India), 684 Papar(Sabah), 830 Papeete (Fr. Polyn.), 511-13

PLACE INDEX Papendrecht (Neth.),888 P a p h o s (Cyprus), 3 9 2 , 4 0 2 P a p u a New G u i n e a , 9 7 2 - 7 7 Para (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 3 Para (Suriname), 1133 Paradip (India), 6 4 2 , 6 7 3 Paradise Is. (Bahamas), 175 Paraguari (Para.), 978 Paraguay, 9 7 8 - 8 3 Paraiba (Brazil), 227 Parakou (Benin), 2 0 7 - 0 9 Paramaribo (Suriname), 1133, 1135-36 Paraná (Argén.), 88 Paraná (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 2 , 235 Paranagua (Para.), 982 P a r a n a m (Suriname), 1135 P a r a n a q u e (Philipp.), 990 Parbhani (India), 666 Pardubice (Czech.), 406 Parentis (France), 482 Paris (France), 4 8 1 - 8 4 , 4 9 1 , 493-96 Parkersburg(W. Va.), 1548 Parkside (Wise.), 1553 P a r m a (Italy), 733, 742 P a r m a (Ohio), 1515 Parnu (Estonia, USSR), 1267 Paro (Bhutan), 215 Parry Is. (Cook Is.), 919 Parsipanny-Troy Hills (N.J.), 1502 Paruz (USSR), 1277 Pasadena (Calif.), 1375,1438 Pasadena (Texas), 1375,1536 Pasay, (Philipp.), 9 9 0 Pascagoula (Miss.), 1487 Pasco (Peru), 984 Pasig (Philipp.), 990 Pasir Mas (Malaysia), 827 Passaic (N.J.), 1502 Passau (FRG), 5 3 8 , 5 4 3 Passoré (Burkino Faso), 248 Pastaza (Ecuador), 4 3 8 , 4 4 0 Pasto (Colom.), 370 Patagonia (Argen.), 89 Patalia and E. P u n j a b , see PEPSU Patan (Nepál), 6 5 4 , 8 8 2 - 8 3 Paté (Equat. G u i n . ) , 4 5 6 Paterson(N.J-), 1375,1502 Pathankot (India), 6 5 7 , 6 5 9 Patiala (India), 675 Patna (India), 6 2 5 - 2 6 , 6 4 6 , 652 Patras (Greece), 566 Patuakhali (Bangladesh), 184 Pau (France), 482 Paul (Cape Verde Is ), 336 Pavia (Italy), 742 Pavlodar (USSR), 1218, 1273-74 Pawtucket (Rhode Is.), 1527 Paysandú (Urug.), 1569, 1571-72 Pays de la Loire (France), 482 Pazardzhik (Bulg.), 241 Peace River (Alb ), 299 Pechenga (USSR), 1219 Pechora (USSR), 1250 Pec (Yug.), 1605 Pécs (Hungary), 6 0 9 - 1 1 , 6 1 5 Pedernales ( D o m . Rep ), 432 Pedras T i n h o s a s (Sao Tomé), 1043 Pedro J u a n Caballero (Para.), 978,982 Peel (I.O.M.), 1364

Pekalongan (Indon.), 693 Pegu (Burma), 252 Peking see Beijing (China) Pekanbaru (Indon.), 697 Pelagosa Is.(Yug.), 1605 Pelau Is., see Belau, R e p u b l i c of Pella (Greece), 567 Peloponnessos (Greece), 566, 570 Pelotas (Brazil), 235 Pematangsiantur (Indonesia), 693 Pemayangtse (Sikkim), 678 Pemba (Mozamb.), 876 Pemba (Tanz.), 1172,1 174-75 Penang (Pen. Malaysia), 822, 824,826,828 Penghu (Taiwan), 365 Penguins Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 Peniche (Port.), 1011 Peninsular Malaysia, 8 2 1 , 8 2 5 - 2 8 Pennsylvania (USA), 1372, 1379,1384,1416,1525-29 Peiion de Velez (Sp. Afr.), 1108 P e n o n o m é (Pan.), 966 P e n r h y n (Cook Is.),919 Pensacola (Fla.), 1450-51 Pentecost (Vanuatu), 1574 Penticton (B.C.), 301 Penza (USSR), 1218,1245 Peoria (III.), 1375,1457, 1461 Pepel (S. Leone), 1061-62 PEPSU (India), 646 Peradeniya (Sri Lanka), 1126 Perak (Pen, Malaysia), 8 2 1 - 2 2 , 826 Peravia (Dom. Rep.), 433 Pereira (Colom.), 370 Perini Is. (Red Sea), 1601 Perlis (Pen. Malaysia), 8 2 1 - 2 2 , 826 Perm (from Molotov) (USSR), 1218,1231,1245 Pérmet (Albania), 66 P e r n a m b u c o (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 Pemik(Bulg.), 241 Peros Banhos (Br. Ind. Ocean Terr.), 236 Perpignan (France), 482 Persia, see Iran Perth (W.Aust.), 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 6 0 - 6 1 , 165-66 Perth and Kincross (U.K.), 1294 Peru, 9 8 4 - 8 9 Peru (Nebr.), 1496 Perugia (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 4 2 Pescara (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 4 2 Peshawar (Pak.), 9 5 7 - 5 9 , 9 6 2 - 6 4 Peshkopi (Alb.), 67 Pest (Hungary), 609 Petach T i k v a (Israel), 726 Petaling Jaya (Malaysia), 821 Petange (Luxembourg), 809 Petare (Venez.), 1580 Péten (Guat.), 5 7 6 , 5 7 8 Peterborough (UK), 1292 Peter I Is. (Norway), 949 Petersburg (Va.), 1545 Petit Martinique (Grenada), 573 Petit St Vincent (St Vincent), 1039 Petra, see Wadi Musa Petropavlovsk-Kamchatski (USSR), 1 2 1 8 , 1 2 7 3 Petropavlovsk (USSR), (North Kazakstan), 1218, 1273 Petrópolis(Brazil),235 Petrovsky (USSR), 1232

1665 Petrozavodsk (USSR), 1218, 1249 Pforzheim (FRG), 530 Phek (India), 670 Philadelphia (Pa.), 1374,1524, 1526 P h i l i p p i n e Republic, 9 9 0 - 9 5 Philipsburg (Neth. Ant.), 890 Phiphidi (Venda), 1103 Phitsanulok(ThaiL), 1177 P h n o m Penh (Cambodia), 260-63 Phoenix (Ariz.), 1374, 1434 Phoenix (Botswana), 225 Phoenix Is. (Kiribati), 768 Phoenix (Mauritius), 849 Phokis (Greece), 566 Phthiotis (Greece), 566 Phuket (Thailand), 1182 P h u K h a n h (Vietnam), 1587 Phulbani (India), 672 Phuntsholing (Bhutan), 215 Piacenza (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 4 2 Piandzh (USSR), 1281 Piatra N e a m t (Romania), 1020 Piaui (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 Picardie (France), 482 Pichincha (Ecuador), 438 Pico (Azores), 1007 P i e m o n t e (Italy), 7 3 2 , 7 3 6 , 7 3 8 Pieria (Greece), 567 Pierre (S.D.), 1532 Pietermaritzburg (Natal), 1078, 1082,1086,1090 P e t e r s b u r g (S. Afr.), 1087 Piet Retief (Swazi.), 1139 Pigg's Peak (Swazi.), 1137 Pigs Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 Pila (Poland), 998 Pilani (India), 677 Pilar (Para.), 9 7 8 , 9 8 1 Pilcomayo (Para.), 9 8 2 - 8 3 P i n a n g ( P e n . Malaysia), 8 2 1 - 2 2 , 824,826-27 Pilsen, see Plzeil Pinardel Rio(Cuba), 392,396 Pine Bluff(Ark.), 1436 Pine Point ( N W Terr.), 330 Pingelap (Pacific), 1560 Pingtung (Taiwan), 365 Pinnjarra (Aust.), 163 Piotrkow (Poland), 998 Piparia (India), 688 Pineus (Greece), 566 Pisa (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 4 2 Pisco (Peru), 987 Pishin(Pak-), 961 Pishpek, see Frunze Pitcairn Is. (Pacific), 996 Pitesti (Romania), 1020 Pitlochry (U.K.), 1318 Pittsburg (Kans.), 1468 Pittsburgh (Pa.), 1 3 7 4 , 1 5 2 5 , 1527 Piura (Peru), 9 8 4 , 9 8 6 Pizen (Czech.), 406 Plainfield (N.J.), 1502 Plaisance (Mauritius), 852 Plateau (Congo), 379 Plateau (Nigeria), 930 Platte Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Platteville (Wise.), 1553 Pleven (Bulg.), 2 4 3 , 2 4 7 Plock (Poland), 998 Ploiesti (Romania), 1021 Plovdiv (Bulg.), 2 4 3 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 9 Plymouth (Montserrat), 8 6 8 - 6 9 P l y m o u t h (UK), 1291

1666 Plzert (Czech.), 406 Pobé (Benin), 209 Pocatello (Idaho), 1457 Podgorica, see Titograd Podolsk (USSR), 1218 Podor (Senegal), 1055 Podrinje (Yug.), 1609 Pogradéc (Albania), 66,69 Pohjois-Kaijala (Finland), 471 Pohnpei (Pacific), 1559-60 Point-Central (Mauritania), 848 Point Cook (Vic.), 101 Pointe-à-Pitre (Guade!.), 497-98 Pointe Clairette (Gabon), 516 Pointe des Galets (Reunion), 504 Point-Noire (Congo), 379-81 Point Salines (Grenada), 574 Poipet (Cambodia), 266 Poitiers (France), 482 Poitou-Charentes (France), 482 Poivre Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Poland, 997-1006 Polgolla (Sri Lanka), 1123 Poltava (USSR), 1218,1255 Poltoratsk, see Ashkhabad Polyghyros (Greece), 567 Pomerania (Poland), 999 Pomeroon-Supernean (Guyana), 588 Pompano Beach (Fla.), 1451 Ponape (Pacific), 1559 Ponce (Puerto Rico), 1564 Pondicherry (India), 625,628, 642,646,690-91 Poni (Burkina Faso), 248 Ponta Delgado (Azores), 1012 Pontevedra (Spain), 1112 Pontiac (Mich.), 1482 Pontianak (Indon.), 693 Pool (Congo), 379 Poole (UK), 1292 Poona, see Pune Popayàn (Colom.), 370,374 Popondetta (Papua New Guinea), 972 Porbandar (India), 654 Pori (Finland), 472 Porkkala (Finland), 471 Porsgrunn (Norway), 937 Portage la Prairie (Man.), 305 Port Alberai (B.C.), 301 Portalegre (Port.), 1007 Portales (N.M.), 1506 Port Arthur (Tex.), 1536 Port Augusta (S. Aust.), 142 Port-au-Prince (Haiti), 592-96 Port aux Basques (Nfndld.), 314 Port-aux-Fran^ais (Fr. Ant.), 508 Port Blair (Andaman Is.), 686-87 Port Buet (Cète d'lvoire), 390 Port Chalmers (NZ), 913 Port Comwallis (Andaman Is.), 687 Port de Paix (Haiti), 592 Port Dickson (Malaysia), 827 Port Elizabeth (Cape), 1078, 1084,1085,1087 Port Erin (I.O.M.), 1365 Port Francqui, see Ilebo Port Gentil (Gabon), 515-17 Port Harcourt (Nigeria), 930-32, 934 Port Hedland(W. Aust.), 165 Portici (Italy), 740 Portimäo (Port.), 1011 Port Kamsar (Guinea), 583 Port Keland (Pen. Malaysia), 827

PLACE

INDEX

Port Kembla (NSW), 132 Portland (Jamaica), 744 Portland (Maine), 1473 Portland (Ore.), 1371, 1521-23 Portland (Vic.), 152 Port Lincoln (S. Aust.), 142,146 Port Loko (S. Leone), 1061-62 Port Louis(Mauritius), 849, 852 Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea), 972-73,976 Port Muhammad Bin Qasim (Pak.), 963 Port Nolloth (S. Afr.), 1085 Porto (Port.), 1007-08,1012 Pòrto Alegre (Brazil), 227-28, 231,234 Porto Amboin, see Gunza Port of Klang (Pen. Malay.), 827 Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1191, 1194 Porto Novo (Benin), 207-09 Porto Novo (Cape Verde Is.), 336 Porto Santo (Portugal), 1008 Pòrto Velho (Brazil), 227 Portoviejo (Ecuador), 438 Port Pirie(S. Aust.), 142,165 Port Qasim (Pak.), 962-63 Port Said (Egypt), 444-46,449 Portsea (Aust.), 100 Portsmouth (Dominica), 432 Portsmouth (N.H.), 1500 Portsmouth (UK), 1291,1307 Portsmouth (Va.), 1375, 1543 Port Sudan (Sudan), 1128-29, 1131 Port Tewfik (Egypt), 446 Portugal, 1007-15 —overseas terr., 1013-15 Portiaalia..vi'i' Dundo Portuguesa (Venez.), 1580 Portuguese China, 1013-15 Portuguese Guinea, see GuineaBissau Port Walcott (W. Aust.), 165 Posadas (Argen.), 88 Possession Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 Potaro Siparuni (Guyana), 588 Potchefstroom (Transvaal), 1087 Potenza (Italy), 742 Poti (USSR), 1261 Potosi (Bolivia), 217-18,221-22 Potsdam (GDR), 523 Poubara (Gabon), 516 Poughkeepsie (N.Y.), 1507, 1509 Powell (Wyo.), 1556 Powys(UK), 1291 Poza Rica de Hidalgo (Mex.), 854 Poznan (Poland), 998-99 Prague or Praha (Czech.), 40507,410-11 Prahova (Romania), 1021,1023 Praia (C.Verde Is.), 335-37 Prairie View (Tex.), 1538 Prakasam (India), 647 Pram Point (Ross. Is.), 918 Praslin Is. (Seychelles), 1056, 1058 Prato (Italy), 733 Presidency (India), 685 Presidente Hayes (Para.), 978 Presidente Stroessner (Para.), 978,982 Presidio of San Francisco (Calif.), 1387

PreSov (Czech.), 406 Preston (UK), 1291 Pretoria (Transvaal), 1078-79, 1081-84, 1087-88,1092 Preveza (Greece), 566 Price (Utah), 1540 Prijedor(Yug-), 1605,1609 Primorye (USSR), 1245 Prince Albert (Sask.), 327 Prince Edward Is. (Canada), 270-72,276,282-84, 322-23 —agriculture, 322-23 —area and pop., 322 —education, 323 —govt, and representation, 320 Prince Edward Is. (S. Afr.), 1077 Prince George (B.C.), 301,304 Prince Rupert (B.C.), 301,303 Princess Elizabeth Land (Aust.), 124 Prins Karls Forland (Svalbard), 948 Pristina (Yug.), 1605,1611 Prizren (Yug.), 1605 Probolingo (Indon.), 693 Proddatur (India), 647 Prokopyevsk (USSR), 1218 Provence-Côte d'Azur (France), 482 Providence (R.I.), 1375,1527-29 Providence Is. (Seychelles), 1056 Providenciales Is., 1208-09 Provo (Utah), 1539-40 Prudhoe Bay (Alaska), 1432 Przemysl (Poland), 998 Przhevalsk (USSR), 1282 Pskov(USSR), 1218,1245 Pucallpa (Peru), 984 Puch'on (S. Korea), 772 Puebla (Mex.), 853,859 Puebla de Zaragoza (Mex.), 853 Pueblo (Colo.), 1374,1441-42 Puerto Aguirre (Para.), 982 Puerto Annuelles (Pan.), 969 Puerto Ayacucho (Venez.), 1580 Puerto Barrios (Guat.), 576,579 Puerto Cabello (Venez.), 1580, 1585 Puerto Cabezas (Nicar.) 925 Puerto Carreno (Colom.), 371 Puerto Cortés (Hond.), 597-98, 600 Puerto La Cruz (Venez.), 1580 Puerto Limon (Costa Rica), 384 Puerto Maldonado (Peru), 984 Puerto Montt (Chile), 346,350 Puerto Ordaz (Venez.), 1585 Puerto Plata (Dom. Rep ), 433, 436 Puerto Rico, 1371,1374,1384, 1386-87,1389,1411, 1419,1564-66 Puerto Saudino (Nicar.), 925 Puerto Somoza (Nicar.), 925 Puglia (Italy), 733,735 Pukapuka (Cook Is.), 920 Pukchong(N. Korea), 779 Pukë (Albania), 66 Pukow (China), 361 Pula (Yug.), 1610 Pui-i-Khumri (Afghan.), 6 1 , 6 3 64 Pullman (Wash.), 1547 Pune (India), 625,631,643, 666-67 Punjab (India), 625,628,636, 645-46,674-75

PLACE INDEX P u n j a b (Pak.), 9 5 7 , 9 6 1 P u n o (Peru), 984 P u n t a A r e n a s (Chile), 346 P u n t a r e n a s ( C o s t a Rica), 383, 386 Puri (India), 673 P u r m e r e n d (Neth.), 888 P u r n e a (India), 651 Pusa (India), 690 Pusan (S. Korea), 7 7 1 - 7 2 , 7 7 4 Putten (Neth.), 888 P u t u m a y o (Colom.), 370 P u y o (Ecuador), 438 Pwani (Tanz.), 1172 Pyongan (N. Korea), 776 Pyongyang (N. Korea), 776, 779-80 Pyrgos (Greece), 566 Qabis (Tunisia), 1195 Qacentika (Algeria), 72 Q a c h a ' s Nek (Lesotho), 794 Qadarif (Sudan), 1128 Qadisiyah (Iraq), 705 Qala-el-Nahal (Sudan), 1130 Qala-i-nau (Afghan.), 61 Qalyübia (Egypt), 444 Qaseem (Saudi Arabia), 1050 Qatar, 1016-18 Qatif (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Qazvin (Iran), 700 Q e n a (Egypt), 444 Qingdao (China), 3 5 3 , 3 5 7 , 362-63 Qinghai (China), 353 Q i n h u a n g d a o (China), 362 Q i q i h a r (China), 353, 361 Q i z i l Q a l a (Afghan.), 64 Q o m (Iran), 700 Q u a n g N a m (Vietnam), 1587 Q u a n g N i n h (Vietnam), 1587 Q u a n Long (Vietnam), 1591 Q u a r r y Bay (Hong Kong), 606 Q u a t r e Bornes (Mauritius), 849 Q u e a n b e y a n (NSW), 128 Q u e b e c (Canada), 2 7 0 - 7 2 , 2 7 6 , 278,282-84,290-91 293-95,323-26 —agriculture, 325 — a r e a and pop., 324 —education , 3 2 6 —govt, and representation, 324-25 Quebec (city), (Quebec), 278, 324,326 Q u e e n Charlotte Is. (B.C.), 301 Queen M a u d Land (Norway), 950 Q u e e n s (N.Y.), 1508 Queenscliff(Vic.), 100 Queensland (Aust.), 9 5 - 9 6 , 9 9 , 105-06,109-11,114, 136-42 — a r e a and pop., 136-37 — e d u c a t i o n , 141 —govt, and representation, 137-38 — p r o d u c t i o n , 139 Q u e l i m a n e (Mozamb.), 8 7 6 , 8 7 8 Q u e l u z (Port.), 1007 Q u e p o s (Costa Rica), 3 8 3 , 3 8 6 Q u e Que, see Kwekwe Q u e r é t a r o (Mex.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 , 8 5 7 Q u e t t a (Pak.), 9 5 7 - 5 8 , 9 6 0 - 6 1 , 963-64 Q u e z a l t e n a n g o (Guat.), 576 Q u e z o n City (Philipp.), 990 Q u i b d o (Colom.), 370

Q u i c h e (Guat.), 576 Quilmes(Argen.), 89 Quilon (India), 663 Q i n a (Egypt), 444 Q u i n a r a (Guinea Bissau), 584 Quincy (Mass.), 1479 Q u i n d i o (Colomb.), 370 Quintana Roo(Mex.),853 Quisqueya, see Santo Domingo Q u i t o (Ecuador), 4 3 8 - 4 3 Qunaytirah (Syria), 1168 Q u t h i n g (Lesotho), 794 Q w a q w a (S. Afr.), 1077, 1080, 1094 Qytet Stalin (Albania), 6 6 - 6 8 Raalte (Neth.), 888 Rabat (Morocco), 870-71 873-75 Rabat-Sale (Morocco), 870-71 Rabaul (Papua New Guinea), 972 Rabigh (Saudi Arabia), 1048 Racine (Wise.), 1551 R a d o m (Poland), 998 R a e - E d z o ( N W Terr.), 330 Ragged Is. (Bahamas), 174 R a i a t e a f F r . Polyn.), 511 R a i c h u r (India), 647 R a i p u r (India), 6 2 5 , 6 6 4 - 6 5 Raivavae (Fr. Polyn.), 511 R a j a h m u n d r y (India), 625 Rajasthan (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 6 3 6 , 642,646,675-77 Rajin (N. Korea), 779 Rajkot (India), 6 2 5 , 6 5 4 - 5 5 Rajshahi (Bangladesh), 184, 187,189 Rakahanga (Cook Is.), 919 R a k h i n e State (Burma), 254 Raleigh (N.C.), 1375, 1510-1 1 R a m a (Nicar.),925 R a m a n (Turkey), 1203 R a m a t G a n (Israel), 725, 731 R a m l a (Israel), 727 R a m p u r a - A g u c h a (India), 676 Ramsey (I.O.M.), 1364-65 Rancagua (Chile), 346 Ranchi (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 3 , 6 5 2 Randers (Denmark), 413 Rangiroa (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Rangoon (Burma), 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 - 5 5 R a n g p o (Sikkim), 678 R a n g p u r (Bangladesh), 184 Raniganj (India), 685 R a n k i n Inlet (N.W. Terr.), 329, 331 Ranongga (Solomon Is.), 1071 Raoul Is. (NZ), 917 Rapa-Iti (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Rapid City (S.D.), 1532-33 Rapti (Nepal), 883 Raqqa (Syria), 1168 Rarotonga (Cook Is.), 920 Ras Abu A b o u d (Qatar), 1017 Ras abu Fontas (Qatar), 1017 Rasal-Khafji (Saudi Arabia), 1048 R a s a l K h a i m a h (UAE), 1284, 1286-88 Ras Dharbat Ali (Oman), 951 R a s h i n , s e e Rajin Rasht (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 Ras Kebdana (Morocco), 873 Ras T a n u r a (Saudi Arabia), 1048 Ratanakiri (Cambodia), 262 Ratchaburi (Thail.), 1177

1667 R a t l a m (India), 6 6 3 , 6 6 5 Ratnagiri (India), 666 R a t n a p u r a (Sri Lanka), 1120, 1123 R a u m a (Finland), 472 R a u m o , see R a u m a R a v e n n a (Italy), 733 Rawaki (Kiribati), 768 Rawalpindi (Pak.), 9 5 7 , 9 6 3 Rawson (Argen.), 89 Rayagada (India), 673 Raysut (Oman), 951 Razgrad (Bulg.), 241 Reading (Pa.), 1524 Reading (UK), 1292,1345 Recife (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 0 - 3 1 , 234-35 Recklinghausen (FRG), 530 R e d b r i d g e ( U K ) , 1293 R e d b u m ( N . Ireland), 1361 Redclifle (Zimbabwe), 1627 Red Deer (Alb.), 2 9 7 - 9 8 R e d o n d a (W. Indies), 85 Reef Is. (Solomon Is.), 1071 Regensburg (FRG), 530, 5 3 8 , 5 4 3 Reggio di Calabria (Italy), 733, 742 Reggio nell'Emilia (Italy), 733 Régina (Fr. Guiana), 500 Regina (Sask.), 2 7 1 , 2 7 7 , 3 2 7 - 2 8 R e h o v o t h (Israel), 731 R e i g a t e a n d Banstead(UK), 1292 Reims(France), 481-82 Reirson (Cook Is.), 919 Remscheid (FRG), 530 Renaix, see Ronse R e n d o v a (Solomon Is.), 1071 R e n f r e w (UK), 1294 R e n k u m (Neth.), 888 Rennell Is. (Solomon Is.), 1071 R e n n e s (France), 481 - 8 2 R e n o ( N e v . ) , 1375, 1497, 1499 R e n t o n ( W a s h . ) , 1546 R e n u k o o t (India), 683 Resistencia (Arçen.), 8 8 , 9 3 Resita (Romania), 1020 Retalhuleu (Guat.), 576 R e t h y m n o n (Greece), 567 R é u n i o n (Fr.), 502-04 Reus (Spain), 1109 Rewa (India), 6 6 3 - 6 4 Reykjavik (Iceland), 617, 621-23 Reynoza (Mex.) 854 Rhaetian (Switz.), 1165 Rheden (Neth.), 888 Rheinfelden (Switz.), 1162 Rheinhessen (FRG), 548 Rhineland-Palatinate (FRG), 529-31,552-54 R h o d e Island (USA), 1372, 1379,1384,1419, 1528-30 R h o d e s (Greece), 567 Rhodesia, see Z i m b a b w e Rhodesia, N o r t h e r n , see Z a m b i a Rhodesia, Southern, see Zimbabwe R h ô n e - A l p e s (France), 482 R h y m n e y Valley (UK), 1292 Riau (Indon.), 6 9 2 , 6 9 7 Ribe (Denmark), 413 Ribeira G r a n d e (Cape Verde Is.), 336 Ribeirao Prêto (Brazil), 228 Riberalta (Bolivia), 2 1 8 , 2 2 1 - 2 2 Richards Bay (S. Afr.), 1085 Richland (Wash.), 1546

1668 Richmond (B.C.), 304 Richmond (NY), 1508 Richmond (Va ), 1375,1543-45 Richmond-on-Thames (UK), 1293 Rida (Yemen), 1599 Ridderkerk (Neth.), 888 Ri fa'a Is. (Bahrain), 179 Rift Valley (Kenya), 763,765 Riga (Latvia, USSR), 1217-18, 1237,1241 1269-70 Riihimaki (Finland), 472 Rijeka (Hungary),612,614 Rijeka SuSak (Yug.), 1605 Rijssen (Neth.), 888 Rijswijk (Neth.), 888 Rikitea (Fr. Polyn.),511 Rikkyo (Japan), 756 Rimatara (Fr. Polyn.), 511 Rimini (Italy), 733 Rimnicu Vilcea (Romania), 1021 Ringerike (Norway), 937 Ringkebing (Denmark), 413 Riobamba (Ecuador), 438 Rio Branco (Brazil), 227 Rio Cuarto (Argen), 89,93 Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 227-28, 230-32,234-35 Rio Gallegos (Argen.), 89 Rio Grande do Norte (Brazil), 227 Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil), 227, 232,235 Riohacha (Colom.), 370 Rio Lindo (Hond.), 599 Rio Muni (Equat. Guin.), 456-58 Rio Muni, see Mbini Rio Negro (Argen.), 89 Rio Negro (Urug.), 1569, 1571 Rio Piedras (Puerto Rico), 1565 Risaralda (Colom.), 370 Risdon (Tasm.), 150 Ritchie Arch. (Andaman Is.), 687 Rivas (Nicar.), 922 Rivera (Urug.), 1571 River Cess (Liberia), 797 River Falls (Wise.), 1553 Rivers (Nigeria), 930 Riverside (Calif.), 1375,1438 Riverton (Wyo.), 1556 Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), 1045, 1047-50 Riyak (Lebanon), 792 Rize (Turkey), 1201 Road Bay (Anguilla), 84 Road Town (Br. Virgin Is.), 1593-94 Roanne (France), 482 Roanoke (Va.), 1375,1543 Robertsport (Liberia), 797 Raboré (Bolivia), 218 Rocha (Urug.), 1569 Rochdale (UK), 1292 Rochester (Minn.), 1485 Rochester (N.H.), 1500 Rochester (N.Y.), 1375,1507, 1509 Rochester upon Medway (UK), 1292,1344 Rockford (III.), 1375,1459 Rockhampton (Queensld.), 137 Rock Hill (S C.), 1531 Rockland (Maine), 1474 Rock Springs (Wyo.), 1556 Rockville (Md.), 1477 Rockville-Center (N. Y.), 1507

PLACE

INDEX

Rodopi (Greece), 567 Rodrigues (Mauritius), 849, 852 Roermond (Neth.), 888 Roeselare (Belgium), 194 Rogaland (Norway), 936 Rohtak (India), 655 Roird(ThaiL), 1177 Rolas Is. (Sào Tomé), 1043 Rolla(Mo.), 1491 Roma (Lesotho), 796 Romania, 1020-27 Rome (Italy), 732-34, 741-42, 1578 Rome (N.Y.), 1507 Rondônia (Brazil), 227 Roodepoort-Maraisburg (Transvaal), 1078 Roosendaal (Neth.), 888 Roque del Este (Canary Is.), 1108 Roque del Oeste (Canary Is.), 1108 Roraima (Brazil), 227,230,233 Rosario (Argen.), 89,93 Roscommon (Ireland), 711 Roseau (Dominica), 431-32 Rose Hill (Mauritius), 849 Roseirès (Sudan), 1131 Rose Is. (Samoa, USA), 1561 Roseville (Mich.), 1482 Roskilde (Denmark), 413 Rosmalen (Neth.), 888 Ross and Cromarty (UK), 1294 Ross Depncy. (NZ), 918 Rosslyn (S. Afr.), 1095 Rosso (Mauritania), 846 Ross River (Yukon), 333 Rostock (GDR), 523 Rostov-on-Don (USSR), 1218, 1237-38,1245,1256 Roswell (N.M.), 1504 Rota (Spain), 1111 Rotherham (UK), 1292 Rotorua (NZ), 904 Rotterdam (Neth.), 888,895 Rotuma (Fiji), 467 Rouen (France), 481-82 Roulers, see Roeselare Rourkela (India), 625,672-73 Rovaniemi (Finland), 472,478 Rovno (USSR), 1218,1245 Roxburgh (UK), 1293 Royal Oak (Mich.), 1482 Rrëshen (Albania), 67 Ruanda, see Rwanda Rub'al Khali (Oman), 951 Rubtsovsk (USSR), 1218 Rucphen (Neth.), 888 Ruda Staska (Poland), 998 Ruhengeri (Rwanda), 1028 Ruhuna (Sri Lanka), 1126 Rukwa(Tanz-), 1172 Rumania, see Romania Rum Cay (Bahamas), 174 Rupnarayanpur (India), 685 Rupuruni (Guyana), 582 Rurrenabaque (Bolivia), 222 Rurutu(Fr. Polyn.), 511 Ruse (Bulg.), 241,246 RushclilTe (UK), 1292 Russell Is. (Solomon Is.), 1071 Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Rep. (RSFSR) (USSR), 1217-18 Rustavi (USSR), 1261-62 Rustchik,iee Russe Rustenburg(S. Afr.), 1099

Rust-op-Twist (Virgin Is.), 1561 1564,1568 Ruthen ia (USSR), 1219 Rutland (Vt.), 1541 Ruvuma (Tanz.), 1172 Ruwais (Qatar), 1016 Rwanda, 1028-30 Ryazan (USSR), 1218,1245 Rybachi (USSR), 1283 Rybinsk (USSR), 1238 Rybnitz(USSR), 1266 Ryburg (Switz.), 1162 Ryukyu (Japan), 749 Rzeszow (Poland), 998 Saarbrücken (FRG), 538, 554 Saarland (FRG), 529-30, 535, 554-55 Saba (Neth. Ant.). 900-01 Sabac (Yug.), 1605 Sabadell (Spain), 1109 Sabah (Malaysia),821-23, 824,829-31 Sabha (Libya), 801 Sebarkantha (India), 652 Sabroom (Tripura), 682 Sacatepéquez (Guat.), 576 SACEUR, 38 Sackville (New Bruns.), 310 SACLANT, 38 Saclape (Liberia), 797 Sacramento (Calif.), 1375, 1438-41 Sada (Ciskei), 1104 Sä da Bandeira, see Lubango Sa'dah (Yemen), 1599 Sadar (India), 682 Safaniyah (Saudi Arabia), 1098 Safaqa (Egypt), 446 Safaqis(Tunisia), 1195 Safi (Morocco), 870-71, 873-74 Sagaing (Burma), 252 Sagamihara (Japan), 750 Sagar (India), 663-64 Sagaramatha (Nepal), 883 Saginaw (Mich.), 1482,1490 Sagunto (Spain), 1114 Sahara (Morocco), 870 Sahara (Niger), 927,929 Saharanpur (India), 625 Saharawe Arab Democratic Republic, 1119 Saida (Algeria), 72 Saida (Lebanon), 790 Saigon, see Ho Chi Minh Saindak (Pak.), 961 Saint Brieuc (France), 482 Saint Chamond (France), 482 Saint Etienne (France), 482 Saint Johns (New Bruns.), 271, 308-10 Saint-Louis (Senegal), 1052, 1054-55 Saint Nazaire (France), 482 Saint Paul Is. (Fr. Ant.), 508 St Albans (UK), 1292 St Albert (Alb.), 298 St Andrew (Jamaica), 744 St Andrews (UK), 1339,1345 St Ann (Jamaica), 744 St Anne's (Channel Is.), 1369 St Aubin (Channel Is.), 1368 St Augustine (Trinidad), 1194 St Barthélémy (Guadel.), 497-98 St Brandon (Mauritius), 849 St Catherine (Jamaica), 744 St Catherines (Canada), 270

PLACE St Catherines-Niagara (Canada), 270 St Charles (Mo.), 1490 St Christopher-Nevis, see St Kitts 1031-32 St Clair Shores (Mich.), 1482 St Cloud (Minn.), 1485 St Croix (Virgin Is., USA), 1566-68 St Cyr, see Coëtquidan St Denis (Réunion), 5 0 2 - 0 4 St E d m u n d s b u r y (UK), 1292 St Elizabeth (Jamaica), 744 St Etienne (France), 482 St Gallen(Switz.), 1 157-59, 1166 St George (Utah), 1541 St George's (Grenada), 5 7 3 - 7 4 St Helena (Atlantic), 1034-35 St Helens (UK), 1292 St Helier (Channel Is.), 1367-68 St Hubert (Que.), 275 St James (Jamaica), 744 St J o h n (Virgin Is., USA), 1566-68 St J o h n s (Antigua), 8 5 - 8 6 St J o h n ' s (Nfndland.), 271, 311 St Joseph (Mo.), 1490 St Kitts-Nevis, 1031-32 St L a u r e n t - d u - M a r o n i (Fr. Guiana), 499-500 St Louis (Mo.), 1 3 7 4 , 1 4 9 0 - 9 1 St Lucia (W. Indies), 1036-37 St Maarten (Neth. Ant.), 8 9 5 - 9 7 St Martin (Guadel.), 4 9 5 - 9 8 St Martin, see St Maarten St Mary (Jamaica), 744 St Niklaas o r St Nicholas (Belgium), 194 St Paul (Minn.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 8 5 - 8 6 St Peter (Channel Is.), 1367 St Peter Port (Channel Is.), 1367-68 St Petersburg (Fla.), 1374, 1450 St Pierre (Seychelles), 1056 St Pierre and Miquelon (Fr.), 506-07 S t P o l t e n (Austria), 168 St Sampson's (Channel Is.), 1369 St T h o m a s (Jamaica), 744 St T h o m a s (Virgin Is., USA), 1567-68 St Vincent (W. Indies), 1 0 3 8 - 4 0 Sakai (Japan), 749 Sakaka (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Sakarya (Turkey), 1101 Sakhalin (USSR), 1219,1245 Sal (C.Verde Is.), 3 3 5 - 3 6 Salah ad-Din (Iraq), 705 Sâlaj (Romania), 1021 Salalah (Oman), 9 5 1 , 9 5 4 Salamanca (Mex.), 854 Salamanca (Spain), 1108-09, 1118 Salamat (Chad), 343 Sala y G o m e z (Chile), 346 Salc'èdo (Dom. Rep.), 433 Saldanha Bay (S. Afr.), 1085 Sale (Vic.), 152,156 Salekhard (USSR), 1254 Salem (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 7 Salem (Ore.), 1521,1523 Salemo(Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 4 2 Salford(UK), 1292,1345 Salgôtarjan (Hungary), 609 Salif(Yemen), 1600

INDEX

Salima (Malawi), 819 Salina (Kans.), 1468 Salina Cruz (Méx.), 858 Salisbury, see Harare Salisbury (UK), 1292 Salmon A r m (B.C.), 304 Saloman (Br. Ind. Ocean Terr.), 236 Salop, see Shropshire Salta (Argen.), 8 8 , 9 3 Salt Cay (Turks and Caicos), 1208-09 Saltillo (Méx.), 8 5 3 - 5 5 Salt Lake City (Utah), 1375, 1539-40 Salto (Urug.), 1569,1572 Salvador (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 0 , 234-35 Salzburg (Austria), 168-69, 171-72 Salzgitter (FRG), 5 3 0 , 5 3 4 Samaná (Dom. Rep.), 433 Samar (Phillipp.), 990 Samaria (Israel), 723 Samarinda (Indon.), 693 Samarkand (USSR), 1218, 1274-77 Samarra (Iraq), 705 Samarska Luka (USSR), 1231 Samoa (USA), 1374, 1384, 1386, 1561-63 Samos (Greece), 567 Samsok (N. Korea), 779 Samsun (Turkey), 1201, 1205 San'a (Yemen Arab Rep.), 1595-99 San Ambrosio (Chile), 346 S a n a n d a j (Iran), 699 San Andres (Colom.), 370 San Andres y Providencia (Colom.), 370 San Angelo (Tex.), 1536 San A n t o n i o (Tex.), 1374, 1536, 1538 San Baudilio de Llobregat (Spain), 1109 San Bernardino (Calif.), 1375, 1438 San Carlos (Costa Rica), 385 San Carlos (Equat. G u i n . ) , s e e Luba San Carlos (Philipp.), 990 San Carlos (Venez.), 1580 Sánchez Ramirez (Dom. Rep.), 433,436 San Cristóbal ( D o m . Rep.), 433 San Cristóbal (Venez.), 1580 Sancti Spiritus (Cuba), 392 Sandakan (Sabah), 821, 829-31 Sandefjord (Norway), 937 Sand Is. (USA), 1374 San Diego (Calif.), 1374, 1438-39 Sandnes (Norway), 937 Sandols.,424 Sandspit Is., see Shamspir Sandviken (Sweden), 1142 Sandwell (UK), 1292 Sandwich Is., see Hawaii San Felipe (Venez.), 1580 San Felix (Chile), 346 San Felix (Venez.), 1585 San F e m a n d o (Spain), 1109 San Fernando (Trinidad), 1191 San Fernando (Venez.), 1580, 1585

1669 San Francisco (Calif.), 1374, 1438-39 San Francisco (El Salvador), 451 San Francisco de Macoris (Dom. Rep.),433 Sangaredi (Guinea), 583 Sangdong (S. Korea), 774 Sangha (Congo), 379 San Giovanni di Medua, see Shengjin Sangli (India), 6 2 5 , 6 6 6 Sangrur (India), 655 San Ignacio de Velasco (Bolivia), 222 San Isidro (Argen.), 89 San Isidro el General (Costa Rica), 386 Sani Suwayf (Egypt), 444 San José (Calif.), 1 3 7 4 , 1 4 3 8 - 3 6 San José (Costa Rica), 383, 386-87 San José (Guat.), 579 San José (Urug.), 1569,1571 San José de Guaviare (Colom.), 371 San Juan (Argen.), 8 8 - 8 9 , 9 2 - 9 3 San Juan ( D o m . Rep.), 4 3 3 , 4 3 5 San J u a n (Puerto Rico), 1564 San Juan (Venez.), 1580, 1585 San J u a n Bautista de las Misiones (Para.), 983 San J u a n de la M a n a g u a n a (Dom. Rep.), 433 San J u a n del M o n t e (Philipp.), 990 San J u a n del Sur (Nicar.), 9 2 5 San Justo (Argen.), 89 San Lorenzo (Peru), 986 San Luis (Argen.), 88 San Luis Potosi (Méx.), 8 5 3 - 5 4 San Marcos (Guat.), 576 San Marcos (Texas), 1538 San Marino, 7 3 1 , 1 0 4 1 - 4 2 San Martin (Peru), 984 Sanmatenga (Burkina Faso), 248 San Miguel (El Salv.), 451, 453-55 San Miguel de T u c u m a n (Argen.), 8 8 - 8 9 San Miguelito (Panama), 966 San Nicolas (Argen.), 89 Sanniquellie (Liberia), 797 San Pablo (Philipp.), 990 San Pedro (Côte d'Ivoire), 390-91 San Pedro (Para.), 978 San Pedro de Macoris ( D o m . Rep.), 433 San Pedro Sula(Hond.), 5 9 7 - 9 8 , 600 San Salvador (Bahamas), 174 San Salvador (El Salv.), 4 5 1 - 5 4 San Salvador de J u j u y (Argen.), 88,93 San Sebastián (Spain), 1108-09 Sanski Most (Yug.), 1609 Santa A n a (Calif.), 1375,1438 Santa A n a (El Salv.), 4 5 1 , 4 5 3 - 5 4 Santa Bárbara (Hond.), 597 Santa Catarina (Brazil), 2 2 7 , 2 3 2 Santa Catarina (Cape Verde Is.), 336 Santa C o l o m a de G r a m m a n e t (Spain), 1109 Santa Cruz (Argen.), 89 Santa Cruz (Bolivia), 2 1 7 - 1 9 , 221-22 Santa Cruz (Cape Verde Is.), 336

1670 Santa C r u z (Solomon Is.), 1071 Santa Cruz de Tenerife (Canary Is.), 1 1 0 7 - 0 9 , 1 1 1 1 Santa Fé (Argen.), 8 8 , 9 3 Santa Fé (N.M.,), 1504 Santa Isabel (Solomon ls.), 1071 Santa Isabel (Equat. Guin.), see Malabo Santa Luzia (Cape Verde Is.), 336 Santa Maria (Azores), 1007 Santa Marta (Colom.), 3 7 0 , 3 7 4 Santander (Colom.), 370 Santander (Spain), 1108,1118 Santa rém (Port.), 1007,1012 Santa Rosa (Argen.), 8 8 , 9 3 Santa Rosa (Guat.), 576 Santa Rosa de C o p a n (Honduras), 597 Santa Rosalia (Mex.), 858 Santhalpargana (India), 651 Santiago (Chile), 3 4 6 - 4 7 , 3 4 9 - 5 1 Santiago ( D o m . R e p . ) , 4 3 3 , 4 3 5 Santiago (Pan.), 966 Santiago de Compostela (Spain), 1108-09,1118 Santiago de C u b a (Cuba), 392, 396 Santiago del Estero (Argen.), 88, 93 Santiago de los Caballeros (Dom. Rep.),433 Santiago de Maria (El Salv.), 454 Santiago Rodriguez (Dom. Rep.), 433 Santiniketan (India), 685 Santi Q u a r a n t a , see Sarandè Sant Julia (Andorra), 78 Santo (Vanuatu), 1576 Santo Andre (Brazil), 228 Santo A n t ä o (Cape Verde Is.), 335-36 Santo D o m i n g o ( D o m . Rep.), 433-37 Santo D o m i n g o de los Colorados (Ecuador), 441 Santorin (Greece), 571 Santos (Brazil), 2 2 5 , 2 3 4 Santo T o m a s de Castilla (Guat.), 577-78 San Vicente (El Salv.), 4 5 1 , 4 5 4 Sanyang (Gambia), 520 Säo Bernardo d o C a m p o (Brazil), 228 Säo Gongalo (Brazil), 228 Säo J o a o de Meriti (Brazil), 228 Säo Jorge (Azores), 1007 Säo José dos C a m p o s (Brazil), 228 Säo Lorenzo (Ecuador), 434 Säo Luis (Brazil), 227 Säo Miguel (Azores), 1007 Säo Nicolau (Cape Verde Is.), 335-36 Säo Paulo (Brazil), 2 2 7 - 2 8 , 2 3 1, 232-33,335 Säo Tiago (Cape Verde Is.), 336 Säo T o m é (Säo Tomé), 1 0 4 3 - 4 4 Säo T o m é e Principe, 1 0 4 3 - 4 4 Säo Vicente (Cape Verde Is.), 334-36 Sapete (Nigeria), 933 Sapporo (Japan), 7 4 9 - 5 0 , 7 5 6 Saragossa (Spain), 1108 Sarajevo (Yug.), 1605-06 1610-11,1613 Saramacca (Suriname), 1131-35

PLACE INDEX Sarande (Albania), 6 6 , 6 9 Saransk (USSR), 1218,1250 Saratov (USSR), 1218, 1232, 1237,1242,1245 Sarava (USSR), 1281 Sarawak (Malaysia), 8 2 1 - 2 2 , 831-33 Sardegna, see Sardinia Sardinia (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 3 5 - 3 6 , 738 Sargodha (Pak.), 957 Sarh (Chad), 3 4 3 , 3 4 5 Sari (Iran), 699 Sar-i-pol (Afghan.), 63 Sariwon (N. Korea), 7 7 7 , 7 7 9 Sark (Channel Is.), 1295, 1366,1369-70 Sarobi (Afghan.), 63 Sasaram (India), 652 Sasebo (Japan), 749 Saseno Is., see Sazan Saskatchewan (Canada), 2 7 0 - 7 2 , 276,279-80,282-84, 290-91,326-29 —agriculture, 328 — a r e a and pop., 3 2 6 - 2 7 —education, 328-29 —govt, and representation, 327 Saskatoon (Sask.), 2 7 1 , 3 2 7 Sasolburg (O.F.S.), 1094 Sassandra (Cote dTvoire), 388 Sassari (Italy), 7 3 3 , 7 3 8 , 7 4 2 Satara (India), 666 'Sa T o w n , see Isa T o w n Satpura (India), 664 Satu Mare (Romania), 1021 Saudi Arabia, 1045-51 Saudarkrokur (Iceland), 617 Saurashtra (India), 646 Savai'i Is. (W.Samoa), 1595,1597 Savannah (Ga.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 5 2 - 5 4 Savannakhet (Laos), 7 8 5 , 7 8 8 Save (Benin), 209 Savonlinna (Finland), 472 Sawai M a d h o p u r (India), 676 Sawfajjin (Libya), 801 Say (Nigeria), 928 Sayano(USSR), 1228 Sazan Is. (Albania), 66 Scampton (UK), 1309 Scarborough (Tobago), 1191 Scarborough (UK), 1292 Schaffhausen (Switz.), 1157,1159 S c h a r h o m (FRG), 546 Scharsterland (Neth.), 884 Schefferville (Quebec), 325 Schenectady (N.Y.), 1507,1509 Schiedam (Neth.), 888 Schijndel (Neth.), 888 Schleswig-Holstein (FRG), 529-31,535,556-57 Schweizerhalle (Switz.), 1162 Schwerin ( G D R ) , 523 Schwyz (Switz.), 1157,1159 Scotland, see also Great Britain, 1293-95 — a r e a and pop., 1293 —cities, 1294 —districts, 1293-94 — e d u c a t i o n , 1343 —justice and crime, 1334-37 —local govt., 1304-05 —religion, 1339 —welfare, 1354 Scottsdale (Ariz.), 1434 S c r a b o ( N . Ireland), 1351 Scranton (Pa.), 1524,1526 Scutari, see Shkoder

Seaford City (Del.), 1446 Sealdah (India), 686 Seattle (Wash.), 1 3 7 4 , 1 5 4 6 - 4 7 Sebha (Libya), 8 0 3 - 0 4 Secunderabad (India), 641 Sedgemoor (UK), 1289 Sedom (Israel), 728 Seeb (Oman), 954 Sefton (UK), 1292 Segboroué (Benin), 209 Ségou (Mali), 837 Segovia (Spain), 1108 Seguela (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Seinäjoki (Finland), 472 S e i n e - e t - M a m e (France), 491 S e i n e - M a r i t i m e (France), 487 Seine-Saint-Denis (France), 491 Sekondi (Ghana), 5 5 7 - 6 1 Selangor (Pen. Malaysia), 821-22,826 Selebi-Phikwe (Botswana), 223, 224 Selenicè (Albania), 68 Selfoss (Iceland), 617 Selkirk (Botswana), 225 Selkirk (Man.), 305 Selosecha (S. Afr.), 1100 S e l t j a m a m e s (Iceland), 617 S e m a r a n g (Indon.), 6 9 3 , 6 9 6 Sembawang (Singapore), 1067 Semipalatinsk (USSR), 1218, 1273-74 S e m n à n (Iran), 699 S e m p o m a (Sabah), 830 Sendai (Japan), 7 4 9 , 7 5 6 Senegal, 1 0 5 2 - 5 5 Senegambia, see T h e G a m b i a and Senegal Sennar (Sudan), 1131 Séno (Burkina Faso), 248 S e n s u n t e p e q u e (El Salvador), 451 Seo de Urgel (Spain), 1116 Seongnam (Korea), 772 Seoul (South Korea), 7 7 1 - 7 2 , 774-75 Sept-Iles (Quebec), 325 Sèraing (Belgium), 194 Serbia (Yug.), 1605,1613, 1615-16 Serdang (Pen. Malaysia), 828 Sérédou (Guinea), 582 Serekunda (Gambia), 519 Seremban (Pen. Malaysia),821 Sergipe (Brazil), 227 Seria (Brunei), 2 3 8 - 4 0 Serowe (Botswana), 223 Serravalle (San Marino), 1041 Serres (Greece), 567 Seti (Nepal), 883 Sétif (Algeria), 7 2 , 7 6 Settat (Morocco), 8 7 0 - 7 2 Setùbal (Port.), 1 0 0 7 , 1 0 1 1 - 1 2 Sevastopol (USSR), 1218,1226 S e v e n o a k s ( U K ) , 1292 S e v e m a y a Z e m l y a (USSR), 1254 SeveroCesky (Czech.), 406 Severodvinsk (USSR), 1218 Severomoravsky (Czech.), 406 Sevilla (Spain), 1 1 0 7 - 0 9 , 1 1 1 2 , 1118

Seward (Alaska), 1432 Seward (Nebr.), 1496 Seychelles, 1056-58 Seyoisfjöröur (Iceland), 617 Sfax (Tunisia), 1 1 9 5 , 1 1 9 9 Sf. G h e o r g h e (Romania), 1020 Shaanxi (China), 353 Shaba (Zaire), 1 6 1 8 , 1 6 2 0

PLACE INDEX Shabwa (S. Yemen), 1602 Shag Is. (Aust.), 127 Shah Alam (Pen. Malaysia), 821 828 Shahr Kord (Iran), 699 Shaikh O t h m a n (S. Yemen), 1601 Shakhty (USSR), 1218 Shaki (Nigeria), 931 Shandong (China), 3 5 3 , 3 5 8 359,362 Shanghai (China), 3 5 2 - 5 4 , 357-61,362-65 Shan State (Burma), 252 Shanxi (China), 3 5 3 , 3 5 8 - 5 9 361-62 S H A P E , 38 Shargiyah (Syria), 1170 Sharigh (Pak.), 961 Sharin Gol (Mongolia), 866 Sharjah (UAE), 1 2 8 4 , 1 2 8 6 - 8 8 Sharon (Israel), 727 Sharqiya (Egypt), 444 Shashe (Botswana), 224 Shati (Libya), 801 S h a - T i n (Hong Kong), 6 0 2 , 6 0 5 S h a y a n d i m a (Venda), 1103 Sheboygan (Wise.), 1551,1553 Sheffield (UK), 1292,1345 Shek Kong (Hong Kong), 602 Shell H a r b o u r (NSW), 128 Shendi (Sudan), 1131 Shengli (China), 358 Shenyang (China), 3 5 3 , 3 6 1 Shepherdstown (W. Va.), 1550 Shepparton (Vic.), 152, 155 Sherbrooke (Quebec), 324, Sheridan (Wyo.), 1556 Sherkhan Bandar (Afghàn.), 64 Sherpur (Afghan), 62 Shetland Is. (UK), 1 2 9 4 , 1 3 0 4 Sheung Wan (Hong Kong), 606 Shevchenko (USSR), 1231 Shiberghan (Afghan.), 6 1 , 6 3 - 6 4 Shibin a l - K a w m (Egypt), 444 Shihchiachuang, see Shijiazhuang Shijiazhuang (China), 353 Shikarpur (Pak.), 961 Shikoku (Japan), 749 Shillong (India), 6 3 2 , 6 4 6 , 669-70 Shimla (India), 6 4 6 , 6 5 6 - 5 7 Shimoga (India), 660 Shimonoseki (Japan), 749 Shindand (Afghan.), 62 Shinyanga (Tanz.), 1172 Shiràz (Iran), 6 9 9 - 7 0 0 Shiselweni (Swazi), 1138 Shizuoka (Japan), 749 Shkodea, see Shkoder Shkoder (Albania), 6 6 - 6 7 , 6 9 Shoa (Ethiopia), 460 Shoalhaven (Aust.), 128 Sholapur (India), 6 2 5 , 6 6 6 - 6 7 S h o m o l u (Nigeria), 931 Shortland (Solomon Is.), 1071 Shreveport (La.), 1375,1471 Shrewsbury and A t c h a m (UK), 1292 Shropshire (UK), 1291 Shuaiba (Kuwait), 783 Shubra-el-Khayma (Egypt), 444 S h u m e n (Bulg.),241 Shuwaikh (Kuwait), 783 Sialkot(Pak.),957 Siam, see Thailand Sian.seeXian Siang (India), 649

Siauliai (Lithuania, USSR), 1271 Sibasa (Venda), 1103 SibenikfYugo.), 1606 Siberia (USSR), 1229,1231, 1233,1235,1239,1241, 1245 Sibi (Pak.), 961 Sibiti (Congo), 379 Sibiu (Romania), 1023,1026 Sibu (Sarawak), 8 2 1 , 8 3 1 - 3 2 Sichuan (China), 3 5 2 , 3 5 8 - 5 9 , 362 Sicily (Italy), 733, 7 3 5 - 3 6 , 7 3 8 Sidamo (Ethiopia), 460 Sidi-Bel-Abbès (Algeria), 7 2 , 7 6 Sidi Bouzid (Tunisia), 1195 Sidi Kacem (Morocco), 870 Sidon (Lebanon), 7 9 0 - 9 2 Siedlce (Poland), 998 Siegen ( F R G ) , 5 3 0 Siena (Italy), 741 Sieradz (Poland), 998 Sierra Leone, 1059—63 Siglufjòròur (Iceland), 617 Signatapeque (Honduras), 597 Sihanoukville, see K o m p o n g Som Siirt (Turkey), 1101 Sikang, see Szechwan Sikasso (Mali), 837 Sikkim (India), 6 2 5 , 6 2 8 , 6 4 6 - 4 7 , 677-79 Silay (Philipp.), 990 Silchar (India), 650 Silesia (Poland), 1000 Silhouette (Seychelles), 1056 Siliana (Tunisia), 1195 Siliguri (India), 679 Silistra (Bulg.), 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 Silva Porto, see Bié Silvassa (India), 688 Silver Bow (Mont.), 1492 Silver City (N.M.), 1506 Silvermine (S. Afr.), 1081 Silver Spring (Md.), 1476 Simferopol (USSR), 1218 Simla see Shimla Simonstown(S. Afr.), 1081 Sinai (Egypt), 444 Sinaloa (Mex.), 853 Sincelejo (Colom.), 370 Sind (Pak.), 9 5 7 - 5 8 , 9 6 1 Sine-Saloum (Senegal), 1052 Singa (Sudan), 1131 Singapore, Rep. o f 8 2 3 , 1064-70 Singave(Wallis), 514 Singida(Tanz-), 1172 Singora, see Songkhla Singtam (Sikkim), 6 7 8 - 7 9 Sinkat (Sudan), 1130 Sinkiang, see Xinjiang Sinkiang-Uighur, see XinjiangUygur Sinoe (Liberia), 7 9 7 , 8 0 0 Sinoia, see C h i n h o y a (Zimbabwe) Sinop (Turkey), 1201 Sint Maarten (Neth. Ant.), 898-902 Sint Nicolaas (Aruba), 899 Sint Eustatius (Neth. Ant.), 900-02 Sintra (Port.), 1012 Sinuiji (N. Korea), 7 7 6 , 7 7 9 Sioux City (Iowa), 1464-65 Sioux Falls (S.D.), 1531 Siracusa (Italy), 733 Sironj (India), 662 Si Saket (Thail.), 1177

1671 Sissili (Burkina Faso), 248 Sistanand Baluchestan (Iran), 699 Siteki (Swazi.), 1137 Sitka (Alaska), 1430-31 Sitra (Bahrain), 179 Sittard (Neth.), 888 Sitten (Switz.), 1167 Sittwe (Burma), 252 Siuna (Nicar.), 925 Sivas (Turkey), 1201 Skagway (Alaska), 1432 Skalafjordar (Faroe Is.), 425 Skaraborg (Sweden), 1141 Skardu (Pak.), 963 Skarstenlan (Neth.), 888 Skelleftea (Sweden), 1142 Skien (Norway), 937 Skiemiewice (Poland), 998 Skikda (Algeria), 72 Skopje (Yug.), 1 6 0 5 , 1 6 0 9 - 1 1 , 1614 Skovde (Sweden), 1142 Skrapar (Albania), 6 6 - 6 7 Skye and Lochalsh (UK), 1294 Slatina (Romania), 1021 Slavonski Brod(Yug.), 1605 Sliedrecht (Neth.), 888 Sligo (Ireland), 711, 721 Sliven (Bulg.), 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 Slobedzeisk (USSR), 1266 Slobozia (Romania), 1020 Slough (UK), 1292 Slovenia (Yug.), 1605, 1613,1617 Slupsk (Poland), 998 Slyudianka (USSR), 1233 Smalkalden (Suriname), 1135 Smallingerland (Neth.), 888 Smara (W.Sahara), 1119 Smederevo (Yug.), 1605 Smithfield(R.L), 1529 Smolensk (USSR), 1218,1245 Smolyan (Bulg.), 241 Smyrna, see Izmir Snares Is. (NZ),917 Sneek (Neth.), 888 Sochi (USSR), 1218 Society Archipelago, 511 Socna (Libya), 804 Socorro (N. Mex.), 1506 Socotra (S. Yemen), 1601 Sodermanland (Sweden), 1141 Sodertalje (Sweden), 1142 Soest (Neth.), 888 Sofala (Mozamb.), 8 7 6 , 8 7 9 Sofia (Bulg.), 2 4 1 - 4 3 , 2 4 5 - 4 7 Sogn og Fjordane (Norway), 936 Sohar (Oman), 9 5 1 , 9 5 3 Sokode (Togo), 1184, 1186 Sokolov (Czech.), 409 Sokoto (Nigeria), 931 Solander Is. ( N Z ) , 9 1 7 Soldeu (Andorra), 78 Soleure, see S o l o t h u m Solihull (UK), 1292 Solingen (FRG), 530 Sollentuna (Sweden), 1142 Solna (Sweden), 1142 Solola (Guat.), 576 Solomon Is., 1071-73 Solothurn (Switz.), 1 157,1 159, 1166 Solwezi (Zambia), 1623 Somalia, 1074-76 Sombrero (Anguilla), 83 Somerset (UK), 1291 Somersworth (N.H.), 1500

1672 Somerville (Mass.), 1479 Somogy (Hungary), 609 S o n a m u r a (India), 682 Sondeijyllands (Denmark), 413 Sondre Sromfiord (Greenland), 426 Song Be (Vietnam), 1588 Songkhla (Thail.), 1177 Songo Songo (Tanzania), 1174 Son La (Vietnam), 1587 Sonora (Méx.), 853, 857 Sonsonate (El Salv.), 4 5 1 , 4 5 3 , 454 Sopore (India), 658 Soria (Spain), 1108 Soriano (U rug.), 1569,1571 Sorkapp, see Spitsbergen S o n d a b a (Brazil), 228 Sorok(USSR), 1266 Sortavala (USSR), 1249 Sor-Trendelag (Norway), 936 Sosa Méndez (Venez), 1583 Sosnowiez (Poland), 998 Sotavento (Cape Verde Is.), 335-36 Soubré (Cote d'lvoire), 388 Soum (Burkina Faso), 248 Sourou (Burkina Faso), 248 Sousse (Tunisia), 1 1 9 5 , 1 1 9 8 South Africa, Republic of, 1077-1105, see also under provinces S o u t h a m p t o n (UK), 1292,1345 South Australia, 9 5 - 9 6 , 9 9 109-11,114,142-47 —agriculture, 144 — a r e a and pop., 142 — e d u c a t i o n , 146 —govt, and representation, 142-43 South Bedfordshire (UK), 1292 South Bend (Ind.), 1375,1462 South Buganda (Uganda), 1212 South Caicos, 1208-09 South Cambridgeshire (UK), 1292 South Carolina (USA), 1373, 1379,1383-84,1405, 1410,1526-28 South Cholla (Korea), 771 South C h u n g c h o n g (Korea), 771 South Dakota (USA), 1373,1378, 1384,1405,1410,1531-32 South-East Lanes (UK), 1292 Southend-on-Sea (UK), 1292 Southern Dist. (Israel), 724 Southern Dist. (Sikkim), 677 Southern F u n g (Sudan), 1130 Southern Highlands (Papua New Guinea), 9 7 2 - 7 3 Southern Prov. (Saudi Arabia), 1045 Southern Prov. (Sri Lanka), 1120 Southern Prov. (Uganda), 1212 Southern Prov. (Zambia), 1623 Southern Region (Malawi), 817-18 Southern Region (Sierra Leone) 1059 Southern Tagalog (Philipp.), 990 Southfield (Mich.), 1482 South Georgia, 1106 South Georgias, 89 South G l a m o r g a n (UK), 1291 South Hadley (Mass.), 1481 South H a m g y o n g ( N . Korea), 777 South Hwanghai (N. Korea), 777 South Is. (Coco Is.), 125 South Is. (NZ), 9 0 8 - 0 9

PLACE INDEX South Kesteven (UK), 1292 South Kingstown (R.I.), 1529 South Kyongsang (Korea), 771 South Lakeland (UK), 1292 Southland (NZ), 904 South N o r f o l k ( U K ) , 1292 South Orcados, 89 South Orkney Is., 236 South Ossetia (USSR), 1264 South Oxfordshire (UK), 1292 South Pacific F o r u m , 55 Southport (N.G.), 1511 South Portland (Maine), 1473 South Pyongan (N. Korea), 777 South Region (Iceland), 617 South Region (Thail.), 1177 South Ribble (UK), 1292 South Sandwich Is., 8 9 , 1 1 0 6 South Shetlands, 236 South Somerset (UK), 1292 South Staffordshire (UK), 1292 South Tyneside (UK), 1292 S o u t h w a r k ( U K ) , 1293 South-West Africa, 1094-98 South West Peninsula (Iceland), 617 South Yorkshire (UK), 1290, 1303 Soviet Central Asia (USSR), 1272 Soviet U n i o n , see U n i o n of Soviet Socialist Republics Sovyetsk (USSR), 1218 Spain, 1107-19 Spanish Africa, 1119 Spanish T o w n (Jamaica), 744 Sparks (Nev.), 1497,1499 Spartanburg (S.C.), 1530 Sparte (Greece), 566 S p e l t h o m e (UK), 1292 S p e y e r ( F R G ) , 554 Spijkenisse (Neth.), 888 Spiti (India), 655 Spitsbergen (Svalbard), 948 Split (Yug.), 1605-06, 1610 Spokane (Wash.), 1375, 1546 Springdale (Ark.), 1436 Springfield (111.), 1459 Springfield (Mass.), 1375, 1479,1481 Springfield (Mo.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 9 0 Springfield (Ohio), 1515 Springfield (Ore.), 1521 Springlands (Guyana), 590 Springs (Transvaal), 1078 Spruce G r o v e (Alb.), 298 Sri Jayawardenepura (Sri Lanka), 1126 Sri Lanka, 1120-27 —agriculture, 1123 —area and pop., 1120 — e d u c a t i o n , 1126 —govt, and representation, 1121 Srinagar (India), 6 2 5 , 6 4 6 , 658-59,684 Stadskanaal (Neth.), 888 Stafford (UK), 1292 Staffordshire (UK), 1291 Staffordshire M o o r l a n d s (UK), 1292 Stalingrad, see Volgograd Stalinogrod, see Katowice Stamford (Conn.), 1 3 7 5 , 1 4 4 3 S T A N A V F O R C H A N , 38 S T A N A V F O R L A N T , 38 Stanley (Falkland Is.), 4 6 4 - 6 6 Stanleyville, see Kisangani

Stanlow (UK), 1330 Stann Creek (Belize), 203 Stanton (Dela.), 1448 Stara Zagora (Bulg.), 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 Starbuck (Kiribati), 768 Starkenburg (FRG), 548 Starkville (Miss.), 1489 Staten Is. (N.Y.), 1507 Stavanger (Norway), 937 Stavropol (USSR), 1218,1232, 1239,1245 Steenwijk (Neth.), 888 Steiermark, see Styria Stein (Neth.), 888 Steinkjer (Norway), 937 Stellenbosch (Cape), 1087 Stepanakert (USSR), 1260 Stephen ville (Nfndlnd.), 311 Sterling Heights (Mich.), 1375, 1482 Sterlitamak (USSR), 1218 Stettin, see Szczecin Stevens Point (Wise.), 1553 Stewart Is. (NZ), 903 Stewartry (UK), 1293 Steyr (Austria), 168 Stillwater (Okla.), 1517 Stirling (UK), 1 2 9 1 , 1 3 4 4 - 4 5 Stockholm (Sweden), 1141-42, 1145,1151,1156 Stockport (UK), 1292 Stockton (Calif.), 1375, 1438 Stockton-on-Tees (UK), 1292 Stoke-on-Trent (UK), 1292 Stoney Creek (New Bruns.), 309 Storrs (Conn.), 1445 Storstroms (Denmark), 4 1 3 Stout (Wise.), 1553 Strabane (N. Ireland), 1356 Straits Settlements, see Singapore Strasbourg (France), 4 8 1 - 8 3 Strassa (Sweden), 1147 Stratford on A v o n (UK), 1292 Strathclyde Region (UK), 1294, 1344-45 Strathkelvin (UK), 1294 Stredo